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When does worry become depression? When does casual drinking become a problem with alcohol? Is anxiety over everyday things normal? These are the kinds of questions many college students wrestle with. Students wonder if the way they feel, and the things they do to change how they feel, are healthy or not.
The best thing anyone can do is get information and remove doubt. That way we either attain peace of mind or know that we need to take positive action to remedy the situation. After all, they say that ignorance is fear. Well, on the flipside, knowledge is power. And when it comes to our mental health, we need to have that power.
Now there’s an easy way to learn more about your mental health. Ohlone College’s screenings provide a free, anonymous, simple option. Whether for depression or another mental health issue, a screening will help you to better understand your state of mind and whether it might be in your interest to seek further help.
Why not take a brief assessment? You have nothing to lose and, possibly, your mental health to gain. Check out Ohlone’s Student Health 101 magazine for the link to the Online Screening Tool. | <urn:uuid:8f6b863f-2ac5-4cc7-b6c9-e411c6376f52> | {
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A targeted question during a lesson, an end of unit quiz, fall and spring benchmarks, the large scale state mandated exams. Your experience with assessments will vary depending upon your job and the information you need to do it.
Assessment can be used to support learning, as well as validate it. Assessment can occur daily as a part of teaching, but also be scheduled to occur at certain critical points during or at the end of the school year. Which type of assessment you choose should match the purpose behind the questions you’re trying to answer.
Let’s explore what defines the different type of assessments frequently administered in our schools.
Most educators are familiar with large scale summative assessments, such as state performance exams or national tests like the National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP). These are become known as “high-stakes tests,” as the No Child Left Behind law required that such summative assessment results be used to determine whether a given school was succeeding or failing.
It’s important to know that not all summative tests are “high-stakes.” A summative assessment is how we refer to a culminating assessment – one that certifies and reports whether a student has learned a prescribed set of content. Variations on these assessments can be used to cover material in a single unit or over the entire school year.
While summative assessments certify learning, formative assessment supports learning. Formative assessment is a set of techniques and tools that encourages both students and teachers to continually gather evidence of learning in the classroom and use that evidence to adapt instruction moment-to-moment and day-by-day.
Used during instruction, formative practice creates an environment where educators and students:
- collect critical information about learning progress
- uncover opportunities for review
- provide feedback
- suggest adjustments to both the teacher’s approach to instruction and the student’s approach to learning.
Many different tools support the practice of formative assessment in collecting information about learning and providing feedback. Some of these tools you may already be familiar with, others may be new:
- hand-held clickers
- individual whiteboards
- status indicators (red, yellow, green)
- teacher created tests, quizzes and item banks
An interim assessment is one that may be administered at specified intervals between periods of instruction. Interim assessments help teachers better understand what a student knows and what concepts need more emphasis to ensure academic growth. They also measure student learning growth and help teachers look for patterns or trends and identify needs for additional resources.
In addition to measuring growth, assessments can be used to predict performance on mandatory end-of-year summative exams. Typically given in fall and spring, this form of interim assessment allows teachers to “benchmark” student performance against the requirements for the year. Teachers can then adjust instruction during the year to focus in on areas of need for students.
Diagnostic assessments can be very helpful when information about a student’s prior learning is useful, such as at the beginning of the school year. These tests focus on surfacing potential difficulties or areas of learning that may need further development. Used alongside other evidence from the classroom, diagnostic tests are often used to determine if a student would benefit from remedial or accelerated learning programs. | <urn:uuid:00b12982-23eb-481e-8651-325af6e106a2> | {
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Glaucoma is a condition in which there is increased pressure in the eyeball and this pressure slowly reduces vision. It can eventually lead to a loss of eyesight. Glaucoma occurs in humans as well as in other animals like dogs too.
In this article, we’ll see the symptoms, causes and the possible treatment for glaucoma in dogs.
What is Glaucoma in Dogs?
A healthy eye produces a certain amount of fluid to nourish the tissues present in the eye and to prevent dust and dirt from clouding the vision. This liquid is called aqueous humor and is located inside the eyes. This is not the same as tear glands. In fact, aqueous humor drains back into the bloodstream and doesn’t drain out of the eyes.
In healthy dogs, there is a good balance between the production and drainage of this aqueous humor. When this balance is affected, the liquid accumulates in the eyes and creates intense pressure.
When intense pressure is placed on the eyes, it reduces the level of fluid drainage from the eyes. It starts with mild discomfort and over time, especially when left untreated, it can cause permanent blindness. In the case of dogs, the diagnosis and treatment have to be swift as glaucoma can cause permanent blindness within the first year itself. There is no treatment for blindness.
Some dog breeds are genetically predisposed to glaucoma than others, so researchers believe that there is a genetic element to its occurrence. The breeds that have the highest possible chance for glaucoma are Samoyeds, cocker spaniels, Siberians and chow chows. Also, glaucoma is more likely in older dogs than in young pups.
What Causes Glaucoma in Dogs?
There are two main reasons for glaucoma in dogs. The first cause is problems or infections in the dog’s infiltration angles in the eyes. As a result of this infection, fluids do not drain out of the eyes completely, so this results in pressure getting built up in the eyes. This is called primary glaucoma.
The second cause is damage caused due to injuries, slipping of the lens in the eyes, tumors, blood accumulation due to injuries and inflammation of the important tissues in the eyes. These causes are called secondary glaucoma.
In dogs, secondary glaucoma is more common than primary glaucoma.
The primary disease begins when the eyes are unable to drain out the excess liquid through the filtration angles. This primary glaucoma begins with symptoms such as:
- Frequent blinking of the eyes
- The eyeball may recede into the head
- The whites of the eyes turn red due to the presence of many enlarged blood vessels.
- There is a cloudy look in the eyes and the dogs can see only a blurred vision.
- The pupil is dilated and does not respond to light.
These symptoms are easily identified by the vet during a routine checkup. As a pet owner, you should be able to identify one or more of these symptoms too, especially the red part and the lack of response to light.
If these symptoms are not identified and treated, it can lead to more serious damage that will have the following symptoms.
- Enlargement of the eyeball
- Loss of vision, which will be impossible to miss for any dog owner
- Degeneration within the eye.
Sadly, if you get to this point, no treatment or surgery can fix the dog’s vision. It may have to live with blindness for the rest of its life. This is why you should constantly be on the lookout for any changes in the routine of your dog. Regular checkups with the vet will also help to identify these symptoms early.
Glaucoma can sometimes come due to certain eye infections, and this is called secondary glaucoma. The symptoms for the secondary glaucoma are:
- High pressure inside the eyes
- Redness in eyes, especially in the areas where the white parts are visible.
- Cloudy appearance
- Inflammation debris present inside the eyes
- Construction of the pupil and sensitivity to light
- Sometimes, the iris could stick to the cornea
- There is also a possibility for the edge of the iris to stick to the lens.
These are the most prominent symptoms that can be seen by the dog owners. Others could include
- Loss of appetite
- Less inclination to play
- Changes in attitude
- Frequent headaches
It is hard to associate these ancillary symptoms with glaucoma, so be on the lookout for the main symptoms alone.
The main thing to watch out for is changes in the eyes and possible vision problems.
You will have to constantly be on the watch out for any of these symptoms. In fact, it may not be as hard as it sounds because problems in vision are easy to spot. The dog will falter in its everyday routine or will exhibit difficulty in seeing. These are clear signs that everything is not alright with your dog and a trip to the vet is essential.
The vet will examine the dog thoroughly and will look into the past health history of the dog. You will be asked a few questions about the possible cause of injury if any or the prevalence of any other symptom.
As a dog owner, it is best you start making a note of the frequency of symptoms. Have a log book to make these notes, so you can easily answer the vet’s questions. It is important you give accurate answers to these questions to help the vet make the right diagnosis.
During the physical examination, the doctor will check the pressure in the eyes of your dog using a device called tonometer. This device is placed at the front of the eye and pressure is noted.
Sometimes, the vet may decide to refer your dog to a vet ophthalmologist, especially if there are multiple infections in the eyes or even when there is an injury.
The ophthalmologist will do a detailed examination of the eyes using a range of different instruments. Gonioscopy is a prominent instrument that will be used to measure the anterior part of the eye. Sometimes, the ophthalmologist may also do a procedure called Electroretinography to understand the possibility of getting back vision. In other words, they will check if the dog will anyway go blind, despite treatment and surgery. If that is the case, they will most likely recommend no treatment, so the dog does not have to go through more pain and recovery.
If only one eye is affected, treatment will be started right away to ensure that it doesn’t spread to both the eyes.
Once the vet identifies glaucoma in one or both the eyes, the treatment will be started right away.
First off, your vet will prescribe a set of medications to reduce pressure in the dog’s eyes. This is essential to ensure that the vision doesn’t get further damaged.
Besides reducing the pressure, there is a range of other treatments that are used to treat glaucoma. The fluid will be drained and the cells that produce fluid are altered to ensure that it either reduces or even stops producing more fluids. This therapy uses cold temperatures to kill these fluid producing cells and is called cyclocryotherapy.
If glaucoma is detected at an early stage, this treatment is done right away. In turn, this could prevent further degeneration and could even salvage the dog’s vision.
Sometimes, the infection in the eyes could be severe or the previous diagnosis could have proved wrong. In such a case, the optical never will be severely damaged and may require surgery to correct it.
- Removing the Eye
Most of the times, especially when the glaucoma is at an advanced stage, vets recommend removing the eye that has degenerated the most. This is essential to prevent the infection from spreading to the other eye. The eyeball is removed and the empty socket area is either stitched or it is filled with an orb.
Over time, the dog will adjust to seeing through one eye. However, as a pet owner, it is important you take the right measures to help your dog with this transition. You might also have to make changes to your home decor to make it easy for the dog to navigate around without vision.
There are a few natural treatments suggested for glaucoma. Please note that these cannot be a substitute for an examination by the vet because there is only scanty scientific evidence that connects these treatments with the cure for glaucoma.
Nevertheless, there is no harm in adding these natural foods to your dog’s diet. It is a bonus if it works out well for you.
Spinach is a superfood known to add strength to the eyes. It contains carotenoids that will provide ocular strength to the eyes and can prevent further degeneration in the eye and vision. You can add raw spinach directly to your dog’s diet, at least a few times every week.
- Fennel or Fennel seeds
Fennel seeds and fennel are known to reduce pressure in the eyes. You can add fennel to the diet directly or you can also squeeze the juice from a fennel to a cotton cloth and apply it on the dog’s eyes.
Carrots are the best food for eyes, as it contains high levels of beta-carotene needed to repair damaged eye cells. Research shows that beta-carotene is important for maintaining the visual pigment in the retina of the eye and in protecting the cells inside the eyes. So, grate carrots and add it to your dog’s meal.
- Vitamin C Supplements
Vitamin C contains high levels of antioxidants that help to protect your dog’s eyesight. Some sources of vitamin C that you can give to your dog are alfalfa, dandelion, and oranges. If you think it is difficult to add these foods to your dog’s diet, consider adding vitamin C supplements.
Herbs such as rosemary and burdock are proven to be good for glaucoma. They are rich in antioxidants and help preserve the vision for a longer time.
It is best you check with your vet before starting on any supplement.
What Can You Do?
As a dog owner, what can you do to help your dog?
First and foremost, be patient with the dog. Understand that it is going through a lot of pain and is already scared. So, if you get frustrated, it is only going to make the dog feel worse. This is the best time to show how much you love the dog and how you would like to care for it.
If your dog’s eyes are removed, then you need to be all the more patient to help the dog make this transition. There are counseling sessions offered by many vets that will prepare you to handle a blind dog. Consider attending such sessions. Alternately, you can also talk to the vet and get some suggestions on how to improve your dog’s life.
- Use a Diary
If your dog is under treatment or if you are at the initial phase where you’re watching out for the symptoms, it is best you make notes in a diary. Though it is a little extra work, it will help you stay organized. Also, you can give accurate answers to the questions posed by your vet.
- Reduce Stress
Do everything you can to reduce the stress for your dog. Keep in mind that the immune system doesn’t work well when the dog is stressed. So, keep the dog in good spirits with a lot of love and attention.
In short, glaucoma can be a painful condition in dogs too. The intense pressure in the eyes and the headaches that come with it can affect your dog’s everyday routine. Watch out for these symptoms and do your best to keep your dog in good health. | <urn:uuid:43b0cd11-5012-40e2-9e05-00a13c4e1dd0> | {
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By T. R. Mader, Research Director | Abundant Wildlife Society of North America
Mountain lions, also known as cougars, panthers, or pumas, are highly efficient predators. These cats have a wide range throughout the Western states, and populations are increasing. An individual cat’s range depends on food availability. Thus, a range can vary from 10 to 370 square miles.
Male lions weigh up to 165 pounds and grow to more than eight feet in length. Females weigh about 100 pounds. Female lions generally first reproduce at about two and one half years of age. Generally they have two or three young (kittens). A mountain lion’s life spanis estimated at 12 years in the wild, although cats have lived up to 25 years in captivity.
Mountain lions are solitary animals. They tend to live in remote country and are seldom seen by humans. They hunt their prey by stealth and ambush. Their method of killing is usually with a powerful bite at the base of the skull, breaking the neck. (“Living with Wildlife in Mountain Lion Country,” Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver, CO) The mountain lion, like the domestic cat with a mouse, will kill for the sake of killing. A lion may kill many more animals in an attack than it can possibly consume. Lions have killed as many as twenty sheep at one time. (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services [formerly Animal Damage Control], Reno, Nevada)
A mountain lion requires 8 to 10 pounds of meat per day to survive. Its diet consists of deer, elk, porcupines, small mammals, livestock, and pets. Generally a lion prefers deer. Experts tell us a lion kills one deer every 9 to 14 days. (Information compiled from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, San Antonio, Texas, and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Helena, Montana) And in some areas, it has been found that a lion kills as many as two deer per week, especially in hot weather. Why? First, a lion tends to leave a carcass once it has begun to spoil. Second, scavengers (vultures, crows, ravens, magpies, coyotes, skunks, etc.) find the carcass the lion has killed and hidden. They consume it before the lion returns to feed on the remains. Wildlife Services Specialists find that success in capturing problem lions is much greater within two days of the actual kill than thereafter. (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Reno, Nevada)
In Montana there has been an increase in lion kills due to the presence of wolves. Biologists have found that wolves will often chase a lion off its kill and consume it. Thus, the lion is forced to make more kills than usual. (Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Helena, Montana) We call this “predation compounding.” However, there have been few studies, if any, to document the actual increase in predation due to such competition among predators.
The mountain lion population is increasing over most of its current range. This is due to two factors:
1. Food availability.
2. Lack of predator control. This population increase has a short-term benefit, but could create long-term problems.
The short-term benefit is that with more lions around, perhaps more people will have the pleasure of seeing them. The long-term problems are:
1. Decline in wild game populations due to uncontrolled predation.
2. Economic hardship – loss of hunting revenue, increase of livestock and pet losses.
3. Spread of disease by predators.
4. Attacks on humans.
Decline of wild game populations: In Presidio County, Texas, near the Rio Grande River, deer were found everywhere ten years ago. In those ten years, the lion population has increased dramatically. Today, there are areas where no deer can be found that were plentiful just a few years ago. Lion predation is a major factor in the deer decline.
Jeff Davis County, Texas, is prime mountain lion country. One rancher there usually took 80 paid deer hunters on his property every year. With the significant increase in lions, that same rancher today takes no hunters due primarily to lion predation on the deer.
Another problem in this same area of Texas is the decline of the porcupine. Although the porcupine is considered a nuisance animal, its populations have been decimated and, in many areas, have ceased to exist due to the increase of lions. (Darrell York, Davis Mountain Trans-Pecos Heritage Association, Alpine, Texas) Just another example of problems due to lack of predator control.
Economic hardship: Mountain lions can cause severe economic hardship on those whose livelihoods depend on harvest of game animals (hunting) and agriculture (livestock production). Additionally, there’s an emotional hardship, particularly for children, as lions kill pets regularly.
Take, for example, the rancher in Jeff Davis County. If those 80 hunters were non-resident hunters, they would generate $16,000 in license fees alone to the state of Texas. (Texas non-resident deer hunting fee figured at $200) However, that’s the tip of the iceberg in regards to the benefits. What about the food, gas, lodging, equipment, guide fees, etc.? If all those factors are figured in, the lost economic benefit is $112,000. (Information collected in interviews with Texas Guides and Outfitters. The average guide fee or hunt for deer is $1,000. Most non-resident hunters travel an average of two days to reach their hunting destination. Thus $200 is conservatively estimated for travel expenses – gas, meals and lodging. $200(license fee) + $1000 (all expense paid hunt fee) + $200 (travel expense) = $1,400. $1,400 x 80 (hunters) = $112,000.)
A conservative estimate of what a deer is worth (in Texas) as a production commodity (i.e. non-resident hunting) is $1,400. Let’s be even more conservative and say a harvestable deer is worth $1,000. That would mean, taking the estimate of one deer per lion every two weeks, one lion could consume up to $26,000 dollars of deer (if those deer were harvested by non-resident hunters) every year!
But lions don’t just consume deer. They consume livestock as well. It’s estimated by Wildlife Services Specialists that the percentage of domestic animals confirmed killed by predators is often as low as 10% or less. (Interviews with Wildlife Services Specialists in Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Washington, New Mexico, Texas, Utah and Nevada)
Confirming a lion kill is accomplished by examining the carcass and noting areas attacked, bite marks, possible tracks, etc. This is difficult due to three natural processes:
1. Carcass not found (totally consumed). Lions are opportunists, meaning they kill whatever is easiest. Lions are well known to kill the young, both of wild animals and domestic livestock. If a young calf or lamb is killed by a lion, most, if not all, of the animal is eaten. Consequently, no carcass is found.
2. Decay rapidly eliminates evidence concerning death, especially in hot weather. A couple of hot days can eliminate most of the evidence detailing the cause of death. Further, scavengers accelerate the decay process.
3. Terrain – heavy vegetation, such as timber and undergrowth hide the carcass. There are thousands of acres of timber in the West. A carcass can be easily overlooked. And, lions almost always bury their kills.
According to the 1990 figures in the state of Texas, confirmed mountain lion kills of domestic livestock were as follows: 86 calves (estimated value = $40,850); 253 Mohair goats (estimated value = $12,771); 302 Mohair kids (estimated value = $13,690); 445 sheep (estimated value = $31,132); 562 lambs (estimated value = $33,909). (1991 Figures from U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, San Antonio, Texas)
The 1992 reports for Nevada list lion depredations as follows: 9 calves (estimated value = $2,600), 1 horse (estimated value = $1,000), 4 colts (estimated value = $2,200), 5 goats (estimated value = $500), 318 sheep (estimated value = $32,896), 400 lambs (estimated value = $26,359). (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Reno, Nevada)
These figures reflect only the reported problems and confirmed lion kills. To get a reasonable estimate of the real cost of lion predation on domestic livestock, multiply the above figures by 90 (the percentage of animals killed by predators and not found soon enough to confirm the cause of death). Mountain lion predation is a serious economic factor.
Disease curtailed with predator control: Mountain lions carry trinchinella, a parasitic worm. (54% of 899 Montana cougars tested positive for Trichinella. Data from Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Helena, Montana.) This parasite can be passed on to other animals and to humans. In humans it causes trichinosis, a disease characterized by headache, chills, fever and soreness of muscles. Humans contract this disease by eating infected meat that has not been cooked sufficiently to kill the larvea. (World Book Dictionary, Volume Two; World Book,Inc. 1986, page 2231.12)
Public safety: An increase in lions often leads to attacks on humans. We have a photo in our photo files of the stomach contents of a lion that killed a small boy. One can see clearly parts of clothing the lion consumed as it fed on the youngster.
Lion attacks on humans increase when:
1. Prey animals are few in number.
2. Lions become accustomed to man. Mountain lions are solitary animals. They generally hunt at night and, for the most part, are not seen by humans. However, recently lions have been sighted in and near Western towns. This indicates an increase in lions and/or a limited prey base forcing the cats to come closer to man in search for food. And this carries the potential for attacks on humans.
This problem has such significance that the state of Colorado held a symposium in 1991 specifically addressing the rise in mountain lion attacks on humans. The Wildlife Society Bulletin featured an article documenting lion attacks on humans by Professor Paul Beier of the Department of Forestry and Resource Management at the University of California at Berkeley. Beier’s conclusion stated that mountain lion attacks on humans have “increased markedly” in the last two decades. (Beier, Paul; “Cougar Attacks on Humans in the United States and Canada”; WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN, 19:403-412, 1991.)
Here are a few documented mountain lion attacks on humans:
1. Spring, 1986 – Orange County, California – Laura Small, age 5, was attacked by a mountain lion in the Ronald W. Caspars Wilderness Park. The female lion attacked her head and dragged her off. Laura suffered paralysis of her right side and was confined to a wheelchair for a period of time. She has had 11 operations. Now Laura has a steel plate in her skull. Her right leg is weak, her right arm is partially paralyzed and she is blind in her left eye.
A lawsuit of $100 million and $750,000 in personal damage was filed against Orange County. Small was awarded $2 million dollars. Orange County appealed the ruling.
2. August 1986 – Justin Mellon, age 6, was hiking in Ronald W. Caspars Wilderness Park. He was attacked and mauled by a female lion. Mellon suffered bites to the head, leg and stomach. His injuries were not as severe as that of Laura Small. Note: Due to the lawsuit over the Laura Small attack, the Board of Supervisors for Orange County decided not to allow minors into Caspars Wilderness Park at all. (Information compiled from Ronald W. Caspars Wilderness Park, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Sacramento, California and various news reports.)
3. 1989 – Evaro, Montana – Jake Gardipe, age 5, was killed by two or three mountain lions (possibly a female with two kittens) while riding his tricycle in his front yard. The boy was dragged from the yard and the body was found nearby several hours later. The boy’s home was 100 yards from U.S. Highway 93 just outside of Evaro. (Associated Press, September 13, 1989)
4. 1989 – Apache Junction, Arizona – Joshua Walsh, age 5, was mauled by a mountain lion near Canyon Lake, some 30 miles northeast of Phoenix. Without warning, and near a parking lot and boat dock filled with people, the mountain lion attacked Joshua, bit him on the head and began to shake him with its jaws and drag him away. Tim Walsh, Joshua’s father, leaped down a 20-foot embankment, grabbed a rock, threw it and hit the lion on the head, scaring it. The lion dropped the boy. Joshua was air-lifted to Phoenix Children’s Hospital where it took 100 stitches to close Joshua’s head wounds, including re-attachment of his right ear which was nearly severed in the attack. (Phoenix Gazette, May 1, 1989, page A-1)
5. 1991 – Nevada Test Site, north of Las Vegas, Nevada – Mary Saether, was attacked by a 120-pound female mountain lion. She suffered minor cuts and received 21 stitches on her head, right arm, and back. The cougar crept up on Saether and two male companions and attacked before they were aware of its presence. The two men beat the lion with their cameras forcing it to release Saether. A Wildlife Services Specialist arrived the next day. As he was doing a preliminary check, he heard noise in a tree and turned to find the lion charging. The man had only enough time to draw his handgun and shoot the lion at point blank range. The lion was found to be in good health. (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, Reno, Nevada and various news reports)
6. 1991 – Idaho Springs, Colorado – Scott Dale Lancaster, age 18, was killed by a lion while jogging near his high school. Lancaster was attacked by a 90 – 100 pound female cougar and dragged some 60 feet away. When asked how severely the boy was mauled by the lion, Undersheriff Dave Graham replied, “Bad!” It took authorities two days to find Lancaster’s body. (Clear Creek Courant, January 16, 1991, page 1)
7. 1991 – Riverside, California – Searchers found evidence that Travis Zwieg, age 3, of La Quinta, California, was possibly attacked by a mountain lion. Shoe prints thought to be Zwieg’s were found a half mile from where the toddler disappeared. The prints stopped at a rocky overhang where mountain lion prints were found. “Where the shoes stopped, there was a slide area and what they believed to be drag marks,” said Sgt. Craig Kilday. (Associated Press, February 26, 1991 – Note: We found no record of the boy being found.)
8. 1992 – Gaviota State Park, near Santa Barbara, California – Darron Arroyo, age 9, was attacked by a mountain lion as he walked along a park trail. Darron was hiking with his two brothers when a lion rushed from the bushes and attacked, attempting to drag him off in the brush. Steven Arroyo, Darron’s father, was walking about a hundred yards behind the boys. He heard the screams and saw the lion dragging Darron. Steven rushed toward the cat, picked up a rock, threw it and struck the lion between the eyes. The lion dropped the boy and left the area. Darron sustained bites to the face and head and scratches to the chest. (Information compiled from Santa Barbara News Press, Gaviota State Park and California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento, California.)
9. 1992 – Wenatchee, Washington – Jessica Vanney, age 5, suffered cuts and puncture wounds when a 60-pound mountain lion attacked her as she walked along a path through trees at a 100-site campground in Lake Wenatchee State Park. Her father, Michael Vanney, witnessed the attack. “Jessica was 4 or 5 feet in front of me. She walked between two trees and I saw some movement out of the corner of my eye. Then I saw the cougar run around a tree and jump on her. Its front paws just wrapped right around her head and shoulders.” Vanney grabbed his hunting knife and attacked the animal. This is the third known lion attack in the state. (Associated Press, June 18, 1992 – Note: What if this was a full grown lion weighing 150 pounds? What if Jessica was walking that path by herself?)
10. 1992 – Vancouver Island, British Colombia – An 8-year-old Kyuquot Indian boy, Jeremy Williams, was fatally mauled by a mountain lion in the village of Kyuquot. The boy’s father and a dozen youngsters witnessed the attack. Jeremy was attacked as he sat on the grass in the elementary school playground. The cougar rushed and attacked the freckled, red-haired youngster as other children ran for help. Kevin Williams, Jeremy’s father and a teacher at the school, hurried to the scene and watched helplessly while children screamed in panic. The school’s janitor shot and killed the 60-pound lion. Richard Leo, a Kyuquot Indian chief, said angry parents accused the school board of ignoring the danger of wild animals. (Associated Press, 1992)
11. 1994 – Auburn Lake Trails, California (near Sacramento) – a 40-year-old vocational rehabilitation counselor, Barbara Schoener, was attacked and killed by a mountain lion. Schoener was jogging in the popular Auburn Trails area when a cougar attacked her from behind. The force of attack caused Schoener off the trail. Schoener made two strides before falling 30 feet. Schoener then stood up and moved another 25 feet down the slope where the final attack occurred. Wounds on Schoener’s forearms and hands showed attempts to defend herself, but the 5-foot-8-inch, 120-pound woman was no match for the lion. The lion dragged Schoener 300 feet downhill and, after feeding on her, buried her with leaves and debris. Schoener received two fatal wounds – a crushed skull and bites to the head and neck. (Sacramento Bee Final, April 27, 1994, page B1 and B4)
These are but a few of the documented mountain lion attacks on humans, most of which were small children. All lions involved in these attacks that were located and destroyed, were found to be healthy. Some showed signs of hunger.
One major reason for the significant rise of attacks in recent years is the lack of predator control. Since many people now live in urban or metropolitan areas, they are unfamiliar with predation, its impacts, and the many benefits of predator control. In fact, few even know what those benefits are. Further, there has been a constant barrage of misinformation calling for the return of the “natural” or “living in harmony with nature.”
Dr. Lester McCann, Ph.D. has studied predation his entire life. His findings reveal:
1. Predators are the main carriers of deadly diseases of wildlife and to humans. Predators are well known to carry rabies. Raccoons carry a deadly fowl cholera which has devastated ducks in many areas.
2. Predation is non-specific – meaning the predator takes what it finds. Fox, skunk, and raccoon are extremely hard on ducks, pheasants, and other birds due to their nest destruction. Many studies have shown no young reproduced from nests, due to predation.
3. There have been NO significant increases in wildlife populations without some kind of predator control. (McCann, Lester, Ph.D.; A New Day For Wildlife; (St. Paul: Ramaley Printing Company) 1978.)
The enormous benefits of predator control are largely ignored these days. To understand those benefits, one must ask, “What are the problems caused by predators?”
1. The most obvious is their meat consumption. From the fox in the chicken house to the wolf in the barnyard, predation costs ranchers and farmers dearly. In the early years, the wolf, lion or bear could put a homesteader out of business in one night. Often all the homesteader had was an old milk cow and/or maybe some sheep or yearling cattle. It was common for a pack of wolves to come through and kill every animal the little farmer had. Many times cows or sheep had their udders torn off and eaten. It is interesting to note that government officials considered mountain lions as destructive as wolves in the early years.
The consumption rate of lions is estimated at eight to ten pounds of meat per day. To illustrate this, consider the lion population in California. Wildlife officials estimate they have 5,000 mountain lions in the state. (California Department of Fish and Game, Sacramento, California) Those lions would consume 50,000 pounds of meat per day to survive. It must be noted that predators hunt 365 days a year. There are no seasons or bag limits.
2. Predators were hard on wildlife, especially before man came. Many are the accounts of early explorers forced to eat their horses due to lack of wild game. Perhaps the most significant factor was water, or the lack of it. Few natural springs are found in the West. The scarcity of water allowed the predator ease in finding prey. Prey had to water, so the predator simply waited near the spring or river.
Man came along and built reservoirs and dug wells and irrigation ditches. Water became more accessible and wildlife flourished, especially when the predator numbers were reduced. The abundance of wildlife today is a direct result of the improvement and management by man, including predator control.
3. Disease was curtailed with predator control. Predators are well- documented as carriers of diseases harmful to bird and game populations. They also carry diseases harmful to man. The best known and most feared is rabies.
In the first part of this century, a rabies epidemic spread from the Pacific Northwest down through the southwestern states of New Mexico and Arizona. The coyote was the main carrier. Incidence of rabies is on the rise with numerous reports coming into the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia. Several Western counties have had rabies epidemics. In Wyoming, a man was bitten by a rabid coyote. A few years ago, a child was attacked and bitten by a rabid bobcat in California. The child spent several days in a coma and then died from rabies. Rabies shots were administered, but failed to stop the dreaded disease.
So what’s it like to live with abundant predators? Dr. Robert M. Miller, D.V.M. visited the Ol Pejeta ranch in Kenya, Africa, which runs 10,000 head of cattle. There they live with predators – lions, leopards, hyenas, etc. The whole system of ranching is different due to the predation factor.
The cattle are divided up into small groups, from 10 to 30 head, and are assigned to native herders (natives of Masai or Samburu descent) who protect the cattle. These natives literally live with the animals. At night, the animals are moved into a “boma,” a corral made of thornbush. In the morning, they are moved out again to graze and water, always under the watchful eyes of a native herder.
The main ranch corrals are 10-foot high, solid wood enclosures. These corrals protect the animals without someone having to sleep with the livestock as the natives do at the “bomas.”
Consider the cost of this operation. They require a minimum of 335 herders for the cattle. Think of the number of corrals that would have to be built throughout the ranch. Think of the weight loss having to herd the livestock to a corral each night.
Even with all these precautions, predation on the livestock and wild game occurs. Hunting of predators is an on-going project. Simon Barkus, the ranch manager, states that they lose about 15 head a month to predators.
So how do you ranch with predators? “You just hire hundreds of natives who are willing to stand and watch a few cows each from dawn to dark, and who can handle their charges as if they were 4-H dairy calves,” states Dr. Miller. (The Western Horseman, June 1992)
Think for a moment how costly meat would be at the grocery store if ranchers and farmers of the U. S. were forced to live with predators as they do in Kenya. It is safe to say that the cost of meat could escalate as much as 1000% without proper predator control.
It must be understood that predation must be addressed for wildlife to be abundant for viewing or hunting. The predator is to wildlife what weeds are to the farmer or gardener. You cannot have abundant wildlife with abundant predators any more than you can have a fruitful garden or crops with abundant weeds.
Copyright, 1995, T. R. Mader.
Permission granted to quote from or reprint if full credit is given to the source.
About the Author: T. R. Mader is Research Director of Abundant Wildlife Society of North America, an independent research organization. Mader has conducted research on wildlife and environmental issues for over 15 years.
For more information, contact:
ABUNDANT WILDLIFE SOCIETY OF NORTH AMERICA
P. O. Box 2
Beresford, SD 57004 | <urn:uuid:ab99e654-e321-48e3-bc62-7041d581ed74> | {
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1. MOST OF THE UNIVERSE IS MISSING – We can only account for 4 per cent of the cosmos
Yep, that’s a big one. Dark matter + dark energy aren’t understood. Here’s what the other article says:
One of the great discoveries of 20th-century science was that our universe is expanding. The discovery, however, led straight to another puzzle. The puzzle is, there’s nowhere near enough matter to prevent the expanding universe from blowing apart completely into a vast, sterile infinity of lifeless interstellar dust. So how come we live in a lumpy universe, one of the lumps being the planet on which we live? There must be more matter than we can see: the famous dark matter and, to go with it, something even more mysterious – dark energy.
No – what? That’s nothing to do with anything, is it? This could be the still-lumpy phase of an expanding universe. The main problem is the acceleration itself: gravity should at least be slowing the expansion down, but it’s actually increasing. That’s dark energy, and it’s an unknown. Dark matter is the discrepancy between the mass we can see and the mass we can detect by its effect on matter.
To date, however, there’s not a shred of evidence for either, even though teams of scientists have been looking for years. (The UK’s search “takes place 1,100m underground, in a potash mine whose tunnels reach out under the seafloor”.) The only alternative to dark matter is to tweak Newton’s most fundamental laws of physics and suggest that they don’t apply everywhere, all the time, in quite the same way. But physicists are a law-abiding bunch, and detest this idea.
No, there’s evidence for both. We can see where dark matter is, we just don’t know what it’s made from. And if it’s detectable, it must by nature be difficult to detect, so years of looking is probably necessary. Dark energy is more of an unknown quantity, but we see its effects, so something must be going on. And yes, scientists are unwilling to reject the laws of gravity (actually Einstein’s at this kind of accuracy, but whatever), since they’ve made incredibly accurate predictions up to now, and the Pioneer anomaly isn’t yet a clear-cut case of a violation of those laws.
2. THE PIONEER ANOMALY – Two spacecraft are flouting the laws of physics
Yes again. The Pioneer space probes aren’t where they should be, and it’s a bit odd.
“Nasa explicitly planned to use them as a test of Newton’s law,” explains Brooks. “The law failed the test; shouldn’t we be taking that failure seriously?”
The article also says “decades of analysis have failed to find a straightforward reason for it”. This is what as known as taking something seriously: you try very hard to explain something unexpected, and see where that takes you. I don’t see the problem here.
4. COLD FUSION – Nuclear energy without the drama
But, despite what you might have heard, “cold fusion” never really went away. Over a 10-year period from 1989, US navy labs ran more than 200 experiments to investigate whether nuclear reactions generating more energy than they consume – supposedly only possible inside stars – can occur at room temperature. Numerous researchers have since pronounced themselves believers.
Cold fusion. Right. Not really an ‘unsolved scientific puzzle’, as there’s no evidence it exists, as far as I’m aware. And if you think the scientific establishment is deliberately ignoring a potential source of safe, clean energy that would completely transform the world, you’re bonkers.
5. LIFE – Are you more than just a bag of chemicals?
Fair enough. But wtf:
In labs across the world, people are taking the raw materials of living things and trying to put them together in a way that makes them come alive. In an effort to resolve the anomalous nature of life, the idea of scientists playing God has taken a whole new turn.
It’s almost like you’re referencing some fiction there…can’t think what. And when ‘God’ is just your word for ‘anything I don’t understand’, which it clearly is, then scientists are always going to be ‘playing God’, and it’s a silly thing to say.
6. METHANE FROM MARTIANS – NASA scientists found evidence for life on Mars. Then they changed their minds
On July 20, 1976, the Viking landers scooped up some Martian soil and mixed it with radioactive nutrients. The mission’s scientists all agreed that if radioactive methane was released from the soil, something must be eating the nutrients – and there must be life on Mars. The experiment gave a positive result, but NASA denied an official detection of Martian life.
Ok, I need to skip a few or I’ll run out of time. Arguments over sexual reproduction and death seem somewhat misprepresented, lack of free will1 is given short shrift (rejected out of hand in the accompanying article) and the placebo effect is indeed genuinely mysterious, but then at the end there’s this:
13. HOMEOPATHY – It’s patently absurd, so why won’t it go away?
How the hell did this get in here? He says “there remains some slim evidence that homeopathy works” – and this is what, exactly? And what of the many, many double-blind trials that suggest otherwise? I would like to point out that people still worship Greek Gods. It’s ridiculous, but why won’t it go away? Maybe we should look again at Greek Gods.
The ‘puzzles’ are all taken from a book, which gives me pause – maybe the full text is more rigorous, and these quick generalisations are written by someone who doesn’t understand the issues. But Uncertain Principles perhaps has some insight: the author worked for New Scientist, and the book apparently has the typical New Scientist attitude of glorifying fringe work, making dramatic declarations on the imminent overturning of long-held theories, and paying little attention to consensus. Seems to fit with the above.
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The web as you experience it -- with pretty pictures, in a browser, with back and forward buttons -- emerged 20 years ago. On Jan. 23, 1993, programmer Marc Andreessen released Mosaic, the web browser credited with making the Internet accessible for the general public. While not the first graphical web browser, it was the most popular one of its time and still the model for today's browsers. Before Mosaic, for example, images and text weren't able to display together.
3 Recent Stories
You can be a part of history as 360,000 iPhone users are asked to take images to create a single digital mosaic to represent today's mobile generation. The Kickstarter-backed Revolution Mosaic App, which is facilitating the project, will drop in May. Smartphones and apps like Instagram have changed the way the world takes and shares images. Canadian app developer Ian Tuason -- founder of iOS gaming app Coupon Quest -- is hoping to encapsulate the iPhone photo-snapping generation in one image.
Google is rolling out five dramatically new ways to view blog posts on Blogger, in an attempt to change the typical way people consume content on the web. Starting Thursday, visitors to Blogger-hosted blogs will discover new viewing options if they type "/view" at the end of a blog's URL (e.g. http://cookingwithamy.blogspot.com/view). Unlike traditional blog skins or themes though, these views dramatically alter the entire experience of reading a blog. | <urn:uuid:8f7cd24c-d1ab-48d4-b16b-18549af02b0d> | {
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A hat wearing gentlemen of the 1940s continued the tradition of wearing most style of hats from the 1930s. The classic fedora, homburg and flat caps were worn with only subtle adjustments in style. The Derby or bowler was still worn in Britain by a few older generations, but the overall trend was for more casual styles and colors. Most trends started on collage campuses, moved to the country and finally into the city. The newer hat of the 1940s was the Porkpie, and it carried on in fashion through to the 1950s.
Stylistically the main difference between hats of the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s were how they were worn. Most hats were worn tilted to one side. Hat brims took on many shapes with the back brim curved upwards being the one common feature among many styles of 1940s men’s hats for sale. The width of the brim was quite wide in the early ’40s and again at the very end of the decade with the middle year reducing a little. The material was also lighter, especially felt, which was no longer very heavy but softer and more comfortable to wear. This lighter hat also reduced the cost of material making them more affordable after the war.
Most men shopped for a hat from a local haberdasher. The shop owner would advise the customer on the shape of hat that suited his face, body build and fashion style. He would then take a blank hat and shape the crown and brim to perfection. A hat was an investment, something to be worn with pride, taken care of, and treated with more respect than any other part of his wardrobe. A good straw hat lasts a year or two. Many straw hats only last a month or two, requiring frequent replacement. Thankfully, they were much cheaper as well.
Unfortunately, hats were beginning to experience a downward trend after the war. Casualness in men’s fashion was becoming more and more common to the point most hat wearing was done for leisure activities, sports and blue collar work. Business men wore hats, too, as they had done for the last several decades, but the younger generation was not keen on the concept. They had nicely combed hair. Why cover that up with a hat? Or deal with the hassle of storing it, taking it off inside or while driving and not loosing it to a hat stand thief? They complained that they were uncomfortable, giving them headaches, and perhaps unhealthy, too (hats + sweat=acne). They also cited hat styles as old and boring. A young newspaper writer, Sydney J. Harris, in 1944 said that he and his friends “resented the bland uniformity of the dumb-looking hat.” The young wanted something completely new or else nothing at all.
Another reason for hatlessness was improvements to indoor heating and heaters in cars, They made wearing a hat in winter unnecessary. By the late 1940s, only about 40% of men were wearing hats on a daily basis. The rest simply went out without a care in the world.
Since hat wearing isn’t common anymore, putting on a 1940s hat seems necessary when dressing vintage. Determining what hat to choose begins with an exploration of men’s 1940s hat styles:
1940s Fedora Hat or Trilby Hat
Most men’s hats were just called felt hats, not by any specific name. Of all the variations, the fedora hat was the most common and in general most felt hats fit the style of the fedora. It featured a snap brim that curved down in front and up in back. The tall center crown had a crease that was either flat or sloped toward the back. The front of the crown featured a pinched indentation on either side. The finish of the felt was usually smooth, but some styles did have a light fur texture and even very heavy fur in cold areas.
Brim sizes varied through out the decade. The average sizes was 2 5/8 inches, but brims ranged from 2 and 5/8 to 3 inches. Small faces needed small brims; larger faces needed wider brims. Crowns were also tall but had shrunk down an inch or so for most of the 1940s.
- Colors: Blue, Green, Tan, Grey, Brown
- Materials: Fur felt, cloth, or light woven straws
- Shape : Tall pinch front crowns with a center crease that was either flat-topped or angled to the back (sloped)
- Brim: Turned up at the back, flat around front and sides or a brim turned down in front and up at the sides and back
- Band: Wide petersham ribbon band in the same color or shade as the hat body. A solid black band on any color of hat was also very common. A flat ribbon bow fastened on one side with a feather added to some. A thick leather band was worn on “western” style fedoras.
- Style: Worn at an angle to one side (usually the right side)
- Worn with: Everything, business to casual. It was the most versatile hat.
- Best Starter Hats: Indiana Jones Hat , Stacy AdamsSAW536 Fedora (2.5 brim, many colors)
1940s Homburg Hat
The homburg hat gained popularity beginning at the turn of the century and 1920s. It was a more formal style than the fedora with a deep center dent and rolled brim edge. It was only worn with nice business suits.
Colors: Dark Blue, Dark Brown, Grey (Black was out of fashion by the mid ’40s)
- Material: Fur felt
- Shape: Tall crown with moderate center crease
- Brim: Curled edges on the side and only slightly curled up at the front and back. Brims were wider/less curled than the previous decades
- Band: Black Petersham ribbon band and optional binding on the brim or matching band to hat
- Style: Worn pulled forward and down slightly on the forehead
- Best Starter Hats: Godfather Homburg
1940s Porkpie Hat
The porkpie was a hybrid between a felt hat (fedora or homburg) and cloth summer hat with a round brim and flat round crown. They became popular on college campuses first in a khaki summer color with colorful band. Summer hats usually had a crown that was a little taller in the front with a mild slope to the back.
The felt version was worn with business suits and semi casual dress. They were the least common felt hat style.
- Colors: Black and Brown year round, Khaki for summer.
- Material: Fur felt, cotton cloth for summer styles
- Shape: Short, oval flat top with deep crease around oval
- Brim: Wide curled up brim all around
- Band: Thin leather band matching color of the hat or wide petersham ribbon with flat bow. For summer, colorful paid patterns appeared on the band. Feathers were usually added from the mid 40s onward
- Style: Worn at an angle
- Worn with: Casual clothing in summer, business attire for felt models.
- Best Starter Hat: Bollman 1940s Porkpie
1940s Straw Hats
From May to September, men wore summer hats made of straw. They came in all the shapes that felt hats did and in a variety of weave materials such as coconut palm, sennit straw, watersilk palm, cocoa baku, banana palm, and hanoki. Some classic shapes were boater, Panama, optimo Panama, porkpie, fedora, and sloped fedora.
Shape: The 1940s fedora, porkpie, Panama and boater came in straw hat varieties. Crows were usually flat but could have a center crease or pinch front.
- Color: Light khaki straw, medium yellow straw, and dark coco straws and every shade in between.
- Brim: Wide, round, brim that shaped downward all around.
- Band: A wide silk or cotton pleated band in any number of colorful solid colors, stripes and patterns like polka dots. Bold combinations, like pink and blue, were popular. Tropical or native prints were trendy as resort wear.
- Style: Worn centered on the head. Only the straw fedoras were angled.
- Best Hats: Stetson Retro Panama, Straw Boater, Panama Porkpie
1940s Bucket Hats
A casual, sporty summer or work hat was the bucket cloth hat. It was first worn on golf courses. It was then picked up by young collage kids and men living in the country. It had a floppy snap brim and side air vents. Popular colors were khaki, green, blue, and brown. As a work hat, it often matched the color of the work uniform. They were made of cotton twill, rayon, gaberdine, or corduroy.
In winter, the hat came in a lined cotton twill with attached ear flaps.
Try the Dobbs Urban cloth hat
Another sport to work hat was the classic cap. Just called a cap, dress cap or work cap in the 1940s, it has many names today like flat cap, newsboy, ivy cap, big apple cap, and more. The traditional cap was made of 8 triangle panels sewn together in a circle and snapped to a short front visor. It could also be sewn from one piece of material, called a one piece crown. Caps were rather flat in appearance, unlike the fuller 1920s version. Caps came in tweed, cotton gaberdine or wool. Solid colors were for summer such as blue, grey, and tan. In winter, tweed like blends of speckled grey, dark blue and brown were common.
Flat caps were worn with casual clothing, sporty attire, driving, and working labor jobs. They were still worn on golf courses and other outdoor sports but otherwise were mostly associated with working classes.
Best Hats: Ivy Cap (anything called an 8 panel cap, Gatsby cap, or newsboy cap is usually the right style)
Other styles of caps were worn for rugged outdoor sports, like hunting and fishing, or for extremely cold climates. These hats had a visor like a baseball cap and ear flaps that tied up on top of the head or over the visor when not in use. They were fully lined in warm cotton or shearling wool. The outside was usually corduroy, leather or a plaid blanket cloth. Beige, brown, black, dark blue, or red plaid were common colors.
Buying 1940s Hats
Whenever possible buy a vintage men’s hat (ebay or Facebook groups). They can be pricey to buy but well worth it if you want the most authentic 1940s hat. Otherwise, new men’s hats continue to be made in vintage styles. Quality fedoras often come with flexible brims so that you can change the brim shape to match that of 1940s style.
You, too, can buy a new 1940s style men’s hat with or without a shaped brim. Most modern fedora hats have smaller snap brims that were not worn in the 1940s. They are also usually black, which was not a very popular color, even for gangsters. Dark grey with a black band is your best choice to wear with suits. Brown is good for brown suits or semi-casual clothing. You could also stand out with a blue or green fedora hat.
Start your 1940s men’s hat shopping here from these popular, affordable hat choices: | <urn:uuid:f05176e5-3627-4204-bb53-6e1574343c6e> | {
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As reported in Science, researchers designed the molecule to capture chloride, which forms when the element chlorine pairs with another element to gain an electron. The most familiar chloride salt is sodium chloride, or common table salt. Other chloride salts are potassium chloride, calcium chloride, and ammonium chloride.
The seepage of salt into freshwater systems reduces access to drinkable water across the globe. In the US alone, about 272 metric tons of dissolved solids, including salts, enter freshwater streams per year, according to US Geological Survey estimates.
Contributing factors include the chemical processes involved in oil extraction, the use of road salts and water softeners, and the natural weathering of rock. It only takes one teaspoon of salt to permanently pollute five gallons of water.
The new salt-extraction molecule is made up of six triazole “motifs”—five-membered rings composed of nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen—which together form a three-dimensional “cage” perfectly shaped to trap chloride.
In 2008, Flood’s lab created a two-dimensional molecule, shaped like a flat doughnut, that used four triazoles. The two extra triazoles give the new molecule its three-dimensional shape and a 10 billion-fold boost in efficacy.
The new molecule is also unique because it binds chloride using carbon-hydrogen bonds, previously regarded as too weak to create stable interactions with chloride compared to the traditional use of nitrogen-hydrogen bonds. Despite expectations, the researchers found that the use of triazoles created a cage so rigid as to form a vacuum in the center, which draws in chloride ions.
By contrast, cages with nitrogen-hydrogen bonds are often more flexible, and their vacuum-like center needed for chloride capture requires energy input, lowering their efficiency compared to a triazole-based cage.
“If you were to take our molecule and stack it up against other cages that use stronger bonds, we’re talking many orders of magnitude of performance increase,” says Amar Flood, professor of chemistry at Indiana University . “This study really shows that rigidity is underappreciated in the design of molecular cages.”
The rigidity also allows the molecule to retain its shape after the central chloride is lost, compared to other designs that collapse under the same circumstances due to their flexibility. This gives the molecule greater efficacy and versatility.
Lastly, the work is reproducible. The first molecule took nearly a year to synthesize, says Yun Liu, who led the study as a PhD student in Flood’s lab and is currently a postdoctoral research associate at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The crystals they needed to confirm the molecule’s unique structure formed after they left the experiment alone in the lab for several months—a surprising occurrence since that process typically requires careful monitoring.
Later, Wei Zhao, a postdoctoral researcher in Flood’s lab, was able to recreate the molecule in a span of several months. The formation of the crystal represented a “eureka” moment, proving that the molecule’s unique design was actually viable, Liu says.
Coauthor Chun-Hsing “Josh” Chen, an associate scientist at the Molecular Structure Center at the time of the study, confirmed the molecule’s structure using X-ray crystallography.
The US Department of Energy funded the work. Indiana University’s Innovation and Commercialization Office has filed a patent application on the work.
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Date of this Version
Tacha, M., A. Bishop, and J. Brei. Development of the whooping crane tracking project geographic information system. In: Hartup, Barry K., ed., Proceedings of the Eleventh North American Crane Workshop, Sep 23-27, 2008, Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin (Baraboo, WI: North American Crane Working Group, 2010), pp. 98-104.
The highest losses in the Aransas-Wood Buffalo whooping crane population occur during migration. Conservation and recovery of the endangered whooping crane requires understanding of migration patterns to identify important stopover areas and potential sources of mortality or disturbance. We converted the Cooperative Whooping Crane Tracking Project database, containing more than 3 decades of data on whooping crane sightings, to a geographic information system (GIS) to allow coarse scale spatial analyses of whooping crane migration patterns in the United States portion of the Central Flyway. At this writing, the geodatabase contains point data for 1,981 confirmed whooping crane sightings through the spring migration of 2008. Limitations and appropriate uses of the sighting point data are discussed. We compared the distribution of confirmed whooping crane sightings using a flyway-wide analysis and state-specific analyses. State-specific analyses showed substantial differences in distribution of whooping crane sightings between states, illustrating potential differences in habitat availability between states. However, differences in whooping crane distribution between states are confounded to an undeterminable degree by observer bias, illustrating the need for information on whooping crane migration patterns that is less dependent on the distribution of observers qualified to confirm whooping crane presence. | <urn:uuid:47c37a63-4a6f-4195-904c-13f628a0505f> | {
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The Pacific Northwest is an active subduction zone. Because of this tectonic setting, there are three distinct earthquake source zones in earthquake hazard assessments of the Seattle area. Offshore, the broad sloping interface between the Juan de Fuca and the North America plates produces earthquakes as large as magnitude 9; on the average these events occur every 400-600 years. The second source zone is within the subducting Juan de Fuca plate as it bends, at depths of 40-60 km, beneath the Puget lowland. Five earthquakes in this zone this century have had magnitudes greater than 6, including one magnitude 7.1 event in 1949. The third zone, the crust of the North America plate, is the least well known. Paleoseismic evidence shows that an event of approximate magnitude 7 occurred on the Seattle fault about 1000 years ago. Potentially very damaging to the heavily urbanized areas of Puget Sound, the rate of occurrence and area over which large magnitude crustal events are to be expected is the subject of considerable research.
Additional publication details
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Glossary P Words
PAAC on SEAC – Provincial Parent Associations Advisory Committee On Special Education Advisory Committees. Gives guidance to SEAC’s. Meets with Ministry of Education representatives.
Parent guide – A parent guide describing IPRCs is issued by the school board (and is available through every school) for the use and information of parents regarding the board's procedures for the referral, identification, placement, and review of exceptional pupils, the right of appeal, and access to the Special Education Tribunal. Boards may also have other Parent Guides relating to Special Education concerning IEPs, gifted programs and other topics. Request a copy of all guides relating to special education. Terminology, programs, staff positions, placement options, criteria for identification, etc. vary greatly from board to board. Your local board’s special education parent guides are essential reading.
Provincial Demonstration Schools – special schools operated by the Ministry of Education for children who are deaf, blind, deaf-blind, and severely learning disabled, as well as those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Most of these programs are weekly or long term residential.
Psychological Evaluation - the portion of a child's overall psycho-educational evaluation/assessment that tests general intelligence, eye-hand coordination, social skills, emotional development and thinking skills.
Psychological Services – professionals (psychologists and psychometrist/ psychological associates) who work with students and administer psychological and educational tests, evaluate and interpret results, propose services, provide counselling, and consult with school staff.
Partially integrated – a student is in a regular class for at least one class, but not more that 50% of the day. The remainder of the student's time is in a self-contained class.
Performance assessment – an assessment of student learning that goes beyond written tests and requires students to show how they use and apply their knowledge and skills to solve real world problems and tasks. They measure each student's learning against expectations defined in the curriculum.
Placement – designates the type of learning environment where the student will learn. Common options are: regular classroom, part-time withdrawal, or a full-time self-contained class. (Note: ABC strongly supports a range of placement options and choices for all exceptional students, including integration in the regular classroom, supports in the regular classroom, withdrawal, and congregated, self-contained class. See the separate definitions and entries for each of these terms. Placement decision should be based on student needs, maximize learning potential and reflect parental input.)
Primary division - Grades 1 - 3.
Prior Learning Assessment and Recognition (PLAR) – An alternative procedure available to any Ontario secondary student who meets the qualifications to receive a particular credit without completing the usual course requirements. To view the full program memorandum pertaining to this type of assessment follow the link. | <urn:uuid:c1995f7a-a921-4cdc-be5a-ff2b6e74120e> | {
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Last week, when President Trump announced he was replacing H.R. McMaster with John Bolton as his new national security adviser, some foreign policy hawks rejoiced. However, most analysts worried, given Bolton’s militant rhetoric and hawkish positions — attitudes that worried even other Republicans during the George W. Bush administration.
Focusing on Bolton individually means we miss a larger and more troubling point about how the United States has conducted foreign policy since the end of the Cold War. In an age of overwhelming U.S. military dominance, there is no other country to push back when the United States gets aggressive. As a result, militant and assertive views have more scope to shape policy.
Without international pushback, American leaders can follow their own instincts, limited only by domestic attitudes. For the three reasons below, that could lead to war.
1. U.S. power has a troubling side.
Since the end of the Cold War, the United States been incredibly secure, with a robust nuclear arsenal, large ocean moats and — above all — no peer competitor. This has helped the United States in many ways. At the same time, the United States has had an exceptionally activist foreign policy — while largely evading meaningful international consequences for its behavior.
Despite international opposition, for instance, no countries aligned against the United States or retaliated for its interventions in Iraq, Libya or Syria, all of which were partners of major nations like Russia and China. In the 1990s and early 2000s, Russia complained about NATO expansion into the Soviet Union’s former sphere of influence but largely cooperated with the West — at least, until 2014. Over the last decade, the United States has begun to risk war for states like Japan and the Philippines by backing their contested maritime claims in East Asia.
Of course, U.S. actions often led to human suffering in other countries, harmed many U.S. service members and exacted a toll on the U.S. economy. These consequences pale in comparison with the costs of tangling with another major power. Because the United States is more powerful and secure than any other country in modern history, it can often do what it wants with comparatively few direct costs.
Bolton’s appointment reflects this. Trump can consider his militant ideas partly because there is no obvious penalty for adopting hawkish policies. Consider the counterfactual: If the Soviet Union was around to retaliate for a U.S. strike on Iran or North Korea — or if Iran or North Korea were great powers themselves — Trump would probably not want an adviser who has argued for war. The consequences would just be too costly.
2. Unchallenged U.S. dominance means individual leaders have enormous influence on foreign policy.
Because the United States is secure and powerful, its foreign policy since 1991 has turned in large part on what leaders want and what domestic politics lets them get away with. Of course, leadership mattered at other points in U.S. history, too: The transition from John F. Kennedy to Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, for instance, affected the course of the U.S. war in Vietnam. Still, overwhelming U.S. power since the Cold War means individuals and domestic politics are especially influential.
For example, individual leaders and domestic politics influenced whether the United States intervened in civil conflicts in Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Libya. Likewise, the decision to expand NATO depended heavily on individuals and personal attitudes in the Clinton administration. Meanwhile, it is easy to imagine, say, a President Al Gore might have made different decisions than did President George W. Bush after 9/11 about toppling the Afghan and Iraqi governments in 2001 and 2003, and then about subsequently engaging or disengaging from reconstruction efforts.
Analysts can certainly debate whether any one of these policies was right or wrong. The point remains that individual policymakers did not have to think much — beyond what they deemed appropriate — about what the rest of the world might think or do. Being the dominant nation means no external force pushes back to shape U.S. behavior.
All this means sage leadership that screens policy ideas is especially important. With an inexperienced leader like Trump in the Oval Office, Bolton’s views can gain traction partly because America still reigns as the sole superpower.
3. Bolton’s appointment is a reminder that countries play to their strengths.
While it is true the United States is the world’s dominant power, U.S. supremacy is not absolute. The United States is facing a rising China, the prospective rise of countries such as India and Brazil and a variety of challenges from Russia. Over the last two decades, these nations have cut into the United States’ economic lead, just as their political and diplomatic influence has grown.
The United States continues to have an unchallenged military advantage. No other country can match the U.S. ability to project power across great distances. Bolton’s ascension may reflect this. Policymakers focus on the use of force because that is where the United States outcompetes the rest of the world.
This should not be surprising. Declining great powers often consider force against adversaries — and sometimes use it — to compensate for relative weaknesses in other areas of statecraft. Germany, for instance, pushed for war with an economically rising Russia before 1914. Similarly, U.S. strategists in the 1960s considered a preventive strike against China before the People’s Republic acquired nuclear weapons.
Seen in this light, Bolton’s appointment is doubly worrisome. Not only may he be inclined to hawkish positions because force is relatively cheap and easy for the United States to employ, but others in the government may want to embrace his views if other foreign policy tools seem increasingly ineffectual.
With U.S. power dominant but waning, Bolton’s elevation reminds us there are few limits to — and some momentum behind — a militaristic U.S. foreign policy.
Joshua R. Itzkowitz Shifrinson is an assistant professor of international affairs with the Bush School of Government at Texas A&M University. His first book, “Rising Titans, Falling Giants: How Great Powers Exploit Power Shifts” is being published by Cornell University Press later this year. | <urn:uuid:4b6dad30-53e9-4f4f-8ea4-427ac1fb8570> | {
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The Life and Teachings of the Prophet Joseph
Combining a deep love of the prophet with years of research, Truman Madsen discusses such topics as Joseph Smith's trust of youth, the elements of his saintly life, his vision of Zion, and many other details that will enrich the listener's testimony of Joseph Smith.
By Kelly, Submitted on 2015-02-25
This is a great addition to Truman's Joseph Smith The Prophet lectures. Very in depth analysis of how Joseph's teachings contrast to other faiths.
By Jay, Submitted on 2015-02-25
To paraphrase Truman Madsen in his introduction, he gave the original eight lectures by presenting Joseph Smith's life as his teachings. In these eight lectures, he presents Joseph Smith's life in illustration of of his teachings. The focus here is on Joseph Smith's teachings, and then backing up those teachings with stories and examples from the Prophet's life. These are very well put together, and if you enjoyed the original lectures, then you will enjoy these too!
By David, Submitted on 2015-02-25
As a follow up to his very popular "Joseph Smith the Prophet" audio series, Truman Madsen continues to share the worlds of Joseph Smith with us to give us insight to the times in which he lived and the message that he help bring to the world. He brings the prophet to life through his stories and sharing of his testimony. | <urn:uuid:ba902304-c96d-45d0-8381-b9f07663ed11> | {
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Founded by Soil Scientist Jason Aramburu and designed in collaboration with Designer Yves Behar and his company Fuseproject, the Edyn Smart Garden System is the product of many years of research in farming communities in Panama and Kenya.
“Edyn was created with the belief that understanding our environment is the first step towards conserving it,’ said Aramburu. “It represents our commitment to helping gardeners of all levels have the best success possible in not only growing plants but creating a thriving garden and being part of a community of like-minded growers.
“We’re using hardware and data to deliver actionable insights that’ll help those gardeners achieve their goals.”
By measuring and quantifying environmental data, Edyn enables users to more efficiently manage our precious natural resources like water, soil and organic fertiliser.
The garden sensor constantly monitors its environment and learns exactly what your plants need. It is compatible with vegetable, fruit, herbal, decorative and medicinal plants. The water valve delivers the right amount of water to your plants without waste. Together, these tools help you improve your garden and your environment.
“Inserting into the earth like a shovel or stake, the Edyn Garden Sensor industrial design creates a visual bridge between nature and technology that seems to blossom out of the earth,” explains Behar.
Edyn contains a database with thousands of plant varieties and soil conditions. Its machine-learning algorithm analyses live sensor data on the device and in the cloud. The garden sensor and water valve are both solar powered, but also use a lithium-polymer battery should the solar reserves run low.
As well as displaying a real-time snap shot of your garden, the Edyn app also pushes alerts and suggestions to maximise plant health. | <urn:uuid:f2499c6c-6e8e-4ff5-b442-1b5e44f0a2fb> | {
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NASA Tests New Propulsion System For Robotic Lander Prototype
HUNTSVILLE, Ala. – NASA's Robotic Lunar Lander Development Project at Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala., has completed a series of hot fire tests and taken delivery of a new propulsion system for integration into a more sophisticated free-flying autonomous robotic lander prototype. The project is partnered with the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Md., to develop a new generation of small, smart, versatile robotic landers to achieve scientific and exploration goals on the surface of the moon and near-Earth asteroids.
The new robotic lander prototype will continue to mature the development of a robotic lander capability by bringing online an autonomous flying test lander that will be capable of flying up to sixty seconds, testing the guidance, navigation and control system by demonstrating a controlled landing in a simulated low gravity environment.
By the spring of 2011, the new prototype lander will begin flight tests at the U.S. Army's Redstone Arsenal Test Center in Huntsville, Ala.
The prototype’s new propulsion system consists of 12 small attitude control thrusters, three primary descent thrusters to control the vehicle’s altitude, and one large "gravity-canceling" thruster which offsets a portion of the prototype’s weight to simulate a lower gravity environment, like that of the moon and asteroids. The prototype uses a green propellant, hydrogen peroxide, in a stronger concentration of a solution commonly used in homes as a disinfectant. The by-products after use are water and oxygen.
"The propulsion hardware acceptance test consisted of a series of tests that verified the performance of each thruster in the propulsion system," said Julie Bassler, Robotic Lunar Lander Development Project Manager. "The series culminated in a test that characterized the entire system by running a scripted set of thruster firings based on a flight scenario simulation."
The propulsion system is currently at Teledyne Brown’s manufacturing facility in Huntsville, Ala., for integration with the structure and avionics to complete the new robotic lander prototype. Dynetics Corp. developed the robotic lander prototype propulsion system under the management of the Von Braun Center for Science and Innovation both located in Huntsville, Ala.
"This is the second phase of a robotic lander prototype development program," said Bassler. "Our initial "cold gas" prototype was built, delivered and successfully flight tested at the Marshall Center in a record nine months, providing a physical and tangible demonstration of capabilities related to the critical terminal descent and landing phases for an airless body mission."
The first robotic lander prototype has a record flight time of ten seconds and descended from three meters altitude. This first robotic lander prototype began flight tests in September 2009 and has completed 142 flight tests, providing a platform to develop and test algorithms, sensors, avionics, ground and flight software and ground systems to support autonomous landings on airless bodies, where aero-braking and parachutes are not options.
For more photos of the hardware visit: http://www.nasa.gov/roboticlander
For more information about NASA visit: http://www.nasa.gov › Photo
- end -
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What do we do if we suspect an infant or toddler is being abused? How do we go about checking for possible signs? If they are being abused, they have no way of alerting us to that fact, since they can‘t verbalize it. A toddler may be able to say, “owie,“ while pointing at the injured spot, while an infant has no way of alerting someone to their injuries. There are several signs that could indicate that an infant is being abused. This article helps to educate us on possible signs of abuse, when involving a young child.
Unusual red marks or welts will appear on the child’s body. There may also be welts or bruises in the shape of an object, such as a hanger or a belt. These types of signs definitely alert us to the fact that there is something wrong. Welts or bruises, especially in parts of the body that are covered or hidden, are not something that the child gets simply by playing. Instead, they scream of abuse occurring. There is also the sign of continuous bruising on the little one. Young children, such as toddlers, can get bruising on their shins from a fall when learning to walk or run. However, continuous bruising, in hidden areas or covered areas, is a sign of abuse. Another sign of abuse on young children are burns. Some may be in the shape of a cigarette butt, while others may be in the shape of a curling iron.
If an infant has pain in their leg, but they are not yet walking, that is another sign of possible abuse. Some young children that are being abused do not want to be near their abuser. They may show fear whenever the abusive parent tries to go near them. They might also be cautious and withdrawn. If a child that normally eats well suddenly has lost their appetite, that is something to be aware of. Granted, it may be because they are sick, but it could also be a sign of abuse, especially when coupled with another sign of abuse.
The child that begins to regress in their behavior may also be a victim of abuse. For instance, a three-year-old toddler may begin to act younger than they are. A good example is that the toddler that has never sucked their thumb may begin doing so. They may begin to act more babyish.
These are all possible signs of abuse occurring. Once you know where the injuries are, or you suspect that there is an injury, you can then call the child protective services in your community to alert them of your findings. | <urn:uuid:baf1b14d-c838-4f23-9c01-9e3556c82ff0> | {
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What stage is my cancer, doc?
This is often the first question we get asked when meeting with a patient newly diagnosed with lung cancer. In this blog, I would like to briefly review the notion of lung cancer staging and its implications.
Staging allows us to define the extent of a cancer and determine its best available treatment. It also allows us to statistically estimate the prognosis of the cancer. Finally, adequate staging allows us to group patients with cancers of similar extent across different institutions or even countries and evaluate the efficacy of the treatment strategies and compare with new ones.
Staging can be clinical or pathological. Clinical staging is based on the information we obtain from X-rays and scans as well as from procedures where samples (biopsies) of different tissues are obtained in an effort determine what structures may be involved with the cancer. Pathological staging is only available when the cancer has been removed by surgery: i.e. when the pathologist has measured the size of the tumor, its extent and whether or not any lymph nodes were involved with cancer. One should be aware that pathological and clinical stagings don’t always concord 100%. Sometimes clinical staging under-evaluates how extensive the cancer may be, and at times it over-evaluates it, particularly when clinical staging is based only on X-ray information. This is particularly true with the evaluation of lymph nodes that drain the area where the cancer has come from. The role of your lung cancer surgeon in adequately gathering that information to develop the best treatment plan cannot be emphasized enough.
The system we use to define a stage is called the TNM system. T (0 to 4) refers to Tumor characteristics such as its size or whether it invades adjacent structures or not. For example a T1 tumor is less than 3 cm in size and does not invade any adjacent structure. A T3 tumor could be larger than 7 cm or may invade into the ribs next to the tumor. N (0 to 3) relates to whether the lymph nodes draining the lung are involved or not with cancer. Different node zones determine a different N number. M refers to whether or not the lung cancer has spread (metastasized) outside of the originating chest. Using the information obtained from the T, N and M characteristics we define groups as being a stage I, II, III or IV. Stages I to III can be further subdivided into As and Bs.
Using the staging information described above, we can make the best recommendation for treatment. As a rule, clinical stages I lung cancers are amenable for local means of treatment such as surgery or radiation therapy (“X-ray” treatments). Stages II and III lung cancers are usually considered for a combination of treatments of surgery, and/or radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy (drug treatments). The combination of these different treatments and the order with which we will apply them varies enormously and depends on different tumor and patient factors that are beyond the scope of this blog. Stage IV lung cancers for the most part are treated with chemotherapy alone though exceptions do exist.
In summary, we use various tests information to establish the stage of each cancer we treat. Staging allows us to define the extent of the cancer, its prognosis and best determine the treatment option(s) for each individual cancer patient we see. | <urn:uuid:4cc7982d-19fd-479d-812b-e57550a6bb16> | {
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Each week, culture intern Katherine will scour great works of literature for all the cheesy details your English teacher never showed you. Authors often include mentions of food and drink in their written works to give the reader a small glimpse into the culture and historic foodways of a particular place and era. This blog series will lend readers a helping hand and shed some light on the cheeses between the lines of the literary greats. Also, each week you’ll have a chance to win a special issue of culturemagazine. Congratulations to last week’s winner, who suggested pairing Pinot Noix with Uniekaas Reserve!
Considered the greatest novelist of the Victorian Period, Charles Dickens penned over fifteen novels, hundreds of short stories, and numerous non-fiction accounts of his travels and opinions. Like many other authors, Dickens used his surroundings and the complexities of British society as a detailed foundation for his literary works. Unlike most great authors, Dickens manages to mention cheese in some form or fashion in nearly all of his literary works, and if you ask us that makes him, well, grate.
So tie that cravat, dust off your top hat, and mind your Victorian manners as we explore the cheese-filled works of Charles Dickens… Dickens used cheese – along with many other traditional English foodstuffs – in various ways throughout his writings, ranging from simple culinary details to descriptive character and setting related metaphors.
He used cheese to explain the surroundings…such as the,
“sharp corner by the cheese-monger’s shop”
Or one character’s disorganized kitchen in Great Expectations,
“cheese in the coalscuttle”
He used cheese to describe English culinary traditions…such as the classic dish known as,
“cheese and celery”
And he often mentions characters who,
“toast the cheese”
To create the classic fireside snack better known as Welsh Rarebit.
And sometimes Dickens employs cheese to make a point we modern readers can’t quite understand like the
“rotten old ecclesiastical cheese”
mentioned in David Copperfield.
But perhaps the most memorable cheese quote is a quick line from Dicken’s literary classic, A Christmas Carol,
“‘Because,’ said Scrooge, ‘a little thing affects them. A slight disorder of the stomach makes them cheats. You may be an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato. There’s more of gravy than of grave about you, whatever you are!’”
Sometimes Dickens wrote about real-world cheeses, a few of which he discovered during his travels throughout Europe and further abroad. One such cheese appears in his novel Little Dorrit. Set in a debtors’ prison, this novel explores the complex rift between the prison detainees, who come from very different social spheres. The prison warden explains that,
“‘You get husky bread and sour drink by it; and he gets sausage of Lyons, veal in savory jelly, white bread, strachino cheese, and good wine by it.’”
Despite being locked away in a debtor’s prison, the socially connected prisoner stays well-fed thanks to his friends who bring him all the luxuries of an elite table including imported meats, condiments, baked goods, and, most importantly, fancy strachino cheese. This term is a generic name for several soft, strong cow’s milk cheeses pastured in various Alpine regions such as Lombardy, Piedmont, and Veneto.
In other works, Dickens refers to other popular cheeses of the time, such as Dutch cheese – a small, skim milk cheese made on the Continent – and traditional English Cheshire – a hard, crumbly cheese with a yellowish hue and one of the oldest cheeses in British history.
A veritable wordsmith, Dickens could use the mere concept of cheese to illustrate a point about a place or character. For example, in his novel Dombey and Son, Dickens uses cheese to describe the character of Major Joseph Bagstock, a self-possessed retired army major,
“with his complexion like a Stilton cheese, and his eyes like a prawn’s.”
While Stilton – a traditional veiny blue cheese from the counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, and Nottinghamshire – is delightfully delicious, being compared to a wedge of it is never good thing. In his more famous novel, Bleak House, Dickens similarly compares the character of Sir Leicester Dedlock, another old crotchety aristocrat, to cheese…
“The sea has no appreciation of great men, but knocks them about like the small fry. It is habitually hard upon Sir Leicester, whose countenance it greenly mottles in the manner of sage-cheese, and in whose aristocratic system it effects a dismal revolution.”
In this particular insult, Dickens probably refers to Sage Derby, a semi-firm cheese with a mottled green color and herbal sage flavor. The deep green hue is achieved by mixing sage leaves into the fresh curd before pressing and aging. Again, not a compliment.
So the moral of the story (a consistent feature of any Dickens plot) is to stay on Dickens’ good side, or else he’ll compare your features to some moldy cheese. At least he made good use of all those delicious English cheeses. | <urn:uuid:47d4f61d-3089-44b1-b10a-d63742814d8c> | {
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U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis
|Download Full Country Analysis BriefLast Updated: Jul. 24, 2012|
|Argentina is a significant South American oil and natural gas producer, but in recent years its production has been in decline while energy demand has grown robustly.||
Argentina is South America's largest natural gas producer and a significant producer of oil. However, the heavily regulated energy sector includes policies that limit the industry's attractiveness to private investors while shielding consumers from rising prices. Consequently, demand for energy in Argentina's rapidly growing economy continues to rise while production of both oil and gas are in decline – leading Argentina to depend increasingly upon energy imports.
Argentina consumed an estimated 3.3 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) of energy in 2009, just shy of the 3.5 quadrillion Btu of total energy produced. Natural gas – used widely in the electricity, industrial, and residential sectors, and increasingly in transportation – comprises approximately one-half of Argentina's total energy consumption. Much of the remainder of total energy demand is met by oil, which is a dominant fuel in the transportation sector. Smaller shares of the country's total energy consumption are attributable to nuclear, coal, hydropower, and other renewable resources that are used for electricity generation, and biofuels for transportation.
Argentina's dispute of the United Kingdom's claim to the nearby Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) is relevant to the energy sector, as oil and gas exploration has recently occurred there notwithstanding the Argentine government's objections. Yet despite multiple test wells and high hopes about the Falkland's offshore potential, only one company has thus far discovered a field that is likely to be commercially viable.
|Oil and Other Liquids|
|Despite stagnant production and rising consumption, Argentina remains a net exporter of oil.||
Argentina is largely self-sufficient in crude oil, but imports oil products. Relatively low levels of exploration activity, combined with natural declines from maturing fields, explain the gradual erosion of oil production from its peak in 1998.
Labor unrest has periodically shut-in Argentina's oil production, with concomitant impacts on exports, refinery runs, and local product supply. Separate disruptions affecting up to 100,000 barrels of output per day (bbl/d) plagued the sector in late 2010 and early 2011. The most recent disruption occurred in the Cerro Dragón oil field, which produces about 95,000 bbl/d, or roughly 15 percent of Argentina's total output. Production was significantly curbed at the field in late June when workers went on strike and blocked road access to the field. Negotiations between the field's operator, Pan American Energy (PAE), and labor representatives have reduced tensions and output at the field began to slowly ramp up in July 2012.Sector Organization
Argentina's provinces have ownership and control over the development of onshore hydrocarbons. Energía Argentina Sociedad Anónima (ENARSA), the state energy company since 2004, is responsible for concessions relating to new offshore resources. Federal regulatory oversight of the oil sector is directed by the Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios (Ministry of Federal Planning, Public Investment, and Services) and its Secretaría de Energía (Energy Secretariat).
The fiscal terms for Argentine oil exploration include a tax on profits of 35 percent and a 12 percent royalty on the value of oil production, but this can vary by province according to contracts with operators. In order to ensure that domestic demand is met, oil is subject to export taxes and restrictions on export volumes, which limit the profits that companies are able to generate from selling Argentine production abroad. The Petroleum Plus program aims to entice exploration and production by entitling firms to sell output from new and unconventional fields above prevailing prices.
Argentine fuel prices are not routinely set by the government, but some subsidies exist and the government occasionally intervenes to control inflation.Major Companies
In early May 2012, the Argentine government passed legislation confirming the expropriation of the YPF oil and gas firm. The Spanish firm Repsol had majority ownership of YPF since 1999, about six years after YPF was privatized. The recent expropriation affected only Repsol's 51 percent share of the company. The government alleged that Repsol was under investing in the country's hydrocarbon sector, which the government believed contributed to the decline in the country's total oil production. Prior to the expropriation, some provinces had rescinded exploration and production licenses from YPF claiming underinvestment as well. Many provinces, through the organization OFEPHI, the federal organization of hydrocarbon-producing provinces, have increased pressure on oil companies this year to increase output volumes.
YPF is the largest oil producer in the country, and prior to the license cancellations, it accounted for one-third of the country's total output. It also holds significant interest in four refineries, and produces over 20 percent of the country's total natural gas output, making it the second largest natural gas producer. YPF's year-on-year production and income earnings fell in 2011, with net profits down by 8.5 percent in 2011. Repsol still maintains a 12 percent stake in YPF and has sought compensation for the stake seizure.
The second leading oil producer is Pan American Energy (PAE), which is owned by BP and the Bridas Corporation. The Bridas Corporation is a 50-50 joint venture between the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and Bridas Energy Holdings. PAE currently operates one of Argentina's largest oil fields, the Cerro Dragón field and in 2011 the company produced about 114,000 bbl/d or 20 percent of Argentina's daily oil output.
Aside from YPF and CNOOC, international oil companies that have had a significant presence in Argentina include Chevron (U.S.), Petrobras (Brazil), and Sinopec Group (China). In late 2010, Sinopec purchased Occidental's Argentine assets, which included 23 exploration and production blocks that collectively ranked Occidental among the country's five largest oil producers. Though the move marked Sinopec's first exposure to the country, it is consistent with a broader trend of increased Chinese involvement in South American energy interests.Reserves
According to Oil & Gas Journal (OGJ), Argentina had 2.5 billion barrels of proved oil reserves as of January 1, 2012. Argentine government data suggest that Golfo San Jorge Basin (predominantly Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces) claims over 60 percent of remaining proved reserves, followed by Neuquén Basin at 25 percent. PAE's Anticlinal Grande-Cerro Dragon concession in Golfo San Jorge contains almost 30 percent of the country's reserves.
Though most of the recent enthusiasm in Argentina regarding unconventional fossil fuel resources has centered on natural gas, last year YPF announced a large discovery of shale oil in the Loma La Lata field in the Neuquén province in the Vaca Muerta shale formation, the estimated size of which has increased to 741 million barrels of recoverable shale oil.Exploration and Production
EIA estimates that Argentina's total oil supply in 2011 was just below 750,000 bbl/d, of which roughly 588,000 bbl/d was crude oil and lease condensate, with the remainder comprised of natural gas liquids (NGLs), biofuels, and other liquids. The Neuquén and Golfo San Jorge basins comprise the vast majority of Argentine crude oil production, each accounting for slightly more than 40 percent of national output. Chubut (Golfo San Jorge basin) is the most prolific oil province, followed by Neuquén, Santa Cruz, and Mendoza.
The Argentine government launched an offshore exploration program that was undertaken by a consortium led by YPF, PAE, and Petrobras in Argentine waters near the Falkland Islands. However, as of yet, exploration has not yielded any commercial finds. In 2011, state energy company, ENARSA, cancelled plans to tender new deepwater offshore exploration contracts, claiming that market conditions were not conducive for successful exploration. Consequently, there has been little oil exploration offshore and new discoveries in the offshore San Jorge basin have been disappointing.
Diplomatic tensions between Argentina and the United Kingdom (UK) over ownership of the Falkland Islands, located in the South Atlantic Ocean, have escalated as UK companies commenced exploratory drilling in 2010, despite Argentine government objections. The islands are officially recognized as UK territory, but Argentina claims the area was historically under its sovereignty. Argentina has enforced restrictions on some companies pursuing oil activities in the Falkland Islands. Although there have not been any large oil discoveries yet, the offshore waters of the islands are believed to contain potential reserves of oil and natural gas.Exports
Argentina exported just over 60,000 bbl/d of crude oil in 2011, almost a 40 percent decline from the previous year due to increased domestic consumption and decreased production. The United States and Chile accounted for three-quarters of exports, followed by China and Brazil. Argentina's exports to the United States in 2011 included 28,000 bbl/d of crude oil and 4,000 bbl/d of petroleum products, according to EIA data.
Argentina claims ten refineries with a combined 630,575 bbl/d of crude refining capacity, according to OGJ, nearly half of which is controlled by YPF. The vast majority of capacity derives from just four refineries: YPF's refinery in La Plata (189,000 bbl/d), Shell's refinery in Buenos Aires (113,000 bbl/d), YPF's recently upgraded refinery in Lujan de Cuyo (106,000 bbl/d), and ExxonMobil's refinery in Campana (87,000 bbl/d).
Outputs from Argentina's refinery capacity do not satisfy all internal fuel demand. As a result, Argentina imports significant volumes of finished products – including an average of 42,000 bbl/d from the United States in 2011, which is more than double the amount imported the previous year.Biofuels
Argentina is among the world's largest producers of biodiesel, and the largest exporter. Its soybean-based biodiesel production reached almost 47,500 bbl/d in 2011, according to the Argentine government. Biodiesel production has dramatically increased over the past 5 years, including an increase of over 25 percent from 2010 to 2011. Exports increased by almost 20 percent to nearly 30,000 bbl/d in 2011.
The vast majority of Argentine biodiesel exports are sent to European markets and about half were traditionally sent to Spain. However, Spain recently passed legislation prohibiting the importation of biodiesel outside of the European Union (EU). Argentine exporters hope to redirect that portion to other European countries. Exports may also be affected by the rise in domestic biodiesel consumption, which grew rapidly in 2010 with the entry into force of a mandate that stipulates that diesel must be blended with 7-percent biodiesel by volume (B7). Nonetheless, biodiesel exports in the first quarter of 2012 rose by almost 30 percent compared to the same time period last year, according to statistics published by CARBIO, the Argentine Biofuels Association.
Bioethanol production reached an average of 368 tons per day (2,600 bbl/d) in 2011 and is expected to rise as more investment into the industry will bring online new additional plants in 2013. Currently, bioethanol is produced by the local sugar industry, but the two new plants expected to begin production next year will be grain-fed. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) projects that production will reach nearly 7,000 bbl/d of bioethanol next year with capacity increasing to over 12,000 bbl/d with the start of the new plants.
|Argentina is the largest producer and consumer of natural gas in South America, and has a globally significant unconventional resource base.||Overview
Argentina produces more natural gas than any other country in mainland South America, but its output has declined over 10 percent from peak levels in 2006. It is also the continent's largest natural gas consumer. Though once a net exporter of natural gas to neighboring countries, Argentina became a net importer in 2008. Recent assessments suggest that Argentina possesses one of the world's largest endowments of shale gas, which has become a focus of efforts to reverse the sector's recent decline.
Slightly less than one-third of natural gas consumed in Argentina is used to generate electricity at thermoelectric power plants, while industry and the residential sector each account for 28 and 24 percent of Argentina's natural gas demand, respectively. About 7 percent of natural gas consumption is also used in the transportation sector, as roughly 1.9 million of Argentina's vehicles operate on compressed natural gas.
Argentina has suffered severe wintertime shortages of natural gas – reportedly of up to 40 percent of demand at prevailing prices – that have adversely impacted industrial users whose supplies were interrupted or diverted to satisfy basic residential needs. Seasonal shortages of natural gas also plague some summer months, as electricity demand soars with high temperatures. To avert similar problems in the future, the state energy company has taken steps to import greater volumes of liquefied natural gas (LNG).Sector Organization
The Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios (Ministry of Federal Planning, Public Investment, and Services) includes two relevant natural gas market institutions: the Ente Nacional Regulador de Gas (ENARGAS) and Secretaría de Energía (Energy Secretariat). The Secretaría de Energía oversees the relatively deregulated upstream production sector, while ENARGAS regulates the more tightly controlled natural gas transportation and distribution activities.
Price controls, which were imposed in 2001 to combat inflation and aid consumers during the economic crisis, remain in place and cause natural gas to be relatively inexpensive by regional standards. Industry analysts argue that frozen prices for natural gas have deterred investment and production, stimulated consumption, and driven the country to rely on greater volumes of imports.
In order to leverage Argentina's promising unconventional natural gas resources and revitalize domestic production, the government instituted the Gas Plus program that entitles companies to sell natural gas from new or unconventional fields at higher prices. Projects that were recently approved under the Gas Plus program will reportedly be allowed to charge around $5 per million Btu (MMBtu) for their production, roughly double the national average price.Major Companies
Total, through its presence in Argentina as Total Austral, is the country's largest natural gas producer. Together, Total and the second-largest producer, YPF, produce about one-half of Argentina's natural gas. Other significant players include Pan American Energy, Petrobras (Brazil), Pluspetrol (Argentina), Tecpetrol (Argentina), and Apache Energy (U.S.).Reserves
OGJestimates that Argentina had proved natural gas reserves of 13.4 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) as of January 1, 2012, a decline of approximately 50 percent from reserve levels of a decade ago. Almost three-quarters of proven reserves are in the Neuquén basin (42 percent) and Austral basin (30 percent), with the remainder in the Noroeste (Northwest), Golfo San Jorge, and Cuyana basins.
According to recent analysis by EIA and Advanced Resources International, Argentina has 774 Tcf of technically recoverable shale gas resources – the world's third largest assessed endowment, behind only China and the United States. The Neuquén Basin in western Argentina contains more than half of the country's technically recoverable shale gas resources.
Shale Gas Basins in Southern South America
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, “World Shale Gas Resources: An Initial Assessment of 14 Regions Outside the United States,” March 2011.
Last year YPF announced the discovery of a large formation of commercially promising tight gas and shale gas – thought to total 4.5 Tcf – in the vicinity of Neuquén's Loma La Lata field, which for decades has been a leading source of conventional production.Exploration and Production
Argentina produced about 1.4 Tcf of dry natural gas in 2011, or approximately 4 billion cubic feet per day (Bcf/d). Roughly half of Argentina's conventional natural gas production derives from the Neuquén province. An even greater share of Argentina's natural gas production derives from the Neuquén basin, which also encompasses parts of the Mendoza, Rio Negro, and La Pampa provinces. Neuquén includes the country's most prolific natural gas field, Loma La Lata, operated by YPF.
Roughly 13 percent of Argentina's 2011 natural gas production was from offshore resources, which mostly entailed the Cuenca Marina Austral 1 concession that is operated by Total, with the remainder from concessions operated by Sipetrol Argentina, a subsidiary of Chile's national oil company ENAP Sipetrol. All offshore natural gas production derives from the Austral-Magallanes Basin in the country's extreme south, which includes federal waters off of the provinces of Tierra del Fuego and Santa Cruz.
Dozens of projects to exploit Argentina's unconventional tight sand and shale gas resources – most of them in Neuquén – are under review or development. Many firms, including ExxonMobil, Apache, Pluspetrol, Total, and YPF, are attempting to take advantage of the more attractive fiscal terms offered by the government for unconventional projects. According to some sources, Argentina already produces over 230 million cubic feet of unconventional natural gas per day (MMcf/d), or about 5 percent of total production.Pipelines
According to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Argentina has 18,269 miles of natural gas pipelines. Transportadora de Gas del Sur (TGS), the leading natural gas transportation company, claims to operate the most extensive pipeline system in Latin America. Its predominant pipelines are Neuba I, Neuba II, and San Martin, which connect producing provinces in the Neuquén, San Jorge, and Austral basins with Buenos Aires and other demand centers. The other primary natural gas transportation company is Transportadora de Gas del Norte (TGN).
The Argentine government recently opened bidding on the ambitious and long-contemplated Gasoducto del Noreste Argentino (GNEA). The stated purpose of GNEA is to connect Argentina's remote northeastern provinces, which are currently reliant on more expensive liquid fuels, to the domestic natural gas grid and serve them with the larger volumes of gas that Bolivia has pledged for future years.Bolivia → Argentina
Argentina imports natural gas through pipelines that originate in Bolivia. The YABOG pipeline, which runs from Río Grande, Bolivia to Salta, Argentina, was completed in 1972 with a capacity of 200 MMcf/d. Argentina and Bolivia inaugurated another cross-border pipeline, known as the Juana Azurduy Integration Pipeline, at the end of June 2011.Argentina → Chile
Argentina and Chile pursued various natural gas pipeline projects in the 1990s as Chile sought to diversify its energy supply and both countries attempted to strengthen their bilateral relationship through more extensive political and economic ties. The GasAndes pipeline, which traverses the mountainous terrain between Mendoza province and the Chilean capital of Santiago, was commissioned in 1997. It was followed by the Gasoducto del Pacífico between Neuquén and the Concepción area of Chile; the NorAndino and GasAtacama pipelines on the countries' extreme northern border; and three pipelines in the south to supply methanol plants in Chile.Argentina → Brazil
The Transportadora de Gas del Mercosur pipeline connects with the TGN network to deliver natural gas from Paraná to a power plant in Uruguayana, Brazil. There is also a proposal to expand the pipeline onwards to Porto Alegre in Brazil.Argentina → Uruguay
The Gasoducto Cruz del Sur consortium operates the Buenos Aires-Montevideo natural gas pipeline, which has been in operation since 2002 under a 30-year concession. A smaller pipeline connects Colón, Argentina and Paysandú, Uruguay.Imports
Bolivia is the source of virtually all of Argentina's natural gas imports via pipeline. A contract between Bolivia's national oil company and ENARSA extends through 2026 and stipulates a current trade volume of 7.7 million cubic meters of natural gas per day (272 MMcf/d), which is up from 5 million cubic meters per day (177 MMcf/d) in 2010 and due to grow to 27.7 million cubic meters per day (nearly 1 Bcf/d) by 2017.Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
Argentina imported 21 LNG cargoes, or almost 1.1 million tons (50 Bcf of natural gas), of LNG in 2010. Trinidad and Tobago accounted for nearly 90 percent of those imports, with the remainder arriving from Qatar. Argentine government tenders suggest that LNG import volumes most likely doubled in 2011.
ENARSA has contracted with YPF to develop and execute a LNG strategy. Argentina began importing LNG in 2008 with the installation of the Bahía Blanca GasPort, a dockside receiving terminal and regasification vessel that uses proprietary technology from Excelerate Energy. In June 2011, a second and larger Excelerate Energy floating storage and regasification vessel, also financed by YPF and ENARSA, was inaugurated in Escobar (GNL Escobar) with baseload and peak throughput capacities of 500 and 600 MMcf/d, respectively.
Argentina is pursuing bilateral arrangements to secure greater and more predictable supplies of LNG. Argentina and Uruguay plan to jointly issue a tender for construction of a floating LNG terminal to be located near Montevideo, the supplies from which the two countries would share equally. ENARSA is also developing a regasification project through a partnership with PDVSA, the state oil company of Venezuela. Finally, Argentina and Qatar have signed an agreement to study the desirability of constructing a third LNG terminal that would be supplied with 5.4 million tons of Qatari LNG per year (720 MMcf/d of natural gas).Exports
Though Argentina is a net importer of natural gas, it continues to export natural gas to its neighbors – largely Chile and, to a lesser extent, Uruguay. However, Argentina's reliability as a regional natural gas exporter has occasionally been undermined by supply interruptions during periods of domestic shortages. Exports of dry natural gas have dramatically fallen from its peak of 274 Bcf in 2004 to 15 Bcf in 2010.
|Argentina is the second-largest consumer of electricity in South America, after Brazil.||Overview
Argentina generated 121,216 gigawatts per hour (GWh) from installed power sources in 2011, up from 115,735 GWh in 2010, according to CAMMESA (Compañía Administradora del Mercado Mayorista Eléctrico), the country's administrator of the wholesale electricity market. Two-thirds of Argentina's electricity generation was from conventional thermal plants that primarily burn natural gas. Argentina maintains transmission interconnections and trade in electricity with Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The country imported 2,412 GWh of power from neighboring countries in 2011, slightly more than the 2,351GWh imported in 2010. Argentina's power exports have significantly declined in recent years; dropping from 1,292 GWh in 2009 to 359 GWh in 2010 and 265 GWh in 2011, as domestic demand for electricity has increased.
Argentina has two nuclear power plants in operation and another near completion, all of which are or will be operated by Nucleoeléctrica Argentina S.A. Argentina's first nuclear power plant, Atucha I, was commissioned in 1974 in the province of Buenos Aires. It has an electric generation capacity of 370 megawatts (MW). A larger and newer plant, Embalse, is located in Córdoba with a net capacity of 650 MW. According to CAMMESA, 5,892 GWh of nuclear power was generated in Argentina in 2011. Argentina's newest nuclear plant, Atucha II, is currently under construction and is scheduled to be completed sometime in 2012. It will be the country's largest nuclear power plant at a net capacity of 692 MW. The agency that is responsible for research, development, promotion, and control of nuclear energy in Argentina is Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica.Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity is an important component of Argentina's power profile. Though hydroelectric output fluctuates and has often declined in recent years, it is typically responsible for between one-quarter and one-third of Argentina's total electricity generation. Argentina's most significant hydroelectric capacity exists in Neuquén, followed by border provinces that share hydroelectric output with surrounding countries. Argentina and Paraguay divide power from the large Yacyreta plant, which sits astride the Paraná River (Corrientes province) with a total installed capacity of 3.1 GW. Likewise, the Salto Grande hydroelectric plant on the Uruguay River (along Entre Ríos province) has a capacity of 1.89 GW, from which output is split evenly between Argentina and Uruguay. In 2011, total hydroelectric generation was 39,339 GWh, according to CAMMESA.Other Renewables
The Argentine government is actively supporting the deployment of non-hydro renewable sources of electricity, including through a feed-in tariff for qualifying technologies, a mandatory connection policy that obligates utilities to purchase wind-generated electricity, and an 8-percent Renewable Portfolio Standard by 2016.
Patagonia, a remote region that encompasses southern Argentina and Chile, has been assessed as one of the world's most promising corridors for wind power development. The distance between Patagonia and significant load centers is one impediment to harnessing commercially its wind potential. However, the government is attempting to reduce transmission costs by connecting Patagonia to the national grid. Several turbines have been installed in the area to serve local electricity demand. EIA estimates that wind electricity net generation in the country peaked at 0.071 billion kWh in 2005 and gradually decreased to 0.040 billion kWh in 2010.Sector Organization
The Ente Nacional Regulador de la Electricidad (ENRE) regulates Argentina's electricity sector and sets its tariffs, while the Consejo Federal de la Energía Eléctrica acts as an advisory and investment body under the broader authority of the Secretaría de Energía. CAMMESA manages the wholesale power market.
Electricity is generated by dozens of private and state-owned companies in a relatively liberalized marketplace, while the transporters and distributors of electricity are heavily regulated as natural monopolies. Transener is the owner of the largest transmission network, while three companies – Edenor, Edesur, and Edelap – dominate the electricity distribution sector. The electricity industry is characterized by vertically integrated firms, of which Pampa Energía is the largest due to its ownership or co-control over generation assets, the Transener transmission network, and the Edenor distribution utility.
| Associated Press
Baker Institute/Stanford PESD Geopolitics of Natural Gas Study
Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica
Compañía Administradora del Mercado Mayorista Eléctrico Sociedad Anónima
Consejo Federal de la Energía Eléctrica
Energía Argentina Sociedad Anónima
Emprendimientos Energéticos Binacionales Sociedad Anónima
Energy Intelligence Group
Ente Nacional Regulador de Electricidad
Ente Nacional Regulador de Gas
Global Insight, IHS
Global Trade Information Services
International Energy Agency
International Monetary Fund
Latin America Oil and Gas Monitor ( LatAmOil )
Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversion Publica y Servicios
Organización Latinoamerica de Energía (OLADE)
Pan American Energy
Secretaría de Energía
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency
U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S. Department of Commerce
U.S. Department of State
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Chinese paper lanterns are a really great craft for cutting, measuring and ruler practice. I think my son got the idea from the Treehouse website, but I’m not 100% sure. I just know that he came and asked me if we could make paper lanterns after playing some games on treehouse.com. I didn’t know exactly what he was talking about, so I googled something about paper lanterns and found this site.
What you need:
- construction paper
- scotch tape
How we made them:
- Cut a 1 ” strip from a long side of your piece of construction paper. This will be used for the handle.
- Fold your paper in half, long sides together.
- Draw a line about 1.5 inches from the long sides that you have just folded together.
- Draw lines about 1 inch apart from the folded edge of the paper down to the line that you drew in step 3 (see picture above for visual).
- Cut along the vertical lines that you just drew being sure to stop at the line drawn in step 3.
- Unfold your paper.*
- Tape the two short ends together and tape the handle to the top.
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About Acupuncture: Quick Answers to Common Questions
What is Acupuncture?
Acupuncture is the most well-known component of a system of medicine that has been practiced in China for thousands of years. Treatments involve the insertion of a number of stainless-steel sterile needles on specific points of the body to improve and maintain health. An Acupuncturist is trained to be able to determine which Acupuncture points in combination will bring about the best result for a patient.
The goal of treatment is to bring the body to an optimal state of functioning by engaging its natural healing response to reverse the progression of disease, or to prevent disease from occurring. Acupuncture is safe, effective, and deeply relaxing for most people. Further, the Western medical establishment is increasingly acknowledging the validity of this ancient healing method for a variety of conditions.
How does Acupuncture work?
From a Chinese medical perspective, acupuncture works by stimulating a patient's Qi (life force), to flow more freely, thereby balancing and adjusting any disharmony that exists within the body, mind, and spirit of the patient. From a western perspective, exactly how acupuncture works is not fully understood. However, some theories suggest acupuncture stimulates endorphins--the same chemical that results in a feeling of elation after vigorous exercise. Many practitioners feel that acupuncture stimulates endorphins—the same chemical that results in runner’s high, or that feeling of elation after vigorous exercise. Others theories include that an increase in blood flow occurs in areas that are treated. Recent research suggests that treatments calm areas of the brain that register pain and activate those that are involved in rest and recuperation. Thermal imaging has shown that acupuncture can reduce inflammation.
What can Acupuncture do for me?
Acupuncture is a comprehensive medical system and can address just about any illness. First of all, acupuncture can offer significant stress reduction benefits—it can make you feel more rested, more relaxed, more “in your body.” In fact, the deep relaxation that often accompanies an acupuncture treatment is the environment which allows the body to “reset” itself. This deep relaxed state is similar in some respects to the rest period taken at the end of a yoga class. Since stress is acknowledged to be a major factor in many illnesses, a wide range of symptoms can be diminished through a course of acupuncture treatments.
Currently, the World Health Organization lists 106 conditions that it feels are appropriate for acupuncture treatment. For instance, research from leading institutions such as the National Institute clearly shows that acupuncture is effective for many types of pain. Its anti-inflammatory effects makes it suitable for addressing symptoms associated with seasonal allergies and some auto-immune disorders. And studies also confirm its use for post-operative, pregnancy-related, and chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting. (For a more complete list of conditions, please see the Services Offered and Conditions Treated page on this site.)
What if I am afraid of needles?
The majority of people have some degree of needle sensitivity. Having been in practice since 1997 –I have developed a very careful, easy approach to needling seeking to minimize discomfort. I use thin, stainless-steel, disposable needles and I take great care in my approach. I also use as few needles as possible, since I operate on the belief that in many cases “less is more.” My use of MPT (micro-current) as an adjunct to acupuncture treatments also minimizes the number of needles, the intensity of the needling, as well as needle retention time.
If you are highly averse to needles, you may want to consider MPT as a needle-free alternative to Acupuncture. (For more information on MPT, please see the About MPT page on this site.)
How many acupuncture treatments will I need?
It really depends on your specific condition and case. But it’s important to note that one of the key strengths of acupuncture is its preventative capabilities. Often a slight pain or restriction in an area of the body is a precursor of a more significant problem. By coming in for treatments before there is a serious problem, you may avoid a more involved treatment regimen. In fact, many patients come to me simply to feel better and keep their bodies balanced. | <urn:uuid:5ba84552-38ba-4835-a658-b0b840bfc0e1> | {
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Atrial fibrillation is a condition that causes a
rapid and irregular heartbeat. The normal heart rate lies between 60 and 100 beats per minute.
Many suspect Van Gogh suffered from foxglove extract overdose due to the yellow halos in his paintings and his portrait of his physician holding the plant.
The risk of developing an irregular heartbeat was 41% higher among those who were grieving a partner's loss than among those who hadn't experienced such loss. And this could last up to a year. | <urn:uuid:007ab289-0d42-44a4-abf8-dca53609e5d5> | {
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The proposed design for the “Hyperloop,” an ultra-fast transit system that would run between San Francisco and Los Angeles, was revealed today in a 56-page PDF document on Elon Musk’s Tesla Motors website. Musk, the founder of SpaceX and Tesla Motors, describes a system that moves pods under low pressure through a tube between the two cities following the I-5 freeway.
The Hyperloop would consist of aluminum pods inside a set of two steel tubes, one for each direction of travel and connected at each terminus. The tubes would be positioned on top of pylons spaced 100 feet apart holding the tube 20 feet in the air, and the tube would be covered by solar arrays to generate its own power.
Inside the tubes, the pods would carry people at speeds of up to 760 miles per hour. The pods would each carry 28 passengers and depart every two minutes from either location (or every 30 seconds at peak times). So each pod would have about 23 miles between one another while traversing the tube. The transport capacity would therefore be about 840 passengers per hour.
The capsules’ speed would rely in large part on a low-pressure environment, about “1/6 that of the pressure of the atmosphere on Mars” or a fraction of a percent of that on Earth, maintained by vacuum pumps. This would reduce drag by 1,000 times, the document says.
The tubes would not use a “hard vacuum” because they are “expensive and difficult to maintain compared with low pressure solutions.” A pneumatic tube is fine for your bank, but it does not make an attainable, sophisticated transport solution.
The passenger capsules would be 4.43 feet at their widest point and 6.11 feet at their tallest. They would each weigh about 7,700 pounds and cost $275,000 to make ($1.35 million including all the onboard equipment, mechanical parts, and support systems). Musk envisions the passengers sitting in reclined chairs in rows of two with their feet elevated, as if relaxing in a chaise longue.
Each of the pods would have 28 attached “air bearing” skis that would “[float] on a pressurized cushion of air” a fraction of an inch away from the surface of the tube. The skis would be lifted off the surface by injecting air into the gap, a method that the document says is effective either when the capsules are stationary or moving very fast.
Inlets on the two noses of the capsules would serve as air intake sources, reducing the “choking flow” of air around the capsule as it moves through the tube. Removing air in the tube would not only smooth the capsule’s journey, it would feed the skis that the capsule needs to skate along on.
The air from the inlets would be processed by a compressor and then stored in a reservoir onboard the capsule. The capsule would then eject this air through grooves on the bottom of the skis, generating enough lift to support it that fraction of an inch away from the surface.
As for actually moving the capsules, acceleration in an environment like this is a huge concern. While human beings don’t care that much about being transported at supersonic speeds in enclosed environments, how they arrive at those speeds can be a huge problem. Generally, more than an extra g of force is extremely uncomfortable. So the design here takes care not to accelerate people too quickly.
The Hyperloop's capsules would be propelled by linear induction motors spaced throughout the tube. Magnets on the tube’s internal surface would function as the stator, with an electric current supplied to them to generate a magnetic field. Magnets on the capsule would function as the rotor, spurred on by those in the tube. Those accelerators would also have two inverters that would push outgoing capsules along while capturing energy from incoming capsules that are slowing down (while there is one tube for each direction of travel, this means the directions for either could be reversed).
The capsules would travel at a “relatively low speed” between 0 and 300 miles per hour while entering and exiting urban areas and maintain at about 300 mph while crossing mountainous areas. Once they reach the flatter I-5 stretch, they could be sped up by the linear accelerators to up to 760 mph to coast at roughly that speed for the bulk of the journey.
The document points out that a Hyperloop tube covered in solar arrays could generate about 52MW of power, a vast amount more than the estimated 6MW that would be needed to operate the Hyperloop itself.
Musk addresses some of the disaster scenarios that the Hyperloop tube might encounter. Since the Hyperloop capsules spend the most time coasting, the proposal states that they don’t need much power to travel, but everything needing power would be supplemented by lithium ion batteries. If a capsule depressurized, the control system would use the onboard pressurized air to maintain the environment until the capsule reached its destination. Worst case, oxygen masks would drop for the passengers.
The proposal states that it would be hard for a capsule to become stranded within the tube given that it spends most of its time coasting at a high speed (“no propulsion required for more than 90 percent of the journey). If a capsule was truly rendered immobile by its normal means of travel, however, it would use “small onboard electric motors” to power “deployed wheels” so the cabin could roll itself to safety.
It’s difficult not to imagine a partial loss of sanity among passengers who, thinking they’re in for a half-hour journey, suddenly find themselves taking 10 times as long to get there. Hopefully it wouldn’t be a frequent occurrence. The document makes special note that all capsules would be supplied with enough air to support the passengers even for this failure scenario of a suddenly-normal-length trip.
The alpha proposal still pegs the cost at $6 billion: $54 million to construct the 40 passenger capsules and $5.41 billion for the tube and propulsion system construction.
Even more ambitiously, the Hyperloop document suggests that not only people could benefit from a transportation upgrade. A “cargo capsule” system that could also transport vehicles would cost another $30.5 million for 20 capsules, plus another $1.5 billion for a more robust tube system—a total of $7.5 billion. But in this kind of futuristic world, who’s going to need cars anymore? | <urn:uuid:8b9d9f49-e4a5-4a5e-9714-f06390679242> | {
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Grade 11 Physics University Preparation SPH3U Course Outline
Department: Science | Course Developer: Canada Online School | Credit value: 1.0 | Credit Hours: 110
Development Date: April 2018 | Revision Date: N/A
Ministry Document: Science, The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12, 2008
This course develops students’ understanding of the basic concepts of physics. Students will explore kinematics, with an emphasis on linear motion; different kinds of forces; energy transformations; the properties of mechanical waves and sound; and electricity and magnetism. They will enhance their scientific investigation skills as they test laws of physics. In addition, they will analyse the interrelationships between physics and technology, and consider the impact of technological applications of physics on society and the environment.
|Unit Title||Expected Hours||Final Grade Weighting|
|Kinematics||20||70% – Grades and the curriculum strands evaluated are cumulative across the entire term. Specific mark weightings may sometimes be adjusted at teacher’s discretion to better reflect cumulative learning. Learning must be achieved and then retained.|
|Energy and Society||23|
|Waves and Sound||22|
|Electricity and Magnetism||22|
|Final Assessment||3||30% – An exam which covers all course learning.|
Teaching & Learning Strategies
Students will explore scientific concepts through theoretical frameworks and follow specific examples. They will practice abstract physics questions and solve complex problems that require the use of these concepts or apply the theory to a real-world scenario. They will complete exercises and review against correct solutions. They will do simulations and lab activities to enhance their understanding. They will do assignments, quizzes, and tests.
Textbooks and other required resources
- Nelson Physics 11 ISBN: 9780176510374 (Provided by COS)
- A non-programmable scientific calculator
- An Internet connection and a device with basic web browsing capabilities (see System Requirements in Course Calendar)
Assessment & Evaluation
Assessment & evaluation is based on the Ministry of Education’s Growing Success (click to access) guidelines. Students are evaluated on:
|Four Achievement Categories
· Knowledge & Understanding (KU)
· Thinking & Inquiry (TI)
· Communication (C)
· Application (A)
These are incorporated in every assessment as part of each curriculum strand.
| Curriculum Strands
· Scientific Investigation Skills and Career Exploration
· Energy and Society
· Waves and Sound
· Electricity and Magnetism
These are the areas of learning that students will be evaluated against Ontario curriculum standards.
|Six Learning Skills/Work Habits
· Independent Work
These are assessed and reported separately from curriculum expectations.
Strands and Overall Expectations
Scientific Investigation Skills and Career Exploration
- demonstrate scientific investigation skills (related to both inquiry and research) in the four areas of skills (initiating and planning, performing and recording, analysing and interpreting, and communicating);
- identify and describe a variety of careers related to the fields of science under study, and identify scientists, including Canadians, who have made contributions to those fields.
- analyse technologies that apply concepts related to kinematics, and assess the technologies’ social and environmental impact;
- investigate, in qualitative and quantitative terms, uniform and non-uniform linear motion, and solve related problems;
- demonstrate an understanding of uniform and non-uniform linear motion, in one and two dimensions.
- analyse and propose improvements to technologies that apply concepts related to dynamics and Newton’s laws, and assess the technologies’ social and environmental impact;
- investigate, in qualitative and quantitative terms, net force, acceleration, and mass, and solve related problems;
- demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between changes in velocity and unbalanced forces in one dimension.
Energy and Society
- analyse technologies that apply principles of and concepts related to energy transformations, and assess the technologies’ social and environmental impact;
- investigate energy transformations and the law of conservation of energy, and solve related problems;
- demonstrate an understanding of work, efficiency, power, gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, nuclear energy, and thermal energy and its transfer (heat).
Waves and Sound
- analyse how mechanical waves and sound affect technology, structures, society, and the environment, and assess ways of reducing their negative effects;
- investigate, in qualitative and quantitative terms, the properties of mechanical waves and sound, and solve related problems;
- demonstrate an understanding of the properties of mechanical waves and sound and of the principles underlying their production, transmission, interaction, and reception.
Electricity and Magnetism
- analyse the social, economic, and environmental impact of electrical energy production and technologies related to electromagnetism, and propose ways to improve the sustainability of electrical energy production;
- investigate, in qualitative and quantitative terms, magnetic fields and electric circuits, and solve related problems;
- demonstrate an understanding of the properties of magnetic fields, the principles of current and electron flow, and the operation of selected technologies that use these properties and principles to produce and transmit electrical energy.
Special Program Planning Considerations
COS develops its programs with consideration for Ontario Ministry of Education policies and initiatives. Many areas of special consideration are embedded naturally within course content. These include but are not limited to the following:
- Students with special education needs: Our courses and teachers will strive to equitably accommodate exceptional students with support and/or modified expectations they may need as per their Individual Education Plan (IEP). The modified expectations or support may take the form of altered assignments, differently formatted tests/exams, the use of special technological tools, etc. Special education accommodations are only implemented to provide fair treatment to students who have a demonstrated and documented need.
- English language learners: COS has strategies in place to support students who are learning English as a second language. Teachers are made aware which students are in or were in ESL programs and will make appropriate accommodations or provide resources to help them gain more proficiency.
- Environmental protection: Whenever possible, issues in environmental protection are highlighted, provided as extra interest topics, or used as examples during courses.
- Healthy Relationships: Every student is entitled to a safe environment based on mutual respect. Our courses use online discussions, case studies, role play, etc, to encourage cooperation and constructive comments. Students also learn about building healthy relationships through course content that highlights inclusive values.
- Equity and inclusive education: Diversity is valued at COS and we encourage students to share their unique life experiences and perspective while respecting others’ different values or viewpoints. Learning activities and the curriculum reflect the multicultural nature of Canada and the importance of equitable and inclusive treatment of all others.
- Financial literacy: Students must learn to make informed financial decisions and understand economic forces to be effective members of society. COS and the Ministry are working to embed financial literacy skills and knowledge in courses as appropriate.
- Critical thinking, literacy, numeracy and inquiry: Literacy is more than reading and writing. Its definition is constantly evolving and by today’s standard increasingly needs more sophisticated skills. It is the entire set of skills that allow a person to critically comprehend, analyze, generate and process information in all its forms, and then communicate it meaningfully to others. Every subject is responsible for enhancing students’ literacy, including mathematical literacy (numeracy). Students learn to inquiry deeply and think critically at all times, use relevant terminology, and conduct their own research. They will form opinions backed by logical evidence, detect bias, uncover implied meanings, and take big picture perspectives. With numeracy, students learn to not only perform mathematical operations but also understand their significance, application, and hidden biases.
- School library: A library provides access to resources and also allows students to develop skills in research. COS does not have a library in the conventional sense but we do provide information to students on how to access information they need, find useful texts or other media, and use electronic tools of research. In general, this information is made publicly available through our website.
- Information and communications technology (ICT): By use the COS online learning platform, students will naturally develop transferable skills relating to ICT. Students will learn to use various electronic tools to communicate, cooperate, and conduct research. Students will also be made aware of pitfalls and potential abuse in using the Internet or other electronic tools.
- The Ontario Skills Passport: This is a free bilingual web-based resource to help students understand what are Essential Skills needed for success in school, work, and life. We encourage students to review their learning and see how they develop such skills. For more information, visit http://www.skills.edu.gov.on.ca.
- Education and career/life planning: As students progress through their courses, they will be provided opportunities to learn about future opportunities and how to make career choices. Teachers are available to guide students through their planning and COS provides resources for students to research these opportunities on their own, using the Individual Pathways Plan process.
- Cooperative education and experiential learning: COS does not have a co-op program but we recognize the value of experiential learning and will direct students to information regarding Ministry programs and opportunities when needed.
- Ethics: As part of the process of forming opinions and thinking critically, students will learn to develop their sense of ethics as it relates to both society and private decision making. As an academic institution, COS also requires students to understand ethical conduct in their academic work. Students learn about the consequences of plagiarism both dishonest and negligent, as well as the accepted conventions for citing the work of others properly. | <urn:uuid:198e1b6f-d1e2-4e7a-9150-2f7354407ef7> | {
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Platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β (PDGFR-β) inhibitors such as the anticancer drug imatinib (Gleevec) can prevent or reverse tolerance to morphine analgesia, scientists claim. A team at the University of Texas– MD Anderson Cancer Center has found that morphine-treated rats administered with a formulation of imatinib that crosses the blood brain barrier don’t become tolerant to the pain-relieving effects of morphine. When administered to already morphine-tolerant animals, the imatinib formulation also reversed morphine tolerance.
Describing their findings in Nature Medicine, Howard B Gutstein, Ph.D., and colleagues report that tolerance to morphine was associated with PDGF-β activation by the drug, and release of PDGF subunit B. Imatinib effectively blocked PDGF-β activation, and so prevented morphine tolerance from developing. The researchers claim that given the widespread use of PDGF-β inhibitors, clinical translation of their findings “could reduce the suffering endured by individuals with intractable pain.”
PDGFR is a receptor tyrosine kinase that plays a key role in modulating the function of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), which is known to have a mechanistic role in opioid tolerance. Unfortunately, studies evaluating NMDAR antagonists as an approach to blocking morphine tolerance either haven’t been effective in a clinical setting, or have exhibited neurotoxicity. Because the μ-opioid receptor (MOR) transactivates PDGFR-β and other receptor tyrosine kinases, the investigators tested whether blocking PDGFR-β might represent an alternative approach to preventing the development of opioid tolerance.
The tstarting point was the anticancer drug imatinib, which inhibits a number of tyroskine kinase enzymes, including PDGFR-β. The team reformulated the drug to improve its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Initial in vitro studies in MOR-transfected C6 glioma cells confirmed that morphione administration led to rapid PDGFR-β phosphorylation and activation, but didn’t induce PDGFR-α phosphorylation.
The investigators then treated experimental rats intrathecally with morphine, imatinib, or both drugs, and collected and analysed spinal cords 40 minutes later. Morphine was found to cause a 47% increase in PDGFR-β phosphorylation in substnatia gelitinosa tissue, which was blocked by treatment with imatinib. In vivo, imatinib itself had no analgesic properties, and treatment with the drug didn’t change the analgesic potency of morphine. However, when imatinib was administered alongside morphine, the drug prevented the development of morphine tolerance. These tolerance-blocking and tolerance reversing abilities held even at the highest tolerated dose of morphine, and whether imatinib was administered intrathecally or subcutaneously.
Starting imatinib treatment a few days after the initiation of morphine therapy also reversed established tolerance to morphine, while withdrawing imatinib therapy allowed morphine tolerance to re-emerge, “indicating that imatinib only temporarily reversed the processes that cause tolerance,” the team writes. Moreover, the ability of imatinib to block tolerance appeared specific to the opiod drug, and had no effect on preventing tolerance to clonidine.
Because imatinib acts at the level of other tyrosine kinases as well as PDGFR, the researchers needed to confirm that the drug’s effects on morphine tolerance were due to its inhibition of PDGFR-β specifically. To this end, animals were treated with either morphine alone, or with morphine plus a fusion construct comprising PDGFR-β and an antibody Fc portion (PDGFR-β–Fc) that scavenges the released PDGF subunit B (PDGF-B). Animals receiving morphine plus PDGFR-β–Fc similarly exhibited tolerance reversal, which supported the notion that “tolerance inhibition is PDGFR-β selective and is due to opioid-induced release of PDGF-B,” the investigators remark.
The possibility still existed that PDGF release might act to decrease morphine analgesia or basal response latencies, which would result in only an ‘apparent’ tolerance to the drug, the team continues. To test this possibility, they treated rats using either morphine, a PDGF subunit B homodimer (PDGF-BB), both morphine and PDGF-BB, or morphine, PDGF-BB and imatinib, or morphine and imatinib. Interestingly, analgesic responses were similar for rats receiving morphine alone or morphine and PDGF-BB, which suggested that PDGF-BB didn’t interfere with morphine analgesia or itself become antianalgesic over time. Moreover, PDGF-BB completely abolished tolerance inhibition by imatinib. In addition, rats given PDGF-BB for four days were tolerant a finding which that PDGFR-β activation could directly cause morphine tolerance, the authors note
“These findings could have profound clinical implications for the millions of people suffering from chronic intractable pain,” they conclude. “Given the widespread use of imatinib and morphine, it may seem surprising that tolerance inhibition by imatinib has not been previously observed. We hypothesize that current imatinib treatments do not achieve the level of imatinib in the central nervous system needed to inhibit tolerance ... On the basis of our findings, we postulate that PDGFR-β inhibition blocks tolerance using two mechanisms: a rapid effect causing most of the reversal and a slower process that completely restores analgesia.”
The overall data also indicate that NMDAR and PDGFR- β, modulate tolerance to morphine independently, they point out. PDGFR-β activation inhibits NMDARs, so if common signaling pathways mediated morphine tolerance induced by both PDGFR activation and NMDAR activation, then PDGFR-β agonists, rather than inhibitors, might block tolerance. Moreover, NMDAR antagonists alone can cause analgesia and effect sustained reversal of morphine tolerance. Conversely, PDGF-BB doesn’t alter morphine analgesia or baseline responses, or change the rate of morphine tolerance development. | <urn:uuid:ea1ed82b-62fe-4b94-b64f-7f153754ffcc> | {
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Introduction to Sociology
The only textbook that helps students make micro-macro connections, Introduction to Sociology helps students uncover the surprising links between everyday life and global change.
The Seventh Edition does not simply compare the United States to other countries, but shows students how global processes play out in their lives. Drawing on research from both macro and micro sociology, the author team shows how sociologists bring the two together to give a comprehensive picture of modern society.
- January 2009
- 8.5 × 10.9 in
/ 762 pages
- Territory Rights: USA and Dependencies, Philippines and Canada.
Seventh Edition / Loose leaf, three-hole punch
Seventh Edition / Ebook, Downloadable Version
Seventh Edition / Ebook, Online Version | <urn:uuid:e3a29c41-fba5-4da4-b53a-1574dfe75ac3> | {
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WASHINGTON — NASA has renamed its newest Earth-observing satellite in honor of the late Verner E. Suomi, a meteorologist at the University of Wisconsin who is recognized widely as “the father of satellite meteorology.” The announcement was made Jan. 24 at the annual meeting of the American Meteorological Society in New Orleans.
NASA launched the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System Preparatory Project, or NPP, on Oct. 28, 2011, from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. NPP was renamed Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership, or Suomi NPP. The satellite isthe first designed to collect critical data to improve short-term weather forecasts and increase understanding of long-term climate change.
“Verner Suomi’s many scientific and engineering contributions were fundamental to our current ability to learn about Earth’s weather and climate from space,” said John Grunsfeld, associate administrator of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington.” Suomi NPP not only will extend more than four decades of NASA satellite observations of our planet, it also will usher in a new era of climate change discovery and weather forecasting.”
The Suomi NPP mission is a bridge between NASA’s Earth Observing System satellites to the next-generation Joint Polar Satellite System, or JPSS, a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) program. JPSS is the civilian component of the former National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS), which was reorganized by the Obama Administration in 2010.
“The new name now accurately describes the mission,” said Michael Freilich, director of the Earth Science Division in NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. “Suomi NPP will advance our scientific knowledge of Earth and improve the lives of Americans by enabling more accurate forecasts of weather, ocean conditions and the terrestrial biosphere. The mission is the product of a partnership between NASA, NOAA, the Department of Defense, the private sector and academic researchers.”
Verner Suomi pioneered remote sensing of Earth from satellites in polar orbits a few hundred miles above the surface with Explorer 7 in 1959, and geostationary orbits thousands of miles high with ATS-1 in 1966. He was best known for his invention of the “spin-scan” camera which enabled geostationary weather satellites to continuously image Earth, yielding the satellite pictures commonly used on television weather broadcasts. He also was involved in planning interplanetary spacecraft missions to Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Suomi spent nearly his entire career at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where in 1965 he founded the university’s Space Science and Engineering Center with funding from NASA. The center is known for Earth-observing satellite research and development. In 1964, Suomi served as chief scientist of the U.S. Weather Bureau for one year. He received the National Medal of Science in 1977. He died in 1995 at the age of 79.
“It is fitting that such an important and innovative partnership pays tribute to a pioneer like Verner Suomi,” said Mary Kicza, assistant administrator for NOAA’s Satellite and Information Service. “Suomi NPP is an extremely important mission for NOAA. Its advanced instruments will improve our weather forecasts and understanding of the climate and pave the way for JPSS, our next generation of weather satellites.”
Suomi NPP currently is in its initial checkout phase before starting regular observations with all of its five instruments. Commissioning activities are expected to be completed by March. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., manages the Suomi NPP mission for the Earth Science Division of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. The JPSS program provides the satellite ground system and NOAA provides operational support.
For more information about Verner Suomi’s career, visit: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Suomi/
For more information about the Suomi NPP mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/npp | <urn:uuid:ed3c9c7a-d4ad-4563-bbc2-13eaf4f81945> | {
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Young people’s social media interests are changing right along with the media, according to the latest Speak Up study, which surveyed more than 325,000 students, along with parents, teachers and administrators. “Only 30% of middle school students and 39% of high school students now say they’re maintaining a social networking site,” says Project Tomorrow, which conducts the annual survey, “a decrease of approximately 40% since 2009.” Picking up the slack, predictably, are social media apps “such as Instagram, Snapchat and Vine “with participation by 44% of students in grades 6-12.” Twitter, thought probably more on the mobile platform than the Web, is now only 11 percentage points behind Facebook among high school students, with 28% of them using Twitter.
Though games are equally popular among boys and girls, MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games) are a major social tool for middle school boys in particular, 42% of whom play them. The MMOGs figure for middle school girls is 26%. [See p. 7 of the study for more on games.] In other key social media findings…
- Two-thirds of students in grades 7-12 use text messaging, “an increase of 37%” since the 2008 SpeakUp survey.
- 28% of middle school students create and post videos
- A quarter of all students follow favorite blogs and 12% have their own.
- 38% of middle and high school students stream online TV shows.
VERY informal focus group
BTW, we ConnectSafely folk just met with about 40 student leaders and #icanhelp activists going into grades 10-12 at Kimball High in Tracy, Calif., and asked them about their social media use. We didn’t have time to go in-depth because the meeting was about #icanhelp and One Good Thing, but the vast majority use Snapchat and Instagram, and virtually all use Twitter. Five or six students said they use Tumblr (which people seem to use more anonymously than Twitter), and I think two students raised their hands when I asked if they actively use Facebook. [More to come on the Speak Up survey’s findings about mobile and other tech us for learning in and out of school.] | <urn:uuid:69c6f10d-0d2b-40c2-9d01-94732a586fd1> | {
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
- REDIRECT Template:Infobox Korean name
Hwabyeong, literally "anger illness" or "fire illness”, is a Korean term for a kind of culture bound somatization disorder. The illness manifests as one or more of a wide range of physical symptoms, in response to an emotional disturbance, perhaps brought about by stress, such as might result from troublesome interpersonal relationships or life crises. It most often occurs in females in their menopausal years, less-educated people, those of lower socioeconomic status and those from rural areas.
Behavior related to hwabyeong includes sighing. In addition, sufferers might report such symptoms as; a heavy feeling in the chest, perceived abdominal mass (previously thought to define the illness, but now believed to be atypical), sleeplessness, hot flashes, cold flashes and blurred vision. They may also demonstrate typical neurotic symptoms such as anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsiveness, as well as anorexia, paranoia or fearfulness, absent-mindedness, and irritability.
Western doctors are likely to diagnose it as a kind of stress or depression. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders currently lists hwabyeong among its culture-bound illnesses. Outside of Korea, informally, hwabyeong may be mistaken as a reference to a psychological profile marked by a lack of temper or explosive, generally bellicose behavior resulting from a lack of temper. To the contrary, hwabyeong is a traditional psychological term used to refer to a condition characterized by passive suffering, is roughly comparable to depression, and is typically associated with older women.
In South Korea, it is also called ulhwabyeong (鬱火病).
- Examining Anger in 'Culture-Bound' Syndromes (the page in "Psychiatric Times" that explained Hwabyung)
- Health and Health Care Of Korean-American Elders
- Korean Women's Causal Perceptions of Hwabyung
- Hwabyung: the construction of a Korean popular illness among Korean elderly immigrant women in the United States
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For the Formula One fanatics, this term ‘adjustable rear wing’ might not be a surprise since this is a prominent technical rule that will make it to F1 in 2011. The idea has been put forward to cure the long discussed issue of little overtaking seen in the sport. The actual effect of it is still unknown and we wont know it till 4-5 races have taken place this season when it kicks off in Melbourne on 27 March 2011.
The Trick Explained
Before we go on to briefly explain this thingy, what actually will happen is that drivers will now have a button available which will change the angle of rear wing (or spoiler for some who are not familiar with this term) while the car is traveling at high speeds. This option will only be available when a car is within a certain distance of the leading car. The notification will be given to driver by FIA Race Control via a light on steering wheel indicating that the driver is now well within the distance allowed of the leading car to use this feature.
How Change of Angle Can Help Overtaking ?
To understand this, we first explain a bit of basic physics behind the fast moving car.
Whenever an object travels through a fluid (air in this case), it counters a resistance offered by the fluid the value of which varies with (1)Speed of the traveling object (alternatively a fluid traveling and object stationary will have same effect) (2) Shape of object (3)Viscosity of the fluid. So when a F1 car travels through the road, the air puts up a resistance against the car the effect of which is to stop it. This can result in increased power requirement from the engine which of course we dont want to happen.
So we are left with an option to try out to reduce this resistive force known as “aerodynamic drag”. The basic theory in easy language can be found in any basic fluid mechanics textbook. Race cars use wings and other aerodynamic bits & construction of car body to reduce this drag. These wings reduce this resistive force by either decreasing the area that faces the stream of air coming in or making the flow take a certain path along it which imposes a uniform pressure rather than concentrated pressure and the drag somewhat reduces.
A formula one rear wing is designed to do this job. When it is laid parallel to the direction of velocity, it reduces the drag but also causes loss of downforce (which we also generate using these wings for ease of handling, the turns taken at speeds like 150 km/h are only possible due to downforce). So we conclude two things here:
- When wing angle is less (i.e parallel to air stream), the drag reduces, downforce reduces resulting in increased speed
- When wing angle is more (i.e perpendicular to air stream), the drag increases but downforce increases resulting in less speed but increased stability
So we want less angle when we want our car to hit more speed and handling isnt our main issue (this happens on straights in a track). Now the wings are usually set up for a value that is trade-off between this high speed and better handling setup. Sometimes we wish we could keep the wing less for reduced drag and more speed but we have to look at our downforce requirement too. This somewhat hinders the advantage we could gain by keeping the wing low
What’s the Solution ?
So what if we changed the angle as per the location and situation. That is we could change the wing angle to less on straights or when following another car (which actually HUGELY increases drag). This is what adjustable rear wing is about. The wing, which has ‘elements’ and gaps known as ‘slots’ will change its formation while the car is being driven when the driver presses button. The slot gap increases when the wing angle is reduced (as you can see in the images below) and hence reduces drag, which suddenly increases speed of the following car since the resistance against which it had to work has reduced. Increase in speed = Overtaking opportunity
So this is the essence of how it works. The mechanism that triggers the change in angle may vary from team to team. Probably hydraulics and even mechanical linkages are the favourite options to trigger the change.
The idea behind this wing is not new. Aerodynamicists have known this potential for long time, it’s just the rules which prevented such ideas from being implemented. | <urn:uuid:ce88bbc2-7c93-4e17-948d-4b2a62fad064> | {
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US - Federal lawmakers have introduced a bill to require much needed protection for farm animals used for agricultural research at federal facilities.
The bill follows a New York Times article that revealed examples of animal cruelty at the US Meat Animal Research Center, a federal livestock research facility in Nebraska, according to Humane Society of the United States (HSUS).
The cows, sheep, pigs and other farm animals used in experiments at the facility are currently exempt from protections under federal law because of a loophole in the Animal Welfare Act.
HSUS says this loophole exempts farm animals “used or intended for use for improving animal nutrition, breeding, management, or production efficiency, or for improving the quality of food or fiber” from basic welfare standards.
Introduced by US Reps. Earl Blumenauer, D-OR; Mike Fitzpatrick, R-PA; Vern Buchanan, R-FL; Louise Slaughter, D-NY; and Sen. Cory Booker, D-NJ, the bills would amend the Animal Welfare Act to remove current exceptions that exclude animals used in agricultural experiments at federally-run facilities from certain protections under the Animal Welfare Act.
Wayne Pacelle, president and CEO of the HSUS, and Matthew Bershadker, president and CEO of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) announced their support of the bill, titled the 'Animal Welfare in Agricultural Research Endeavors (AWARE) Act'.
The Meat Animal Research Center is part of the Agricultural Research Service, a division of the US Department of Agriculture.
Since 2006, ARS has spent nearly $200 million on the centre, according to a report prepared by the USDA for Congress as part of the budgeting process.
The New York Times exposed the Meat Animal Research Center performing inhumane experiments on farm animals, including:
- locking pigs in steam chambers until they died
- breeding calves born with “deformed vaginas” and tangled legs, and
- leaving lambs abandoned by their mothers in pastures to die of exposure or starvation.
According to HSUS, the Center also performed painful experimental surgeries and allowed at least 6,500 animals to starve to death.ThePoultrySite News Desk | <urn:uuid:bfed6f8e-4155-452b-ba57-9f82bc5af05f> | {
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Rove Tunnel (rōv, Fr. rôv) [key], southern section of the Marseilles-Rhône Canal, 4.5 mi (7.2 km) long and 72 ft (22 m) wide, Bouches-du-Rhône dept., SE France; opened 1927. Starting near the village of Le Rove, it cuts through the Chaîne de l'Estaque at sea level. It is considered one of the greatest pieces of engineering since the Panama Canal.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
More on Rove Tunnel from Fact Monster:
See more Encyclopedia articles on: French and Benelux Physical Geography | <urn:uuid:cac1b11e-0d9a-4841-9987-16f02376e6df> | {
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On Monday 12 December, the British Furniture Confederation (BFC) and the Furniture Industry Research Association (FIRA) held a meeting at the House of Lords to launch a report that focuses on the Renewables Obligation Woody Biomass Subsidy and the detrimental affect it is having on British manufacturing.
The launch event enabled the BFC and FIRA to share the report with parliament, and appropriate Ministers and MPs were invited. This report is the outcome of a number of Biomass summits held at FIRA earlier this year. These events brought together key industry leaders to discuss how government subsidies encouraging power companies to burn wood, are distorting the market for new timber, thereby forcing up prices for the manufacturing of furniture products. The woody biomass report will now be used to lobby the Government on behalf of the furniture industry.
The document outlines a series of recommendations on how the Government can ensure that manufacturers are allowed to continue business without facing the difficulty of coping with rising prices from the woody biomass subsidy distortion.
The report also explains how the biomass subsidy is having a negative economic impact within the UK furniture industry. Following the introduction of biomass subsidies, wood prices have risen by 55.1 per cent over the past 5 years, having a significant impact on furniture production margins. With increased costs for furniture production, an increase in jobs losses is also likely. Many manufacturers are based in rural areas where unemployment is already high and there are limited employment opportunities. As a result, if the UK wood panel industry was to disappear, 4,400 jobs would be lost.
With increased costs for furniture production, it follows that furniture product prices for the consumer will also increase. This is especially poignant as the subsidy paid for burning renewable fuel is paid by consumers through their electricity bill. This means consumers are paying for a renewable energy form which distorts the market perversely against them as both a consumer and also to British manufacturing. Over its life time, burning woody biomass also emits significantly greater CO2 than wood panel manufacturing. The report suggests that the biomass subsidy should not encourage the burning of virgin wood, which could be used productively through its lifecycle, before being burnt for fuel. It encourages that furniture at the end of its lifecycle is burnt for fuel, rather than placed in landfill. Furthermore, the report discusses how biomass stations relying on wood imports from abroad are a threat to the world’s forests and may even increase climate-change emissions.
The Full Report to download (PDF-Document)
Source: The British Furniture Confederation, press release, 2011-12-12. | <urn:uuid:605e5803-1015-45ea-bc4c-8e11b54358ba> | {
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Blueberry production limited to southeastern NC by soil conditions
“Bad” soil conditions of inner coastal plain good for North Carolina blueberries!
If you have had poor luck growing blueberries, you are not alone. Successful cultivation of blueberries demands specific soil, weather and water conditions. A “green thumb” may just not be enough! You also need acidic soil and a certain amount of winter chill to even think about growing the tasty super-berry that is native to North America.
The first clues are where native blueberries grown
This author grew up on Cape Cod picking wild blueberries that seemed to be everywhere. These blueberries were very accessible in the forest along old sandy wagon trails that ran into the woods beyond the rose thickets in the back yard. This sandy soil is one clue to what blueberries like. In North Carolina blueberries thrive in what is referred to as “salt and pepper soil”, a reference to the soils sandy, organic packed appearance. Highbush blueberries prefer a pH of 4.5, whereas wild (lowbush) blueberries varieties on Cape Cod up into Maine and Canada thrive at a lower pH of 4.0.)
Blueberries like water and winter
The inner coastal plain area of North Carolina also has a few other characteristics that favor blueberry production. In particular, blueberries like between 600 and 1200 hours of temperatures between 33 and 45. This is referred to as the “Chill”. North Carolina has it’s own “Chill Model” for blueberries that takes in account temperature fluctuations between Fall and February 28th. Different varieties and cultivars have different chill requirements. Blueberries also like a water table that is no further than 36 inches below the surface.
The Right Conditions Along SE North Carolina’s Inner Coast Plain
Although blueberries are planted throughout the state, over 90% of production happens in the southeastern end of North Carolina’s “inner coastal plain”. This is a region dominated by muck, peat and sand soils with a shallow water table. This region also has the right chill requirement (when Mother Nature cooperates). Most of North Carolina’s blueberry production is centered around Bladen and the adjacent counties. | <urn:uuid:0a67784f-aa28-41fb-8653-04169a54b34d> | {
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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- n. Baseball A player's official turn to bat, counted in figuring a batting average unless the catcher interferes or unless the player is hit by the ball, makes a sacrifice hit, or is walked.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- In the batter's box.
- n. A final resolution to a batter's turn at the plate which does not result in a walk, a hit by pitch, a sacrifice hit or sacrifice fly, or catcher interference
Sorry, no etymologies found.
Sorry, no example sentences found. | <urn:uuid:3f2318d5-3b4f-4686-be16-69bc5a8ee959> | {
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John White: Portrait of Black Chicago
The captions are John White`s own, written some time after he took his photographs. In some cases White used virtually the same caption for several images.
"Sunrise on Lake Michigan with Chicago shown in the background. The city has provided a climate for developing black resources and is considered the black business capital of the United States. There were 8,747 black owned businesses which grossed more than $332 million in 1970 according to the Census. In 1972 black owned financial institutions in Chicago had assets of $254.9 million."
"Black sidewalk salesmen arranging their fresh fruits and vegetables on Chicago`s South Side. Many of the city`s black businessmen started small and grew by working hard. Today Chicago is believed to be the black business capital of the United States. Black Enterprise Magazine reported in 1973 that the city had 14 of the top 100 black owned businesses in the country, one more than New York City."
"Black products was one of the themes at the annual Black Expo held in Chicago. Also present were black education, talent, a voter registration drive and other aspects of black consciousness. The aim is to make blacks aware of their heritage and capabilities and help them towards a better life."
"Empty housing in the ghetto on Chicago`s South Side. Structures such as this have been systematically vacated as a result of fires, vandalism, or failure by owners to provide basic tenant services. Then the vacated buildings, often substantially salvageable, are razed and replaced with high-rise apartments which appeal to few members of the black community and almost none of the area`s previous residents."
Chicago ghetto on the South Side. Although the percentage of Chicago blacks making $7,000 or more jumped from 26% to 58% between 1960 and 1970, a large percentage still remained unemployed. The black unemployment rate is generally assumed to be twice that of the national unemployment rate published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics."
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Making Corn husk dolls (for ages 6-12)
By: Maria Goetz
This Heritage School Program will include visual arts, social studies, interacting and storytelling. Program participant will learn how to make dolls from corn husks (shucks) like the Native American and Pioneer children did years ago. Then use your imagination to decorate the dolls!
Program cost: Free to Museum members; $5 non-members | <urn:uuid:be12e952-5a50-4184-bef1-84d37ac06932> | {
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Parkinson's study here gets $2 million
Rochester scientists have received $2 million from the National Institutes of Health to study how environmental agents and genetics might team up to cause Parkinson's disease.
The five-year grant goes to a team headed by Howard Federoff, chief of the Division of Molecular Medicine and Gene Therapy and director of the Center on Aging and Developmental Biology. Working with Federoff are Deborah Cory-Slechta, chair of the Department of Environmental Medicine and acting chair of the Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, and Handy Gelbard and Eric Richfield, associate professors of neurology.
Scientists have little understanding of what causes Parkinson's, though there are several drugs and a few surgical procedures to treat the disease. In Parkinson's, a tiny group of dopamine-producing neurons deep within the brain die, leading to the tremors, rigidity, and slow movement that mark the disease. It progresses slowly over a period of years or decades.
The Rochester team, with extensive experience in gene manipulation and environmental toxins, will model how specific genes might interact with various environmental agents. In many diseases, genetic mutations--commonly thought of as a family history--make a person much more vulnerable to that disease. This study is among the first to test whether such a link between environmental toxins and so-called susceptibility genes can produce disease.
The team will first study a gene that enhances the uptake of the toxin MPTP, a chemical that damages dopamine neurons in much the same way as occurs in the brains of Parkinson's patients. The team will check whether having this gene increases sensitivity to MPTP and a close chemical cousin, the herbicide paraquat.
A key part of the effort is technology developed at the University to turn on genes in an organism's nervous system precisely when researchers want, enabling them to manipulate specific vulnerability genes involved in Parkinson's disease and to study the impact of toxins on those cells.
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| UR Home | Currents home page | Mail | Search | | <urn:uuid:9421da62-58f5-4e49-bf6f-0372b73b4f9b> | {
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1 A comparative study of song form and duetting in neotropical Thryothorus wrens Nigel I. Mann 1,4), Kimberly A. Dingess 2), F. Keith Barker 3), Jeff A. Graves 1) & Peter J.B. Slater 1) ( 1 School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Bute Building, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK; 2 Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA; 3 Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St Paul, MN 55108, USA) (Accepted: 29 May 2008) Summary The traditionally-defined wren genus Thryothorus is notable for its diversity of singing styles with some species producing highly coordinated duets or choruses in various formats while, at the other extreme, songs are performed almost exclusively by males. In this comparative study, we document the singing styles of almost all of the 27 or so species in this group, relating these to a molecular phylogeny in an effort to identify the conditions that have led to the evolution of duetting and chorus singing. In a previous study, we used molecular data to demonstrate that Thryothorus is actually paraphyletic, leading us to propose its splitting into three genera (one newly described) in addition to Thryothorus. Here we show that most species within each of these four genera usually sing with the same style, and that these styles tend to differ between the genera. We also show that a few species have songs that differ markedly from those most typical of their genus. We argue that these exceptional cases will provide important insights into the origins of duetting behavior, and tentatively suggest factors that may have played a role in determining the extent to which male and female birds combine their vocalizations together. Keywords: Thryothorus, wren, duet, chorus, song evolution, comparative study. 4) Corresponding author s current address: Department of Biology, SUNY Oneonta, Ravine Parkway, Oneonta, NY 13820, USA, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 Behaviour 146, 1-43 DOI: / X Also available online -
2 2 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Introduction Most bird song studies have been carried out in temperate regions, where song is largely used by males to expel rivals from their territories and to attract mates (Catchpole & Slater, 2008). In the tropics, however, female birds also often sing (Langmore, 1998), and there are many species in which both members of a pair combine their vocalizations to perform duets. These vary from being only a duet in loose terms (singing by the male and female of a pair at around the same time), to remarkably complex, coordinated performances. The phenomenon probably reaches a peak in chorus singing, in species where more than two individuals in a social group contribute in a coordinated fashion to produce a communal song (Kroodsma et al., 1996). Broadly defined, duetting is found in at least 220 bird species in at least 44 different families (Farabaugh, 1982). Duets appear to fulfil several functions and this is probably so even within a species (see review by Hall, 2004). The reasons why they are present in some species, but may be absent in close relatives, remain enigmatic. Identifying the conditions that have led to the evolution of duetting requires a comparative approach, which we apply here to Thryothorus wrens, a group renowned for exhibiting a wide variety of singing styles. The genus Thryothorus, as traditionally defined, consists of around 27 wren species, with one or two sub-species that are sometimes given specific status (Brewer, 2001). These species are largely confined to Central and South America, though the Carolina wren (ludovicianus) occurs through much of eastern North America. The range of the most southerly species, the long-billed wren (longirostris), extends into southern Brazil (Brewer, 2001). In common with many predominantly tropical birds, members of this group are territorial throughout the year and most, as far as is known, form monogamous pair bonds that typically persist for over a year and can last for several years. This has been shown recently, for example, for the buff-breasted wren, leucotis (Gill & Stutchbury, 2006). In contrast, Levin (1996) found that partnerships were not always long-term in bay wrens (nigricapillus), since 38% of pairs broke up at around the beginning of the breeding season; however, she did not report how long the remaining pairs stayed together. To date, group-living has been found in two species, the plain-tailed wren, euophrys (Mann et al., 2006b) and the Inca wren, eisenmanni (Mennill et al., data not shown), and helping-at-the-nest has been observed on at least one occasion in the buff-breasted wren (Gill, 2004).
3 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 3 The genus is notable for its diversity of singing styles, a term we use to encompass both the general characteristics of an individual bird s song phrase (e.g., note morphology, frequency characteristics, phrase length, presence or absence of repeated notes, etc.), and also the temporal relationship (if any) between the song phrases of the two sexes. Most members of this group produce coordinated duets in various formats (e.g., bay wren, Levin, 1996; plain wren, modestus, Mann et al., 2003; black-bellied wren, fasciatoventris, Logue & Gammon, 2004). In other cases, female songs are tied much more loosely to those of males, and their song rates are very much lower (e.g., rufous-and-white wren, rufalbus, Mennill & Vehrencamp, 2005; banded wren, pleurostictus, Molles & Vehrencamp, 1999), or they may sing hardly at all (Carolina wren, Brewer, 2001). Finally, it has recently been discovered that group-living plain-tailed wrens produce choruses (Mann et al., 2006b). Two previous studies have addressed the variation in song forms within Thryothorus (Brown & Lemon, 1979 and Farabaugh, 1983, working in Mexico and Panama, respectively). However, both studies considered data from just a small subgroup of sympatric species (each compared six species, but in both cases detailed data were only collected on two of these); furthermore, neither study had access to a well-resolved phylogeny for the genus. For our study we focused particular attention on 21 species. For each of these, we made extensive field observations and recordings, as described below, at sites in Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama and Ecuador. We also collected similar data from several sub-species and acquired smaller samples of songs from five of the remaining species, using sound archive libraries, some personal recordings and other donated sound clips. We lack data for only one member of the genus, the grey wren, griseus, from western Brazil. In addition to collecting the song data, we took blood samples from each individual that was caught. This was partly for sex determination, as the majority of species are more or less monomorphic, but also to prepare a molecular phylogeny so that we could identify places within the lineage where song had changed. The results of this molecular phylogeny are presented elsewhere (Mann et al., 2006b) and confirm the earlier suggestion that the genus is paraphyletic (Barker, 2004). Combining data from both of these studies prompted us to propose that the species previously all grouped in the genus Thryothorus should be placed in four separate genera. Figure 1 summarises the relationship of these four genera to each other and to other wrens.
4 4 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Figure 1. Phylogenetic framework (sensu Lanyon, 1993) of relationships among Thryothorus wrens and allies. Represented nodes were recovered with 50% bootstrap support in individual parsimony or likelihood analyses, and/or with 0.95 estimated Bayesian posterior probabilities (Barker, 2004; Mann et al., 2006a). The tree is shown unrooted because of uncertainty regarding the root s placement (Barker, 2004). Species groups highlighted by brackets were all formerly members of the genus Thryothorus. The framework does not include four other species from this genus spadix, eisenmanni, nicefori, or griseus. Species behaviorally sampled in this study are marked with an asterisk, and those analyzed with supplementary recordings provided by others by daggers (two symbols indicate sampling from more than one population).
5 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 5 We have studied the songs of most of the species in these four genera and our intention here is to summarise their singing styles and to recognise how these have diverged among close relatives so that we can identify positions in the phylogeny where the evolution of song demands closer scrutiny. Our discussion will centre on comparing the overall style of singing between species. Given that the taxonomic proposals based on our new molecular phylogeny have not yet been widely adopted, we will refer to species by their specific names but omit the generic part of the binomial. When discussing data from the four different groupings that Mann et al. (2006a) proposed, we will label them by their proposed generic names (Thryothorus, Thryophilus, Pheugopedius and Cantorchilus). To avoid confusion with the first of these, the group of species as a whole will henceforth be labeled as Thryothorus. Methods Table 1 lists the species that we targeted for detailed data collection as well as when and where they were studied. Table 2 lists the other seven Thryothorus species for which we have data, and includes the sources of the recordings. The necessary fieldwork averaged around 14 days for each taxon, but was longer where more than two species were studied simultaneously at a single site. Our intention was to carry out observations outside the peak of the breeding season for all species, to standardise the data and achieve a common baseline for comparison. This was largely achieved but, given the paucity of prior knowledge about the timing of reproduction for many of the taxa, and the relative lack of reproductive synchrony across pairs through an often extended breeding season, some variation in this regard was inevitable. The same procedure was adopted for all species. We aimed to collect an extensive sample of songs from at least five territories, and this was achieved in most cases. The exceptions were rufalbus, leucotis and ludovicianus albinucha, for which we could only find four suitable territories at the study sites involved. The sooty-headed wren (spadix) proved to be particularly problematic and the data set we have available for this species, even with supplementation from sound archive libraries, is very poor. For leucopogon, we collected data from two sites because, despite the presence of many territories at the first, no female songs were heard. We decided to work on this species at the second site, in case the first data set was anomalous (e.g., we may have encountered an unexpected seasonal effect).
6 6 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Table 1. The wren species recorded in the present study, together with the locations and dates of fieldwork. Species/subspecies English name Location Fieldwork dates Thryothorus T. ludovicianus White-browed wren El Eden, Mexico May 2003 albinucha Pheugopedius P. atrogularis Black-throated wren La Suerte, Costa Rica Oct P. sclateri Speckle-breasted wren Cerro Blanco, Ecuador Dec paucimaculatus P. felix felix Happy wren Chamela, Mexico April-May 2003 P. rutilis hyperythrus Rufous-breasted wren Carara, Costa Rica Dec P. maculipectus Spot-breasted wren El Eden, Mexico April-May 2003 maculipectus P. fasciatoventris Black-bellied wren Manuel Antonio, Nov. 2001, melanogaster Costa Rica Jan P. euophrys euophrys Plain-tailed wren Pasochoa, Ecuador Oct P. mystacalis mystacalis Whiskered wren Rio Palenque, Ecuador Oct P. coraya griseipectus Coraya wren Tiputini, Ecuador Nov Thryophilus T. rufalbus castanonotus Rufous-and-white wren Carara, Costa Rica Jan.-Feb T. sinaloa sinaloa Sinaloa wren Chamela, Mexico April-May 2003 T. pleurostictus nisorius Banded wren Quilamula, Mexico April 2003 Cantorchilus C. thoracicus Stripe-breasted wren La Suerte, Costa Rica Jan C. leucopogon Stripe-throated wren Cana, Panama, Feb. 2002, leucopogon Playa de Oro, Ecuador Dec C. modestus modestus Plain wren El Rodeo, Costa Rica Dec C. modestus zeledoni Canebrake wren La Suerte, Costa Rica Oct.-Nov C. semibadius Riverside wren Manuel Antonio, Nov Costa Rica C. nigricapillus Bay wren La Suerte, Costa Rica Oct costaricensis C. n. nigricapillus Bay wren Rio Palenque, Ecuador Oct C. n. connectens Bay wren Playa de Oro, Ecuador Dec C. n. schotti Bay wren Cana, Panama Feb.-March 2002 C. superciliaris Superciliated wren Cerro Blanco, Ecuador Dec superciliaris C. leucotis galbraithii Buff-breasted wren Summit Gardens, March 2002 Panama
7 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 7 Table 2. Sources of supplementary wren recordings used as part of the analysis for the present study. Species English name Location Source Thryothorus T. ludovicianus Carolina wren Florida, USA DK Pheugopedius P. eisenmanni Inca wren Machu Pichu & Cuzco, Peru BSL, MSL P. genibarbis Moustached wren Madre Selva, Peru CH P. genibarbis Moustached wren Mato Grosso, Brazil, Pando, MSL Bolivia, Madre de Dios, Peru P. genibarbis Moustached wren Madidi, Bolivia PR P. spadix Sooty-headed wren Caldas, Colombia BSL P. spadix Sooty-headed wren Darien, Panama PR Thryophilus T. nicefori Niceforo s wren Santander, NE Colombia MSL Cantorchilus C. guarayanus Fawn-breasted wren Santa Cruz, Bolivia, BSL, MSL Mato Grosso, Brazil C. guarayanus Fawn-breasted wren Beni, Bolivia PR C. longirostris Long-billed wren Various sites in Brazil BSL, MSL MSL = The Macaulay Library at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, BSL = British Sound Library, PR = personal recordings, CH = donated by Cindy Hogan, DK = donated by Donald Kroodsma. Our baseline data set for the bay wren (nigricapillus) was collected from the Caribbean slope of Costa Rica, but as different sub-species were present at three of our other study sites, we also took the opportunity to gather recordings of these. A detailed comparison of the songs of these sub-species will not be presented here. Comparisons will, however, be included for the two sub-species of plain wren that we worked on (modestus modestus and m. zeledoni), as these taxa have sometimes been given full species status (Brewer, 2001). When a pair was selected for study one or both individuals were caught and marked with a unique combination of colour bands. A sample of approx. 50 μl blood was also taken by puncturing the brachial vein. Samples were stored in 100 mm Tris, 100 mm EDTA, 2% SDS buffer to prevent DNA degradation in the field. Upon return to St Andrews, the DNA was extracted using standard techniques and sex determined according to the method of
8 8 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Griffiths et al. (1996). The blood was also used to obtain a sequence of 1000 base pairs from the cytochrome b gene to prepare the molecular phylogeny (see Mann et al., 2006a). For song analysis, four separate 90-min recordings were made on different days from each marked pair, in most cases before 10:00 a.m. Supplemental recordings were made in some cases in late afternoon, or on further morning sessions, if the number of songs recorded from a territory was particularly low. We balanced the time of day of recordings as much as possible between pairs and across species. All recordings were made with Marantz CP430 cassette recorders linked to Sennheiser ME66 directional microphones. The microphone was mounted on a tripod so that it could be aimed at the pair being recorded, leaving the observer free to watch the birds through binoculars in order to determine which bird was singing and what its contribution was. This information was dictated onto the tape. To stimulate the birds to sing, and encourage them to reveal a greater extent of their repertoire, two playbacks, each of a sequence of 10 songs, were carried out during the 90-min recording session, one after 15 min, the other after 60 min. A different playback stimulus was used for each of the four 90 min sessions. Further playbacks were used in a few cases to encourage singing when pairs otherwise sang very little. The types of vocalizations produced were catalogued according to their relationship to the timing of playbacks, as we found that different species respond to playbacks in different ways. These findings will be reported elsewhere. If the species was a duetter, the songs played back were of duets recorded from another local, conspecific pair. If we could obtain no recordings of duets, because of their rarity, we used only male solos for playbacks (pleurostictus, sinaloa, ludovicianus albinucha and leucopogon). In the case of two species (leucopogon and thoracicus), males use two quite distinct song forms, and so a playback of each type was used during every recording session. The recorded vocalizations were digitised, and then sound spectrograms (prepared using Avisoft SASLab Pro, R. Specht, Berlin, Germany) were used to identify and catalogue the songs produced by each individual, pair or group. We defined a single song as separated temporally from all others by 2 s, either in the form of a solo or a duet (or chorus), to which two (or more) birds contribute. A phrase is composed of a stereotyped sequence of notes (defined as continuous traces on a spectrogram) produced by a single individual. A song can, thus, be a solo performance comprising one or more phrases from a single bird, or a duet or chorus with phrases from multiple birds.
9 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 9 Additional data were collected on the structure of the song, including the number and arrangement of the phrase types present, which bird started the song, which bird terminated it, how many full cycles it involved (in the case of cyclical duets) and whether the contributions of the two birds overlapped with one another. In many duetting species, across a wide range of taxa, pair members combine specific song phrases from their repertoires to form non-random associations (see Logue, 2006, for a list of references). We determined whether such associations were present following the methodology of Mann et al. (2003), using a G-test to compare the observed frequency of specific associations with the random expectation assuming a Poisson distribution. Logue (2006) points out that non-random phrase associations can arise in various ways, and uses the term duet code for the case where one sex specifically selects a song phrase from its own repertoire in response to hearing a particular phrase from its mate. It was beyond the scope of this study to determine the mechanism leading to non-random phrase associations. We, therefore, use the term duet type as a short-hand for the presence of such associations, without making any assumption as to how they might have arisen. The quantitative details of duet structure were averaged over all recordings from each territory and then a mean and standard deviation across territories was calculated. It is known that some characteristics (e.g., the relative frequency of duet initiation by a particular sex, the frequency of replies to partner songs and the types and organisation of songs used from a repertoire) can vary depending on the time of day (Molles & Vehrencamp, 1999; Gill et al., 2005; Trillo & Vehrencamp, 2005) and whether they are in response to playback or not (pers. obs.). However, the purpose of the current paper is to categorise broad differences in singing styles, and such fine detail will not be considered. Results During the course of this study we recorded, digitised and analysed over thirty thousand songs from 32 taxa (species and sub-species). For the following song descriptions, the species are subdivided into the four genera that we proposed, based on our recent molecular phylogeny (Mann et al., 2006a). Table 3 summarises some of the song characteristics found within each group,
10 10 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Table 3. Summary of a selection of song characteristics of Thryothorus wrens. Species No. Duet % duets with M % duets with M % of phrases Presence of Sex with most Sex with of phrases phrase at start phrase at end overlapped by trill in duet note-types per highest max. pairs (mean, range) (mean, range) partner (mean) cycle phrases phrase note frequency Thryophilus rufalbus 4 A, B 68.4 ( ) 38.5 ( ) : 39.6, : 51.6 and NS ( ) sinaloa 7 A,B X X X (?) NS? NS? pleurostictus 5 A,B X X X and ( c ) X Pheugopedius atrogularis 6 A, B 74.7 ( ) 74.1 ( ) : 79.2, : 75.7 and NS sclateri 5 A, B 66.0 ( ( ) : 38.2, : 75.8 only b ( ) NS felix 6 A, B 70.1 ( ) 68.6 ( ) : 58.0, : 52.1 only rutilis 6 A, B 74.0 ( ) 80.8 ( ) : 55.1, : 60.3 No NS maculipectus 7 A, B 83.5 ( ) 80.1 ( ) : 61.3, : 85.1 No NS fasciatoventris 5 A,B a 77.6 ( ( ) : 83.3, : 56.6 No euophrys 5 A, B, C, D 22.3 ( ) 23.3 ( ) : 8.6, : 3.7 No Neither (+) Neither (++) mystacalis 5 A,B a 74.4 ( ) 82.5 ( ) : 38.2, : 73.0 No coraya 6 A, B 69.6 ( ) 71.1 ( ) : 76.9, : 29.6 only ( ) genibarbis DR I, A, B X X Overlaps common and b NS?
11 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 11 Table 3. (Continued.) Species No. Duet % duets with M % duets with M % of phrases Presence of Sex with most Sex with of phrases phrase at start phrase at end overlapped by trill in duet note-types per highest max. pairs (mean, range) (mean, range) partner (mean) cycle phrases phrase note frequency Cantorchilus thoracicus 5 A,B+ D 81.9 ( ) 88.3 ( ) : 14.4, : 39.3 No NS modestus 5 I, A, B 93.6 ( ) 72.1 ( ) :0.8, : 1.0 No NS m. zeledoni 5 I, A, B 96.1 ( ) 60.8 ( ) :1.3, : 0.0 No semibadius 6 I, A, B 66.6 ( ) 85.5 ( ) :8.1, : 2.1 No NS nigricapillus 12 I, A, B 57.8 ( ) 51.8 ( ) : 4.9, : 1.5 only NS ( ) superciliaris 5 I, A, B 71.6 ( ) 69.9 ( ) : 20.5, : 77.4 only NS? leucotis 4 I, A, B 67.9 ( ) 84.8 ( ) :0.2, : 0.0 No The following species are omitted from the table because we had insufficient data on the songs of one or both sexes: ludovicianus, l. albinucha, longirostris, guarayanus, leucopogon, eisenmanni, spadix and nicefori. To calculate the mean values presented in the table, we first obtained mean values for individual pairs and then calculated the mean of these. Key: DR = donated/sound archive recordings. A, C = female song categories; B, D = male song categories; I = introductory phrase from male. X = a reliable estimate is not available, generally because female song was very rare or absent. Significance levels for the last two columns indicated by (p < 0.05) and (p < 0.01), using Mann Whitney tests; NS= no significant difference. indicates that a different result for this measure was obtained, shown in parentheses, when all notes were totalled even when they occurred as repeats. + indicates that the A-phrase of the male contained significantly fewer note-types on average than both female phrases, whereas the male C-phrase contained significantly more note-types. ++ indicates that the average maximum frequency for the female B-phrase was higher than that for both male phrases, whereas the average maximum frequency for the female D-phrase was lower. a A repertoire of additional male phrases/calls was also present which may be equivalent to the introductory phrases of genibarbis; however, these did not appear to be linked to the duet. b A single repeat of one note was usually present within the phrase. c From Molles & Vehrencamp (1999).
12 12 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Table 4. Definitions of singing styles found within the Thryothorus wrens. Code for singing style Definition 1 Only the male sings, or female occasionally adds a rattling call. Each male song consists of a rapid series of short, repeated phrases. 2 Females sing much less than males, and songs only loosely associated. Song phrases of males are relatively long and varied, usually beginning with tonal notes and containing a loud trill. Female phrases are similar, but simpler. 3 Female sings more frequently but still less than male, songs often closely associated into clear duets, but arrangement is inconsistent with variable overlaps. Song structure essentially similar to 2, but male and female phrases are more alike. 4 Duets common, with the phrases of the two sexes alternating and usually overlapping. Phrases usually contain more four or more syllables, often including tonal notes and sometimes a trill. 5 As for 4, an alternation of overlapping phrases from each sex, but an additional repertoire of male phrases is present. The latter are not obviously associated with the duet. 6 An additional repertoire of male phrases is again present, but this time these phrases typically immediately precede the duet. Duet phrases usually overlap. 7 An introductory call or phrase is present, but the following duet cycle consists of precisely-timed, non-overlapping phrases. The antiphonal phrases usually consist of fewer syllables (four or fewer) than in the previous singing styles, and tonal notes are usually absent. Trills are usually absent: if present, they are brief. 8 Again, precisely-timed, non-overlapping phrases, but the cycle consists of two separate contributions from each sex. There is no introductory phrase. 9 Somewhat anomalous singing style, with two distinctly different categories of male song, both of which occur in a series of repeated phrases increasing in amplitude through the course of the song. One consists of single tonal notes, the other of more complex phrases. Duets are formed by females singing with the complex phrases; contributions may overlap slightly or are precisely antiphonal. Table 4 provides a description of the different singing styles present and Table 5 indicates how these singing styles are distributed across Thryothorus wrens. Details of individual phrase structure, not directly related to how the two sexes combine their phrases within a song, are given in the Appendix. The phrase repertoire sizes across the four genera have also been placed in
13 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 13 Table 5. Classification of singing styles of Thryothorus wrens. Species No. of Code for Species No. of Code for pairs singing style pairs singing style Thryothorus Cantorchilus ludovicianus DR 1 thoracicus 5 9 l. albinucha 4 1 leucopogon 6 9? b modestus 5 7 Pheugopedius m. zeledoni 5 7 atrogularis 6 4 semibadius 6 7 spadix (2) DR? nigricapillus 12 7 sclateri 5 4 superciliaris 5 4,6,7 felix 6 4 leucotis 4 7 rutilis 6 4 guarayanus DR 6, 7 maculipectus 7 4 longirostris DR? fasciatoventris 5 5 euophrys 5 8 Thryophilus eisenmanni DR 8? a rufalbus 4 3 mystacalis 5 5 nicefori DR 3? coraya 6 4 sinaloa 7 2 genibarbis DR 6 pleurostictus 5 2 DR, donated/sound archive recordings. a Tentative classification, based on gross song similarity with euophrys. b Tentative classification, based on male song only (female song not recorded). the Appendix. Sound files corresponding to all of the sound spectrograms can be accessed at Thryothorus The genus Thryothorus now includes only one species, the Carolina wren, ludovicianus, although l. albinucha, one of the taxa we studied, is sometimes given full specific status (e.g., by Brewer, 2001). This sub-species is referred to as the white-browed wren and ranges from Mexico to Nicaragua. The songs of male albinucha from our study population in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, were very similar to those of male ludovicianus (Figure 2A C). Female ludovicianus do not sing in the strict sense, but may add an alarmcall-like rattle, or chatter, to their mate s song to form a simple duet (Figure 2D). This combined performance lacks precision and occurs relatively rarely (e.g., Shuler, 1965; Kroodsma, 2005). In our work with albinucha, we
14 14 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Figure 2. Sound spectrograms of songs from wrens which we propose should remain in the genus Thryothorus. A B: male white-browed wren (ludovicianus) albinucha. C: male Carolina wren ludovicianus. D: female call associated with male song in the Carolina wren. For this and all subsequent figures, male vocalizations are indicated by a solid black line, female vocalizations by an open line. Time intervals for x-axis subdivisions are the same for all spectrograms (the Carolina wren spectrograms were made from recordings donated by D.E. Kroodsma). Full-size spectrograms plus soundfiles can be found at did not encounter any songs (or ludovicianus-like calls) from females. See Appendix for further details of song structure for this genus. Thryophilus Our molecular analysis placed the rufous-and-white (rufalbus), banded (pleurostictus) and Sinaloa (sinaloa) wrens in this genus, and we collected field data from all three. The endangered Niceforo s wren (nicefori), endemic to small area of Colombia, no doubt also belongs to this genus, as it is sometimes regarded as a sub-species of the morphologically very similar rufalbus (Brewer, 2001). We have no molecular data for this taxon, and did not study this species in the field. Each of our three focal species in the Thryophilus group has also been the subject of earlier song work (sinaloa, e.g., Brown & Lemon, 1979; pleurostictus, e.g., Molles & Vehrencamp, 1999; rufalbus, e.g., Mennill & Vehrencamp, 2005). More detailed descriptions of their vocalizations can
15 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 15 be found in these sources. Examples of the songs of Thryophilus wrens are shown in Figure 3 and the phrase structure for each species is described in the Appendix. Females sing in all three of our focal species, but their songs are relatively rare, and the precisely timed and coordinated duetting that will be described later for other wren species does not occur. We were not able to make conclusive recordings of female song in our relatively brief sessions with pleurostictus in Mexico (see Discussion and Appendix for description of female song in Costa Rican pleurostictus by Vehrencamp and co-workers), and we only occasionally encountered sinaloa females singing (Figure 3C), usually in association with male songs. On one such occasion, a sequence of numerous female songs was associated with an escalated vocal encounter between her mate and a neighbouring male. Female song for this species and for the other members of the genus can be distinguished from male song, although both share essentially similar structural characteristics (see Appendix). Compared to the other two species, female song in rufalbus is considerably more common, with approx. 25% of songs recorded in our study being from this sex. The songs of the two sexes often overlap with one another (see Figure 3F and G and Table 3), although this association is rather loose. That they sing at much the same time as each other certainly justifies the label duet, especially as, within a song bout in which both members of a pair are singing, they choose to utilize particular songs from their respective repertoires, to form duet types (also described in this species by Mennill & Vehrencamp, 2005). The majority of the duets of this species occur when the female replies to a male song (a per pair average of 68.4% of songs followed this pattern in our study) and they do not form the long sequences of alternation (termed duet trains by Brown & Lemon, 1979) found in some other wrens. Typically, they comprise a single response of one bird to the song of the other or, less commonly, to a duet sandwich (Mennill & Vehrencamp, 2005), where the phrase of one sex occurs between two phrases of its partner. It was clear from the sound archive recordings we had access to that the songs of nicefori are remarkably similar to those of rufalbus (see Figure 3H and I; also, see Discussion for an account of differences that do exist, based on a recent study by Valderrama et al., 2007). Pheugopedius Based on our molecular analysis, this genus includes at least 10, and almost certainly 12, species. The two species that were not part of our molecular
16 16 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater Figure 3. Sound spectrograms of songs from wrens in the proposed genus Thryophilus. A B: male Sinaloa wren, sinaloa (first is a compound song). C: two phrases from female Sinaloa wren. D E: male banded wren, pleurostictus (first is a compound song). F G: rufousand-white wren, rufalbus, duets. H I: Niceforo s wren, nicefori, solo songs. Sex not identified. Spectrograms of nicefori made from Macaulay Sound Library recordings. Time intervals for x-axis subdivisions are the same for all spectrograms. Full-size spectrograms plus soundfiles can be found at
17 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 17 analysis, but that we expect would fall into this group are the Inca wren eisenmanni (which closely resembles the plain-tailed wren, euophrys in appearance, behaviour and habitat) and the sooty-headed wren, spadix (Brewer, 2001, notes that this species is sometimes considered conspecific with the black-throated wren, atrogularis). For the present study we recorded large samples of recordings from nine of these 12 species. We have also obtained smaller song samples for the remaining 3 species, spadix, eisenmanni and genibarbis. Figure 4 shows examples of the songs of each species within this group. Eight of them (atrogularis, felix, sclateri, maculipectus, rutilus, coraya, mystacalis and fasciatoventris; Figure 4A I and 4N) sing in a very similar fashion, each producing an alternating cyclical duet, with the contributions of the two sexes generally overlapping in time. In this group, both sexes have a repertoire of phrase types that can be used during this interchange, with each generally repeating the same phrase type within one duet train. In all eight species, pairs arrange their duet contributions into a series of duet types as described for rufalbus in the Thryophilus group. Duet trains in this subset of the Pheugopedius wrens usually started with a male phrase (see Table 3) although, in some species, one of our sample of pairs behaved atypically (sclateri, felix, fasciatoventris and coraya), with the female leading most songs. Males also usually produced the final vocalization in a duet in these species (Table 3). For only two pairs, one a fasciatoventris, the other a coraya, did we have song samples in which femaleended songs were the most common. The modal song format for all eight species was a three phrase song with a single female phrase sandwiched between two male phrases. However, longer songs were also common, with exceptionally long strings of up to 40 alternated phrases occurring especially following playback. In this group of Pheugopedius wrens both sexes had a high proportion of their phrases overlapped by those of their partner (Table 3). It is difficult to make species-level generalisations concerning the frequency with which this overlapping occurs because in our study we found considerable pair-specific variability. For example, in one pair of atrogularis, the female overlapped 87.5% of her partner s phrases (N = 192 transitions), while the male overlapped only 44% of her phrases (N = 153): in contrast, in another pair, the female overlapped 70.7% of her partner s phrases (N = 294), while her
19 Song form and duetting in neotropical wrens 19 Figure 4. (Continued.)
20 20 Mann, Dingess, Barker, Graves & Slater phrases were overlapped 94.0% of the time (N = 319). In this species, and in felix and rutilus, there was no clear pattern concerning which sex was most likely to have its phrases overlapped. In three species, maculipectus, sclateri and mystacalis, female phrases were overlapped by those of the male more often than vice versa for each of the 5 7 pairs sampled. Conversely, in fasciatoventris and coraya, pairs tended to show more overlapping of the male phrases. For specific details of individual phrase structure for this group of eight species, see Appendix. Three of the four Pheugopedius species not yet discussed in detail, genibarbis, euophrys and eisenmanni, have songs that stand out from the rest. Although we have a relatively limited sample of genibarbis songs available for analysis (those donated by C. Hogan plus a small sample of recordings made by the authors), it is clear that the major part of the duet of this species is typical for Pheugopedius, and in fact closely resembles that of coraya (compare Figure 4H with Figure 4O and P). In common with that species, overlapping between male and female components occurred regularly, and the individual phrase structure is similar. The duet of genibarbis is very unusual for the group, however, in that the antiphonal interchange of phrases between the sexes was regularly preceded by an additional song component produced by the male (Figure 4O and P). We term this component the introductory phrase and, interestingly, it is a distinctive characteristic of the next group to be discussed, Cantorchilus. Just as in most Cantorchilus wrens, the Figure 4. (Continued.) Sound spectrograms of songs from wrens in the proposed genus Pheugopedius. A: black-throated wren, atrogularis, duet. B: happy wren, felix, duet. C D: speckle-breasted wren, sclateri, duets. Second duet includes double phrases by female. E: spot-breasted wren, maculipectus, duet. F G: rufous-breasted wren, rutilus, duets. H: coraya wren, coraya, duet. I: whiskered wren, mystacalis, duet. J K: introductory-type calls from male whiskered wren. L M: introductory-type calls from male black-bellied wren fasciatoventris. N: black-bellied wren, duet. O P: moustached wren, genibarbis, duets, each preceded by a male introductory phrase. Sources: O from Cindy Hogan, P from Macaulay Sound Library. Q: plain-tailed wren, euophrys, duet. Males produce both the A and C phrases, while females sing B and D. R: plain-tailed wren chorus from group of two males and four females. The number of birds singing each phrase is indicated by the number of lines drawn above. S: Inca wren, eisenmanni, chorus (probably three birds singing). Male and female contributions not identified. This spectrogram was made from a Macaulay Sound Library recording. T: Solo song phrases from sooty-headed wren, spadix. Dotted lines present on some spectrograms indicate examples from an extra category of male vocalisation (explained in the text). Time intervals for x-axis subdivisions are the same for all spectrograms. Full-size spectrograms plus soundfiles can be found at
Biology 164 Laboratory PHYLOGENETIC SYSTEMATICS Objectives 1. To become familiar with the cladistic approach to reconstruction of phylogenies. 2. To construct a character matrix and phylogeny for a group
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NIMAL ARK OR INKING SHIP? Photo Charles Smith, United States Fish and Wildlife Service Photo Dr Joseph Tobias, University of Oxford July 2007 At least 5,624 species of vertebrate animals are threatened | <urn:uuid:4a214981-df8c-492e-8e30-bb88704e828b> | {
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If you want to know more about our philosophy on homework and see why this packet is only 100 pages, read this post about our 2nd grade homework.
It’s done! It’s done! It’s done! It’s done! It’s done! It’s done! It’s done! It’s done!
There were some dark moments there. The thing about 1st grade is that it requires a LOT of pictures. So between “What on earth can I make another graph about??!?” and “How do you check comprehension on a 40 word story?” I thought this might be the end. But we pushed through (Emily up until the wee hours the night before her baby was born) and it’s finished!!
And now that the struggles are over I can appreciate that it turned out really well! I’m kind of in love with my little cuckoo clock:
This is an academically rich packet. A solid understanding of first grade concepts is a prerequisite for success in later grades, so we designed this to help students delve deep into the standards.
The language arts pages are based on a 10-day cycle. We think that phonics is the most important focus for beginning readers, so it is practiced 3 times each cycle.
Our language arts topics are:
Phonics: beginning sounds (consonants, blends, digraphs), vowel sounds, word families, and sight words.
Language: commas, ending punctuation, capitalization, etc.
Vocabulary: acquiring and practicing new words, understanding words in context, categorizing words
So that takes us to math…
This is organized around a 5-day cycle. The only difference is that measuring and telling time alternate cycles.
Place Value: lots and lots of practice with tens and ones, number names, and 10 more/10 less
Problem Solving: joining and separating problems. Later pages include part unknown and using 3 addends.
Number Practice: math fact practice (with a focus on part-part-whole understanding). Also, working with concepts of more/less (starting pictorially and moving to symbolically) and equality.
Each page is labeled with the common core standard it supports and an “I can” statement for each topic.
Remember, it’s meant to be copied back-to-back and then cut in half. You should then see day 1 literacy on one side and day 1 math on the back.
These pages cover 1st grade core standards in a developmental progression. The first pages are very basic, kindergarten level. The last pages are at end-of-year difficulty. In our Teachers Pay Teacher shop you can download a 10-page sample.
Looking for more than 100 days of homework? Try the 1st grade add-on pack. | <urn:uuid:d60edab4-568e-438f-a62b-f4231c2e257f> | {
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Non-Member Price: $18.95
NCTE Member Price: $13.95
Author(s): Renee Shea, Deborah Wilchek
The book offers a practical approach to Hurston using a range of student-centered activities for teaching Hurston’s nonfiction, short stories, and the print and film versions of Their Eyes Were Watching God.
Stock No.: 59750
With the publication of her landmark novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, Zora Neale Hurston has become a widely taught author in English classrooms across the nation. The authentic voices of her fiction and nonfiction embrace colloquial dialect and explore universal themes of relationships, self-discovery, race, and identity.
In Zora Neale Hurston in the Classroom, the eleventh book in the NCTE High School Literature Series, readers will discover new ways to share the work of this important author with students. The book offers a practical approach to Hurston using a range of student-centered activities for teaching Hurston’s nonfiction, short stories, and the print and film versions of Their Eyes Were Watching God.
This volume features numerous resources and strategies for helping students engage with Hurston’s writing. Highlights include biographical information, critical analysis, teacher-tested activities, writing assignments and student models, and discussion strategies and questions.
Zora Neale Hurston in the Classroom: “With a harp and a sword in my hands” is a useful resource that will enliven any literature classroom with exciting and enriching ideas and activities.
113 pp. 2009. Grades 9–12. ISBN 978-0-8141-5975-0. NCTE High School Literature Series.
No. 59750 $13.95 member/$18.95 nonmember
* Sample files are typically provided in PDF format and can be opened using the free Adobe®
Reader® program or a comparable viewer.
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Light is electromagnetic radiation that travels as waves.
Light has a wavelength that is visible to the eye. Visible light or, in a technical or scientific context, electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength. The Elementary particle that defines light is the photon. The three basic dimensions of light (i.e., all electromagnetic radiation) are:
Due to the Wave-particle duality of matter, light simultaneously exhibits properties of both waves and particles. The precise nature of light is one of the key questions of modern physics.
Light: Visible electromagnetic radiation.
The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye, referred to as the Balmer series. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called visible light or simply light. There are no exact bounds to the visible spectrum; a typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm, although some people may be able to perceive wavelengths from 380 to 780 nm. A light-adapted eye typically has its maximum sensitivity at around 555 nm, in the green region of the optical spectrum (see: luminosity function). The spectrum does not, however, contain all the colours that the human eyes and brain can distinguish. Brown and pink are absent, for example. See colour to understand why.
The optical spectrum includes not only visible light, but also Infrared and ultraviolet.
Speed of light.
The speed of light in a vacuum is exactly 299,792,458 metres per second (fixed by definition). Although some people speak of the "velocity of light", the word velocity is usually reserved for vector quantities, which have a direction.
The speed of light has been measured many times, by many physicists. The best early measurement in Europe is by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. By observing the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io, with a telescope, and noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, Rømer calculated that light takes about 18 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit. If he had known the diameter of the orbit in kilometres (which he didn't) he would have deduced a speed of 227,000 kilometres per second (approximately 141,050 miles per second).
The first successful measurement of the speed of light in Europe using an earthbound apparatus was carried out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several thousand metres away, and placed a rotating cog wheel in the path of the beam from the source to the mirror and back again. At a certain rate of rotation, the beam could pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau measured the speed of light as 313,000 kilometres per second.
Leon Foucault used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298,000 km/s (about 185,000 miles/s) in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's results in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mt. Wilson to Mt. San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 186,285 mi/s (299,796 km/s [1,079,265,600 km/h]). In daily use, the figures are rounded off to 300,000 km/s and 186,000 miles/s.
Refraction of light.
All light propagates at a finite speed. Even moving observers always measure the same value of c, the speed of light in vacuum, as c = 299,792,458 metres per second (186,282.397 miles per second). When light passes through a transparent substance, such as air, water or glass, its speed is reduced, and it undergoes Refraction. The reduction of the speed of light in a denser material can be indicated by the Refractive index, n, which is defined as:
Thus, n = 1 in a vacuum and n > 1 in matter.
When a beam of light enters a medium from vacuum or another medium, it keeps the same frequency and changes its wavelength. If the incident beam is not orthogonal to the edge between the media, the direction of the beam will change. Refraction of light by lenses is used to focus light in magnifying glasses, spectacles and contact lenses, microscopes and refracting telescopes.
Light and the principle of optics.
The study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed Optics. The observation and study of optical phenomena such as Rainbows offers many clues as to the nature of light as well as much enjoyment.
Colour and wavelength of light.
The different wavelengths are detected by the human eye and then interpreted by the brain as colours, ranging from red at the longest wavelengths of about 700 nm to violet at the shortest wavelengths of about 400 nm. The intervening frequencies are seen as orange, yellow, green, and blue. Note that the colour indigo is not in the light spectrum, though it was once thought to be by scientists- indigo was merely an optical illusion to the human eye.
The wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately outside the range that the human eye is able to perceive are called ultraviolet (UV) at the short wavelength (high frequency) end and Infrared (IR) at the long wavelength (low frequency) end. Some animals, such as bees, can see UV radiation while others, such as pit viper snakes, can see infrared light.
UV radiation is not normally directly perceived by humans except in a very delayed fashion, as overexposure of the skin to UV light can cause sunburn, or skin cancer, and underexposure can cause Vitamin D deficiency. However, because UV is a higher frequency radiation than visible light, it very easily can cause materials to fluoresce visible light.
cameras that can detect IR and convert it to light are called, depending on their application, night-vision cameras or infrared cameras. These are different from image intensifier cameras, which only amplify available visible light.
When intense radiation (of any frequency) is absorbed in the skin, it causes heating that can be felt. Since hot objects are strong sources of infrared radiation, IR radiation is commonly associated with this sensation. Any intense radiation that can be absorbed in the skin will have the same effect, however.
Measurement of light. Photometry.
The following quantities and units are used to measure the quantity or "brightness" of light.
Light can also be characterised by:
There are many sources of light. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black body radiation. Examples include sunlight (the radiation emitted by the Chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000 K peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum), incandescent light bulbs (which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared), and glowing solid particles in flames. The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the infrared for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". The blue colour is most commonly seen in a gas flame or a welder's torch.
Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "emission lines" in the spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor lamps, etc.), and flames (light from the hot gas itselfso, for example, Sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser.
Acceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation, and Bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation.
Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence. In living things, this process is called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies produce light by this means, and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake.
Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as fluorescence. This is used in fluorescent lights. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence.
Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example of this. This mechanism is used in cathode ray tube televisions.
Certain other mechanisms can produce light.
Theories about light. Indian theories...
In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th5th century BC, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.
On the other hand, the Vaisheshika school gives an atomic theory of the physical world on the non-atomic ground of ether, space and time. (See Indian atomism.) The basic atoms are those of earth (prthivi), water (apas), fire (tejas), and air (vayu), that should not be confused with the ordinary meaning of these terms. These atoms are taken to form binary molecules that combine further to form larger molecules. Motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as the "the seven rays of the sun".
Later in 499, Aryabhata, who proposed a heliocentric Solar System of gravitation in his Aryabhatiya, wrote that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun.
The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignaga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles.
Greek and Hellenistic theories about light.
In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from the eyes and rays from a source such as the sun.
In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote Optica, in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes ones eyes, then opens them at night. Of course if the beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem.
In 55 BC, Lucretius, a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists, wrote:
"The light and heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." - On the nature of the Universe.
Despite being remarkably similar to how we think of light today, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted and light was still theorized as emanating from the eye.
Ptolemy (c. 2nd century) wrote about the Refraction of light, and developed a theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes.
Optical theory of light.
The Muslim scientist Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (c. 965-1040), also known as Alhazen in the West, developed a broad theory that explained vision, using geometry and Anatomy, which stated that each point on an illuminated area or object radiates light rays in every direction, but that only one ray from each point, which strikes the eye perpendicularly, can be seen. The other rays strike at different angles and are not seen. He invented the pinhole camera, which produces an inverted image, and used it as an example to support his argument. This contradicted Ptolemy's theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes. Alhazen held light rays to be streams of minute particles that travelled at a finite speed. He improved Ptolemy's theory of the refraction of light, and went on to discover the laws of refraction.
He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colours. His major work Kitab al-Manazir was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as well his book dealing with the colours of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like shadows, eclipses, the rainbow. He also attempted to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the sun and the moon when near the horizon. Through these extensive researches on optics, Al-Haytham is considered the father of modern Optics.
Al-Haytham also correctly argued that we see objects because the sun's rays of light, which he believed to be streams of tiny particles travelling in straight lines, are reflected from objects into our eyes. He understood that light must travel at a large but finite velocity, and that refraction is caused by the velocity being different in different substances. He also studied spherical and parabolic mirrors, and understood how refraction by a lens will allow images to be focused and magnification to take place. He understood mathematically why a spherical mirror produces aberration.
The 'plenum' of light.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) held that light was a disturbance of the plenum, the continuous substance of which the universe was composed. In 1637 he published a theory of the Refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descarte's was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was on the right track in terms of assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media. As a result, Descartes' theory is often regarded as the forerunner of the wave theory of light.
Particle theory of light.
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age, and preferred his view to Descartes' theory of the plenum. He stated in his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from a source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the Diffraction of light (which had been observed by Francesco Grimaldi) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the aether.
Newton's theory could be used to predict the reflection of light, but could only explain Refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his Opticks of 1704. His reputation helped the particle theory of light to dominate physics during the 18th century.
Wave theory of light.
In the 1660s, Robert Hooke published a Wave theory of light. Christian Huygens worked out his own wave theory of light in 1678, and published it in his Treatise on light in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the Luminiferous aether. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.
The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted in the 18th century by Thomas Young), and that light could be polarized. Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light, and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in the eye.
Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler. He argued in Nova theoria lucis et colorum (1746) that Diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory.
Later, Augustin-Jean Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light, and presented it to the Academie des Sciences in 1817. Simeon Denis Poisson added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favour of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory.
The weakness of the wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. A hypothetical substance called the Luminiferous aether was proposed, but its existence was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson-Morley experiment.
Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied the opposite. At that time, the speed of light could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was Leon Foucault, in 1850. His result supported the wave theory, and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned.
Electromagnetic theory of light.
In 1845, Michael Faraday discovered that the angle of polarization of a beam of light as it passed through a polarizing material could be altered by a magnetic field, an effect now known as Faraday rotation. This was the first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism. Faraday proposed in 1847 that light was a high-frequency electromagnetic vibration, which could propagate even in the absence of a medium such as the ether.
Faraday's work inspired James Clerk Maxwell to study electromagnetic radiation and light. Maxwell discovered that self-propagating electromagnetic waves would travel through space at a constant speed, which happened to be equal to the previously measured speed of light. From this, Maxwell concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation: he first stated this result in 1862 in On Physical Lines of Force. In 1873, he published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, which contained a full mathematical description of the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields, still known as Maxwell's equations. Soon after, Heinrich Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theory experimentally by generating and detecting radio waves in the laboratory, and demonstrating that these waves behaved exactly like visible light, exhibiting properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference. Maxwell's theory and Hertz's experiments led directly to the development of modern radio, radar, television, electromagnetic imaging, and wireless communications.
Light and the special theory of relativity.
The wave theory was wildly successful in explaining nearly all optical and electromagnetic phenomna, and was a great triumph of nineteenth century physics. By the late nineteenth century, however, a handful of experimental anomalies remained that could not be explained by or were in direct conflict with the wave theory. One of these anomalies involved a controversy over the speed of light. The constant speed of light predicted by Maxwell's equations and confirmed by the Michelson-Morley experiment contradicted the mechanical laws of motion that had been unchallenged since the time of Galileo, which stated that all speeds were relative to the speed of the observer. In 1905, Albert Einstein resolved this paradox by revising Newton's laws of motion to account for the constancy of the speed of light. Einstein formulated his ideas in his special theory of relativity, which radically altered humankind's understanding of space and time. Einstein also demonstrated a previously unknown fundamental equivalence between energy and mass with his famous equation.
where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.
Particle theory of light revisited.
Another experimental anomaly was the photoelectric effect, by which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an electric current to flow across an applied voltage. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency, rather than the intensity, of the light. Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations clearly contradicted the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein solved this puzzle as well, this time by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially by great skepticism among established physicists. But eventually Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect would triumph, and it ultimately formed the basis for Wave-particle duality and much of quantum mechanics.
Quantum theory of light.
A third anomaly that arose in the late nineteenth century involved a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by thermal radiators, or so-called black bodies. Physicists struggled with this problem, which later became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe, unsuccessfully for many years. In 1900, Max Planck developed a new theory of black body radiation that explained the observed spectrum correctly. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called quanta, and the particle of light was given the name photon, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the electron and Proton. A photon has an energy, E, proportional to its frequency, f, by
where h is Planck's constant, is the wavelength and c is the speed of light. Likewise, the momentum p of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength:
As it originally stood, this theory did not explain the simultaneous wave- and particle-like natures of light, though Planck would later work on theories that did. In 1918, Planck received the Nobel Prize in physics for his part in the founding of quantum theory.
Light wave-particle duality
The modern theory that explains the nature of light is Wave-particle duality, described by Albert Einstein in the early 1900s, based on his work on the photoelectric effect and Planck's results. Einstein determined that the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency. More generally, the theory states that everything has both a particle nature and a wave nature, and various experiments can be done to bring out one or the other. The particle nature is more easily discerned if an object has a large mass, so it took until an experiment by Louis de Broglie in 1924 to realise that electrons also exhibited wave-particle duality. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work with the wave-particle duality on photons, and de Broglie followed in 1929 for his extension to other particles.
Quantum electrodynamics of light.
The quantum mechanical theory of light and electromagnetic radiation continued to evolve through the 1920's and 1930's, and culminated with the development during the 1940's of the theory of quantum electrodynamics, or QED. This so-called Quantum field theory is among the most comprehensive and experimentally successful theories ever formulated to explain a set of natural phenomena. QED was developed primarily by physicists Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga. Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions.
References to light.
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Universe - Galaxies and Stars: Links and Contacts
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A well-known supervolcano eruption occurred 600,000 years ago in Wyoming in the United States, creating a huge crater called a caldera, in the centre of what today is Yellowstone National Park. When the volcano exploded, it ejected more than 1000 km3 of ash and lava into the atmosphere, 100 times more than Mt Pinatubo in the Philippines did in 1992. Big volcanic eruptions have a major impact on the global climate. The Mt Pinatubo eruption decreased the global temperature by 0.4 degrees C for a few months. The predictions for a super volcano are a fall in temperatures by 10 degrees C for 10 years.
According to a 2005 report by the Geological Society of London, “Even science fiction cannot produce a credible mechanism for averting a super-eruption. We can, however, work to better understand the mechanisms involved in super-eruptions, with the goal of being able to predict them ahead of time and provide a warning for society. Preparedness is the key to mitigation of the disastrous effects of a super-eruption.”
The mechanisms that trigger supervolcano eruptions have remained elusive to date. The main reason is that the processes inside a supervolcano are different from those in conventional volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo which are better understood. A supervolcano possesses a much larger magma chamber and it is always located in an area where the heat flow from the interior of the Earth to the surface is very high. As a consequence, the magma chamber is very large and hot but also plastic: its shape changes as a function of the pressure when it gradually fills with hot magma. This plasticity allows the pressure to dissipate more efficiently than in a normal volcano whose magma chamber is more rigid. Supervolcanoes therefore do not erupt very often.
So what changes in the lead up to an eruption? Wim Malfait explains: “The driving force is an additional pressure which is caused by the different densities of solid rock and liquid magma. It is comparable to a football filled with air under water, which is forced upwards by the denser water around it“.
Whether this additional pressure alone could eventually become sufficiently high to crack the Earth's crust, leading to a violent eruption, or whether an external energy source like an Earthquake is required has only now been answered.
Whilst it is virtually impossible to drill a hole into the magma chamber of a supervolcano given the depth at which these chambers are buried, one can simulate these extreme conditions in the laboratory. “The synchrotron X-rays at the ESRF can then be used to probe the state – liquid or solid – and the change in density when magma crystallises into rock”
says Mohamed Mezouar, scientist at the ESRF and member of the team. Jean-Philippe Perrillat from the Laboratory of Geology of CNRS, Université Lyon 1 and ENS Lyon adds: “Temperatures of up to 1700 degrees and pressures of up to 36,000 atmospheres can be reached inside the so-called Paris-Edinburgh press, where speck-sized rock samples are placed between the tips of two tungsten carbide anvils and then heated with a resistive furnace. This special set-up was used to accurately determine the density of the liquid magma over a wide range of pressures and temperatures.”
Magma often includes water, which as vapour adds additional pressure. The scientists also determined magma densities as a function of water content.
The results of their measurements showed that the pressure resulting from the differences in density between solid and liquid magma rock is sufficient in itself to crack more than ten kilometres of Earth's crust above the magma chamber. Carmen Sanchez-Valle concludes: “Our research has shown that the pressure is actually large enough for the Earth's crust to break. The magma penetrating into the cracks will eventually reach the Earth's surface, even in the absence of water or carbon dioxide bubbles in the magma. As it rises to the surface, the magma will expand violently, which is the well known origin of a volcanic explosion.”
© ESRF/Blascha Faust
This photo shows Jean-Pierre Perrillat, one of the scientists, at the ESRF loading a speck-sized magma rock sample into the anvils of the press.
© ESRF/Blascha Faust
This photo shows the experimental set-up at the ESRF beamline. The Paris-Edinburgh press is to the left ; the magma rock sample is compressed in its centre to pressures of up to 36.000 atmospheres, and then heated by a resistor to up to 1700 degrees Celsius. The slits on the right filter the X-ray beam reaching the detector.
© ESRF/Nigel Hawtin
This artist's impression depicts the magma chamber of a supervolcano with partially molten magma at the top. The pressure from the buoyancy is sufficient to initiate cracks in the Earth's crust in which the magma can penetrate.
Malfait WJ, Seifert R, Petitgirard S, Perrillat JP, Mezouar M, Ota T, Nakamura E, Lerch P, Sanchez-Valle C: Melt buoyancy in large silicic magma chambers as viable trigger of supervolcano eruptions. Nature Geoscience 5 January 2014 (tbc) | <urn:uuid:5c8e1d39-0805-4fd2-ac72-8ef1894023a1> | {
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In 1992, remedial activities began at the Shively Service Center located in Radcliff, Kentucky. After the leaking underground storage tanks were removed from the site approximately 1,500 cubic yards of BTEX impacted soil was excavated and disposed off-site from the tank pits. Based on the review of historical sampling activities it was believed that the majority of the impacted soils were removed at that time. The soils at the site consist of highly impermeable clays with interbedded chert lenses.
The initial approach for remediation of the impacted groundwater at the site was the installation of a groundwater pump and treat system. The pump and treat system included a 300 foot long extraction trench, two collection sumps, and groundwater recovery pumps. This extraction system operated until the late 1990's. Based on the results from the June 2001 groundwater sampling, it can be concluded that the pump and treat system had minimal effect on cleanup of the groundwater at the site. A total of approximately $730,000 had been spent on remedial efforts through the end of 2000.
In 2001, the Owner entered into a Pay for Performance (PFP) contract with the State of Kentucky Office of Petroleum Storage Tank Environmental Assurance Fund to complete the remedial efforts at the Shively site for approximately $270,000. The first activity conducted under the PFP was 8-quarterly mobile multiphase extraction events. The multiphase extraction events provided minimal reductions In BTEX concentrations in the groundwater at the site. Two pilot test injections using hydrogen peroxide and ORC® separately at different locations were also implemented with similar results (minimal reductions in BTEX concentrations). | <urn:uuid:14ee16df-8376-4584-9009-ad5daf58b4e2> | {
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Seven Arrows is an environmentally conscious school. Since its founding, it has been proactive in a host of sustainable initiatives, including cultivating edible vegetables on school property. Thanks to the dedication of our founding families and educators to cultivating healthy and environmentally conscious children, our school has a long tradition of guiding students in understanding their relationship to nature and the cycles of the natural world.
The leadership and inspiration of Jamie Oliver, master chef and food revolutionary and a former Seven Arrows parent, have energized the school’s efforts to change the way we think about food and how food systems work (from production to distribution to cooking and eating what we grow). Jamie Oliver’s strategy for creating a worldwide food transformation begins with changing the relationship Americans have with food. Seven Arrows is proud to be at the forefront of this good-food movement with its on-campus edible garden, created in the spring of 2015.
The Edible Garden is an outdoor classroom that is integrated into our science, Service Learning, Spanish, math, and Global Cultures curricula. Our students plant, harvest, cook, and eat the “fruits” of their labor, gaining hands-on experience that will leave a lifelong imprint on their relationship to food, water, and the natural world.
Woolly Pocket garden planters brim with plants, herbs, and vegetables on virtually every outdoor surface of the Seven Arrows campus. These planters maximize growing potential and are one of several innovative ideas we hope will inspire other organizations interested in urban edible gardens. Visitors can test their knowledge of fruit trees (or learn from the beautiful signs) as they stroll through the campus.
With the power of our community behind us, Seven Arrows can achieve exceptional things. This shining example of sustainable living would not have been possible without the vision and hard work of our parent community and Jamie Oliver’s generosity in underwriting the effort. | <urn:uuid:abf2ed81-c778-4dee-bbef-610ab4944731> | {
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Differentiated Activities for Teaching Key Math Skills, Gr. 2-3
Targets a specific skill at three levels: remedial, on-target, and advanced!
This collection provides teachers with the materials they need to differentiate math instruction for the range of learners in their classes.
Every set of activities targets a specific skill at three levels - below-level, on-level, and above-level.
The activity set begins with a reproducible data sheet that features a set of high-interest data, such as an ordered pair sequence with a secret code. Teachers select the appropriate skill sheet for each student, and students use the data sheet to answer questions at their level.
Topics include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, graphing, geometry, measurement, and more! | <urn:uuid:c2198d4c-b280-48a0-b7f8-3060bed8f1b7> | {
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The Bar Kochba Revolt
Messianic figure Simeon Bar Kochba led the Jews in a failed revolt against Roman rule.
Reprinted with permission from From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism (Ktav).
The debacle of the first revolt against Rome was followed by a period of relative calm. Yet during the years of rule by the autonomous Hillelite patriarchs and the leaders of the tannaitic academies, problems were brewing, both inside and outside the Land of Israel. These developments took place despite the separation of Judea from the province of Syria and the appointment of higher‑level Roman governors of senatorial rank. In particular, the need to pay a capitation tax to the Temple of Jupiter in Rome must have made the Jews very unhappy.
It was not until the reign of the Roman emperor Trajan (98-117 C.E.) that the problems came to the surface. In 115‑117 C.E., while Trajan was occupied in Mesopotamia, Jews throughout the Diaspora rose up against their non‑Jewish neighbors in a violent confrontation. Before long pitched battles were being fought in Egypt. The Jews of Cyrene (in North Africa) were said to have massacred their neighbors. Similar disturbances followed in Cyprus and Mesopotamia. The Roman general Lucius Quietus, ferocious in putting down the Mesopotamian revolt, was rewarded with the governorship of Palestine. When Hadrian became emperor in 117 C.E. he had to spend his first year mopping up the last of the rebels. The Land of Israel seems to have been involved in these battles only to a limited extent.
What is especially significant in these disturbances is the evidence that they were fueled by the very same messianic yearnings that had helped to fan the flames of the Great Revolt, and would soon lead to the Bar Kokhba Revolt. To be sure, other social, economic, and political causes were at work, especially a general decline in relations between Jews and their neighbors in the Hellenistic world, but when these finally led to the of a rebellion, it was the belief in a messianic future that made possible the leap of faith to the belief that the revolt might succeed.
Early in the time of Hadrian there was an abortive attempt to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple, believed by some scholars to have had Hadrian's support. The failure of this effort was another great disappointment for the Jewish community of Palestine. Soon after, Hadrian founded a city of his own in Jerusalem called Aelia Capitolina, where he erected a temple to Zeus. It is also probable that Hadrian prohibited circumcision even before the Bar Kokhba Revolt, although some see the outlawing of circumcision as a measure enacted after the uprising had begun, much like the persecutions of Antiochus IV. It was in this context, as well as on the basis of the strong messianic yearnings we have observed already, that some elements in the Jewish population of Palestine began preparing for revolt in the 120's.
Did you like this article? MyJewishLearning is a not-for-profit organization. | <urn:uuid:dd963688-32cb-4299-8e22-433ed221833f> | {
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Antioxidants Relieve Pain of Chronic Pancreatitis
For patients who suffer frequent sharp abdominal pain from chronic pancreatitis, antioxidants may offer effective pain relief, according to a study recently published in Gastroenterology, the journal of the American Gastroenterological Association Institute.
The initial symptom for 90 percent of those who suffer from chronic pancreatitis, an inflammatory disease, is abdominal pain, which often progresses to maldigestion-the incomplete digestion of food-and diabetes. The damage and pain are thought to be due to organ injury that may be caused by free radicals, highly unstable oxygen atoms. Antioxidants are chemical compounds that many scientists believe can protect cells from the damage caused by oxidation.
To test the pain relief ability of antioxidants, researchers conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with 127 chronic pancreatitis patients whose ages ranged from 20 to 41 years. One group received antioxidants, the other a placebo.
After six months, the scientists noted a significant reduction in the abdominal pain experienced by the antioxidant group. That group averaged 7.4 fewer painful days per month of abdominal pain than at the beginning of the study. The placebo group averaged a 3.2-day reduction in painful days per month.
The researchers also found that the antioxidant group lowered its consumption of analgesic tablets by an average of 10.5 per month, compared to the placebo group's average of 4.4 fewer tablets per month.
Ultimately, 32 percent of the antioxidant group members were pain-free by the end of the study, versus 13 percent of the placebo group.
Aside from the finding that antioxidants offer effective pain relief for a disease that often frustrates attempts to mitigate the suffering it causes, the study also indicates that injury to the pancreas caused by free radicals may be reversible.
On a more practical level, the ability to control chronic pancreatitis pain may lead to fewer days lost at work and a reduction in the stress caused by severe pain.Click Here To View Or Post Comments | <urn:uuid:b127ef6f-2370-4bc4-8208-d2f5f9172daf> | {
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Australian Bird Names is aimed at anyone with an interest in birds, words, or the history of Australian biology and bird-watching. It discusses common and scientific names of every Australian bird, to tease out the meanings, which may be useful, useless or downright misleading!The authors examine every species: its often many-and-varied common names, its full scientific name, with derivation, translation and a guide to pronunciation. Stories behind the name are included, as well as relevant aspects of biology, conservation and history. Original descriptions, translated by the authors, have been sourced for many species. As well as being a book about names this is a book about the history of ever-developing understandings of birds, about the people who contributed and, most of all, about the birds themselves. 2013 Whitley Award Commendation for Zoological Resource. | <urn:uuid:97a8bc1a-e282-462d-a3a5-a66281a31ef0> | {
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In 'Choose The Analogous Pair' type, a pair of words is given, followed by four pairs of words as alternatives. The candidate is required to choose the pair in which the words bear the same relationship to each other as the words of the given pair bear.
Oak : Coniferous
Oak belongs to the class of coniferous trees.
Similarly, chimpanzee belongs to the class of apes. | <urn:uuid:549b4eef-0bc4-4f88-b73e-eb2b4fb873d2> | {
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1080 is the vertical pixel of a resolution 1920 x 1080; the number of horizontal pixels is implied from context and is
often omitted. The lower-case i denotes interlaced and the lower-case progressive.
High definition television (HDTV) has much more number of lines of resolution and produces better quality image
by about 2 to 5 times than standard television. Resolution is defined as number of horizontal pixels x number of
vertical pixels, for example 1280 x 720 or 1920 x 1080. Often the number of horizontal pixels is implied from
context and is omitted.
The resolution number is appended with i or p; the lower-case i denotes interlaced and the lower-case p
progressive. With the interlaced scanning method (when the notation is 1080i), the 1,080 lines of resolution are
divided into pairs. The first 540 alternate lines are painted on a frame and then the second 540 lines are painted
on a second frame. The progressive scanning method (when the notation is 1080p) simultaneously displays all
1,080 lines on every frame with better quality pictures, requiring greater bandwidth.
The notation can also be appended with scanning rate like 1080160,1080p30, or 720p60. The numbers after i or
p are scanning rate per second. For commercial naming of a product, the frame rate is often dropped.
802.11 and 802.11 x refers to a family of standards developed by IEEE for wireless LAN technology. Popular
standards are 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n.
Alternating Current Adapter; when plugged to AC Power (usually 117VAC/60HZ in the United States) it produces
12VDC, 24VAC or others. "UL Listed" and "Regulated" recommended. It is also called Power Transformer. More
Alternating Current Power. In the United States, the standard AC Power is single-phase 117VAC/60HZ and is
provided from power outlets in the house. 24V AC power can be produced from an AC Adapter
AGC (Automatic Gain Control) | <urn:uuid:3a9f8a28-46e3-4d38-9ce2-a2eaa95e1a86> | {
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Prior to state ownership in the late 1970's this site in Double Trouble State Park was harvested and a forest stand never regenerated. Then in June 1992 an intense fire burned over 5,000 acres of land. 35 of these acres became the site for the planting of 22,500 trees by the New Jersey Bureau of Forest Management. Native pitch and shortleaf pine were planted as well as a mixture of oaks for species diversity. Additionally, a wildlife feed strip/firebreak was established on the west and south sides of the sites and were planted with partridge pea and native fescue grasses, which are fire tolerant. The area is used for recreational activities such as hunting, horseback riding and bird watching.
This project was supported by our corporate partner, the Alcoa Foundation.
View all New Jersey projects | View all 1994 projects |
Back To Main
1220 L Street, NW, Suite 750 • Washington, DC • 20005 • Phone: 202-737-1944
© 2015 American Forests. All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:7152c129-c46a-470b-b94d-3befdc7d9380> | {
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New Delhi, Nov. 4 -- The beginning of India's history has been pushed back by more than 2,000 years, making it older than that of Egypt and Babylon. Latest research has put the date of the origin of the Indus Valley Civilisation at 6,000 years before Christ, which contests the current theory that the settlements around the Indus began around 3750 BC.
Ever since the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in the early 1920s, the civilisation was considered almost as old as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The finding was announced at the "International Conference on Harappan Archaeology", recently organised by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in Chandigarh.
Based on their research, BR Mani, ASI joint director general, and KN Dikshit, former ASI joint director general, said in a presentation: "The preliminary results of the data from early sites of the Indo-Pak subcontinent suggest that the Indian civilisation emerged in the 8th millennium BC in the Ghaggar-Hakra and Baluchistan area."
"On the basis of radio-metric dates from Bhirrana (Haryana), the cultural remains of the pre-early Harappan horizon go back to 7380 BC to 6201 BC."
Excavations had been carried out at two sites in Pakistan and Bhirrana, Kunal, Rakhigarhi and Baror in India.
Published by HT Syndication with permission from Hindustan Times. | <urn:uuid:d91468af-0f5a-4c47-8960-37613e3ca592> | {
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South Carolina Relocation Guide
South Carolina, officially separated from North Carolina in 1729. It has a land area of 30,109 sq miles and has a population of 4,832,482 according to the 2014 U.S. census estimates, an increase of over 4% since 2010.
Many large corporations have moved their headquarters to South Carolina during the last economic downturn, due to the fact that South Carolina is a right-to-work state.
The State Symbols are: The flower..Carolina Yellow Jessamine, the tree…Palmetto Tree, the bird…Carolina Wren, the song…Carolina. South Carolina’s nickname is the “Palmetto State”. The name originated in honor of Charles I of England.
South Carolina’s ten largest cities are: Columbia, 116,278; Charleston, 96,650; North Charleston, 79,641; Greenville, 56,002; Rock Hill, 49,765; Mount Pleasant, 47,609; Spartanburg, 39,673; Sumter, 39,643; Hilton Head Island, 33,862; and Florence, 30,248.
South Carolina ranks third in peach production and fourth in overall tobacco production. Other top agricultural commodities include nursery and greenhouse products, watermelons, peanuts, broilers and turkeys, and cattle and calves.
South Carolina has 1,144 K-12 schools in 85 school districts, with an enrollment of 712,244 as of fall 2009. As of the 2008–2009 school year, South Carolina spent $9,450 per student which places it 31st in the country for per student spending. In 2011, the average SAT score for South Carolina was 1360
For more South Carolina relocation information, visit the South Carolina Wikipedia. | <urn:uuid:d72a9347-ae5c-4ddb-9a21-17eee472d688> | {
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Swimming is one of the most versatile and diverse exercises that is available for nearly everyone. It is a whole body workout.
As you teach children to swim correctly, they learn that an efficient and beautiful stroke is one that uses their whole body to propel you through the water. You can focus on particular areas by changing your stroke or using swimming aids but in general, every time you swim from one end of the pool to the other, you are making changes in every part of your body.
Swimming is low-impact. There is no hitting the ground running here. This low-impact exercise can still be high intensity without the jarring and sometimes dangerous high-impact of running or contact sports. It protects joints from damage and is a good fitness option for those who have joint pain.
Swimming can be a good alternative to other sports while injured. It’s particularly important for those who play high-impact, high-level sports. When injured, professional and semi-professional players in teams can’t afford to lose their high fitness levels. For the rest of us, it’s just as important to be able to stay in shape, even if our usual running, cycling or a visit to the gym is not an option.
Swimming improves and maintains muscle tone. The resistance of water is so much greater than air. When you’re exercising on land, the force you are working against is yourself and your body weight. When swimming, you use the strokes to force against the resistance of the water, creating the perfect situation to improve the tone of your muscles. Depending on the distance and time you spend in the water, you may not bulk them up, but swimming will create a sleeker tone and shape to your muscles.
Swimming improves cardiovascular fitness. This is particularly true of those who like to ‘mix it up’. By changing the pace and time of your workouts, you train your body to breathe and pump blood more efficiently. By varying style, speed and timing within your workouts, you can do this even more quickly, and swimming can become an effective weight loss workout.
Swimming can be calming. When done properly, swimming is a combination of measured deep breathing and the stretching and contracting of muscles over time. This can have a similar effect to a session of yoga.
Swimming can be freeing. For some people, a disability, or a degeneration of the physical body can leave them feeling trapped. Swimming can be an incredible opportunity to break away from a body that is limiting on land to an environment of aquatic freedom.
Swimming is suitable for people of all ages. Babies as young as six months old can be taught to float, and the FINA world championship swimming competitions have categories with swimmers up 104 years of age. These are professional competitive swimmers who are competing on the world stage!
What makes swimming the most versatile and best sport for fitness is not necessarily the amount of weight you can lose, or how quickly you can look like a supermodel, it’s the way that it unifies people. Families, friends and strangers, people of all ages and abilities can swim for fitness and benefit from it.
Part of teaching children to swim is to make water play fun. Pool toys have been ...
Safe swimming is a topic that is brought up in the media and in homes with monotonous ...
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Last week in Juneau Alaska, about 200 sixth graders headed to the firing range to learn about firearms. Floyd Dryden Middle school runs a program that teaches the kids how to safely handle and shoot rifles, as well as hunting ethics, conservation and management, navigation and other outdoor skills.
But don’t misunderstand, just as the Second Amendment isn’t about hunting, neither is this program. Program Director Ken Coate stresses:
“We aren’t here to create little hunters. We’re here to teach firearm safety, firearm handling, how to treat a firearm with respect, how to keep a kid from getting in trouble with a firearm — and everything else is a side benefit.”
A side benefit. Meaning that the most important thing and the primary purpose of this program is to instill respect for and knowledge of firearms. I have always been a proponent of educational programs such as this so that children realize that guns in real life hold very little in common with the dramatized fiction of the movies.
With this knowledge a couple of things happen. First, the seriousness of the matter sinks in so children understand that guns are not toys. Secondly, the mystery around guns is removed so kids won’t be as tempted to seek them out in a home that has one. Thirdly, if you acclimate a child in their youth with guns there is less of a likelihood that they will grow up with that irrational fear and hatred that spawns gun control zealots.
To the earlier points, the Principal of Floyd Dryden, Tom Milliron, wrote a letter to the parents of the children before the program saying:
“Students who live in homes without firearms are often exposed to firearms in their friends’ homes. They need to understand safe and appropriate behavior in these situations.”
Now, for any parent who vehemently objects, their child does not have to participate, but my question is, why would you want to hurt your child? This is a fantastic program which teaches your child invaluable knowledge and may actually save their life. Are anti gun zealots so conceited that they would sacrifice their children in order to maintain their own misguided self righteousness?
I don’t think any of the Alaskan parents actually objected to the program. The previous paragraph was directed more to the other places in this country where they not only lack this program but hell would literally have to freeze over before it was allowed in their schools. I’m thinking firstly of New York City and other North Eastern dens of gun bias. His Mayor-ness Bloomberg’s brain would most likely explode if someone would suggest such a program in his fiefdom. When you have as much hate in your heart as Mayor Bloomberg does then little things like sacrificing children to promote your own agenda is of little consequence.
This is the kind of program that should be everywhere in America. Instead of having a tragedy befall a family because a kid thinks a gun is a toy or doesn’t have the proper respect for a firearm, why don’t we educate them so we avoid a tragedy in the first place? | <urn:uuid:bf6d4994-dbf2-4a57-a47f-4ad4d8bb958c> | {
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Far more solar radiation reaches Earth each day than is required to power all of humankind's needs, but there are several barriers to wide-scale deployable solar power. The two greatest challenges are the efficient capture of solar energy and the conversion of this energy into practically transportable, readily storable, and useful forms.
ND Energy focuses on the development of new functional materials engineered at the nanoscale to capture solar radiation, interfaced to materials that can use that energy to drive useful chemical reactions. In particular, ND Energy builds on institutional strengths to develop leading technology in highly efficient and tailored light-harvesting structures and highly efficient and selective catalytic processes for converting fuels.
Solar Photovoltaics, Solar to Fuels/Chemicals, Energy Conversion Efficiencies | <urn:uuid:c88b5023-5a13-45ae-818c-cf0c6717eca7> | {
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Dating Antiques? Check the Joinery
Editor’s Note: The age and period of antiques can often be determined by the simplest details. Worthologist Fred Taylor examines drawer joinery and Mr. Knapp’s ingenious invention.
One of the first things to be looked at when trying to determine the age of a piece of older or antique furniture is the type of joinery used in its construction. Knowing the history of the technology of various periods goes a long way toward explaining clues about the age of furniture, and none is more important (or accessible) than the type of joint used to secure a drawer.
Mostly what we see are dovetails of a sort. The interlocking dovetail joint came into general use in the William and Mary period in the late 1600s and very early 1700s, and for the first time, allowed the construction of reliable drawers, a device with extremely limited use or convenience until then. Before this innovation, most furniture consisted of simple boxes called coffers or some type of open-shelving arrangement and cabinets with shelves behind doors, such as the old court cupboard.
As useful as the dovetail joint started out to be, it did have a serious drawback—it was hard to make by hand, and of course, everything of that period was made by hand. By the end of the 18th century, some progress had been made in furniture technology. Rotary saws were on the horizon, and all nails were no longer made one at a time by a blacksmith. The early 1800s saw lots of advancement in woodworking machinery, and by the Civil War, mechanized furniture factories were on line, but the dovetail drawer joint was still a holdup.
While the joint had been refined and perfected, it was still too difficult to be made by a machine. Some progress had been made by the use of jigs to help guide the hand-powered saws in their cutting, but essentially, the dovetail was the last holdout of handwork in a machine era.
The perfect Knapp joint looks like this, an obviously machine-made feature that looks nothing like drawer joinery before or since.
Several inventors were hard at work on the problem in the 1860s, and most concentrated on trying to duplicate the handmade dovetail using a machine—that is until Mr. Charles B. Knapp of Waterloo, Wis., applied himself to the task. He did some creative thinking and solved the problem not by duplicating the dovetail joint but by inventing another type of joint entirely that was at least as good as the dovetail and could be made by machinery.
The joint he came up with has several colloquial names—scallop and dowel, pin and scallop, half-moon—and all describe the new joint, which looks like a peg in a half-circle on the side of a drawer. If you look at much old furniture, you undoubtedly have seen this unusual-looking arrangement and wondered what the heck it was. Now you know—it is a Knapp joint.
In real life, the Knapp joint is often obscured by wear and dirt on the drawer sides.
And knowing that, you also get some very valuable information about the age of the piece on which you saw the joint. Mr. Knapp patented his first joint-making machine in 1867. In 1870, he sold the rights to an improved version of the patented machine to a group of investors who formed the Knapp Dovetailing Co. in Northampton, Mass. The investors proceeded to make further refinements in the machine and actually put it into production in a factory in 1871 where it proved to be a technological miracle. Where a skilled cabinetmaker could turn out 15 or 20 complete drawers a day—on a really good day—the machine, on any day, could turn out 200 or more and work more than one shift if required. The drawer department had finally caught up with the rest of the factory.
By the mid-1870s, the great factories were in full swing turning out late-Victorian creations consisting mostly of Renaissance Revival and Eastlake furniture. While not all the great factories used the Knapp machine, particularly those of Grand Rapids, Mich., most of the Eastern factories and other mid-Western areas were faithful customers of the Knapp company. Over time, maintenance on the machines became a chore, but they were still a better alternative to handwork.
In the late 1800s, the Knapp joint was commonly found in the less-expensive version of the Renaissance Revival style called “Cottage Renaissance.” These pieces were made of inexpensive lumber and were cheaply decorated and finished.
At the very height of its greatest popularity and use, the death knell of the Knapp joint was being sounded by a new movement afoot in the furniture-design industry, and it had nothing to do with the soundness or the economy of the joint. Like so many things, its demise turned on sentiment.
That sentiment was the beginning of the Colonial Revival—the resurrection of things in style during the era of the founding of our country. And a round, technical-looking, obviously machine-made drawer joint just did not fit that image. At about the same time, machinery that did simulate the handmade dovetail was perfected, and by 1900, the Knapp joint had almost completely disappeared from the American furniture scene.
So now you know that a piece of antique furniture with those odd little drawer joints was made between 1871 and around 1905 without a doubt. | <urn:uuid:f6fd1715-9a77-4b58-b6cb-1ae4ae332928> | {
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THE Goldschmidt thermite process has now become so firmly established in various industries, that we accept it more or less as a matter of course, and have almost ceased to be stirred by the spectacular liberation of energy which accompanies its application to various purposes of ordinary industrial use. When,. however, such a gigantic operation as the welding of a fourteen-inch shaft is in progress, even the most cold-blooded witness must wonder at the fierce intensity of the reaction and at the perfect control under which it is kept. Most violent reactions are explosive in character, owing to the disengagement of large volumes of heated gas. The thermite reaction has the great advantage that all substances taking part therein, both the initial material and the products, are solid. A rock crusher belonging to the North River Stone Company, Kingston, N. Y., was recently disabled by the fracture of the central sbaft. The construction and mode of working of this crusher can be gathered from the accompanying illustration. A vertical shaft S is suspended from, a head H, and extends axially through the crusher-chamber C, the walls of which are faced with a lining L. A similar lining L' is placed around the working face of the conical portion of the shaft. The latter, at its lower extremity, is held in an eccentric bearing E, which is rotated in the casing of the crusher by the gear G through the beveled pinion B and pulley P. The motion of the shaft is that of a conical pendulum, that is to say, its upper extremity is fixed, while the lower end travels around in a circle. There is no rotation about the axis of the shaft. The rock is fed into the crusher,chamber, and is there ground between the lining of the hopper-walls and the sleeve of the shaft, as the latter revolves in its eccentric orbit, thus periodically approaching toward and receding from a given point of the chamber wall. The ground rock issues at the side by a chute. The break occurred near th! point where the lower cylindrical portion of the shaft joins the tapering conical part. (The location of the fracture is indicated in the drawing by an arrow.) The shaft here measures 14 inches in diameter, while at its thickest part it Is 22 inches across. The total length is 18 feet, and the weight about seven tons. The accident to the shaft meant a period of idleness of at the very least six or eight weeks if a new shaft were ordered. The owners of the plant therefore turned their thoughts to the possibilities of repairing the damage by the aid of the Goldschmidt process. This plan was ultimately realized with a saving of several weeks' time and at about one-third the cost of a new shaft. The broken member was shipped to the works of the Goldschmidt Thermite Compa n y, at Jersey City, The fractured surface was pared off with the oxygen blast, taking away in all about 2% inches. The two portions of the shaft were then mounted upon a solid concrete bed, so as to secure perfect alinement, with the space of about two and one·half inches left open between the two ends that were to be welded. The first step toward effecting the weld is to prepare the mold. For this purpose a (wax pattern of the finished joint is first formed atout the ends to be joined, and the mold, of equal pr(Portions of f're clay, ground fire bricl and fire sand, is then built up around the shaft, leaving of course channels for pouring in the charge, a riser to allow for the contraction-of the cooling metal, and a blast hole, for the Introduction of a gasoline compressed-air torch, to preheat Section through rock crusher, The shaft broke at the point rark;d by an arrow. the mold and casting before welding, During the actual operation this blast hole is plugged. The mold is enclosed in sheet iron walls, and this completes the welding furnace. During the preheating, which occupied in this case about ten hours, the wax pattern of course melts away, leaving a free space for the metal of the welded joint. About the furnace is built a wooden scaffolding of trestles, which supports the hoppers containing the charge of thermite, as seen in one of our illustrations. It may seem odd that wood should be used for this structure, since it has to withstand not only the heat of the furnace during the preheating operation, but also the assault of the spattering charge and slag during the reaction. As a matter of fact wood serves its purpose quite satisfactorily, for though it has to be continually watched and kept moistened, and is pretty sure to catch fire during the reaction, it holds up very well even under these strenuous conditions, while an iron structure would be cut right through by any of the molten charge falling upon it. The charge consisted of 1,100 pounds of thermite, mixed with 25 per cent of small steel punchings, 1 per cent of chromium thermite, and 1 per cent pure carbon-free manganese. This charge of thermite, exclusive of steel punchings, is about enough to make 600 pounds of steel. The reaction temperature is about 5,400 deg. F. After adding a teaspoonful of ignition powder (barium peroxide and aluminium flake) to each hopper, the reaction is started by introducing a red hot iron bolt. A flash, a glare, a hiss and sputter, and clouds of smoke envelop all, as the elements wrestle in fierce combat for union with the coveted oxygen: the greater affinity of the aluminium quickly asserts itself, and after a forty seconds' round the iron is vanquished, thrown out of combination and enslaved in the service of man, About one minute is allowed to lapse in order to allow the slag to separate, then the tap-holes of the hoppers are pushed open, and the white-hot molten charge runs into the mold, flling the space prepared for it, and effecting the union of the adjoining ends of the broken shaft. The main part of the work is now done. It only remains to allow the iron to cool-a matter of some forty hours-and the mold can be broken away, exposing the welded joint to view. The excrescences left by the pouring holes and the riser are cut off with the oxygen blast, and the job is completed-for in this particular case there is no need of machining the welded joint. The repair of the crusher shaft was thus effected with complete success, giving one more striking example of the wonderful possibilities of the Goldschmidt thermite process. Horse-power and Man-power IN connection with steamship propulsion the average man is apt to speak very glibly of so many hundred, or thousand, horse-power. But, says the Railway ana Locomotive Engineering, it is extremely doubtful if one person in a hundred really has a due appreciation of what the phrase actually means. On this point some very interesting remarks were made at the last annual dinner of the Scottish staff of Lloyd's Register by Mr. John Heck, the Glasgow engineer surveyor to the society. Propos in; the toast of “shipbuilding and engineering,” he said that, calculating the strength of twelve men to be equal to one horsepower, it would require 840,000 men to produce as much energy as the 70,000 horse-power developed by the turbine machinery of the expres'S Cunarder “Lusitania.” Then, if the men were to work on the eight-hour day system those figures would give a total of 2,520,000, that being the number of men whose strength would be necessary to drive the vessel across the Atlantic Ocean. So it would take all the men in Scotland to supply the energy produced all the day round by the wonderful turbine machinery of this great ship.
This article was originally published with the title "Welding a Fourteen-inch Shaft by the Thermite Process" | <urn:uuid:fef37ebb-aebc-45c2-beab-c139f81a6f2e> | {
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Mandatory drug testing of employees is highly controversial. Some feel it is an unnecessary expense that results in unwarranted job loss due to urine analyses that are unrelated to job performance. Others feel it is a way of protecting employers and even society in general from being hurt by drug-impaired workers. This complicated issue may be boiled down to a few different viewpoints; however, as with many ethics debates, we as a society may never agree upon the answer.
Ethics is the field of moral philosophy. The field of ethics studies how and from where we get our sense of morality. It studies our shared values of right and wrong and looks at how we apply our morals to large social issues, such as animal rights, capital punishment and drug testing at places of employment.
Critics of drug testing at work often cite a worker's right to privacy. If an employer asks for a urine sample at work and the urine indicates that the employee took a substance the night before, this is not relevant to the work or the place of employment. The employee took a drug while on her own time, and she is not under the influence of the drug while at work. Therefore, it is none of the employer's business what the employee does on her personal time.
Proponents of drug testing at work sometimes argue that taking drugs does have an affect upon a worker's performance. Drug testing may indicate that an employee is currently under the influence of a drug. Drug use may impair a worker's efficiency and it is not fair that the employer pay full wages to a drug-impaired employee. In order to be fair to the employer, the employee must be able to work at full capacity.
The other argument often made in support of employee drug testing is the safety of everyone. For example, a truck driver who has been drinking puts the lives of many innocent people at risk if he drives while under the influence. Also, if the truck driver hits and kills a family while driving his truck for work, the employer is liable for the damages. In this case, the employer has the potential for massive monetary losses if the employee takes drugs, and the drug testing may help alleviate this risk.
Whether drug testing is seen as a good idea or a bad idea, it has a negative affect on employee morale. Many view it as an authoritarian action, and it gives employees a sense of powerlessness. | <urn:uuid:d826bc4c-33b3-4830-9ec1-98e17bf834f3> | {
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‘Natural causes’ blamed for Peru dolphin deaths
LIMA — Nearly 900 dolphins that washed up along Peru’s northern coast since the start of the year died of natural causes, a top official said Tuesday, citing a government report.
Environmental groups, however, remained unconvinced and said they were certain the massive dolphin die-off was linked to offshore oil exploration in the area.
“We have reached the conclusion that the deaths were from natural causes,” said Gladys Trevino, Peru’s Production Minister, speaking on local radio as she announced the results of a government investigation.
Trevino said the study by the government-run Institute of Peru’s Ocean (IMARPE) had ruled out other explanations such as offshore oil exploration or viral or bacterial infections.
“It’s not the first time that this has happened,” she said, pointing to what she said were similar mass dolphin die-offs in Australia, New Zealand and other countries.
Peruvian officials had already suggested that the dolphins, along with some 5,000 dead sea birds — mostly pelicans — died due to the effects of rising temperatures in Pacific waters.
The Scientific Organization for the Conservation of Aquatic Animals, known by its Spanish acronym ORCA, has said the dolphin deaths were linked to the noise from oil exploration.
A representative from ORCA said the group earlier this month tested 30 dead dolphins and found broken ears and damaged organs consistent with the victims suffering “the bends,” also known as decompression sickness. | <urn:uuid:844ad2fa-854f-4311-a78e-018ae7a13025> | {
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Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India
Michael Bergunder, Heiko Frese, Ulrike Schröder
Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010 - Religion - 386 pages
The volume "Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South Asia" edited by Michael Bergunder, Heiko Frese, and Ulrike Schroder focuses on South India during the colonial period in the 19th and 20th century. The study's purpose is to explore the impact that notions of ritual, caste, and religion had on Indian society during the time. The various authors give detailed analyses of Tamil and Telugu sources, emphasizing the historical background by accenting the newly established print media of the time. They show how these concepts played a crucial role in the formation of social, cultural, and religious identities, and with this vitally contribute to the history of colonisation in India.
What people are saying - Write a review
Nattar (Not Nadar) , Nadalvan are administrative titles only this has got nothing to do with the present days nadar or the shanna's or the so called shandalan's, this titles were given to many castes in tamilnadu i.e Vellalar, Mukholathor, Palli, even some pulayars were given this title, hence it is totally wrong or irrelevant to claim the Nattar and Nadalvan as shannar's
Vemulawada Bheemakavi was a great Telugu Poet. Now i am doing research on Vemulawada Bheemakavi, so please provide this article.
Please follow the link for complete story on Shri Vemulawada Bheemakavi: www.shribheemalingeswaraswamy.org
Please mail soft copy to [email protected] or [email protected]
I M Nallaswamy
Maraimalai Adigal 18761950
Saiva defiance against
No religion but ritual? Robert Caldwell
Tamilspeaking Muslims and
C J Fuller and Ilari priya Narasimhan
T Velawda Mudaliar s N hidamharam Iyer on the message | <urn:uuid:262ba367-f109-4f14-a170-430d30842c36> | {
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Beaches of the Municipality of Castro Marim
The municipality stretches from the inland hills covered with wild flowers to the sea, following the banks of the River Guadiana until quite close to its mouth. The water overflowing from the great southern river has flooded large areas of land, giving rise to the planting of orchards and allotments, but above all creating one of the planet’s most productive habitats: the salt-marsh. The Sapal de Castro Marim and Vila Real de Santo António Nature Reserve, with its river branches, canals, mudflats and dazzling white salt-pans, is home to a great diversity of plants and animals, but it is the birds, the flamingos, black-winged stilts, avocets, etc., that are the really distinctive feature of the habitat.
The municipality’s four beaches are part of the same stretch of sand, a thin strip of land that links the estuary of the River Guadiana to the Ria Formosa lagoon system, framed by the deep green pinewoods growing on the gently undulating sand dunes. The human occupation of the municipality dates back to the Neolithic period (roughly 5000 years BC) and there are traces of an old Roman fort located on the hill of Castro Marim, where there now stands the Moorish castle, benefiting from its strategic and lofty position overlooking the River Guadiana and the border region with Spain. | <urn:uuid:eb527a82-c381-476f-9746-9916f4d73430> | {
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Volume 11, Number 3—March 2005
Fever Screening at Airports and Imported Dengue
Airport fever screening in Taiwan, July 2003–June 2004, identified 40 confirmed dengue cases. Results obtained by capture immunoglobulin (Ig) M and IgG enzyme-linked immunoassay, real time 1-step polymerase chain reaction, and virus isolation showed that 33 (82.5%) of 40 patients were viremic. Airport fever screening can thus quickly identify imported dengue cases.
Dengue viruses are arboviruses that cause substantial human disease in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, especially in urban and semiurban areas. Because of its high endemicity in many countries in the Western Pacific, Southeast Asia, and South American regions, dengue has become an important public health problem in most nations in these areas (1). Dengue is not considered endemic in Taiwan, however, and the constant importation of dengue viruses from the neighboring Southeast Asian countries through close commercial links and air travel is believed to cause local outbreaks (2,3). Until now, local outbreaks, which are most frequent in the summer and fall, have each been caused by a single imported dengue virus strain that disappears when each outbreak ends. Because waves of relatively cold temperature of ≈10°C cause low mosquito density in winter, winter outbreaks are rare, with the exceptions of large outbreaks in 1915–1916, 1942–1943, 1987–1988, and 2001–2002. Outbreaks occur mainly in southern Taiwan, where Aedes aegypti and A. albopictus coexist, and rarely occur in central and northern Taiwan, where only A. albopictus exist. The dengue hemorrhagic fever cases in Taiwan are highly correlated with increasing age and secondary dengue virus infection (4; J-H Huang, unpub data).
To identify imported dengue cases and reduce the local spread of newly introduced dengue viruses, the health authority, now Center for Disease Control, Taiwan, has established an integrated dengue control program that includes various surveillance systems, a network of rapid diagnostic laboratories, and mechanisms of rapid response to implement control measures (3). The primary objective is to prevent the introduction of new dengue viruses into Taiwan by travel and subsequent local spread. Dengue is classified as a reportable infectious disease, and suspected cases must be reported within 24 hours of clinical diagnosis in Taiwan. For effective surveillance, both passive (hospital-based reporting system) and active (such as health statement of inbound passengers, self-report, expanded screening for contacts of confirmed cases, patients with fever of unknown origin, school-based reporting, community screening) surveillance systems were established in central and local health departments.
For rapid diagnosis, 2 central dengue diagnostic laboratories were set up in Center for Disease Control–Taiwan, at Kun-Yan Laboratory in northern Taiwan and at a fourth branch laboratory in southern Taiwan. Serum samples from suspected dengue patients were sent to the diagnostic laboratories, and the results were reported within 24 to 48 hours. To avoid delays, the laboratory is scheduled to perform the tests on a daily basis without vacations. A rapid diagnostic system was developed to detect and differentiate various flavivirus infections on the basis of the results of 1-step real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and envelope membrane (E/M)–specific capture immunoglobulin (Ig) M and IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (5–7). Analysis of a total of 959 acute- and convalescent-phase serum specimens from 799 confirmed dengue patients showed that 95% of acute-phase serum specimens could be identified as being from confirmed or probable case-patients based on these 2 assays (8).
In 2003, Taiwan was one of the countries heavily affected by the multinational epidemics of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) (9). During the SARS epidemic, the body temperature of all inbound and outbound passengers at the 2 international airports was screened to prevent international spread of SARS. Since July 14, 2003, all inbound passengers have been required to complete the “SARS Survey Form” before landing and to have their body temperature taken by an infrared thermal camera. Any passenger showing body temperature >37°C is rechecked by ear temperature, and serum samples are collected and sent for SARS diagnosis if the ear temperature is >37.5°C. After July 5, 2003, the world was largely considered to be SARS free, and other causes of fever had to be considered; therefore, a panel of diagnostic tests, including tests for pathogens of dengue, malaria, enteric bacteria, and other diseases (such as yellow fever, plague), was performed for selected fever patients. Since dengue fever is among the top yearly imported reportable diseases in Taiwan, we began a trial fever screening program for dengue along with SARS screening at the airports.
We report our findings on early identification of dengue fever through fever screening at the 2 international airports, C.K.S. and Kaohsiung Airports, Taiwan. More than 8,000,000 inbound travelers passed through the 2 airports from July 2003 to June 2004. Among these, ≈22,000 passengers were identified as fever patients by an infrared thermal camera and rechecked by ear temperature. Diagnostic testing algorithms for screened fever patients were based on evaluation by airport clinicians. After clinical diagnosis, 3,011 serum samples were sent for laboratory diagnosis of dengue virus infection. Forty (1.33%) of 3,011 serum samples were confirmed to be positive on the basis of the results of real-time PCR and E/M-specific capture IgM and IgG ELISA. During the same period, 6,005 dengue cases were reported in Taiwan (both indigenous and imported cases), which includes 935 cases from the passive surveillance system and 5,070 cases from active surveillance systems (3,011 fever patients were identified by fever screening and 2,059 cases were identified from other systems). Among these, 73 were confirmed to be imported dengue cases, including 25 cases reported from hospitals through passive surveillance and 48 cases identified by active surveillance, such as airport screening and self-report by patients. Airport fever screening alone picked up 40 (83.3%) of 48 of all imported cases identified by the active surveillance system. Thus, 8 imported cases were identified by other active surveillance methods. The average length between the onsets of dengue symptoms to the time of diagnosis was 4.15 days for the 40 case-patients who were identified at the airport, as opposed to 11 days for those who were reported from the hospital. Whether the shorter length required to diagnose conditions identified by airport fever screening contributed to the low indigenous dengue in the season warrants further investigation.
Fever screening at the airports has also dramatically increased the proportion of imported dengue cases identified by active surveillance, 48 (65.8%), of 73 which is significantly higher than the number identified during years before fever screening were implemented (p < 0.0001 by chi-square test) (Table 1). The countries of origin of imported dengue fever from July 2003 to June 2004 were all located in the Western Pacific and Southeast Asia (Table 2). The distribution of the countries of origin accurately reflected the frequency of air travel between Taiwan and these nations, as well as the intensity of massive dengue outbreaks during the same period in the country of origin. Analyses of dengue virus serotypes showed that various serotypes were circulating in each of these countries during this period.
Most of the confirmed cases (33 of 40) identified by airport fever screening were viremic (real-time PCR positive, IgM and IgG negative). The other 7 case-patients tested positive for dengue-specific IgM or IgG antibody, although they were febrile at the time of testing (data not shown). Estimating how many patients might have been viremic but were not picked up by the system is difficult, since persons infected with dengue virus are usually viremic from 2 to 3 days before onset of symptoms until defervescence.
Our results demonstrated that fever screening at airports is an effective means of identifying imported dengue cases, whereas the health statements of inbound passengers, which have been required for years, are ineffective. Although fever screening with infrared temperature screening was implemented in an attempt to avoid SARS transmission, it proved to be effective in active surveillance of dengue. This approach seems promising for dengue and perhaps for other diseases and should be further evaluated.
The cost of identifying dengue virus infections with airport fever screening is similar to that of other surveillance methods. The airport fever screening method requires an infrared thermal camera, which costs approximately U.S. $43,000 for each set of instruments. In addition, 1 additional worker is needed to monitor this alarm system. The reporting procedure and clinical and laboratory diagnoses are similar to those of surveillance methods. Therefore, the method is a cost-effective means of identifying imported dengue cases.
Although febrile passengers suspected of having dengue virus infection were not detained at the airport, and an epidemiologic investigation was not conducted, they were provided with a mosquito net to avoid mosquito bites and instructed to report to the local health department if they felt ill. Laboratory diagnoses were performed on a daily basis, and results were reported within 24 to 48 hours. Control measures were implemented as soon as possible if probable or confirmed dengue cases were identified. Since viremic persons, going about their normal activities for a mean interval of 2 to 3 days before diagnosis, could have transmitted dengue, the laboratory detection method on its own will not be effective in preventing transmission. Therefore, developing an integrated program that includes various surveillance systems, rapid diagnostic laboratories, and emergency control measures is necessary to prevent the introduction and spread of new dengue viruses into a region. Control measures should consist of epidemiologic investigation, health education, analysis of mosquito density, source reduction, and insecticide application. As part of an integrated dengue control program, fever screening at the airport has become one of the most important active surveillance systems in Taiwan since its introduction in July 2003. We believed that this active surveillance system could also be successfully applied to screen febrile patients and reduce the introduction of many potential infectious diseases.
This work was in part supported by grants DOH92-DC-2005 and DOH92-DC-2006 from the Center for Disease Control, Department of Health, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
Dr. Shu is a research fellow in the Center for Research and Diagnostics, Center for Disease Control, Department of Health, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. She played a key role in developing the rapid diagnostic system for flavivirus infection. Her research interests include viral hepatitis, flavivirus infections, and rickettsial diseases.
- Gubler DJ. Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998;11:480–96.
- Chao DY, Lin TH, Hwang KP, Huang JH, Liu CC, King CC. 1998 dengue hemorrhagic fever epidemic in Taiwan. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:552–4.
- Lei HY, Huang JH, Huang KJ, Chang CM. Status of dengue control programme in Taiwan—2001. Dengue Bulletin WHO/SEARO. 2002;26:14–23.
- Shu PY, Chen LK, Chang SF, Yueh YY, Chow L, Chien LJ, Potential application of nonstructural protein NS1 serotype-specific immunoglobulin G enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in the seroepidemiologic study of dengue virus infection: correlation of results with those of the plaque reduction neutralization test. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:1840–4.
- Shu PY, Chang SF, Kuo YC, Yueh YY, Chien LJ, Sue CL, Development of group- and serotype-specific one-step SYBR green I real-time reverse transcription-PCR for dengue virus. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:2408–16.
- Shu PY, Chen LK, Chang SF, Yueh YY, Chow L, Chien LJ, Comparison of capture immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and nonstructural protein NS1 serotype–specific IgG ELISA for differentiation of primary and secondary dengue virus infections. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2003;10:622–30.
- Shu PY, Huang JH. Minireview: current advances in dengue diagnosis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004;11:642–50.
- Shu PY, Chang SF, Yueh YY, Chow L, Chien LJ, Kuo YC, Current status of dengue diagnosis at the Center for Disease Control, Taiwan, Republic of China. Dengue Bulletin. WHO/SEARO. In press 2004.
- Twu SJ, Chen TJ, Chen CJ, Olsen SJ, Lee LT, Fisk T, Control measures for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Taiwan. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:718–20.
Suggested citation for this article: Shu P-Y, Chien L-J, Chang S-F, Su C-L, Kuo Y-C, Liao T-L, et al. Fever screening at airports and imported dengue. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2005 Mar [date cited]. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1103.040420 | <urn:uuid:75b1e0ba-5125-4bfa-9deb-c38d1b6a5688> | {
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Spinal tumors are growths in or near your spinal cord or spinal bones (vertebrae). They can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). They can occur at any age but are most common in young and middle-age adults.
Benign tumors can exist for years or decades without causing problems. Some grow to press on spinal nerves, however, causing pain, nerve problems and sometimes paralysis.
Experts don’t know what causes most spinal tumors. They sometimes run in families and are associated with other types of inherited tumors, including neurofibromatosis 2 and Von Hippel-Lindau disease. A weakened immune system is associated with a tumor called spinal cord lymphoma.
- Back pain, often spreading to other parts of your body and worse at night
- Numbness or weakness, especially in your legs
- Trouble walking
- Feeling less sensitive to pain, heat and cold
- Loss of control over bladder or bowels
- Paralysis in parts of your body
If your tumor is small, benign and not pressing on tissues, monitoring with X-rays or MRI scans may be the best option.
If your tumor is malignant, your spine doctor will work with doctors at the OHSU Knight Cancer Institute to develop the best treatment plan for you.
If you have a benign tumor that’s causing severe symptoms, you and your doctor may decide on surgery to remove it. | <urn:uuid:69ffab24-9136-4a52-a0e2-0e75a5c14a19> | {
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Sumatra coastal cave records stunning tsunami history
- 12 December 2013
- From the section Science & Environment
A cave on the northwestern coast of Sumatra holds a remarkable record of big tsunamis in the Indian Ocean.
The limestone opening, close to Banda Aceh, retains the sandy deposits washed ashore by huge, earthquake-induced waves over thousands of years.
Scientists are using the site to help determine the frequency of catastrophes like the event of 26 December 2004.
This is being done by dating the cave's tsunami-borne sediments, which are easy to see between layers of bat droppings.
"The tsunami sands just jump right out at you because they're separated by guano layers. There's no confusing the stratigraphy (layering)," explains Dr Jessica Pilarczyk.
"It makes for interesting field work; I'm not going to lie to you. The bats get very excited when people are disrupting their space. But from a geologist's point of view, this cave has the most amazing stratigraphy," she told BBC News.
Dr Pilarczyk was speaking here in San Francisco at the American Geophysical Union (AGU) Fall Meeting, the world's largest annual gathering of Earth scientists.
She is part of a team of researchers - led by Prof Charles Rubin - from the Earth Observatory of Singapore, an institute of Nanyang Technological University that is investigating the coastal history of Indonesia's largest island.
Sumatra's proximity to the Indo-Australia and Sunda tectonic plate boundary, and the giant earthquakes that occur there, means its shores are at risk of major inundations.
Understanding how often these occur is important for policy and planning in the region.
The Acehnese cave lies about 100m back from the swash zone at current high-tide. Its entrance is also raised somewhat, and this prevents all waters from getting into the opening - apart from tsunamis and severe storm surges.
Dr Pilarczyk and colleagues have dug trenches through the alternating bands of bat guano and sand to piece together the cave's history.
The scientists know they are looking at tsunami deposits because they can find debris in the sediments of seafloor organisms such as microscopic foraminifera. Only the most energetic waves could have lifted and carried this material into the cave.
The investigations are ongoing but the team thinks it can see deposition from perhaps 7-10 tsunamis. The geometry of the cave means these events would likely have been generated by earthquakes of Magnitude 8, or more. By way of comparison, the devastation wrought by 26 December 2004 stemmed from a M9.2 tremor.
Dating the old deposits is obtained by radiocarbon analysis of organic debris caught up in the bands, such as molluscs and pieces of charcoal from old human-lit fires.
Work is under way to date even the insect remains eaten by the bats and now immersed in the guano layers.
Today, the cave is so full of sand and bat droppings that any new event will essentially overwash and erode the most recent deposits. "The 2004 tsunami completely inundated the cave," comments Prof Rubin.
Nonetheless, the stratigraphy from about 7,500 to 3,000 years ago is impeccable.
"What we think we have is actually a near-complete sequence of late-Holocene deposits. This is amazing because usually the records we have are fragmentary at best. This coastal cave is a unique 'depocentre', and it's giving us a remarkable snapshot of several thousands of years, allowing us to figure out every single tsunami that would have taken place during that time," said Dr Pilarczyk, who is affiliated also to Rutgers University, US.
The team's other investigations along the Acehnese coast are filling in the period from 3,000 years ago to the present.
And the take-home message from all this research is that the biggest tsunamis are not evenly spaced through time. Yes, there can be long periods of quiescence, but you can also get major events that are separated by just a few decades.
Co-investigator Prof Kerry Sieh says this is a cautionary story.
"2004 caught everybody by surprise. And why was that? Because nobody had been looking back to see how often they happen, if they'd ever happened," he told BBC News.
"In fact, because people thought they had no history of such things, they thought it was impossible. Nobody was prepared, nobody had even given it a second thought. So the reason we look back in time is so we can learn how the Earth works and how it might work during our watch."
The cave research also involves scientific input from Syiah Kuala University in Banda Aceh.
[email protected] and follow me on Twitter: @BBCAmos | <urn:uuid:65234f5d-8531-4421-8827-a6312ec07091> | {
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The Feeling Words Curriculum
How often do students need to share how they feel but can’t find the right words? When the right words are not available, communication breaks down. Students’ feelings become confused, suppressed, or even displaced onto others. The Feeling Words Curriculum empowers students and teachers to describe the full range of human emotions. Developmentally appropriate lessons are mapped directly onto the core curriculum and align with the Common Core State Standards. Students hone their emotional intelligence skills, enhance their writing and critical thinking skills, and develop the creativity, empathy, and advanced perspective-taking abilities they need to build mutually supportive relationships and make healthy decisions.
“I became comfortable to share my personal stories in class only after RULER. When I learned the feeling words, I realized my classmates experience the same feelings as me.”
—7th Grade Student | <urn:uuid:65501700-3f17-4b61-8b08-ca388ea4970c> | {
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Doctor insights on:
Can You Ebstein Anomaly
Congenital anomaly: Ebstein anomaly of the tricuspid valve is a congenital heart disease characterized by "downward" displacement of the tricuspid valve towards the apex of the right ventricle. Often there is an associated atrial septal defect. There are frequent arrhythmias, including wolf-parkinson-white syndrome. There is wide variation in the severity. ...Read more
Ebstein's anomaly is an abnormal heart condition where the wall separating the top and bottom halves of the heart is located lower in the heart than normal, causing the bottom chambers to be small and the top chambers to be enlarged. Babies born to women taking lithium during pregnancy are at risk ...Read more
Congenital defect: Ebstein's anomaly is a rare heart defect that's present at birth (congenital). The tricuspid valve — the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle — is malformed and doesn't work properly. Blood leaks back through the valve, making the heart work less efficiently. Ebstein's may result in heart enlargement or heart failure. Rhythm problems are common. It can be mild or severe. ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer
Cyanosis and CHF. : The most important symptoms in ebstein's anomaly are related to the tricuspid valve being positioned too low inside the right ventricle. Essentially, the right side of the heart may not work well causing poor oxygenation (cyanosis) and backing up of blood in the lung circulation (chf). There is wide variety of severity of the anomaly, from mild to severe. Patients may have heart beat problems. ...Read more
Ebstein anomaly: It is a congenital heart condition where the valve between the right upper and lower heart chambers, triscuspid valve, does not work properly and the blood backs into the right atrium and over time the right atrium gets enlarged causing heart failure. Symptoms could be shortness of breath with routine regular activity, cyanosis, etc. Treatment is meds and/or surgery. There could be asso. Asd. ...Read more
Yes. : Ebstein's anomaly can vary in severity. Very mild forms are most of the times inconsequential. Severe forms may cause illness in early infancy, and sometimes require surgical repair. I'm assuming your doctor referred you to a pediatric cardiologist for a fetal echo. Ask about the severity of the ebsteins and the associated tricuspid regurgitation (valve leakage). Good luck. ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer
Depends: Not all forms of congenital heart disease and not all forms of ebstein anomaly cause disability. It is possible for people with ebstein anomaly to be fully functional. Most people with congenital heart disease do not have significant disability, but rather can hold a full-time job and live a normal or near normal life. ...Read more
Can women with a (VSD) Ventricular septal defect/ebstein anomaly still have a normal pregnancy as the murmur is harmless? Also what are some risks?
Pregnancy Risks: The diseases poses potential risks to the mother and fetus Cyanosis (blue discolouration of the skin due to reduced body Oxygen), which might have harmful effect on baby. Blood clots risk Arrhythmia (abnormal beating of the heart) Despite these concerns, many women with Ebstein's anomaly usually tolerate pregnancy well Needs to discuss the matter with the Cardiologist before getting pregnant ...Read moreSee 2 more doctor answers
- Talk to a doctor live online for free
- Ebstein anomaly
- Ebstein anomaly symptoms
- Is it normal to ebstein anomaly?
- Ask a doctor a question free online
- Is it safe to ebstein anomaly?
- How to cure ebstein anomaly?
- Ebsteins anomaly diagnosis
- Ebstein anomaly ecg
- Talk to a pediatrician online | <urn:uuid:5b8d6ceb-da4c-4da8-970f-efccccd487b8> | {
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How Well Do You Know English Slang?
Old English isærn (with Middle English rhotacism of -s-) "the metal iron; an iron weapon," from Proto-Germanic *isarnan (cf. Old Saxon isarn, Old Norse isarn, Middle Dutch iser, Old High German isarn, German Eisen) "holy metal" or "strong metal" (in contrast to softer bronze) probably an early borrowing of Celt. *isarnon (cf. Old Irish iarn, Welsh haiarn), from PIE *is-(e)ro- "powerful, holy," from PIE *eis "strong" (cf. Sanskrit isirah "vigorous, strong," Greek ieros "strong").
Right so as whil that Iren is hoot men sholden smyte. [Chaucer, c.1386]Chemical symbol Fe is from the Latin word for the metal, ferrum (see ferro-). Meaning "metal device used to press or smooth clothes" is from 1610s. The adjective is Old English iren, isern. To have (too) many irons in the fire "to be doing too much at once" is from 1540s. Iron lung "artificial respiration tank" is from 1932.
iron i·ron (ī'ərn)
Symbol Fe A lustrous, malleable, ductile, magnetic or magnetizable metallic element. Atomic number 26; atomic weight 55.847; melting point 1,538°C; boiling point 2,860°C; specific gravity 7.874 (at 20°C); valence 2, 3, 4, 6.
A pill or other medication containing iron and taken as a dietary supplement.
A silvery-white, hard metallic element that occurs abundantly in minerals such as hematite, magnetite, pyrite, and ilmenite. It is malleable and ductile, can be magnetized, and rusts readily in moist air. It is used to make steel and other alloys important in construction and manufacturing. Iron is a component of hemoglobin, which allows red blood cells to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide through the body. Atomic number 26; atomic weight 55.845; melting point 1,535°C; boiling point 2,750°C; specific gravity 7.874 (at 20°C); valence 2, 3, 4, 6. See Periodic Table. See Note at element.
Tubal-Cain is the first-mentioned worker in iron (Gen. 4:22). The Egyptians wrought it at Sinai before the Exodus. David prepared it in great abundance for the temple (1 Chr. 22:3: 29:7). The merchants of Dan and Javan brought it to the market of Tyre (Ezek. 27:19). Various instruments are mentioned as made of iron (Deut. 27:5; 19:5; Josh. 17:16, 18; 1 Sam. 17:7; 2 Sam. 12:31; 2 Kings 6:5, 6; 1 Chr. 22:3; Isa. 10:34). Figuratively, a yoke of iron (Deut. 28:48) denotes hard service; a rod of iron (Ps. 2:9), a stern government; a pillar of iron (Jer. 1:18), a strong support; a furnace of iron (Deut. 4:20), severe labour; a bar of iron (Job 40:18), strength; fetters of iron (Ps. 107:10), affliction; giving silver for iron (Isa. 60:17), prosperity. | <urn:uuid:c9a8439b-9fc5-427c-8217-32ae15ab5b9e> | {
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Early Years Government Funded Childcare is money provided by central government to ensure that all eligible two, three and four year olds have access to quality early years education.
ALL three and four year olds and some two year olds are entitled to 570 hours of government funded nursery education per year (September to August).
Traditionally this funding was offered for 15 hours a week for 38 weeks of the year but can now be stretched over the full year in order to prevent higher bills during unfunded weeks – Therefore giving children 11.18 hours per week, 51 weeks of the year, instead of 15 hours per week, 38 weeks of the year.
From September 2017, many three and four year olds may now be entitled to a further 570 hours of government funded childcare a year – 1140 hours in total.
Therefore giving children 22.35 hour per week, 51 weeks of the year, instead of 30 hours per week, 38 weeks of the year.
For more information about funding and eligibility, please download our guide to childcare funding | <urn:uuid:689f6081-27bf-4101-b946-d94407a95d95> | {
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Hi. I'm Tim Tyler - and this is a video about memetic hitchhiking and memetic linkage.
Genetic hitchhiking involves genes changing in frequency due to their proximity to other genes. Hitchhiking can involve either positive or negative selection - in other words, increases or decreases in gene frequencies. Genetic hitchhiking is based on genetic linkage - which is the tendency of nearby genes to be inherited together.
In cultural evolution, there are corresponding effects:
Memetic hitchhiking involves memes changing in frequency due to their proximity to other memes. It is based on memetic linkage - which is the tendency of nearby memes to be inherited together.
It's a commonplace observation that the proximity of two memes is correlated with the probability of them being inherited together. This is true across a large variety of meme types. Words are more likely to be copied together the closer they are together. Image components and video fragments behave in the same way. Generally, the closer two memes are, the greater their memetic linkage. The way in which linkage changes with distance can often be fairly easily quantified.
Memetic hitchhiking is an extremely important concept in marketing. Memetic hitchhiking is used by marketers because they frequently face the problem of how to memetically engineer content so that it spreads to a large number of users. Hitchhiking on an existing meme is a common solution to this problem. People attach product messages as payloads to viral videos, celebrities, beauty, news stories, humour - anything that people spread around. When the viral content is spread around the payload is delivered to an increasingly large audience at a low cost to the marketing department.
For marketers their payload acts as a parasite on the original content. As such there's a constant risk that the viral content will find a way to separate itself from the payload. Marketers have a range of techniques to avoid this happening. They can interleave the payload with the content. They can make the payload small, short or inconspicuous. They can transmit the payload subliminally. They can launch legal attacks on payload-free content.
Well-known popular experts at memetic hitchhiking include Weird Al Yankovic, The Gregory Brothers, and Ray William Johnson.
Memetic linkage is generally defined in terms of a distance metric. That metric need not necessarily be spatial distance - for example in the case of podcasts or videos, time is often the most appropriate metric to measure. Genetic linkage is always based on a spatial distance metric. However, it seems inappropriate to restrict memetic linkage to spatial distance metrics.
Genetic linkage causes functionally dependent genes to migrate towards each other. Each gene benefits from the proximity - due to the increased linkage reducing the chances of the genes being separated from one another. The result is that genes form functionally-linked complexes. In memetics, the same effect is seen: functionally dependent memes tend to migrate towards each other - which increases their memetic linkage and reduces the chances of the memes being separated from one another. The result is that functionally-linked memes form memeplexes.
Not all hitchhiking of memes on memes qualifies as being "memetic hitchhiking". In the organic realm, a snail can hitchhike a ride on a duck's foot. However, you wouldn't normally call that "genetic hitchhiking" - even though in a sense,snail genes are "hitchhiking" on duck genes. The term "phenotypic hitchhiking" seems more appropriate there. Similarly you wouldn't normally refer to a bumper sticker on a car as a case of "memetic hitchhiking". The germ line of the memes responsible for the car are in the car manufacturers headquarters, and the germ line of the memes responsible for the bumper sticker are in the sticker-making factory - which might be nowhere near each other. Again, the term "phenotypic hitchhiking" seems more appropriate in this case. | <urn:uuid:ccacad5e-dd13-4e77-a7aa-a1c29238f7c7> | {
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Ian Harvey for The Vintage News:
Five minutes away from the town of Tiquina, on the shores of Lake Titicaca, archaeologists found the remains of an ancient civilization under the waters of the lake.
The find was made 10 years ago, by Christophe Delaere, an archaeologist from the Free University of Belgium, by following information provided by the locals. 24 submerged archaeological sites have been identified under the lake, according to the BBC.
The most significant of these sites is at Santiago de Ojjelaya, and the Bolivian government has recently agreed to build a museum there to preserve both the underwater structures and those which are on land.
The project is supposed to be finished in 2020 and will cost an estimated $10 million. The Bolivian government is funding the project with help from UNESCO and is backed by the Belgian development cooperation agency.
The proposed building will have two parts and cover an area of about 2.3 acres (9,360 square meters). One part of the museum will be on the shore, and it will display artifacts that have been raised from the lake bottom. The second part will be partially submerged, with enormous glass walls that will look out under the lake, allowing visitors to see the “hidden city” below.
According to the Bolivia Travel Channel, the museum will facilitate the beginning of an archaeological tourism enterprise, which “will be a resort and archaeology research center, geology and biology, characteristics that typified it unique in the world [sic],” according to Wilma Alanoca Mamani, holder of the portfolio of the Plurinational State. Christophe Delaere said that the building’s design incorporates elements of architecture used by the Andean cultures who inhabited the area.
Jose Luis Paz, who is the director of heritage for Bolivia’s Ministry of Culture, says that two types of underwater ruins will be visible when the building is complete: religious/spiritual offering sites, primarily underwater, and places where people lived and worked, which were primarily on the shoreline. He went on to say that the spiritual sites were likely flooded much later than the settlements.
A team of archaeological divers and Bolivian and Belgian experts have located thousands of items in the underwater sites. Some of these pieces will be brought up, but the majority will remain underwater as they are quite well-preserved.
Wilma Mamani said that more than 10,000 items have been found including gold and ceramic pieces and various kinds of bowls and other vessels. The items are of pre-Inca Tiwanaku civilizations. Some of the artifacts have been estimated to be 2,000 years old, and others have been dated back to when the Tiwanaku empire was one of the primary Andean civilizations.
Tiwanaku was a major civilization in Bolivia, with the main city built around 13,000 feet above sea level, near Lake Titicaca, which made it one of the highest urban centers ever built.
The city reached its zenith between 500 AD and 1000 AD, and, at its height, was home to about 10,000 people. It’s unclear exactly when the civilization took hold, but it is known that people started settling around Lake Titicaca about 2,000 BC.
According to Live Science, the city’s ancient name is unknown, since they never developed a written language, but archaeological evidence suggests that Tiwanaku cultural influence reached across the southern Andes, into Argentina, Peru, and Chile, as well as Bolivia.
Tiwanaku began to decline around 1,000 AD, and the city was eventually abandoned. Even when it fell out of use, it stayed an important place in the mythology of the Andean people, who viewed it as a religious site.
Besides the obvious benefits of being able to study and share the artifacts of ancient civilizations, the project has another benefit as well. Most of the people who currently live in the area make their living in agriculture or fishing.
This project brings the possibility of new jobs for local residents, which can keep people from leaving the area due to lack of opportunities, helping revitalize local communities. | <urn:uuid:bf12f589-666a-4b5b-9942-5062dcfce17b> | {
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I have written about Atlantic Menhaden and the role they play in our fishery in Narragansett Bay and in the ocean a number of times.
Atlantic Menhaden serve as roving filters, converting algae into energy and thus reducing nutrient loads in bays and covers. An adult menhaden, through its unique filtering gills, is able to process up to 4 gallons of water per minute or a million gallons of water every 180 days. Multiply this by the number of menhaden in any given area and this is an amazing amount of water being filtered, a reduction of nutrients means fewer algae blooms and ultimately more oxygen for all fish.
But what menhaden do best is that they get eaten by other fish, particularly striped bass and other game fish targeted by recreational anglers. They are an important part of the food chain. H. Bruce Franklin, a professor at Rutgers University, is author of "The Most Important Fish in the Sea: Menhaden and America." Professor Franklin said, "This is what the menhaden do best: they get eaten. Game fish and seabirds, sharks and whales all seek out these oily fish as a favorite meal, making menhaden a crucial link in the ocean food chain."
This week the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) which is comprised of representatives from fifteen coastal states will vote on Draft Amendment 2 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden which outlines a number of possible regulations on the species. These proposed regulations will force the Commission to choose between allowing industrial processors to continue to overfish the species with little or no restrictions or will rescue the fish with regulations that will start to rebuild the species that can help restore our bays, coastal waters and fishery.
Widespread support form recreational anglers and environmentalists have weighed in with the ASMFC on the issue. Steve Medeiros, president of the Rhode Island Saltwater Anglers Association said, "A total of 128,333 comments were received on Draft Amendment 2 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden… Of those comments, 127,925 comments were letters... 13 public hearings were held in 10 states. Approximately 502 individuals were estimated to have attended the hearings combined. I don't have a breakdown yet… but I think that we will see a large majority seeking action to start rebuilding the stock."
Amendment 2 Atlantic Menhaden regulation issues will come before the Commission this Thursday. We will report on outcomes in next week's column.
West Bay Anglers Lobster Raffles
The West Bay Anglers are continuing to hold their Lobster Raffles throughout the fall and winter to raise funds for the Impossible Dream and their RI Take a Kid Fishing program. They occur each Saturday at the Warwick FOP, 95 Tanner Avenue, Warwick, RI from November 3, 2012 through March 16, 2013. Doors open at 1:00 p.m. and the public is invited to attend. Yes they raffle off lobsters… not ordinary lobsters… but large lobsters ranging from six to fourteen pounds. They also usually have a raffle table with small appliances like toasters and George Forman Grilles, a meat table with hams and roasts of all types, a miscellaneous table, and a final raffle table with large prizes like Sony flat screen TVs, GPS systems, gift cards, cash and much more. For information call 401.463.7532.
Rhody Fly Rodders meeting
The Rhody Fly Rodders will hold their Premier Fly Tying Event Tuesday, December 18 at 6:30 p.m. at the Riverside Sportsman's Club, East Providence, RI. Members, friends and the public are invited to participate in this great evening of 'Fly Tying for Charity'. Bring your tying tools, tying materials provided. From Providence take Rt.195 to Exit 7. Bear right on the ramp & follow Rt. 114 South
(Wampanoag Trail) for 2 miles. Look for WPRO Studios on left, then take first U-turn back to Rt. 114 North. Continue North and look for the Riverside Sportsmen's Club sign on right side
2012 - 2013 winter harvest schedules for shellfish management and transplant areas
Last week the Marine Fisheries Division of the RI Department of Environmental Management announced the winter harvest schedules for shellfish in management and transplant areas. They include the following.
Western Greenwich Bay (GB Sub-Areas 1 and 2) harvest schedules: For December 2012 - In accordance with D.E.M. Office of Water Resources, GB Sub-Area 1 and GB Sub-Area 2 are seasonally closed to shellfishing beginning sunrise on December 1 through sunrise of January 1. NOTE: The seasonal closure
also includes a portion of Eastern Greenwich Bay (GB Sub-Area 3). Refer to www.dem.ri.gov/maps/mapfile/shellfsh.pdf for detailed closure information. GB Sub-Areas 1 and 2: Open from January 1, 2013 through April 30, 2013 between 8 AM to 12 noon on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.
High Banks, Bissel/Fox, Potowomut shellfish management areas and Bristol Shellfish Transplant area Harvest schedules: For December 2012 - Open on December 12, 14, 17, 19, 21, 24, 26, 28, and 31; from 8 a.m. to 12 noon. For January 2013 - Open on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 8 a.m. to 12 noon. For February 1, 2013 through April 30, 2013 - Open Mondays through Fridays from sunrise to 12 noon. Note: The Bissel / Fox Shellfish Management is closed to oyster harvest.
Mill Gut Shellfish management area harvest schedule: Open from December 12, 2012 through April 30, 2013 between 8 AM to 12 noon on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.
Where's the bite
Tautog and cod fishing is good if you are willing to fish in cold weather. Anglers are experiencing good fishing off Newport. Dave Garzoli said, "I fished in the waters around Newport Thursday and did very well. The water depth was between 60-70'. Limited out easily and released a bunch of keepers and a pile of shorts and landed two cod over 22". All on green crabs cut in half." The Francis Fleet experienced good tautog (and cod) fishing this weekend. They report, "Had a great day of black (tautog) fishing (Sunday) despite the very wet conditions. A very light crowd was treated to stellar fishing. Many limits on the blackfish with the biggest blackfish being over 10 pounds… also found a pile of nice fat healthy cod with five fish over 12 pounds. Some anglers managed to snag a half dozen cod with others getting a few. More and more cod have been showing up as the season goes on."
Captain Dave Monti has been fishing and shell fishing on Narragansett Bay for over 40 years. He holds a captain's master license, a charter fishing license, and is a member of the Rhode Island Marine Fisheries Council. Your fishing photos in JPEG from, stories, comments and questions are welcome… there's more than one way to catch a fish. Visit Captain Dave's No Fluke website at www.noflukefishing.com; his blog at www.noflukefishing.blogspot.com or e-mail him at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:069e339b-918f-4dcd-b603-d1f3de4e1866> | {
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"Explanation separates us from astonishment, which is the only gateway to the incomprehensible." - Eugene Ionesco
Hormones regulate one or more of the trillions of complex metabolic processes occurring every second inside of the human body.
Mention the word 'hormone' and most people think of steroids such as testosterone or estrogen or Vitamin D-3.
There exists a separate group of protein (non-steroid) hormones which regulate cellular growth. These hormones are made up of amino acids and instruct cells to grow.
The first one of these growth factors to be discovered (during the second World War) was appropriately named 'Human Growth Hormone' (hGH) or human somatotropin (hST). Dogs have canine somatotropin CST/CGH, pigs have porcine somatotropin (pST/pGH) and cows have bovine somatotropin (bST/bGH).
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I, discovered in the late 1960s or early 1970s) received its name because it was not orally active in pure form. In dairy, IGF-1 is orally active, as it is protected by casein and inside of micronized liposomes resulting from homogenization. IGF-1 does not resemble insulin. Nor is its function anything like that of insulin. IGF-1 is not insulin-like.
Had IGF-I been discovered before GH, it would have received that name. IGF-I is much more powerful than GH. IGF-I is the most powerful growth hormone known to science. GH has 191 different amino acids in its structure while IGF-I has 70 amino acids. Does that seem insulin-like to you? Maps of these hormones can be made so that each amino acid is identified as a specific position on the chain. For example, amino acid #10 in bST is leucine and amino acid #12 is alanine. In IGF-I, amino acid #10 is cysteine while #12 is methionine.
Every amino acid structure of every protein hormone is now known to science.
Human growth hormone differs from chimpanzee growth hormone, dog growth hormone, pig growth hormone and cow growth hormone.
Human and cow growth hormones both have 191 amino acids, but the sequence of amino acids on that chain differs by about 35%.
The odds of the New York Mets winning the 2012 World Series have been set at 55-1 by Vegas experts. You can count to 55 in about 15 seconds.
The odds of a protein hormone such as IGF-1 having a perfect match between a human and another species of mammal is an entirely different numeral. You could not count to that number in your lifetime. Those odds are greater than the total number of subatomic particles in the universe. IGF-I is identical in humans and cows. We drink their milk and deliver that hormone to our bodies, a hormone which has been identified as the key factor in the growth and proliferation of every human cancer.
Infants are not usually born with cancers. Cancers are quite common in adults, but normally controlled by our immune systems.
On November 8, 1994 the New York Times reported the results of an autopsy study on pre-mature deaths (page C-1, Gina Kolata). The study revealed that nearly 40% of women between the ages of 40 and 50 have breast cancer and virtually all adults over the age of 50 have some form of cancer.
Every cancer begins with one cell. That cell doubles, on average, every ninety days. After three months, it becomes two cells. After six months, four. After one year, the cancer is 16 cells in size. After twenty cycles, or doublings, that cancer will grow to one million cells, which is the tiniest lump a woman can feel in her breast. It can take five years or more for a cancer to be clinically diagnosed. Somewhere along that timeline, the cancer stops growing, usually suppressed by the immune system's tight genetic control.
IGF-I has been called the key factor in the growth and proliferation of breast and prostate cancers.
If your body contains an existing cancer that has been controlled, and this most powerful IGF-1 growth hormone in cow's milk, protected by a tiny fat molecule created by the process of homogenization, should come into contact with that existing cancer, it is like pouring gasoline upon a smoldering fire.
Would you deliberately take a substance containing the key factor to cancer's growth? Perhaps you may one day look differently at that delicious slice of pizza or examine the consequence of just one bowl of ice cream. Every person who ever 'got cancer' should recognize that 'got milk' might be the natural explanation. | <urn:uuid:dc015e2b-7cab-40e4-b113-cd81ca6b7bd1> | {
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Ron from Northport asked
about the origin of scot-free. It means without being punished, without
consequences. It often shows up as “he got off scot-free.”
There are at least two
explanations, one a romantic fabrication and one an actual fact.
The fabrication revolves
around a historical figure, Dred Scott. Scott was a slave who sued for his
freedom in 1847. After years of legal maneuvering, his case came before the
Supreme Court. That august body ruled that all people of African ancestry,
whether slave or free, could never become citizens of the United States and
therefore could not sue in federal court.
friends of Scot bought him and then set him and his wife free. Sadly, he died
only nine months later, Scott-free.
The reality is that the
word scot once meant a tax or tribute paid by a feudal tenant to his or her
lord or ruler in proportion to the ability to pay. As one R. Higdon put it in
1425, “Scot, that is the paymente of a certeyne money to the vtilite of the
So if you got off
scot-free, you didn’t have to pay the tax or tribute.
Check out Mike's program-based books here:
Listen to Mike’s program
in real time every Tuesday morning, 9:10 - 10:00 a.m. EST, by going to
wtcmradio.com and clicking on Listen Now. You’ll also find about a month’s worth of podcasts there under The
Ron Jolly Show. | <urn:uuid:77ee4bad-63e4-49b8-852c-35f3a66aceda> | {
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Transcript for Battling the Ebola Virus at Home
For the first time in history, doctors in the United States will battle the ebola virus. One of the two patients will arrive from Africa tomorrow. And you can see the air tight tent. It's an isolation pod that will carry the patients here. Back in the hot zone in Africa tonight, soldiers trying to prevent panic in the streets. We have Dr. Richard Besser, who has tracked deadly disease es such as ebola. Reporter: Tonight, word those two missionaries stricken with ebola, now stable enough to fly. Nancy writebold and Dr. Kent Brantley expected to be transported one at a time in a specially designed aircraft. Inside a disposable tent to protect the crew from the deadly virus. They will fly more than 5,000 miles from Liberia to the United States, landing at Dobbins air force base in Georgia, then spirited to nearby Emory university hospital, one of just four top-level biocontainment units in the country prepared to handle the nation's first ever case of ebola. We need to keep this contained and keep the general public safe. Reporter: The patients will be brought to a secure unit, similar to this one at the university of Nebraska. This video shows how an infected patient can be transported on a tented gurney to isolate them. It's called an isopod. You can have a patient, examine them using these gloves. Reporter: At Emory, each patient will be tended by two specially trained nurses and four infectious disease experts. All suited up in taped-on full-body protective gear. This is the emery isolation room. I will be one of the individuals coming into direct contact. I have no concerns about my personal health or the other health care workers in that unit. Reporter: Here at CDC command center, the nation's top experts monitoring it all. People are scared. Why should America let people back in who have ebola? Well, first, we really want to stop the outbreak where it is happening. That's going to protect people, caregivers and the U.S. Best. But I really hope that people's fears don't overtake their compassion. Reporter: Remember, it can only be spread with close contact with body fluids. The CDC is also sending 50 disease detectives to western Africa, where the death toll has soared to more than 700. In Liberia, empty streets on the capital. The military deployed as panic rises. Disinfectant sprayed in public places. Handwashing stations up outside supermarkets. Doctors without borders today calling the epidemic "Out of control," their staff, "Pushed to the limits." In Atlanta, the first patient arrives tomorrow. They tell me they're ready, and hope to give them the best treatment they can. Next, another American doctor that worked in the same hot zone with one of the infected missionaries. He placed himself in quarantine here at home. Today, he spoke with Ron Claiborne. Reporter: This was Dr. Allen Jamison three weeks ago. And this is him today, we're Skyping with him because he's in complete isolation. He quarantined himself when he returned three days ago. He's concerned he may have been exposed in Liberia. So, he went straight to his own house, not touching anyone. Now, he's home alone. No one allowed in, and monitors his temperature twice a day for fever, one of the early symptoms of ebola. I'm feeling very comfortable. Reporter: How confident are you that you have not contracted it? I'm very confident because I don't have any symptoms. Reporter: He's done previous volunteer work. He wore full protective gear any time he had contact with a patient. And last Saturday, he was with Dr. Kent Brantley, who has been infected. And he says he's willing, even wants to go back. I would have no problems with returning. This is a mission I've chosen in life. To be of maximum service to others. And let me show you a photo of Dr. Jamison with his wife. She is out of town, and he shows no signs of symptoms. And you said it's about two more weeks now? Two more weeks, he should be safe. And we know you have so many questions about the outbreak. After this program, our Dr. Richard Besser will be answering your questions, so visit the ABC news Facebook page. Now, the news of all the
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Periodicals Index Online began as Periodicals Contents Index at Harvard University. It is an index to millions of articles published in over 4,600 periodicals in the humanities and social sciences from around the world. Articles from over 900 of these periodicals with nineteenth century content (1790-1919) have been indexed in C19 Index, allowing undergraduate, graduate, faculty and general researchers to quickly locate every article by a particular author or from a field of study and compare them alongside of articles in The Times newspaper via Palmer's Index, with original and reprinted articles in American magazines from American Periodicals Series, and with other official publications and books published in the century. For the first time, users will be able to compare records from indexed periodicals with parallel entries from the Wellesley Index in order to easily establish the authorship of articles that were unsigned or published under a pseudonym.
Results from Periodicals Index Online are displayed in the 'Periodicals' section on the Search Results display. There are also links from Periodicals Index Online records in C19 Index to full text from 79 journals within various JSTOR collections.
Some of the nineteenth century titles from Periodicals Index Online that are indexed in C19 Index include:
September 13, 2010 | <urn:uuid:38f4705a-79b6-4232-8dbc-125b656a3e77> | {
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- The Book
- The Philosophy of Liberty
The Philosophy of Liberty
The prologue to The Adventures of Jonathan Gullible by Ken Schoolland:
My philosophy is based on the principle of self-ownership. You own your life. To deny this is to imply that another person has a higher claim on your life than you do. No other person, or group of persons, owns your life nor do you own the lives of others. You exist in time: future, present, and past. This is manifest in life, liberty, and the product of your life and liberty. The exercise of choices over life and liberty is your prosperity. To lose your life is to lose your future. To lose your liberty is to lose your present. And to lose the product of your life and liberty is to lose the portion of your past that produced it.
A product of your life and liberty is your property. Property is the fruit of your labour, the product of your time, energy, and talents. It is that part of nature that you turn to valuable use. And it is the property of others that is given to you by voluntary exchange and mutual consent. Two people who exchange property voluntarily are both better off or they wouldn't do it. Only they may rightfully make that decision for themselves.
At times some people use force or fraud to take from others without wilful, voluntary consent. Normally, the initiation of force to take life is murder, to take liberty is slavery, and to take property is theft. It is the same whether these actions are done by one person acting alone, by the many acting against a few, or even by officials with fine hats and fancy titles.
You have the right to protect your own life, liberty, and justly acquired property from the forceful aggression of others. So you may rightfully ask others to help protect you. But you do not have a right to initiate force against the life, liberty, or property of others. Thus, you have no right to designate some person to initiate force against others on your behalf.
You have a right to seek leaders for yourself, but would have no right to impose rulers on others. No matter how officials are selected, they are only human beings and they have no rights or claims that are higher than those of any other human beings. Regardless of the imaginative labels for their behaviour or the numbers of people encouraging them, officials have no right to murder, to enslave, or to steal. You cannot give them any rights that you do not have yourself.
Since you own your life, you are responsible for your life. You do not rent your life from others who demand your obedience. Nor are you a slave to others who demand your sacrifice.
You choose your own goals based on your own values. Success and failure are both the necessary incentives to learn and to grow.
Your action on behalf of others, or their action on behalf of you, is only virtuous when it is derived from voluntary, mutual consent. For virtue can only exist when there is free choice.
This is the basis of a truly free society. It is not only the most practical and humanitarian foundation for human action; it is also the most ethical.
Problems that arise from the initiation of force by government have a solution. The solution is for people of the world to stop asking officials to initiate force on their behalf. Evil does not arise only from evil people, but also from good people who tolerate the initiation of force as a means to their own ends. In this manner, good people have empowered evil throughout history.
Having confidence in a free society is to focus on the process of discovery in the marketplace of values rather than to focus on some imposed vision or goal. Using governmental force to impose a vision on others is intellectual sloth and typically results in unintended, perverse consequences. Achieving a free society requires courage to think, to talk, and to act - especially when it is easier to do nothing. | <urn:uuid:d59fb7e8-659e-492a-906c-428fb5ea8beb> | {
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This course is about how music works. It is about the relationship between the technical and aesthetic details of music. It is also about how developing a meaningful theoretical vocabulary can help you think and talk about musical style, and how learning that vocabulary can expand your appreciation for music. In this course you will learn music theory not by looking at theory itself, but by listening to, looking at, and—yes!—writing your own musical examples. By hearing, seeing, and writing yourself, you will learn about classical, modern, ancient, pop, jazz, and folk styles. Through lectures, relevant examples, and numerous practice assignments, we will examine fundamental aspects of melody. We will move into working with two voices and counterpoint, and finally to three voices and the beginnings of harmonic function. This is an intermediate-level course for musicians and composers who already have some understanding of music theory through previous study. If you are a musician or composer looking to build a deeper understanding of music theory for composing, performing, or improvisation, you have come to the right place. If you are an amateur lover of music or, perhaps, play a musical instrument and want to develop a deeper sense of appreciation for music theory, aesthetics, and history, you are also in the right place! | <urn:uuid:dcf7b047-118e-42f1-be79-85363a0dc226> | {
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الصف :الحادي عشر - العام الدراسي :2015/2016
We’re clearly heading into an age of brilliant technology. Computers are already impressively good at guiding driverless cars and beating humans at chess. As Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology point out in their book “The Second Machine Age,” computers are increasingly going to be able to perform important parts of even mostly cognitive jobs, like picking stocks, diagnosing diseases and granting parole.
As this happens, certain mental skills will become less valuable because computers will take over. Having a great memory will probably be less valuable. Being able to be a straight-A student will be less valuable — gathering masses of information and regurgitating it back on tests. So will being able to do any mental activity that involves following a set of rules.
The age of brilliant machines seems to reward a few traits. First, it rewards enthusiasm. The amount of information in front of us is practically infinite; so is that amount of data that can be collected with new tools. The people who seem to do best possess a voracious explanatory drive, an almost obsessive need to follow their curiosity. Maybe they started with obsessive gaming sessions, or marathon all-night study sessions, but they are driven to perform extended bouts of concentration, diving into and trying to make sense of these bottomless information oceans.
In his book, “Smarter than You Think,” Clive Thompson describes the work of Deb Roy, who wired his house with equipment so he and his team could monitor and record every word he and his wife uttered while his son was learning to speak. That is total commitment and total immersion in an attempt to understand the language learning process.
Second, the era seems to reward people with extended time horizons and strategic discipline. When Garry Kasparov was teaming with a computer to play freestyle chess (in which a human and machine join up to play against another human and machine), he reported that his machine partner possessed greater “tactical acuity,” but he possessed greater “strategic guidance.”
That doesn’t seem too surprising. A computer can calculate a zillion options, move by move, but a human can provide an overall sense of direction and a conceptual frame. In a world of online distractions, the person who can maintain a long obedience toward a single goal, and who can filter out what is irrelevant to that goal, will obviously have enormous worth.
But can we completely replace humans with machines?
What are the positives and negatives of replacing humans with machines?
And finally should we replace humans with machines?
“Smarter than You Think,” Clive Thompson, 2013.
Machines VS Humans | <urn:uuid:d46418e9-a4fc-4ebb-9ec6-4aa12a937d70> | {
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If you can't bear to face your inbox before your first cup of coffee, you'll sympathize with cells in your body that are better equipped to face some challenges at certain times of day. Carcinogens, such as ultraviolet radiation, may be one such challenge. Can we lower our cancer risk by limiting our carcinogen exposure to certain hours of the day?
Circadian rhythms are day-long cycles that ebb and flow like tides within our bodies. We use the sun to keep our internal clocks calibrated. But even if left in a dark room for days on end, our bodies maintain their rhythms. Our internal temperatures, levels of circulating hormones, and activity of various genes within our cells all rise and fall throughout the day.
One of the genes that follows a daily cycle is responsible for making a DNA-repair protein called XPA. When your DNA is damaged, a molecular task force within the cell identifies the bad spot, snips it out, and fills in the gap with fresh nucleotides. XPA is a crucial member of this task force. Researchers in North Carolina wanted to know how the cycling of XPA affects skin cancer. When XPA is off-duty--when its daily cycle reaches its lowest point--are skin cells more vulnerable to cancer-causing sun damage?
To find out, the researchers used hairless mice that are bred to develop humanlike skin cancer. Mice have an internal clock that's nearly identical to that of humans, and repair their DNA in the same way. The researchers exposed one group of mice to UV radiation at 4 AM, the lowest point of their XPA cycle. Another group of mice was exposed at 4 PM, the high point, instead.
For the 12 hours following UV exposure, the researchers monitored the rate of DNA repair in mouse skin cells. They saw that in the afternoon group, repair happened quickly, thanks to the high amounts of XPA at work. But in the morning-exposure group, DNA repair was delayed significantly.
Does this delay in fixing DNA errors add up to cancer? The researchers again divided the mice into groups. One group was exposed to UV radiation at 4 AM, three days a week, for 25 weeks. The second group was again exposed to UV at 4 PM, and a third group was left alone.
Both groups of mice exposed to UV developed skin tumors. But the group that got its UV radiation in the early morning grew tumors sooner. Those mice also had twice as many tumors as the afternoon UV group, and their tumors were nearly twice as wide. (All this evidence was easily, and disgustingly, visible due to their hairlessness.)
In humans, damage and repair likely follow the same rhythm. But there's one major difference: Since mice are nocturnal, their clock is opposite to ours. Hormones that are needed during waking hours, for instance, would peak during the night in mice and during the day in humans. In an earlier study, the researchers found that XPA follows a circadian rhythm in humans just as it does in mice--but for us, production is highest in the early morning.
Our levels of XPA peak around 7 AM. Based on this study, our ability to protect our skin from cancer-causing sun damage probably peaks at the same time. Adding to the danger is the fact that in both humans and mice, DNA replication follows a cycle opposite to XPA production. This means that when XPA is lowest, more DNA is being stitched together--making the risk of errors even higher.
The authors suggest that if we must expose ourselves to UV radiation, we do so in the morning. We should avoid the sun in afternoon and evening hours, when XPA is lowest and our skin cells are most vulnerable to carcinogenic damage. Of course, unless you live in the Arctic circle, you're not likely to get a lot of dangerous sun exposure at 7 PM. But for people who use tanning beds, sessions late in the day may be more harmful than those in the morning.
There may be other carcinogens whose danger varies throughout the day, depending on how hormones and other molecules are cycling through our affected organs. Is there an ideal time of day to smoke a cigarette? Eat a hot dog? Have an x-ray? If we can't remove risks from our lives, maybe we can at least reschedule them.
Gaddameedhi, S., Selby, C., Kaufmann, W., Smart, R., & Sancar, A. (2011). Control of skin cancer by the circadian rhythm Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1115249108 | <urn:uuid:dc4d99a9-b4ff-4062-909d-71ac6fddf567> | {
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Marine Science is an umbrella term, which covers all fields of studies related to ocean. Marine Science combines Marine Hydrology, Oceanography, Biogeochemistry, Hydrography, Marine Biology, Marine Chemistry and other science fields. Usually, the term "marine science" is understood as oceanography, which combines study of physical and biological aspects of ocean.
The marine ecosystem is now going through a very difficult period. Increased consumption, marine transport and environmental pollution strongly affect the quality of water and the life of marine creatures. So Marine scientists have to face a lot of problems related to temporary ocean condition, for example, the extinction of marine animals, poaching and uncontrolled consumption of marine resources, water pollution by oil, the release of debris into the oceans, the decolorization of coral reefs, invasive species in the marine ecosystem.
Those who wish to study Marine Science in foreign university need to apply for one of the study programs in chosen basic discipline (Geography, Biology, Environmental Sciences, etc), and choose a specialization in Marine Science. After completing an undergraduate degree, students can apply for a more specific Masters study program, for example, Marine Environmental Protection in Bangor University, UK, Biology - Marine Science in University of Southern Denmark, Marine Science, Policy and Law in University of Southampton, UK. Some more specific programs in a variety of Marine Sciences can be found on our website. | <urn:uuid:4198c472-179d-4598-b055-f680ac246cab> | {
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Disability inclusion and WASH in Greece’s migration camps
Water, sanitation and inclusion: better access is vital in all our WASH operations
Good water and sanitation services are regarded as a right, but billions of people still don’t have access to them. For people with disabilities, the barriers to access can be so much higher, and the impact greater.
People with disabilities are the world’s largest minority, with 15 per cent of the global population affected. An estimated 80 per cent are in developing countries. For our aspirations, expressed in the sustainable development goals, to ensure that everyone has access to good services, disability inclusion adds new challenges.
Follow Irene Nakasiita, Uganda Red Cross Communications Coordinator, as she reports from Parolinya Settlement where Red Cross is supporting thousands of refugees seeking safety from neighbouring South Sudan Reporting by: Irene Nakasiita Under the scorc …
By Mirabelle Enaka Kima, IFRC Fourteen-year-old Kalala Kazamboua had just been taken back home after being treated for cholera at Mpoyi Health Centre in the Ngandanjika health zone, in Lomami—one of the provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR …
Pasang Tamang’s face lights up as she chats with visitors on the veranda outside her new house. “I feel more secure here than in the temporary shelter,” says Pasang. The temporary shelter was made of corrugated iron, which was home to her and her fami …
A Red Cross project in South Sudan is reducing the burden of water collection for thousands on women and girls.
100 per cent coverage is coming, slowly
At the current rate of improvement, Wateraid estimates that all people in the world will have access to adequate water and sanitation facilities by the year 2057, 27 years behind schedule. The World Health Organization estimates that one newborn baby dies every minute from infection caused by a lack of safe water and an unclean environment.
40 per cent of the world has access to a toilet
91 per cent has access to safe water
Globally 66 per cent of schools have adequate toilet facilities
81 per cent of people living in urban settings have access to a good toilet
Sustainable development goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted in 2015, and call for access to clean water and good sanitation facilities to cover 100 per cent of the world’s population.
- 1990 76%
- 2012 89%
- 2015 91%
- 1990 49%
- 2012 64%
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One of the main tenants of creativity and leading a creative life is experiencing the interdependence of all things everywhere. Nothing could be more telling of this truth than the myth of “pure” races. The curiously creative human organism first arose in Africa, some 150,000 years ago, then migrated north, south, east, and westwards, developing curious traits needed to thrive in the various climates they discovered.
In this interview on NPR’s Talk of the Nation, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. reveals amazing discoveries of the genetic makeup of so-called superficial races. With his outward appearance as an African American, his testing of his own genes revealed a genetic makeup that was over 50 percent white European.
This is a fantastic look at the Ground of Creativity playing itself out at the genetic level, crossing our made-up boundaries of who we think we are and who we perceive others to be. Here’s the synopsis:
For more than thirty years, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. has been an influential public intellectual with a distinct style who makes complex academic concepts accessible to a wider audience.
Gates — known widely as “Skip” Gates — may be best known for his research tracing the family and genetic history of famous African Americans. He writes that throughout his career, he’s “been deeply concerned with and devoted to tracing roots.”
Now, his most influential writings on race, politics, and culture appear in a new volume, The Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Reader. NPR’s Neal Conan speaks with Gates about the new compilation, as well as his more recent work tracing the genealogical roots of influential Americans.
And if you want to listen to the full 30 minute interview, go to the NPR Media Player here. | <urn:uuid:ccda8f45-f686-4c69-8519-8fcb3ccbf859> | {
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Hawaii Statehood, August 21, 1959
President William McKinley's nomination of Sanford B. Dole to be Governor of the Territory of Hawaii, May 4, 1900
Under the Hawaiian Organic Act of 1900, which created the government of the Territory of Hawaii, Hawaiians did not elect their governor. Instead, governors were appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate according to the process described in Article II, section 2 of the Constitution. On May 4, 1900 President William McKinley nominated Sanford B. Dole to be the first Governor of the Territory of Hawaii.
RG 46, Records of the U.S. Senate
Return to Hawaii Statehood Documents | <urn:uuid:898c5f09-aaa3-44a4-b2bb-eeadf926bc60> | {
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NOAA Teacher at Sea
Aboard NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown
February 15 – March 5, 2012
Mission: Western Boundary Time Series
Geographical Area: Sub-Tropical Atlantic, off the Coast of the Bahamas
Date: February 22, 2012
Weather Data from the Bridge
Position:26.30 N – 75.42 W
Wind Direction: Calm
Air Temperature: 29 C
Water Temperature: 24 C
Atm Pressure: 1025
Water Depth: 4,410 meters
Cloud Cover: 0
Cloud Type: Slight haze
We are becalmed and even the veteran sailors onboard are remarking on how flat the sea has become. At about 30 degrees North and South Latitude, moist, low pressure air that was heated and lifted from the surface at the Equator has cooled and is now plunging back down to Earth, forming a line of light winds in a band across the sea. This dry, high pressure air becomes the Trade winds as it is drawn back towards the Equator along the sea surface in what is called a Hadley Cell (After its discoverer). We seem to be on the edge of this meteorological milepost, which was more than a nuisance in the days of sail. If stranded in its pattern too long, food and especially drinking water became an issue, and the first to suffer would be animals being transported from the Old World to the New. Legend has it that subsequent voyagers would come across their carcasses…hence the name Horse Latitudes.
While observing ships returning to port near his home, sixteen year-old future rock star Jim Morrison (The DOORS) composed what is perhaps his most eerie ballot – Horse Latitudes.
“When the still sea conspires an armor
And her sullen and aborted
Currents breed tiny monsters
True sailing is dead
And the first animal is jettisoned
Legs furiously pumping”
However, the stable ship makes deck work easier and I am catching up on samples under the microscope, including some of my own tiny “monsters” that the currents have bred.
“It is the astonishing variety of life that makes the sea such a fascinating
hunting ground. Get a tow-net, dredge and simple microscope,
and a new world is yours – a world of endless surprises.”
(Sir Alister Hardy)
The chief survey technician set me up with his flow-through seawater system and I can leave a net under it to continuously gather plankton. I have noticed some patterns already.
One: Phytoplankton is scarce compared to temperate waters off of New Jersey, and this helps account for the clarity and
brilliant blue color of the water. The absence of large rivers here adding nutrients to the system, and little coastal
upwelling, means that there is little to fertilize plantlife.
Two: More accumulates in the nets at night, confirming that Zooplankton rises to the surface at in the dark. This diurnal
pattern of the plankton community has been well documented ever since biologists and fishermen went to sea.
Three: Also, there is much more plankton at the surface than in deeper water. This is no surprise since sunlight is the
key ingredient at the surface of this ocean ecosystem.
Four: Creatures from offshore tend to have a more feathery look about them than inshore species. This added surface
area may use the turbulence to help support them near the surface and increase their buoyancy.
It is said: “Turn off the sun, and the oceans will starve to death in a week.” It is assumed that among other stresses on the Biosphere that accompany disastrous impacts of large asteroids, dust and ash from these rare collisions block out enough sunlight to stifle photosynthesis, causing Phytoplankton (The “Pasture of the Sea”) to waste away, and setting the stage for the collapse of the Food Chain and mass extinction events. Fortunately we have plenty of brilliant sunshine here and no celestial catastrophes on the horizon.
Some of the most interesting Zooplankton are the Pteropods, the Sea Butterflies.
Empty shell and live pteropod specimen
(Images on the Ron Brown by Dave Grant)
The renowned oceanographer Alister Hardy used them as indicators of different water masses flowing around the British Isles; and New England’s great oceanographer, Alfred Redfield correlated their drifting with the anti-clockwise circulation of water in the Gulf of Maine. Although most are small and less than an inch long, they feed on a variety of creatures and in turn become food for many others. In surface waters they gather phytoplankton, some utilizing cilia and mucus to sweep food to the mouth; but in deeper waters, others are carnivorous.
I am informed by our English colleagues that on Europe’s fishing grounds, they are sometimes fed upon by herring, cod and haddock; which is bad news for British fishermen, whose catch rapidly decays and is not marketable. Such fish are referred to as “black gut” or “stinkers.”
How concentrated are pteropods? Whales and seabirds that we hope to encounter later in the cruise are sustained by them, and in the warmer waters of the Atlantic, at relatively shallow depths and on the tops of submerged peaks at around 2,000 meters, R.S. Wimpenny reports considerable deposits of “pteropod ooze” from their descending shells, covering an estimated 1,500,000 square kilometers of the bottom of the Atlantic (An area the size of the Gulf of Mexico.). Like the Foraminifera, in deeper waters the aragonite in their shells (a more soluble form of calcium carbonate) dissolves, and other sediments like silicates from diatoms accumulate instead. Check out any oceanography text and you are likely to find a picture of this biogenic pteropod mud, as well as other types of deposits.
At least 90% of the animals in the ocean are meroplankton – spending time in this itinerant stage before becoming adults. This phase may vary from a few days to over a year, depending on the creature. (European eels larva are the long distance champions; for over a year, drifting from below us in their Sargasso Sea breeding grounds, all the way to rivers in Britain and France.)
Drifting larvae are cheap insurance for a species, filling the surrounding habitat with individuals of your own kind, settling in new areas and expanding ranges, and particularly, not lingering around their birthplace and competing with the parent stock. However, most individuals simply end up as food for other creatures that are higher on the food chain.
Not surprising, there are copepods, the “cattle of the sea” grazing on smaller organisms.
(Images on the Ron Brown by Dave Grant)
Calanus finmarchicus is sometimes called the most abundant animal in the world and is found throughout the oceans, sustaining many types of marinelife; even right whales and basking sharks off the coast of New England.
Other sea soup and children of the sea that author David Bulloch likes to call them, drift by me and swim circuits trapped by surface tension in the water drop under the microscope.
Radiolaria are single cell Protozoa that not only ensnare food with mucous, but harbor mutualistic algae
among their spines. (100 x’s)
An empty shell with copepod sheltered inside. Other skeletons filled with Paramecia, and a mixed sample of shells
and dust particles. (Images on the Ron Brown by Dave Grant)
Now that is calm, everyone seems to have their sea legs and are comfortable talking about their bouts of mal de mer.
Here is the worst story about sea sickness I have come across:
From Dave Grant’s collection of sea stories:
The world’s worst tale of seasickness.
As told by Ulysses S. Grant in his Memoirs
One amusing circumstance occurred while we were lying at anchor in Panama Bay. In the regiment there was a Lieutenant Slaughter who was very liable to seasickness. It almost made him sick to see the wave of a table-cloth when the servants were spreading it. Soon after his graduation [from West Point] Slaughter was ordered to California and took passage by a sailing vessel going around Cape Horn. The vessel was seven months making the voyage, and Slaughter was sick every moment of the time, never more so than while lying at anchor after reaching his place of destination. On landing in California he found orders that had come by way of the Isthmus [Panama], notifying him of a mistake in his assignment; he should have been ordered to the northern lakes. He started back by the Isthmus route and was sick all the way. But when he arrived back East he was again ordered to California, this time definitely, and at this date was making his third trip. He was sick as ever, and had been so for more than a month while lying at anchor in the bay. I remember him well, seated with his elbows on the table in front of him, his chin between his hands, and looking the picture of despair. At last he broke out, “I wish I had taken my father’s advice; he wanted me to go into the navy; if I had done so, I should not have had to go to sea so much.”
Poor Slaughter! It was his last sea voyage. He was killed by Indians in Oregon. | <urn:uuid:d0b1e2c2-28a6-44e3-8b98-e045092943ec> | {
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|Error Correcting Codes|
The purpose of this module is to introduce the student to error control codes. This is not an overview of the rich mathematical theory of block and burst codes.
Error Correction Codes are used in a variety of settings. In general, their application can be schematized to the information transmission scenario in Figure 1. The sender sends a cleartext message, that is encoded by the encoder using an Error Correcting Code (ECC). The encoded message is placed into a transmission channel. During the transmission, some of the bits in the message are erroneously transmitted (flipped). The message is received at the other end of the channel and decoded back into the original cleartext message (successful error correction) or a corrupted text message, on which the receiver then acts. Error correction is commonly used on many data links including those linking storage devices, but also for storage itself. The channel is then the storage medium and data is not send through space but through time.
The physical characteristics of the channel determine the character of the errors. In principle, a noisy channel could add spurious bits or swallow client bits, but that behaviour is very unusual. The most common error source is misinterpretation of a received bit. In effect, the bit is flipped from a 0 to a 1 or vice versa. A common model for this behaviour is Gaussian or white noise. Every bit transmitted (or stored) is subject to an error with a fixed probability p < 1/2. If the error rate is above 1/2, then we just invert every bit received and obtain a channel with error rate < 1/2. If bits are flipped with error rate p = 1/2, then the channel is unable to conduct any information. While errors are always somewhat related (there is a greater chance for an error to occur if an error has occurred nearby) this simple model is typically adequate. However, in some applications, bursts, that is, sequences of bits that are in error with a much higher rate need to be modeled and error correcting codes need to be designed for them. Examples for bursts would be electro-magnetic field interference within a transmission channel such as cross-talk between components in a disk head or media surface errors on a hard drive. Typically, the error probability are very low, but the requirements on the probability of error in the decoded message is very high.
Figure 1: Transmission Channel.
The quality of an error correcting code is measured in the capacity to correct errors and in the overhead necessitated by the encoding. In more detail, we have:
A simple error detection code is the parity code. To each block of 7 (for example) message bits, we add an additional parity bit. The parity bit is set so that the parity in the code word is always e.g. even. For example, if the message is 0101 000, the encoded message is 0101 0000. The parity code detects a single, triple, etc. error in the word, but fails on two , four, etc. errors. There is no error correction capability.
Figure 2: Maximum Likelihood Decoding.
As an example for maximum likelihood encoding we assume the following pairing between data words and code words:
As you can see from this example, maximum likelihood encoding for larger message words is difficult to implement and time consuming to execute, since we need to compare the received, possible erroneous, code word with all possible code words. Also, to maximise maximum likelihood decoding's capacity to find errors, we need to find code words that are evenly spaced in the space of all possible code words.
Returning to the general case, assume that we send a code word c. During transmission, and error e occurs and the word c+e is received. We check the received word for error freeness by multiplying the received word with the parity check matrix, i.e. we calculate (c+e)·H. Since (c+e)·H = c·H + e·H = 0 + e·H, we recognize that the received word is in error if and only if the error vector is not a codeword. Using maximum likelihood decoding, we can find a list of all words with minimum distance, which helps us localize the most probable error word e more quickly than in the general case.
Hamming codes are systematic, linear codes. That is, the code words consist of m bits message plus r parity bits to make up the m + r long code words. Figure 3 shows how to generate the parity check matrix for a Hamming code with 4 bits data and 3 parity bits. The rows of the matrix consists of all the binary representations of the numbers 1 - 7. If we do not care about the matrix being systematic, then we can just use the natural ordering, but otherwise we can arrange the rows so that the upper three by three matrix is the identity matrix.
A code word consists of four
information bits and three parity bits. If the information bits are a, b, c, and d, and if the parity bits are e, f, and g, then
the equation (a,b,c,d,e,f,g) · H = 0needs to hold. This translates to
Figure 3: Hamming Code.
As we can see, the parity bits are calculated from the information bits a, b, c, and d. As it turns out, Hamming codes are not only easy to encode, but they are easy to decode. Assume we send the data (0101). We encode this as (0101010). As we send this, we can make an error. Hamming codes can correct one bit errors (and detect any two bit errors), so lets make an arbitrary error (0001000). The received word is then (0100010). We notice this error by calculating (0100010)· H = (111). This vector can be found as the fourth row in H and this means that the error is made in position 4. Thus, the corrected word is (0101010), which decodes to the message (0101).
|© 2004 Thomas Schwarz, S.J., COEN, SCU SCU COEN T. Schwarz COEN 180| | <urn:uuid:1d6cbbdb-8439-418a-8d1c-71d1d1fd17fc> | {
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By Jitra Waikagul,Urusa Thaekham
Approaches to analyze at the Systematics of Fish-Borne Trematodes is a concise consultant for systematic stories of the superiority of fish-borne trematodes either within the endemic components and experimental laboratories. It comprises tips on how to establish species of fish-borne trematodes to augment the precision of analysis reports in response to the metacercarial stage.
Misidentification of trematode species is a standard prevalence whilst researchers are new to the sphere and feature no advice. Consequentially, occasionally courses record misguided incidence premiums of those parasites. This compact advisor supplies transparent course on:
- Collection of parasites within the ultimate hosts
- Collection of cercaria from snail first intermediate hosts
- Collection of metacercaria from fish hosts
- Molecular id of parasites
- Systematics of fish-borne trematodes
- Provides study directions and protocols for learning systematics of fish-borne trematodes utilizing either morphological and molecular data
- Presents keys to permit identity of metacercariae of fish-borne trematodes within the higher Mekong subregion
Read Online or Download Approaches to Research on the Systematics of Fish-Borne Trematodes PDF
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Extra info for Approaches to Research on the Systematics of Fish-Borne Trematodes
Approaches to Research on the Systematics of Fish-Borne Trematodes by Jitra Waikagul,Urusa Thaekham | <urn:uuid:d4e87a79-cf4d-49b9-8b60-d9cbc7be8b84> | {
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One of the first members of the new Republican party, he was a delegate to the national organizing convention in Feb., 1856. Barred as a New York delegate to the 1860 Republican convention, because of strained relations with the state leaders, he attended as a representative of Oregon. He was a leader in the successful fight to prevent Seward's nomination; and although at first favoring Edward Bates, he eventually threw his support to Abraham Lincoln. Seward had his revenge later by helping to block Greeley's election to the U.S. Senate (Greeley had served in the House of Representatives from Dec., 1848, to Mar., 1849).
Greeley's course in the Civil War lost him many admirers. At first disposed to let the "erring sisters go in peace," he soon came around to vigorous support of the war. However, he persistently denounced Lincoln's policy of conciliating the border slave states. On Aug. 19, 1862, he published over his signature in the Tribune an open letter to the President, which he titled "The Prayer of Twenty Millions," demanding that Lincoln commit himself definitely to emancipation. Lincoln's reply (Aug. 22) "to an old friend, whose heart I have always supposed to be right" was masterly (see Emancipation Proclamation). Only reluctantly and belatedly did Greeley support Lincoln for reelection in 1864.
The editor's humanitarian hatred of war led him to advocate peace negotiations of any sort, often to the embarrassment of the administration. In 1864, Lincoln sent him on what turned out to be a futile mission to Canada to meet with Confederate emissaries. After the war Greeley favored black suffrage and advocated amnesty for all Southerners. He was one of those who signed the bail bond to release Jefferson Davis from prison, and this magnanimous act cost him half the subscriptions to the Weekly Tribune.
Sections in this article:
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:523b9293-10f6-4148-a459-ba1ed76b7760> | {
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On this day (Nov. 4) in 1824, the 67-year-old French aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette began a 10-day visit to the Monticello home of 81-year-old former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson.
On what would be Lafayette’s last trip to America, he had accepted President James Monroe’s invitation for a farewell tour of the United States to participate in the celebration of the country’s 50th anniversary (July 1826), and, thereby, help instill the now 40-year-old “Spirit of 1776” among the growing number of Americans who were not participants in the “Glorious Cause.”
During his highly emotional triumphant tour of the country he helped to create, Lafayette visited all 24 U.S. states and Washington, D.C. Accompanied by a sizable entourage that included his son, George Washington Lafayette, and secretary, Auguste Levasseur (who later published a detailed account of the 6,000-mile excursion), the Marquis was enthusiastically regaled, honored, memorialized and “wined and dined” at virtually every village, city and historic site visited.
Also during the tour, which lasted 13 months (from Aug. 15, 1824, to Sept. 7, 1825), Lafayette visited with many of his famous Revolutionary War colleagues, which included most notably President Monroe, former President James Madison, and, after March 1825, President John Quincy Adams (with whom the Frenchman celebrated his 68th birthday at a banquet at the White House).
He also visited many of the Revolutionary battlefields (Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, Germantown, Brandywine and Yorktown) and historic sites, which included Philadelphia’s Independence Hall, where he gave an emotional speech; his American mentor George Washington’s estate and tomb at Mount Vernon; the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, where he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws; the White House; and the Capitol, where he addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress.
However, the most noteworthy and, perhaps, the most emotional event of this entire tour was Lafayette’s widely reported trip to Jefferson’s mountain top estate and to his “Academical Village” (the University of Virginia). When Jefferson learned that Monroe had invited Lafayette to visit America, he wrote a letter to the Frenchman inviting him to be sure to visit him. As it turned out, Lafayette spent some 12 days (Nov. 4-15) as an honored guest of the now increasingly feeble Sage of Monticello.
In the midafternoon of Nov. 4, Lafayette’s entourage started up the mountain from Charlottesville in a landau, drawn by four gray horses, accompanied a cheering crowd of marching citizens, a detachment of cavalry and several carriages with state and local dignitaries.
When the visitors reached the front entrance of Jefferson’s mountaintop mansion, what was widely reported to have been the most heartwarming, moving moment of Lafayette’s entire visit took place, when the two Revolutionary War heroes tearfully embraced amid the cheers of the large crowd that had gathered to honor the French visitor.
After a few days of rest, relaxation and, one suspects, stimulating conversation and reminiscing, Jefferson invited his celebrated visitor and a number of dignitaries, which included ex-President James Madison, as the first official guests to the University of Virginia to a formal dinner, which was held in the just completed Dome Room of the Rotunda.
Lafayette somewhat reluctantly bid farewell to Jefferson and Monticello on Nov. 15.
After his triumphant tour, Lafayette left Washington, D.C., aboard the USS Brandywine on Sept. 7, 1825 for France, where he died May 20, 1834.
Jefferson, of course, died famously on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence he authored (July 4, 1826).
• Crystal Lake resident Joseph C. Morton is professor emeritus at Northeastern Illinois University. Email him at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:011f08ae-52dc-4427-98c0-faca7738fec0> | {
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Undertake an Initiative Campaign
Constitutional and Statutory Provisions
(Secretary of State)
Montana's Populist governor Robert B. Smith, elected
in 1896, and his successor, Joseph K. Toole, elected in 1900, both called for adoption
of the initiative and referendum, but neither made much headway until December 1903, when the reformer F.
Augustus Heinze organized an "Anti-Trust Democratic Party" and an "Anti-Trust
Republican Party." These groups, combining their efforts with those of the
vocal "seven or eight men" from the state's Direct Legislation League, were able
to push an I&R amendment through the legislature. The bill did not include the
right to pass state constitutional amendments by initiative. Voters approved the I&R amendment by a six to one margin
1906, with a majority voting in favor in every county. Montanans
added the constitutional initiative to their constitution at the 1972
state constitutional convention, 66 years later.
Montanans first used the initiative in 1912, when voters
approved four out of four initiatives on the ballot. One required primary
elections to nominate state and local candidates; the second established a
presidential preference primary; the third called for direct election of U.S.
senators; and the fourth limited candidates' campaign expenditures.
The reformers' goal for the 1912 election, which was to "Put the Amalgamated
[Copper Company] out of Montana politics," proved to be an elusive one as
the company continued to be influential in the World War I era. Even after the election of Joseph M. Dixon as governor in
1920, which was a victory for the reformers, Amalgamated continued to dominate
the legislature. Near the end of his term, Dixon and the reformers turned to the
Dixon selected as his key issue the under-taxing of
Amalgamated: in 1922 the production of Montana's metal mines was $20 million,
but the state got less than seven-hundredths of one percent of that in taxes. To
remedy the situation, Dixon drew up Initiative 28, which proposed no taxes on
mines with annual production of $100,000 or less, but taxed larger mines at up
to 1 percent of the value of their production. The initiative qualified for the
ballot in 1924, the same year Dixon was up for re-election.
During that campaign, observed K. Ross Toole in his
history of Montana, "The people heard little from Dixon himself because he had
no medium for expression. The press was controlled [by Amalgamated], and there
were no radios." Amalgamated attacked Dixon's policies and Dixon himself, and he
lost the election by 15,000 votes. But in their attacks on Dixon they overlooked
Initiative 28, and it passed.
In 1920, voters approved a 1.5 million property tax
for maintenance of the state university, and on the same ballot passed an
initiative issuing $5 million in bonds to fund school construction. In 1926,
they passed a three-cent-per-gallon gasoline tax to fund road construction, and
they approved more highway funding in a 1938 initiative vote.
Numerous other important initiatives have passed in the last decade – term
limits and tax reform have been the most controversial with state legislators.
These two reforms have led state lawmakers to propose numerous new regulations
and restrictions on the initiative process.
After its Progressive-era heyday (1912-1928) during
which 17 measures reached the ballot, the initiative process fell into disuse.
Only six initiative came before the voters in the subsequent four decades.
Initiative use picked up again in the mid-1970s, as it did elsewhere in the
country, with frustrated voters approving property tax relief and the recall
process in 1976. Initiative use continued to grow, with 16 measures in the
1980s, 16 measures in the 1990s, and 14 measures since 2000. The issues have
been varied, ranging from opposition of basing MX missiles in the state, tax and
term limits, minimum wage, campaign finance, and same-sex marriage.
David Schmidt, Citizen Lawmakers: The Ballot Initiative Revolution
(Temple University Press, 1989). | <urn:uuid:43e154c1-b5bb-4438-9ad2-704b2d8191d0> | {
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Timothy C. Hain, MD Page last modified: June 18, 2009
While there are several other surveys of inner ear anatomy, we have diffidently here set out to put the content in our lecture on this subject on the web.
Mechanical sensors (canals and otoliths) respond to angular and linear movement
The semicircular canals are very small rings -- about 1 cm in diameter. The image above is an MRI of a normal set of inner ears, taken in the "axial" view. The snail shaped objects at the top (front of head) are the cochlea. The rings are the semicircular canals.
The image above is taken from a CT scan shows that the anterior canal diameter is less than 1 cm - -smaller than a dime !
There are three semicircular canals - -the anterior, superior and horizontal. Between the three canals the brain can determine rotational velocity in three dimensions.
There are also two otolith organs (click here for more). The otoliths respond to linear acceleration such as gravity or changing velocity of movement in a straight line.
Also see: Virtual ear at MEEI (Harvard)
|© Copyright October 6, 2013 , Timothy C. Hain, M.D. All rights reserved. Last saved on October 6, 2013| | <urn:uuid:c22f2f84-ee80-49a6-9243-eb3a57c271b3> | {
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Research strongly supports the idea that young children, particularly ages two through six, learn best through direct experiences with the world around them however we welcome children of all ages to join us for our caregiver-included sessions.
The benefits of forest programs are innumerable.
- Social skills: respect, kindness, compassion, empathy
- Emotional balance
- Conflict resolution and negotiation
- Body awareness and risk assessment
- Sensory exploration
SCHOOL READINESS SKILLS:
- Critical thinking
- Divergent thinking
- Joy of learning
- Creativity and imagination
- Cooperation and teamwork
- Peer Communication | <urn:uuid:595709db-7943-41db-80af-49859875d469> | {
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Judicial Branch Home >
4th District Home >
Court Administration >
Housing Court >
What is Mediation
Mediation is a process where a neutral third party, at the request of the parties to a dispute, assists them in reaching a mutually satisfactory settlement of the dispute. In mediation, you will meet with the other party and a mediator. The mediator is not a judge and will not decide the solution, but will help the parties reach an agreement and be part of the solution.
If the parties do not reach an agreement, the mediator will schedule the next hearing and provide both the tenant and the landlord with the proper forms.
The Mediation Process
- The filing party requests mediation by completing the Request for Voluntary Mediation form and submitting it tothe court;
- The court sends the request to the mediation program; and then
- The parties are contacted by a mediation program and, if both agree, a mediation hearing is scheduled.
If the case is settled:
A settlement agreement is signed by both the parties. No court case is filed. No filing fee is paid. No court record of the action exists.
If the case is NOT settled:
At the time of mediation, the parties are served with a notice to appear in court in seven days. The service is done by the mediator (saves service fee for the parties). The case will be one of the first handled on the day of court (saves both parties time in court).
If the parties are not willing to mediate, the case is referred back to District Court. A summons will be prepared and served directing the parties to appear in court on a future date. The case will be one of the first called on the day of court (saves both parties time in court).
Benefits of Mediation
- No filing fee if the case settles
- Priority status on calendar if the case does not settle (saves time in court)
If the case settles, there is no court record of an eviction action filed against you. (An eviction court record may have a negative impact on your ability to rent property in the future.)
For Both Parties:
- Parties reach their own agreement
- Equal say in the solution
- Low or no costs
- Convenient hours and locations
- Less stress
- Enhances possibility of a workable future relationship
Examples of Disputes Where Mediation May Help
- Non-payment of rent
- Repair and maintenance issues
- Lease violations
Mediation Programs in Hennepin County
For more information or to get started with mediation, call one of the numbers listed below or another mediation provider of your choice. You do not have to file a case in court to use mediation.
Conflict Resolution Center(formerly Minneapolis Mediation Program)
- Serves residents of Minneapolis, St. Anthony, Richfield, Bloomington, Burnsville, Edina and Eden Prairie
- Phone Number: 612-822-9883
- Fax Number: 612-822-9890
- Hours: Monday through Friday 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.
Community Mediation Services, Inc. (formerly North Hennepin Mediation Program)
- Serves residents of Northern and Western Hennepin County
- Phone Number: 763-561-0033
- Fax Number: 763-561-0266
- Hours: Monday through Friday 8:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m.
« Back to Housing Court Home
« Back to 4th District Court Home | <urn:uuid:97b38d9b-b06b-4300-a2d1-026a90460afe> | {
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2010 Annual Report
1a.Objectives (from AD-416)
The long-term objectives of this project are to develop, validate, and implement new technologies and systematic approaches for detection of microbial and chemical contamination of foods. Goals will be accomplished by utilizing multi-disciplinary research teams that involve food scientists, microbiologists, molecular scientists, and agricultural, biological, and electrical engineers.
1b.Approach (from AD-416)
Develop rapid and affordable technologies for detection of harmful levels of biological and chemical food contaminants; to establish better methods of food sample preparation and contaiminant separation procedures that can be used with different detection based technology platforms; to use detection systems, sample preparation and contaminant separations techniques to evaluate the efficacy of novel means of food protection; and to provide education, training, and technology transfer necessary for national implementation of these research programs.
The detection and quantification of foodborne pathogens involves the development of a system that can separate microorganisms from the food matrix first, followed by an effective detection/quantification system. Microbial cells are being separated from the food matrix and being concentrated with a series of membrane filters and a hollow fiber system. The filtration device has been used successfully to separate organisms from complex foods (i.e. ready-to-eat meats) and they can be cleaned easily between uses. The filtration system has been improved and can now be used multiple times, thereby reducing both cost and manual operations associated with recovery of concentrated microbial samples. The system is currently being used to concentrate E. coli and Salmonella bacteria, and a 1000-fold concentration of microbial cells is now possible. After the separation and concentration step, a wide variety of detection platforms have been studied. One method uses a microfluidic biochip, that incorporates the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and dielectrophoresis to concentrate and grow bacteria in the biochips. Label-free detection of PCR reactions is being examined with electrically-based detection to aid in both detection and quantification. A second system called “BARDOT” (Bacterial Rapid Detection using Optical Scattering Technology) uses a light scattering technique to differentiate and classify bacterial colonies grown on Petri-dishes. Much of the work this year has focused on detection and classification of Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 based on their different light scatter images. Finally, a rapid, simple, and economical method for detection, differentiation, and quantification of Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains in ground beef has been developed using infrared spectroscopy method (FT-IR). A main focus of this work was to establish a method that can effectively distinguish between live and dead cells. Three outbreak strains of E. coli O157:H7and a non-pathogenic control strain of E. coli were evaluated in ground beef samples. The detection limit was 10,000 cells. Detection of live cells in the presence of dead cells extracted from ground beef was possible with as few as 0.5% live cells in the presence of 99.5% dead cells of E. coli O157:H7. Similar results were obtained for the detection of Salmonella enterica serovars from chicken. Communication with collaborators was through emails and conference calls. | <urn:uuid:e7451a25-2041-4218-b39e-f3ef7dfd3b0e> | {
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Venables was a colonel in the parliamentary army and was wounded at the Siege of Chester in 1645. He was appointed governor of Liverpool in 1648 and then served with success in Ireland from 1649 until 1654. Venables was sent as joint commander with Admiral William Penn on the Caribbean expedition against the Spanish in the West Indies in 1654. The English forces were routed at the Siege of Santo Domingo in 1655, but managed to successfully take the Spanish colony of Jamaica for England later in the same year. On his return to England he was sent to the Tower of London for failing to wrest the larger prize of Hispaniola from Spanish control, and cashiered in October the same year. Venables was briefly appointed governor of Chester in 1660. After the Restoration he bought the estate of Wincham, retired from public life, and remained a religious nonconformist. He published a treatise on fishing, The Experienced Angler, in 1662.
Robert Venables was the son of Robert Venables of Antrobus, Cheshire and Ellen Simcox, daughter of Richard Simcox of Rudheath. The Venables were a cadet branch of a family that could trace their ancestry back to the Norman Conquest.
English Civil War
Venables entered the parliamentary army when the Civil War broke out, and served as a captain under Sir William Brereton in Cheshire and Lancashire. In 1644 he distinguished himself in the defence of Nantwich, and in 1645 he was governor of Tarvin. In October of that year Venables was wounded at the Siege of Chester, being then a lieutenant-colonel. In 1646 he commanded a mopping up operation in North Wales which was sent to reduce the remaining royalist garrisons in the Principality.
During 1647 and 1648 he was active as a civil commissioner trying to get his and his men's arrears paid. In January 1648 Venables was appointed governor of Liverpool, a position he held during the Second English Civil War.
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
In 1649 he was promoted to full colonel and commanded a foot regiment in the army under Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, destined for the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. He preceded Cromwell to Ireland, landing at Dublin on 25 July 1649, in time to take part in the victory of Rathmines.
After the storming of Drogheda—in which his regiment played a key role in preventing the retreating Royalists from raising the drawbridge to the north side of the town, assuring Cromwell's speedy victory and the massacre that followed it— Cromwell, who headed south towards Wexford, promoted Venables to major-general of Ulster and Governor of Londonderry, and sent him in command of a detachment, to join Sir Charles Coote in Ulster. On his march Venables defeated Colonel Mark Trevor and Hugh, Lord Ards at the Battle of Dromore, and captured Newry and Carlingford. Belfast surrendered to him early in October, and in December he and Sir Charles Coote defeated Lord Ards near Lisnegarvy, and took Carrickfergus.
On 21 June 1650 Venables assisted Coote to defeat the army of Bishop Heber McMahon at the Battle of Scariffhollis and to help in the failed assault of Charlemont, after which the garrison of the town surrendered with terms on 14 August. He was also involved in the campaign against the Earl of Clanricarde, the commander of the last Irish Confederate field army, who fled to France in December 1650. Over the next two years Venables fought a counter insurgency war against tories in the bogs of north Connaught and south-west Ulster, eventually forcing Colonel Tirlogh O'Neill and Lieutenant-general O'Farrell to capitulate.
On 9 December 1651 Irish lands to the value of £1,223 were ordered him for his arrears of pay, but that did not cover all his arrears and he was active in trying to get backpay for both himself and him men. In 1653 he was busy drafting regulation to impose the draconian 1652 Act of Settlement, but not so busy as to find time to oppose the imposition regulations that would have seen the reintroduction of enforced Presbyterianism in Ulster, presumably because like many in the New Model Army he was a Congregationalist.
The Protectorate and the West Indies expedition
- see also Anglo-Spanish War
In May 1654 Venables left Ireland, and on 9 December following he was appointed general of the forces sent by the Protector Oliver Cromwell to attack the Spanish in the West Indies. The instructions of the Protector and his council gave Venables the full latitude of choice as to the point to attack, suggested various places, but declined to tie his hands, ordering him simply "to gain an interest in that part of the West Indies in possession of the Spaniards". He was, however, to consult with Sir William Penn, the admiral commanding the fleet employed in the expedition, and with two commissioners, Edward Winslow and Gregory Butler, on the method of carrying out his instructions.
The expedition set sail in December 1654, reached Barbados at the end of January, where additional forces were embarked, and arrived at Hispaniola on 13 April. A landing was effected with about eight thousand men some forty miles west of the capital, and the army marched through the woods to attack it. After suffering two disastrous defeats from the Spaniards on 17 and 25 April, Venables, complaining loudly of the cowardice of his men, decided to give up the attempt, and sailed for Jamaica. That island was reached on 10 May, the chief town occupied with very little fighting, and the governor forced to capitulate on 17 May. The Spaniards retired into the woods and hills, whence they continued their resistance; the expedition was badly equipped with provisions and other necessaries, and sickness decimated the ranks of the army. Penn with part of the fleet sailed home on 25 June, and Venables himself followed in the Marston Moor on 4 July.
Venables had been ill ever since reaching Hispaniola, and by this time was thought to be at the point of death. But, apart from reasons of health, he was anxious to get to England to clear himself from responsibility for the failure at Hispaniola, and to represent to the Protector the needs of the colony at Jamaica. When he arrived at Portsmouth on 9 September 1655, he described himself as "in a recovering condition", but almost a skeleton, and so weak that he could neither stand nor ride.
On 20 September he appeared before the Council of State, and was immediately committed to the Tower of London. Penn shared the same fate. On 30 October Venables was released from his imprisonment, on condition of surrendering his general's commission and his command in Ireland, and obtained no further employment during the protectorate.
The historian C.H. Firth, writing in the DNB in 1889, was of the opinion that the main cause of the failure at Hispaniola and the reason for the imprisonment of the two generals was the lack of cordial co-operation on the part of both. The errors committed by Venables himself in the management of his attack were equally fatal, and he never obtained the confidence either of his officers or his soldiers. His army, however, was composed of very inferior and undisciplined troops hastily got together and badly equipped. His wife, who accompanied him, says in her journal: "The success was ill, for the work of God was not like to be done by the devil's instruments. A wicked army it was, and sent out without arms or provisions". In the opinion of the historian John Morrill, writing in the ODNB in 2004, "[Venables] was over-promoted and under-supported in a high-profile fiasco in the Caribbean that cost him his reputation. He had to live out his life as a disgraced man with a sharp-tongued wife who disapproved of all he stood for".
When George Monck, the English military governor of Scotland, came into England at the head of his troops, he appointed Venables governor of Chester. Initially Edward Hyde, a close advisor to Charles II of England while the latter was in exile, was in favour of the appointment, but on taking advise from the local Cheshire Royalists, pressed successfully for his dismissal because of the worries expressed over Venables religious Independency.
Venables obtained nothing at the Restoration. In 1664 he was informed against as concerned in what was known as the Farnley Wood Plot, but the charge met with no belief. He sheltered William Veitch when he was in hiding in England after the Pentland Rising, and seems to have remained a nonconformist. He died in July 1687, aged 75.
In 1662, Venables published The Experienced Angler, or Angling improved, being a general discourse of angling, imparting many of the aptest ways and choicest experiments for the taking of most sorts of fish in pond or river, duodecimo. To it is prefixed an epistle by Izaak Walton to his ingenious friend the author. "I have read", says Walton, "and practised by many books of this kind … yet I could never find in them that height for judgment and reason which you have manifested in this". There were five printed editions during Venables' lifetime, the last in 1683. There was a further edition in 1827 with a life of Venables prefixed in it.
Shortly after the Restoration he bought the estate of Wincham in Cheshire, where his descendants were still settled in 1900. His portrait, the autobiography of his second wife, and some manuscripts relating to the West Indian expedition were still there in 1900.
- David Plant, the British Civil Wars and Commonwealth website Robert Venables, c.1613–87
- Lee, Sidney (1903), Dictionary of National Biography Index and Epitome, p. 1336 (also main entry lviii 205)
- Robert Venables, The Experienced Angler
- Firth 1899, p. 205
- Morrill 2004.
- Bottero 2005, p. 17.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Ormerod , Cheshire, i. 658; Discourse of the Civil War in Lancashire, pp. 9, 97.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Report on the Duke of Portland's Manuscripts, i. 288.
- Firth 1899, p. 205.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Norris Papers, p. 19, Chetham Soc. 1846.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Borlase, History of the Irish Rebellion, ed. 1743, p. 277.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Caryle, Cromwell, Letters cvi. cxv.; Carte, Ormond, iii. 475)
- Historical Manuscript Commission 1899, pp. 44,45.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Borlase, App. p. 24; J. T. Gilbert Aphorismical Discovery of Treasonable Faction, iii. 159.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Gilbert Aphorismical Discovery, iii. 320, 336; Ludlow, Memoirs, ed. 1894, i. 318, 522; Borlase, App. p. 28; History of the War of Ireland by an Officer of Sir John Clotworthy's Regiment, 1873, pp. 88, 99, 117, 133.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Gilbert Aphorismical Discovery, iii. 273.
- "His commission is printed in Thurloe's State Papers, iii. 115. (Firth 1899, p. 205)
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites G. Penn , Life of Sir W. Penn, ii. 28.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Thurloe, vol. iii. passim; Life of Penn, ii. 28–132; Carte, Original Letters, ii. 46–52; Report on the Manuscripts of the Duke of Portland, ii. 90–8.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Report on the Manuscripts of the Duke of Portland, ii. 97.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1655, pp. 327, 343, 402.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites cf. Penn, ii. 32; Thurloe, iii. 646, 754.
- C.H. Firth dismisses as fiction the story told in the life of Dr. John Barwick, that a royalist lady induced him to undertake the overthrow of Cromwell, and that he purposed employed the troops raised for the expedition to the West Indies for that object (Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Life of Dr. John Barwick, ed. 1724, pp. 165, 184).
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites 25 February 1660; Clarke MSS.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites (Life of Dr. John Barwick, pp. 431, 451, 522)
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1663–4, p. 512.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites McCrie, Memoirs of Veitch and Brysson, 1825, p. 23; Autobiography of Henry Newcome, ii. 207.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. v. 120.
- Firth 1899, p. 205 cites Chetham Miscellany, iv. 3, 9.
- Bottero, Wendy (2005). Stratification: social division and inequality (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 0-415-28178-4.
- Morrill, John (2004). "Venables, Robert (1612/13–1687)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/28181.
- Historical Manuscript Commission, ed. (1899). Report on the Manuscripts of F. W. Leyborne-Popham, Esq., of Littlecote, Co. Wilts .... H.M . Stationery off. pp. 44–45.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Lee, Sidney, ed. (1903). "Venables, Robert". Dictionary of National Biography Index and Epitome. Cambridge University Press. p. 1336.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Firth, C.H (1899). "Venables, Robert". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography 58. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 205. Firth's sources:
- A note to the Discourse of the Civil War in Lancashire, edited by W. Beaumont (Chetham Soc.), 1864, pp. 97–100;
- Some Account of General Robert Venables (Chetham Miscel. vol. iv. 1871);
- Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. v. 120;
- Ormerod's Cheshire, i. 658;
- letters of Venables are printed in the Thurloe State Papers and in Carte's Collection of Original Letters, 1739. Narratives of the Jamaica Expedition are printed in Leonard Howard's Original Letters, 1753, pp. 1–21;
- the Harleian Miscellany, ed. Park, iii. 510;
- Granville Penn's Life of Sir William Penn, 1833, ii. 28–132;
- Long's Hist. of Jamaica, 1774;
- Burchett's Complete Hist. of the most remarkable Transactions at Sea, 1720.
- Firth, C. H. (1900). The narrative of General Venables, with an appendix of papers relating to the expedition to the West Indies and the conquest of Jamaica, 1654–1655. London, New York and Bombay: Longmans Green & Company.
- Firth, C.H; Davies, G (1940). The Regimental History of Cromwell's Army. Oxford. | <urn:uuid:f72c8dad-3e10-443f-bd15-d93b05ea38e7> | {
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Social Games in Shallow Water
There is something about water that can invite calm play.
Maybe it’s the comforting way water holds your body, the silky feel of it on your skin, the blue color, the buoyancy, the swishy sound it makes when being moved. These elements make water the ideal delicious sensory experience. Children who might otherwise have some difficulty socializing with others can find the experience eased with water games.
Now that summer is coming, get out that kiddie pool or plan to hang out at the shallow end of the big pool and try these easy fun games with your young.
CATCH A FISH
- Small strainers or fishnets
- Ping-pong balls (“fish”)
- Plastic Bowl or bucket
Players are sitting in a circle with each player having a strainer or fish net. Place a bowl full of ping pong “fish” in the center of the circle.
Show the children the bowl full of “fish” and then dump them into the water saying, “Uh, oh, the fish got away!” Show the kids how to catch the “fish” with the strainer and put it back in the bowl. When all of the fish are caught and in the bowl………..oh no, the bowl tipped and they got away again! You could make up a tune using words such as:
If you don’t have ping-pong balls, try corks or packing peanuts or even regular peanuts, anything small that floats. Don’t have enough strainers? Use tongs or a small cup to capture the “fish”
FILL THE BUCKET
- One large bucket
- Individual small cups for each child.
Children sitting in a circle, each with their own cup. The bucket is held in the middle of the circle.
Demonstrate how to fill the cup with water and pour it into the bucket and encourage everyone to do the same while a song is being sung. Sing these words to the tune of “Skip to My Lou” or any other tune:
When the bucket is full, play around with different things to do like make a waterfall by emptying it in the center of the circle. Or, if the kids want it, pour it on everyone’s head. You could even sing an appropriate song about water while their heads are getting doused such as It’s raining, it’s pouring, The old man is snoring Or try tossing the water in the bucket upward and letting it rain down.
Once the bucket is empty, put it back in the center of the circle and play again!
THE SPONGE PASS
- Large sponge
Children are sitting in a circle in water so that they are in full view of each other. If they have already played an active game such as Fill the Bucket, it’s easier to wait for a turn in this turn-taking game.
First demonstrate the actions to the words below. Chant the words or add a tune to these words.
Exaggerate the action so the movement is very obvious to the children. Dip the sponge deeply into the water on the word “Dip” and when squeezing the sponge on the word “squeeze”, make a grunting face as your fingers wring the sponge.
Each child, then, has the whole length of the lyric to play with getting the sponge soaking wet and squeezing it before they have to pass it to the next person.
After everyone has had a turn or two, you can make the game last longer by switching the material, the action and the words. For example with sprinkler cans you might sing: “Fill It Up And Sprinkle It Out Then Pass It To Your Friend” Turkey Basters, eggbeater, funnels and even squirt toys can be cool fun on a hot summer day.
Barbara Sher, M.A.,O.T.R is a pediatric occupational therapist who has seven books published on childrens games. Some of the ideas for this article are from SPIRIT GAMES. Other titles include EARLY INTERVENTION GAMES , PLAYSMART GAMES , SELF-ESTEEM GAMES, EXTRAORDINARY PLAY WITH ORDINARY THINGS and ATTENTION GAMES. You can check out her books and workshops on any on-line bookstore or at her website www.gameslady.com Request for presentations or comments can be emailed to [email protected]
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US Department of the Treasury
History of the US Tax System
The federal, state, and local tax systems in the United States have been marked by significant changes over the years in response to changing circumstances and changes in the role of government. The types of taxes collected, their relative proportions, and the magnitudes of the revenues collected are all far different than they were 50 or 100 years ago. Some of these changes are traceable to specific historical events, such as a war or the passage of the 16th Amendment to the Constitution that granted the Congress the power to levy a tax on personal income. Other changes were more gradual, responding to changes in society, in our economy, and in the roles and responsibilities that government has taken unto itself.
For most of our nation's history, individual taxpayers rarely had any significant contact with Federal tax authorities as most of the Federal government's tax revenues were derived from excise taxes, tariffs, and customs duties. Before the Revolutionary War, the colonial government had only a limited need for revenue, while each of the colonies had greater responsibilities and thus greater revenue needs, which they met with different types of taxes. For example, the southern colonies primarily taxed imports and exports, the middle colonies at times imposed a property tax and a "head" or poll tax levied on each adult male, and the New England colonies raised revenue primarily through general real estate taxes, excises taxes, and taxes based on occupation.
England's need for revenues to pay for its wars against France led it to impose a series of taxes on the American colonies. In 1765, the English Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which was the first tax imposed directly on the American colonies, and then Parliament imposed a tax on tea. Even though colonists were forced to pay these taxes, they lacked representation in the English Parliament. This led to the rallying cry of the American Revolution that "taxation without representation is tyranny" and established a persistent wariness regarding taxation as part of the American culture.
The Post Revolutionary Era
The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, reflected the American fear of a strong central government and so retained much of the political power in the States. The national government had few responsibilities and no nationwide tax system, relying on donations from the States for its revenue. Under the Articles, each State was a sovereign entity and could levy tax as it pleased.
When the Constitution was adopted in 1789, the Founding Fathers recognized that no government could function if it relied entirely on other governments for its resources, thus the Federal Government was granted the authority to raise taxes. The Constitution endowed the Congress with the power to "…lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, pay the Debts and provide for the common Defense and general Welfare of the United States." Ever on guard against the power of the central government to eclipse that of the states, the collection of the taxes was left as the responsibility of the State governments.
To pay the debts of the Revolutionary War, Congress levied excise taxes on distilled spirits, tobacco and snuff, refined sugar, carriages, property sold at auctions, and various legal documents. Even in the early days of the Republic, however, social purposes influenced what was taxed. For example, Pennsylvania imposed an excise tax on liquor sales partly "to restrain persons in low circumstances from an immoderate use thereof." Additional support for such a targeted tax came from property owners, who hoped thereby to keep their property tax rates low, providing an early example of the political tensions often underlying tax policy decisions.
Though social policies sometimes governed the course of tax policy even in the early days of the Republic, the nature of these policies did not extend either to the collection of taxes so as to equalize incomes and wealth, or for the purpose of redistributing income or wealth. As Thomas Jefferson once wrote regarding the "general Welfare" clause:
To take from one, because it is thought his own industry and that of his father has acquired too much, in order to spare to others who (or whose fathers) have not exercised equal industry and skill, is to violate arbitrarily the first principle of association, "to guarantee to everyone a free exercise of his industry and the fruits acquired by it."
With the establishment of the new nation, the citizens of the various colonies now had proper democratic representation, yet many Americans still opposed and resisted taxes they deemed unfair or improper. In 1794, a group of farmers in southwestern Pennsylvania physically opposed the tax on whiskey, forcing President Washington to send Federal troops to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, establishing the important precedent that the Federal government was determined to enforce its revenue laws. The Whiskey Rebellion also confirmed, however, that the resistance to unfair or high taxes that led to the Declaration of Independence did not evaporate with the forming of a new, representative government.
During the confrontation with France in the late 1790's, the Federal Government imposed the first direct taxes on the owners of houses, land, slaves, and estates. These taxes are called direct taxes because they are a recurring tax paid directly by the taxpayer to the government based on the value of the item that is the basis for the tax. The issue of direct taxes as opposed to indirect taxes played a crucial role in the evolution of Federal tax policy in the following years. When Thomas Jefferson was elected President in 1802, direct taxes were abolished and for the next 10 years there were no internal revenue taxes other than excises.
To raise money for the War of 1812, Congress imposed additional excise taxes, raised certain customs duties, and raised money by issuing Treasury notes. In 1817 Congress repealed these taxes, and for the next 44 years the Federal Government collected no internal revenue. Instead, the Government received most of its revenue from high customs duties and through the sale of public land.
The Civil War
When the Civil War erupted, the Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1861, which restored earlier excises taxes and imposed a tax on personal incomes. The income tax was levied at 3 percent on all incomes higher than $800 a year. This tax on personal income was a new direction for a Federal tax system based mainly on excise taxes and customs duties. Certain inadequacies of the income tax were quickly acknowledged by Congress and thus none was collected until the following year.
By the spring of 1862 it was clear the war would not end quickly and with the Union's debt growing at the rate of $2 million daily it was equally clear the Federal government would need additional revenues. On July 1, 1862 the Congress passed new excise taxes on such items as playing cards, gunpowder, feathers, telegrams, iron, leather, pianos, yachts, billiard tables, drugs, patent medicines, and whiskey. Many legal documents were also taxed and license fees were collected for almost all professions and trades.
The 1862 law also made important reforms to the Federal income tax that presaged important features of the current tax. For example, a two-tiered rate structure was enacted, with taxable incomes up to $10,000 taxed at a 3 percent rate and higher incomes taxed at 5 percent. A standard deduction of $600 was enacted and a variety of deductions were permitted for such things as rental housing, repairs, losses, and other taxes paid. In addition, to assure timely collection, taxes were "withheld at the source" by employers.
The need for Federal revenue declined sharply after the war and most taxes were repealed. By 1868, the main source of Government revenue derived from liquor and tobacco taxes. The income tax was abolished in 1872. From 1868 to 1913, almost 90 percent of all revenue was collected from the remaining excises.
The 16th Amendment
Under the Constitution, Congress could impose direct taxes only if they were levied in proportion to each State's population. Thus, when a flat rate Federal income tax was enacted in 1894, it was quickly challenged and in 1895 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional because it was a direct tax not apportioned according to the population of each state.
Lacking the revenue from an income tax and with all other forms of internal taxes facing stiff resistance, from 1896 until 1910 the Federal government relied heavily on high tariffs for its revenues. The War Revenue Act of 1899 sought to raise funds for the Spanish-American War through the sale of bonds, taxes on recreational facilities used by workers, and doubled taxes on beer and tobacco. A tax was even imposed on chewing gum. The Act expired in 1902, so that Federal receipts fell from 1.7 percent of Gross Domestic Product to 1.3 percent.
While the War Revenue Act returned to traditional revenue sources following the Supreme Court's 1895 ruling on the income tax, debate on alternative revenue sources remained lively. The nation was becoming increasingly aware that high tariffs and excise taxes were not sound economic policy and often fell disproportionately on the less affluent. Proposals to reinstate the income tax were introduced by Congressmen from agricultural areas whose constituents feared a Federal tax on property, especially on land, as a replacement for the excises.
Eventually, the income tax debate pitted southern and western Members of Congress representing more agricultural and rural areas against the industrial northeast. The debate resulted in an agreement calling for a tax, called an excise tax, to be imposed on business income, and a Constitutional amendment to allow the Federal government to impose tax on individuals' lawful incomes without regard to the population of each State.
By 1913, 36 States had ratified the 16th Amendment to the Constitution. In October, Congress passed a new income tax law with rates beginning at 1 percent and rising to 7 percent for taxpayers with income in excess of $500,000. Less than 1 percent of the population paid income tax at the time. Form 1040 was introduced as the standard tax reporting form and, though changed in many ways over the years, remains in use today.
One of the problems with the new income tax law was how to define "lawful" income. Congress addressed this problem by amending the law in 1916 by deleting the word "lawful" from the definition of income. As a result, all income became subject to tax, even if it was earned by illegal means. Several years later, the Supreme Court declared the Fifth Amendment could not be used by bootleggers and others who earned income through illegal activities to avoid paying taxes. Consequently, many who broke various laws associated with illegal activities and were able to escape justice for these crimes were incarcerated on tax evasion charges.
Prior to the enactment of the income tax, most citizens were able to pursue their private economic affairs without the direct knowledge of the government. Individuals earned their wages, businesses earned their profits, and wealth was accumulated and dispensed with little or no interaction with government entities. The income tax fundamentally changed this relationship, giving the government the right and the need to know about all manner of an individual or business' economic life. Congress recognized the inherent invasiveness of the income tax into the taxpayer's personal affairs and so in 1916 it provided citizens with some degree of protection by requiring that information from tax returns be kept confidential.
World War I and the 1920's
The entry of the United States into World War I greatly increased the need for revenue and Congress responded by passing the 1916 Revenue Act. The 1916 Act raised the lowest tax rate from 1 percent to 2 percent and raised the top rate to 15 percent on taxpayers with incomes in excess of $1.5 million. The 1916 Act also imposed taxes on estates and excess business profits.
Driven by the war and largely funded by the new income tax, by 1917 the Federal budget was almost equal to the total budget for all the years between 1791 and 1916. Needing still more tax revenue, the War Revenue Act of 1917 lowered exemptions and greatly increased tax rates. In 1916, a taxpayer needed $1.5 million in taxable income to face a 15 percent rate. By 1917 a taxpayer with only $40,000 faced a 16 percent rate and the individual with $1.5 million faced a tax rate of 67 percent.
Another revenue act was passed in 1918, which hiked tax rates once again, this time raising the bottom rate to 6 percent and the top rate to 77 percent. These changes increased revenue from $761 million in 1916 to $3.6 billion in 1918, which represented about 25 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Even in 1918, however, only 5 percent of the population paid income taxes and yet the income tax funded one-third of the cost of the war.
The economy boomed during the 1920s and increasing revenues from the income tax followed. This allowed Congress to cut taxes five times, ultimately returning the bottom tax rate to 1 percent and the top rate down to 25 percent and reducing the Federal tax burden as a share of GDP to 13 percent. As tax rates and tax collections declined, the economy was strengthened further.
In October of 1929 the stock market crash marked the beginning of the Great Depression. As the economy shrank, government receipts also fell. In 1932, the Federal government collected only $1.9 billion, compared to $6.6 billion in 1920. In the face of rising budget deficits which reached $2.7 billion in 1931, Congress followed the prevailing economic wisdom at the time and passed the Tax Act of 1932 which dramatically increased tax rates once again. This was followed by another tax increase in 1936 that further improved the government's finances while further weakening the economy. By 1936 the lowest tax rate had reached 4 percent and the top rate was up to 79 percent. In 1939, Congress systematically codified the tax laws so that all subsequent tax legislation until 1954 amended this basic code. The combination of a shrunken economy and the repeated tax increases raised the Federal government's tax burden to 6.8 percent of GDP by 1940.
The Social Security Tax
The state of the economy during the Great Depression led to passage of the Social Security Act in 1935. This law provided payments known as "unemployment compensation" to workers who lost their jobs. Other sections of the Act gave public aid to the aged, the needy, the handicapped, and to certain minors. These programs were financed by a 2 percent tax, one half of which was subtracted directly from an employee's paycheck and one half collected from employers on the employee's behalf. The tax was levied on the first $3,000 of the employee's salary or wage.
World War II
Even before the United States entered the Second World War, increasing defense spending and the need for monies to support the opponents of Axis aggression led to the passage in 1940 of two tax laws that increased individual and corporate taxes, which were followed by another tax hike in 1941. By the end of the war the nature of the income tax had been fundamentally altered. Reductions in exemption levels meant that taxpayers with taxable incomes of only $500 faced a bottom tax rate of 23 percent, while taxpayers with incomes over $1 million faced a top rate of 94 percent. These tax changes increased federal receipts from $8.7 billion in 1941 to $45.2 billion in 1945. Even with an economy stimulated by war-time production, federal taxes as a share of GDP grew from 7.6 percent in 1941 to 20.4 percent in 1945. Beyond the rates and revenues, however, another aspect about the income tax that changed was the increase in the number of income taxpayers from 4 million in 1939 to 43 million in 1945.
Another important feature of the income tax that changed was the return to income tax withholding as had been done during the Civil War. This greatly eased the collection of the tax for both the taxpayer and the Bureau of Internal Revenue. However, it also greatly reduced the taxpayer's awareness of the amount of tax being collected, i.e. it reduced the transparency of the tax, which made it easier to raise taxes in the future.
Developments after World War II
Tax cuts following the war reduced the Federal tax burden as a share of GDP from its wartime high of 20.9 percent in 1944 to 14.4 percent in 1950. However, the Korean War created a need for additional revenues which, combined with the extension of Social Security coverage to self-employed persons, meant that by 1952 the tax burden had returned to 19.0 percent of GDP.
In 1953 the Bureau of Internal Revenue was renamed the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), following a reorganization of its function. The new name was chosen to stress the service aspect of its work. By 1959, the IRS had become the world's largest accounting, collection, and forms-processing organization. Computers were introduced to automate and streamline its work and to improve service to taxpayers. In 1961, Congress passed a law requiring individual taxpayers to use their Social Security number as a means of tax form identification. By 1967, all business and personal tax returns were handled by computer systems, and by the late 1960s, the IRS had developed a computerized method for selecting tax returns to be examined. This made the selection of returns for audit fairer to the taxpayer and allowed the IRS to focus its audit resources on those returns most likely to require an audit.
Throughout the 1950s tax policy was increasingly seen as a tool for raising revenue and for changing the incentives in the economy, but also as a tool for stabilizing macroeconomic activity. The economy remained subject to frequent boom and bust cycles and many policymakers readily accepted the new economic policy of raising or lowering taxes and spending to adjust aggregate demand and thereby smooth the business cycle. Even so, however, the maximum tax rate in 1954 remained at 87 percent of taxable income. While the income tax underwent some manner of revision or amendment almost every year since the major reorganization of 1954, certain years marked especially significant changes. For example, the Tax Reform Act of 1969 reduced income tax rates for individuals and private foundations.
Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s the United States experienced persistent and rising inflation rates, ultimately reaching 13.3 percent in 1979. Inflation has a deleterious effect on many aspects of an economy, but it also can play havoc with an income tax system unless appropriate precautions are taken. Specifically, unless the tax system's parameters, i.e. its brackets and its fixed exemptions, deductions, and credits, are indexed for inflation, a rising price level will steadily shift taxpayers into ever higher tax brackets by reducing the value of those exemptions and deductions.
During this time, the income tax was not indexed for inflation and so, driven by a rising inflation, and despite repeated legislated tax cuts, the tax burden rose from 19.4 percent of GDP to 20.8 percent of GDP. Combined with high marginal tax rates, rising inflation, and a heavy regulatory burden, this high tax burden caused the economy to under-perform badly, all of which laid the groundwork for the Reagan tax cut, also known as the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981.
The Reagan Tax Cut
The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, which enjoyed strong bi-partisan support in the Congress, represented a fundamental shift in the course of federal income tax policy. Championed in principle for many years by then-Congressman Jack Kemp (R-NY) and then-Senator Bill Roth (R- DE), it featured a 25 percent reduction in individual tax brackets, phased in over 3 years, and indexed for inflation thereafter. This brought the top tax bracket down to 50 percent.
The 1981 Act also featured a dramatic departure in the treatment of business outlays for plant and equipment, i.e. capital cost recovery, or tax depreciation. Heretofore, capital cost recovery had attempted roughly to follow a concept known as economic depreciation, which refers to the decline in the market value of a producing asset over a specified period of time. The 1981 Act explicitly displaced the notion of economic depreciation, instituting instead the Accelerated Cost Recovery System which greatly reduced the disincentive facing business investment and ultimately prepared the way for the subsequent boom in capital formation. In addition to accelerated cost recovery, the 1981 Act also instituted a 10 percent Investment Tax Credit to spur additional capital formation.
Prior to, and in many circles even after the 1981 tax cut, the prevailing view was that tax policy is most effective in modulating aggregate demand whenever demand and supply become mismatched, i.e. whenever the economy went in to recession or became "over-heated". The 1981 tax cut represented a new way of looking at tax policy, though it was in fact a return to a more traditional, or neoclassical, economic perspective. The essential idea was that taxes have their first and primary effect on the economic incentives facing individuals and businesses. Thus, the tax rate on the last dollar earned, i.e. the marginal dollar, is much more important to economic activity than the tax rate facing the first dollar earned or than the average tax rate. By reducing marginal tax rates it was believed the natural forces of economic growth would be less restrained. The most productive individuals would then shift more of their energies to productive activities rather than leisure and businesses would take advantage of many more now profitable opportunities. It was also thought that reducing marginal tax rates would significantly expand the tax base as individuals shifted more of their income and activities into taxable forms and out of tax-exempt forms.
The 1981 tax cut actually represented two departures from previous tax policy philosophies, one explicit and intended and the second by implication. The first change was the new focus on marginal tax rates and incentives as the key factors in how the tax system affects economic activity. The second policy departure was the de facto shift away from income taxation and toward taxing consumption. Accelerated cost recovery was one manifestation of this shift on the business side, but the individual side also saw a significant shift in the enactment of various provisions to reduce the multiple taxation of individual saving. The Individual Retirement Account, for example, was enacted in 1981.
Simultaneously with the enactment of the tax cuts in 1981 the Federal Reserve Board, with the full support of the Reagan Administration, altered monetary policy so as to bring inflation under control. The Federal Reserve's actions brought inflation down faster and further than was anticipated at the time, and one consequence was that the economy fell into a deep recession in 1982. Another consequence of the collapse in inflation was that federal spending levels, which had been predicated on a higher level of expected inflation, were suddenly much higher in inflation-adjusted terms. The combination of the tax cuts, the recession, and the one-time increase in inflation-adjusted federal spending produced historically high budget deficits which, in turn, led to a tax increase in 1984 that pared back some of the tax cuts enacted in 1981, especially on the business side.
As inflation came down and as more and more of the tax cuts from the 1981 Act went into effect, the economic began a strong and sustained pattern of growth. Though the painful medicine of disinflation slowed and initially hid the process, the beneficial effects of marginal rate cuts and reductions in the disincentives to invest took hold as promised.
The Evolution of Social Security and Medicare
The Social Security system remained essentially unchanged from its enactment until 1956. However, beginning in 1956 Social Security began an almost steady evolution as more and more benefits were added, beginning with the addition of Disability Insurance benefits. In 1958, benefits were extended to dependents of disabled workers. In 1967, disability benefits were extended to widows and widowers. The 1972 amendments provided for automatic cost-of-living benefits.
In 1965, Congress enacted the Medicare program, providing for the medical needs of persons aged 65 or older, regardless of income. The 1965 Social Security Amendments also created the Medicaid programs, which provides medical assistance for persons with low incomes and resources.
Of course, the expansions of Social Security and the creation of Medicare and Medicaid required additional tax revenues, and thus the basic payroll tax was repeatedly increased over the years. Between 1949 and 1962 the payroll tax rate climbed steadily from its initial rate of 2 percent to 6 percent. The expansions in 1965 led to further rate increases, with the combined payroll tax rate climbing to 12.3 percent in 1980. Thus, in 31 years the maximum Social Security tax burden rose from a mere $60 in 1949 to $3,175 in 1980.
Despite the increased payroll tax burden, the benefit expansions Congress enacted in previous years led the Social Security program to an acute funding crises in the early 1980s. Eventually, Congress legislated some minor programmatic changes in Social Security benefits, along with an increase in the payroll tax rate to 15.3 percent by 1990. Between 1980 and 1990, the maximum Social Security payroll tax burden more than doubled to $7,849.
The Tax Reform Act of 1986
Following the enactment of the 1981, 1982, and 1984 tax changes there was a growing sense that the income tax was in need of a more fundamental overhaul. The economic boom following the 1982 recession convinced many political leaders of both parties that lower marginal tax rates were essential to a strong economy, while the constant changing of the law instilled in policy makers an appreciation for the complexity of the tax system. Further, the debates during this period led to a general understanding of the distortions imposed on the economy, and the lost jobs and wages, arising from the many peculiarities in the definition of the tax base. A new and broadly held philosophy of tax policy developed that the income tax would be greatly improved by repealing these various special provisions and lowering tax rates further. Thus, in his 1984 State of the Union speech President Reagan called for a sweeping reform of the income tax so it would have a broader base and lower rates and would be fairer, simpler, and more consistent with economic efficiency.
The culmination of this effort was the Tax Reform Act of 1986, which brought the top statutory tax rate down from 50 percent to 28 percent while the corporate tax rate was reduced from 50 percent to 35 percent. The number of tax brackets was reduced and the personal exemption and standard deduction amounts were increased and indexed for inflation, thereby relieving millions of taxpayers of any Federal income tax burden. However, the Act also created new personal and corporate Alternative Minimum Taxes, which proved to be overly complicated, unnecessary, and economically harmful.
The 1986 Tax Reform Act was roughly revenue neutral, that is, it was not intended to raise or lower taxes, but it shifted some of the tax burden from individuals to businesses. Much of the increase in the tax on business was the result of an increase in the tax on business capital formation. It achieved some simplifications for individuals through the elimination of such things as income averaging, the deduction for consumer interest, and the deduction for state and local sales taxes. But in many respects the Act greatly added to the complexity of business taxation, especially in the area of international taxation. Some of the over-reaching provisions of the Act also led to a downturn in the real estate markets which played a significant role in the subsequent collapse of the Savings and Loan industry.
Seen in a broader picture, the 1986 tax act represented the penultimate installment of an extraordinary process of tax rate reductions. Over the 22 year period from 1964 to 1986 the top individual tax rate was reduced from 91 to 28 percent. However, because upper-income taxpayers increasingly chose to receive their income in taxable form, and because of the broadening of the tax base, the progressivity of the tax system actually rose during this period.
The 1986 tax act also represented a temporary reversal in the evolution of the tax system. Though called an income tax, the Federal tax system had for many years actually been a hybrid income and consumption tax, with the balance shifting toward or away from a consumption tax with many of the major tax acts. The 1986 tax act shifted the balance once again toward the income tax. Of greatest importance in this regard was the return to references to economic depreciation in the formulation of the capital cost recovery system and the significant new restrictions on the use of Individual Retirement Accounts.
Between 1986 and 1990 the Federal tax burden rose as a share of GDP from 17.5 to 18 percent. Despite this increase in the overall tax burden, persistent budget deficits due to even higher levels of government spending created near constant pressure to increase taxes. Thus, in 1990 the Congress enacted a significant tax increase featuring an increase in the top tax rate to 31 percent. Shortly after his election, President Clinton insisted on and the Congress enacted a second major tax increase in 1993 in which the top tax rate was raised to 36 percent and a 10 percent surcharge was added, leaving the effective top tax rate at 39.6 percent. Clearly, the trend toward lower marginal tax rates had been reversed, but, as it turns out, only temporarily.
The Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 made additional changes to the tax code providing a modest tax cut. The centerpiece of the 1997 Act was a significant new tax benefit to certain families with children through the Per Child Tax credit. The truly significant feature of this tax relief, however, was that the credit was refundable for many lower-income families. That is, in many cases the family paid a "negative" income tax, or received a credit in excess of their pre-credit tax liability. Though the tax system had provided for individual tax credits before, such as the Earned Income Tax credit, the Per Child Tax credit began a new trend in federal tax policy. Previously tax relief was generally given in the form of lower tax rates or increased deductions or exemptions. The 1997 Act really launched the modern proliferation of individual tax credits and especially refundable credits that are in essence spending programs operating through the tax system.
The years immediately following the 1993 tax increase also saw another trend continue, which was to once again shift the balance of the hybrid income tax-consumption tax toward the consumption tax. The movement in this case was entirely on the individual side in the form of a proliferation of tax vehicles to promote purpose-specific saving. For example, Medical Savings Accounts were enacted to facilitate saving for medical expenses. An Education IRA and the Section 529 Qualified Tuition Program was enacted to help taxpayers pay for future education expenses. In addition, a new form of saving vehicle was enacted, called the Roth IRA, which differed from other retirement savings vehicles like the traditional IRA and employer-based 401(k) plans in that contributions were made in after-tax dollars and distributions were tax free.
Despite the higher tax rates, other economic fundamentals such as low inflation and low interest rates, an improved international picture with the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the advent of a qualitatively and quantitatively new information technologies led to a strong economic performance throughout the 1990s. This, in turn, led to an extraordinary increase in the aggregate tax burden, with Federal taxes as a share of GDP reaching a postwar high of 20.8 percent in 2000.
The Bush Tax Cut
By 2001, the total tax take had produced a projected unified budget surplus of $281 billion, with a cumulative 10 year projected surplus of $5.6 trillion. Much of this surplus reflected a rising tax burden as a share of GDP due to the interaction of rising real incomes and a progressive tax rate structure. Consequently, under President George W. Bush's leadership the Congress halted the projected future increases in the tax burden by passing the Economic Growth and Tax Relief and Reconciliation Act of 2001. The centerpiece of the 2001 tax cut was to regain some of the ground lost in the 1990s in terms of lower marginal tax rates. Though the rate reductions are to be phased in over many years, ultimately the top tax rate will fall from 39.6 percent to 33 percent.
The 2001 tax cut represented a resumption of a number of other trends in tax policy. For example, it expanded the Per Child Tax credit from $500 to $1000 per child. It also increased the Dependent Child Tax credit. The 2001 tax cut also continued the move toward a consumption tax by expanding a variety of savings incentives. Another feature of the 2001 tax cut that is particularly noteworthy is that it put the estate, gift, and generation-skipping taxes on course for eventual repeal, which is also another step toward a consumption tax. One novel feature of the 2001 tax cut compared to most large tax bills is that it was almost devoid of business tax provisions.
The 2001 tax cut will provide additional strength to the economy in the coming years as more and more of its provisions are phased in, and indeed one argument for its enactment had always been as a form of insurance against an economic downturn. However, unbeknownst to the Bush Administration and the Congress, the economy was already in a downturn as the Act was being debated. Thankfully, the downturn was brief and shallow, but it is already clear that the tax cuts that were enacted and went into effect in 2001 played a significant role in supporting the economy, shortening the duration of the downturn, and preparing the economy for a robust recovery.
One lesson from the economic slowdown was the danger of ever taking a strong economy for granted. The strong growth of the 1990s led to talk of a "new" economy that many assumed was virtually recession proof. The popularity of this assumption was easy to understand when one considers that there had only been one very mild recession in the previous 18 years.
Taking this lesson to heart, and despite the increasing benefits of the 2001 tax cut and the early signs of a recovery, President Bush called for and the Congress eventually enacted an economic stimulus bill. The bill included an extension of unemployment benefits to assist those workers and families under financial stress due to the downturn. The bill also included a provision to providing a temporary but significant acceleration of depreciation allowances for business investment, thereby assuring that the recovery and expansion will be strong and balanced. Interestingly, the depreciation provision also means that the Federal tax on business has resumed its evolution toward a consumption tax, once again paralleling the trend in individual taxation.
This document is not necessarily endorsed by the Almanac of Policy Issues. It is being preserved in the Policy Archive for historic reasons.[an error occurred while processing this directive]
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From: Michael Vrbanac ([email protected])
Date: Thu May 11 2000 - 21:29:55 PDT
The moving charge on the conductor has to obey the laws of physics. The resultant
electric field set up by the moving charge is affected by the permittivity of the medium
around it. In fact, it is in much the same way that we look at the propagation delay on transmission lines. The 170-180 pS/in number that we estimate for typical delay in a
stripline in FR-4 comes solely from the dielectric's characteristics. The speed by which
the charge moves is governed by the permittivity or the dielectric constant which is
normalized against the permittivity of free space.
... and it doesn't matter if its a signal on a transmission line in a PCB or a decoupling
capacitor on the same board.
Michael E. Vrbanac
Barry Ma wrote:
> As the speed of digital signals gets faster and faster, people begin being concerned with the distance for electric charge to move on power and ground planes of multilayer PCB during the signal rise time from a decoupling capacitor (cap) to a chip it serves. I would like to raise two questions.
> (1) The charge is moving in a metalic plane, not inside the dielectric between pwr and gnd planes. Please let me know why you have to use the propagation velocity in the dielectric, instead of that in the metal.
> (2) The second question is regarding distance between the cap and the chip. Do we really have to limit the distance letting the charge have enough time to move from the cap to the chip during the rise time interval? I doubt it.
> Take the running water system for example. When we open, then close the water faucet within one second, does the water we've got in basin come from water tower (or water station, or reservoir)? No, it is the water that resides in the pipe. As a matter of fact, we have a very large pipe - pwr/gnd planes. Well, of cause you know, I did not mean we don't need water tower - the cap. ......
> Barry Ma
> Morgan Hill, CA 95037
> Tel. 408-778-2000
> Why pay when you don't have to? Get AltaVista Free Internet Access now!
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The Travel Medicine is a medical specialty that focuses on disease prevention and risk situations to which passengers may be exposed, regardless of destination. Also devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases acquired during travel.
As an independent medical specialty, the Travel Medicine is strongly linked to infectivity-lodge, and within this, particularly related to Tropical Medicine.
A health specialist can offer the advice you need to prevent disease during travel. Also, the possible diagnoses and treats diseases acquired by people after a trip.
In the travel medicine are two types of medical consultation:
Pre-travel consultation are valued motives, itinerary, trip characteristics, personal history of the traveler and designed the plan of preventive measures and necessary vaccinations. One of the key tools for disease prevention is vaccination when traveling. The travel medicine specialist will evaluate your vaccination schedule and will provide necessary recommendations based on age, gender, and lifestyle activities.
Post-travel consultation: includes assessment of travelers returning healthy, as well as the diagnosis and treatment of those who do ill acquired during the trip.
General Recommendations for the traveler:
- Carry adequate supply of medications taken regularly (consider extension of stay for any unforeseen).
- Carry a card identifying the diseases that have and a list of drug allergies. You should also carry the recipes for the medications you are receiving, with the name of the original drug.
- Perform a dental pre-departure.
- When traveling, it is advisable to hire a service internacional.La medical care is not free in most countries of the world.
- If you wear glasses or contact lenses, bring an extra pair and a copy of the prescription. Do not forget cleaning solutions and maintenance of their lenses for the entire stay.
- When using headset, take another couple and the medical prescription with the characteristics.
- Prepare a kit for your trip.
- Sun exposure should be avoided for extended periods and not recommended in hours (11-16 hours). Use sunscreen with a protection factor greater than 15.
- Use protective measures against insect bites.
- Take precautions to avoid sexually transmitted diseases. Use condoms.
- Step up gradually in altitude to avoid “altitude sickness”, do not perform intense physical activity and get adequate rest.
- Accidents are the leading cause of death and illness in travelers, and within these countries of transit are the most common. Use the seatbelt and drive carefully.
- Avoid jet lag syndrome (caused by the change of time zones).
- Eat safe foods and beverages to prevent traveler’s diarrhea. Eating in a healthy and safe means that not always possible to eat whatever is offered.
- Recreational activities in the water and the beach can be risky. Must be careful with marine life.
- Avoid being attacked by poisonous animals.
Travelers should prepare a kit with the minimum elements needed to use the occasion of a wound or in the presence of several symptoms. It is advisable to carry hand luggage. The items to include are:
* Disinfectant solution. (Type iodopovidona)
* Sterile gauze.
* Hypoallergenic adhesive tape.
* Disinfectant soap.
* Antihistamines (allergy).
* Oral rehydration salts.
* Water purification tablets.
* Repellents and insecticides.
* Medications prescribed by a doctor during the consultation process with pre-trip (chemoprophylaxis for malaria, treatment for traveler’s diarrhea, etc.).
* The medication you take regularly and prescription drugs with originals.
Remember to bring a sufficient quantity of drugs commonly used, considering the length of stay and a possible additional period, if for any reason it saw the need to delay their return (eg.: Loss of flights, change of itinerary). | <urn:uuid:a86f3ddb-8726-4f0e-bddb-694b2e16c8a1> | {
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