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Basics: What's an Advance Directive?
Advance Directive (Advance Directive for Health Care)Advance directive is a generic term for documents that typically include a living will and durable power of attorney for health care. These documents allow you to provide instructions relating to your future health care, such as when you wish to receive treatment or when you wish to stop or refuse life-sustaining treatments.
The part often referred to as the living will is a place for you to specify what kinds of treatments and care you would or would not want if you were unable to speak for yourself.
The other part, often called a durable power of attorney for health care allows you to appoint someone to act on your behalf in matters concerning your health care when you are not able to decide for yourself due to illness or incapacitation. This document covers health issues only; it does not include finances, estate or business concerns. The person you appoint might be called your health care agent, proxy or representative. This publication uses the term agent.
Together these documents are commonly referred to as your advance directive. Research shows that the term living will is more widely recognized than advance directive by Americans. For this reason living will is used on the Compassion & Choices Web site to describe our services.
Back to the Compassion & Choices Magazine Summer 2005 contents page.
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The Vascular Plant Herbarium aims to give a complete illustration of the flora of Wales by means of collections which are international in scope, importance and quality. To enable the Welsh flora to be put into context, there is also material from the remainder of the British Isles, Europe and the rest of the world. The collections are of international importance.
The herbarium originated in 1870 when Cardiff Museum purchased a small collection of dried plants collected in the 1830's by Charles Conway. This collection was added to by John Storrie who gave his collections to the Museum in 1888, and around 1900, two important collections were received from A. Bennett and H.J. Riddelsdell. In 1912 the collection was taken over by the newly constituted National Museum of Wales, when it constituted some 3,500 mounted specimens. By 1997 the collections had expanded to some 235,000 specimens through gifts, exchange, purchase of herbaria and new collections.
The herbarium contains approximately 40% Welsh material, 25% remainder of British Isles, 22% foreign and 3% cultivated. Virtually all native British plants are represented, as well as many introduced species. There are good collections of critical groups including Taraxacum, Hieracium, Euphrasia and the outstanding Rubus collection. Associated collections include the library, timber collections, photographic slides, spirit, carpological, seed, stamps and cigarette cards and economic plants.
Research strengths within the section include taxonomy, distribution and ecology of UK plants, conservation of rare plants, vegetation and environmental impact assessment. | <urn:uuid:ac97f7b0-81af-4025-9207-e2d0ced5369f> | {
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🔼The name Lebanon in the Bible
Lebanon is basically a district, and the Lebanon is a mountain or mountain range in north Canaan. The sources are a bit in conflict about what Lebanon actually denotes. Jones' Dictionary of Old Testament Proper Names keeps it simple and states that Lebanon is a mountain consisting of two ridges on the border of Syria and Palestine. But, says Jones, really only the permanently glaciated eastern ridge is called Lebanon; the southern ridge is called Hermon (Joshua 11:17).
The Oxford Companion to the Bible, however, reports that Lebanon denotes a range of coastal mountains, stretching from Sidon to Syria.
In the Bible (the) Lebanon is known as the source of building materials; wood for Solomon's temple (1 Kings 5:6), stones for Solomon's temple (1 Kings 5:14-18), and wood for Ezra's temple (Ezra 3:7). Lebanon is also known for its blossoms (Nahum 1:4) and wine (Hosea 14:7).
🔼Etymology of the name Lebanon
The name Lebanon comes from the root לבן (lbn), which yields a range of words that have to do with white or whiteness:
The name Lebanon is the name Laban extended with the waw-nun combination, which localizes or personifies the root. Hence, as Laban means White, Lebanon means White One. We may assume that this is because of its perpetual snow.
For a meaning of the name Lebanon, Jones' Dictionary of Old Testament Proper Names reads Very White, or Mountain Of Snow. NOBSE Study Bible Name List does not translate. | <urn:uuid:d43274ef-9dc2-4651-9d1f-c96b02723e2b> | {
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STIs are usually spread through sex—vaginal, oral or anal.
STIs can be spread through any type of sex: from a male to a female, a female to a male, a male to another male or a female to another female.
Some STIs can be spread through any contact between the penis, vagina, mouth or anus—even if there is no penetration. For example, genital herpes is transmitted through direct skin-to-skin contact, and can be transmitted even if there is no penetration.
Some STIs can be spread in other ways also. For example, HIVand Hepatitis B are spread through sharing needles for injecting drugs or medicines.
JUST THE FACTS is brought to you by the Sexually Transmitted Infections Education Foundation (STIEF) - an initiative funded by the Ministry of Health through collective District Health Boards to educate New Zealanders about STIs. | <urn:uuid:f9105f69-adbf-4ce1-8f06-8ad61fb680cb> | {
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slight body odor is quite common, but occasionally is particularly bad, this can damage your self-esteem.
Here are some things you should know about body odor.
The sweat glands are composed of eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Eccrine parts are present in almost all of the body that produce sweat and apocrine found in specific parts of the body like the armpits, groin, feet and around the nipples. Body odor occurs when bacteria in the area in contact with the sweat.
Baking soda to Body Odor:
Baking soda or sodium bicarbonate is a white crystalline compound with many health benefits. Here is how you can help:
- that absorbs moisture from the skin and keeps it dry.
- acts as a natural deodorant agent to prevent body odor.
- bacteria is killed and neutralizes / alkalizes the body to prevent excessive sweating and odor.
- Baking soda will lower the pH level of the parts of sweating to counteract the acids in sweat.
1. Sodium bicarbonate
- The sodium bicarbonate powder in places where the sweat.
- let it sit for a few minutes to absorb sweat.
- discard excess sodium bicarbonate and wear clothes normally.
- Place of baking soda in a clean, add water to make a thin paste container.
- Wet armpits or affected areas and apply the paste evenly.
- Rub gently for a minute or two and then allow it to sit for about 5 -. 10 minutes
- shower to wash and repeat regularly.
2. Baking soda with lemon juice
Sodium bicarbonate area where it is applied and dried lemon kills bacteria with acid citrus and works as a natural deodorant. However, do not go in the sun when the lemon juice is on, apply before bed is best.
- Mix 1 tablespoon of baking soda and freshly squeezed lemon juice in a bowl.
- Apply this on the armpits and other parts of the body where you sweat excessively, either with a cotton pad or finger tips.
- let stand for about 10 – 15 Barrio
- Make sure you do not scrape or rub the skin.
- When dried, have a shower or bath.
- Follow a day for a few weeks.
3. Baking soda with cornstarch
Both baking soda and cornstarch are excellent absorbing agents so this combination works very all right.
- Sodium bicarbonate – 1/2 cup
- Cornstarch – 1/2 cup
- of tea tree oil – 10 drops
- plastic containers
- dust shaker
- Add the tea tree oil to equal amounts of baking soda and cornstarch powder.
- Pour well-mixed in a shaker container and close properly this powder.
- Then apply this mixture every day after taking shower.
- let it sit for a few minutes then remove excess mixture.
- like wearing normal clothes.
- regularly monitor this process will definitely help.
- Or, you can substitute tea tree oil with coconut oil and mix to thin, implement and be sure to wash after pasta.
4. Baking soda alum powder and rubbing alcohol
This process is useful for people who do not want to use perfumed deodorants prevent body odor, such as alum is unscented.
- – baking soda 2 teaspoons
- alum powder – 4 teaspoons
- Alcohol – 225 ml
- empty, clean, dry spray bottle
- Mix the three ingredients in a clean, dry bottle spray.
- properly removed until all well blended.
- store and use as needed.
- Replace your regular deodorant with this unscented deodorant home.
5. Natural Deodorant homemade
commercial deodorants usually loaded with chemicals that damage the skin. The solution is made of baking soda and essential to get rid of body odor naturally without causing any damage to the skin oil.
- Baking soda – 1 teaspoon
- The essential oil – 3-4 drops
- Add enough water to baking soda and stir well to make a thick paste.
- Then add an essential oil of your choice such as lavender, lemon or vanilla oil and mix.
- Apply this to the most likely to smell like armpits, feet, groin, etc. areas
- let stand for about 15 -. 20 minutes and then rinse with water
- Or you can leave it without washing to dry completely.
- regularize the application for best results.
6. Baking soda and coconut oil
Coconut oil contains lauric acid that helps kill bacteria that cause odor of sweat. It has light fragrance that keeps the body refreshed. Sodium bicarbonate eliminate body odor by clearing bacteria and absorbing excessive sweating, so this combination very effective.
- Baking soda – 3-4 teaspoons
- Coconut oil – 3 teaspoons
- Shea butter – 2 tsp
- The essential oil
- arrowroot powder (optional) – 2 teaspoons
- double boiler or in a saucepan
- Add the shea butter and coconut oil double boiler and heat over medium heat until melted.
- Remove from heat and add baking soda and arrowroot powder.
- Mix well and then add an essential oil of your choice.
- Allow to cool for a few minutes to keep the mixture in an airtight container.
- fill an empty deodorant stick with this mixture and refrigerate.
- Use this stick regularly as a deodorant.
- . Note: If you do not have bath pour a little water in a saucepan and heat, then place the coconut oil and shea butter in a glass jar with lid
- Place the bottle in the hot water until both ingredients are melted thoroughly.
7. Baking soda bath for body odor
Having this bath regularly to avoid body odor.
- Baking soda – 1/4 cup
- Hot water
- Add baking soda to a warm bath.
- Stir well and have a relaxing dip in the water.
- This process helps extend the benefits of baking soda to the whole body.
- Having this toilet regularly.
8. Baking Soda with salt and essential oils Bath
Having this bath every day to get relief from full body and then continue this for a or twice a week.
- Baking soda – 1 tablespoon
- seaweed powder – 1 tablespoon
- Epsom salt – 2 tablespoons
- Dead Sea salt – 3 tablespoons
- lavender oil – 6 drops
- lemon balm oil – 3 drops
- lemon oil – 6 drops
- hot water
- Run a warm bath.
- Pour baking soda, Epsom salt and Dead Sea salt in this water.
- Mix, then add kelp powder and mix again.
- Now add the oil, lavender oil, lemon balm and lemon oil on it and stir well.
- soaked in the water for about 30 minutes.
- have this baking soda, bath salt and essential oils regularly.
9. Baking Soda with apple cider vinegar, borax and water
- Baking soda – 1 / 2 teaspoon
- apple cider vinegar – 2 tablespoons
- Borax – a pinch
- Water – 1 liter
- Pour all ingredients in water and mix well.
- SIP this slowly throughout the day.
- continue taking this mixture of baking soda for about 3-5 days and then give it a rest. 2 – 3 days
Sodium bicarbonate Mouth Odor
Body odor is common in the feet due to continuous use of shoes or other unsanitary conditions.
- Sodium bicarbonate – 4 tablespoons
- Hot water – 4 cups
- towel or washcloth
- Add baking soda to warm water in a bowl.
- Stir well and soak your feet in the water for a few minutes.
- Take your feet out and properly dry.
- O can be applied dry powder baking soda to the feet after showering.
How to remove body odor cloth:
baking soda can also be used to remove the smell of clothes.
If you wash clothes and still have odor, then it is time to use baking soda. Always remember that you have to wash the cloths separately so that the smell will not be transferred to other fabrics.
- Place of baking soda in a bowl and add hot water to make a paste.
- correspond to problem areas and rub gently.
- let stand for at least 20 minutes to overnight.
- After that, the laundry with the same regularity.
The elimination of body odor furniture using baking soda:
The sweat smell body odor and will easily get attached to the furniture, and it is difficult to remove. Here is the process that allows you to clear the smell using sodium bicarbonate.
- Sodium bicarbonate
- cleaning cloth wash
- Sprinkle baking soda on furniture.
- rub gently and leave overnight.
- The next morning, vacuum the furniture thoroughly to remove the baking soda.
- After that, clean the furniture with a clean, dry cloth.
- repeat this process regularly.
Tips and precautions to be followed while using baking soda for body odor:
As for all skin type is different, can cause certain side effects or problems . Follow these simple but effective tips to prevent complete and safe body odor.
- Use a fresh box of baking soda to treat body odor for maximum benefits. Avoiding the use of which has been stored for a long period of time.
- Take a shower or bath to remove the sweat and bacteria that cause body odor. the body dry well before using cloths, especially the armpits, feet and groin to prevent body odor.
- Avoid alcohol, hot spices, coffee and other foods that cause body odor.
- continued use of this baking soda can lead to B vitamins exhaustion. So it is always best to consult your doctor about whether to make some changes in your diet or have supplements.
- If there is any redness or irritation, it is to discontinue the use of sodium bicarbonate.
- Remember that excessive sweating and body odor can also be caused by various diseases such as liver problems, bad breath, cervical cancer, ketoacidosis, hyperthyroidism, etc. so it is always best to consult your doctor.
- Avoid applying this in freshly shaved or waxed skin.
Do you know of any other method of baking soda to treat body odor know? Then they sit down to share their experience with us free.
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Plans to upload the brain of a honeybee into a flying robot by 2015
It’s every now and again that you hear something that reminds you that today we are in the age of accelerated change and today has been one of those times. Universities in Sheffield and Sussex have just announced that scientists are working on a new project to create the world’s first accurate computer simulation of the brain of a honey bee. They then intend to upload the brain into a flying robot.
[Image Courtesy of ThemeStyles]
Of course if they manage to pull this off it would be a big win for science, but more than that, it could end up saving the world. Researchers are hoping that a robotic insect could either supplement or perhaps even replace the population of honey bees, which are shrinking. These are needed to pollinate essential plant life.
[Image Courtesy of EnviromentalGeography]
On reading this you might think it’s nothing more than an elaborate hoax, however a lot of money is being put into the project. The project has the name of “Green Brain” and has recently received funding of £1 million ($1,614,700) from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council along with donations of hardware from NVIDIA.
[Image Courtesy of xct.anu.edu.au]
NIVIDA have provided scientists with high performance graphical processing units, these are called GPU accelerators. They are going to let the researchers simulate all the aspects of the brain of the honey bee via massively paralleled desktop PCs. This is excellent promotion for NVIDIA while at the same time allowing researchers to carry out their project inexpensively, as clusters of supercomputers are not cheap.
[Image Courtesy of MyOpera.com/Mynoel]
While it might look as though insects have simple minds, they do in fact have brains that are extremely complex; therefore a lot of computational power is needed by the researchers.
The scientists are not trying to copy the complete brain of the honey bee; instead they want to copy two complex specific functions in it, vision and sense of smell. If they are able to do this they will then upload the models to a robotic honey bee, which will be able to act autonomously.
“This is an important further advance over current work on brain models because it is becoming more and more clear that an essential aspect of brain function is that the brain is not acting in isolation but in constant interaction with the body and the environment,” they note in their proposal, “This concept of ‘embodiment’ and its consequences for cognition are important insights of modern cognitive science and will become equally important for modern neuroscience.”
The researchers hope that the flying robot will be able to perform basic tasks without the need for sets of pre-programmed instructions. For instance the robotic bee should be able to detect gasses and odours, just as a real bee is able to detect certain types of flowers.
The scientists will work alongside Martin Giurfa of Toulouse, who is an expert when it comes to the brain of the bee and the behaviour of the bee. Should the project be a success it would mark a very important moment in technological history. It would be the first time a robot brain could perform tasks that were complex just as well as the animal that it was copying.
The Green Brain Project could help in our understanding of artificial intelligence along with neuroscientific underpinnings of animal cognition. With the advent of an artificial pollinator, along with the National Science Foundation-funded Robobees project from Harvard University, it could also offer a solution to the honey bee population that is dwindling.
The artificial honeybee may well be just the first of many robots that could be introduced into the environment in order to make up for extinctions, which are widespread.
- See more at: http://interestingengineering.com/plans-to-upload-the-brain-of-a-honeybee-into-a-flying-robot-by-2015/#sthash.MqHivRAg.dpuf | <urn:uuid:f95f5ddb-c744-4f1f-bc5b-38eac3e23c80> | {
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Texas Statewide Leadership
for Autism Training
Evidence -Based Practices Briefs - http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/briefs.The National Professional Development Center (NPDC) on ASD has developed Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) Briefs for 24 identified evidence based practices. Each brief contains: an overview, which gives a general description of the practice and how it can be used with learners with ASD; explicit step-by-step directions detailing exactly how to implement a practice, based on the research articles identified in the evidence base; an implementation checklist which offers a way to document the degree to which practitioners are following the directions for implementation; and the list of references (evidence base) that demonstrate that the practices is efficacious and meets the NPDC’s criteria for being identified as an evidence-based practice. Also some briefs include supplemental materials such as data collection sheets.
Autism Internet Modules (AIM)- http://www.autisminternetmodules.org/. The Autism Internet Modules were developed with one aim in mind: to make comprehensive, up-to-date, and usable information on autism accessible and applicable to educators, other professionals, and families who support individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Written by experts from across the U.S., all online modules are fee, and are designed to promote understanding of, respect for, and equality of persons with ASD. Furthermore, OCALI in conjunction with the National Professional Development Center on ASD, has developed modules to accompany the NPDC's Evidence-Based Practices briefs.
Summaries of Scientific Research on Interventions on Autism - http://www.asatonline.org/treatment/autismtreatments. The Association for Science in Autism Treatment provides summaries on the scientific research on interventions for autism. This site also provides video demonstrations of ABA-based teaching interactions (http://www.asatonline.org/treatment/videos).
Autism Fact Sheet from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke - http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/detail_autism.htm. This is a web document containing questions and answers about autism.
First Signs ASD Video Glossary - http://www.firstsigns.org/asd_video_glossary/asdvg_about.htm. This is a web-based tool designed to help parents and professionals learn more about the early red flags and diagnostic features of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). This glossary contains over a hundred video clips and is available free of charge. You must register with First Signs to view the video glossary. Registration is free.
Indiana Center for Autism (IRCA) Articles - http://www.iidc.indiana.edu/index.php?pageId=273. Articles written by the staff of the Indiana Resource Center for Autism. These articles provide thoughtful discussions and practical recommendations on a wide range of topics, including behavior, sensory programming, education, communication, and other issues.
Texas Autism Research and Resource Center (TARRC) - http://www.dads.state.tx.us/tarrc/index.html. The Texas Autism Research & Resource Center (TARRC) was created by House Bill (HB) 1574 (81st Texas Legislature, Regular Session, 2009) in response to needs expressed by the autism community. The Center's primary purpose is to coordinate resources for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their families. When fully implemented, the Center will: disseminate information and research on autism and other pervasive developmental disorders; conduct training and development activities for some professionals; coordinate with local entities that provide services; and provide support to families affected by autism.
ADEPT(Autism Distance Education Parent Training) - http://media.mindinstitute.org/education/ADEPT/Module1Menu.html. An original M.I.N.D. Institute/CEDD 10-lesson interactive, self-paced, online learning module providing parents with tools and training to more effectively teach their child with autism and other related neurodevelopmental disorders functional skills using applied behavior analysis (ABA) techniques. Please note that this interactive training requires Adobe Flash to run.
Autism Internet Modules (AIM) - http://www.autisminternetmodules.org/.The Autism Internet Modules were developed with one aim in mind: to make comprehensive, up-to-date, and usable information on autism accessible and applicable to educators, other professionals, and families who support individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Written by experts from across the U.S., all online modules are free, and are designed to promote understanding of, respect for, and equality of persons with ASD. These are hosted by OCALI (Ohio Center for Autism and Low Incidence) http://www.ocali.org/.
Project IDEAL Online - http://www.projectidealonline.org/index.php. This website is part of a teacher preparation program intended to better prepare teachers to work with students with disabilities. Project IDEAL (Informing and Designing Education For All Learners) was made possible by the Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities (TCDD). It consists of a series of modules. They are free of charge.
Texas Behavior Support - http://www.txbehaviorsupport.org/default.aspx?name=homepage. This statewide leadership function is hosted at ESC Region 4. The Texas Behavior Support Initiative Modules are hosted at Region 4 (http://www.escweb.net/tx_esc_04/catalog/session.aspx?sessionId=949359). These modules are free of cost, but you must have an ESC Region 4 account. Please go to ESC Region 4's Professional Development webpage (http://www.escweb.net/tx_esc_04/default.aspx) to register for your account. To find the modules, go to the "Search Offerings" section and type "TBSI" into the "Search Professional Development Catalog for" Box. Press the "Search" button. This brings you to the modules.
UC Davis MIND Institute Online Training Materials - http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/ddcenter/CEDD_ourproducts.html. One of the goals of the Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities is to provide educational resources on developmental disabilities to the community. To that end, CEDD has sponsored the production of free educational videos and online training modules.
Autism and Employment - http://www.dps.missouri.edu/Autism/Adult%20Autism%20&%20Employment.pdf. This is a guide for Vocational Rehabilitation Specialists. It was prepared by Scott Standifer, PhD for the Disability and Policy Studies School of Health Professions University of Missouri. This guide discusses aspect of autism spectrum disorders that can affects an individual's job performance and how the job and work environment can be adjusted to accommodate.
Autism Speaks Family Services Transition Toolkit - http://www.autismspeaks.org/community/family_services/transition.php. The Autism Speaks Transition Tool Kit was created to serve as a guide to assist families on the journey from adolescence to adulthood.
Supporting Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Quality Employment Practices - http://www.communityinclusion.org/article.php?article_id=266. This a brief from the Institute for Community Inclusion.
Vocational Rehabilitation Service Models for Individuals with Autism - http://www.autism.sedl.org/. This web site focuses on issues and strategies for improving employment outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. | <urn:uuid:1b91995f-6679-4751-be5b-49f984af993d> | {
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The Realist-Romantic and Romantic-Realist: Visions of the Anti-Hero in Early Russian Literature
Abigail Graber '08
The debut of the modern Russian novel in the nineteenth century marked a departure in Russian literature from the numbing simplicity of the past: simplicity of plot, simplicity of style, and perhaps most significantly, simplicity of character and motivation. Unlike their predecessors, neither Mihail Lermontov nor Ivan Turgenev celebrated the uncomplicated, idyllic Russian man. Rather, each author is was interested in presenting a protagonist designed to jolt the audience out of complacent acceptance of damaging personal and societal conditions. To accomplish this purpose, the authors require "heroes" as flawed as their adversaries, for perfect characters cannot teach. Faced with paragons of virtue, readers would pass their own sins off on an easy scapegoat: their humanity. Lermontov and Turgenev approach their anti-heroes from opposite ends of the literary spectrum.
In A Hero of Our Time, Lermontov's Pechorin strives towards the romantic archetype. A literary romantic is one who rejects the confines of society and, guided by a higher purpose or elevated sense of nature and the natural world, leads an unconventional life that emphasizes emotion. He is often misunderstood and counter-rejected by the conformists he left behind. However, Pechorin's position as a romantic is undermined when Lermontov introduces a subtle thread of realism to his character. In contrast, Bazarov of Turgenev's Fathers and Sons vehemently rejects the romantic lifestyle. A realist, as Bazarov presumes to be, believes in the validity of only science and empirical observation. But in his quest for a perfect realist philosophy, Bazarov is brought down by his inherent romantic character. Neither Pechorin nor Bazarov is likeable. However, their tragic flaws and inability to fulfill their personal self-image elicits the sympathy required of the reader. This translates the characters' failings into strong messages for personal improvement and increased societal cooperation.
Lermontov's use of Pechorin in A Hero of Our Time subtly alters the romantic paradigm. It dissects its inherent discrepancies and, through realist principles, exposes the damaging contradictions in a romantic lifestyle. Pechorin is an ironic character—he exhibits many of the qualities of the typical romantic hero, yet lacks the empathy that would allow him both heroic status and the automatic sympathy of the audience. Pechorin, unlike a true romantic, exhibits no compassion for his fellow man. He is therefore unable to act selflessly. Like the romantic adventurer, Pechorin's most defining characteristic is an exaggerated wanderlust: "I have a restless fancy, an insatiable heart...there is only one remedy left for me: to travel," he tells Maksim Maksimovich (41). Pechorin makes melodramatic confessions of misery and boredom and hopes to relieve his mental anguish by dying during his travels (41). He also harbors a deep love and appreciation for nature, his only solace ("There is no feminine gaze that I would not forget at the sight of mountains covered with curly vegetation, and illumined by the southern sun, at the sight of the blue sky, or at the sound of a torrent that falls from crag to crag," he says ). He often expresses these characteristics through inappropriately-inflated emotional effusions. Lermontov complements his protagonist's dramatic flair with lengthy descriptions of the beauty of the Caucuses. He also uses romantic writing conventions, including metaphoric comparisons to nature and frequent hyperbole, that highlight Pechorin's dashing, wild, and uncivilized ways. Pechorin's self-imposed exile from society's petty order and his possession of a heightened awareness of himself and the natural world make him a self-styled romantic figure, larger-than-life and adrift in a world too small for his presence.
But as such a man, Pechorin is free from both societal and moral constraints. His liberty may mold him into a romantic figure, but abuses of this freedom used to crush those around him destroy the typical sentimental evocations of romantic imagery and present a bleak perspective on the realities of humanity. Through his characterization of Pechorin, Lermontov suggests the impossibility of the existence of a pure romantic being. The novel promotes a fundamentally realist interpretation of humanity, intimating that human nature in its essential selfishness would warp romantic autonomy and use it to destroy, rather than uplift. Pechorin does indeed subscribe to a different moral code than the suffocating strictures of his class—different, but not higher. Typical of romantic literary heroes but scandalous to the Russian elites, he marries a non-ethnic Russian woman of the Caucuses: Bela. He also carries out an adulterous affair with Vera.
Yet, his deviation from Orthodox Christian ethics and ethnocentricity does not originate in a desire to uphold love, tolerance, generosity or any higher emotional cause. A man who loved Vera would not triumph at his conquest. "'Aha!' I thought, 'at last I am having my way after all,'" Pechorin thinks [Lermontov 150]. Nor would a true lover be intensely relieved at Bela's demise. Rather, Pechorin confesses that he perceives other people as objects for his enjoyment, and what he enjoys is their misery. "I look upon the sufferings and joys of others only in relation to myself as on the food sustaining the strength of my soul," he admits (123). As a true realist, he spurns emotional attachment and attacks a situation logically, looking only at how it will benefit his personal interests. He uses women to conquer his boredom (Bela), as pawns to attack men he considers unworthy (Princess Mary), and to stroke his ego (Vera). Pechorin's personality is too dominant to be romantic—he will never be self-sacrificing. He quest to "subjugate" both men and women to his demands (123), regardless of the consequences, becomes appalling and damnable in readers' eyes.
Lermontov also reflects on the ridiculousness of the supposed self-awareness of a romantic figure by endowing Pechorin with an artificial sense of his own wrongdoings. The use of character foils is particularly important in this regard. "Only in this supreme state of self-knowledge can a man evaluate divine justice," says Pechorin ironically (124), for though he often writes in his journal of his deficiencies, he ignores the flaws he shares with the men he despises and demeans. Pechorin feels deeply contemptuous of the other men in the novel, loathing their perceived shallowness, obsequiousness, and malleability. These men, in particular Grushnitski, Kazbich, and Azamat, mirror aspects of Pechorin's personality that he refuses to acknowledge, defying his enlightened image. Pechorin scoffs at Grushnitski for implying possession of women he hardly knows, referring to them as "his." He mocks him when Grushnitski says, "...my Mary is a very charming girl!" (101). Yet, in the previous chapter, Pechorin refers to the smuggler-girl as "my undine" (73), demonstrating that same objectifying, egotistical view of women, a perspective that he earlier shares with Kazbich. Bela comes to Pechorin thrown ungraciously across a horse, and Kazbich takes her away in the same manner. Both men are looking for women as docile as animals. Instead of respecting the female intellect, as the romantically inclined Arkady does in Turgenev's Fathers and Sons, Pechorin says, "I never cared for women with wills of their own; it is not their department" (105). Thus, women are denied both their place at the romantic's side as an equal emotional partner and the deep bond of love and loyalty that that position would entail. They are instead relegated to their realistic status in the society of the time: inferiority. Azamat, too, exhibits a callous indifference towards his sister in his fervor to be like Pechorin. Though Pechorin thinks Azamat is great fool for being easily manipulated, Pechorin could have easily found himself in similar straits had his attempt to escape city life proved fruitless. Azamat chafes at the boundaries of his society as did Pechorin in his youth. Pechorin, proud, delusional, and blinded by his own selfish human nature, sees no connection between them, only the opening Azamat's romantic tendencies leave for exploitation.
Yet how can so despicable a man possibly inspire self-reflection in the reader? For instead of worshipping Pechorin, the reader perceives him and his actions as monstrous. While Pechorin's failures as a romantic turn readers against him, in these failures also lies the key to readers' empathy. As Pechorin mistakenly passes judgment on others for his own faults, a fact alluded to in his journals: "I sometimes despise myself...Is this not why I despise others?" [Lermontov 148]. Through this we can infer that Lermontov believes the Russian man remains ignorant of his own sins. Pechorin is a foil for the Russian everyman, taken in by the romantic vision of the Caucuses and ignorant of the realist barbarism of that lifestyle. Azamat's actions and fate are Lermontov's most obvious warning against attempts to behave in an exaggeratedly romantic fashion—his sentiments consume him and allow others to use him, destroying both himself and his family in the process.
Additionally, Lermontov does not allow the characters in his novel to judge Pechorin as coldly as the reader inevitably must. The very people Pechorin exploits are often his most devoted admirers—Maksim Maksimovich and Vera, for example. Readers, being presumably familiar with the romantic ideal, are aware of how Pechorin has failed to fit that mold. But because they are forced to see him through the eyes of those who respect him, they also garner some sympathy for his character, a sympathy that can translate into empathy and self-awareness. If readers begin to sympathize with Lermontov's monster, they may be compelled to recognize ways in which they resemble him.
Bazarov, Turgenev's anti-hero in Fathers and Sons, is the polar opposite of Pechorin. An avowed realist, his obstinate, inflexible adherence to nihilistic and materialist principles brings him to an unexpectedly romantic destruction. Bazarov embodies the generation gap widened by the political and social upheaval that took place in Russia midway through the nineteenth century. The abandonment of the feudal system and the emancipation of the serfs left Russia in a state of both economic and social flux. As Bazarov is conflicted between rationality and emotion, so Russia struggled between the old and new interpretation of life's meaning and methods of social arrangement. Bazarov, probably like the typical Russian reader of novels, is a young, educated member of the social elite. His youth and position relates him to the Russian reader, who will understand his ideas and see the purpose behind his disastrous journey.
Bazarov the realist sees human nature as flawed and selfish and seeks to live above it through science and destruction. Bazarov shares with Pechorin a disdain for those whom he perceives as inferior to him in will and intellect. But unlike Pechorin, he does not disdain their lack of romantic appreciation and adherence to free will; it is precisely these romantic tendencies he despises. "A decent chemist is twenty times more useful than any poet," says Bazarov to Pavel Petrovich (Turgenev 20). At various points in the novel, Bazarov insults nearly all of the characters for indulging in romantic practices: Nikolai Petrovich's cello playing receives the same mockery as Arkady's devotion to Katya, who herself is derided for playing the piano—Bazarov advises Arkady to "restrain her sentimental tendencies" (70). Turgenev presents him as a meticulously scientific man; his most frequent pastime is dissecting frogs from the garden ("He doesn't believe in principles, but he believes in frogs" snidely remarks Pavel Petrovich ), a metaphor for his quest to discover the natural laws of the world and how they operate on a strictly logical level, free from chance or unpredictable whims of fancy. He is a great lover of order, telling Anna Sergeevna Odintsova that "in a properly organized society it won't make any difference whether a person's stupid or clever, bad or good" (65). Bazarov seeks to establish order in sentiment and eliminate all emotional qualities of life to bring society to a strictly quantitative level of analysis, as is reflected in his walks with Odintsova. Instead of admiring the flowers as Arkady and Katya do later in the novel, he teaches her their Latin names (67).
Bazarov's eminent practicality and disrespect for people's basic need for sentimentality lead him to advocate a nihilistic philosophy—that is, a rejection of all authority not entirely scientifically established and an appreciation of solely empirical law. The old order, lead by men like Nikolai Petrovich, is "antiquated," says Bazarov (Turgenev 35). He proposes the destruction of their legacy, for "the ground must be cleared" for future generations to "act on the basis of what we recognize as useful" (38). In this sentiment, Bazarov is a predecessor to the ultimate realist literary creation: Raskolnikov in Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment. As realists, Raskolnikov and Bazarov are brutally unrepentant about natural human behavior, which they consider ultimately self-serving; they believe in their own self-worth at the expense of "lesser members" of society—the "ordinary" man must subject himself to their "extraordinary" principles. Bazarov's philosophy provides no specific guidance for the re-creation of a better future society—"That's not for us to do," he informs Pavel (38). Like the realist Raskolnikov, he simply believes that in implementing his theory he is acting on his natural human superiority and is therefore entitled to destroy all that stands in its way. In Bazarov's case, that refers to any empirically intangible authority. This is his only interest and, detached from empathy as he is, the only interest he is willing to uphold.
Like Lermontov, Turgenev uses descriptive passages to underscore his protagonist's dominant characteristics. These are not the sweeping depictions of the wilderness, however, but terse accounts of Bazarov's living space, which is packed with academic artifacts, including "anatomical drawings...books, boxes, stuffed birds, jars, and vials in disarray" (88). As the Caucuses mirror Pechorin, Bazarov's study reflects his stuffy soul, crammed with earthly ideals. Fathers and Sons, written from an omniscient third person perspective, also allows Turgenev to maintain a distance from his main character. The reader is never granted the same unlimited access to Bazarov's thoughts as Lermontov provides through Pechorin's diary. The distance contributes to our perception of Bazarov as a realist character. Even if he is thinking emotionally, he will never express that to his contemporaries, and Turgenev rarely allows us a glimpse into his mind. Furthermore, our inability to enter Bazarov's thoughts exposes his materialistic and nihilistic tendencies to skepticism: they do not seem as natural components of his personality as Pechorin's cruelty.
Bazarov fails to recognize that by his very individual nature he is a romantic character and subject to all the unfortunate emotional trappings and traps of that role. Being a nihilist places him neatly outside clearly defined societal positions—in fact, no one but Bazarov is quite sure what being a nihilist means. Nikolai interprets it as "a person who...acknowledges nothing," Pavel as one who "respects nothing," and Arkady as someone who "approaches everything from a critical point of view" (Turgenev 18). Just as Bazarov spurned typical Russian society, typical Russian society now turns its back on him, represented through the scorn of Pavel Petrovich, a former socialite. Bazarov is easily misunderstood and often purposefully misinterpreted by those around him, a circumstance which results in violence, such as with the duel between him and Pavel, a farcical echo of the romantic duel between Pechorin and Grushnitski. Like Pechorin, Bazarov has accumulated his own apostles, Arkady and Sitnikov, who preach his gospel without properly understanding the lifestyle they are expounding. Romantic figures typically attract followers who are drawn to the romantic protagonist's magnetic personality and distinctive views. As a romantic, Bazarov exists apart from others, and his untimely fall is a direct result of that innate romanticism.
Bazarov engages in a reverse form of self-delusion from Pechorin. Pechorin saw himself as a romantic giant but actually suffered from the influence of his realist human nature. Bazarov would like to be a cold realist but is unwittingly forced into romanticism. Bazarov is tragically aware of his shortcomings and is unable to accept them or incorporate them into his philosophy. He could perhaps maintain a fragile balance between reason and emotion if he did not fight against his own personality. Bazarov calls love "rubbish or unforgivable stupidity," and his love for Odintsova is "a feeling that tormented and enraged him" (Turgenev 71). From the moment he is forced to reckon with his own sentimentalism, Bazarov weakens as a character. He is exposed as rigid, inflexibly attempting to maintain the realist lifestyle so clearly rejected by his heart. This tragic flaw is one he shares with members of the "antiquated" older generation so previously scorned. Pavel Petrovich, too, is paralyzed by his past and unwilling to accept a new, lower social and intellectual role in society—he will not concede to the younger generation. Unable to adapt to changes that he sees within himself, Bazarov is driven to distraction, restlessness, and finally, despair. His cut during the autopsy has a faintly sinister ring of suicide, both in its happening at all and in his failure to cauterize the wound. He has been so competent a doctor up until this point that both mistakes are completely inconsistent with his character, and one can assume that the infection was intentionally incurred. His death itself, therefore, is a solitary affair wrapped up in romantic individualism and carried out with a dramatic, romantic flair. Bazarov's only recourse in the end is to exit the world that is too inextricably bound in emotion to sustain his materialist ideals.
In a less violent way, Bazarov is as off-putting as Pechorin. He is cold, calculating, and unconsciously manipulative, gathering swarm of followers and toadies who latch on to his magnetic personality. Thus, the irony of his flaws cruelly twists his fate and endears him to readers while simultaneously allowing them to maintain their distance from his philosophy. Bazarov's death is sympathetic because he showed such promise for genius at the beginning of the book but was unable to live up to his own divine self-image. However, it was necessary that he perish, for he was a walking contradiction: a violently anti-romantic man who, due to his cold philosophy, was in fact a romantic anti-hero. Realistically, such a man could not lead Russia into triumph—he is stuck, suspended by the opposing forces of his own personality that he cannot overcome. Turgenev elicits pity for Bazarov but ultimately leaves him behind for the ideal romantic world crafted in his absence. Bazarov is a failed experiment, a footnote in the book of Russian ethical and societal progress, stagnated and incapable of seeing beyond unrealistic fundamentalism in his expectations for himself and others.
Instead of Bazarov's vision of science and self-interest, Turgenev sees the future of Russian society in the romanticist agriculturalist communities that Bazarov rejects. Bazarov saw only all-or-nothing annihilation, a policy Turgenev views as fruitless and self-destructive. Instead, Turgenev wants to maintain something of the old order and adapt it gradually to systemic reforms. Though both novels are romantically styled, the romanticism in Fathers and Sons reflects a genuine belief in the simple romantic lifestyle, rather than the caustic destruction of personal romantic philosophy reflected in Lermontov's A Hero of Our Time. Cooperation is Turgenev's key to a relative utopia. In the end of Fathers and Sons, the characters exist in harmony because they each act out of interest for themselves and the group. Nikolai is a mediator between former serfs and their landlords; Katya connects the generations through her close friendship with Fenechka, who is cross-generationally linked to Nikolai. Characters incapable of dynamic action, such as Pavel and Bazarov, have been removed from this perfect family unit and Turgenev's vision for the future of Russian society.
In deconstructing romanticism, the most popular type of literature of his day, Lermontov is effectively lifting a veil from the eyes of the Russian populace. Instead of viewing the world through rose-colored glasses, readers are harshly confronted with the consequences of their moral and societal degeneration. Lermontov lays their Pechorinesque sins before them and forces them to consider those that, like Pechorin, they have callously wronged. Through his treatment of characters, Lermontov indicates that he seeks the resurrection of Russia through the improvement of the individual rather than the system by which Russia operates. Readers see themselves in Pechorin so that they will not emulate him. They are introduced to his false rationalizations that seem to justify unforgivable actions so that they can avoid falling prey to the same chauvinistic ego that drives him. The action of A Hero of Our Time supports redemption in individual realism, not communal romanticism. Once people stop striving toward a flawed ideal of leading a morally dangerous existence outside the laws of society, harmony will be restored.
To impart their social messages to audiences used to one-dimensional swashbuckling heroes, Lermontov and Turgenev find it necessary to give their protagonists tragic character defects that absorb their readers' attention and thought. Perfect heroes invite the suspension of disbelief; what Lermontov and Turgenev require is the engagement of belief—the belief that within their characters lies something of the essence of every Russian soul; something corrupted and imperfect, but also something romantic, redeemable, and accessible to the everyday man. Lermontov and Turgenev assume that their readers are intelligent enough to interpret their characters as reflections of themselves and understand the messages imparted through the books' outcomes. Though they craft these anti-heroes in different molds, romantic and realist, in the end Lermontov and Turgenev together conquer an assumption that had plagued Russian literature until their time: the simplicity of the audience.
Lermontov, Mihail. A Hero of Our Time. Trans: Paul Foote. Penguin Classics, 2001.
Turgenev, Ivan. Fathers and Sons. Trans: Michael Katz. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1994.
About writing, Abigail says: "I find it almost impossible to write academically without an outline. Outlines ensure that you have a specific topic for your paper, not just a vague statement, like "War Sucks." They help structure your argument so that you don't end up wondering how you started writing about cheese doodles in an essay about Nietzsche. But most importantly, writing one allows you legitimately to waste days of time before you actually sit down at 2 a.m. to write the essay on the day that it's due. It may late, you may be tired, but at least you have a slew of neatly bulleted points nicely arranged for you to ignore at your convenience. And that small bit of comfort is all that you need." | <urn:uuid:bbf9add4-4d9d-4712-b449-d194865e62b2> | {
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There are numerous effects of anemia on the cardiovascular system. According to the U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health, iron deficiency is one of the principle causes of anemia, although certain medical conditions, including sickle cell anemia and cancer, can also cause anemia. The human body needs iron to produce hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and organs. Anemia is particularly challenging on the cardiovascular system.
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Decreased oxygen delivery to the tissues and organs is one of the main effects of anemia on the cardiovascular system. According to the American Association of Kidney Patients (AAKP), while anemia is characterized by decreased oxygen delivery to the tissues, muscle tissue is particularly affected. The National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI), a division of the National Institutes of Health, states that a person with anemia has a lower than usual number of red blood cells (the red blood cells don't contain enough hemoglobin). In both situations, a person's body does get enough oxygenated blood, which may cause fatigue or other symptoms. Over time, states the NHLBI, decreased oxygen delivery by the cardiovascular system can cause heart and brain damage, along with damage to the body's other organs, and in some cases, anemia may even cause death.
Anemia affects a person's hematocrit, a measure of the percentage of the volume of whole blood, including plasma, that's made up of red blood cells. According to the National Institutes of Health, a person's hematocrit depends on the number of red blood cells and the size of his red blood cells. The NHLBI adds that hematocrit quantifies the amount of space red blood cells take up in a person's blood, and that a low hemoglobin or hematocrit is a sign of anemia. The National Anemia Action Council, an online resource for anemia patients and their caregivers, states that anemia is categorized as mild, moderate or severe based on how far a person's hematocrit levels are below the normal range. Normal hematocrit levels for men are 39 percent or higher, which means that, in a blood sample, 39 percent or more of the blood sample's volume should be red blood cells. The normal hematocrit values for non-pregnant women are 36 percent or higher.
Resting heart rate (the number of times the heart beats each minute while a person is at rest) is significantly affected by anemia. According to the University of Maryland Medical Center, increased heart rate (tachycardia) is one of the most common symptoms of iron-deficiency anemia. Resting heart rates are higher in people with anemia due to the decreased number of red blood cells present in the circulatory system. Because there are fewer total red blood cells available to deliver the appropriate amount of oxygen to the body's tissues and organs, or because each red blood cell carries less oxygen to the cells, the heart pumps faster to circulate the available red blood cells more quickly throughout the system to keep the cells alive. Along with an increased resting heart rate, anemia also causes a prolonged, elevated heart rate when exercising. After exercise, the heart takes longer than normal to return to a reasonable heart rate. | <urn:uuid:0b4ed0d5-f8b1-47a3-a7a0-936b5910fd24> | {
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LAND MANAGEMENT FOR WILDLIFE
Land management is the process of managing the use and development of land resources which are used for a variety of purposes including agriculture, reforestation and timber practices, water resource management and habitat manipulation benefiting wildlife.
Now that we have defined the term, let’s delve deeper into the part of land management benefiting wildlife and the equipment required. Managing land for wildlife can involve many types of species which will benefit from proper management techniques, so just owning a tractor to plant food plots certainly doesn’t represent the whole picture. Often there are specific equipment needs the average landowner does not have available at his disposal.
Specialized equipment is necessary for specific jobs in planning and enacting a well thought out Management Plan. Clearing roads, planting or clearing food plots, constructing lakes and ponds, developing or improving drainage all require equipment of various sizes and function to achieve the desired results economically. Other aspects of land management may involve timber harvests, the use of chemicals and fertilizers, as well as proper soil preparation and planting practices for food plots and waterfowl impoundments. Each of these practices requires the use of equipment designed to accomplish the task at hand.
Understanding how each piece of equipment operates and its specific function can save a land owner a bundle by minimizing the time on site required from start to finish of the job. At Sartain’s Heritage Properties, we understand this process well and have improved or developed thousands of acres for landowners, not only improving the value of their land, but improving the properties ability to attract and hold wildlife, thereby improving the hunting experience.
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Since 1954 we have assisted our clients in achieving their financial goals weather it’s buying, selling, leasing or the development of tracts, we can assist you in all aspects of your land needs. We employ the most powerful internet, regional and local marketing tools available to ensure that your property is seen by the buying public... Learn more »
Sartain’s Heritage Properties, LLC.
106 First Choice Drive
Madison, MS 39110 | <urn:uuid:b32736f5-79be-4389-b947-8d5373ec5f21> | {
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The Ford Pinto is a subcompact car that was manufactured and marketed by Ford Motor Company in North America, sold from the 1971 to the 1980 model years. The smallest American Ford vehicle since 1907, the Pinto was the first subcompact vehicle produced by Ford in North America; the Pinto was also the first mass-produced American car sold with rack and pinion steering. The safety of the Pinto fuel-tank design attracted both regulatory scrutiny and legal liability after deadly fires related to the tanks rupturing during rear-end collisions.
- Buried in the secret files of the Ford Motor Co. lies evidence that big auto makers have put profits ahead of lives. Their lack of concern has caused thousands of people to die or be horribly disfigured in fiery car crashes. Undisclosed Ford tests have demonstrated that the big auto makers could have made safer automobiles by spending a few dollars more on each car.
- By conservative estimates Pinto crashes have caused 500 burn deaths to people who would not have been seriously injured if the car had not burst into flames. The figure could be as high as 900....Ford knows the Pinto is a firetrap, yet it has paid out millions to settle damage suits out of court, and it is prepared to spend millions more lobbying against safety standards....Ford waited eight years because its internal "cost-benefit analysis," which places a dollar value on human life, said it wasn't profitable to make the changes sooner....Lee Iacocca wanted that little car in the showrooms of America with the 1971 models. So he ordered his engineering vice president, Bob Alexander, to oversee what was probably the shortest production planning period in modern automotive history. The normal time span from conception to production of a new car model is about 43 months. The Pinto schedule was set at just under 25....Lee Iacocca’s speed-up meant Pinto tooling went on at the same time as product development. So when crash tests revealed a serious defect in the gas tank, it was too late. The tooling was well under way.
- A magazine says that Ford Motor Company sold Pinto cars for six years even though company officials knew that the car's fuel tank could easily rupture in rear-end crashes and cause fires. The article by Mark Dowie in |Mother Jones, a West Coast publication circulated to 150,000 subscribers, said that the company had been eager to get the subcompact into production in 1970 and, as a result, had ignored test showing the car was dangerous.
- The Ford Motor Co. manufactured and sold subcompact Pinto automobiles for six years after...its own crash tests showed the fuel tank could easily rupture and burn in rear-end collisions, a California-based magazine charged today. Mother Jones, the magazine, published by the Foundation for National Progress, of San Francisco, claims that Ford could have prevented at least 500 burn deaths by installing a $1 plastic baffle now on '77 models. Instead Ford lobbied vigorously against tightening of federal highway safety standards until it was forced to put the device on its newest models, according to Mark Dowie, general manager of the magazine and author of the article. Dowie said he obtained a Ford Co. internal memorandum that shows the company conducted a cost-benefit study of proposed modifications to the fuel system, and concluded that the benefit in terms of lives and property saved would be under $50 Million and the cost of changing the design would be $137 million....Nader, speaking at a Mother Jones news conference here yesterday, demanded Ford recall all 3 million Pintos...
- "Ford accused of selling car with bad tank". The Washington Post. August 11, 1977.
- The initial charges were made in an article in the September-October issue of Mother Jones, a magazine based on the West Coast...Ralph Nader, the consumer advocate, supported the charges, saying "This is corporate callousness at the highest level," and that Ford should recall all three million Pintos.
- The Transportation Department announced yesterday it has launched a major investigation of fuel tank fires in all subcompact cars sold in this country. The action follows charges by Ralph Nader and others that in past models of the Ford Pinto, the gasoline tanks were located in a hazardous position...The charges were made in the September-October issue of Mother Jones, a West Coast-based magazine with 150,000 subscribers...Consumer advocate Nader backed the article's charges, claiming, "This is corporate callousness at the highest level of Ford Motor Co." He said Ford should recall all three million Pintos with vulnerable fuel tanks.
- Last August, Ford characterized as "distortions and half-truths" claims by consumer advocate Ralph Nader that the company knowingly permitted sale of Pintos with fuel tanks that would rupture in rear-end accidents. Mr. Nader had demanded investigations by Congress and the National Traffic Safety Board.
- In total the NHTSA is aware of 38 cases in which rear-end collisions of Pinto vehicles have resulted in fuel tank damage, fuel system leakage and/or ensuing fire. These cases have resulted in a total of 27 fatalities sustained by Pinto occupants, of which one is reported to have resulted from impact injuries. In addition, 24 occupants of these Pinto vehicles have sustained non-fatal burn injuries.
- "Investigative Report: Alleged Fuel Tank and Filler Neck Damage in Rear-end Collisions of Subcompact Cars Passenger Cars, 1971-1976 Ford Pinto, 1975-1976 Mercury Bobcat". Office of Defects Investigation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. May 1978. Retrieved on December 1, 2018.
- Last month, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration said it had received reports of 38 fires, with 27 fatalities and 24 non-fatal burns, resulting from rear-end collisions with Pintos.
- Jones, William H. (June 10, 1978). "Ford Recalls 1.5 Million Small Cars. Ford Recalls 1.5 Million Pintos, Bobcats; Pintos, Bobcats Face Alteration To Cut Fire Risk". The Washington Post. Retrieved on December 1, 2018.
- Is your car safe? Well, if you're driving a Ford Pinto, vintage 1971 to '76, the answer seems to be: Not as safe as it could be.
- Ford made the decision this June, but the seed of the decision was planted a year ago. it was in August 1977 that Mother Jones, a magazine published in California, printed an article titled "Pinto Madness"; it portrayed the car as particularly susceptible to fires in rear-end crashes. The article was ballyhooed at a Washington press conference by Ralph Nader and its author, Mark Dowie. A flood of calls and letters from outraged or terrified Pinto owners descended on the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, which opened an investigation that was to last eight months. The agency first ran an engineering analysis of the Pinto, finding that the fuel tank's location and the structural parts around it permitted easy crashing or puncturing of the tank in a crash. Officials also found that the short fuel-tank filler pipe could easily pull away from the tank. There was "real potential for trouble," says Howard Dugoff, the agency's deputy administrator. "The design looked fishy." Then came crash-testing; a letter-writing tug-of-war; the issuance of an initial defect finding that cited reports of 38 such accidents, 27 deaths and 29 lawsuits or liability claims against Ford; the setting of a public hearing for last June 14; and, finally, two meetings between agency and Ford officials. On the basis of the two meetings, the safety officials deduced that Ford was willing to recall the Pinto and that it wanted to do so before a public hearing could generate additional damaging publicity.
- The Wall Street Journal. August 16, 1978.
- It was not until December 30, 1976, however, that the automobile's fuel tank was brought to public attention in a syndicated editorial appearing in The Washington Post. Columnists Jack Anderson and Les Whitten alleged that: "Buried in the secret files of the Ford Motor Co. lies evidence that big auto makers have put profits ahead of lives. Their lack of concern has caused thousands of people to die or be horribly disfigured in fiery car crashes. Undisclosed Ford tests have demonstrated that the big auto makers could have made safer automobiles by spending a few dollars more on each car."
- Swigert, Victoria Lynn; Farrell, Ronald A. (1980). "Corporate Homicide: Definitional Processes in the Creation of Deviance". Law & Society Review 15 (1): pp. 161-182.
- Ordinarily marketing surveys and preliminary engineering studies precede the styling of a new automobile line. Pinto, however, was a rush project, so that styling preceded engineering and dictated engineering design to a greater degree than usual.
- By early June, the verdict in the Ford Pinto case was in, the NHTSA hearing was pending, and segment about the Pinto on the CBS television show, 60 Minutes, was imminent. At this point, Ford decided to undertake a "voluntary" recall.
- In order to draw attention to the publication of a story that it believed was a political blockbuster, Mother Jones, which is edited in San Francisco, held a press conference in Washington, D. C., at which Mark Dowie, the article's author, was accompanied by Ralph Nader.
- The Pinto performed badly in these initial crash tests.
- The Mother Jones article was later awarded a Pulitzer Prize.
- The television shows 60 Minutes and 20/20 ran segments in June 1978 that brought the Grimshaw tragedy into millions of American homes.
- ...routine crash testing revealed that the Pinto's fuel tank often ruptured when struck from the rear at a relatively low speed...
- Also in 1974, Ralph Nader's Center for Auto Safety asked NHTSA to investigate Pinto fuel tank integrity.
- Lee, M. T.; Ermann, M. D. (February 1999). "Pinto "Madness," a Flawed Landmark Narrative: An Organizational and Network Analysis". Social Problems 46 (1).
- Beyond the legal problems, Ford was taking a public relations beating...Several months before the article, Jack Anderson had written a column claiming that thousands of people were either killed or disfigured as a result of this poorly designed vehicle....On 60 Minutes, Mike Wallace claimed that he found it difficult to accept that top management would sit there and say "Oh, we'll buy 2,000 deaths, 10,000 injuries, because we want to make some money." 20/20 also came out with a critical episode.
- Danley, John R (2005). "Polishing Up the Pinto: Legal Liability, Moral Blame, and Risk". Business Ethics Quarterly 15 (2): 205–236.
- Recall notices were mailed in September, 1978 and parts were to be at all dealers by September 15, 1978. However, between June 9, 1978, and the date when parts were available to repair the estimated 2.2 million vehicles, six people died in Pinto fires after a rear impact.
- ...deep into the development cycle, a problem was discovered in the fuel tank design. In low-speed rear-end crash testing, the fuel tank, positioned behind the rear axle and in front of the rear bumper, exhibited several flaws. Upon impact, the filler neck would tear away from the sheet-metal tank and spill fuel beneath the car. The tank was also easily punctured by bolts protruding from the differential and nearby brackets. One report later described the entire contents of a tank leaking out in less than a minute after an accident. These problems combined to create a serious risk of fire...
- Wojdyla, Ben (May 20, 2011). The Top Automotive Engineering Failures: The Ford Pinto Fuel Tanks. Retrieved on December 1, 2018.
- The process in the more serious voluntary recalls generally starts with consumer complaints and news stories, then proceeds to government investigation and testing, consumer group pressuring, resistance from the auto manufacturer, and an official finding of safety defect. The story of the Ford Motor Company's decision to recall 1.5 million of its 1971-1976 subcompact Pinto cars is illustrative.
- Three people died before the recall and six died in Pinto fires during the time following the recall but before the parts to repair the vehicle were made available.
- Spear, Gillian (June 18, 2013). "Take that back: Famous recalls, from Tylenol to Toyota". NBC News. Retrieved on December 1, 2018.
- Jack Anderson and Les Whitten were perhaps the first to claim that Ford, despite having the technology to do so, had consciously refused to fix the potentially lethal hazard posed by the placement of the Pinto's gas tank. They began their December 30, 1976, column in The Washington Post by claiming, "Buried in the secret files of the Ford Motor Co. lies evidence that big auto makers have put profits ahead of lives." This "lack of concern," they lamented, "has caused thousands of people to die or be horribly disfigured in fiery crashes." All this, they said, was preventable: "Secret tests by Ford have shown that minor adjustments in the location of the fuel tank could greatly reduce the fiery danger." Moreover, "repositioning of the tank would cost only a few dollars more per car" - not much of a price when human lives are at stake. "In the long run," they warned, "the auto makers are saving little with this 'cost cutting'" Nine months later, these criticisms were elaborated in Mark Dowie's scathing condemnation of Ford, called "Pinto Madness."
- To make certain that this message would not remain buried in the pages of Mother Jones, Dowie announced the publication of "Pinto Madness" at a Washington, D. C. press conference attended by Ralph Nader.
- Two days after Ford declared its recall, The Pinto received national exposure again...On Sunday evening, June 11, viewers of 60 Minutes were greeted by Mike Wallace's question, "Is your car safe?" He answered, "Well, if you're driving a Ford Pinto, vintage 1971 to '76, the answer seems to be: Not as safe as it could be." He then proceeded to tell the Pinto story. Richard Grimshaw a was the first to be interviewed. The audience learned that he had been in the hospital for four months following his Pinto Burn accident, and had returned for "about 65 major surgeries."...Herbert Misch, a twenty-three year veteran and vice president of environmental and safety engineering at Ford...countered by saying that the value placed on human lives was set by the government, not by Ford, and that the memo has "been taken totally out of context..."...Like Mike Wallace, other reporters found the Pinto matter a fascinating and eminently newsworthy upperworld scandal.
- About the time that the Grimshaw trial began, Mother Jones magazine held a press conference in which Ralph Nader and author Mark Dowie announced an article entitled "Pinto Madness" forthcoming in the September/October 1987 issue.
- Rossow, Mark (2015). "Ethics: An Alternative Account of the Ford Pinto Case". Continuing Education and Development Inc.. | <urn:uuid:69691b56-c526-42fd-9581-1720301d5d4e> | {
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Transcript for Computer Animation of Loma Prieta Aftershocks, segment 02 of 12
At five oh four P. M. on October seventeenth, nineteen eighty-nine, the magnitude seven point one Loma Prieta earthquake shook the San Francisco Bay area. It was the largest earthquake in central California since the nineteen oh six San Francisco earthquake. It killed sixty-seven people and caused several billion dollars in damage. This video shows what seismology can tell us about the Loma Prieta earthquake and its aftershocks and how they relate to typical seismicity in the rest of California.
In nineteen eighty-eight the U. S. Geological Survey published a report estimating the probabilities of future large earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault in the next thirty years. The fault was divided into segments where large earthquakes have occurred or are likely to occur. This probability map shows that the Parkfield segment was considered to be the most likely to slip in a magnitude six earthquake. The southern Santa Cruz Mountain segment was identified as the site of a magnitude six and a half to seven earthquake with a thirty percent probability within thirty years. This means that the Loma Prieta earthquake was anticipated. The probability of the Loma Prieta earthquake was the highest of any earthquake in the San Francisco Bay area. | <urn:uuid:f4bea0be-556e-4683-88aa-ab522b21173f> | {
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A drug used to treat intestinal worms may have a new purpose.
Recent studies have shown that Oxantel could protect people from periodontitis. The information appears in Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.
The current treatment for periodontitis can be costly and it isn’t necessarily full proof. Oxantel was shown to prevent growth by blocking an enzyme that bacteria need to create the biofilm associated with periodontitis.
The researchers of this study wanted to discover something that would inhibit periodontitis unlike any treatment on the market. Their research determined that the periodontal biofilm depended on iron and heme and that limiting these would lower the level of the enzyme fumarate reductase. The test managed to thwart the enzyme in Porphyromonas gingivalis, something heavily involved with the biofilm.
Oxantel was also proven to be effective against various combinations of bacteria.Periodontitis impacts roughly 30 to 47 percent of the adult population and about 5 to 10 percent experience extremely severe cases of periodontitis. This disease makes people more susceptible to arthritis, dementia, diabetes, heart disease, stroke and numerous other ailments. Periodontitis may also lead to a higher risk of cancer in the head and mouth, in addition to the neck and esophagus. | <urn:uuid:b4efe2b1-ee1c-44c9-aa3c-acdaff5e6546> | {
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MYTH: The Global Poverty Act would commit the U.S. to spending 0.7 percent of its gross national product on foreign aid. This would require a new tax on all Americans.
TRUTH: The legislation neither authorizes nor obligates the federal government to spend more money. Rather, it seeks to put our current foreign aid programs into a comprehensive strategy involving trade policy, debt cancellation, and private sector efforts to ensure that existing U.S. programs are more effective and efficient. The legislation calls for a strategy to determine the right mix of aid, trade and debt policies and investment. The strategy also includes the private sector, civil society organizations, and the developing countries themselves as critical components in global development. The Congressional Budget Office has estimated the bill would cost less than $1 million to implement.
MYTH: The bill subordinates U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid spending to the United Nations.
TRUTH: The Global Poverty Act would ask U.S. agencies and departments headed by the Secretary of State, to develop a comprehensive strategy for U.S. programs and policies to eliminate extreme global poverty. This would be a U.S. strategy for U.S. agencies. The legislation does not prejudge what the details of the strategy should be only what components should be included in its creation. Decisions on U.S. policy and spending would remain exclusively with the U.S. government.
MYTH: The Global Poverty Act is only about foreign aid.
TRUTH: The Global Poverty Act seeks to bring greater coherence to our development policy by integrating U.S. foreign aid programs with U.S. trade policy, debt cancellation, and public-private partnerships. Each of these areas is critical to the fight against extreme poverty. Currently, U.S. global development policies and programs are implemented by 12 departments, 25 different agencies, and almost 60 government offices. Increased coordination is sorely needed to be effective. The Global Poverty Act does not establish
any new foreign aid programs.
MYTH: The Global Poverty Act would make the eradication of extreme poverty the exclusive goal of U.S. foreign policy or U.S. foreign assistance.
TRUTH: The Global Poverty Act states that it would be “the policy of the United States to promote the reduction of global poverty, the elimination of extreme poverty, and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goal of reducing by one-half the proportion of people worldwide, between 1990 and 2015, who live on less than $1 per day.” The legislation does not state that the eradication of extreme poverty would become the exclusive goal of U.S. foreign assistance or seek to change other existing U.S. foreign assistance goals.
MYTH: U.S. development efforts have not been effective in reducing poverty.
TRUTH: The U.S. should be proud of its efforts on behalf of the world’s poor and hungry people. The U.S. partnered with the Rockefeller Foundation to launch the Green Revolution in Asia that quadrupled food yields and prevented predicted famine and widespread hunger. Assistance from the U.S. and other donors eradicated smallpox and is close to wiping out polio. Twenty-nine million more children in sub- Saharan Africa are in school than a decade ago. The U.S. is currently providing HIV/AIDS treatment for approximately 1.45 million men, women, and children worldwide, allowing them to help build their communities and countries. The Global Poverty Act would build on this record of success to help our efforts be even more efficient.
MYTH: The Global Poverty Act would place pressure on the U.S. to ban small arms and weapons, and ratify the International Criminal Court Treaty, the Kyoto Protocol, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
TRUTH: The Global Poverty Act addresses only the eradication of extreme poverty and the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG), which aims to halve the proportion of people worldwide who live on less than $1 per day. The treaties referenced are from another document, the Millennium Declaration, signed by the U.S. in 2000 along with all the countries of the world. The Global Poverty Act does not address the issues in the Millennium Declaration and only focuses on U.S. efforts to alleviate extreme poverty | <urn:uuid:2453d5fd-1be2-4f19-8947-88558744f8c9> | {
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Cost of goods sold
Cost of goods sold (COGS) refer to the carrying value of goods sold during a particular period.
Costs are associated with particular goods using one of several formulas, including specific identification, first-in first-out (FIFO), or average cost. Costs include all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. Costs of goods made by the business include material, labor, and allocated overhead. The costs of those goods not yet sold are deferred as costs of inventory until the inventory is sold or written down in value.
Many businesses sell goods that they have bought or produced. When the goods are bought or produced, the costs associated with such goods are capitalized as part of inventory (or stock) of goods. These costs are treated as an expense in the period the business recognizes income from sale of the goods.
Determining costs requires keeping records of goods or materials purchased and any discounts on such purchase. In addition, if the goods are modified, the business must determine the costs incurred in modifying the goods. Such modification costs include labor, supplies or additional material, supervision, quality control and use of equipment. Principles for determining costs may be easily stated, but application in practice is often difficult due to a variety of considerations in the allocation of costs.
Cost of goods sold may also reflect adjustments. Among the potential adjustments are decline in value of the goods (i.e., lower market value than cost), obsolescence, damage, etc.
When multiple goods are bought or made, it may be necessary to identify which costs relate to which particular goods sold. This may be done using an identification convention, such as specific identification of the goods, first-in-first-out (FIFO), or average cost. Alternative systems may be used in some countries, such as last-in-first-out (LIFO), gross profit method, retail method, or combinations of these.
Cost of goods sold may be the same or different for accounting and tax purposes, depending on the rules of the particular jurisdiction. Certain expenses are included in COGS. Expenses that are included in COGS cannot be deducted again as a business expense. COGS expenses include:
- The cost of products or raw materials, including freight or shipping charges;
- The cost of storing products the business sells;
- Direct labor costs for workers who produce the products; and
- Factory overhead expenses.
Importance of inventories
Inventories have a significant effect on profits. A business that makes or buys goods to sell must keep track of inventories of goods under all accounting and income tax rules. An example illustrates why. Fred buys auto parts and resells them. In 2008, Fred buys $100 worth of parts. He sells parts for $80 that he bought for $30, and has $70 worth of parts left. In 2009, he sells the remainder of the parts for $180. If he keeps track of inventory, his profit in 2008 is $50, and his profit in 2009 is $110, or $160 in total. If he deducted all the costs in 2008, he would have a loss of $20 in 2008 and a profit of $180 in 2009. The total is the same, but the timing is much different. Most countries' accounting and income tax rules (if the country has an income tax) require the use of inventories for all businesses that regularly sell goods they have made or bought.
Cost of goods for resale
Cost of goods purchased for resale includes purchase price as well as all other costs of acquisitions, excluding any discounts.
Additional costs may include freight paid to acquire the goods, customs duties, sales or use taxes not recoverable paid on materials used, and fees paid for acquisition. For financial reporting purposes such period costs as purchasing department, warehouse, and other operating expenses are usually not treated as part of inventory or cost of goods sold. For U.S. income tax purposes, some of these period costs must be capitalized as part of inventory. Costs of selling, packing, and shipping goods to customers are treated as operating expenses related to the sale. Both International and U.S. accounting standards require that certain abnormal costs, such as those associated with idle capacity, must be treated as expenses rather than part of inventory.
Discounts that must be deducted from the costs of purchased inventory are the following:
- Trade discounts (reduction in the price of goods that a manufacturer or wholesaler provides to a retailer) - includes a discount that is always allowed, regardless of the time of payment.
- Manufacturer’s rebates—is based on the dealer’s purchases during the year.
- Cash discounts (a reduction in the invoice price that the seller provides if the dealer pays immediately or within a specified time)—it may reduce COGS, or it may be treated separately as gross income.
Cost of goods made by the business
The cost of goods produced in the business should include all costs of production. The key components of cost generally include:
- Parts, raw materials and supplies used,
- Labor, including associated costs such as payroll taxes and benefits, and
- Overhead of the business allocable to production.
Most businesses make more than one of a particular item. Thus, costs are incurred for multiple items rather than a particular item sold. Determining how much of each of these components to allocate to particular goods requires either tracking the particular costs or making some allocations of costs. Parts and raw materials are often tracked to particular sets (e.g., batches or production runs) of goods, then allocated to each item.
Labor costs include direct labor and indirect labor. Direct labor costs are the wages paid to those employees who spend all their time working directly on the product being manufactured. Indirect labor costs are the wages paid to other factory employees involved in production. Costs of payroll taxes and fringe benefits are generally included in labor costs, but may be treated as overhead costs. Labor costs may be allocated to an item or set of items based on timekeeping records.
Costs of materials include direct raw materials, as well as supplies and indirect materials. Where non-incidental amounts of supplies are maintained, the taxpayer must keep inventories of the supplies for income tax purposes, charging them to expense or cost of goods sold as used rather than as purchased.
Materials and labor may be allocated based on past experience, or standard costs. Where materials or labor costs for a period exceed the expected amount of standard costs, a variance. Such variances are then allocated among cost of goods sold and remaining inventory at the end of the period.
Determining overhead costs often involves making assumptions about what costs should be associated with production activities and what costs should be associated with other activities. Traditional cost accounting methods attempt to make these assumptions based on past experience and management judgment as to factual relationships. Activity based costing attempts to allocate costs based on those factors that drive the business to incur the costs.
Overhead costs are often allocated to sets of produced goods based on the ratio of labor hours or costs or the ratio of materials used for producing the set of goods. Overhead costs may be referred to as factory overhead or factory burden for those costs incurred at the plant level or overall burden for those costs incurred at the organization level. Where labor hours are used, a burden rate or overhead cost per hour of labor may be added along with labor costs. Other methods may be used to associate overhead costs with particular goods produced. Overhead rates may be standard rates, in which case there may be variances, or may be adjusted for each set of goods produced.
Variable production overheads are allocated to units produced based on actual use of production facilities. Fixed production overheads are often allocated based on normal capacities or expected production. More or fewer goods may be produced than expected when developing cost assumptions (like burden rates). These differences in production levels often result in too much or too little cost being assigned to the goods produced. This also gives rise to variances.
In some cases, the cost of goods sold may be identified with the item sold. Ordinarily, however, the identity of goods is lost between the time of purchase or manufacture and the time of sale. Determining which goods have been sold, and the cost of those goods, requires either identifying the goods or using a convention to assume which goods were sold. This may be referred to as a cost flow assumption or inventory identification assumption or convention. The following methods are available in many jurisdictions for associating costs with goods sold and goods still on hand:
- Specific identification. Under this method, particular items are identified, and costs are tracked with respect to each item. This may require considerable recordkeeping. This method cannot be used where the goods or items are indistinguishable or fungible.
- Average cost. The average cost method relies on average unit cost to calculate cost of units sold and ending inventory. Several variations on the calculation may be used, including weighted average and moving average.
- First-In First-Out (FIFO) assumes that the items purchased or produced first are sold first. Costs of inventory per unit or item are determined at the time made or acquired. The oldest cost (i.e., the first in) is then matched against revenue and assigned to cost of goods sold.
- Last-In First-Out (LIFO) is the reverse of FIFO. Some systems permit determining the costs of goods at the time acquired or made, but assigning costs to goods sold under the assumption that the goods made or acquired last are sold first. Costs of specific goods acquired or made are added to a pool of costs for the type of goods. Under this system, the business may maintain costs under FIFO but track an offset in the form of a LIFO reserve. Such reserve (an asset or contra-asset) represents the difference in cost of inventory under the FIFO and LIFO assumptions. Such amount may be different for financial reporting and tax purposes in the United States.
- Dollar Value LIFO. Under this variation of LIFO, increases or decreases in the LIFO reserve are determined based on dollar values rather than quantities.
- Retail inventory method. Resellers of goods may use this method to simplify recordkeeping. The calculated cost of goods on hand at the end of a period is the ratio of cost of goods acquired to the retail value of the goods times the retail value of goods on hand. Cost of goods acquired includes beginning inventory as previously valued plus purchases. Cost of goods sold is then beginning inventory plus purchases less the calculated cost of goods on hand at the end of the period.
Jane owns a business that resells machines. At the start of 2009, she has no machines or parts on hand. She buys machines A and B for 10 each, and later buys machines C and D for 12 each. All the machines are the same, but they have serial numbers. Jane sells machines A and C for 20 each. Her cost of goods sold depends on her inventory method. Under specific identification, the cost of goods sold is 10 + 12, the particular costs of machines A and C. If she uses FIFO, her costs are 20 (10+10). If she uses average cost, her costs are 22 ( (10+10+12+12)/4 x 2). If she uses LIFO, her costs are 24 (12+12). Thus, her profit for accounting and tax purposes may be 20, 18, or 16, depending on her inventory method. After the sales, her inventory values are either 20, 22 or 24.
After year end, Jane decides she can make more money by improving machines B and D. She buys and uses 10 of parts and supplies, and it takes 6 hours at 2 per hour to make the improvements to each machine. Jane has overhead, including rent and electricity. She calculates that the overhead adds 0.5 per hour to her costs. Thus, Jane has spent 20 to improve each machine (10/2 + 12 + (6 x 0.5) ). She sells machine D for 45. Her cost for that machine depends on her inventory method. If she used FIFO, the cost of machine D is 12 plus 20 she spent improving it, for a profit of 13. Remember, she used up the two 10 cost items already under FIFO. If she uses average cost, it is 11 plus 20, for a profit of 14. If she used LIFO, the cost would be 10 plus 20 for a profit of 15.
In year 3, Jane sells the last machine for 38 and quits the business. She recovers the last of her costs. Her total profits for the three years are the same under all inventory methods. Only the timing of income and the balance of inventory differ. Here is a comparison under FIFO, Average Cost, and LIFO:
|Cost of Goods Sold||------ Profit ------|
Write-downs and allowances
The value of goods held for sale by a business may decline due to a number of factors. The goods may prove to be defective or below normal quality standards (subnormal). The goods may become obsolete. The market value of the goods may simply decline due to economic factors.
Where the market value of goods has declined for whatever reasons, the business may choose to value its inventory at the lower of cost or market value, also known as net realizable value. This may be recorded by accruing an expense (i.e., creating an inventory reserve) for declines due to obsolescence, etc. Current period net income as well as net inventory value at the end of the period is reduced for the decline in value.
Any property held by a business may decline in value or be damaged by unusual events, such as a fire. The loss of value where the goods are destroyed is accounted for as a loss, and the inventory is fully written off. Generally, such loss is recognized for both financial reporting and tax purposes. However, book and tax amounts may differ under some systems.
Alternatives to traditional cost accounting have been proposed by various management theorists. These include:
- Throughput Accounting, under the Theory of Constraints, under which only Totally variable costs are included in cost of goods sold and inventory is treated as investment.
- Lean accounting, in which most traditional costing methods are ignored in favor of measuring weekly "value streams".
- Resource consumption accounting, which discards most current accounting concepts in favor of proportional costing based on simulations.
None of these views conform to U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or International Accounting Standards, nor are any accepted for most income or other tax reporting purposes.
- Average cost method
- List of business and finance abbreviations
- Accounting standards
- Income tax in the USA
- U.S. Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification ASC 330-10-30-1; International Accounting Standards IAS 2, paragraph 10.
- IAS 2, paragraph 34.
- This includes manufacturing from parts or raw materials.
- ASC 330-10-30-2.
- ASC 330-10-30-1; IAS 2, paragraph 11.
- 26 USC 263A, 26 CFR 1.263A-3(c).
- Presti & Naegele Newsletter FAQ: What is “cost of goods sold”?
- IAS 2, paragraph 11.
- ASC 330-10-30-1; IAS 2, paragraphs 12-14; 26 USC 263A(a)(2)..
- ASC 330-10-30-3; IAS 2 paragraph 13.
- ASC 330-10-30-10.
- ASC 330-10-30-9.
- IAS 2, paragraph 24.
- ASC 330-10-35; IAS 2, paragraphs 28-33.
- Fox, Stephen C, Income Tax in the USA chapter 23, 2013 edition ISBN 978-0-9851-8233-5, ASIN B00BCSNOGG.
- Horngren, Charles T., et al.: Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis ISBN 978-0-1329-6064-9 ASIN B00B6F3AWI.
- Kieso, Donald E; Weygandt, Jerry J.; and Warfield, Terry D.: Intermediate Accounting, Chapters 8 and 9. ISBN 978-0-4705-8723-2 ASIN B006PKWD8G.
- Kinney, Michael R.: Cost Accounting: Foundations and Evolutions. ISBN 978-1-1119-7172-4.
- Lanen, William, et al.: "Fundamentals of Cost Accounting. ISBN 978-0-0735-2711-6 ASIN B005MR88U0.
- Walter, Larry: Principles of Accounting, Chapter 8, Inventory. | <urn:uuid:06ff4cf9-0f0d-45d5-98af-33ff121305f7> | {
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Data mining: Digging for deeper understanding of blood components and transfusion outcomes
What is this research about?
There is no question that blood transfusions save lives. Whether some blood products lead to better patient outcomes than others, however, has been up for much discussion. For the past 15 years, the biggest question has been: Does transfusing “older” red blood cells (i.e. those that have been stored longer before transfusion) lead to worse patient outcomes? The results of more than 50 observational studies investigating this question were contradictory, but recent clinical studies show no evidence of worse outcomes when older red blood cells are transfused.
This study is the first to suggest a link between the way in which red blood cells are processed from whole blood donations and patient outcomes.
Now other factors that could influence the quality of transfusion products are drawing attention. One of these is the method by which blood components are separated from whole blood donations. At Canadian Blood Services, whole blood is separated into components using one of two methods:
Method 1.The red cell filtration method (also known as the ‘buffy coat’ method), used when red blood cells, plasma and platelets are produced; and
Method 2.The whole blood filtration method, used when only red blood cells and plasma are produced. The choice of method depends partly on the demand for platelet products, and overall about half of red blood cell units are produced using Method 1 and half are produced using Method 2.
Red blood cells produced by each method are largely alike and are indistinguishable by physicians ordering transfusion components in the hospital. However, recent data from Canadian Blood Services’ scientists show subtle but possibly important differences between units produced by the two methods. For example, red blood cells produced by Method 1 tend to have lower levels of burst red blood cells (“hemolysis”) and those produced by Method 2 tend to have higher volumes. These differences suggest that the processing method may impact the quality of the product.
This raises the question of whether these product differences may have an impact on transfusion recipients. Any effects are likely to be subtle, so a thorough investigation required large amounts of data. In collaboration with Canadian Blood Services, researchers at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario gathered and analyzed vast blood processing and transfusion outcome datasets to answer the question: In adult patients who have received transfusions, is there an association between the processing method, the storage age of red blood cells, and in-hospital mortality (that is, the risk of dying while in hospital)?
What did the researchers do?
This was a retrospective study, which means the researchers ‘looked back’ at existing data. Records were reviewed from a database called the Transfusion Registry for Utilization, Surveillance and Tracking (or TRUST), which keeps records of patients who have received red blood cell transfusions. All adult patients who received a red blood cell transfusion in any of the three participating Hamilton-area hospitals between April 2008 and March 2014 were included in the study.
These datasets were linked to blood processing (donation date, processing method) and donor information (sex and age; anonymously) from Canadian Blood Services. The researchers categorized red blood cell transfusions into seven distinct groups based on their processing method (Method 1 or 2) and storage age (fresh: 1–7 days; mid-age: 8–35 days; old: 36–42 days). Patients who were transfused with only “mid-age” red blood cells that were produced using Method 1 were considered the reference group, which means all other groups were compared to this group of patients.
What did the researchers find?
The researchers examined data from 23,634 adults who received one or more red blood cell transfusion inhospital. Data from 91,065 red blood cell transfusions revealed an association between in-hospital mortality and exposure to fresh red blood cells (stored for 1–7 days) produced using Method 2. This suggests that these red blood cells may be associated with a greater risk of harm compared with mid-age red blood cells produced by Method 1 (the reference group). No other significant associations were found.
How can you use this research?
This is the first study linking the method of processing blood components to patient outcomes. The results suggest that fresh red blood cells produced by the whole blood filtration method (Method 2) may lead to worse outcomes than older red blood cells produced the same way or red blood cells produced by the red cell filtration method (Method 1).
This was a retrospective study and is hypothesis-generating — it was designed to find associations and stimulate further research questions but does not show any cause and effect. By their nature, retrospective studies can be confounded by uncontrolled or unrecognized factors. Thus, the results remain a suggestion at this point.
Independent confirmation using other datasets and further evidence, preferably from prospective randomized controlled clinical trials, is needed before the finding can be validated. This association may not be applicable to all countries/blood centres, depending on how whole blood donations are processed. However, the finding is consistent with results emerging from recent randomized controlled trials examining whether the storage age of blood impacts transfusion outcomes.
Surprisingly, these trials show trends towards fresh red blood cells leading to worse recipient outcomes. If the results of the current study are validated, further studies to understand the biological mechanisms behind this effect would be valuable. Armed with this knowledge, changes to the whole blood processing method to improve the safety of transfusions could be considered.
This Canadian study is at the forefront of what is potentially a new era in transfusion science; with these large datasets, that bring together information from the blood operator and from hospitals, and the tools to analyze them, transfusion medicine experts are well-placed to begin to dissect the factors that contribute to the optimal blood product. Gaining a deeper understanding of these life-saving products will help improve patient safety and outcomes in the future.
About the research team
This research was led by Prof. Nancy Heddle, a professor in the department of medicine at McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, and an adjunct scientist at Canadian Blood Services. The work was conducted with Canadian Blood Services colleagues: Dr. Jason Acker, Centre for Innovation senior development scientist and a professor in the department of laboratory medicine and pathology at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB; Dr. Sheila O’Brien, associate director, epidemiology and surveillance; Dr. Donald Arnold, medical officer and an associate professor in the department of medicine at McMaster University and Dr. Kathryn Webert, medical director and an associate professor in the department of pathology and molecular medicine at McMaster. Also on the team were colleagues from the department of medicine, McMaster University, and collaborators from the London Health Sciences Centre, London, ON, and the department of statistics and actuarial science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON.
This research unit is derived from the following publication(s)
Heddle NM, Arnold DM, Acker JP, Liu Y, Barty RL, Eikelboom JW, Webert KE, Hsia CC, O’Brien SF, Cook RJ: Red blood cell processing methods and in-hospital mortality: a transfusion registry cohort study. Lancet Haematol 2016. DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3026(16)00020-X
Acknowledgements: This study was supported by infrastructure funding to the McMaster Transfusion Research Program and a priority research grant from Canadian Blood Services, funded by the federal government (Health Canada), provincial and territorial ministries of health and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. The views herein do not reflect the views of the federal, provincial or territorial governments in Canada.
Canadian Blood Services is grateful to the blood donors and patients who made this research possible.
Keywords: red blood cells, red cell filtration, buffy coat, whole blood filtration, process, production, manufacturing, component | <urn:uuid:68ebc102-c1d3-4f2b-aef1-7ea3e1368deb> | {
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Understanding the brain: The National Science Foundation and the BRAIN Initiative
September 3, 2013
Visit www.NSF.gov/brain for more information.
On April 2, 2013, the White House announced an initiative called Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN), which includes the participation of the National Science Foundation (NSF). You may wonder what this means.
Part of what it means is an opportunity to continue a national conversation about an important topic: the brain. To help with the dialogue, here are short answers to some basic questions.
What is the BRAIN Initiative?
The BRAIN Initiative is an effort by federal agencies and private partners to support and coordinate research to understand how the human brain works.
Why do we need to understand the brain?
Understanding the brain means knowing the fundamental principles underlying brain structure and function. The research required to do so will accelerate scientific discovery and innovation, promote advances in technology and bolster U.S. economic competitiveness.
New neuroscience discoveries will enable us to foster brain health; engineer solutions that enhance, replace or compensate for lost function; improve the effectiveness of formal and informal educational approaches; promote learning across the lifespan and build brain-inspired smarter technologies for improved quality of life.
What is NSF's role in brain research?
NSF has a long history of support for brain science that has produced breakthroughs in brain imaging, neurotechnologies, modeling and genomics, and is uniquely positioned to lead an innovative, multi-disciplinary effort by scientists and engineers to advance a comprehensive understanding of brain structure and function.
NSF invests in high-risk, high-reward exploratory and transformational scientific and engineering research with emphasis on integration across scales and disciplines.
While our knowledge of brain anatomy and how brain cells use chemical and electrical signals to communicate with one another has grown considerably, we are only beginning to understand how those signals interact to give rise to thoughts, processes and behaviors.
Now is the time for a comprehensive approach that combines new discoveries from a variety of fields, including brain anatomy, imaging and function as well as cyberinfrastructure. Understanding the brain has been identified as one of five longstanding and fundamental questions, or "grand challenges," for future research.
What do we need to do this?
- Continued cooperation among different fields of research: biology, engineering, chemistry, physics, math, computer science, social and behavioral science, and medicine. To integrate findings across scales of space and time, from molecular, physical, physiological and genetic to cognitive and behavioral.
- Discoveries born out of curiosity-driven science that will ultimately help maintain a healthy brain.
- Tools that can detect, measure and record all the connections and activity in a single brain of 100 billion neurons (today's technology is limited to a few thousand neurons).
- Improved data management and storage for the large amounts of information that will be produced.
- Time. This is a long-term investment.
How will the BRAIN Initiative affect programs at NSF?
NSF invests tens of millions of dollars in neuroscience and cognitive science research across many disciplines. NSF will continue to make major investments in fundamental science across disciplines and in innovative technologies to accelerate discovery that will revolutionize our understanding of the brain.
When can the scientific community expect to learn more about NSF's research goals for the BRAIN Initiative?
Information will be added to NSF.gov in coming months. Follow our social media accounts for #brain updates.
Have more questions? Email us at [email protected].
Sarah Bates, NSF, (703) 292-7738, [email protected]
Lily Whiteman, NSF, (703) 292-8070, [email protected]
Report of the Physical and Mathematical Principles of Brain Structure and Function Workshop: http://physicsoflivingsystems.org/brainstructureandfunction/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2013/10/Report-on-NSF-Kavli-BRAIN-Mtg-1.pdf
Report from the NSF Workshop on Linking Language and Cognition to Neuroscience via Computation: http://www.psych.nyu.edu/clash/dp_papers/NSF-Workshop-report.pdf
Report from the NSF Workshop on Integrating Approaches to Computational Cognition: http://matt.colorado.edu/compcogworkshop/report.pdf
NSF Workshop on Integrating Approaches to Computational Cognition (Supplementary Material: Examples of Existing Work Bridging Cognitive Science and Machine Learning): http://matt.colorado.edu/compcogworkshop/supplement.pdf
Mapping and Engineering the Brain: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6615987
Phylogenetic Principles of Brain Structure and Function: Brain Maps Across Phylogeny: http://www.understandingthebrain.org/
MIT: Optogenetic toolkit goes multicolor: http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2014/optogenetic-toolkit-goes-multicolor-0209.html
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2015, its budget is $7.3 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 48,000 competitive proposals for funding, and makes about 11,000 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $626 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
Get News Updates by Email
Useful NSF Web Sites:
NSF Home Page: http://www.nsf.gov
NSF News: http://www.nsf.gov/news/
For the News Media: http://www.nsf.gov/news/newsroom.jsp
Science and Engineering Statistics: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/
Awards Searches: http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/ | <urn:uuid:f8eed1cf-2d33-40cb-9606-27c6f2c00060> | {
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Most kids have a portable music player, but how many can build their own portable speaker dock? This science kit for kids contains everything needed to build a working plug & play dock for any device with a headphone jack (that plays saved music), including iPods, cell phones & mp3 players. Kids will learn some basic electronics, including the difference between analog and digital technology.
No tools required. Needs 1 9V battery (not included). For ages 8 years and up.
Speaker Dock Kit Components: 1 circuit board, 1 set of speakers, 1 LED, 1 on/off switch, 2 optional paper housing designs, 2 sheets double stick tape, 4-color booklet.
Awards: Parents Magazine Best Toy, Oppenheim Top Toy Platinum.
WARNING: CHOKING HAZARD—Small parts. Not for children younger than 3 years. | <urn:uuid:1f233e02-b3c3-45f3-9129-d6cd5f62dd55> | {
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Creativity refers to the invention or origination of any new thing (a product, solution, artwork, literary work, joke, etc.) that has value. "New" may refer to the individual creator or the society or domain within which novelty occurs. "Valuable", similarly, may be defined in a variety of ways.
The range of scholarly interest in creativity includes a multitude of definitions and approaches involving several disciplines; psychology, cognitive science, education, philosophy (particularly philosophy of science), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, business studies, and economics, taking in the relationship between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes associated with creativity, the relationships between personality type and creative ability and between creativity and mental health, the potential for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology, and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of learning and teaching processes. | <urn:uuid:58f6e726-1857-4d8f-bfce-65b67098700f> | {
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Details: This poster shows Our Lady of Guadalupe praying. She is surrounded by an archway of thorns and roses. On the left is a cactus. At the bottom is an eagle with its wings open.
The culture of Mexico reflects the complexity of Mexico's history through the blending of pre-Hispanic Meso civilizations and the culture of Spain, imparted during Spain's 300-year colonization of Mexico. With this colonization, Roman Catholicism was established as the dominant religion of Mexico. There was a fusion of different traditions, notable in the widespread veneration of Our Lady of Guadalupe, who was an apparition of the Virgin Mary. | <urn:uuid:8e96d42e-a21a-433d-8f7e-fd605a97dc5b> | {
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Final accounts – an understanding – Key statements
In the Learning & Development group, on the final accounts series, you read about the Balance Sheet in a nutshell.
As I had mentioned, the Balance Sheet comprises of, Equity, Liabilities mainly and the Assets. The credit Balances for the Balance Sheet normally classify in the Equity & Liability segments, commonly known as “Liabilities”or “Sources of Funds” and the Debit balances sum up in the side called “Assets”.
A very simple equation summarizes the owner’s business stake:
Assets – External Liabilities = Owner’s standing
This is how the Balance Sheet looks like (see picture below) | <urn:uuid:b5e55f1e-3b81-4e96-bd3f-26e674f87182> | {
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- Posted by agency-it
- On March 23, 2016
- 0 Comments
As mentioned in part 1 of our story, puberty brings a new set of challenges to oral health especially for girls. The surge of hormones, specifically estrogen & progesterone, cause a change in the bacterial flora found in the oral environment. The most common changes found are an increase in gum inflammation. This will cause gums to become tender& sometimes bleed. A child’s oral hygiene during this time is important in order to keep the gums from overgrowing and causing infection.
Starting your children on a routine of proper oral hygiene early is important. Your dentist & hygienist can help train your kids, with the proper tools, on how to effectively clean their mouths. Brushing and flossing at least twice a day are important. The use of an electric toothbrush may also help kids reach areas they could not with a manual brush. Additionally, flossers now come conveniently packaged for ease of use. Alcohol-free mouth rinses are also effective in reducing the amount of bacteria in the mouth. However, nothing replaces brushing & flossing. The most important time to do this is before bedtime. While we sleep, we produce less saliva than we do while awake. Our saliva helps protect against the harmful bacteria in our mouths. Therefore a clean mouth before bedtime will be most effective in preventing tooth decay & promoting gum health.
As parents, we should heed this same advice and be an example for our kids. Kids often mimic their parents. Therefore develop good oral hygiene habits for yourself & these can be easily passed on to your kids.
Around the age of puberty, kids will be much more aware of their smile & much more self conscious of crooked teeth. If tooth alignment has not been addressed yet with braces or functional appliances (read part 1), now is the time.
A child who is happy with their smile will likely smile more. This may promote more self confidence. Self confidence should be developed as early as possible. This is one of the reasons it is recommended to start orthodontic treatment early. Most orthodontic treatments will last from one to three years. Therefore plan accordingly so that most treatments end by the age of 16.
The final determinant of oral health that is important at this age is nutrition. Proper diet not only affects overall health but oral health as well. Unfortunately, the American Diet is loaded with sugar. Many processed foods, although convenient and affordable, are full of sugar. Bacteria found in the oral cavity feed on this sugar. This, combined with poor oral hygiene, will lead to tooth decay. The breakdown of teeth this early will most likely lead to future dental problems. Therefore start good nutrition habits early with your kids. Start reading the labels & reduce the amount of sugar intake per day.
If you’ve followed this advice, your teenager has a beautiful smile & is eating well & brushing regularly. As a parent, you’ve done your job to develop good habits early. Now your advice as your children transition to young adults is crucial.
Women in their reproductive years present with a new set of challenges when it comes their oral health. This will be discussed in part 3 of our story – Dental Health in the Reproductive Years. | <urn:uuid:a11642cd-5cab-4f51-a686-b1b02172ec81> | {
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The Benefits Of Veneers
There are many tips to follow to prevent cavities. The simplest method is to brush your teeth with toothpaste that includes fluoride. Fluoride is extremely important because it decomposes the acid that forms in your mouth after you eat foods with acid in them. Additionally, the fluoride will help strengthen your teeth enamel over time. Another way to prevent cavities through fluoride use is to rinse your mouth with Listerine that is made with fluoride, as this will provide additional enamel support and chemicals that help improve your teeth. For best results, Listerine should be used after each meal as well as teeth brushing so that all acids are broken down.
Another way to prevent cavities is to regularly go to the dentist’s office. Dentists can do exams that include X-Rays and teeth imprints that can determine if you are developing cavities before they begin to appear in your mouth. Dentists can also make recommendations to you about what you should be doing to additionally prevent cavities and other irregularities in your mouth. When a cavity is beginning to form, the dentist may also be able to help prevent it from fully forming. In addition, the dentist can recommend new products that take extra preventive care to ensure that cavities do not develop. Preventing tooth decay and cavities may help delay the need for more expensive procedures like dental implants later in life.
The simplest way to prevent cavities from forming is to eat foods that are teeth friendly. Some of these foods include cheese- Swiss, cheddar, and mozzarellas are some of the best choices of cheese to prevent dental cavities from forming in the mouth. These foods are especially preventive in preventing cavities because they form additional saliva, which provides a strong film that covers the teeth and therefore breaks down acid in the mouth. Although some fruits are very acidic, they can also be teeth friendly and help prevent cavities as long as they are washed down with water. Another good food option that needs to be washed down with water to prevent cavities are nuts. On the other hand, some foods that should be avoided are peanut butter, potato chips, biscuits, and popcorn. These foods should be avoided at all costs if you are in danger of developing a cavity.
Another simple way to prevent cavities is to use floss daily after each meal. Flossing is important because it reaches places that toothbrushes do not, such as bacteria that are in between your gums and teeth. This will further break down the harmful acids in your mouth that can ultimately cause cavities to form. | <urn:uuid:0b2ce836-2fbf-45f6-b244-460ab75ef850> | {
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New analysis of epidemics provides insights into public policy
Helen Dunne is the editor of CorpComms Magazine, follow her tweets here @CorpCommsMag
The first ever social media map to track the spread of epidemics has been created by an academic at Penn State University in America who analysed Twitter conversations about a new vaccine for combating swine flu.
Assistant professor of biology Marcel Salathe believes that his findings could be used to develop public health initiatives and help with the creation of targeted regional campaigns.
Salathe analysed almost 478,000 tweets with vaccination related keywords and phrases between August 2009, when a new vaccine was unveiled to combat H1N1, and January 2010.
He tracked how the users' attitudes correlated with vaccination rates and how microbloggers with the same negative or positive feelings seemed to influence others in their social circles.
Salathe said: 'People tweet because they want other members of the public to hear what they have to say. Tweets have to be very short...so users have to express their opinions and beliefs about a particular subject very concisely.'
Salathe partitioned a random subset of about ten per cent, and asked students to rate them as positive, negative, neutral or irrelevant. A tweet expressing a desire to get the H1N1 vaccine would be considered positive, while a tweet suggesting it was harmful would be considered negative. These ratings were then used in the design of a computer algorithm, which catalogued the remaining 90 per cent.
He added: 'The human-rated tweets served as a 'learning set' that we used to 'teach' the computer how to rate the tweets accurately.' The process also served as a filter, rejecting tweets that were irrelevant, leaving a final pool of almost 320,000 tweets for analysis.
Using location information from the tweets, Salathe was able to categorise sentiment by region. Using data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), he was able to determine how attitudes correlated with the CDC's estimated vaccination rates.
He found that New England had the highest positive sentiment, and also the highest H1N1 vaccination rate. 'Targeted campaigns could be designed according to which region needs more prevention education,' said Salathe. 'Such data could also be used to predict how many doses of a vaccine will be required in a particular area.'
He also found that users with either negative or positive attitudes about the H1N1 vaccine followed like minded people. 'If anti-vaccination communities cluster in real, geographical space, as well, then this is likely to lead to under-vaccinated communities that are at great risk of local outbreaks,' said Salathe.
He now plans to use this map to study other diseases, including obesity. 'We think of a disease such as obesity as non-infectious, while a disease such as flu is clearly infectious. However, it might be more useful to think of behaviour-influenced diseases as infectious as well. Lifestyle choices might be 'picked up' in much the same way that pathogens - viruses or bacteria - are acquired.' | <urn:uuid:02e76914-2efc-4e05-86d1-9a91ea658a89> | {
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September 13, 1858--A group of the citizens of Oberlin, Ohio, stopped Kentucky slavecatchers from kidnapping John Price, a black man. Shakespeare Boynton, son of a wealthy landowner had lured Price with the promise of work. Oberlinians, black and white, from town and from the local College, pursued the kidnappers to nearby Wellington at word of his abduction.
The group, led by Charles Langston, James M. Fitch, bookseller and superintendent of the Oberlin Sunday School, and John Watson, a grocer, wanted to proceed nonviolently, but when the Kentuckians refused to surrender Price, the response was "we will have him anyhow."
They rushed the door guards of the Inn and theology student Richard Winsor took Price to safety, hidden for a time in the home of Oberlin College President James Fairchild, later helped across the Canadian border to freedom.
These were twenty of the thirty-seven citizens from Oberlin and Wellington who were charged with breaking the law by helping John Price escape from slave catchers in the fall of 1858.
The Oberlin-Wellington Rescue and subsequent trial caught the eye of the nation as escalating tensions over slavery raised the prospect of civil war | <urn:uuid:596b7b8b-596e-473a-8885-ed12090b8d5c> | {
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Historic Wales Guide
Welcome to Wales. This proud Celtic nation has always had a separate identity from the rest of the UK, and nowhere is this more evident by the widespread use of the Welsh language. Similar to the lesser spoken Cornish language, all Britons would have once spoken a similar dialect, certainly up to and including the first few decades of Anglo-Saxon rule at which point it was gradually replaced by Old English. Today, over half a million people still speak the Welsh language.
Visitors to Wales should definitely check out our full list of castles in Wales; at last count there were over 100! There are also some fabulous Roman sites to visit including Isca Augusta in Caeleon and Sarn Helen Roman road in the Brecon Beacons, one of the best preserved Roman roads in the whole country.
Finally, any trip to Wales wouldn't be complete without visiting the smallest city in the UK, St David's, also known for being one of the most important sites in medieval Christendom.
Explore the Welsh Regions
In terms of natural scenery, the south of Wales is full of sandy beaches and rolling hills, whilst mid Wales is renowned for being one of the most sparsely populated regions in the UK full of mountains, forests, moorlands and coastline... as well as the university town of Aberystwyth. North Wales is home to the Snowdonia National Park as well as the highest mountain in Wales and England; Snowdon.
Also in the north of the country is the island of Anglesey. Once the mysterious home of the Druids and subsequently a major military base for the Romans, this small island was also run by a group of Irish pirates until 470AD! It was subsequently the capital of the Kingdom of Gwynedd until the English invasion of Wales in the 13th century.
Featured Historic Sites in Wales
The History of Place Names
September 05th 2016
Toponomastics is the study of place names. The name of a place can give clues as to its history, people, location in the landscape and much, much more... | <urn:uuid:77e69895-b368-4bf7-ba60-146ba257d6b3> | {
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The kissing tree
is the relational structure of all people who have shared a snog. To better understand, consider the following process for mapping your own local branch of the kissing tree:
1: Write your name down on a (very large) piece of paper
2: Write down the names of every person who you have kissed
3: Draw a line between each of these people and yourself
4: Add the names of any people not already on the tree who have been snogged by people who are.
5: Add lines where appropriate to indicate which people have snogged
6: GOTO 4
This structure is not unlike that popularised by the idea of the 6 degrees of separation, however it's infinitely more interesting. Furthermore, because it maps events rather than acquaintances, it acts as a historical reference, and can be used to assist in remembering past events and sharing old stories and gossip.
A project was undertaken by the Goodwin St Commune in 1998 to map the kissing tree. The development of this project has continued through to the present day, and it now shows an estimated 400 people who have engaged in well over 1000 snogs. | <urn:uuid:24f20cbc-46fe-4002-aada-32cb89813009> | {
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The effect of pressure, at elevated temperatures, is reported on the activity and stability of a thermophilic endo-β-glucanase from the filamentous fungus Talaromyces emersonii. The production of reduced sugars after treatment at different temperatures and pressures is used as a measure of the activity and stability of the enzyme. The activity of the enzyme is maintained to higher temperatures with increasing pressure. For example, the relative activity of endo-β-glucanase decreases to 30% after 4 h at 75°C and 1 bar, whereas it is preserved at 100% after 6 h at 75°C and 230 bar. High-pressure dynamic light scattering is used to characterize the hydrodynamic radius of the enzyme as a function of pressure, temperature, and time. At higher temperature the hydrodynamic radius increases with time, whereas increasing pressure suppresses this effect. Changes in the hydrodynamic radius are correlated with the activity measurements obtained at elevated pressures, since the changes in the hydrodynamic radius indicate structural changes of the enzyme, which cause the deactivation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2013; 110: 1674–1680. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
If you can't find a tool you're looking for, please click the link at the top of the page to "Go to old article view". Alternatively, view our Knowledge Base articles for additional help. Your feedback is important to us, so please let us know if you have comments or ideas for improvement. | <urn:uuid:f79a22de-8ab5-4328-8aee-14a27b5d280e> | {
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U.N. climate talks headed into the final stretch with a host of issues unresolved, including a standoff over how much money financially stressed rich countries can spare to help the developing world tackle global warming. The United Nations climate talks in Doha, Qatar ended Saturday with key countries agreeing to some guidelines on how to track progress toward meeting their commitments and set a path toward a stronger legal agreement in 2015.
Developing countries were demanding firm pledges before the Doha conference ends, like a midterm target of $60 billion in the next three years, or written agreement that funds will be scaled up annually until 2020. But rich countries have been reluctant to make such commitments, citing the financial turmoil that is straining their budgets.
It must be remembered that a similar agreement had been made in Kyoto some years ago. The U.S. never joined Kyoto while Japan, New Zealand, Canada and Russia don't want to be part of any formal extension, meaning it might only cover about 15 percent of the world's emissions of greenhouse gases.
Jake Schmidt, international climate policy director at the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), made the following statement from Doha:
"This year has been filled with devastating wake-up calls that global warming is already impacting us. Failure to act will hurt people and communities in the United States and around the world."
"With the agreement in Doha, countries can now focus on following through on the commitments they made to reduce emissions at home, build stronger efforts to support action by developing countries, and improve the transparency of their actions."
The agreements in Doha:
· Outlined the clear path to negotiating even stronger action in 2015 that will include actions by all key countries.
· Finalized key guidelines on how developed and developing countries will monitor and report their emissions and track progress towards their emissions reduction commitments.
· Reaffirmed the need to continue investing in efforts to support developing countries in deploying clean energy, reducing deforestation emissions, and supporting the most vulnerable countries in strengthening their resilience to climate change countries.
· Finalized the second round of targets for a number of developed countries under the Kyoto Protocol.
The question now becomes whether any agreement will be ratified by the various nations involved.
Conference image via UN | <urn:uuid:51493ce4-b13f-490c-966a-76d21535d328> | {
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Doing Anger Differently
Anger is a normal human emotion and can serve useful purposes when controlled or directed productively. However, when anger gets out of control and becomes the habitual response to everyday events it can become a problem. Problematic anger can destroy relationships and have wide-ranging negative effects on others. If you recognise you have an anger problem, the goal is to manage it more effectively so that it doesn’t impact on your or others’ lives.
VVCS can assist you to manage your anger more effectively through both the Anger Management Group Program and counselling.
Doing Anger Differently is an educational and skills based group program assisting participants to understand anger and aggression. It provides participants with strategies to manage thoughts and feelings which may contribute to anger and to prevent aggressive behaviours.
Through this program participants will:
- Develop an understanding of anger and aggression
- Identify personal triggers for angry feelings and aggressive behaviours
- Learn strategies to reduce physiological arousal
- Develop an understanding of how thoughts, values and beliefs, including military culture, can influence anger and aggressive behaviours
- Develop strategies and skills to prevent aggressive behaviours
- Understand the impact of anger on relationships and develop skills to express needs and deal with conflict constructively
- Develop skills to communicate more effectively and reduce the risk of anger fuelled interactions.
The full program is a 2 hour session once a week for 10 weeks.
Shorter workshops are also available in some areas.
Phone VVCS on 1800 011 046 in business hours to find out what is available in your area.
See the VVCS group programs calendar for program dates in your area.
Visit the AT EASE website for more information about understanding and managing anger. | <urn:uuid:8b622997-c4f3-4912-926e-5cd581258952> | {
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By now you have all seen or heard of CFLs (compact florescent lights), those little spirally light bulbs that look like the skeleton of a soft ice cream cone. But what you might not know (or have thought about) is why making the switch to CFLs from your Edison-era incandescent bulbs is imperative.
CFLs, when compared with standard incandescent bulbs (SIBs), offer many benefits. First, the most obvious thing, they help save energy and money. In fact, they use 2/3 less energy then SIBs, and last up to ten times longer. By replacing a 60-watt SIB with a 13-watt CFL, you can save you around $30 in energy costs over the life of the bulb. Second, CFLs produce about 70% less heat than SIBs, meaning they’re safer to operate and can help further cut energy costs associated with home cooling. CFLs last longer and fit almost any fixture, same as your SIBs.
But now for the other half of the story—as of February 2006, CFLs have been classified as Hazardous Waste and must be disposed of accordingly. That’s because they contain a very small amount of mercury sealed within the glass tubing (an average of about five milligrams, roughly equivalent to the tip of a ball point pen).
So what do you do with your CFLs when they have come to the end of their long life cycle? For one thing, do not throw them in your household garbage. Green alternatives are available all over the IE. Mercury is classified as a “Universal Waste” and must be recycled. Go to www.earth911.org (where you can find disposal options by using your zip code) or call (877) EARTH911 for local disposal options. Here in the IE, Riverside County Waste Management is a great option. Check their site at www.rivcowm.org for collection events and permanent collection sites to do you part.
Like Kermit said, “it’s easy being green.” | <urn:uuid:85275fff-3e01-4b1e-8952-5a0d0e80b3b7> | {
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There are many process and ways through which things can be set into motion. They also include equipment known as actuator. It is basically a motor which can be run by various sources like electric current and pressures.
What is an electrical actuator?
electrical actuators are motors which are run by electric current and the electrical energy is converted into motion. This motion is used in many places to carry out different functions.
Parts of the actuator run by electric current:
An actuator is made up of many parts and each part plays its own role in making the things attached to it move. The parts are as follows:
· Motor: Two types of motors are commonly used. Either the single phase motor or the triple phase motor. The one most commonly used is the single phase motor. It can run on a variety of voltages.
· Brake: The function of the brake is to prevent the opening of the valve unnecessarily.
· Terminal strip: It supplies power to the other electrical components.
· Capacitor: Through the capacitor, motor gets the kick to get started.
· Open and close limit switches
These switched are used to cut power of the actuator once the position which is desired is reached. | <urn:uuid:57be8975-6fd2-48f9-90cc-4d8082d143bf> | {
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The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford has purchased the medieval Arabic manuscript Kitab Gharaib al-funun wa-mulah al-uyun popularised under the title the Book of Curiosities, an exceptionally rich text on cosmography. The treatise is one of the most important recent finds in the history of Islamic cartography in particular, and for the history of pre-modern cartography in general. The manuscript, a highly illustrated treatise on astronomy and geography compiled by an unknown author between 1020 and 1050, contains an important and hitherto unknown series of colourful maps, giving unique insight into Islamic concepts of the world. Portions of the text are preserved in later copies, but the copy owned by the Bodleian library is the only nearly complete coy and the one to have been extensively studied and released in an electronic edition which represents a model for online publishing of Arabic original manuscripts. This high-quality digital reproduction includes interactive displays, through mouse-over techniques, as well as access to a modern Arabic edition and an annotated English translation.
The Book of Curiosities or A Medieval Islamic View of the Cosmos
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Figure 1: Sarajevo skyline. (Source: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=597483&page=66).
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WASHINGTON (NNS) -- The Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Heliospheric Imager (SoloHI) has been chosen as part of the scientific payload for the European Space Agency's Solar Orbiter mission. SoloHI will provide revolutionary measurements to pinpoint solar storms known as coronal mass ejections or CMEs.
CMEs are violent eruptions with masses greater than a few billion tons. They travel from 100 to more than 3,000 kilometers per second. They have been compared to hurricanes because of the widespread disruption of communications and power systems they can cause when directed at Earth.
The European Space Agency's Solar Orbiter mission will conduct scientific investigations ranging from near-sun and out-of-ecliptic in-situ measurements to remote-sensing observations of the sun and its environs. The Solar Orbiter will travel three-fourths way to the sun, closer than any spacecraft has gone. A suite of 10 instruments has been selected as the scientific payload for the Solar Orbiter mission, with NRL's SoloHi being one of those 10 instruments.
"We are very excited about this opportunity for several reasons," said NRL's Dr. Russell Howard, principal investigator for SoloHI. "First, it will allow us to observe the solar wind plasma in a more pristine state, before it has had a chance to be modified during its transport to Earth. Secondly, in the extended mission, the spacecraft will be targeted out of the ecliptic plane, allowing us to look down on the sun. The SoloHI instrument will enable us to link the solar structures with what is measured at the spacecraft."
In addition to NRL's SoloHI, one of the other instruments selected for the Solar Orbiter mission is the Spectral Imaging of the Coronal Environment Instrument (SPICE). Two NRL researchers, Drs. John Mariska and Harry Warren, are co-investigators on SPICE, working with Dr. Donald Hassler of the Southwest Research Institute in Boulder, Colo., who is the principal investigator.
SoloHi is funded by NASA under its Living with a Star Program, which is designed to understand how and why the sun varies, how planetary systems respond and the effect on human space and Earth activities. NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., manages the program for the agency's Heliophysics Division of NASA's Science Mission Directorate.
For more news from Naval Research Laboratory, visit www.navy.mil/local/nrl/. | <urn:uuid:04478ccc-0c6e-49ef-b51b-3563d45b495c> | {
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After World War II, Kotondo Hasebe and Hisashi Suzuki claimed that the origin of Japanese people was not newcomers in the Yayoi period (300 BCE – 300 CE) but the people in the Jōmon period. However, Kazuro Hanihara announced a new racial admixture theory in 1984 and a "dual structure model" in 1991. According to Hanihara, modern Japanese lineages began with Jōmon people, who moved into the Japanese archipelago during Paleolithic times from their homeland in southeast Asia, followed by a second wave of immigration, from northeast Asia to Japan during the Yayoi period. Following a population expansion in Neolithic times, these newcomers then found their way to the Japanese archipelago sometime during the Yayoi period. As a result, admixture was common in the island regions of Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Honshū, but did not prevail in the outlying islands of Okinawa and Hokkaidō, and the Ryukyuan and Ainu people continued to dominate there. Mark J. Hudson claims that the main ethnic image of Japanese people was biologically and linguistically formed from 400 BCE to 1,200 CE. Currently, the most well-regarded theory is that present-day Japanese are descendants of both the indigenous Jōmon people and the immigrant Yayoi people. | <urn:uuid:57bb477a-b366-45bd-85aa-e70c3af914e8> | {
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Knowing right from left is essential in many areas of life -- even on the molecular level. Prof. Meir Wilchek of the Weizmann Institute's Biological Chemistry Department, working with an international team of researchers, has now discovered that this ability is particularly prominent in antibodies, the Y-shaped proteins produced by the immune system.
Antibodies fight disease-causing intruders, such as viruses, by binding with the intruders' molecules and thus neutralizing them. In a study reported in the April 8 issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Society, the scientists found that in seeking out appropriate molecules with which to bind, the antibodies distinguish between left- and right-handed amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Thus, some antibodies only bind with left-handed amino acids, completely ignoring the right-handed ones, while others only bind with right-handed amino acids.
The antibodies are so exquisitely precise they can recognize a small part of a single amino acid, known as the chiral center, which determines the amino acid's orientation to the right or left. Molecules that are identical in chemical composition but whose structures are mirror images of one another, like the right and left hand, are called chiral (from chir, Ancient Greek for "hand"). Such molecules have different properties and are not superimposable.
This research may prove of great significance for the pharmaceutical industry. It has been shown in the past few years that in many drugs it is only the compound of a particular "handedness" that is effective, while its "mirror image" is useless or even harmful. Therefore, developing an efficient way to identify and sort out left- and right-handed molecules with the help of antibodies could pave the way for more effective pharmaceuticals.
Prof. Wilchek serves as Dean of the Biochemistry Faculty and holds the Marc R. Gutwirth Chair of Molecular Biology. He conducted the study with Oliver Hofstetter (recipient of a short-term fellowship from Boehringer Ingelheim Funds) and Dr. Heike Hofstetter of Weizmann's Biological Chemistry Department, Prof. Volke Schurig of Germany's Tuebingen University and Prof. Bernard S. Green of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Funding was provided by the German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (GIF).
The Weizmann Institute of Science, in Rehovot, Israel, is one of the world's foremost centers of scientific research and graduate study. Its 2,400 scientists, students, technicians, and engineers pursue basic research in the quest for knowledge and the enhancement of the human condition. New ways of fighting disease and hunger, protecting the environment, and harnessing alternative sources of energy are high priorities.
Materials provided by Weizmann Institute Of Science. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.
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This transcript is provided as a service; there may be some variation between it and the program as broadcast.
Straight ahead "Our World," recycling old computers ... a swarm of locusts ... and a new approach to a major nutritional problem.
Zlotkin (:10): "There may be as many as 750 million children around the world with iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia. In fact the experts say that this is probably the last of the major problems that is yet to be solved."
Iron sprinkles, plus a visit with the disease detectives. I'm Art Chimes. Welcome to VOA's science and technology magazine, "Our World."
Yesterday's electronics are so yesterday. Here in the United States, National Safety Council projects that nearly 250 million computers will become obsolete over the next five years. Millions of mobile phones a year as users upgrade. All that waste is piling up, filling our landfills and polluting our water and air. VOAs Adam Phillips reports on the dangers of electronic waste, and what can be done about it.
PHILLIPS: Fact One: Most Americans love to embrace the new and dispense with the old. That helps explain why we generated over a million tons of computer and other electronic waste last year alone. Fact Two: Those computers and other electronic devices contain lead, among other toxic materials. When they are crushed and put into landfills, the lead can seep into the groundwater, and when that happens, it can cause brain damage in children who drink that water when it comes out of their taps at home.
Scott Mathews is a professor at the Department of Engineering and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania. He says this lead comes from the melted solder in a computer’s “guts.”
MATHEWS: “If you’ve ever looked at a circuit board -- the ‘mother board’ where all the pieces are put together that serve as the main part of the computer - almost all of the connections on there are soldered. And while it’s not twenty pounds of lead per unit, when you start thinking about the amount of computers and other products that might be in landfills then it might really add up!”
PHILLIPS: Some manufactures have addressed the problem by making smaller computers. Less machine means less lead, they say. But according to Scott Mathews, that approach doesn’t help.
MATHEWS: “The problem is that just by making them smaller and lighter, it doesn’t mean that the substances and the materials that are used in the manufacturing process are gone. We have the same relative toxic materials in computers. In fact most of the time we’ve just miniaturized… but they are now much more densely packed.”
PHILLIPS: Japanese scientists are trying to develop a new toxin-free solder that will not damage the groundwater. One low-tech method for dealing with old computers is not to waste them at all, but to fix them.
Jim Lynch directs the recycling and re-use program at Compumentor, a nonprofit organization that specializes in helping low-income American families, non-profit groups and schools to enter the Information Age. Mr. Lynch says that’s (What is fixing them? If so, then we need to re-state it. Something like: Mr. Lynch says that fixing computers is one way to help the environment and society as a whole.
LYNCH: “It’s sort of our mission to direct all donations into 400 or so authorized refurbishers around the country in the U.S. and Canada. They are in pretty much every major city and most states in the country. And they’ll take the computers and they’ll get rid of the ones that aren’t working properly and take the ones that are reusable and get them in shape.”
PHILLIPS: While the lead in computer waste is a key concern, waste from other electronic equipment is also a threat. Mercury, a dangerous toxin, is found in thermostats, printed circuit boards, medical equipment, and mobile phones. And Professor Mathews warns us about the cadmium found in most rechargeable batteries.
MATHEWS: “We think that it can lead to organ malfunction like lungs and kidneys, perhaps even prostate cancer. There have been issues where we have had bone calcification. That was a big problem in Japan a while back as a result of cadmium getting into rivers.”
PHILLIPS: While the European Union has mandated that manufactures of computers and electronic gear phase out the use of some of these toxic materials over the next five years, few American regulators, and fewer U-S electronics manufacturers have focused on the problem. However, as public awareness of the hazards of electronic waste continues to grow, research into viable solutions is also quickening. I’m Adam Phillips.
It's been a while since we've dipped into the "Our World" mailbag to answer one of your questions. Today's question comes from Lagos, Nigeria, and listener Yusuf Haliru, who asks about why locust swarms are so unpredicable.
Locusts have plagued human civilization for thousands of years. In minutes, a swarm of locusts can strip the crops from a field, threatening farming communities with poverty and hunger. There may be tens of millions of locusts in a swarm, covering a thousand or more square kilometers. A swarm of locusts can eat the same amount of food in one day as thousands of people.
To learn more about locusts, we turned to Greg Sword, a research ecologist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. He studies locusts and their close relatives -- crickets and grasshoppers.
SWORD (:15) -- "People typically associate locust swarms with flying adults, but even before they develop their wings, as juveniles, or what's called nymphs, they move in huge groups, marching or walking on the ground, and these groups can contain up to millions of individuals."
Unlike many other pests, locusts will eat most any kind of plant material.
SWORD (:10) -- "They feed on a number of different plants, and that's in large part what makes them so devastating is [that] they will feed on a whole bunch of different plants, both agricultural and native.
Locusts may be most closely associated with the Middle East and North Africa, but Greg Sword says these pests do damage worldwide.
SWORD (:23) -- "There are actually outbreaks of locusts and similar things going on across the globe right now. There are swarming locusts in Mexico. We have the Australian plague locust in Australia, outgreaks of locusts and grasshopper outbreaks throughout Asia, and in North America we have an outbreak of the Mormon cricket, which is very similar to locusts.
Chemical pesticides remain the most effective way of combatting locusts. But scientists are looking at other methods of locust control, such as interrupting the insect's life cycle, especially when they switch into swarming, or migratory mode.
SWORD (:17) -- "As their population densities increase, they undergo a lot of physiological and behavioral changes that lead to migration, and people are looking very close[ly] at the underlying biology of this change that leads to migration in hopes that one day we might be able to come up with tools to prevent them from entering the migratory phase."
Getting back to our question about why locusts swarm -- and Dr. Sword says it's actually a very rare event for locusts -- it's partly about rain.
SWORD (:21) -- "'Cause the rain provides vegetation for them to feed on and moisture for their eggs to develop. But it's not a perfect predictor of outbreaks, which makes things a bit frustrating. Just because it has rained somewhere doesn't mean that you're going to get big locust populations coming out of that area, so it's a combination of weather and some local ecological conditions. We haven't quite tacked down what those are yet."
Greg Sword studies locusts and related creatures for the U.S. Department of Agriculture
We'll be sending a special VOA gift to Yusuf Haliru in Lagos for contributing an interesting question. If you've got something that's been bugging you about science, technology, health, space or the environment, email us at [email protected]. Or listen for our postal address at the end of the show.
Time again for Our World's Website of the Week: this week we salute Flags of the World, at flagspot.net, where today's national flags are just the beginning.
RAESIDE (:09) -- "There are flags of all sorts. I think we're running on the order of 48,000 images on the website at the moment, and probably another five or six thousand waiting to get added."
That's Rob Raeside, a geology professor and flag hobbyist in Canada, and current director of Flags of the World. The website includes pictures of flags, plus history and lore, which makes fascinating browsing for the casual visitor or a valuable resource for the serious student of flags, a discipline known as vexillology. The site is the collective work of an international band of volunteers now coordinated by Prof. Raeside, who stresses the range encompassed by Flags of the World.
RAESIDE (:11) -- "Flags of countries, military [and] naval agencies, we're looking at flags of states and provinces, flags of municipalities, cities and towns, even some of individuals, like the royal family and so on."
The website also includes flags of shipping lines, political parties, scouting organizations and international groups. Flags are a very old tradition around the world, and the Flags of the World website includes many historical flags as well as current ones.
RAESIDE (:18) -- "It's a bit of a debate when flags first appeared on the scene, but they certainly go right back to the 16th century and in some parts of Europe and Japan perhaps back to the 12th century. And any images that we can find, we try to post. We try to redraw most of them to show what it would look like if they were clean, flat [and] lying right there on the web page for you."
Flags of the World gets four to five million hits a month, and Professor Raeside says many users are youngsters working on school projects.
RAESIDE (:19) -- "The supply is apparently endless. Recently we've been adding many American municipal flags to the website, and we've been adding these at the rate of about two or 300 a week. And I'll put a plug in here to every municipality that's listening, to get their flags and their seals up on their web pages, and we'll include it if we can find it."
The entire enterprise is free to users, with no advertising, and it's a great example of the kind of expansive, collective effort that is perfectly suited to the World Wide Web. See if you agree. Point your browser to Flags of the World at flagspot.net, or get the link from our site, voanews.com/our world.
MUSIC - "The Flag Parade" (Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace)
You're listening to VOA's science and technology magazine, Our World. I'm Art Chimes in Washington.
We reported on "Our World" back in October that U.S. drug maker Merck had voluntarily pulled its popular arthritis drug Vioxx off the market after studies linked it with an increased risk of heart attack and stroke.
This week, government scientists at the U.S. Food and Drug Administration published a report estimating the extent of the damage Vioxx has done to public health. Writing in the journal Nature, a team led by David Graham blames Vioxx for an estimated 88,000 to as many as 140,000 additional cases of heart disease in the United States since the drug was introduced in 1999. The report says many of those cases likely resulted in death.
The authors recommend greater care in approving new medicines when, as was the case here, pre-approval testing indicates the possibility of dangerous side effects.
The World Health Organization describes iron deficiency as the most common nutritional disorder in the world. The WHO estimates that as many as eight out of ten people may not be getting the iron they need.
ZLOTKIN (:13) -- "The estimate is that there may be as many as 750 million children around the world with iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia. In fact the experts say that this is probably the last of the major problems that is yet to be solved."
That's Stanley Zlotkin, a pediatrician and professor at the University of Toronto in Canada. He says there is a strong link between iron deficiency and global poverty.
ZLOTKIN (:16) -- "The main sources of iron are unfortunately the most expensive sources of food. So for example, meat, fish and poultry are great sources of readily bio-available iron, but for many individuals in the developing world, of course, these foods are extremely expensive."
Iron is an essential nutrient for both children and adults. Adults who don't get enough iron get tired more quickly, and there are special risks for pregnant women. But Professor Zlotkin notes that for children, particularly in the first two years of life, the consequences can be much more serious since a lack of iron impairs brain development.
ZLOTKIN (:08) -- "If you have iron deficiency you don't do as well in school, you don't get good jobs, and you don't earn as much money. So the effects of iron deficiency are marked long-term effects."
In fact, economists believe widespread iron deficiency among youngsters can have a major impact on a nation's economy.
Dr. Zlotkin says traditional remedies all have their shortcomings. An iron-rich diet is often too costly.
Another approach is to give an iron supplement. For adults, that's a pill, and that works fine. But children don't like to take pills, so the iron is usually given as a syrup, which presents its own problems.
ZLOTKIN (:10) -- "The supplement has a very strong, metallic taste, and most children object to taking it. The second problem is that the iron drops, they have a tendency to stain the child's teeth."
Also, it's hard for illiterate mothers to give the right dose, and the syrup is not very cost-effective. The challenge is to provide a way to get the proper dose to the child -- enough but not too much -- and how to get around the unpleasant taste of the iron supplement. Dr. Zlotkin's solution is what he calls sprinkles: iron and other nutrients "micro-encapsulated" in a neutral food product to mask the taste and served up in fine powder form that can be sprinkled onto food and mixed in.
ZLOTKIN (:08) -- "If you can imagine what flour would feel like, that's sort of what it feels like, and it looks like powder with some speckles of pepper in it."
The mixture is in a little packet called a sachet that provides the exact amount needed to meet a child's daily need for iron at a cost of three cents or less per day. The sachets also include vitamin C, which actually enhances iron absorption, plus vitamin A, zinc, and folic acid.
In research published this week in the journal PLoS Medicine, Dr. Zlotkin and his colleagues reported successful trials of sprinkles in West Africa, where sprinkles were at least as effective as other iron supplements, and parents using the product reported high level of satisfaction. Up until now, sprinkles have been distributed through UNICEF and private groups including World Vision and Helen Keller International, and through a few government programs -- for example in Pakistan and Bangladesh. The challenge, says Dr. Zlotkin in his paper, will be to expand distribution to all the children who are not now getting enough iron.
MUSIC: "Perry Mason Theme" (Buddy Morrow)
Disasters like last month's tsunamis may grab all the headlines, but day-to-day the big killers are diseases. Some are familiar old threats, such as malaria. Others are more recent. For example, AIDS and SARS.
For half-a-century, an elite group of American doctors, scientists and public health experts have been watching for signs of the next outbreak of disease, which could come any time, anywhere. VOA's Jeff Swicord introduces us to this dedicated corps of specialists.
SWICORD: They are called the "disease detectives," the officers of the Epidemic Intelligence Service at the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia (EIS): an unusual group of epidemiologists who often find themselves in unfamiliar places, looking for clues to the world's most mysterious disease outbreaks.
Douglas Hamilton is the director of the EIS.
DOUGLAS HAMILTON: "We are often faced with situations where there is a disease problem, an outbreak where you don't know what the source is. Or you may know what the source is, but you don't know what the problem is and how it is being transmitted. And, our folks go in and gather the information necessary to try and answer the questions of who is at risk for this disease, how can we prevent this from spreading, and how can we stop the outbreak. And it really is a detective kind of process where you gather bits of information, there is deductive reasoning, and you come up with a proposed plan."
SWICORD: All EIS officers have completed a doctoral degree in fields such as medicine, veterinary studies, and biology. They serve a two-year training fellowship and then most go on to careers in public health. Some move on to work for local health services across the country and others become staff members at EIS. According to Doug Hamilton it takes a special person to become an EIS officer.
DOUGLAS HAMILTON: "We look for a couple of things. We look for someone who is really driven to find the answer to an unknown problem. Someone who really wants to tease out the puzzle or figure out what is going on. We also look for people who work well in teams. As an agency we provide assistance to other agencies and we are always on a team. We are not the leaders of the team but we are part of a team. So I have to have people that work well in that environment."
SWICORD: The work environment is not always optimal for scientific research. EIS teams often find themselves in remote small villages where there is no electricity or running water. Staff epidemiologist Joel Montgomery was deployed to a nepovirus outbreak in Malaysia and Singapore, a virus that can cause a host of neurological and pulmonary problems in humans. He teamed up with local health professionals to try to find how the virus was being transmitted to people. After an exhaustive investigation they surmised the virus was being carried by bats.
JOEL MONTGOMERY: "In Malaysia and Singapore there was an intermediate host, we had the bats actually foraging in these fruit. trees above pig pens. They would forage on apples or whatever and they would drop partially eaten fruit into the pigpens and the pigs would get infected and they acted as an amplifying or intermediate host. And they actually transmitted Nipah virus on to humans. And the cases in Malaysia and Singapore were due to pig exposure, not direct exposure to bats."
SWICORD: Investigations are not without their dangers. EIS officers were also deployed to the world's largest Ebola outbreak in Uganda. Out of 426 cases half resulted in death. Ebola is a horrible disease where its victims often die of massive uncontrollable hemorrhaging. It is also very contagious, requiring health care workers to wear protective clothing and follow strict procedures to protect themselves from infection. But as EIS officer Scott Harper points out, deadly mistakes were made.
SCOTT HARPER: "It is very easy with this virus to pick it up with a patient on a glove for instance and then all it would take would be to rub your own eye. Or to touch your own mouth to self infect. And so even with all the precautions in place -- the barrier precautions and head coverings and gowns and everything else and gloves etcetera -- at four o'clock in the morning if you get a call that a patient is basically bleeding all over the room, that patient is one of your colleagues, a nurse who might have been infected."
SWICORD: Challenges aside, most EIS officers think they have the most interesting jobs in the world.
DOUGLAS HAMILTON: "When interviewed for this job many years ago, one of the things that impressed me was when I talked to one of our current officers, he said to me that, 'the thing I like about this job is it is the first job that I have had where I look forward to coming to work in the morning.' That really impressed me and I think that is true for a lot of people who go through this."
SWICORD: Jeff Swicord, VOA News.
MUSIC: Closing theme
That's our show for this week. If you've got a question about science, technology, health or the environment, we'd like to answer it. And we've got a VOA gift for you -- IF we use your question on the program. Email us at [email protected]. Ourworld is all one word. Or write us at -
Voice of America
Washington, DC 20237 USA.
Our World is edited by Rob Sivak. Our technical director is Eva Nenicka. And this is Art Chimes, inviting you to join us online at voanews.com/ourworld or on your radio next Saturday and Sunday as we check out the latest in science and technology...in Our World. | <urn:uuid:a07120fa-a45a-4335-8f29-5d9820d182ed> | {
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Multidimensional Warnings: Determining an Appropriate Stimulus for a Curve-Warning Device
Neurauter, Michael Lucas
MetadataShow full item record
An average of 42,000 fatalities occur on the United States of America's roads each year as a result of motor-vehicle crashes (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2003). The dangers with respect to curves exist, from late notification of direction and speed, varying methods for determining advisory speeds, as well as driver unfamiliarity and/or over confidence. A curve-warning device, a device that notifies the driver of an upcoming curve and, possibly, conveys its vehicle-specific advisory speed and even direction, has the potential to drastically reduce the dangers of curve navigation. This study was performed as a proof of concept with regard to appropriate modalities and respective stimuli for a curve warning application. For this study, objective and subjective measurements were collected in a simulator environment to compare conditions comprised of multiple stimuli from the auditory (icon, tone, and speech), visual (Heads Down Display and Heads Up Display), and haptic (throttle push-back) modalities. The results of the study show that the speech stimulus was the most appropriate of the auditory stimuli for both objective and subjective measurements. Objectively, the HDD and HUD were comparable with respect to performance, although the participants tended to favor the HDD in their subjective ratings. The throttle push-back did little to positively impact the performance measurements, and based on participant comments and ratings, it is not recommended for a curve-warning application. Of the stimulus conditions (combinations of two and three modalities), the Speech and HDD condition provided performance gains and subjective acceptability above the rest of the conditions.
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Error Correction Techniques for the Classroom.
Transcript of Error Correction Techniques for the Classroom.
Error Correction Strategies for the Classroom
Mauricio Navarro A.
Types of errors
Lexical errors - I remembered a lot of thinks.
Grammar errors - We speaked.
Discourse errors -At last when I went to bed it was four o'clock.
Reasons for making mistakes and errors.
L1 Interference : I bought my books at the library.
Overgeneralization : like students may use the -ed for past form for all words
Do you think errors are important in language learning-teaching?
Do you think it is important to correct errors?
What do you think could happen if we over correct?
What do you think could happen if we do not correct errors?
According to the Webster's Desk Dictionary "error" is a deviation of accuracy or correctness and "mistake" is anerror caused by lack of skill, attention, knowledge, etc.
What are errors?
There is no chance to let ss share their ideas
Waste of time in correcting the same errors again and again.
Ss are afraid to participate and to make mistakes while speaking.
Teachers end up correcting things that are not necessarily wrong.
NO CORRECTION AT ALL
Ss may record incorrect information.
Teacher may feel guilty for not correcting
Ss start doubting that the teacher is competent.
Observers may think that teachers are lazy and they do not care about ss.
When and How to correct errors and give Feedback
Aim of correcting errors
to make teachers more aware of the significance of learner´s errors.
to help teachers develop positive strategies of error corrections.
to show teachers a range of techniques for correcting oral and written errors.
The idea of correcting errors, derives from views of language learning which were popular in the 1950's and 1960's. It was believed that language which was learned by repetition of correct forms until they became automatic.
Walz (1992 as found in Ommagio 1993) classifies error-correction procedures into three basic categories which are: (i) self correction with the teacher's help, (ii) peer correction, and (iii)teacher correction.
Teacher´s control and correction will be tight.
Teacher's direct control and correction will be less.
(i)SELF-CORRECTION WITH TEACHER HELPING
Teacher localizes the error without providing the correct form by repeating the ss response.
Instead of supplying the correct answer, the teacher provides options for the incorrect or missing element as in an oral multiple choice.
Rephrasing a question:
After a formally correct, but inappropriate response to the original formulation has been given.
Providing your own answer:
Teacher provides his/ her own answer to the question, thereby supplying a model.
Repetition of an answer with correction:
Without making an over correction the teacher repeats the ss response, subtly correcting the mistake. This technique is somewhat indirect: some ss will pick up the cue while others won't.
(ii) PEER CORRECTION
Ss are able to provide feedback for their peers
Ss may work in small groups in conversation activities, with a group of correction, paying attention to form and/ or content.
(iii) TEACHER CORRECTION.
Direct correction: Teachers can correct ss directly by modeling the appropriate form of the utterance.
Indirect correction: This technique involves the repetition of a ss response with a correction made, but without drawing the ss attention to the change or requiring a repetition of the corrected material.
Convey the idea that mistakes are a natural part of learning.
Focus on what ss say right as well as what they say wrong.
Allow ss time to correct themselves
Count to three before you jump in.
Use appropriate techniques depending on the activity.
Focus on helping them become better and more independent communicators.
Encourage ss to try, try, try...
Don´t give the ss the right answer immediately or if another ss can supply it.
Don't interrupt when they are practicing in groups or pairs unless it is necessary.
Don't put the ss on the spot by identifying the person who made the mistake.
Don't bombard ss with corrections and information.
Don't get discouraged or lose your patience when ss make a lot of mistakes.
Don't forget to review, review, review...
Ommagio, A. (1993) Teaching Language in Context. Heinle and Heinle
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For the Museum of Mathematics
Math Monday continues its multi-week adventure into the wonderful world of linkages. See the Linkages series introduction for the MoMath Linkage Kit, an introduction, and general instructions.
Here’s a linkage of potential household practicality, especially in the days “B.X.” — Before Xerox. Back then there was no “enlarge” button to give you a blow-up of that drawing you were interested in. So what could you do? Recall our very first linkage, the scissors jack, expanded all of the strokes we made on the input point, although it also rotated them and made a mirror image. Well, it turns out that if you take some of those same parts and flip some around, you end up with the “pantograph,” a linkage that duplicates its input at a different scale. Pantographs have found numerous uses over the years in drafting, minting, milling, and signature machines, some of which are even still sold today.
Now, you can build your very own:
Ingredients: Two 60-bars with 30-holes (A and C), two 30-bars (B and D). Four linkers, and two pens.
Directions: Link A30 to B and A60 to C0. Link the free end of B to D with a pen. Link the free end of D to C30, and put a pen in C60. It should look like this:
To use: Anchor A0 anyplace where it is free to rotate but not move. Now anything you draw with the pen at B-D is doubled by the pen at C60; or conversely, anything you draw at C60 is shrunk by half at the pen at B-D. Here’s ours after writing our “signature”:
I’ll close with two questions: Which pen was used to write with in this picture? And can you construct a 4:1 pantograph from the pieces of the MoMath Linkage Kit?
- Linkages, Introduction
- Linkages, Part 2: Four Bars, One Freedom
- Linkages, Part 3: Four Bars, Two or Three Positions
- Linkages, Part 4: Four Bars, Four Positions
- Linkages, Part 5: Four Bars, More Positions?
- Linkages, Part 6: Biomimicry
- See all of our Math Monday columns | <urn:uuid:20468056-5710-4de2-b7db-ae0f0467133a> | {
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In reviewing for my upcoming ACLS recertification through the American Heart Association‘s HeartCode ACLS program, I learned that the classic mnemonic for the Basic Life Support (BLS) primary survey, the “ABCs”, which stood for Airway, Breathing (including Look, Listen, and Feel) and Circulation, had recently been modified. The purpose of the change was to decrease time until chest compressions and defibrillation.
However the change leaves us without a simple mnemonic for easy recall for the primary BLS survey.
Thus I introduce my mnemonic for the primary BLS survey, and how much more appropriate could it be:
- R (Response): Assess the patient’s responsiveness. This includes scanning the chest for movement.
- A (Activate/AED): Activate the Emergency Response System & get an AED (if available)
- P (Pulse): Check for a pulse
- I (Initiate): If there is no pulse, initiate high-quality CPR
- D (Defibrillate): Check rhythm (via AED) and deliver a shock if indicated
You could also remember “RAPID Rescue”. The addition of “Rescue” should help you remember that if you are successful in restoring spontaneous circulation, give Rescue Breaths. | <urn:uuid:7a489308-2870-4e47-812b-9dce566e0f8b> | {
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©1996 by Chuck Braman
In his works "A Letter Concerning Toleration" (1689) and "The Second Treatise On Civil Government" (1690), philosopher John Locke created what would become the philosophical source for the founding principles of the United States. In what follows, I will summarize the central arguments presented in the Letter, followed by the arguments presented in the Treatise. Following the summaries, I will demonstrate the influence that these works had on the thinking of the founding fathers and the political documents they created.
Although not strictly a political work, "A Letter Concerning Toleration" presents a view of the means of understanding moral truths that has strong political implications. For although its specific focus is the separation of church and state, in essence it deals with a much wider issue, which is that it is impossible for the state to compel moral behavior. Thus, when more broadly applied, it provides a philosophic foundation for free speech and for the freedom of action that follows from free thought.
In the letter, Locke maintains that there must be an absolute separation between the church and the state, that "the whole jurisdiction of the magistrate reaches only to … civil concernments," so that "neither can nor ought [it] in any manner to be extended to the salvation of souls." The power of the government "consists only in outward force; but true and saying religion consists in the inward persuasion of the mind… And such is the nature of the understanding, that it cannot be compelled to the belief of anything by outward force. Confiscation of estate, imprisonment, torments, nothing of that nature can have any such efficacy as to make men change the inward judgment that they have framed of things… It is only light and evidence that can work a change in men's opinions…" In other words, a human understanding of truth requires a volitional relationship between an individual mind and reality, which in turn requires political freedom. Locke's argument for the separation between church and state is in essence an argument for the separation of government force and mind.
Further, since this relationship only exists between an individual mind and reality, political leaders are in no superior position to grasp the truth than any other men are, and therefore have no right to even attempt to force their opinions on others. "For there being but one truth… what hope is there that more men would be led into it if they had no rule but the religion of the court and were put under the necessity to quit the light of their own reason, and oppose the dictates of their own consciences, and blindly to resign themselves up to the will of their governors and to the religion which either ignorance, ambition, or superstition had chanced to establish in the countries where they were born?" Again, the precondition of thought, and thus truth, is political freedom.
Finally, Locke maintains that there must be a separation between church and state since the state exists not to enforce public morality, but to protect man's rights from being violated by other men. "Covetousness, uncharitableness, idleness, and many other things are sins by the consent of men, which yet no man ever said were to be punished by the magistrate. The reason is because they are not prejudicial to other men's rights, nor do they break the public peace of societies… the business of laws is not to provide for the truth of opinions, but for the safety and security of the commonwealth and of every particular man's goods and person…"
A year after publishing "A Letter Concerning Toleration," Locke published "The Second Treatise On Civil Government." Below is my summary of the essential ideas of that work.
Political power entails the right to make laws backed by the threat of force. There is no way to prove that one has a right to hold political power by reference to one's ancestry. Since forming a government on such a basis leads to rule by brute force, and consequently, to civil disorder, another way must be found to choose political leaders, one derived from an understanding of men's relationships to each other before the existence of government, i.e., of men's relationships to each other in a state of nature.
In a state of nature, each man, as the possessor of reason and free will, is cognitively independent and equal, and so, by implication, politically independent and equal. According to Locke, "being furnished with like faculties, sharing all in one community of Nature, there cannot be supposed any such subordination among us that may authorize us to destroy one another." Thus, "the fundamental law of Nature" is what Locke calls the law of reason, i.e., the law that men must deal with each other through the use of persuasion (reason), as opposed to coercion, so that "all, as much as may be, should be preserved." In summary, Locke's conception of the state of nature implies a law of nature, which is that "no one ought to harm another in his life, heath, liberty or possessions." Natural law, then, implies natural rights to life, liberty and property.
Thus, according to Locke, the basis of the equality, independence, and ultimately, the freedom that exists between all individual men is their mutual possession of reason. As an example of this principle, he notes that children do not possess the freedoms possessed by adults until they have reached the age whereby their reason has developed: "Thus we are born free as we are born rational; not that we actually have the exercise of either: age that brings one, brings the other with it too." Accordingly, the restrictions of freedom which parents place upon their children are only present to the degree to which the children are unable yet to fully exercise their rational faculties, and as the children mature, the domain of their freedom is progressively enlarged, until they are equal in their freedoms to their parents.
It must be noted that although the foregoing provides a secular or "natural" defense of rights, the ultimate defense of rights, according to Locke, is religious: that since men are "all the workmanship of one omnipotent and infinitely wise Maker… they are His property, whose workmanship they are made to last during His, not one another's pleasure."
A corollary of the natural law is the right to private property. This right is rooted in Locke's premise that "god, who hath given the world to men in common, hath also given them reason to make use of it to the best advantage of life and convenience." Yet "though all the fruits it naturally produces and beasts it feeds, belong to mankind in common… there must of necessity be a means to appropriate them some way or other before they can be of any use, or at all beneficial, to any particular men." How is this appropriation justified?
Though the earth and all inferior creatures be common to all men, yet every man has a "property" in his own "person." This nobody has any right to but himself. The "labor" of his body and the "work" of his hands, we may say, are properly his. Whatsoever, then, he removes out of the state that Nature hath provided and left it in, he hath mixed his labor with it, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property. It being by him removed from the common state nature placed it in, it hath by this labor something annexed to it that excludes the common right of other men. For this "labor" being the unquestionable property of the laborer, no man but he can have a right to what that is once joined to… "
Property belongs to those who, by their labor, bring such property into being, since "God gave the world… to the use of the industrious and rational (and labor was to be his title to it); not to the fancy or covetousness of the quarrelsome and contentious." Locke further maintains that the legal possession of this property is a precondition of freedom: "till they are allowed their due property… men under any government are not in the state of free men, but are direct slaves under the force of war." Yet, according to Locke, this right to the possession of that which one has mixed one's labor with is not unlimited. Rather, it is limited to "as much as any one can make use of to any advantage of life before it spoils, so much he may by his labor fix a property in. Whatever is beyond this is more than his share, and belongs to others. Nothing was made by God for man to spoil or destroy."
In contrast to the state of nature, is what Locke calls "the state of war," which results whenever someone chooses to disobey the law of nature: "he who attempts to get another man into his absolute power [i.e., deals with another by means of force] does thereby put himself into a state of war with him." The state of war directly or indirectly threatens the very lives of those on whom it is imposed, because "he that in the state of Nature would take away the freedom that belongs to anyone in that state must necessarily be supposed to have a design to everything else [i.e., all that is valuable to the other person, up to and including the other person's life], that freedom being the foundation of all the rest." Since "to be free from such force is the only security of my preservation," "it is reasonable and just I should have a right to destroy that which threatens me with destruction… for the same reason that he [I] may kill a wolf or a lion, because they are not under the ties of the common law of reason, have no other rule but that of force and violence." Thus, self-defense is a corollary of the natural law that "men, being once born, have a right to their preservation."
The right to self-defense, however, is actually an application of a wider right of punishment, which right belongs equally to all those who obey the law of nature. "In transgressing the law of Nature, the offender declares himself to live by another rule than that of reason and common equity, which is the measure God has set to the actions of men for their mutual security, and so he becomes dangerous to mankind; the tie which is to secure them from injury and violence being slighted and broken by him, which being a trespass against the whole species, and the peace and security of it, provided for by the law of nature, any man… may restrain, or where necessary destroy things noxious to them…" It is based on the above principle that the magistrate gains the right to punish criminal offenses; however, "the municipal laws of countries… are only so far right as they are founded on the law of Nature, by which they are to be regulated and interpreted."
Men leave the state of nature and establish a civil society when they voluntarily give their natural right to self defense to a common public authority. They do this in order to acquire mutual protection of their "lives, liberties, and estates" from those who in a state of nature would be of danger to them, by means of placing the retaliatory use of physical force in under "established, settled, known law," interpreted by an "indifferent judge," with the "power to support the sentence when right."
Thus underlying the laws of the government are the powers granted to individuals in the state of nature by the law of nature, transferred by their common consent to a government authority. "The obligations of the law of Nature cease not in society, but only in many cases are drawn closer, and have by human laws, known penalties annexed to them to enforce their obligation." Locke maintains that the proper function of law is to create, rather than restrict, personal freedom, that the law of a government is not an instrument to restrain the freedom of a rational being, but is a framework required to preserve and enlarge it. For "where there is no law, there is no freedom. For liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from others, which cannot be where there is no law." In other words, law, in Locke's view, exists only to stop the deeds of those who would transgress on another's freedom, for the purpose of preserving that freedom. Such laws are not arbitrary, since "nobody can transfer to another [i.e., the government] more power than he has in himself."
Such a government is legitimate, because its powers derive from its citizens, who give their consent to its formation. By "agreeing with other men, to join and unite into a community for their comfortable, safe, and peaceable living, one amongst another, in a secure enjoyment of their properties, and a greater security against any that are not of it," such men have given their "express consent" to the government of such a community. In addition, any man who is born within a particular government and accepts the protection provided by it, thereby gives a "tacit consent" as to the legitimacy of that government.
In Locke's conception, a proper government exercises three distinct and separate powers, the "legislative, executive, and federative power of the commonwealth."
The first power of government to be established is "the legislative power," which "is that which has a right to direct how the force of the commonwealth shall be employed for preserving the community and the members of it." There are several conditions by which it maintains its legitimacy. First, those exercising the legislative power are chosen and appointed by the citizens. Second, they govern by "declared and received laws [i.e., the "rule of law"], and not by extemporary dictates." Third, these laws are only interpreted by "known authorized judges." Forth, it "cannot take from any man any part of his property [i.e., collect taxes] without his own consent" [i.e., "taxation without representation"], since "the preservation of property" is " the end of government." And finally, it "cannot transfer the power of making laws to any other hands, for it being but a delegated power from the people, they who have it cannot pass it over to others."
Once the legislative force creates laws, there arises the need of an executive power "which should see to the execution of the laws." "For the legislators not being able to foresee and provide by laws for all that may be useful to the community… till the legislative can conveniently be assembled to provide for it… the good of society requires that several things should be left to the discretion of him that has the executive power."
The third power of government, the federative, arises from the fact that, although in relation to one another the members of the commonwealth "are governed by the laws the society, yet… the whole community is one body in the state of Nature in respect of all other states or persons out of its community," i.e., "all commonwealths are in the state of Nature one with another." Out of this consideration, the power of the federative branch, "which one may call natural, because it is that which answers to the power every man naturally had before he entered into society… contains the power of war and peace, leagues and alliances, and all the transactions with all persons and communities without the commonwealth."
The last major topic treated by Locke in the Second Treatise is the right of the citizens to revolt against tyrannies, i.e., governments wherein "the governor… makes not the law, but his will, the rule, and his commands and actions are not directed to the preservation of the properties of his people, but the satisfaction of his own ambition, revenge, covetousness, or any other irregular passion." Such a ruler "ceases in that to be a magistrate, and acting without authority may be opposed, as any other man who by force invades the right of another." Thus "it is plain that shaking off a power which force, and not right, hath set over any one, thought it hath the name of rebellion, yet is no offence before God." "Prince's… owe subjection to the laws of God and Nature," so that "the use of force without authority [i.e., the authority deriving from the law of nature] always puts him that uses it into a state of war as the aggressor, and renders him liable to be treated accordingly." "… By this breach of trust they forfeit the power the people had put into their hands for quite contrary ends, and it devolves to the people, who have a right to resume their original liberty, and by the establishment of a new legislative… provide for their own safety and security, which is the end for which they are in society." In short, the people "are absolved from obedience when illegal attempts are made upon their liberties or properties" because "self-defense is a part of the law of Nature."
In considering the influence of Locke's thought on the founding fathers, I will focus my attention on the ideas of George Mason and Thomas Jefferson as the intellectual sources of the Declaration of Independence, and James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams as among the creators and defenders of the ideas underlying the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
As the author of the document that states the fundamental values for the attainment of which the United States of America was created, Thomas Jefferson is the most fundamental source of American political ideology. It is therefore significant that Jefferson considered Locke (along with Bacon and Newton) to be one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences." It is also significant that Jefferson declared that the Second Treatise, along with Sidney's "Discourses on Government," provides the "general principles of liberty and the rights of man, in nature and in society… approved by our fellow citizens of… the United States."
Jefferson's advocacy of Locke's ideas is evident both in the Declaration, and in his position paper addressed to the Assembly Of Virginia, written two years earlier, "A Summary View Of The Rights Of British America." In this latter document, Jefferson, in Lockean style, describes Americans as "a free people claiming their rights, as derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of their chief magistrate," and asserts that the ancestors of current Americans "possessed a right which nature has given to all men, of departing from the country in which chance, not choice, has placed them, of going in quest of new habitations, and of there establish new societies."
As Locke maintains property as a natural right, so by extension does Jefferson maintain the "the exercise of a free trade with all parts of the world, possessed by the American colonists, as of natural right." As Locke maintains that the powers exercised by the government are delegated to it by the citizens, so Jefferson refers to legislative bodies "to whom the people have delegated the powers of legislation… but when they are dissolved by the lopping off one or more of their branches, the power reverts to the people… " Like Locke, Jefferson maintains that the initiation of force is incompatible with natural rights, that "force cannot give right."
The second paragraph of Declaration of Independence is by far the most philosophically significant of all of American's founding documents. And what it consists of, by and large, is a condensation of the opening of "The Virginia Declaration of Rights," written one month earlier by George Mason, which is itself a condensation of nearly all of the major points of the Second Treatise. As a condensation of a condensation, made by the best writer from among the founding fathers, the wording of the Declaration is eloquent and concise in its statement of Locke's ideas. Just as Locke maintains that in the state of nature all men are enjoy a freedom and equality, and Mason maintains that "all men are by nature equally free and independent," Jefferson, having earlier made reference to "the laws of nature," maintains that "all men are created equal." Just as Locke locates the foundation of rights in god, so Jefferson maintains that men "are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights." Just as Locke sees the fundamental natural rights as consisting of life, liberty and property, and Mason "life," "liberty" and "the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety," so Jefferson similarly lists the rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." While Locke says that rights belong to individual men and thus precede government, and Mason "that all power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the people; that magistrates are their trustees and servants, and at all times amenable to them," Jefferson says that "to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just power from the consent of the governed." Finally, while Locke writes of the right of citizens to revolt against repressive governments, and Mason that "whenever any government shall be found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a majority for the community hath an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform, alter or abolish it," Jefferson writes that "whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and to institute new government." Just as Locke maintains that need for revolt becomes evident when "a long train of abuses, prevarication's, and artifices, all tending the same way, make the design visible to the people," Jefferson's likewise maintains that the need for revolt becomes evident when "when a long train of abuses and usurpation's, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism."
Of course, after the Declaration of Independence, America's most important founding document is the Constitution. And since the Constitution provides a bridge between the principles of political philosophy and the principles of law, Locke's influence also pervades it, though less directly. Developing Locke's arguments in general, and his argument for private property in particular, James Madison, the primary architect of the constitution, wrote that the major purpose of government is "the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property." Speaking at another time of property in its extended sense, what Locke called "that property which men have in their persons as well as goods," Madison wrote that government "is instituted to protect property of every sort: as well that which lies in the various rights of individuals, as that which the term particularly expresses."
According to writer Walter Berns, "Locke was in fact the first to delineate the elements of what we know as the separation of powers, probably the most formal of constitutional forms." Not surprisingly, the system of checks and balances and the separation of powers written into the constitution were ultimately designed, according to John Adams, to achieve the Lockian goal of protecting the "life, liberty, and property" of the citizens.
Reducing the tenure in office by means of frequent elections was necessary, according to James Mason, because "all power was originally lodged in, and consequently is derived from, the people." Thus public officials must be made to frequently depend on the "body of the people… for their approbation or dissent." The founding fathers' recognition of the necessity of the separation of church and state and the right to freedom of speech as expressed in Article 1 of the Bill of Rights was derived from the arguments Locke presented in his "Letter on Toleration." This is clear when one examines the arguments presented in James Madison's "A Memorial and Remonstrance on the Religious Rights of Man," and Jefferson's "Act for Establishing Religious Freedom" (1779) and "Notes on the State of Virginia," (1787). For example, Madison argues that religious choices "can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence." In the Notes, Jefferson maintains, like Locke, that the sphere of the magistrate extends only to "civil concernments": "The legitimate powers of government extend to such acts only as are injurious to others. But it does me no injury for my neighbor to say there are twenty gods, or no god. It neither picks my pocket nor breaks my leg." In the Act, Jefferson argues for religious freedom, but is also quick to perceive and apply the implications of Locke's argument for the freedom of speech generally: "… truth is great and will prevail if left to herself; that she is the proper and sufficient antagonist to error, and has nothing to fear from the conflict unless by human interposition disarmed of her natural weapons, free argument and debate; errors ceasing to be dangerous when it is permitted freely to contradict them." Like Locke, he sees that the government officials are no less fallible, and therefore no more qualified to force their opinions on others, than are private citizens: "Galileo was sent to the inquisition for affirming that the earth was a sphere: the government had declared it to be as flat as a trencher, and Galileo was obliged to abjure his error. This error however at length prevailed, the earth became a globe…"
As all of the above should make abundantly clear, John Locke was the intellectual founding father of the United States of America, without whose ideas there would have been neither a revolution, nor a revolutionary ideology of political freedom to implement at that revolution's conclusion. It is fundamentally to him that America, and the world, should owe its gratitude for such political and economic freedom as has existed in the past few centuries, as well as for the ideas, art, and material prosperity that that freedom has made possible.
Bailyn, Bernard, editor. The Debate on the Constitution : Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle over Ratification : Part One, September 1787-February 1788 (Library of America)
Bailyn, Bernard, editor. The Debate on the Constitution : Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles and Letters During the Struggle over Ratification, Part Two: January to August 1788 (Library of America)
Berns, Walter Taking the Constitution Seriously Lanham: Madison, 1987
Binswanger, Harry John Locke's Political Philosophy, Oceanside: Second Renaissance, 1991
Cassara, Ernest The Enlightenment In America, Lanham: The University Press of American, 1988
Gerberg, Mort The U.S. Constitution For Everyone. New York: Perigee Books, 1987
Hamilton, Alexander and Madison, James and Jay, John The Federalist Papers, New York; Bantam, 1982
Hummel, Jeffery Rogers The Bill of Rights and Additional Amendments, Nashville: Knowledge Products, 1987
Locke, John. The Second Treatise of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration (Dover Thrift Editions)
Madison, James, Mason, George The Bill of Rights: With Writings That Formed Its Foundation (Little Books of Wisdom)
McElroy, Wendy The Constitution, Nashville: Knowledge Products, 1987
McElroy, Wendy The Ratification Debates, Nashville: Knowledge Products, 1987
Pangle, Thomas The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of Locke (Exxon Lecture Series)
Peterson, Merrill D., editor, Thomas Jefferson : Writings : Autobiography / Notes on the State of Virginia / Public and Private Papers / Addresses / Letters (Library of America)
Smith, George The Federalist Papers (The Giants of Political Thought Series: Audio Classics series) (Library Edition) | <urn:uuid:153d94e1-f5e3-4b3e-ac0a-d22fbd3dac7b> | {
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Gulf Menhaden | Brevoortia patronus
Gulf Menhaden info via Wikipedia:
|Gulf Menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), captured in Galveston Bay, TX|
The Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) is a small marine filter feeding fish belonging to the family Clupeidae. The range of Gulf menhaden encompasses the entirety of the Gulf of Mexico nearshore waters, with the exception of the extreme eastern Yucatan and western Cuba. Evidence from morphology and DNA analyses suggest that the Gulf menhaden is the Gulf of Mexico complement to the Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus). Both species support large commercial reduction fisheries, with Gulf menhaden supporting the 2nd largest fishery, by weight, in the United States.
Range and Distribution
The Gulf menhaden occurs throughout the Gulf of Mexico, but its distribution is patchy. The center of distribution of the species appears to be the northwest/northcentral Gulf, particularly in Louisiana and Texas where populations are very large and numerous. In the southern Gulf of Mexico the range of Gulf menhaden overlaps that of the closely related finescale menhaden (Brevoortia gunteri), and there is evidence for resource partitioning (a process whereby closely related species occurring in close proximity results in subtle differences in ecological niches) between these species. In the eastern Gulf, the range of Gulf menhaden overlaps that of the [yellowfin menhaden] (Brevoortia smithi), and hybridization between these species has been demonstrated using morphological and DNA evidence. Gulf menhaden also may have a presence on the southern Atlantic coast of Florida, although this finding is based primarily upon DNA evidence.
The Gulf menhaden is a filter feeder which uses modifications of the branchial apparatus (gill arches and gill rakers) for food capture. Although they are generalist planktivores, they may specialize on particular prey sizes or types, depending upon developmental stage, as well as the presence of interspecific competitors. Spawning occurs offshore in winter (October–March). Eggs and larvae are pelagic and are carried into estuarine nursery areas via prevailing currents. As a result, migration at this stage can be lengthy, and populations of Gulf menhaden throughout the Gulf of Mexico are generally thought to comprise a single genetic stock.
The Gulf menhaden fishery
The Gulf menhaden supports the 2nd largest fishery, by weight, in the United States, and dates to the 1800s. On average, 400-600 kilotons of Gulf menhaden are extracted and used for reduction annually, with a much smaller number being captured for use as bait. Recently the use of menhaden has come under criticism, particularly following the scathing evaluation of the industry by H. Bruce Franklin in his book entitled “The Most Important Fish in the Sea: Menhaden and America”. Scientific counterpoints to the Franklin book can be found, and there is some debate as to whether the fishery has surpassed sustainable levels. In any event, current industry landings are comparable to historical landings despite the fact that there are fewer vessels and reduction plants operating than at any other time since the peak of the industry in the mid-1980s.
- FAO 2002. The living marine resources of the western central Atlantic. ASIH special publication No. 5, Kent E. Carpenter, ed. ISSN 1020-6868.
- Dahlberg, M.D. 1970. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico menhadens, genus Brevoortia (Pisces:Clupeidae). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences 15:91-162.
- Anderson, J.D. 2007. Systematics of the North American menhadens: molecular evolutionary reconstructions in the genus Brevoortia (Clupeiformes: Clupeidae). Fishery Bulletin 205:368-378.
- Vaughan, D.S. and C. Strobeck. 1998. Assessment and management of Atlantic and Gulf menhaden stocks. Marine Fishery Review 53, 47-55.
- Pritchard, E.S. 2005. Fisheries of the United States 2004. Silver Spring, MD: National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Science and Technology, pp. 1-19.
- Anderson, J.D. and D.L. McDonald. 2007. Morphological and genetic investigations of two western Gulf of Mexico menhadens (Brevoortia spp.). Journal of Fish Biology 70a:139-147.
- Castillo-Revera, M., A. Kobelkowsky and V. Zamayoa. 1996. Food resource partitioning and trophic morphology of Brevoortia gunteri and B. patronus. Journal of Fish Biology 49:1102-1111.
- Anderson, J.D. and W.J. Karel. 2007. Genetic evidence for asymmetric hybridization between menhadens (Brevoortia spp.) from peninsular Florida. Journal of Fish Biology 71b:235-249.
- Reintjes, J.W. 1959. Continuous distribution of menhaden along the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 12, 31-35.
- Friedland, K.D., D.W. Ahrenholz, J.W. Smith, M. Manning and J. Ryan. 2006. Sieving functional morphology of the gill raker feeding apparatus of atlantic menhaden. Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Comparative Experimental Biology 305(a):974 – 985.
- Anderson, J.D. 2006. Conservation Genetics of Gulf Menhaden (Brevoortia patronus): Implications for the Management of a Critical Forage Component for Texas Coastal Gamefish Ecology. Federal Aid in Sportfish Restoration Act Technical Series, F-144-R.
- Vaughn, D.S., K.W. Shertzer and J.W. Smith. 2007. Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico: Fishery characteristics and biological reference points for management. Fisheries Research 83:263–275.
- Franklin, H.B. 2007. The Most Important Fish in the Sea: Menhaden and America. Island Press, Washington, DC. 280pp.
- Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission, menhaden page | <urn:uuid:c22f3884-31a5-45f0-8645-784205b23978> | {
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Aortic Valve Disorders
An overworked heart muscle will become weaker over time, leading to congestive heart failure. Knowing the signs and symptoms of heart valve disorders can help you get the diagnosis and treatments you need.
Aortic Valve and Mitral Valve Disorders
Your heart valves are located inside the chambers of your heart. Both valves contain “flaps” that channel the blood either into or out of the heart. Two common conditions are:
- Aortic valve stenosis. The valve narrows, causing less blood to flow to the heart chamber
- Mitral valve stenosis. The valve opening is not wide enough. This causes the heart to work harder in order to pump blood throughout the body. Mitral valve stenosis may cause subtle symptoms that only your doctor can detect.
Signs and Symptoms
Diseases of the aortic valve and mitral valve have similar signs and symptoms. If you experience any of these symptoms, make an appointment with one of our heart doctors for a comprehensive, expert diagnosis.
- Chest pain (angina) or tightness
- Shortness of breath
- Heart palpitations (a rapid, fluttering heartbeat)
- Feeling faint
- Heart murmur
- Swollen feet and ankles
- Frequent respiratory infections
- Heavy coughing, often accompanied by blood-tinged mucous | <urn:uuid:0b57275f-0833-487f-b0db-630a50bd1d09> | {
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About this font family
A rare natural history book from the early 18th century served as inspiration for the MVB Sirenne typefaces.
The artisan who engraved the book—likely a map engraver—had a distinctive style of lettering that was used on the descriptive captions for the many tropical fishes depicted in the book. The plates used to print the illustrations would have been copper, the letterforms hand-engraved. More…
available in all of the styles in this family:
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Xylitol is a sugar substitute included in many products marketed for humans, including baked goods, candy, toothpaste and gum. While this substance is harmless to people, it's highly toxic to our canine companions. Your pooch could become ill after ingesting something as innocuous as a cupcake containing this sweet substance. If your curious puppy manages to get his paws on something containing xylitol, get him to the vet.
Xylitol is a natural substance, a sugar alcohol derived from vegetable matter such as trees and corn fiber. It's commonly included in products and foods because it adds sweetness but has less calories than sugar and doesn't raise blood sugar very much when ingested. Unfortunately, when a puppy ingests xylitol, it fools his body into thinking he has eaten real sugar. This triggers his pancreas to release the hormone insulin into the bloodstream to remove what it perceives as sugar and use it for cellular functions. Without any sugar being ingested, just xylitol, the insulin removes actual sugar from the blood, causing a dangerous drop in blood sugar levels known as hypoglycemia.
When your little pup ingests xylitol or food containing it, poisoning symptoms can set in as quickly as within 10 to 15 minutes or as slowly as within a few days. Your little pup may experience weakness, vomiting, lethargy, tremors, seizures and collapse; even death is possible. While many of these symptoms are due to hypoglycemia, another toxic effect of xylitol is acute liver disease, an inability for the blood to clot or even liver failure. Liver issues can result in bloody stools or jaundice, a condition where the skin and eyes take on a yellow tint, according to 2ndChance.info, Dr. Ronald Hines' pet health website.
If, from his behavior or evidence of partially eaten items, you believe your puppy has ingested a product containing xylitol, get him to the vet; call ahead and tell them you're coming now. While there is no antidote for xylitol poisoning, your vet can administer intravenous fluids, drugs to protect his liver and dextrose to raise his blood sugar levels, the VCA Animal Hospitals website says. The vet may also take blood tests to evaluate whether the xylitol has caused any permanent liver damage and monitor your pup's blood sugar levels until they even out. Hospitalization with your vet is typically needed for two to five days until a pup is stabilized, Hines writes on 2ndChance.info.
The small size of a puppy makes xylitol poisoning more serious; 45 mg of xylitol per pound of weight results in hypoglycemia, according to VeterinaryPartner.com. A typical stick of gum, the most common xylitol-containing candy, can contain up to 400 mg, enough to poison a young pup up to 10 pounds. A dose 10 times larger is necessary to cause liver damage, about an entire pack of gum. Puppies are generally curious and enjoy tasting new foods, especially those you leave lying around -- so never leave foods, even candy, containing xylitol unattended around your pooch. Quick veterinary treatment usually prevents fatalities in puppies, ignoring your pup's symptoms may limit his prognosis.
- VCA Animal Hospitals: Xylitol Toxicity in Dogs
- VeterinaryPartner.com: Xylitol Poisoning
- VetStreet: Xylitol Toxicity in Dogs
- Pet Poison Helpline: Xylitol
- American Animal Hospital Association: Xylitol Toxicity in Dogs
- 2ndChance.info: Did You Know that Xylitol Sweetener Can Be Very Dangerous to Your Pet?
- Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics: Experimental Acute Toxicity of Xylitol in Dogs
- petMD: Liver Failure (Acute) in Dogs
- Calorie Control Council: Xylitol
- Chris Amaral/Digital Vision/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:79fcffa4-df3f-40d7-89ce-68798fe1ac38> | {
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© Benjamin Petit for AskMen
Trending News: This Is Why Some People Can’t Handle Their Booze
Why Is This Important?
Because your epic drinking ability may be more of a flaw than an advantage.
Long Story Short
If you can’t have more than a few drinks before you’re Skyping your ex in your underpants – don’t worry. It’s not your fault, it’s a tiny little receptor in your brain that’s to blame.
The mystery of why some people can drink 20 beers and still walk in a straight line, while others can just be in the same room as a shot of vodka and start professing their love for inanimate objects, has been revealed. Finally – scientists are putting their brains to good use.
Researchers at Washington State University have found that, for lightweights, a receptor in the brain overreacts when fed even the smallest amount of alcohol. This then leads to the swaying, slurring, drunken texts, starting fights with lampposts… you get the picture.
For hardened drinkers, something quite different happens. The receptor in their brain – known as GABAA – takes much longer to be stimulated. In some cases, this can lead to binge drinking, and even alcoholism.
The mechanism responsible for how sensitive we are to alcohol is found in a part of the brain called the cerebellum. It lies at the skull, and contains cells with receptors connecting to the nervous system.
When this system is activated, the GABAA suppresses the firing of brain cells. This reduces the social inhibitions and balancing abilities associated with drunkenness.
The researchers said that increasing the sensitivity of GABAA could prevent people from drinking too much, by simply injecting a certain drug.
"It takes them from drinking the equivalent of three to four units of alcohol in one to two hours, down to one to two," said David Rossi, assistant professor of neuroscience at Washington State.
The researchers discovered this by breeding mice that were sensitive to alcohol. They found that they couldn’t stay on a rotating cylinder for very long after the human equivalent of one or two drinks.
And the mice they bred to be to be desensitised stayed on the cylinder even after drinking three times the amount of alcohol.
"It mirrors the human situation," added Prof Rossi. "If you're sensitive to the motor-impairing effects of alcohol, you don't tend to drink much. You're inhibiting the circuit that executes normal motor function. If you're not sensitive, you drink more."
Injecting a drug called THIP in the cerebellum of the desensitised mice stopped the creatures from drinking too much. This led the researchers to conclude that this newly discovered brain region can be manipulated in order to deter us from drinking too much.
Own The Conversation
Ask The Big Question
Can we not just have brain receptor transplants?
Disrupt Your Feed
So it wasn’t the flaming Sambuca’s fault after all.
Drop This Fact
Official guidance advises drinking less than 14 units a week. In 1987, men were advised to drink no more than 21 units. | <urn:uuid:98074fb1-4308-494c-8bf4-52d4f8c72d85> | {
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Visiting Channel Islands National Park is like entering a time machine and being transported back a few hundred years to a wild and natural, pre-automobile, pre-industrial California.
Located off the coast of Ventura, the Channel Islands are sometimes called the North American Galapagos Islands for their diversity and uniqueness of plant and animal life. I visited Santa Cruz, the largest of the eight islands in the chain.
During the hour-long boat ride there, courtesy of Island Packers, we were joined by a pod of dolphins skirting friskily alongside our boat.
Upon arriving at the island's Scorpion Ranch stop, a volunteer guide gave us a brief orientation: “Nothing you bring can stay on the island. Leave no food behind or unattended.” These admonitions underscore the efforts to preserve the islands in their natural state.
Hiking is the most popular activity on a day trip, and there were a variety of hikes to choose from. You can go by yourself or with a naturalist on a guided walk. This part of the island is operated by the National Park Service, while the larger part is run by the Nature Conservancy. Those arriving at Prisoners Harbor, run by the Nature Conservancy, must take walks accompanied by a guide. I chose to hike up to Cavern Point to enjoy spectacular views along the edge of the cliffs.
As we hiked high above the Pacific, we could detect a pod of more than a dozen gray whales just below the surface of the water. We walked under a warm spring sun admiring the scintillating ocean vistas and wildflowers dotting the edge of the cliffs. A soft breeze joined us, and I felt a serenity and communion with the ecosystem of the island.
If I had known how rewarding this visit would be, I would have come here years earlier. The islands have flown under the radar of most Californians – certainly compared to the state’s other national parks. This, no doubt, contributes to its charm.
“How do you get there?” asked a well-traveled friend of mine upon hearing of my trip.
Although relatively undiscovered by Californians, the Channel Islands had been inhabited by the Chumash for nearly 10,000 years. Then the Europeans arrived in the 1700s, bringing with them diseases such as measles and syphilis that nearly wiped out the natives.
A small community of ranchers eventually developed at Scorpion Cove. Several ranch houses of that era still remain, including one converted into a Visitors Center. The ranchers also introduced several invasive species to the island.
I was intrigued to hear of the efforts that have successfully relocated most of the invasive species such as sheep, feral pigs and golden eagles that had tampered with the ecosystem. Native species such as bald eagles and island foxes have been largely restored. Several species of fauna and flora found in the Channel Islands exist nowhere else in the world. One such species is the island scrub jay, a small blue and white bird that's incapable of flying over a large body of water.
Island Packers offers bird watching and whale watching expeditions that visit here. Winter and spring are the seasons to spot migrating gray whales, while blue whales are commonly spotted in the summer and fall. A third of the world’s species of whales and dolphins populate the Santa Barbara Channel off the islands. The waters within a nautical mile of the island are protected, so fishing is prohibited.
Some of the best snorkeling and diving opportunities in the world are here along the kelp beds. Other activities available to visitors to the islands include camping (the largest campground is at Scorpion Cove), hiking, kayaking, sailing, tidepool exploring, and surfing (although the surf spots are remote and most easily accessed by private boat).
Five of the islands are accessible through Island Packers: Anacapa, San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Santa Barbara. They charge $59 for adults and $41 for children to visit Santa Cruz or Anacapa, but the outer islands are a bit more expensive. Inspiration Point on Anacapa is said to have the single most spectacular view on the islands. The Channel Islands National Park Visitors Center is near the harbor in Ventura, and you can take a virtual tour of the islands on their website.
So visit here when you can and experience California in its natural state – just be sure to take back whatever you bring. | <urn:uuid:91a6491a-bcd5-4929-bea9-42fb9b960c5c> | {
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Time Changer, along with many conservative theists, advocates an autocratic paradigm of morality, that morality only has meaning if there is something or someone telling us what is right and wrong. The assumption is also often made that this is the only way in which morality can be understood. However, child psychologists who have worked on moral development – most notably Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg – have shown that there are different moral paradigms, and that we move through these as we age.
Kohlberg, for example (see here and here), outlines three broad levels of moral development, which he further divides into six stages. The broad levels are:
- Preconventional morality (Level 1): An egotistic form of morality, generally exhibited by young children, who judge right and wrong according to physical consequences. An action is wrong if you get punished for it; an action is right if it advances your own interests. "It's all about me!"
- Conventional morality (Level 2): Generally exhibited by adolescents and young adults, who judge actions according to the norms and beliefs of their social group, culture or society. "It must be wrong because dad/the Bible/the law says so."
- Postconventional morality (Level 3): Right and wrong are determined through negotiation. Rules are viewed as changeable mechanisms that maintain social order but at the same time protect the rights of individuals. "How can we best advance social justice and human dignity?"
The important thing about Kohlberg's theory is that not everyone reaches Level 3. Many adults remain at Level 2 their entire lives. I would think that those entrenched in Level 2 are those who ask the question "Who says so?" when told to do something they don't want to do. If you remove their source of authority, then – for many of these individuals – you remove their ability to distinguish right and wrong. I wonder if Level 2 individuals are those who are inclined to throw themselves into destructive lifestyles when they leave their parents for the first time, or decide that God no longer exists. Apologists have argued, and this forms the premise of Time Changer, that without God anything is permitted.
The apologists are absolutely right, but only within the confines of Level 2 thinking. If we move to Level 3, then the premise of Time Changer no longer holds, because the emphasis is no longer on authority. Rather, concepts of right and wrong arise from a space of negotiation that unfolds between individuals and society.
I sometimes imagine, if the plot of Time Changer occurred in a world where a postconventional moral outlook was dominant, what question the little girl would ask when reprimanded? I don't think she would ask "Who says it is wrong?" but rather "Why is it wrong?" Asking 'why' allows for reason to enter the moral dialogue, allowing for societal negotiation, discussion and agreement on what the ethical and moral rules should be. | <urn:uuid:bbecdd38-0e9f-4867-8a26-424ce337b417> | {
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Supplement Cover Story: Seeing What No One Has Seen Before
The lenses of the Hubble Space Telescope have looked into the cosmos and may soon bear witness to the birth of the universe: the Big Bang, or, the Big Picture. Thanks to microscope manufacturers, we are seeing the invisible-the magic that makes things tick: the billions of little pictures responsible for the big picture. In each case, a collective need to see has propelled society to fantastic places that a few short years ago could only be imagined.
Also driving progress is the need for faster, cheaper, smaller. That has been the mantra in recent years for engineers across the manufacturing landscape. Ditto for manufacturers of microscopes, with an emphasis on smaller.
"Products have shrunk to incredible dimensions, and we now routinely talk about structures near or beyond the limit of brightfield optical resolution, such as carbon nanotubes," says Gary Czarnecki, Finescope Sales Supervisor at Mitutoyo America Corp. (Aurora, IL). "Consequently, the need continues for new products to inspect these tiny geometries, which are as unlimited as the products themselves, from medical implants to ultra-small microelectric motors."
New microscopes are also easier to use and more ergonomic, Czarnecki says. This means "microscopes have fewer knobs and adjust quickly to accommodate various work samples. To reduce stress and strain, microscopes now routinely can be configured to have extending, tilting binocular bodies; low-position, full-forward x/y motion stage controls; and eyepieces with larger fields of view."
Mark Glowacky, president of RAM Optical Instrumentation (ROI, Tempe, AZ), adds that video has expanded the microscope's capabilities. "With a video camera in place of an eyepiece, magnified color images can be viewed by groups of people at the same time," he says. "This reduces stress on the inspector and aids in training."
Specialized microscope objectives do not require the part being inspected to be held at a constant working distance from the lens, Glowacky says. "In addition, the lens is purposely not telecentric, so the part is magnified as it is moved closer to the lens. This simplifies inspection of handheld parts where a large area is imaged when the part is as much as 6 inches from the lens."
Today's microscopes also have greater motorization, says Dan King, assistant product manager for materials microscopy, Carl Zeiss MicroImaging Inc. (Thornwood, NY). "They are more intuitive and easier to use than previous generations, which has created a broader user base."
Because measurement with microscopes involves getting actual quantitative values on the size and location of features on a part, these microscopes often incorporate calibrated scales, digital readout and a video camera for edge analysis and automation, says Tom Groff, corporate product manager for QVI, which is the parent company of Optical Gaging Products, RAM Optical Instrumentation and View Engineering. "More advanced microscopes include motorized stages and automation software for automatic inspection. The line between a conventional microscope and an automated vision system is becoming blurred due to advancements in technology and video signal processing."
To boil down to a few words what's happening in the world of microscopes, "We have joined the digital revolution," says Mike Metzger, department manager, measuring instruments, for Nikon Instruments Inc. (Melville, NY). "Everything in our world is moving from the analog world to the digital world. And, boy, are we moving fast."
As an example, Metzger points to cellular phones. "The analog cell phones are gone, and it only took a few short years."
For users of microscopes, that means information is obtained more quickly and accurately. Digital cameras help users obtain higher quality images than ever before and computers help them determine what to do with the observed part or object-accept it, reject it or rework it, for instance.
One example of what the newer generations of microscopes can do involves a contractor that was working on an assembly process for a multimillion dollar defense project. The positioning of the component had to be done under magnification, and it was critical to the performance of the product and the price of the final assembly.
"A measuring microscope ended up being the most viable solution because it had the final magnification they needed, the advanced contrasting technique necessary to see the important feature and the digital precision staging mechanism required to provide the positioning data for the assembly process," Metzger says. "Without having the positioning data, which is done with a precision scale and computer, they couldn't have done the job."
In another example, a Tier One supplier of automotive brake parts switched from a stereo microscope containing an eyepiece reticle to an automated measuring microscope, which improved productivity and reduced costs. The company needed to inspect many of the parts coming off the production line to ensure they were meeting specification.
The customer needed to see the two divisions to which the part was machined. The stereo microscope worked fine for years, but it was no longer practical because the company needed to get the dimensional information into its statistical process control (SPC) system. A new automated measuring microscope was able to see the detail and, using a digital camera and computer, detect the edges automatically, measure the part and send the information to the SPC system.
Another example involves a medical-device manufacturer that made products that were inserted into the human body. For this type of use, ensuring that the product meets specification and is free of contamination is critical.
"This customer required that we shine a specific wavelength of light onto the parts to look for organic contamination," Metzger says. "Now we have fluorescent attachments for stereo microscopes that can do the job. These advances in optics allow us to see things we never saw before."
An increasingly important use of new microscopes is in conjunction with software and high-end digital cameras to create versatile imaging platforms, King says. "These systems allow the user to save images in an archive for further use or to integrate such images into reports for presentations and other documentation."
Through the Internet, these images can be seen simultaneously at locations worldwide. New software allows users to manipulate the images from remote locations-to zoom in on a particular area of a part on someone else's workstation, for example. The implications for productivity are enormous.
Another big change is that many microscopes are switching from halogen illumination to what is known as "cool light," or white LED illumination. That is a very important emerging technology, Metzger says, because it is more easily and precisely controlled by a computer, by filters and through digital means.
The digital world also is helping manufacturers produce lenses with less distortion, higher resolution and greater color rendition. "For years, we said that producing lenses was more art than science," Metzger says. "That has completely changed."
"There are no perfectly straight lines or perfectly round surfaces; there is always variation in our world," Metzger adds. "The more we can reduce variation, the more perfect something becomes."
All of these improvements are important because they are helping manufacturers prepare for the migration from the micro world to the nano world. Because of developments in sensors, actuators, semiconductors, biomems and wireless technologies in various industries from aerospace to medicine to automotive, the ability to see ever-smaller details is more crucial than ever.
"Many major markets are pushing smaller, faster, cheaper," Metzger says. "Smaller is a key. We need our digital technology to take these images and analog information and turn it into data so that high-powered computers can better analyze these smaller things. Our brains just can't do it any more."
Advancements also are being made in contrast techniques for stereo microscopes. For example, very low contrast samples sometimes seem invisible and must be seen through image amplification or illumination. In "oblique coherent contrast," for example, illumination directed at an object from the side could amplify a substance that may otherwise blend in with the surface upon which it rests.
Lasers, too, are part of the new microscopy landscape. They are incorporated into the optics to measure heights and the topography of samples as fast as 1,000 points per second, Metzger says.
Czarnecki adds, "Future inspection microscopes, like some on the market today, will be highly integrated, digital imaging measuring platforms run by computers. They may or may not require direct observation by a viewer, this function being monitored on a CRT.
"Instead of being viewed only as a measuring microscope, in the sense we do today, microscopes will be highly automated and capable of detecting and measuring these small structures with light we cannot see," Czarnecki says. "This will be accomplished by using the microscopes as the basic unit combined with advanced computer software, high-resolution digital cameras and improved optical techniques, such as the deep UV Confocal microscope and UV digital cameras."
The following is a roundup of some of the available microscope products on the market. While this list is not complete, a more comprehensive listing is available at Quality magazine's online Buyers Guide at www.qualitymag.com
Mitutoyo America Corp.'s MF-A/MF-UA microscopes employ a quick-release system in the stage. This allows the operator to switch between a coarse movement and fine movement instantaneously, and the stage is completely freed by only slightly turning the focus handle clockwise. This function is especially useful when the distance of the measuring position from the reference point is long or when returning to the reference position quickly. The Zero-switch allows operations with both hands remaining on the handle except when focusing. Reply #600
JEOL-USA's JEM-2100F Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) features maximum stability for high resolution imaging at the sub-nanometer scale. The 2100F features atomic-level stage movements, a small probe size of less than 0.15 nanometer, and the ability to integrate a variety of CCD cameras and detectors allow for simultaneous, multiple analytical techniques. New microprocessing and networking capabilities, plus Windows OS interface, simplify operation and speed data acquisition. Reply #601
RAM Optical Instrumentation Inc.'s VDM-EZ is a compact microscope system for high-magnification inspection through the use of RAM video technology. Video imaging technology from RAM Optical presents high-resolution color images on a 13-inch monitor for viewing by an individual or group. Two interchangeable lens options are available, the EDF objective and the 6.5:1 zoom objective. Reply #602
LECO Corp. and Olympus offer the GS-Series Inverted Metallographs. The solutions for image clarity and resolution in material sciences, the modular GX51 and GX71 models offer a broad range of applications including production control, quality control and advanced research to be implemented. Built with a solid aluminum casting for improved stability and vibration control, the two models offer objectives ranging from 1.25X to 250X; reticle sliders that accept grain size, micron marker and intercept methods; and a variety of optional filters. Reply #603
Carl Zeiss' Axiovert 200 MAT has a wide range of applications, from analyzing microstructures to measuring particles and grain size. Developed specifically for the industrial market, the product provides a combination of high-performance optics, easy use, innovative techniques, sophisticated features, unshakable stability and a choice of a manual or motorized stand. Reply #604
The SBS-20 from Detroit Testing Machine Co. features a micrometer measuring eyepiece for simple, accurate indentation reading and can be used under normal lighting conditions. It comes with a carrying case for safe storage and meets ASTM E-10 specifications. Reply #605
The EVO scanning electron microscope from LEO Electron Microscopy Inc. features high-resolution optics, analytical chamber designs and specimen stages. The XVP (extended variable pressure) imaging capability of the EVO 40, 50 and 60 series provides imaging and analysis of specimens within a pressure range of 1 to 750 Pascal using water vapor or air. The microscopes can be upgraded for future requirements, such as high vacuum and extended pressure, combining 8.5-millimeter working distance and take-off angle of 35 degrees, along with the LEO32 graphical user interface, high-resolution image storage and Windows XP operating system. Reply #606
Vision Engineering's LYNX stereo-zoom microscope produces images to 120X magnification on a large viewing area. The company's Dynascope technology promotes operator comfort and eliminates neck and back strain. Features include image brilliance and long working distances for applications where manipulation is necessary. Accessories such as digital camera options are also available. Reply #607
The ProScan TMII stepper motor controller from Prior Scientific Inc. automates microscopes and is capable of controlling up to six stepper motors that control a motorized stage, focus motor, three filter wheels and three shutters from a single controller. A fourth axis driver is available to control sample rotation or an additional custom application. The unit also offers four TTL inputs and outputs for triggering camera shutters, relays, linescan cameras or other peripheral devices. Reply #608
Leica Microsystems has introduced the DM Digital Microscopes, which use intelligent automation for advanced imaging techniques. The series includes the DM4000 M for routine and research applications in materials science. The DM4000 M is designed to deliver optimized imaging by selecting the objective, filter and contrast method. All aspects of the light path are automatically adjusted to the user's preferred settings. It features a number of innovations, including a fluorescence intensity manager that automatically sets the fluorescence illumination. Reply #609
Nikon's VMR-Z120X has a dual optical system producing magnifications from 36X up to 4320X, enabling imaging and measurements of part features down to 1 micrometer. Inspections of complex designs are improved with Nexiv's combination of optics, as well as the intelligent search software and TTL laser scanning. The 120X Telecentric Zoom System enables high throughput precise measurements of heights, complex profiles and critical dimensions. Reply #610
The Versamet 3 from Buehler Emerson Electric Co. has an inverted metallurgical design with an erect image. It has a 200 by 200 millimeter graduated stage with 30 by 45 millimeter travel. It has a 100W quartz halogen illuminator and is available with several objectives. Reply #611
The Flexbar DigiScope video miscroscope system has a zoom range of 1:4 and magnification of 10X to 40X. It combines stereo zoom optics with a built-in CCD camera, plug-and-play computer output, and imaging and measurement software. Reply #612
The RZ series of modular stereo microscopes from Meiji Techno has been engineered around a common main object and parallel optical paths to offer distortion free, high-resolution images at magnifications ranging from 3.75X to 300X. It features a 10:1 zoom ratio. Reply #613
Pyser-SGI Ltd. offers a range of compound microscopes include the XE-M2 which features a metal die cast body, 45 degree inclined and 360 degree rotatable monocular head, a single 2X ojbective and rack and pinion focusing. Reply #614 | <urn:uuid:fbf28de9-f816-4ca9-b298-957092f50fcc> | {
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Young children, from infancy until age 5, are particularly at risk of choking. Not only do they have small airways, but it also takes several years to master the ability to chew and swallow food. It's very important to avoid foods that are hard or round or even slippery. Examples include whole grapes, hard candy, chunks of hotdogs or other meat. Sticky foods such as peanut butter and marshmallows should also be avoided. And don't give young children popcorn, raw carrots or nuts. Uninflated or broken balloons are also a choking hazard.
Be very careful about batteries, especially button batteries, coins, magnets, any toys with small parts. If a toy can fit inside a toilet paper roll then it's probably too small for a young child.
If you suspect your young child is choking then there are a few things you could do. For infants under the age of 1 you would lay them face down on your lap and give 5 back blows. If the child is still choking, flip him on his back and you would deliver 5 chest thrusts. For children over the age of one, do an abdominal thrust five times in a row, just as you would an adult. | <urn:uuid:90fde725-9aec-4c90-9792-33559b83ed1f> | {
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Sensitive and secure cobots open up new areas of activity
With their integrated sensors, they make it possible to automate delicate assembly tasks in the first place – ranging from assembling automotive transmissions through to inserting rubber plugs or handling flexible parts. If unexpected contact is made, cobots, for example, reduce their speed and thus the kinetic energy to an extent which prevents injury. When people and robots can work safely together, many conventional safety precautions become superfluous. Additional costs which would normally be required for safety technology and protective fences can be dispensed with. Workers and robots can share the same workspace without any concerns. In this way, expensive feed systems and production floor space can be saved.
Man remains at the center of production
The crucial point is to achieve open communication and simple integration. This makes cobots virtuosos for modern, networked production and logistics which will link together automation solutions with services and databases within the foreseeable future. However, a factory staffed by robots alone will remain an illusion, even in the smart factory. People will remain the central focus. However, robots will make people’s jobs less arduous, will support people and give them entirely new capabilities.
With cobots in different payload categories, KUKA already offers central, key technologies for a wide variety of tasks involving cooperation between humans and machines: collaborative robots, mobile assistance systems, autonomously controlled vehicles and intelligent, digitized automation solutions which reduce the burden on humans in a variety of ways. | <urn:uuid:0ddac096-ade9-4431-a28c-129a4ea3eb95> | {
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Early Warning Signs of Breast Cancer No One Talks About (Don’t Look Just For Lumps)
Nowadays Breast Cancer is one of the most common cancers in women. Every woman should be aware of that problem and take care about her breasts. Home examination is very useful in detecting breast
All we need to know is the symptoms of breast cancer and how can we find them.
Look beyond the lumps
If you find a lump you should immediately consult your doctor. Every doctor will require further examinations, such as mammogram X-ray. It is a very effective method, but it uses radiation ionization, which has a lot of negative effects.
We all know that breast cancer has 2 forms, benign and malign. Malign is the bad one and it can cost us a life. Mammograms can make difference between this two, so don’t think twice if you have any suspects do it immediately.
Angiogenesis occurs when new set of blood vessels starts to form in order to supply blood to newly developing breast tumor.
Checking Cell Health and Hormones
Genetic factors play a major role in developing this kind of cancer. Other risk factors are:
- Environmental factors
The newest studies have shown that hormone imbalance has enormous effect in developing breast cancer.
The bad thing is that breast cancer can also appear in the form of dispersed seed-like tumors, which may grow into the tissue as tiny tentacles.
A lot of researchers have explained that breast cancer does not necessarily appear in the form of lumps, so take a lot of caution when you do your home examination.
The Link between Back Pain and Breast Cancer
I know that it seems unbelievably, but back pain can be one of the symptoms of breast cancer, so if you feel pain deep in the bones consult your doctor immediately. It can be a warning sign and you shouldn’t miss it. | <urn:uuid:1c836781-c2c9-4d23-9746-4911a69b24e5> | {
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Why you may need an Advocate
What is an Advocate and why is having one important to me and my family? The basic definition of an Advocate is someone who stands up in support of you, someone who fights for your rights! Sounds pretty simple, however why you may need an advocate isn’t always simple.
So how in the world does Advocacy work and why would a parent need it for their child? Here is the most basic, straight forward answer to that question:
- When you try to navigate through the bureaucracy of the school district on your own it gets VERY overwhelming.
- School districts often use language that confuses parents into choosing accommodations for their children that they should really consider for longer.
- There are many services and accommodations that people like me (Advocates/Social Workers) know about that are out there for the taking, but need to be asked for.
- Sometimes services are not provided because of financial constraints, unfortunate, but true. In these cases, having a qualified representative to assist you in getting what you need for your child is the best thing for them.
Here is the bottom line. You have the right to any person you want as a representative with you at any meeting for your child. It is your legal right. Take advantage of it, use it, and exercise it to your benefit. Righting the IEP, figuring out placements, those are tough decisions that a team makes TOGETHER. Why wouldn’t you want as many people on your side as possible? We all do the best we can to advocate for our children; part of that is knowing when we need to ask for help. We need to set an example for our children and teach them when to ask for assistance when we don’t know everything. Also, the job of a good advocate will help you learn how to be a better advocate for your child. | <urn:uuid:f4081fd0-8863-43cc-93cf-00373d204084> | {
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Waterland and Zaan Region
The Waterland and Zaan Region is located in the province of North-Holland in the West of the Netherlands, just to the north of Amsterdam. It offers every stereotype one would expect from the country: flat pasture land with dikes, canals, windmills, green-painted houses, wooden shoes and cheese. Because of its proximity to Amsterdam, it is a popular destination for both Dutch and foreign tourists.
Towns and villages
Waterland, as the name suggests, has both lived of and struggled against the water for ages. Most of it is situated well under sea level and features an iconic Dutch landscape of extensive grassland divided by numerous canals, ditches and trenches. Evidence suggests that people were living here from the year 1000 onwards. Where we find the IJsselmeer lake today, a much smaller lake area then existed with an outlet to the North Sea. Extreme floods in the 12th and 13th century created the much larger Zuiderzee, which was in open connection to the North Sea, and allowed the towns and cities on the Zuiderzee (including Amsterdam) to flourish from the 16th century onwards. The regular floods however also had a devastating effect on the region and brought its people to build dikes and artificial dwelling hills in order to protect themselves from inundation. Most of the Waterland area remained a wetland over these centuries, making crop cultivation almost impossible, and leading to a rural economy based on cattle and dairy farming. After a last disastrous flood in 1916, it was decided to build a dike across the Zuiderzee to protect the area once and for all. The Afsluitdijk was finished in 1932 and the Zuiderzee transformed into a fresh-water lake known as IJsselmeer.
The Zaan Region (Zaanstreek) is historically a part of Waterland. It refers to the area on the banks of the river Zaan, which once was connected to the main waterway of Amsterdam, the IJ. The Zaan Region is a region of contrasts: modern and 19th century industrial buildings are mixed with old windmills and wooden houses, all to the backdrop of the quiet Zaan river and meadows.
The Zaan Region is probably the oldest surviving industrial area in the world. It flourished in the 17th century, when more than 1,000 windmills were built along the river Zaan to process grain, spices, wood, oil and paint. The development of industrial production at this scale before the invention of the steam engine made possible by technological improvements of the windmills (like the patenting of crankshaft applications in 1592), and the demand for the industrial products by Amsterdam, at the time the largest port of the world. The Zaan Region also had large shipyards, where wooden merchantmen were built for the rich merchants of Amsterdam. These ships were used to transport tropical products and spices but also slaves from the Dutch colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and to bring in goods from the Baltic and the Arctic, like whale oil. Many of the imported foods were processed with the windmills, and chocolate, bread, cooking rice, roasted coffee, vegetable oil, pastry, animal food, etc. were produced in large quantities, providing for much of the Dutch population. The paper industry flourished as well, and it is believed that the United States´ Declaration of Independence was written on paper from the Zaan Region.
Steam engines replaced the windmills in the 19th century. The shipbuilding and almost all of the wood industry (furniture, paper) disappeared, but the food processing industry stayed. Even today, the biggest Dutch companies in the food industry still have their base in the Zaan Region, like the country´s largest supermarket chain Albert Heijn. Flour for 90% of all bread in the Netherlands comes from one factory in the Zaan Region, Meneba. There are many cocoa factories, producing chocolate from cocoa coming from the biggest 'cocoa port in the world', Amsterdam.
Modern and old industrial heritage can be seen side by side in the Zaan Region. Along the river Zaan, you can still find dozens of original and fully operational windmills, mostly made entirely of wood, and some of them over 350 years old. Next to these there are many 19th-century brick factory buildings, nowadays derelict or converted into apartments, but still recognisable as industrial buildings. In some cases the oldest and more recent industry are intertwined, as is the case with the Duyvis factory, where the modern factory is actually built around a centuries´ old wooden windmill.
Especially in smaller villages, people still speak varieties of an old Hollandic dialect that is difficult to understand for Dutch natives. The dialect of the Zaan Region is called Zaans, and it is considered to be one of the oldest and few remaining original Hollandic dialects. The Waterlands dialects differ significantly from Zaans, but they have a similar origin and speakers of the two are generally able to understand eachother. In Volendam, which was somewhat isolated historically due to its Roman-Catholic religion and focus on the sea, it still is the language of every-day life, but in most other places dialect is losing ground, like almost everywhere else in the Netherlands.
By public transport
Train connections from Amsterdam to Alkmaar and from Schiphol Airport to Hoorn run through the Waterland and Zaan Region, with Intercity trains stopping at Zaandam and Sprinter trains at smaller stations. From there, regular bus services will bring you to smaller towns and villages. Alternatively, bus connections from Amsterdam serve Volendam, Edam, Monnickendam and Purmerend. See the websites of NS and 9292 for information on services, timetables and ticket purchase.
If you consider travelling in the Netherlands for a few days, it pays off to buy an anonymous OV chipkaart, a rechargeable card that will give you a considerable discount on all bus, tram and metro transport in the Netherlands (and a minor discount on train tickets).
The A7 and A8 motorways run through the Waterland and Zaan Region, branching off from the A10 (Amsterdam ring road) at junction Coenplein. The A8 leads to Zaanstad, the A7 eventually to Hoorn and further north to the province of Friesland. Both roads are major connections to and from Amsterdam and can therefore be very busy during rush hour.
By public transport
The Waterland and Zaan Region is easily explored by public transport, with regular train and bus connections to all major destinations (see above).
Make sure to avoid rush hour, all main roads can become one big traffic jam in the morning hours (7AM~9.30AM) and afternoon (~4PM-6.30PM). Minor roads tend to be narrow and are also used by cyclists and motorcyclists. Speed limits are enforced by police squads with mobile speed cameras.
The region is small enough to be explored by bike, and it is actually the favourite way to get around for most Dutch holiday-makers. It is even close enough to Amsterdam to be reached by bike from there. However, be aware that the Dutch weather is variable, and especially strong winds can make biking in the countryside a lot more unpleasant than in the city.
Bike rental shops can be found in all major tourist destinations. Unfortunately, renting a bike at train stations has become impossible for people who don't hold a Dutch bank account.
The network of Fietsknooppunten (biking nodes) will allow you to cycle through the whole country following well-signposted routes, usually through attractive countryside. At each node, you will find maps to guide you to your next destination, but you can also plan ahead on the website of Fietseropuit (Dutch only).
Two national long-distance trails (Lange Afstands Wandelpaden or LAWs) are crossing the Waterland and Zaan Region.
Given the presence of so many canals and lakes, it is not surprising that the water attracts lots of holiday-makers in Summer. The IJsselmeer is very popular with sailors, and offers splendid sailing opportunities on the wide lake. Marinas can be found in Durgerdam, Monnickendam, Marken and Volendam.
Renting a rowing boat or kayak is a popular pastime as well. Especially the area around Broek in Waterland is very well suited to explore at your leisure.
Boat trips can be booked in many places as well, for example to go up the Zaan River and admire the windmills from the water.
Swimming is possible in the IJsselmeer and smaller lakes in Summer. The water may look a bit murky in places, but is in fact very clean if you don't mind a little bit of mud around your toes. Water temperatures are also higher than at the seaside, where the North Sea can be very chilly even in August. Be aware however that in some places blue-green algae may poison the water in high summer - warning signs will be posted if this is the case.
Many locally produced foodstuffs can actually be found in any large supermarket in the Netherlands. The Zaan Region was once known as "the pantry of the Netherlands", and lots of well-known Dutch brands and products have their origin in this industrial area. Verkade, a major Dutch manufacturer of biscuits and chocolate, has its factories here. Albert Heijn, the largest supermarket chain in the country, was founded here as well.
There are no specific regional drinks. However, at Zaanse Schans you can visit a small distillery museum:
A microbrewery is found in Volendam.
There are no particular safety issues for this region. However, in popular tourist destinations such as Zaanse Schans make sure to watch your belongings, and don't take large amounts of cash with you. Tourists are known to have been tricked into having their belongings 'inspected' by fake plain-clothes policemen, losing lots of money in the process. | <urn:uuid:93dfaf6c-de1c-4cfc-8c03-c15b37926552> | {
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The objective of this book is to maintain a reference to Unicode encoding and anything related to Unicode specification.
This book is necessary because, although the articles here about Unicode reference were removed from Wikipedia and Wikisource, this standard is widely used by IT technologies and a reference is very necessary.
Unicode is an industry standard whose goal is to provide the means by which text of all forms and languages can be encoded for use by computers through a single character set. Originally, text-characters were represented in computers using byte-wide data: each printable character (and many non-printing, or "control" characters) were implemented using a single byte each, which allowed for 256 characters total. However, globalization has created a need for computers to be able to accommodate many different alphabets (and other writing systems) from around the world in an interchangeable way.
The old encodings in use included ASCII or EBCDIC, but it was apparent that they were not capable of handling all the different characters and alphabets from around the world. The solution to this problem was to create a set of "wide" 16-bit characters that would theoretically be able to accommodate most international language characters. This new charset was first known as the Universal Character Set (UCS), and later standardized as Unicode. However, after the first versions of the Unicode standard it became clear that 65,535 (216) characters would still not be enough to represent every character from all scripts in existence, so the standard was amended to add sixteen supplementary planes of 65,536 characters each, thus bringing the total number of representable code points to 1,114,112. To this date, less than 10% of that space is in use. | <urn:uuid:849bb8d2-27a8-4948-9a91-9a790e88d8ac> | {
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Lawns provide an ideal habitat for moles. Moles eat insects found in yards, especially white grubs. The soil in lawns is well suited for moles because it is moist and soft. Moles and gophers are often mistaken for one another. Moles usually dig shallow tunnels just below the surface of the grass. This leaves ridges in the yard, showing the pathway of the mole’s tunnel, while gophers tend to dig deep tunnels. On occasion a mole will dig a deeper tunnel to use during the winter. When a mole digs a deep tunnel it pushes dirt to the surface, creating a single mole mound. A mole mound is a pile of earth clods that is centered directly above a tunnel. This differs from gophers, which create multiple mounds that are located to the side of the tunnels.
Surface tunnels may present a challenge while mowing a lawn, and moles may indirectly destroy plants by burrowing through their roots while searching for larvae. Ridges from surface tunnels destroy landscaping and pose a particular problem to golf courses. If left alone, a mole will continue to inhabit the area. However, it is important to weigh the pros and cons of moles. A mole can be beneficial by aerating the lawn and eating several species of insects that are considered pests.
When moles in gardens and/or moles in lawns become a nuisance, effective mole control is necessary. Removing moles can be expensive if the wrong approach is taken. The most effective form of control is trapping. There are three kinds of traps: Scissor Jawed, Harpoon, and Choker Loop. These traps are similar to one another and are set directly above the surface tunnels. The mole triggers the trap when it pushes against the roof of the soil. However, remember that it may be more beneficial and less troublesome to keep a mole in your yard. | <urn:uuid:9a90ac2a-4767-4156-8de3-5124d5851b70> | {
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Jack can’t believe what he’s hearing. His sister is being held hostage. Whoever snatched Ashley must have been following the Landons as they explored Death Valley National Park. But what do they want with Leesa?
When Jack discovers why Leesa is on the run, he is determined to protect her. But how can he do that and save Ashley, too? One thing he knows for sure, failure is not an option.
National Geographic supports K-12 educators with ELA Common Core Resources.
Visit www.natgeoed.org/commoncore for more information.
From the Trade Paperback edition.
About Gloria Skurzynski
See more books from this Author
Published May 25, 2011
by National Geographic Children's Books.
Nature & Wildlife, Action & Adventure, Children's Books, Literature & Fiction. | <urn:uuid:4299a096-b366-43c7-88f7-81095b3ffd4e> | {
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As gardeners, we worry about and provide for the nutritional needs of our flowers, vegetables and lawns-after all, these plants grow palpably before our very eyes. Trees, on the other hand, develop more slowly. We are more likely to notice their spring blossoms or vivid autumn leaf colours than their growth rates. Nevertheless, their apperance, performance and overall health can be improved with regular booster shots of fertilizer.
Young deciduous trees (three to 15 years old) have a more accelerated growth rate than mature ones and require annual feeding. Older trees and evergreens that are ade-quately irrigated (and therefore not under stress) will benefit from a feeding every second year.
When to Fertilize
Late spring or early summer is the best time to feed your trees. That's when they're actively growing and able to use the nutrients most effectively. Theoretically, trees can be fertilized up to eight weeks before leaf drop in the fall, but applications made late in the season may stimulate new growth that won't have a chance to harden off before freeze-up. This late growth inevitably dies back over the winter, leaving the tree susceptible to disease and insect infestation.
The Grass is Greener
Avoid using lawn fertilizer within one to two metres of the outer edge of a tree's leaf canopy: many contain herbicides that can damage trees. Their formulas also have much more nitrogen (the first number on the label) than most trees require. (Excess nitrogen promotes lush, green growth on flowering trees and shrubs-such as crab-apples and lilacs-at the expense of blooms.)
Hit the Spot
To be most effective, fertilizer must come into contact with a tree's small “feeder roots,” which are located at the dripline and extend out at least one metre beyond its perimeter, but just 15 to 45 centimetres below the soil surface. While deep, woody roots provide stability, only the feeder roots are capable of taking up water and nutrients. | <urn:uuid:d10d6496-2b55-4d16-86f4-b4a340fdf68e> | {
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Controlling blood pressure is a global issue as people live longer and lifestyles change. In developed countries, despite access to doctors and medication, many people don't have their blood pressure under control. In the U.S., almost half of those with high blood pressure are not able to control it. A new study shows promising results in helping people live healthier lives.
High blood pressure increases the risk for heart attack and stroke. That's why health experts the world over are concerned about the increasing number of people with high blood pressure, even in developing countries.
Smoking, drinking alcohol, being sedentary are risk factors for hypertension, commonly called high blood pressure. But there are also other risks. High blood pressure is a genetic trait that tends to run in families.
It runs in Pat Buchholz's family.
“I never smoked, I never drank, and I exercised," she said. "So that helps some but it did not prevent blood pressure problems from finding me.”
Buchholz took part in a study of 450 people with uncontrolled high blood pressure. One group received usual care, meaning they had their blood pressure checked whenever they saw their doctors.
The other group monitored their blood pressure at home almost daily for a year. Their results were sent electronically to a pharmacist.
“The pharmacist then was able to review the readings and make adjustments over the telephone, if needed, to the patient’s treatment regimen,” said Dr. Karen Margolis, of HealthPartners Institute for Education and Research in Minneapolis who led the study.
More than twice as many patients in the self-monitoring group had their blood pressure under control a year later compared to the other group. And, Margolis says, the improvement continued even after the study ended.
“Seventy percent of the patients in the tele-monitoring group kept their blood pressure control at 18 months, six months after the program ended,” she said.
Buchholz says working with her pharmacist made a huge difference in improving her health.
"I learned more, I was able to listen better and retain what she told me… and I trusted her,” she said.
The researchers say the intervention helped patients become more likely to take their medication, get more involved in their own health care and communicate better with their health care team.
The study was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. | <urn:uuid:98c5aecc-3907-4c5f-8fba-3acbeeb6f913> | {
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View related sites
Cambridge Assessment English
Why choose us?
Exams and tests
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Evelina D. Galaczi, Head of Research Strategy, Research and Thought Leadership Group, Cambridge Assessment English
When we say that someone ’speaks‘ a language fluently, we usually mean that they have a high level in all four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing. But, as any teacher knows, learners often have strengths or weaknesses in particular skills, and in some cases can achieve high levels in, for example, reading and writing, while not being able to speak or listen at a comparable level.
For some purposes – highly specialised jobs, for example – these uneven skills may not matter very much. However, English is such an important skill in the global world, and needed in so many different contexts, that someone without a good ability in all four skills will greatly reduce the opportunities open to them in education and professional life.
If we want to assess someone’s speaking ability, we must get them to speak. The same applies to all the other skills. We can’t infer ability in one skill (e.g. speaking) from performance in another (e.g. listening), or from using tests of language knowledge, e.g. grammar, vocabulary, as proxies for communicative language ability. Therefore if we want to accurately assess communicative language ability, we need to include tasks which elicit a wide range of skills related to communicative language.
The Common European Framework of Reference (2001) extends the definition of communicative language ability into five skills, and divides speaking into two skills: spoken production and spoken interaction. This is based on the evidence that these two skills are different, since one involves only monologue-type speech and the other involves being both a speaker and a listener at the same time. A test of communicative language, therefore, needs to include both spoken production and spoken interaction.
It is common for language abilities across the four skills to be interrelated. However, such relationships are not strong enough to allow measurement of one skill to substitute for another.
Learners’ development of the four skills can be unbalanced, e.g. a learner could be strong in reading, but weak in listening or writing or speaking. Research has suggested that the ability to speak is distinct from the ability to read/listen/write (Powers 2010, Sawaki et al 2009). Therefore, a proficient reader/writer/listener may not necessarily be a proficient speaker.
For example, the data below, based on over 465,000 test takers who took Cambridge English Qualifications in 2015, show only moderate relationships among the different skills. If we take speaking, for example, the relationship between speaking and reading is 0.60, which means that a candidate who scores high in the speaking test only tends to score high in the reading test or vice versa.
By testing all four skills, Cambridge English exams encourage teachers and learners to take a balanced approach to language learning, ensuring that the learners develop the ability to use the language effectively in the real world.
Cambridge English research suggests that one of the main reasons ministries and school groups introduce Cambridge English exams is because they test all four skills and as a result increase the focus on speaking and listening. This helps learners to develop competence to communicate in English (Ashton, Salamoura and Diaz 2012, Khalifa and Docherty 2016).
If an employment context only involves listening and reading, then a test focusing solely on listening and reading may be enough. However, most work contexts involve speaking and writing skills, and the use of English in both formal and informal situations, such as giving presentations, participating in a discussion, writing reports, participating in meetings and writing e-mails (Fitzpatrick & O’Dowd 2012, Kassim & Ali 2010, Stevens 2005,). Having staff who cannot use the language to communicate greatly limits an employer’s flexibility.
Research carried out by Cambridge English shows in detail the importance which employers attach to the four skills: englishatwork.cambridgeenglish.org/
Of course, some employers and other organisations wish to focus on particular skills to meet the requirements of specific roles. For these situations, Cambridge English provides a number of modular tests such as BULATS and Linguaskill which can be used to focus on individual skills.
Further information in the academic literature about the communicative approach to assessment can also be found in:
These articles focus on the impact of Cambridge English exams in a range of educational contexts, and provide evidence for the benefits of including the four skills in assessment: | <urn:uuid:12c79909-6ce9-4f91-b048-d7df5bf1bcc2> | {
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Browse Our Book
About The Velikovsky Heresies
• Provides new evidence from recent space probe missions to support Velikovsky’s theories on the formation of Venus
• Presents recently translated ancient texts from China, Korea, and Japan that uphold the cometlike descriptions of Venus cited by Velikovsky
• Examines evidence of major geomagnetic events in 1500 BCE and 750 BCE that correspond with close passes of the comet Venus and its impact with Mars
• Offers scientific explanations for many disputed aspects of Velikovsky’s theories, such as how Venus could have transformed from a comet into an orbiting planet
Surrounded by controversy even before its publication in 1950, Immanuel Velikovsky’s Worlds in Collision introduced the provocative theory that Venus began as a brilliant comet ejected by Jupiter around 1600 BCE, wreaking chaos on Mars and Earth as it roamed through our solar system prior to settling into its current orbit. Immediately dismissed without any investigation and subject to vicious attacks, Velikovsky’s theory is now poised for reexamination in light of recent astronomical and archaeological findings.
Exploring the key points of Velikovsky’s theories, Laird Scranton presents evidence from recent space probe missions to show that Venus still exhibits cometlike properties, such as its atmospheric composition, and could be a young planet. Reviewing the widespread cometlike descriptions of Venus from 1500 BCE to 750 BCE as well as Velikovsky’s observation that no records of Venus exist prior to 1600 BCE, Scranton reveals recently translated ancient texts from China, Korea, and Japan that further uphold Velikovsky’s theories. Examining evidence of major geomagnetic and climate-change events around 1500 BCE and 750 BCE, corresponding with close passes of the comet Venus and its impact with Mars, the author offers scientific explanations for many disputed aspects of Velikovsky’s theories, such as how Venus transformed from a comet into an orbiting planet. By updating this unresolved controversy with new scientific evidence, Scranton helps us to understand how it was that Worlds in Collision was the one book found open on Albert Einstein’s desk at the time of his death.
About the Author(s) of The Velikovsky Heresies
Praise for The Velikovsky Heresies
Nexus Magazine, June 2012 | <urn:uuid:9456a92e-c4ad-4490-b653-82a36e2c797b> | {
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The Leading Magazine for Primary Educators
KS2 Book Topic: The Iron Man
Main Subject: Lesson Plans
Subject: Topic Book Week '10
Author: Jonathan Lear
Turn down the AC/DC, forget Robert Downey Jr and join Jonathan Lear in taking inspiration from Ted Hughes’ classic children’s tale...
The Iron Man is one of the best loved of all children’s stories. In this topic, it’s developed into an exciting way of beginning the school year with a new class of expectant children. It provides plenty of opportunities to assess how the children engage in a range of activities and allows children to develop ownership of their classroom through the creation of a display (if you’d prefer to start your year in a different way, this unit of work would sit happily at any point during the first term).
The focus of this topic is the creation of a literacy working wall. Most classrooms have a space dedicated to English; the best examples I’ve seen involve a theme, in many cases a favourite character or book. The Iron Man is a goldmine when it comes to developing English skills: story structure, drama, use of adjectives or simile, this book has it all. And, of course, it also features one of the greatest modern fairytale characters ever created.
Activity 1: Gone to pieces
Build iron man mobiles…
This activity uses the self-destruction of the Iron Man in chapter one to inspire some eye-catching mobiles. Read the chapter with the children; then recap the sequence in which the Iron Man puts himself back together again having stepped off the cliff. Ask them to recreate the sequence in pairs – either orally, or with actions matched to the description from the text:
‘The hand stood up on three fingers and its thumb, and craned its forefinger like a long nose.’
The different orientations of body parts also work well as shadow puppets – how would the children create a silhouette of the hand and eye attached to the top of a leg? Give the children the opportunity to perform their sequence to others in their group – get them to refer to the part of the text they have used.
Now that they’ve tried out this bizarre collection of body parts for themselves, they are ready to start work on their mobiles. They need to decide which parts they’re going to include – anything up to six seems to work well. It’s best if they choose an arm or a leg for the top of the mobile – once hung horizontally, each limb will be long enough to allow several other body parts to be hung from it.
Once drawn onto card, the parts need to be cut out and painted on both sides. When dry, extra detail can be added with marker pens; then they can be threaded together, ready for hanging.
Activity 2: Linking up
Make tasty conjunction chains!
One of the staples of a literacy working wall in KS2 is a list of conjunctions that enable children to join clauses in compound and complex sentences. In keeping with the Iron Man theme, this activity encourages children to identify conjunctions used in the text, collect and then classify them before finally making paper chains (of the rusted iron variety!) to display on the working wall.
In pairs, the children can search the opening chapters for conjunctions, recording them as they go (provide them with examples if they’re unfamiliar with the term).
The children will find that Ted Hughes does not use a huge range in his writing, instead preferring to use combinations of short simple sentences for effect. Where used, they are more often coordinating conjunctions (and, but, so etc.). After finding examples of these, the children can start to use them for themselves. On the board, show an example of two simple sentences that could be changed by adding a conjunction – give them other examples from the text to work on in pairs, adding a range of subordinating conjunctions (because, since, although etc.) for more able children.
When they’ve shown that they can use conjunctions to link clauses in sentences, they can record the words they have used on strips of grey or silver paper to make into chains. These can then be added to the display like strings of spaghetti for the ravenous Iron Man!
Activity 3: Show your working
Start your wall display…
With mobiles and conjunction chains at the ready, it’s time to get started with the working wall. The display is based on the third chapter, part of which is set in a scrapyard that becomes the home of the Iron Man. Ideally, a fairly large display board will be used, the intention being to create the scrapyard scene as a border that will remain in place throughout the year whist still leaving lots of room in the middle. It’s in this space that immediate displays will be created, key learning points displayed and collections of prompts added that will grow with the children’s literacy skills.
In preparation for the display, ask the children to collect clean foil packaging or other bits of shiny scrap materials and bring them into school. The ideas I’ve used come from the version of The Iron Man illustrated by Andrew Davidson. In chapter three, there is a picture of the Iron Man in a scrapyard eating a rusty chain. On the left is a tower of battered scrap cars, piled one on top of the other – perfect for forming one side of the display. I use one car template per group and draw the outline of a simple car shape. There isn’t any need for great detail or any artistic ability on the part of the teacher, as the children will add their own detail later. The children are then given a range of materials to choose from including paints, the metallic materials brought from home and any other scraps of card or paper that would enable them to turn the car shapes into smashed up wrecks!
On the opposite side is the hero of the story, the Iron Man. Again, this is created by drawing a template for the children to paint or collage. To complete the main elements of the display, position the arm of a crane complete with chain and hook above the Iron Man (this will become a handy place to ‘hang’ the class writing/reading targets, ensuring that the display continues to be referred to on a weekly basis).
Activity 4: Literary giants
Extending the project…
Many different things can be added to a literacy working wall – conjunctions are a must, as are reminders/examples of verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and punctuation. The exact nature of the prompts is dependent on year group, but above all else they must be of use and referred to frequently to support the children’s development as writers.
The Iron Man’s challenge is another opportunity – how would journalists cover the story? This could be acted out as a TV news broadcast, or the children could produce newspaper front page stories reporting on events. (The stages the children go through to produce this writing would look great added to the working wall alongside prompts for journalistic writing.)
Finally, what if the world were threatened by a different creature? How would the Iron Man respond? Story writing would allow the children to develop themes and characters from the book to create a sequel – The Iron Man II (a bit Hollywood, but the children will love it!)
Ted Hughes’ The Iron Man is available from Faber and Faber, ISBN 9780571226122 (faber.co.uk).
Free* KS1 Or KS2 Poetry Packs From Just Imagine Story CentreSubscribe | <urn:uuid:f13f15d7-033c-453e-873f-2201348863a1> | {
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LA CROSSE, Wisconsin (WXOW) - Mayo Clinic Health System is reminding everyone to watch out for rotavirus this holiday.
The illness, which is especially common in children, is an infection in the stomach and intestines. Symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration and a high temperature. Health experts say rotavirus is very contagious and can spread easily during the holiday.
"Remember to wash your hands and your cooking surfaces often and then don't leave perishable food items out for longer than two hours. Hot food items can be kept hot by using chafing dishes or slow cookers or warming trays and the cold foods can be kept cold by nesting dishes in ice or just by switching out the trays more frequently," says Romi Pattison, a registered dietitian for Mayo Clinic Health System.
To prevent the spread of rotavirus, health experts say wash your hands thoroughly and if you suspect you are sick, stay home.
All content © Copyright 2001 - 2014 WorldNow and KTTC, a Quincy station.
Persons with disabilities who need assistance with issues relating to the content of this station's public inspection file should contact Administrative Assistant Jodi Neyens at (507) 280-5104. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, at 888-835-5322 (TTY) or at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:0794c58f-6be3-4ddb-ac1c-bf4b8ab48f06> | {
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Sinking Islands: Fact or Fiction?
Biribo, N. and Woodroffe, C.D. 2013. Historical area and shoreline change of reef islands around Tarawa Atoll, Kiribati. Sustainability Science 8: 345-362.
In an attempt to find out, Biribo and Woodroffe examined changes in shoreline position on the majority of reef islands on Tarawa Atoll, the capital of the Republic of Kiribati, by analyzing "reef-island area and shoreline change over 30 years determined by comparing 1968 and 1998 aerial photography using geographical information systems."
In describing their findings, first of all, the two Australian researchers state that the reef islands of Tarawa Atoll "substantially increased in size, gaining about 450 ha, driven largely by reclamations on urban South Tarawa, accounting for 360 ha (~80% of the net change)." And of the 40 islands of North Tarawa, where population is absent or sparse, they report that "25 of the reef islands in this area showed no change at the level of detection, 13 showed net accretion and only two displayed net erosion." In addition, they indicate that "similar reports of reef island area increase have been observed on urban Majuro, in the Marshall Islands, again mainly related to human activity," citing Ford (2012). And they say that "a recent analysis of changes in area of 27 reef islands from several Pacific atolls for periods of 35 or 61 years concluded that they were growing (Webb and Kench, 2010)," likely "as a result of more prolific coral growth and enhanced sediment transport on reef flats when the sea is higher," under which conditions they note that "shorelines will actually experience accretion, thus increasing reef island size (Kinsey and Hopley, 1991)."
Biribo and Woodroffe conclude that "despite the widely held perception that reef islands around the perimeter of coral atolls are eroding and will disappear as a consequence of sea-level rise resulting from global warming, this study shows that the total area of reef islands on Tarawa Atoll has increased over recent decades," just as it has also done on many other reef islands.
Ford, M. 2012. Shoreline changes on an urban atoll in the central Pacific Ocean: Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands. Journal of Coastal Research 28: 11-22.
Kinsey, D.W. and Hopley, D. 1991. The significance of coral reefs as global carbon sinks - response to Greenhouse. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 89: 363-377.
Patel, S.S. 2006. Climate science: a sinking feeling. Nature 440: 734-736.
Webb, A.P. and Kench, P.S. 2010. The dynamic response of reef islands to sea-level rise: evidence from multi-decadal analysis of island change in the central Pacific. Global and Planetary Change 72: 234-246. | <urn:uuid:39c88d1a-defb-41f1-a5d2-70a274e7d9de> | {
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Last month I was at a Naomi Robbins’ workshop and she was pretty emphatic that dot plots are the better method of visualization, as compared to bar charts. The reason goes back to Cleveland’s early experiments on visual perception, which found that humans most accurately interpret locations on line, when those lines share a common axis. Even more accurate than length, which would be a bar chart.
The problem is that most of us use Excel and dot plots are not a default chart option. On Naomi’s inspiration, I used a little elbow grease to make it work. Here are the instructions. And I think you’ll agree that the dot plot really does allow for better comparison between two points over a side by side bar.
My data table looks like this. Fall and Spring columns hold my actual values (kindergarten readiness scores). The DOT SPACING values are just my placeholders. They’ll put the Fall and Spring values on evenly spaced lines.
First I select “Fall” and it’s values and “DOT SPACING” and it’s values and then insert a scatterplot.
Doing so produces something like this:
Then I right-click on the graph, choose Select Data. I edit the name of this series so it points to the cell with Fall.
Then I add a new series and select the Spring data for the x axis and again select DOT SPACING data for the y axis. That produces this graph:
And format each data series (right-click and select Format Data Series) so that the marker size is larger, more like 20. I change the reference point (Fall) to a gray color and I change the most recent point to my action color (red).
Then add data labels (right-click and select Add Data Labels). Right-click again and select Format Data Labels. Change the settings there so the labels display the x values, are centered over the data point, are white, bold, size 14 or so. Those adjustments bring us to this chart:
Finally, adjust the y axis so the top line is gone. Just change the maximum number on the axis to the highest number you have listed in the DOT SPACING values. Then delete that axis.
Also adjust the x axis as needed (mine needs to stop at 100).
Then add a title and subtitle.
Labels are trickier here, so I just inserted textboxes right over the chart. Here’s my final product:
So the key is to set up a hidden y axis of spacer values that serve only to put your data points on lines that are evenly spaced apart from one another. Other people also have methods for forcing a dot plot out of Excel – this one is really easy and totally free. Give it a try. It really does support comparisons pretty well, and would even if the number values weren’t displayed. Good luck! | <urn:uuid:d91ba6bf-b405-4c0c-aaba-f567a8fc51bc> | {
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Sea cucumbers play key ecological roles in the marine environment
- Category: News
- Published: Monday, 20 March 2017 08:31
- Written by Allain Bourgoin and Peltin Olter Pelep
- Hits: 1255
Allain Bourgoin and Peltin Olter Pelep
College of Micronesia, Marine Science Program, P.O. Box 159, Kolonia, Pohnpei FM 96941
Sea cucumbers are a vital part of the Pohnpei marine ecosystem. They offer a free cleaning service for our sea floors, keep ocean acidity levels in check, and share a symbiotic relationship with dozens of other sea creatures. However, due to their stationary lives in shallow waters, sea cucumbers can be easily collected for commercial profit. If harvesting strategies of sea cucumbers are not managed properly, they can be rapidly overfished, leading to “boom and bust fishing.” In fact, a single “harvest impulse” can impact the resource to the extent that there are not enough adults (brood stocks) left in the wild to be able to rebuild their natural populations. If this occurs, it can take years, if not decades before sea cucumber harvesting activities can resume. In some cases, restocking the harvested grounds will only be possible through reseeding with aquaculture-raised individuals: a very difficult and expensive task. Although impulse harvesting may generate short-term revenues for the local economy, it will likely jeopardize any hope for long-term returns and put at risk the health of sea cucumber populations and the reefs and waters they inhabit.
Other than the harvesting impacts, removing too many sea cucumber individuals from their natural habitats, notably the soft-bottom and reef ecosystems, can lead to much degradation of the ecosystem in which they live. A large number of exploited sea cucumber species are deposit-feeders, gathering organic detritus and sediments from the bottom substrate. Like earthworms, sea cucumbers swallow the sediment and extract the organic matter as the sediment travels through the gut. This process contributes to the marine environment by “cleaning” the sediment of various debris and microorganisms (bacteria, microalgae, etc.). Deposit-feeding sea cucumbers play the role of a person who regularly sweeps and mops a floor to keep it clean. If this activity ceases, the floor will rapidly become sullied and uninhabitable. The volume of sediment transiting through the guts of sea cucumbers is remarkable. It is estimated a single sea cucumber can process 4 to 37 pounds of sediment per year. Imagine the tonnage of sediment that is being processed on a yearly basis!
Sea cucumbers are also known as major “bioturbators”. Bioturbation refers to the process of overturning and reworking sediment layers by organisms. This activity mixes the surface and sub-surface sediment layers, which increases the permeability, as the sediment becomes more porous and less compact. This enhances the exchange at the water-sediment interface leading to higher oxygen supply in deeper sediment layers. In turn, this has beneficial effects on the infauna (organisms living within the sediment) community.
Another advantage of maintaining the presence of high densities of sea cucumber populations in their natural environment is their potential to modify the seawater chemistry. At a local scale, through their feces, sea cucumbers can increase the seawater alkalinity, which means that the seawater can become less acid. The oceans are slowly acidifying through global climate change. Acidification of the seawater will potentially have drastic long term effects on the degradation of the coral reef structure since acid dissolves the coral rock. By helping to prevent seawater from becoming more acid, sea cucumbers contribute to protect the reef structure itself.
Sea cucumbers are also the host to many small species of various taxonomic groups who either live on the body wall of sea cucumbers or inside the individuals. Without the sea cucumbers as a host, many of these creatures would simply be absent from the ecosystem. In turn, this variety and range of species forming symbiotic relations with sea cucumbers increase the total ecosystem biodiversity.
Finally, sea cucumbers serve as food supply to a number of predator species, thereby acting as a link between the microalgae and organic detritus (the sea cucumber diet) to the consumers of the higher trophic levels. Many of these predators are themselves fished by humans. In this way, sea cucumbers form an indispensable link in the marine food chain and their absence could have a cascading effect on other fisheries. In other words, without sea cucumbers we may have fewer fish to eat!
In summary, sea cucumbers offer many services to their ecosystem, notably: improving sediment quality, modifying the water chemistry, increasing biodiversity, and offering a link in the transfer of energy to higher trophic levels in the marine food webs. It is likely that large-scale depletions of sea cucumbers through excessive fishing will affect the productivity and diversity of the soft-bottom and coral reef habitats. Fisheries managers should consider these ecological benefits when developing and implementing policies relative to sea cucumber harvest. It could even be debated that the economic returns gained by protecting the sea cucumber stocks would largely outweigh the profits obtained when exploited unsustainably.
For more information relative to this subject refer the following scientific paper:
Purcell S.W., Conand C., Uthicke S., Byrne M. (2016). Ecological roles of exploited sea cucumbers. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 54: 367- 386. | <urn:uuid:affd497e-a63d-460c-8d01-9d18d514abda> | {
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A Chance to Ride
With the help of an Autism Speaks Family Services Community Grant of $25,000, The Kennedy Center developed a travel training curriculum to introduce independent travel on public buses and trains to young adults with autism spectrum disorders.
A great need exists for specialized public transportation training for individuals with autism. To better address this need, The Kennedy Center applied for an Autism Speaks Community Grant to fund a curriculum to introduce young adults with ASD to local bus and rail systems. The final product, A Chance to Ride: Introducing Young Adults with Autism to Independent Travel, is designed to help young adults with autism become more independent by understanding how to safely and effectively utilize the transportation options in their communities.
After an introduction and pre-assessment to evaluate the student's abilities with regard to transportation, A Chance to Ride is divided into six lessons:
1.Interacting with Individuals in the Community
2.Signs and Traffic Symbols
3.Pedestrian Safety and Awareness of Surroundings
4.Preparing for Your Trip
6.Expect the Unexpected: Dealing with the "What Ifs"
After these lessons that focus on introducing and assessing travel readiness for students with ASD, primarily in a group setting, the final section shares some of the expertise gathered over the years to help those using the curriculum to introduce the concept of fully independent use of public transportation to a student with ASD on an individual one-to-one basis.
The curriculum also includes assessments, social stories, dos and don'ts and various activities to use to help the student master the transportation system. Social stories included cover transit and community etiquette, how to read a bus schedule, using a crosswalk light and more! The training has been a great success to all those who have participated in terms of expanding their transportation skills and increasing their independence as a result.
"I was thrilled to discover a program that does such a thorough job of training an individual on the autism spectrum and covers all of the potential issues that may arise," one parent of a trainee said. "This has dramatically increased my daughter's independence as well as her self-esteem. The hardest part was mom and dad letting go - but we are both glad we did!"
"By the time our child took that first 'solo' trip on the public bus, we were confident that the independent travel would be successful, thanks to The Kennedy Center Travel Training Program," said another parent. "The trainer thoroughly covered the basics of public transportation - where to wait, how to pay the fare, when to signal your stop - as well as important lessons about being aware of your surroundings before, during and after the bus ride." | <urn:uuid:71c10192-fd20-4722-8102-0529cbca5ba4> | {
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For Immediate Release
December 23, 2010
Safe Driving Precautions for Teens
WETHERSFIELD – With the holiday season here the DMV Center for Teen Safe Driving wants to remind parents and teens that extra caution is needed as young drivers learn to operate a motor vehicle, especially during high-traffic times.
While the causes of accidents vary, novice drivers may not have the ability to know how to react to situations that can become dangerous very fast. Various studies have shown that teenagers’ brain development evolves over time and decision-making functions of the teenage brain are not finely tuned until about 25 years age.
“Our youngest drivers need to remember to be careful at all times when driving under any circumstances, to pull over if they are having difficulty, and they and their parents need to be following all of our teen safe driving laws,” said DMV Commissioner Robert M. Ward. "These laws are designed to help keep them safe while learning to drive."
Dr. David S. Shapiro, trauma surgeon and Associate Director of Surgical Critical Care at St. Francis Hospital in Hartford, said, "Being at the wheel is a great responsibility, not to just keep the passenger and driver safe, but to pay heed to others sharing the road. Give yourself extra driving time, extra room near you, and always concentrate on the driving as your priority. I'm the last one you want to meet at the holidays."
In August 2008 Connecticut enacted tough new teen driving laws that brought an extended curfew, longer periods of passenger restrictions, more comprehensive training and increased fines and penalties. Safety experts and medical researchers advise that an important role of parents is to provide their teenagers with as much supervised driving experience as possible.
DMV’s Center for Teen Safe Driving (ct.gov/teendriving
) has detailed information for parents and teens on the laws, restrictions and training information.
In addition to the teen-specific laws, new drivers and experienced drivers should also remember these other important cautions:
Lane blocking. Don't block the passing lane. Stay out of the far left lane and yield to the right for any vehicle that wants to overtake you. If someone demands to pass, allow them to do so.
Speeding. Obey the speed limits at all times and drive more slowly than the speed limit if road, weather or other conditions apply.
Drinking and Driving. Driving under the influence is illegal and carries strong punishments, including fines and license suspensions.
Distracted Driving. Pay attention at all times. Teens are prohibited from using any hand-held electronic devices while behind the wheel.
Tailgating. Maintain a safe distance from the vehicle in front of you. Dozens of deadly traffic altercations began when one driver tailgated another.
Signal use. Don't switch lanes without first signaling your intention, and make sure you don't cut someone off when you move over. After you've made the maneuver, turn your signal off. | <urn:uuid:3de80c73-9f16-46dd-bdcc-c5802e29f424> | {
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Particles and Air Cleaners
This page last reviewed November 26, 2014
Reducing Exposure to Particulate Pollutants
Particulate pollutants are found both indoors and outdoors. They include very small (often invisible) particles from combustion sources such as motor vehicle exhaust, cigarette smoke, cooking, and woodburning activities; biological components such as pollen and mold spores, and dust mite allergens; and fine fibers such as asbestos. Particulate pollutants can cause a variety of harmful health effects. These effects include cough, nasal irritation, lung infection, allergy symptoms, asthma, chronic lung conditions, cancer, and premature death. There are many actions you can take to reduce your and your family's exposure to particulate pollutants.
"Reducing Your Exposure to Particle Pollution" (Fact Sheet - updated November 2014)
The most effective way to reduce exposure to indoor pollutants is to first remove sources of pollution or reduce pollutant emissions. A second important action is to provide adequate ventilation. If these actions do not resolve indoor air quality problems, sensitive individuals may benefit from using a central air filter or a good air cleaner in one or more rooms of the house. Air filters and air cleaners can only be effective if they are properly maintained.
How to Select a Safe and Effective Air Cleaner
- "Air Cleaning Devices for the Home, Frequently Asked Questions" (updated July 2014)
- "Air Purifiers: Filtering the Claims," Consumer Reports, December 2007, Issue 12, pages 48-51. Posted with permission; for educational purposes only.
- AHAM Verification Program for Portable Electric Room Air Cleaners
Air Cleaners to Avoid
Not all air-cleaning devices are appropriate for home use — some can be harmful to human health. The ARB recommends that ozone generators, air cleaners that intentionally produce ozone, not be used in the home. Ozone is a gas that can cause health problems, including respiratory tract irritation and breathing difficulty (Ozone and Health).
- List of Potentially Hazardous Ozone Generators Sold as Air Purifiers (November 6, 2007)
- Fact Sheet: Beware of Ozone-Generating Indoor "Air Purifiers" (March 2006)
For more information on ozone generating air cleaners, please visit our website at Hazardous Ozone-Generating "Air Purifiers"
The guidance document below provides information on the sources and health effects of indoor combustion pollutants and discusses actions you can take to reduce your exposures to them.
- Combustion Pollutants in Your Home - Guideline No. 2 (html) or (PDF - 8 MB)
- Combustion Pollutants in Your Home - Supplement to Guideline No. 2
Other Sources of Air Cleaner Information
The final research report below discusses the results of a survey of 2019 Californians on their use of air cleaning devices.
"Survey of the Use of Ozone-Generating Air Cleaners by the California Public" (Final Research Report January, 2007)
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has produced a multi-page summary of research results on the effectiveness, cost, and health benefits of filtration, which is linked below. | <urn:uuid:5903c5b1-20c7-4ef8-bd38-a588213f9db3> | {
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Technological Style in Early Bronze Age Anatolia
A Dissertation Proposal Submitted to The Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
By Elizabeth S. Friedman
© 1998 All Rights Reserved
Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
University of Chicago
Approved * 26 July 1995
Table of Contents
- I. Statement of Purpose
- II. Reasons for Suggesting a Relationship between Metallic Ware and Metallurgy
- III. Distribution of Anatolian Metallic Ware
- IV. Methods of Analysis
- V. Summary
Technology, social and economic organization, ideology and religion are all systems operating together to form culture (Binford 1962, Epstein 1993). Each system is in reality a subsystem of the culture and each subsystem interacts with each other subsystem, they are not mutually exclusive. Separating these systems and studying them individually is simply a heuristic device enabling archaeologists to grapple with the various types of data. Most studies have resulted in quantities of descriptive data but they are unable to explain cultural change. Since technology is integrally related to the other subsystems of which culture is devised, any change may influence or be influenced by these other subsystems. If we are to make any attempt in understanding cultural change, we must look at the various technologies being employed, for technology embraces knowledge and behavior as well as material culture.
Most studies focus on lithics, pottery, metals or textiles but studies combining these industries are far and few between. C. Perlès (1986) is one of the few archaeologists who have acknowledged that the analysis of two different industries can provide complementary data enabling us to more accurately reconstruct prehistoric systems of culture. According to Perlès, we may pose the question, "dans quelle mesure l'industrie lithique et la céramique reflètent-elles la structure du système technologique et l'interaction de la technologie avec les autres domains du système social (1986:98)." This view of lithics and ceramics can be equally applied to metals and ceramics. By studying the relationship between ceramic and metal production we will acquire greater knowledge of ancient technology as a system operating in and representing both culture and cultural change, for culture is not static.
Technology is a body of knowledge which people use to manipulate their environment. Techniques are the methods with which this knowledge is applied. "Technology informs technique, which fashions material culture (Epstein 1988:20)." Thus, material culture is the physical manifestation of knowledge and technique. Technology is a unique system incorporating material resources, tools, techniques, related social behaviors, and meanings (Pfaffenberger 1988:241). In essence, the artifacts produced contain social and ideological significance.
Epstein (1993:42-43) argues that, "if one views technology as a system that goes beyond the action of tools on material, to include the relationships and ideas that move and guide the technicians, it becomes clear that style can not be separated from function." For style to be meaningful, it must be acknowledged by all members of the society. If the style is recognized by the society as bearing symbolic meaning, then the object is serving two functions, a "use" function and a "symbolic" function. In this vein, the culture's symbolic system puts limits on the choices available to the producer. Despite environmental, physical and social restraints which limit the selection of choices, the producer may still be faced with the choice between mechanically equivalent traits. This choice ultimately determines the producer's technological style.
Because there is always an element of cultural choice in the selection of any technological style, choices between equivalents in mechanical function must be attributed to cultural and social factors (Epstein 1993:42-43). If a population chooses one technology over another equivalent technology, we may then assume that the choices are laden with social, economic, religious or ideological meaning. People unfamiliar with technology usually gravely understate the degrees of latitude and choice open to innovators as they seek to solve technical problems (Pfaffenberger 1992:497). "It is because they manifest the choices made by societies from a universe of possibilities that techniques, in their most material aspects, form part of the scope of anthropology (Lemonnier 1986:153)."
By focusing on the relationship between ceramics, in particular metallic ware, and early metallurgical practices I hope to discern a particular technological style. Technological style "is a pattern or theme observed in the cultural choices people have made in the way they go about manipulating their environments. This patterning in behavior reflects patterns in the underlying cultural knowledge system, thus technological style is a construct that bridges technique, technology, and culture (Epstein 1993:43)." I expect this technological style to be representative of and unique to the southcentral Taurus region during the Early Bronze Age.
The production of metallic ware in Early Bronze Age Anatolia is a significant advance in the realm of ceramic technology. This dissertation will consider the proposition that the development of metallic ware in Early Bronze Age Anatolia is intrinsically related to early metallurgical advances. Reasons for suggesting such a relationship include the use of ceramic crucibles by ancient metallurgists, proximity of production, overlapping distribution patterns, and metal prototypes for the ceramic decorative techniques. Much research has been done on early metallurgical activities but our technical knowledge of ancient metallic ware is, at the most, fragmentary. I intend to investigate the technology used to produce Anatolian metallic ware to see if the pyrotechnology, tools and techniques were shared by the ancient metallurgists. I will examine the distribution patterns of the metal ores and artifacts and compare them with the known distribution of metallic ware to see if the trade networks overlap. I will collaborate in chemical and mineralogical analyses on the metallic ware to clearly identify it and distinguish it from other wares. Ultimately, I would like to retrieve the cultural meaning embodied in metallic ware, both its "use" function as well as its "symbolic" function.
Ceramic crucibles, which were fundamental to the technology of tin smelting in Early Bronze Age Anatolia, are essentially thick walled open vessels able to withstand heating at very high temperatures. Although crucibles are inherently part of metal technology, they also belong in a discussion of ceramic wares simply by the fact that they are made of clay mixed with water and temper, just like other ceramic material. Some of the crucibles from Göltepe appear to be made of clay mixed with chaff temper. Other crucibles, however, are made of a combination of clay mixed with chaff temper and clay mixed with quartz sand. The manufacturers of these crucibles obviously had some knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of using the different types of temper. Were the crucible produced by potters or by smiths? Were they manufactured in the vicinity of metal workshops or in the vicinity of potter's workshops? The actual site of crucible manufacture has yet to be determined.
n most studies of ancient society the arts of metal working and ceramic production have been analyzed as separate, unassociated technologies. This dichotomy is not sustained when we consider ceramic crucibles which fit into discussions about both metallurgy and ceramic production. Were the technologies shared among these craft artisans? There are ethnographic parallels suggesting such a partnership. "It is not fortuitous that in much of the western Sudan the potter is the wife of the blacksmith, but whether this association goes back to the early period of metalworking there is no way of knowing. All that can be said is that the pairing of potters and smiths is a natural one, since both need to know soils and minerals as well as the techniques of manipulating heat (Herbert 1984:5)."
Anatolian metallic ware is a very hard, handmade, quartz-tempered fabric fired at very high temperatures. This particular fabric withstood temperatures comparable to those reached in the process of tin smelting, i.e. 1100°C. There may be a positive correlation between the development of higher fired wares and the high firing temperatures used by the metal smiths. The development of higher fired wares is certainly related to the effective working of metals and may well have social implications of group organization (Matson 1956:361). By analyzing the vitrification phases of the pottery, I will be able to determine the range of firing temperatures to which the ceramics were subjected.
In order to examine the relationship between the production of metallic ware and the metals industry I need to know if these two industries employed similar techniques and tool assemblages. At Göltepe many groundstone tools used in the metal working industry have already been identified (Yener and Vandiver 1993). Since the potter's workshop has yet to be found, I can only make educated guesses concerning the tools and techniques involved in the manufacturing of metallic ware. In most cases, both the potter and the metal smith need to crush and grind their materials to reduce them to a powdery state and then remove the impurities by vanning (tin) or sieving (clay). I have no grounds for assuming that the potters had no knowledge of the metal smiths' techniques nor vice versa, that the metal smiths were ignorant of the potters' techniques. Considering that they shared knowledge of crucible manufacture, I take liberty in suggesting that some of the metal smith's techniques were used in the production of the hard-fired metallic ware. A more concrete example is the paddle and anvil used for beating or hammering, a technique shared by both potters and smiths alike (Trachsler 1965:145). This beating reduces the walls of the clay vessels to an even width while at the same time it can be used to smooth the seams and surfaces of vessels made of metal. The use of molds is another technique which is often used by both potters and smiths. I am interested in finding out which techniques were used in the production of metallic ware and if these same techniques were used by the ancient metal smiths.
It is no coincidence that Anatolian metallic ware is found in the Taurus mountains, an area rich in metal resources: silver, gold, copper, tin and iron. Moreover, a study of the central Taurus region revealed tunnel and pit mines, which on the evidence of pottery and radiocarbon dates, have been dated to the Early Bronze Age. Ore processing tools, crucible fragments and slag have found on various sites throughout the region. Furthermore, the tin mines at Kestel near Göltepe show clear evidence of being worked during the Early Bronze Age (Yener et al. 1991; Yener and Vandiver 1993).
Yener et al. (1991) have analyzed samples of ore and slag from ancient mining sites in the Central Taurus range for stable lead isotope ratios (Sayre et. al. 1992). The isotopic signatures of the slag match the signatures of the ores from the local mines indicating that the metals found in the slag did indeed originate in the Central Taurus. The authors then followed up this analysis with samples of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age metal artifacts from south-western Asia to see if the isotope ratios of any of those metals matched the ores and slag from the central Taurus. They found over fifty artifacts with isotope ratios that are consistent with one of the four known Taurus ore fields (Yener et al. 1991). These metal artifacts included samples from Tarsus, Mersin, Tell al-Judaidah, Hassek Höyük and Acemhöyük. The lead isotope ratios of these artifacts all point to an origin in the central Taurus region. Therefore, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the central Taurus mountains supplied Cilicia and the Konya plain with such valuable metals as silver, gold, copper, iron, and tin. Anatolian metallic ware has been found at Göltepe, Tarsus, Mersin, Acemhöyük and across the Konya plain. I would like to find out if the distribution pattern of Anatolian metallic ware overlaps the distribution of the early metal artifacts. Is there a positive correlation between the distribution of metals from the Central Taurus range and the distribution of Anatolian metallic ware?
Another, perhaps more overt relationship between metallic ware and early metallurgy is the influence of metal prototypes on metallic ware vessels. Did the potters derive some of the shapes of their ceramic vessels from extant metal vessels? Are some of the decorative techniques found on metallic ware reminiscent of metal working techniques? Does the metallic ware have hemispherical bumps or painted dots imitating rivets that we might see on metal vessels? Does it have dotted lines representing sutures or seams? Does the pottery have carinated or angular profiles, high handles, spouts, or ring-bases? Emre (1966:142) suggests that the technique of slipping and polishing gives a gloss of copper to the terracotta vessels. It is possible that metallic ware retained some of the formal characteristics of metal vessels such as shape, sheen and decoration but was simply made of cheaper material. Schneider (1989:48) suggests that the development of the hard-fired stone ware or Syrian metallic ware is related to the competition with metal and that it was not only the wish to make a denser and harder pottery but also to imitate a metallic appearance by producing grey to red colors, thus making pots look like used copper jars.
Were metallic ware vessels manufactured to imitate actual metal vessels? Did the populace desire metal vessels but were inhibited from owning them due to their cost? Or were metal vessels used as prestige goods and thus employed only by the elite? Very frequently people become satisfied with cheaper imitations of a more expensive product. As Trachsler notes (1965:140), "the imitation of an attractive but for some reason unobtainable prototype in more readily available and possibly cheaper material is a phenomenon of considerable anthropological and sociological interest." People would rather be satisfied with a cheaper imitation of a good thing rather than go without and the market is willing to absorb an inferior quality in the product as long as it answers certain specifications (Artzy 1985:136).
The Anatolian metallic ware under discussion has certain basic characteristics. It is handmade, tempered with fine quartz sand, and fired at a very high temperature. It is hard, thin, breaks along a straight fracture and makes a high pitched clinky sound when struck. Its color varies from buff to orange to brown. The vessels are usually slipped in a shade very near the color of the clay itself before firing or washed after firing. Some examples are slightly burnished. The most common forms of metallic ware are jugs with cylindrical necks, jugs with funnel necks and pitchers with rising spouts. Some bowls and cups are also made of metallic ware. The metallic ware from Göltepe is either plain or painted with a purplish-red or purplish-brown pigment. The most common painted designs are simple bands around the rim, a row of dots at the base of the neck, and wavy vertical lines. The jug with the cylindrical neck often has two opposing vertical handles set between the rim and the shoulder of the vessel. The pitcher with the rising spout usually has a single handle set between the rim and the base of the neck. Many handles have marks clearly inscribed on them. Lugs are often found opposite the larger handles just beneath the rim of the spout and sometimes on the shoulder. Because lug-shaped handles are attached both vertically and horizontally, Özten (1989:408) declares them not to be functional. This conclusion remains open to further investigation.
Metallic ware from Anatolia is similar to yet differs from the metallic ware found in northern Syria, the Amuq, Palestine and Egypt. Although all of these types of metallic ware share common traits of using quartz sand temper, displaying a straight fracture when broken, being thin, well-levigated, and very well-fired, they differ dramatically in shape, production techniques and surface treatment. In Anatolia, the most common form of metallic ware is the jug. In northern Syria jars and bowls are more frequent, in the Amuq the bottle dominates, in northern Palestine bowls and platters are more familiar, and in southern Palestine and Egypt the most ubiquitous form is the storage jar. The surface treatment also differs from region to region. In Anatolia the jugs are usually painted whereas the bottles from the Amuq are often slipped and burnished. In northern Syria there is no evidence of either paint or an applied slip and in Palestine and Egypt the storage jars are combed in the leather-hard stage prior to firing and usually treated with a thin coat of lime plaster or wash after firing.
Painted Anatolian metallic ware has been found in and around the Taurus mountains, in Cilicia and across the Konya plain (Mellink 1993; Yener and Vandiver 1993; Özten 1989; Özguç 1986; Mellaart 1963; Goldman 1956; Mellaart 1954; Seton-Williams 1954; Garstang 1953; Garstang and Goldman 1947). The distribution of this particular variety of metallic ware demonstrates that Anatolian metallic ware is common to the Taurus mountains and neighboring regions and in some places overlaps with Syrian metallic ware.
The Tarsus publication (Goldman 1956: fig. 247) depicts a number of vessels and sherds that look remarkably like the metallic ware from Mersin and Göltepe: a jug with a cylindrical neck (fig. 247:191), a pitcher with a rising spout (fig. 247:188), and various painted sherds (fig. 247:190,192,195-200). All of these pieces are described by Mellink (in Goldman 1956) as "light clay miniature lug ware," which is a thin, hard, well-fired buff-yellowish ware tempered with sand which gives it a gritty feel. The ware is uniform in section, implying that it is well-levigated. This particular variety of metallic ware is distinguished by the presence of small, pierced and unpierced lugs just beneath the rim or spout on the jars and jugs. Shapes include jars with cylindrical neck, jugs with rising spouts, two-handled jars, and bowls. Some of the pieces are burnished and then painted with a purplish-red pigment. The painted designs are similar to those found on the Göltepe vessels. Mellink (1992:215) suggests that the light clay miniature lug ware is a unique type of handmade painted ware, a "subgroup of the handmade "metallic" ware of the Konya and Aksaray-Nigde plains."
Two handmade jugs with rising spouts were found in an unstratified context at the bottom of Trench X in the excavation of Mersin.1 Both jugs are painted on their rims and handles and are very similar in appearance to those found at Göltepe. They each have a buff core, an orange-colored slip and are lightly burnished. The paint is brownish black. Garstang compares the shape of these vessels with a similar jar from Tarsus (Garstang and Goldman 1947, pl. XCII:4).
Mellaart (1954:189-196) describes the painted thin metallic ware from the Konya plain as being thin, handmade, buff or red, gritty, very hard fired and having a clinky ring when struck. The color of the exterior ranges from buff to apricot to brown and bluish gray or purplish black when overfired. The vessels are painted with thick dark red, brown, black, purple and white matt paint. Bands are painted around the lip of the vessel. Squiggles and rows of dots are painted at the base of the neck. As at Göltepe, incisions are found only on the handles. Shapes include jugs with cylindrical necks and jugs with rising spouts and lug handles are common.
One possible metallic ware jug has been recognized in the EB II levels at Kültepe. This jug was found in a cist grave in level 14. It is a brown, handmade, squat, loop-handled beak-spouted pitcher with a pierced lug just beneath the rim opposite the handle. Özguç notes that this form is foreign to the region and has its closest parallel at Tarsus in light clay miniature lug ware.2 Anatolian metallic ware has also been recognized at Acemhöyük in level 10 of the deep sounding (Özten 1989; N. Özguç 1983).
Metallic ware was first recorded on Early Bronze Age sites in Anatolia by Seton-Williams in her 1951 survey of Cilicia. This list was later appended by James Mellaart (1963) who participated on the original survey.3 Mellaart added four more sites to Seton-Williams' original list of 25, totalling 29 sites whose Early Bronze Age assemblages contained metallic ware. Mellaart later recorded metallic ware on 58 of the 135 known Early Bronze Age sites scattered across the Konya plain. A more recent survey of Cilicia was conducted in 1991 by a team from Bilkent University under the direction of Dr. Ilknur Özgen and Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates. Their survey would add two more sites to the list compiled by Mellaart and Seton-Williams but their pottery descriptions are not as useful, primarily due to the confusion over the identity of metallic ware on the part of the author.4
The metallic ware that occurs in northern Syria in the latter half of the third millennium is commonly referred to as "stone ware" by archaeologists working in that region (Orthmann 1986). It is called so because its shapes are similar to contemporary metal vessels and it has a metallic clinky sound when struck (Schneider 1989). Like Anatolian metallic ware, it is hard, well-fired, highly vitrified and has a straight fracture when broken. Stone ware, however, is fundamentally different from Anatolian metallic ware because it is wheelmade, not handmade. Stone ware is found across northern Syria in the Balikh and Habur valleys in contexts dating to the mid-late third millennium BCE (Schwartz 1992). Both Palestinian and Anatolian metallic ware are found in earlier contexts. Palestinian metallic ware dates from the early to mid- third millennium BCE5 and at Göltepe in Anatolia metallic ware has been found in sealed contexts whose calibrated radiocarbon dates read 2875-2587 B.C., 2865-2498 B.C., and 2451-2050 B.C. (Yener and Vandiver 1993). Metallic ware may be present in earlier contexts at Göltepe but this cannot be confirmed until the stratigraphy of the site is published.
Metallic ware is considered to comprise less than one percent of the selected sherd bulk from Amuq H (Braidwood and Braidwood 1960:370-71). The few sherds of this particular variety of metallic ware are described as being handmade, fired at very high temperatures, having a tough, brittle fabric with a straight fracture and a high-pitched ring when struck. The oxidized color of the exterior is orange-buff to orange-brown while the core is light gray. The vessels are thin slipped and burnished in vertical strokes. The clay is tempered with calcite particles from crushed shells which causes spalling on the surface. If this is truly metallic ware, then we must explain the presence of calicum carbonate (calcite) in a high fired ware when calcite usually decomposes by about 870°C.6 The Phase H metallic ware sherds all represent the "Syrian Bottle" form which makes its first appearance in Phase G in the quartz tempered plain simple ware, simple ware with orange-brown slip and burnish, painted ware, and possibly brittle orange ware.7 According to Matson (in Braidwood and Braidwood 1960:370), the low percentage of metallic ware sherds, their "crudeness" and their uncustomary temper8 suggest that perhaps the ware was imported, though Robert Braidwood considers the Syrian bottles to be locally made (Braidwood and Braidwood 1960:516).
One aspect of our Anatolian metallic ware not to be overlooked is the significant marking on the handles. To date, more than 30 different handle marks or patterns of incisions have been recorded from the Göltepe assemblage. Handles with incisions have been found in large quantities not only at Göltepe but on the Konya plain as well. It would be interesting to know if the handles with incised marks belong just to the painted jugs or if they also belong to the plain jugs. These different marks are obviously indicative of a recording system or potter's marks . If I could determine what the vessels contained then I cetainly would have a better understanding of the network of distribution.
I intend to conduct a number of analyses on the ceramic ware, crucibles, clay samples and pigment. First I would like to identify the chemical and mineral contents of the metallic ware from Göltepe. With these analyses I intend to distinguish the metallic ware from other presumed local wares. I would also like to compare the chemical and mineral contents of the metallic ware with local clay samples as well as the crucible fabrics. Not only am I interested in sourcing the metallic ware I would also like to source the type of pigment used on the painted vessels. Estimating the firing temperatures suffered by the metallic ware is also of major importance. A favorable comparison to the high temperatures reached in the tin smelting process could be indicative of shared pyrotechnology.
Compositional analysis or chemical characterization of pottery identifies the chemical elements of the paste or fabric of the ceramic vessel. I have chosen instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) as my method for identifying the chemical composition or "fingerprint" of the paste.9 This method is commonly used in provenience studies to determine where the clay originated and which wares are manufactured from similar clay sources. By comparing the results of the INAA tests I might be able to determine whether or not our metallic ware was locally manufactured. That is, if the "fingerprint" of our metallic ware matches that from one of our sources of clay, I might have reason to suggest that the ware was indeed produced up in the Taurus mountains. I would eventually like to compare our results with metallic ware found on the Konya plain and in Cilicia. Chemical analysis permits inferences about trade but it cannot, however, identify temper which has greater technological, spatial, and ethnic implications (de Atley 1991:215). This must be accomplished by methods of mineralogical analysis.
The simplest and least expensive method of mineralogical characterization of pottery is petrographic analysis which is based on the principal that optical characteristics of minerals are visible under a microscope. The two most common methods of petrographic analysis use a polarizing microscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to analyze thin sections of ceramic material. Petrographic analysis not only focuses on the large crystalline components of ceramic paste such as temper but it can also identify slips and pigments. A trained technician can identify the different kinds of minerals, the percentage of the various inclusions; the grain shape, type, size, and orientation of the minerals as well as their structure, how they interrelate, and if there are any voids in the paste. Moreover, petrographic analysis allows us to study the microstructure of the fabric as well identify the mineral phases or stages of vitrification which is an indication of firing temperature. Using SEM, researchers have studied the changes in ceramic microstructures as a function of changes in firing temperature and atmosphere.10
The purplish range of color is an obvious clue to the paint's iron-oxide composition though I would like to examine it just to be certain. If the mineral source of the paint is indeed iron-oxide, then I need to investigate the iron-oxide sources in the vicinity of Göltepe. Are these sources in any way related to the mineral ores used in the tin smelting process? It would be interesting to see if this source of colorant is also used on the painted metallic ware from the Konya plain and Cilicia. A study of the distribution of sources of iron ore may narrow down our source of pigment11 to the Nigde region of the Taurus mountains or I might find that this raw material was easily accessed on the Konya plain and in Cilicia as well.
One lone analytical method cannot provide all of the data necessary to enable us to answer our questions. The choice of instrumental neutron activation analysis, however, as a complement to petrographic analysis suits our needs perfectly. In compositional analysis samples are taken from the body of the sherd, in petrographic analysis samples are taken from the surface of the sherd or from a broken fracture. While petrographic analysis is appropriate for analyzing slip, pigment and temper, INAA is more suitable for studying the chemical composition of the fabric. What is crucial in our compositional analysis is to be able to compare our results with the vast quantity of data already stored at the Smithsonian and Brookhaven National Laboratories. For this purpose I need both qualitative and quantitative results.
One final aspect of this project is the ceramic analysis of the clay crucibles from Göltepe. While some of the crucibles appear to be composed entirely of clay tempered with chaff, others have a quartz sand-tempered inner layer and a fiber-tempered outer layer. During the tin smelting process, tin ore, flux and charcoal were placed in the interior of the vessel which upon heating to high temperatures (950°-1000°C) resulted in a blackened, reduced surface. The lower parts of the crucibles were set in the ground and exposed to a low firing temperature (700°-800°C), producing an oxidized reddish-orange surface. The interior of the crucible is hard whereas the exterior is soft and friable. It should be noted that the crucibles were not prefired as ceramics but rather fired for the first time with the tin ore charge in place (Yener and Vandiver 1993:228).
According to Tom Chadderdon (n.d.), the crucibles have a high amount of both quartz and chaff temper and their interiors may have been slipped before firing. If I do determine that there is a clay slip then I would like to know if it is the same type of clay used in "metallic ware" or any other ware found at Göltepe. I would also like to determine the clay source of the two types of tempered material found in the matrix of the crucibles. Were the crucibles manufactured from the same clay source with two different tempering processes or were they constructed from two different sources of clay with two different types of temper? Perhaps I will be able to identify such a division by petrographic analysis.12
I have at my disposal fragments from at least 33 different crucibles that I can take samples of for INAA. For petrographic analysis I have access to 24 polished cross sections from 15 distinct crucibles.13 I have 38 prepared samples of pottery for INAA which represent four different ware groups, though for statistically reliable results I will need to analyze more. For comparative analysis I need at least ten samples of each type of ware. I plan on obtaining more pottery samples from the Göltepe collection in the Nigde Museum. I will compare the chemical and mineralogical composition of our metallic ware with the crucibles and with the 23 samples of geological sediments already taken from the site. These samples, however, were taken from the habitation/workshop site up on the hill and since it is likely that the potters also exploited nearby alluvial and colluvial soils I will try to obtain samples from those clay beds as well. Samples will be taken from exposed cuts and subsoil contexts as to provide a representative range of geological source materials. I would eventually like to build a regional database of analyses conducted on metallic ware not only from Anatolia but from Syria and Palestine as well.14
Preliminary research on archaeological material from Early Bronze Age Anatolia indicates that metallic ware production and metal working are closely related. It is likely that both of these industries shared raw materials, tools, techniques and pyrotechnology. Moreover they possibly originate in the same area and participate in the same network of distribution. Analysis of metallic ware will provide us with information not only on ancient ceramic technology, but on other cultural systems as well. By my emphasis on technology I hope to discern elements of these social, economic, ideological and religious systems. Metallic ware is the tangible product of a behavior conditioned by these cultural systems. Thus, I expect the study of metallic ware to reveal fresh insights into the culture of southcentral Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age.
- 1985 Merchandise and Merchantmen: On Ships and Shipping in the Late Bronze Age Levant. In Acts of the Second International Congress of Cypriot Studies, Nicosia, 20-25 April 1982, ed.Th. Papadopoulos and S.A. Hadjistyllis, 135-140, vol.A/2 Nicosia: Society of Cypriot Studies.
- 1962 Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity 28(2):217-225.
- 1960 Excavations in the Plain of Antioch I: The Earlier Assemblages Phases A-J. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (OIP 61).
- n.d. Fabric and Refiring Characterisitcs of Ceramic Crucible Fragments. Unpublished manuscript.
- 1991 Potter's Craft or Analyst's Tool? A Century of Ceramic Technology Studies in the American Southwest. In The Ceramic Legacy of Anna O. Shepard, ed. R.L. Bishop and F.W. Lange, 205-223. Niwot, Co: University Press of Colorado.
- 1966 The Pottery from Acemhöyük. Anatolica X:99-143.
- 1992 Physical and Cultural Constraint of Innovation in the Late Prehistoric Metallurgy of Cerro Huaringa, Peru. In Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III, ed. P.B. Vandiver, J.R. Druzik, G.S. Wheeler, and I.C. Freestone, 747-756. Pittsburgh: Materials Research Society.
- 1993 Cultural Choice and Technological Consequences: Constraint of Innovation in the Late Prehistoric Copper Smelting Industry of Cerro Huaringa, Peru. Ph.D. dissertation in Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania.
- 1953 Prehistoric Mersin: Yümük Tepe in Southern Turkey, The Neilson Expedition in Cilicia. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
- 1947 A Conspectus of Early Cilician Pottery. AJA 51:370-388.
- 1956 Excavations at Gözlü Kule, Tarsus: Volume II - From the Neolithic through the Bronze Age. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- 1984 Red Gold of Africa: Copper in Precolonial History and Culture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
- 1986 Pyrotechnology and Pottery in the Late Neolithic of the Balkans. In Proceedings of the 24th International Archaeometry Symposium, ed. J.S. Olin and M.J. Blackman, 85-94. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- 1956 Techniques of the Early Bronze Potters at Tarsus. Appendix from Hetty Goldman, Excavations at Gözlü Kule, Tarsus: Volume II - From the Neolithic through the Bronze Age, 352-361. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- 1954 Preclassical Remains in Southern Turkey. Anatolian Studies IV:175-239
- 1962 Anatolia c. 4000-2300 B.C. In The Cambridge Ancient History, rev. ed., 7-53, vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- 1963 Early Cultures of the South Anatolian Plateau, II. Anatolian Studies XIII:199-236.
- 1965 Anatolian Pottery as a Basis for Cultural Synthesis. In Ceramics and Man, ed. F.R. Matson, 218-239. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology No. 41. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Inc.
- 1992 Anatolian Chronology. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, 3d ed., ed. R.W. Ehrich, 207-220, vol. I; 171-184, vol. II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- 1993 The Anatolian South Coast in the Early Bronze Age: The Cilician Perspective. In Between the Rivers and Over the Mountains: Alba Palmieri Dedicata, ed. M. Frangipane, H. Hauptmann, M. Liverani, P. Matthiae, and M. Mellink, 495-508. Rome: University of Rome.
- 1986 The Origin of Tell Chuera. In The Origins of Cities in Dry-Farming Syria and Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium B.C., ed. Harvey Weiss, 61-70. Guilford, Conn.: Four Quarters Publishing Co.
- 1983 1982 Acemhöyük Kazilari. V. Kazi sonuçlari Toplantisi:109-110.
- 1986 New Observations on the Relationship of Kültepe with Southeast Anatolia and North Syria during the Third Millennium B.C.. In Ancient Anatolia: Aspects of Change and Cultural Development: Essays in Honor of Machteld J. Mellink, ed. J.V. Canby, E. Porada, B.S. Ridgway, and T. Stech, 31-47. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
- 1989 A Group of Early Bronze Age Pottery from the Konya and Nigde Region. In Anatolia and the Ancient Near East: Studies in Honor of Tahsin Özgüç, ed. K. Emre, B. Hrouda, M. Mellink, and N. Özgüç, 407-418. Ankara: Tahsin Özgüç'e Armagan.
- 1986 Interprétation Comparée du Matérial Lithique et Céramique sur un Site Néolithique (d'après l'exemple de Franchthi), Greece. In A propos des Interprétations Archéologiques de la Poterie: Questions Ouvertes. Ed. M.-Th. Barrelet and J.-C. Gardin, 95-105. Paris: Editions Recherche sur le Civilizations.
- 1988 Fetished Objects and Humanised Nature: Towards an Anthropology of Technology. Man (N.S.) 23:236-252. 1992 Social Anthropology of Technology. Annual Review of Anthropology 211:491-56.
- 1987 Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- 1991 Specialization, Standardization, and Diversity. In The Ceramic Legacy of Anna O. Shepard, ed. R.L.Bishop and F.W. Lange, 257-279. Niwot, Co: University Press of Colorado.
- 1992 Statistical Evaluation of the Presently Accumulated Lead Isotope Data from Anatolia and Surrounding Regions. Archaeometry 34(1):73-105.
- 1989 A Technological Study of North-Mesopotamian Stone Ware. World Archaeology 21(1):30-50.
- 1992 Syria, ca. 10,000-2000 B.C.. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, 3d ed., ed. R.W. Ehrich, 221-243, vol. I; 185-202, vol. II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- 1954 Cilician Survey. Anatolian Studies IV:121-174.
- 1991 Approaches to Archaeological Ceramics. New York: Plenum Press.
- 1994 Prehistoric Sites on the Cilician Coastal Plain: Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Pottery from the 1991 Bilkent University Survey. Anatolian Studies XLIV:85-103.
- 1965 The Influence of Metalworking on Prehistoric Pottery: Some Observations on Iron Age Pottery of the Alpine Region. In Ceramics and Man, ed. F.R. Matson, 140-151. Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology No. 41. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Inc.
- 1982 Metallurgical Crucibles and Crucible Slags. In Archaeological Ceramics, ed. J.S. Olin and A.D. Franklin, 231-243. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- 1993 Tin Processing at Göltepe, an Early Bronze Age Site in Anatolia. AJA 97:207-238.
- 1991 Stable Lead Isotope Studies of Central Taurus Ore Sources and Related Artifacts from Eastern Mediterranean Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Sites. Journal of Archaeological Science 18:541-577.
*In accordance with the rules of the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations of the University of Chicago this dissertation proposal was approved by the dissertation committee and successfully defended at a public hearing. The members of the committee are:
- Aslihan Yener (Chairman)
- McGuire Gibson
- Tony Wilkinson
This document was published on-line for the first time on 4 March 1997, courtesy of the Oriental Institute Research Archives. The only changes from the version approved by the Faculty of the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations are some small changes to accommodate the HTML encoding, and correction of minor typographical errors. HTML encoding was done by Charles E. Jones. [Return to text]
3 Mellaart noticed that in the orginal survey, Seton-Williams erroneously called metallic ware "Base-Ring ware", a ware native to Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Upon reinvestigation, Mellaart concluded that this ware was not Cypriot ware but rather Early Bronze Age Anatolian metallic ware. [Return to text]
4 The ceramics from the 1991 Bilkent survey were published by S. Steadman (1994). Her descriptions of metallic ware are most confusing. Her metallic ware is wheelmade and often treated with a black wash laden with particles of mica. The metallic ware discussed in this paper is all handmade with no trace of such a wash. Furthermore, Steadman combines the brittle orange ware of Amuq H-I with the metallic ware from the Konya plain. These are most definitely two separate wares, manufactured in two separate regions and separated chronologically by hundreds of years, the Konya metallic ware appearing much earlier than the Amuq brittle orange ware. [Return to text]
5 J. Perrot describes the crucibles from the Chalcolithic site of Abu Matar in the Beer Sheva valley as being made of grey metallic ware but no ceramic analysis on these finds has yet been published. See J. Perrot, "The Excavations at Tell Abu Matar, neer Beersheba." Israel Exploration Journal 5 (1955):17-40. [Return to text]
6 The temperature at which calcite decomposes has not yet been agreed upon It may be as low as 650°C or as high as 900°C. See P.R. Rice, Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 98. [Return to text]
8 According to Braidwood and Braidwood 1960, crushed shell temper is present in the Amuq in Phase B at Kurdu in lustrous red-film ware (p.82), very rarely in the smooth-faced simple ware of Phase F at Tell Judeidah (p.230), and in a small percentage of the red-black burnished ware of Amuq H at Tell Judeidah (p.360). [Return to text]
9 This ceramic analysis will be conducted in collaboration with ATAM (The Program on Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials ) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. [Return to text]
10 See T. Kaiser, U.M. Franklin and V. Vitali, "Pyrotechnology and Pottery in the Late Neolithic of the Balkans," Proceedings of the 24th International Archaeometry Symposium, ed. J.S. Olin and M.J. Blackman (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986), 85-94. [Return to text]
11 Rice (1987:148) distinguishes paint from pigment as follows,"Pigment is the inclusive term for the coloring material, while paint refers to the action of applying a pigment rather than to a specific kind of material." [Return to text]
12 Some crucibles have already been analyzed by means of Wavelength Dispersive Microprobe, X-Ray Diffraction and Nondestructive X-Ray Fluorescence. See Aslihan Yener and Pamela Vandiver in AJA 97(2), (April 1993):207-238. [Return to text]
13 Fragments of crucibles have already been analyzed by Nondestructive X-Ray Fluorescence, SEM, Energy Dispersive X-Ray, and Wavelength Dispersive Microprobe. These results are published by Aslihan Yener and Pamela Vandiver in AJA 97(2), (April 1993):207-238. [Return to text]
14 Esse and Hopke conducted analyses on 58 samples of metallic ware from Syria and Palestine. Unfortunately, their results are not statistically reliable. Due to inaccuracies in their measurements, the data cannot be compared with other data stored at the Conservation Analytical Laboratory at the Smithsonian Institution. See D. Esse and P.K. Hopke, "Levantine Trade in the Early Bronze Age, Proceedings of the 24th International Archaeometry Symposium, ed. J.S. Olin and M.J. Blackman (Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986), 327-339. [Return to text]
ELIZABETH S. FRIEDMAN ©1998
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The vision of the NGCP is to bring together organizations throughout the United States that are committed to informing and encouraging girls to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
We talked to Kate Goddard, Outreach and Online Communications Manager, to find out more about what NGCP is doing to achieve its goal.
There's a shortage of women in STEM careers; what is your organization's unique role in addressing this issue?
The National Girls Collaborative Project was formed in 2002 to address this very issue: how can we increase opportunities for girls to pursue STEM careers? At that time we were hearing from programs that were running STEM programs for girls that they didn't have a community to connect with to share best practices and to learn from. At the same time we were hearing from businesses and professional organizations that had the capacity and resources to inspire girls in STEM, but they didn't know how to reach the girls.
So we set out to build a network and have been working to bring together organizations that are committed to encouraging girls to pursue STEM careers ever since. By focusing on collaboration, we are able to maximize access to shared resources, strengthen the capacity of programs that serve girls by sharing best practices and research, and ultimately we hope to use the leverage of this network to create the tipping point for gender equity in STEM.
What have you discovered to be effective in helping connect girls and women to STEM studies and careers?
Since our work is focused on building the capacity of programs that serve girls in STEM, we have developed a collection of exemplary practices for engaging girls in STEM that we share with programs in our network through the NGCP website, national webinars and our monthly e-newsletter. This collection of resources highlights research based strategies that help make the connection between STEM and future educational and career pathways for girls.
Additionally, research shows that one of the ways to inspire girls to pursue STEM careers is by connecting them to role models. FabFems, a project of the NGCP, is an online database of women in STEM careers who are interested in being those role models. Any girl or girl serving organization can visit, search for FabFems and make connections to empowering role models.
How does your approach change when focusing on youth versus adults?
The NGCP is a network of programs and organizations committed to increasing opportunities for girls in STEM that includes educators, higher education faculty, industry leaders, community-based organizations and government agencies. With these groups we have found that the NGCP collaboration model has benefited programs by increasing their efficiency and effectiveness, which leads to more opportunities for girls to experience STEM.
What milestones have you already reached or are you currently moving towards?
This September we celebrated our 12th anniversary and are thrilled that in these 12 years we have been able to establish a network that includes 31 Collaboratives, serving 39 states and working together we are facilitating collaboration between more than 12,800 organizations, serving more than 8.5 million girls (and almost 5 million boys as well!).
How can schools, professional organizations and companies work together to empower women entering STEM?
We believe that by bringing stakeholders invested in empowering girls in STEM together through collaboration we will create the tipping point for gender equity in STEM. For example, we know that many afterschool programs know how to facilitate great STEM programming, but they are often searching for role models who can inspire their girls to think about STEM careers. We also know there are a number of STEM professional networks, like the Society of Women Engineers, that have these great role models. By helping to make connections between these groups through our network and program activities, both groups benefit and the girls are better served.
Our Program Directory is one tool that helps make these connections. This database of youth-serving programs allows users to share resources and learn from others who are working towards the goal of inspiring more women and girls to pursue STEM careers. Anyone can join and search the directory for free, and each program entry includes valuable information such as contact information, program descriptions, populations served, and service delivery format.
For more information check out our full feature piece, 15 Innovative Initiatives Bringing Women Into STEM as well as the National Girls Collaborative Project website. | <urn:uuid:97c5f95f-5ece-40eb-94b6-9c841ae1d471> | {
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For those who have missed the previous 3 parts and the prequel. Here is the link to the last part. In it is links to the prequel.
The nuclear background
To be able to understand large eruptions you need to understand a bit about nuclear weapons. In this case there are several reasons why we need to do analogies with the darker side of physics and the volcanoes that we love to learn about.
But first we have to become archaeologists. Some of you might have noticed that when using carbon-14 dating you get a result with the time set to BP (Before Present), and if you have studied archaeology you will know that this means the year 1950. One might think this is just an arbitrary date, but it is not. This is the last year where you can do any atomic dating due to nuclear fallout from aerial nuclear weapons testing. It will take about 100 more years before it is possible to test our present time. Imagine, from the year 1950 up to 2100 there will forever be a hole in the chronology.
Now, those with a bit of pangeant for Cold War history will believe that the spike in the picture above comes from the Tzar Bomba test, nothing could be more false. The Russian Sakharov-designed nuclear bombs were much better designs than the American Ulam-Teller bombs. The Tzar Bomba used up 98 percent of the available fissionable material, the largest American bomb (Castle Bravo) only used up 13 percent. For all points and purposes every American hydrogen bomb up until the late sixties was a dud, albeit effective enough to kill people on a horrifying scale.
The highest point of nuclear material fallout is in 1963, and that date is one of the two used to calibrate ice core samples. It is easy enough to find. The other year used to calibrate the measurements is the Lakí event. The main reason for this is that those two show up in every ice core drill-sample in the northern hemisphere. It is a pretty handy tool for scientific comparisons between different glaciers and for calibrating timelines within the respective ice core.
The Lakí fallout trace is in two parts. First you will find an ash layer, the second part will be emplaced on top of the ash, and that is a sulphate layer, residual acidity from the sulphurous gasses released by the eruption that both stayed airborne for a longer period, and also was released up to a year after the eruption had stopped.
I have for quite some time known that something was wrong with the modeling of the amount of ash and dust ejected by the Lakí eruption. With the current figures of explosively expelled volcanic ash and blast dust (together with larger local fallout debris) we have a figure running around 1.3 cubic kilometers of Dense Rock Equivalent.
This figure is problematic since it cannot account for the fact that we can find traces of it in every ice core and at the same time account that ashes was collected as far south as Venice in Italy.
The current amount of ash is based on calculations with figures derived from the amount of local larger debris. As such the equations pan out, but it cannot explain the amount of ash in other parts of the northern hemisphere. There should in many places be no ash, or significantly less. Remember here that the amount of aerial fallout is just slightly higher than it was from Eyjafjallajökull eruption, and that is not possible to find across the globe. So something else must be at play here.
Calculating Nuclear Fallout
As any good scientists Volcanologists steal what they need from other scientific disciplines. In physics we steal a lot from the mathematical department. So, it is befitting that the Volcanologists raided us for the formulations to calculate nuclear fallout patterns when they needed to calculate volcanic fallout. The difference is normally so small that it should not matter really. But there are differences, some small and some so large that it becomes a problem.
First of all, as a physicist we differentiate nuclear dust (any dust that became radioactive during the detonation) and true radioactive byproducts from the detonation. The first part will behave like your average volcanic ash. It will drift around for a while depending on size and how high it was lofted into the atmosphere. The second part is basically atoms of fusionable or fissionable material that was not used up in the detonation. This will drift for a much longer time.
This is not so important really; it will though give a negative margin of error. Volcanic fallout normally travels shorter than the model gives at hand since you do not have traceable individual atoms.
There is though a real problem when using the model. The basic model was developed for the original small scale fusionbombs used over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. When we started to detonate the far larger hydrogen-bombs it was rapidly discovered that the formulations had less and less with reality to do. This was foremost a problem with the dirty American Ulam-Teller bombs.
Let us now for a moment get back to the picture in the beginning. The top of the mushroom cloud is at 56 kilometers height, and that is a full stratospheric injection of fallout material. At those heights any particles will pass several times around the globe before they drift to the surface.
We now have to answer a question. What is it that lifts ash up into the higher parts of the atmosphere? Most people believe it is the explosive force that lifts ashes up into the atmosphere, but that is not true. What lift the ashes are convective currents of air. In simpler terms, ashes ride upwards on the hot air rising.
The Tzar Bomba was an almost instantaneous event where a fireball 10 km across was created, and it was at its hottest as hot as the core of the star. In an instant flash of terrible beauty humanity had made a star on planet Earth. It created a cloud of ash that rose higher than anything in human history, but it contained only what it lifted during the first few minutes, and for a couple of months it drifted across the entire northern hemisphere before falling down, almost uniformly spread.
A volcano has a much lower power output than that, but if the volcano is big enough, and heats a large enough area and the eruption last for a sufficient time it will sooner or later rival, or even surpass, the amount of ash ejected into the higher atmosphere.
From Ashes to Ashes
The Skaftár Fires in its initial stage caused an 1800 meter high fire curtain, and it also heated a large area, this 1200 degree air and gasses sucked in air from all sides and created a tremendous upwelling of heated gas and air mixture. This created a bubble of denser than normal air to form above the eruption and into the bubble ash, dust, and shards of tephra was lifted. Anything heavy quickly fell down again as rubble, but the finer particles smaller than 2 millimeter hung there suspended at an altitude ranging from 13 to 18 kilometers. The suspended particles were then moved onwards on the higher air currents at high speed.
The particles then quickly started to fall downwards as the heated air and gas cooled at altitude, and they fell according to size and weight. What is interesting is the time it took. Before this it was considered to have happened rather fast and according to the basic function of the nuclear fallout model due to the assumption that the atmospheric injection stopped at a maximum altitude of 10 km (boundary level between troposphere and stratosphere).
How do we then know that the ashes reached a higher altitude? We know this from the fact that we can find ashes in all ice core samples across the northern hemisphere. We also know that the particle density is almost the same in the direction of the pass around the hemisphere as it is after circumnavigating the globe. The difference is that the heavier and larger particles are gone in the Greenland samples, but not entirely in the Svalbard samples. Incidentally, that also gives us the direction it travelled.
We know that the particle count in Svalbard is on average 250 particles per square meter, and that sums up to less than a gram per square meter. That does not sound a lot, until you start a bit of calculation. Now you say that less than 1 gram per square meter is not a lot to hang up in a Christmas tree. Only problem here… there are a lot of square meters if you sum up the polar zone and the temperate zone in the northern hemisphere. This is not a mathematics site, so I did the heavy math for you on Mathematica. The result is that the minimum weight given by the mathematical model is 25 920 000 000 tones. With an average density of 3 that gives an absolute minimum of 8.64 cubic kilometers of expelled rock in various forms recalculated into dense rock equivalent. Please note, this is the lowest value the modeling gives. This gives that the Skaftár Fires was ashier than previously believed. This may in turn have had an added effect on the climate beyond the gas emissions.
For those who are interested in ice core samples, ashes of Lakí and the gasses trapped in the ice cores of Svalbard I recommend the paper “The Icelandic Laki volcanic tephra layer in the Lomonosovfonna ice core, Svalbard” by Kekonen et al. Also, it holds a nice proof of the temperature shift going down in the year during and after the eruption. | <urn:uuid:937ab07c-ce29-4cd8-91df-9a8cbe7cad32> | {
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Challenges for Financing Environmental Infrastructure in China
Presentations by the China Environment Forum's Municipal Finance Study Group, made possible by a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Investment in Basic Environmental Protection Infrastructure in China
Over the past decade as air, water, and waste problems have grown increasingly serious in China's cities there has been growing pressure on the Chinese government to finance urban environmental protection. And yet, according to Du Ping, in order to accomplish the many goals for improving urban environmental quality set forth in the Tenth Five-Year Plan (2001-2005), Chinese policymakers face a momentous need to improve and expand existing financing mechanisms. Several challenges stand in the way of securing adequate financing for environmental infrastructure: Central and local governments have set aside only a small amount of funds for basic environmental infrastructure. Moreover, enterprises still lack incentives to finance their own pollution control technology upgrades. In those cases when industries borrow money for environmental infrastructure, they often struggle to cover operation costs.
Chinese cities have primarily relied on government allocations or commercial banks for wastewater treatment plants and other environmental infrastructure construction. Over the past few years, however, several new financing channels have emerged in China to fund such projects, such as:
- Central government treasury bonds. Beijing has issued over $147 billion in 2002 and 2003, a significant portion of which has been used for infrastructure spending. (For more details on treasury bonds see China Environment Forum's final report on this project)
- Foreign sources. The World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and Japanese ODA have financed a broad range of urban environmental infrastructure projects in China.
- Security markets. China's security markets include some 30 companies involved in environmental protection.
- Build Operate Transfer (BOT) projects. In 1999, the World Bank reported on a handful of urban environmental BOT projects in China. Since then, there are a growing number of both Chinese and foreign corporations emerging in the field.
- Provincial environmental protection funds. Environmental protection funds, usually drawing off of international nongovernment organization grants, have been created in more than 20 Chinese provinces.
- Foreign investment into local infrastructure. Local governments throughout China have been transforming environmental infrastructure into different forms of assets to attract foreign investment.
- Government incentives for small enterprises. The central government has adopted some policy incentives to encourage small enterprises to combine efforts to mitigate pollution effects with more cost-efficient facilities.
To encourage the emergence of more financing channels, China's Tenth Five-Year Plan (FYP, 2001-2005) included many targets to increase investments to improve urban environmental quality. The FYP environmental protection goals are quite ambitious, requiring an estimated 700 billion Yuan in investment. The central government has called upon local governments to resolve the more acute environmental problems, requiring urban centers to finance well over half of the goals (and nearly 400 billion Yuan share of the total investment). To get urban areas started, the central government committed 100 billion Yuan while local governments were expected to foot the remaining three-fourths of the bill—notably, an 80 percent increase over their past local environmental investment. Du Ping provided some examples of how central and local governments might reach these ambitious investment goals:
- Increase in central government investment. Central government investments have increased for urban environmental infrastructure through continuous issuance of treasury bonds over the past five years. The question remains, however, how long the central government can provide funds through this venue.
- Loans from commercial banks. In the past, the central government could order commercial banks to issue loans to local governments for environmental infrastructure and not be concerned about the ability of repayment. Concerns about potential financial instability from the growing amount of bad debt on bank books have led the central government to become more cautious in allocating commercial loans to local governments. Moreover, today, commercial banks often refuse to cave into government pressures to give loans.
- Encourage local governments to come up with more funds. Du Ping believes this is a strategy that needs to be more fully pursued. However, due to limited financing ability, most local governments can do little to generate local funds for environmental infrastructure. For example, even the governments of Beijing and Shanghai struggle to reach the Tenth FYP environmental investment targets due to limited municipal budgets.
- Additional foreign investment. During the Ninth FYP, foreign assistance for environmental protection was 5 billion USD. Estimates cite that this figure dropped to 3.5 billion USD during the Tenth FYP period. Future increases in "green" FDI for cities will depend on China creating attractive investment policies.
While the above investment strategies may cover current urban environmental protection financing, to ensure long-term investment funds many Chinese experts are exploring some U.S. municipal financing practices, such as bonds. Municipal bonds have been the core source of urban environmental investment in U.S. cities for decades. While adopting the U.S. municipal bond system would be very challenging for China, there are several means by which China could begin to create a foundation for establishing a municipal bond system in China:
- Adjust some existing laws and regulations. The term of municipal bonds needs to be relatively long. Therefore, without a mature legal framework to guarantee investor's interest, it would be difficult to attract investors to enter municipal bond markets. Du Ping noted that even China's national treasury bond and stock exchange markets over the past decade have suffered from the lack of sufficient laws and regulations to protect investors.
- Policy preparation. Du Ping noted that his participation in the Wilson Center municipal bond workshops and training seminars have helped him learn about some policy requirements for municipal bonds, such as taxation benefits. He reflected that while a number of local governments in China have tried quasi-municipal bonds through large enterprises, none have addressed essential policy changes to make this financing tool effective in the long run.
- Establishment of nationwide standards. Du Ping believes China needs to have the central government review and approve bond proposals and determine the scale of such bonds, for he did not think that in the near term it would be logistically feasible to have local citizens vote on such decisions in China.
- Minimize risks. China has some experience in risk management in terms of bank loans and other financial markets, but not in the municipal bond area. The extensive measures undertaken in the United States to prevent state budget crises around municipal bonds highlights how China could learn much on risk minimization from the U.S. experience.
As the end of the Tenth FYP quickly approaches with many environmental targets unmet, Chinese policymakers feel the pressure to adopt policy changes to reform the financing system for environmental infrastructure. Du Ping speculated that the upcoming Olympic Games and Shanghai World Expo could help to push the concept of municipal bond reforms in Beijing and Shanghai.
Reflecting on the financing demands of his own city Tianjin, which over the next decade will need at least 190 billion Yuan to clean up pollution on the Hai River, Wu Jinghua noted that he sees a great potential to issue municipal bonds in China. Developing a municipal bond market will be an arduous task, particularly because fee rates for wastewater and landfills are currently much too low in China. While water user fees in Beijing were recently doubled, such fees will have to rise much more to help create the necessary market for supporting bonds for wastewater treatment plants.
China's Enterprise Bond Market
Following Du Ping's review of investment in basic environmental infrastructure in China, Xu Xiaobo presented an overview of the past and current trends of the enterprise bond market in China.
Over the past two decades enterprise bonds have evolved from ad hoc experiments into a more standardized and thoroughly regulated system. Between 1984 and 1986 a handful of Chinese enterprises issued bonds without formal regulations or standards. These ad hoc bond issuances could be viewed as experiments, which helped guide the State Council to issue Temporary Regulation of Enterprise Bonds in 1987. Under this temporary regulation the State Development and Planning Commission and the Central People's Bank oversaw the issuing of enterprise bonds. 1992 was the peak year when 30 billion Yuan in enterprise bonds was issued. In August 1993, the State Council issued the modified regulations for issuing enterprise bonds to expand the range of enterprises. Specifically, in 1987 only nongovernmental enterprises could issue enterprise bonds, but under the 1993 regulations any enterprise with a legal status could issue them. This legal expansion in issuers was increased again later in 1993 when the National People's Congress passed the Corporation Law, which permitted corporations and other enterprises to issue enterprise bonds.
In 1999, the State Council decided that all enterprise bonds will be overseen by the State Development and Planning Commission (now the National Development and Reform Commission). In addition, the State Council decided to begin amending the 1993 Regulation, which now mandates that any new enterprise bond obtain special permission from the State Council.
The development of the enterprise market is significant in China in that it has helped stimulate capital for construction and accelerated economic development. Xu Xiaobo also felt enterprise bonds are significant in that they have introduced a sustainable alternative financing channel besides government subsidies, which has pushed enterprises to enhance their self-discipline and increase awareness of investment and the concept of risk. Such bond markets are also a way to prevent illegal investment mechanisms.
Since 1987, 250 billion Yuan in enterprise bonds were used to develop large projects in energy, transportation, communication, and urban infrastructure. Currently, enterprise bonds are traded in Shanghai and Shengzhen security exchange market, but there is no over-the-counter trading allowed by law.
In the early 1990s, the peak time of issuing these bonds, there were nine types of enterprise bonds—State Investment Bonds, State-Invested Corporate Bonds, Central Enterprise Bonds, Local Enterprise Bonds, Local-invested Corporate Bonds, Residential Construction Bonds, Financial Bond, Short-term Financing Bonds, and Internal Bonds. A tenth type of bond—the Transferable Corporate Bond—began being issued in 1998.
Main Obstacles to Enterprise Bonds in China
Xu Xiaobo concluded her talk by highlighting some of the challenges to China's enterprise bond market:
- Security exchange market scale is small. Enterprise bonds occupy a very small and slowly developing portion of the security market. Even though the bond and stock markets were started at the same time in China, the latter has developed much more rapidly in the 1990s. Because of the slow development in bond market investors are losing interest.
- The interest rate of enterprise bonds is less competitive. Current interest rates were set early to stabilize the entire market and bond interest rates cannot exceed 40 percent of total savings, which is not following the market rate.
- Bond investors demonstrate short-term behavior. Investors lack knowledge of investment and awareness of risk.
- Lack of a system to evaluate the issuing enterprise. A mechanism to promote self-regulation of issuers has not yet been fully established. The quality of service provided by intermediate institutions to monitor bonds is low.
- Lack of robust mechanism for risk management of bonds. Investors look up to the government whenever instability in the enterprise market occurs. There is no true social monitoring mechanism for the enterprise bond markets.
The Future of China's Enterprise Bond Market
While the enterprise bond market has become more standardized in China, Xu Xiaobo recommended additional changes crucial to assure a more thriving, sustainable market. The scale of the current market should be increased, while preparations should also be made to develop a second market. Additionally, the interest rates for enterprise bonds should be set by the financial market and not by the government. Xu also contended that to create a sound environment for the development of enterprise bonds, China needs to strengthen the fiscal self-discipline of enterprises, expand and strengthen the investor pool by building up their awareness of risk, and accelerate the disclosure of information on bond issuance.
In addition to the need for a monitoring mechanism for bond issuance, Xu suggested that China needs to consolidate a safety net for enterprise bonds. That is to say, an ability to pay back debt should be a prerequisite of bond issuance. Such a safety net would ultimately demand a reform of bond supervision and management; moreover, new independent intermediate institutions, not just the Chinese government, would need to play a supervisory role.
Drawing from some information she learned during the Wilson Center's weeklong municipal bond training, Xu Xiaobo emphasized that China's enterprise bond market should introduce an insurance system, create tax exemptions for bond investors, and utilize short-term mechanisms during the 30-year terms of the municipal bonds
Seeking New Mechanisms to Fund Wastewater Treatment
In major China's urban areas, the proportion of treated wastewater is the highest in the country, reaching nearly 70 percent. The situation in the countryside is starkly different. Despite the growing number of urban wastewater treatment plants, the quality of China's rivers is degrading rapidly—in great part from untreated waste flowing from industries in villages and townships. The main tool the government currently has to remedy this problem is to encourage commercial banks to approve special loans for these village and township enterprises to treat wastewater. However, Zhou Hongchun did not feel this is the best solution because these small enterprises are economically weak and it is unfair to tell them to "rely on the market." This problem underlines the need for new financing channels to meet these small-scale infrastructure needs. Zhou Hongchun and others in the study tour team felt the example of how the Maine Bond Bank pools bonds to help small cities build environmental infrastructure holds a promising model for China.
Zhou Hongchun discussed the challenges of funding wastewater treatment plants in China where despite the growing number being constructed only one-third are functioning well. Many wastewater treatment plants suffer from insufficient funding due to low fee collection and insufficient government monitoring and law enforcement. Notably, the quality of waste management in coastal provinces such as Zhejiang is much higher than the national average because of innovative public-private financing partnerships. Most common have been wastewater treatment plants built with government and international grants, with operations then financed by the enterprises. Most innovative have been private enterprises that are raising investment funds themselves and then inviting the local government to share in the investment (usually through bank loans, but sometimes with bonds). Because of the growing difficulty in getting bank loans, in some industrial parks private enterprises are combining funds to build and manage a large wastewater treatment facility for the whole park. Some of the more successful private wastewater funded plants have created a management committee of professionals to manage the fund. Build-operate-transfer wastewater treatment plants also are increasing in number in Zhejiang.
Despite some successes with public-private partnerships for funding wastewater treatment plants in Zhejiang province, Zhou Hongchun noted some obstacles that prevent such financing countrywide. Most seriously is the lack of mutual trust between the local governments and enterprises and the limited governing capacity of the local government to coordinate and set proper preferential policy and taxation among different enterprises.
Sheree Willis, Center for East Asian Studies, University of Kansas
Additional Study Tour Members:
Fang Zhi, State Environmental Protection Administration, Department of Planning & Finance
Shen Bing, NDRC, Institute of Spatial Planning & Regional Economy
Shi Yulong, NDRC, Institute of Spatial Planning & Regional Economy
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We have discussed that alcoholism is a specific type of addiction. The financial cost of addiction to the citizens of the United States is staggering. We can do no better than to quote the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), retrieved from their website: http://www.drugabuse.gov/infofacts/understand.html
"Drug abuse and addiction have negative consequences for individuals and for society. Estimates of the total overall costs of substance abuse in the United States, including productivity and health- and crime-related costs, exceed $600 billion annually (emphasis added). This includes approximately $181 billion for illicit drugs, $193 billion for tobacco, and $235 billion for alcohol. As staggering as these numbers are, they do not fully describe the breadth of destructive public health and safety implications of drug abuse and addiction, such as family disintegration, loss of employment, failure in school, domestic violence, and child abuse."
Data reported for 2010 (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2011):
- 51.8% of the U.S. population aged 12 or older are current drinkers of alcohol. This means an estimated 131.3 million people currently drink alcohol. This is similar to the 2009 estimate. It also means that roughly half the population does not currently drink alcohol.
- Nearly one quarter (23.1%) of the U.S. population aged 12 or older participated in binge drinking during past 30 days. This is about 58.6 million people. The rate in 2010 is similar to the estimate in 2009. The survey defined binge drinking as having five or more drinks at least 1 day in the 30 days prior to the survey.
- 6.7% of the U.S. population aged 12 or older, or 16.9 million people reported heavy drinking. This rate was similar to the rate of heavy drinking in 2009. The survey defined heavy drinking as binge drinking on at least 5 days in the past 30 days.
- 40.6% of young adults in the U.S. (age18 to 25) participated in binge drinking and the rate of heavy drinking was 13.6%. These rates were similar to the rates in 2009.
- 12.0% of persons aged 12 or older drove under the influence of alcohol at least once in the past year. The rate of driving under the influence of alcohol was highest among persons aged 21 to 25 (23.4%).
- 8.9% of the U.S. population aged 12 or older would meet the diagnostic criteria for a drug or alcohol use disorder (substance use disorder). This was an estimated 22.1 million persons. Of these, 2.9 million were classified with a substance use disorder of both alcohol and illicit drugs. 4.2 million were classified with a substance use disorder for illicit drugs but not alcohol. 15.0 million were classified with a substance use disorder for alcohol but not illicit drugs.
- 23.1 million persons aged 12 or older needed treatment for an alcohol or substance use disorder. Of these only 2.6 million people received treatment at a specialized addiction facility.
- Of the 20.5 million persons aged 12 or older in 2010 needing substance use treatment but not receiving it, 1.0 million persons (5.0 percent) reported that they felt they needed treatment for their drug or alcohol use problem. Of these 1.0 million persons who felt they needed treatment, 341,000 (33.3 percent) reported that they made an effort to get treatment, and 683,000 (66.7 percent) reported making no effort to get treatment. | <urn:uuid:7b39dba1-8ecc-4dff-85fe-a79a99efd0e3> | {
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[Part 1] Learning the Basics of Coding
by30 Mar 2012
Having learned how to code both within the vB3 and vB4 environment, I hope that making this article will provide those interested in learning beneficial advice and teachings within not only a vB environment, but anywhere PHP and MySQL is found. I have no problem answering questions and helping you understand parts as well as updating as needed.
I'm going to split this into (4) sections in (4) different articles: The Basics, Database Interactions, Advanced (includes "good" vs. "bad" code), & Security.
I won't go over each and every single function and language construct, but instead provide what I believe to be the fundamentals. A comprehensive manual of PHP can be found here: http://www.php.net/manual/en/index.php
Syntax is very important. The slightest error in syntax will cause the script to error out.
<?php - begins the PHP parasing.
?> ends the PHP parsing.
; -denotes the end of an instruction. Whenever setting a variable, echoing, calling a function, etc, always end with this.
// single line comment.
/* begin multiple line comment
*/ end multiple line comment
booleans - Simply TRUE or FALSE. Specifying booleans is case-insensitive, however, vB coding standards dictates you use all lower case.
booleans should be used when evaluating any true or false statement.
While you could assign $bool a value of 1 or 0, using true or false is preferred. Why? Because 1 and 0 are not booleans, they're...
Integers are numbers from negatives to positives. -56, 0, 56, 1092423 are all integers. 56.78 is not an integer- it is a floating point number aka "floats" or "doubles" (more later). It should be noted that integers have a size limit, although it is rare that you'll ever reach this limit because, on a 32bit platform, the limit is around 2 billion. Integers that surpass the limit will be interpreted as floats.
Integers can be used for math, or, in some cases, value checking when booleans aren't enough.
Floating point numbers are like integers, except they include decimals and the mathematical constant e. But for general purposes, you'll recognize floats as -5.6, 5.6, .001, etc. Floats are really useful for things like scores, and any type of math where precision into the decimals is needed.
Strings. The PHP manual says: A string is series of characters, where a character is the same as a byte. There is no limit on the size of a string besides the amount of memory of the computer running. Strings are most commonly specified with single quotes ' and double quotes ". Double quotes parse variables, carriage returns, new lines, and many others which can be found in a full list in the above link. In strings, the quote that specified the start of a string also ends the strings. You can still use quotes in strings by escaping them with a backslash \.
The above will print out: This is a sentence. 1, 2, 3, 4, '$foo'
The above will print out: This is a sentence. 1, 2, 3, 4, '5'
As a side note: echo is a language construct (not a function) that outputs one or more of its parameters. Its parameters are endless and are specified with a comma
Arrays PHP states an array in it is called an "ordered map". A map is "a type that associates values to keys". Arrays are great for looping through because they can have a number of values that would be impossible to guess.
Syntax for specifying arrays. You may specify a comma after the last element of an array but it's not good practice to do so. Key casting has its limits: Floats assigned as a key will be casted as an integer (5.2 will become 5), bools will also be casted as integers (true to 1, false to 0), and null values will become empty strings. Objects and other arrays cannot be assigned as keys; it will result in the PHP warning "Illegal offset type". If multiple keys with the same value are given the last one will overwrite the others.
Keys are optional. If a key isn't specified, "PHP will use the increment of the largest previously used integer key". You can specify the key for some elements and leave it out for others. Variables and $array[key] (see below) can be used to specify the key in $array[key].
Accessing array elements.
You may modify array elements the same way you modify variables (covered further down).
Resources are special variables that hold references to external resources (compliments to the PHP guide for that excellent way of explaining them). The most common use of resources within vB is a result of query_read in database interactions. More on that in article 3.
NULL represents no value. It does not represent 0, an empty string '', 0.00, etc. There is only one possible value of NULL: NULL. Unassigned variables and variables that have been unset are NULL.
You can think of unset() as making the variable NULL. Unset is a language construct.
On the subject of setting and unsetting variables, the language constructs empty and isset are also highly useful. Empty evaluates to true for empty strings, NULL, 0, 0.0, "0", empty arrays, and false. Isset, on the other hand, can be thought of "is set" and as such only evaluates to true if a variable is set i.e not null.
Like most language constructs and functions, isset and empty can also be used on array elements.
You can cast any variable a specific type by type casting it.
Variables can be reassigned, modified, destroyed, set, etc. Variables are limited by something called "variable scope". For example, variables within functions, by default, can't be accessed outside of that function and vice versa (variables outside of functions can't be accessed inside them). An exception to this is by using the keyword global. Personally, I recommend avoiding using global when possible as it may lead to some unexpected results (rarely).
While is a loop.
By making the condition "true" the loop will go on forever. No errors will ever occur in this loop; if $var was a constant (which would mean it would be VAR) then an error would occur as soon as we tried to reassign it.
A constants value cannot be changed unless undefined then redefined. Constant naming is the same as variables (no spaces, case-sensitive, can't start with numbers, etc). However, constants, by convention, are usually always all uppercase (makes it easier to identify them).
A constants value is not limited to a string. It can be any type and no special type casting rules are applied.
Remember what an expression is from algebra class back in high-school? Well if you don't, let me (or rather what I am going to quote) refresh your memory.
Originally Posted by PHP.net
What do you think the value of $bool is? If you're wrong I'll have to rewrite this article.
The if condition is one of the most common expressions. It is the core of any logical problem and even the most advanced coders will use a plethora of them.
What's the value of $a?
Return is a language construct, inside a function it ends execution (of that function) and returns its argument as the value of the function call. A return without an argument returns null.
Functions are considered expressions, albeit more complex ones. So what's $i? The answer is in the function's name.
One thing that surprises me, is the lack of knowledge of some operators. For example, what's the difference between the equal and identical operator? Any decent coder should know this, but I didn't learn this until about a year and half ago.
Operator precedence is much like PEMDAS (American) or BODMAS (English). While there's no exponents or brackets, there are parenthesis, precedence, and left to right ordering.
This is just like school. Addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc.
The most common one is "=". This is not "equal to" like in math. PHP.net says it best:
$five is set to 5 within the parenthesis.
With arrays, assigning a value to a key is not done using =, it is done using =>.
There are also further operators that are shorthand for more complex expressions.
Do you understand what . does in regards to strings? It's called the string concatenation operator.
I normally don't just link to the PHP.net version of the article, but going over each of the comparison operators would be too lengthy (char limit). So I will just go over a few of them.
!= Not equal
!== Not identical
The main difference between equal and identical is that in identical operators no type conversion takes place. That is to say, if you compared 1 to "1" with ==, "1" would be converted to an integer; whereas if == was === it would not be.
If this code was executed in PHP, your browser would see: 1 (echo outputs true as 1 and false as nothing).
PHP supports pre- and post-increment and decrement.
$i is now 0 again.
You cannot increment booleans or decrement NULL (nothing happens), but incrementing NULL gives 1.
You can also increment on characters (abc); however, you cannot decrement them.
What's $foo? It's: B
Logical operators are most commonly used within if conditionals.
There's only two of these. The concatenation operator . and the concatenating assignment operator .=
Are $a and $c equal?
Control structures have a very self-explanatory name. They allow for the structure of a code to be controlled. And, as such, they can be nested within each other infinitely as long you obey proper syntax. I don't recommend infinite nesting as you will die before ever completing such a task. All control structures are language constructs.
if is one of the most important constructs of PHP and any language really. It allows for conditional execution of code.
The if condition is an expression, and evaluates to a boolean value of true or false. True will execute and false will be ignored.
$bool is true.
else is used with an if condition. It executes when the if does not.
The else statement is not needed here because I initialize the $bool variable. This example is an example of bad coding because it is redundant. Redundancy lowers readability and efficiency without any benefits. More on efficient coding in the third article.
elseif like else, only executes if the original if does not. You can think of elseif as multiple elses. You must end with an else, however, you do not have to end with an elseif.
while is a loop. They are the most simple loops thus they are the fastest loops. They are most commonly used for fetching a mysql result (more in section 2).
While the expression within the while loop evaluates to true the code within the loop will execute. You can think of it as an if conditional that repeats itself (hence "loop").
do-while is the exact same thing as while with one difference: Its expression is evaluated at the end instead of the beginning. This means it always executes at least once.
for loops are the most complex loops, as such they are the slowest and, often, most misused. They have three expression, separated by (if you have been paying attention you should know what would separate these instructions) terminating the instruction with a semicolon ;.
The expressions are evaluated as followed: first, once unconditionally at the beginning of the loop; second, conditionally at the beginning of each iteration; and the third, at the end of each iteration.
Each expression can be empty or contain multiple expressions. An empty second expression evaluates as true and thus the loop runs forever (until your computer pwns u).
foreach loop only works on arrays and objects. They iterate through each element and provide the value OR the key and the value in temporary variables. They are very useful.
I could have given each loop it's own code segment, but the char limit looms over my head like the Dark Mark.
break ends the execution of the current loop. All, and only, those control structures, in the above code segment can contain a break (with the exception of switch). "break accepts an optional numeric argument which tells it how many nested enclosing structures are to be broken out of." (couldn't explain it better than PHP.net)
break 1 0; is the same as just break;
Your double indefinite loop has been thwarted by my double break. +5 mana boost.
continue, like break, only applies to loops (and switch). It is used to skip execution of the current iteration and continue at beginning of the condition evaluation. This means, a continue can also end a loop provided the loop will evaluate to false. Like break, it accepts an optional numeric argument: "which tells it how many levels of enclosing loops it should skip to the end of". Like break, 0 and 1 are the same as no numeric argument.
Your double break has been thwarted by my continue. +10 mana boost.
switch is similar to multiple if conditionals. It has one expression in the beginning, and uses case to compare the value of the expression. If the case evaluation to true code within it is executed. The switch statement will continue executing until there are no more case statements. Use break; (or continue within executed code to end execution for the switch statement. The default statement works like else and executes only if no matches were found to the other cases. break does nothing to default.
It is important to note that switch executes line by line. Just because one case was matched, doesn't mean another case can't.
require and include
Requires and includes are identical, except require on failure will halt script execution while include emits a warning but still execute.
They both include and evaluate a specific file.
Includes and evaluates global.php, a file vB uses to perform important code.
What's _once do? It check if file is included and, if so, not include it again. Including a file that's already been included will give an error.
Last edited by Pandemikk : 02 Apr 2012 at 00:56. Reason: typo corrections
Yet another PHP tutorial. But on vb.org what we really need is something geared towards vbulletin. i.e., How do we write a mod?
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Originally Posted by VidexYou write a mod using PHP
Making a mod is not the hard part, it's the actual coding in it. Anyone can create phrases and templates, but to actually have files and plugins that do something requires work.
Rap Battles & Hip-Hop Music - LyricalThreats
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I would have to say this tutorial is well written, right to the point and very easy to follow.
Good job Pandemikk
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thanks a lot....
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Explain distinct and sufficient in the world of coding
And will be available on all other codecs lessons
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Q: How did the word “mess” evolve from a cluttered, untidy condition to a place where the military eats?
A: You’ve got things backwards. The food sense of “mess” came before its untidy sense. Here’s the story.
When “mess” first showed up around 1300 (spelled mes in Middle English), it meant a serving of food or a meal, according to the Oxford English Dictionary.
Although English borrowed the word from Anglo-Norman and Old French, the ultimate source is the Latin verb mittere (to send or let go).
What, you’re probably asking, does sending or letting go have to do with food? Here’s how the Chambers Dictionary of Etymology explains it.
In Late Latin, which dates from the third to the sixth centuries, mittere came to mean to put or place. And missus, Late Latin for a course of dinner, referred to the putting of food on a table.
The OED says the original meaning of “mess” as a serving or a meal is now seen only in regional dialects or historical references.
However, the dictionary notes that another culinary sense of “mess” arose in the 1300s: “A portion or serving of liquid or pulpy food such as milk, broth, porridge, boiled vegetables, etc.”
Oxford points out that “a mess of pottage” appears in some 16th-century versions of the Bible “alluding to the biblical story of Esau’s sale of his birthright (Genesis 25:29–34).”
Here’s a secular example of the usage, from Shakespeare’s The Merry Wives of Windsor (1602): “I had as leeue you should tel me of a messe of poredge.”
And this is a more recent example from Tooth and Claw (1983), by the Australian mystery writer Gabrielle Lord: “She stirred the mess of lentils.”
Let’s back up a bit now for a new twist in the history of “mess.” In the 1400s, the word came to mean a small group of people who sat together at a banquet and were served the same dishes.
This usage evolved a century later into the military sense—at first referring to a group of soldiers, sailors, or marines who take their meals together.
The OED’s earliest example of the military usage, from a 1536 entry in the accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, refers to expenses for the “meis of marineris, gunnaris, and utheris.”
Later, the term “mess” also came to mean the place where such groups took their meals, especially groups of similar rank. Here’s an 1822 example in the OED from British military regulations:
“Commanding Officers are enjoined, when practicable, to form a Serjeants’ Mess, as the means of supporting their consequence and respectability in the Corps.”
So how did “mess” get its messy sense?
The Chambers etymology dictionary says Alexander Pope’s use of the term “in the sense of a kind of liquid or mixed food for an animal” led to “the contemptuous use of a concoction, jumble, mixed mass.”
In Epilogue to the Satires (1738), Pope refers to hogs eating each other’s excretions: “From him the next receives it, thick or thin, / As pure a Mess almost as it came in.”
It wasn’t until the early 1800s, according to the OED, that “mess” took on the sense of “a dirty or untidy state of things or of a place; a collection of disordered things, producing such a state.”
The dictionary’s first citation is from the 19th-century English theatrical producer William Thomas Moncreiff. In Tom and Jerry (1826), a character says he doesn’t use chalk because it “makes such a mess all over the walls.”
We’ll end with a more dramatic example from The Old Front Line (1917), a prose description of the Battle of the Somme by the English poet John Masefield:
“All this mess of heaps and hillocks is strung and filthied over with broken bodies and ruined gear.”
Check out our books about the English language | <urn:uuid:c9d4716b-7b7e-4d1e-91df-c9690c80fa95> | {
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Claim: Images show new designs for American currency that the U.S. government is planning to introduce.
Example:[Collected via e-mail, July 2009]
They said that these were the new American dollars — is this true?
Origins: One thing that many visitors to the U.S. remark upon is that our money is kind of ... well, dull. Redesigns of American currency undertaken in recent years (primarily to incorporate anti-counterfeiting measures) have added subtle bits of coloring to our primarily green bills and modernized the portraits featured thereon, but our Federal Reserve Notes are in many ways still the same old greenbacks we've
been using for several decades. Certainly the various denominations of U.S. currency aren't nearly as colorful or distinctive as those of a country such as Canada.
The examples of "new" U.S. currency shown above seemingly address some of those issues. Although they may still be primarily green and still include images of the same Founding Fathers, 19th century presidents, monuments, and government buildings as our current bills, they present a distinctly different look than any currency the U.S. has previously issued, and they feature distinctive colored bands that aid in distinguishing between denominations at a glance.
But ... are they real?
They're not real in the primary sense that they aren't designs that were commissioned by the U.S. government or are being considered or planned as a replacement for our current forms of currency. They're purely the invention of graphic designer Michael Tyznik, who created them as his entry in the Dollar ReDe$ign Project, basing his vision of currency redesign on the premise that U.S. bills are "aesthetically lacking":
American banknotes are in dire need of a redesign. Even though the green color of money is deeply interwoven into the nation's culture, the need for color differentiation between denominations has forced the inclusion of color. The recent redesign of banknotes by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is poorly executed and aesthetically lacking. Because the coloring of the current notes is so subtle, it is still hard to differentiate between denominations by that method alone.
My proposed redesign keeps the culturally important green color of money, but introduces a brightly colored holographic strip into each denomination, making them easy to tell apart. This strip includes embossed dots for the sight-impaired as well, making currency far more accessible.
Viewing the full range of Michael Tyznik's currency designs reveals that his set of Federal Reserve Notes omits the $1 bill but includes a $200 bill. This is because, as Mr. Tyznik notes in his explanation, he advocates replacing $1 bills with one- and two-dollar coins (as well as eliminating the penny entirely). The reverse sides of his designs also incorporate a feature not currently found on U.S. currency: the text of the ten Constitutional amendments that comprise the Bill of Rights. Mr. Tyznik explained the motivation for including this aspect in his designs thusly:
One of the most important things about America is our Bill of Rights. It is possibly the most important information any citizen can have. The design of our money currently contains semi-religious (the eye in the pyramid) and overtly religious ("In God We Trust") symbols and text that go against the incredibly important separation of church and state implicate in the first amendment. In my redesign, these are replaced with the text of the Bill of Rights. It has been proposed that these ten amendments are in order of importance, so it is fitting that the most important rights are included on the most common banknotes. | <urn:uuid:5d31dd22-3557-4881-8c09-f6f7e4b588c4> | {
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Toward Rational Exuberance
The author writes in his preface that, "The purpose of the book is not to marshal historical evidence to prove that stocks today are either too 'high' or too 'low'; it is instead to help the reader understand that evidence and what it means. Only in this way is it possible to fully understand the modern stock market and the central role it plays in today's economy."
Smith traces the major trends and events since 1901 that have made the market what it is today, but not before giving the reader a prologue of its checkered history in the boom-and-bust cycles in the preceding century. For added color, we also meet some of the rogues and rascals that were active at the exchange during that earlier time.
The year 1901 marks the entry point for the author because the creation of trusts, such as U.S.Steel, and similar events, first gave rise publicly to questions about the true valuation of a public company in that particular New Era. Thereafter followed the ever ongoing clashes between new and traditional methods for valuing stocks. This was also the period of time when Charles Dow wrote his famous series of articles in the Wall Street Journal, later known as the Dow theory, that developed an entirely new way of looking at the stock market, and having nothing to do with the earnings and dividends of individual companies.
Until the end of WW1, Smith notes that venture capital for new and innovative technologies was difficult, or extremely expensive to come by as the investment bankers of Wall Street still clung to the traditional methods of industrial stock valuation based primarily on earnings and (after tax) dividend payout. And the dividend payout had to exceed the bond interest rate by a significant margin to account for the "risk" factor in industrial stocks. Future earnings were still considered to be largely unpredictable. It was during this period that Charles Schwab and other like-minded individuals started to question whether the stock market was misjudging the potential of the American economy and therefore under-valuing industrial stocks. As well, Charles Barron was writing that outsiders could successfully invest in stocks because the longer term price performance would reflect economic trends and the changing fortunes of individual companies, thereby overriding then-prevalent concerns about insider manipulation of the market.
Conventional wisdom has it that the crash of 1929 heralded the onset of the Great Depression of the 1930s; however, Smith devotes a whole chapter to the subject and concludes that the facts indicate otherwise. In fact, his findings show that the crash of 1929 was not much different than many of the crashes during the earlier century and, by contrast, he points out that on October 19,1987, the market dropped twice as much, in percentage terms, as it did on the single worst day of the 1929 crash.
The 1930s saw the introduction of legislation, in the form of the Securities Act of 1933, and the Banking Act of the same year, that were designed to impose statutory guidelines on underwriters of new securities, and strengthen the banking system. Insider trading was curbed with the Securities & Exchange Act of 1934.
The year 1934 also saw the publication of Security Analysis by Ben Graham and David Dodd (considered to be the originators of "value" investing) wherein the authors sought to identify hidden value in the assets of a company whose stock price they considered to be undervalued. A few years later T. Rowe Price introduced the concept of growth stocks investment as a means for investors to protect themselves from the effects of inflation. However, it wasn't until 1952 that Harry Markowitz published a paper entitled Portfolio Selection that introduced the notion of a trade-off between risk and return, then going on to develop the portfolio concept of securities. Smith writes that "Markowitz's ideas, when they finally received the attention they deserved, turned traditional concepts of investment management upside down." Markowitz's work freed up investment managers from the Prudent Man Rule and thereby "made possible the rush to stocks by institutional investors that would characterize the second half of the twentieth century." It was William Sharpe who in 1963 developed a computer model for a diversified Markowitz portfolio, and then followed with identification of the two risk premium factors "alpha" and "beta" in the current parlance, if not use, by most investment managers. Eugene Fama then came along (in 1965) with his theory that in an efficient market, "securities are instantaneously priced to reflect all information available to market participants"; a theory that questioned the very existence of a portfolio manager because nobody could really expect to outperform a truly "efficient" market.
We're not yet in Fama's truly efficient market, although moving in that direction, and Smith warns that "…irrational stock prices pose a potentially dangerous problem for the Federal Reserve. The crash that will presumably occur if and when a speculative bubble bursts may severely test the ability of the central bank to keep the financial system, and the economy, afloat."
Smith concedes that the risk premium investors require has declined, thereby contributing to the rise in stock prices that has already taken place, but cautions that this process cannot go on forever and, "Once the market completes the adjustment to the 'new' risk premium, it will no longer rise faster than the rate of growth in corporate earnings."
Against this background of changing and evolving standards for valuing stocks, the author breaks up the century into discreet segments bounded by major political and economic events. An increasingly regulatory role by government, more often than not brought on by specific events, crises and scandals weaves its way throughout. Smith's research transforms what might otherwise appear to be a dry treatment of historical fact into a fascinating narrative replete with cameo biographies of the colorful personalities that have both brought about, or caused the stock market to evolve from being a primitive insider's game to becoming the economic force that it is at the present time affecting a large proportion of the population, both directly or indirectly.
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At Google, the only thing we love as much as science is science education. We want to celebrate young scientific talent and engage students who might not yet be engaged with science.
So, in partnership with CERN, the LEGO Group, National Geographic, and Scientific American we’ve created an exciting new global science competition, the Google Science Fair.
Students all over the world who are between the ages of 13 and 18 are eligible to enter this competition and compete for prizes including once-in-a-lifetime experiences, internships and scholarships.
We’ll be accepting submissions from 11 January to 4 April 2011. Students who make it to the finalist stage will be invited with a parent or guardian to our celebratory event at Google headquarters in California in July, where they’ll be able to showcase their project and meet some of the brightest minds in science today. We will select and announce our winner at this event.
The competition is open to students aged 13 to 18 from around the world working on their own or in a team of two or three. For more details, visit the Science Fair Rules page.
Here are some tips for getting started:
- Direct students to the sign up page to register either as individuals or teams of up to three.
- Discuss project requirements and entry process with students.
- Get familiar with Google Sites so that your students are prepared to complete their project submission. Their Google Site will become their official project submission. The Materials section is full of resources for using Google products to help students illustrate their work.
- Start immersing students in the scientific method using some tips from the table below and in our Science Resources section.
- Assist students in developing their project and learn along with them!
- Review the contest rules and FAQs with your students | <urn:uuid:6d289b41-b503-4820-9352-dd6fdc5813bf> | {
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It is no accident that we call enormous numbers "astronomical". Astronomers deal with quantities so vast, distance, mass, and energy, that they tax our imaginations and mathematical skills. But such vast quantities also provide some of the most exciting ideas the human mind can encounter.
We can determine the distances to objects in the Solar System, and to nearby stars, by Triangulation. If we observe an object from two stations a known distance apart, we can find the distance to the object. For objects in the Solar System, we can measure the position of a the object from different sides of the Earth. Observations of Venus crossing or transiting the face of the Sun, or asteroids passing very close to the Earth, were once used. Once we know the actual distance of any object, Kepler's Third Law allows us to determine the distances of every object in the Solar System. [Nowadays we can actually bounce radar signals off nearby planets and measure the distance more accurately this way]
The stars are so far away that they look the same all over the Earth. The farthest apart we can ever make observations at present is from opposite sides of the Earth's orbit, on opposite sides of an ellipse 186 million miles in diameter. When we photograph the stars six months apart, some of them shift very slightly because of the Earth's motion. You can demonstrate this shift, or parallax, easily. Hold up your finger at arm's length and alternately open and close each eye. Your finger will appear to move relative to objects in the background. For the stars, the parallactic shift is extremely tiny but it can be measured. The distances to the stars turn out to be so great that we need a new unit of distance: the
. The light year is not a unit of time; it is the distance light travels in a year, or about 6 trillion miles (10 trillion km)
Measuring parallax involves measuring very tiny angles. A degree can be divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. A quarter spans one degree at a distance of 1.5 meters. The Sun and Moon span about half a degree in the sky. A quarter spans one minute at a distance 60 times greater, or 90 meters. Venus at its nearest and Jupiter both span about a minute of arc in the sky. A quarter spans one second at a distance of 5 kilometers. The moons of Jupiter appear about one second of arc across. Astronomers routinely measure the positions of objects to about 0.1 second of arc and the Hubble Space Telescope, above the distortions produced by Earth's atmosphere, can see details that span a few hundredths of a second of arc.
Astronomers also use another distance term, the parsec. A parsec is the distance at which a star would have a parallax of one second of arc, or 3.26 light years. Parsecs are convenient because the distance in parsecs is simply one over the parallax, making it easy to convert the two units.
Hipparcos of Nicaea lived in the second century B.C. and left us the first star catalog. On August 8, 1989, a satellite named in his honor, the High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite, was launched by the European Space Agency. Despite an engine malfunction that left the satellite in a less desirable orbit than planned, the spacecraft gathered data on stellar positions and magnitudes until March 1993. The data were processed and finally released in catalog form in the summer of 1997. The data are of unprecedented accuracy and have completely revolutionized the determination of stellar distances.
Hipparcos worked by observing stars through two telescopes aimed 58 degrees apart. The light from the two telescopes was merged into a detector with a fine grid of wires. As the satellite rotated, different stars passed through the field of view of each telescope and blinked on and off as the stars passed across the grid of wires. These observations allowed extremely accurate relative positions of the stars to be determined. The relative positions of all the stars could then be combined into an extremely accurate catalog of star positions across the entire sky.
For 118,000 selected stars, Hipparcos measured their parallax accurate to .001 second of arc. That's the apparent diameter of a quarter at a distance of 5000 kilometers, or putting a quarter in New York and viewing it from San Francisco. It's also the amount the hair on a person a meter away appears to grow in one second. A secondary mission named Tycho measured another million stars to an accuracy of "only" 0.01 second.
Distances in older star catalogs look so authoritative that many people think the distances to the stars are known very exactly, but this is not true. For parallax measurements made from Earth:
The Hipparcos catalog of star distances has made older distance estimates obsolete and all new astronomical publications will use the Hipparcos figures. Even more accurate observational systems are in the planning stages. However, until there is a distance measuring spacecraft on continuous duty, capable of being aimed at new targets on demand, there will still be earth-based parallax measurements and these will be subject to the same limitations as the older measurements
The following table shows how Hipparcos has improved our knowledge of stellar
|Accuracy Level||Earth-Based Data||Hipparcos Data|
|1 percent||50 stars||10 light years||400 stars||30 light years|
|5 percent||100 stars||20 light years||7,000 stars||150 light years|
|10 percent||1000 stars||50 light years||28,000 stars||300 light years|
The earth-based data are approximate. Much of the improvement in Hipparcos is due to its being completely automatic, whereas earth-based data were combined by laborious measurements of individual stars. Thus, earth-based data were incomplete and of variable accuracy.
Films like Star Wars create the impression that travelling from star to star is only a bit more complex than driving down to the corner store for a loaf of bread. In fact, distances in the Universe are so vast it is hard to comprehend them. Everyday speeds will not begin to cover the distances in the Universe. For example, walking nonstop at a brisk pace, a person could cover about 75 miles (120 km) in a 24-hour day. If he or she could keep up the pace indefinitely, it would take about 40 days to cross the 3000-mile (5000 km) width of the United States, and about 11 months to travel the 25,000 (40,000 km) miles around the Earth. It would take about 8 1/2 years to travel the 235,000 miles (380,000 km) to the Moon, and 95 years to cover the distance to Venus at its closest.
In an automobile travelling a steady 55 miles (90 km) per hour, it takes about 2 1/2 days to cross the United States and about 19 days to circle the Earth. It will still take six months to travel the distance to the Moon. Venus, however, is 100 times farther away at its closest, and would be a 54-year trip. We are not even out of the inner Solar System yet. At 55 miles an hour, just under half a million miles (800,000 km) a year, the Sun is two centuries away. If we had started out from the Sun at that speed in 1 A.D. we would now have covered about 960 million miles (1.54 billion km) and would be just beyond Saturn, only a third of the way out of the Solar System.
In a jetliner, at 550 miles (900 km) an hour, we cover distance 10 times as fast as in a car. The United States is 5-1/2 hours wide, and two days will take us around the world. The Moon is three weeks away, Venus over 5 years, the Sun 20. Pluto, the outermost planet, is still 750 years away. The nearest star is still so far away as to be unimaginable: 52 million years.
At 18,000 miles (29,000 km) an hour, the Space Shuttle crosses the Unites States in 10 minutes and circles the Earth in an hour and a half. In 13 hours it covers the distance to the Moon, but even so would take two months to cover the distance to Venus and seven to cover the distance to the Sun. Pluto is still over two years away. The nearest star is still 160,000 years away.
Light, at 186,300 miles (298,000 km) per second, could circle the Earth seven times in one second and reach the Moon in 1-1/2 seconds. The Sun is about 8-1/2 minutes away at the speed of light. It takes light about 5-1/2 hours to reach Pluto from the Sun, but 4.3 years to reach the next star. % Scale Models of the Universe
It is impossible to make a physical model that shows Man, the planets, and the stars on the same scale. If we make the Earth a quarter (one inch or 2.5 cm in diameter), the Moon becomes a pea 29 inches (74 cm) away. The Sun is 9 feet (2.7 m) across and 1000 feet (300 m) away. Pluto is 7 miles (11 km) away, and the nearest star is still off the real Earth: 49,000 miles (79,000 km) away.
If we let the Sun be a quarter, the Earth is a speck 1/100 inch (1/40 cm) in diameter and ten feet (3 m) away. Pluto is more than a football field away: 350 feet (110 m). And at last we can begin to show stars in our scale model. The nearest one is about 500 miles (900 km) away, and it, too, is the size of a quarter, with a pea-sized companion star about 200 feet (60 m) away. Placing a single coin in each State capital covers the U.S. with coins more densely than space is filled with stars.
Most of the stars we see with the naked eye at night are within a few hundred light years. A few are as far away as 2000 light years, only about 1/50 the diameter of our Galaxy. We can only use parallax to determine the distances of stars within about 50 light years, a realm that bears about the same relationship to our Galaxy as a period bears to the size of this page. How can astronomers measure the distances of distant stars?
There are many ways to explain how we know the arrangement of the universe, but perhaps the clearest analogy is the City Lights Analogy. Imagine being on the roof of a tall building with no way to leave. At night you can see lights in all directions. How can you map your "universe"? For nearby lights, you can use triangulation. By observing from different locations on the roof, and measuring changes in the relative positions of the lights, you can determine how far away the lights are. Once you know how far away the lights are, you can determine their true brightness. In nearby towns, the lights are all too far away to measure their distances by triangulation, but you can recognize lights of the same types as those you see nearby. Since you know how bright these nearby lights are, you can calculate how far off the lights in the town are. For distant towns, you cannot even see individual lights, but you know how far away the nearby towns are, and how much total light the towns emit, so you can use this information to estimate how far the distant towns are. At even greater distances, only clusters of towns are visible, and finally only great urban complexes, but at each stage you can use what you already know to discaover facts about the more distant universe. We build our picture of the Universe in much the same way.
Within the range we can measure parallax accurately, there are thousands of stars of many spectral types. With the apparent brightness and distances of these stars known, it is possible to determine their absolute magnitudes. Distant stars of the same spectral types will probably have the same absolute magnitudes, enabling us to estimate the distance to the unknown star. For isolated stars, this is virtually the only method of determining distance. When we say that the bright star Deneb is 1600 light years away, for example, the distance is an estimate based on its brightness and spectral type. The distance could easily be 25% larger or smaller. Deneb is still too far away for even Hipparcos to measure accurately.
Another technique for finding the distances of faraway stars involves star clusters. On photographs of clusters taken many years apart, the stars move. Some stars will move at higher speeds than others, but the velocity will show a characteristic statistical pattern. We can also measure the Doppler shift of stars in the cluster to find out how fast the stars are moving toward or away from us. The star cluster has no connection to Earth at all, so the velocity pattern of stars along our line of sight should be the same as that across our line of sight. Radial velocity can be determined in kilometers per second. By assuming the range of velocities across our line of sight is the same, we can determine what angle in the sky corresponds to a known distance and thus determine the distance to the cluster.
The cluster method works out to a thousand light years or so. Fortunately, within that distance are stars that give us a yardstick to distant galaxies. These are the Cepheid Variables. Cepheids are named for a star in the constellation Cepheus, the first star of this type discovered, but the most famous Cepheid, and also the nearest, is Polaris, the Pole Star. Polaris is about 300 light years away and varies in brightness too slightly to be obvious to the unaided eye. Before Hipparcos, the distance to Cepheids had to be determined indirectly by the cluster method, but now the distances to several have been determined directly.
Cepheid variables are yellow-white giant stars that pulsate and vary in brightness, but in a regular way. The brighter the absolute magnitude of a Cepheid, the faster it pulsates. It is easy to measure the period of a Cepheid variable, and armed with this information, we can determine the absolute brightness of the star. Instead of using distance and apparent magnitude to find absolute magnitude, we compare the absolute and apparent brightness of the star to determine its distance.
Created 26 March 1998, Last Update 2 April 1998
Not an official UW Green Bay site | <urn:uuid:0fb83b84-faa7-47f9-9e7a-28a50b64d699> | {
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Preparing well solves all the problems. But what most students tend to do is that they focus too much on preparation and have no idea what problems they need to overcome to crack GRE and TOEFL/IELTS in one go. But if you are browsing through the internet articles and not being able to get a solid foundation on which you can start your preparation, this article may be an eye opener for you.
In this article, you will understand what problems you generally face as every one of you is unique and have different set of strengths and weaknesses. Thus a stereo-typical approach to preparation will not help you all in the similar fashion. We will discuss few most critical questions and you need to honestly answer that. If you are honest with the answers you will get to know how you should approach your GRE and TOEFL/IELTS preparation.
Few critical aspects in the beginning
To make it easy, do you think that you need to pay more heed to your verbal reasoning or you think you need some work on quantitative aptitude? No matter what conclusion you come up with, start right there. Don’t panic. Just start. May be this article is a good start for you.
Don’t try to set a hairy, audacious goal in the beginning. Most of the prodigious goals we set for ourselves will eventually make us overwhelmed and stuck in one place than providing inspiration to act right away. Thus, it’s always better to start small, super small. Set aside just 15 minutes a day for your preparation in the beginning.
Once you get comfortable with 15 minutes of preparation, increase your timing to 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours and whatever you feel required to succeed. You may ask that if you follow the ‘rule of small’, you may need to have a lot of time in hand. Our answer is if you would like to crack GRE and TOEFL/IELTS in one go, you better start preparing for the tests at least 6 months ago.
Don’t get overwhelmed by the scores of others. You may get to know lot of your peers who have cleared GRE with excellent marks. Don’t get intimidated by their score. Set your own target. Aim at it with all your preparation. And just fire.
Before going for the final exam, it is always better to take some mock tests. 2-5 are good numbers to practice. If you take mock tests it will be also clear to you that how prepared you are and if not, where you should improve upon. It’s said that what gets measured, gets improved.
Critical questions to ask yourselves
How willing you are to crack?
Often most of you may have been asked whether you are native speakers or non-native speakers. According to us, this is not a valid question. Because it doesn’t matter whether you are a native speaker or not! It all comes down to mostly one thing – Are you willing? If you are willing to do it by all your heart, it doesn’t matter whether you are a native speaker or non-native speaker.
Whenever students ask us about how to get through a tough test, our answer is always same – how willing you are to clear it?! And the students always get it how to prepare for the tests!
Do you have a habit of reading?
Reading will give you wings. It may seem an irrelevant topic in regards to GRE preparation, but the best way to prepare for Analytical Writing and Verbal Reasoning is a habit of reading all kind of stuff. Six months of reading may not be enough. But if you start since you start your graduation, it would be good enough time to master your muscles for English.
If you didn’t start your reading, don’t panic. Simply start today. Pick up any book which you have or which you can buy from nearby shop and start reading. Know the meaning of the words by marking them in the book and use it often in your vocabulary.
Do you write every day?
Most of you will get surprised to know that if you write daily, thinking power and creative ability will increase drastically over time. Just buy a dairy or a notebook and write every day at least for 10-15 minutes. You can write anything from how your day has gone to how you are planning to prepare for your GRE exam. This daily writing session will allow you to think critically and let you use words you have learned while reading books and materials.
Do you have basic aptitude for numbers?
Are you the one to who people run to solve problems? Or are you the one who can add up the numbers easily of a bill of multiple items. If you are naturally good with numbers, then with little practice (as little as 30-60 minutes a day of practice), you will get through Quantitative Aptitude in GRE. But if you feel you are not that good, you don’t need to worry. Simply start preparing a little bit more every day.
Spend 2 hours a day to prepare with 6 months in hand. You will be equipped to handle GRE’s quantitative aptitude questions as good as people who are good with numbers.
Are you good with tests?
Are you being a test junkie? Have you always been a good test taker? If so, you will clear GRE and TOEFL with flying colours. Why? Because at the end of the day what matter most in the exam is the way you perceive tests entirely. If you are panicky and get tensed, even after preparing well you won’t be able to crack it. Thus, build this test mentality and never get panicky if you find one or two questions hard in the beginning.
But suppose you are not a test junkie? What would you do? The best way is to take mock tests in regular intervals. Arrange the previous year GRE question papers or you can also get a lot of free materials online. Take mock tests. After 10-12 tests, you will feel that you are no more tensed about how your exam will turn out to be and gradually you will be well versed with GRE and TOEFL/IELTS tests.
If you follow the above advice, you will be more than prepared to crack GRE and TOEFL/IELTS in one go. But still here’s a summary you can remember.
- Don’t panic.
- Start super small.
- Read every day. Make it a daily habit.
- Write every day. Describe one or two experiences of your life in minute details.
- Practice quantitative aptitude every day for 30 minutes – 2 hours (whatever suits you)
- Take mock tests a lot.
- Start preparing for GRE and TOEFL/IELTS
- And lastly the most important question you need to ask yourself is – “Am I willing to crack GRE and TOEFL/IELTS in one go?” | <urn:uuid:78367f54-dddb-4917-847a-1aadf029b25a> | {
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Obese people have a less diverse array of bacteria living in their guts than do thin people—and the same holds true for dogs. In a new study, researchers fed seven beagles unrestricted amounts of food for 6 months, during which each dog gained an average of 4.93 kilograms—about 67% of their initial average weight of 7.37 kilograms. The investigators fed another seven beagles controlled food portions, and, as expected, this group did not gain weight. When the researchers examined the fecal samples collected from both groups after 6 months, they found that the guts of obese beagles contained a smaller diversity of bacteria than those of the other dogs. What’s more, microbes from the phylum Firmicutes were the predominant group in the lean dogs, whereas Gram-negative bacteria called Proteobacteria were prevalent in the obese group, the team reported online this month in the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. The researchers speculate that an abundance of Proteobacteria may lead to an increase in lipopolysaccharide, a major component of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria, which has been linked to weight gain in mice. More research is needed to examine what role gut bacteria may play in the development of obesity, however, the authors say. | <urn:uuid:24e2b4d9-2896-46d4-8d7e-5408afc002ef> | {
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A troubled girl is an adolescent female that displays out of control and negative behaviors. Usually there are detrimental ongoing issues within troubled girls, which is the reason why they display these negative, uncontrollable behaviors.
Most of the time, troubled girls that display these behaviors suffer from a psychological disorder. These adolescent girls are known to suffer from a combination of a few ailments such as: ADHD, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, anger management issues or anxiety disorder. Troubled teens have a difficult time directing through their racing emotions. Troubled teens lash out and display self-destructive behaviors, uncontrollable when a psychological disorder is added to their already fragile mindset.
Troubled girls, who cannot properly control their emotions, or suffer from psychological disorders, will usually self-medicate, or inflict harm upon themselves and others. These teens will sometimes choose to hurt themselves, self-mutilate, or turn to drugs and alcohol in order to run away from their own reality. Moreover, it is crucial for parents of a troubled girl to seek psychological and therapeutic treatment for their troubled girl. | <urn:uuid:2f31fac5-702f-4667-ad21-7f9aa981aa86> | {
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The mating behaviour of African Dwarf Clawed Frogs
African Dwarf Clawed Frog males are definding small territories. The are stretching their hind legs
in line with the body and standing on their strechted front legs to show other males their territory. Although this is the
calling position. In literature you can find advices to fights between males - called comment fights. By now I haven't watched
this on my frogs. If the frogs are alone in a extra tank the males are callign very frequently. Females need a tank without fish
to come in mating feelings. If you put both sexes in a extra tank sometimes it takes only a few days till the females are in
mating feelings. The males are grabbing the females in the lumbar region like this all primitive anurans are doing. The mating
time is the night after 11 PM.
Sometimes there are abnormal mating positions. There are homosexual positions, too. This is known
from other anurans, too. More details on KUNZ 1999.
Females which are not in mating feelings are shaking their body or moving through roots and plants to get out of the males
amplexus. Although a defense call is known.
Males are scratching fenals head with their hind legs to stimulate them.
Then the female wants to lay eggs the so called mating dance is starting. The pair is swimming circles and
on the water surface it turns over to swim on the back. Then the female lays some eggs (1<n<20). The figure of MÜLLER 1991 is
not really realitic. VON FILEK 1985 figure is better. Bur for these round circles no plants have to be in the tank.
On the next morning you have to put the parents or the eggs out in a extra tank. The parents will eat their
eggs. After two days the tiny tadpoles ar hatching hanging around the whole tank like little commatas. | <urn:uuid:37b36cbf-86ae-4231-b448-2167403bdf1f> | {
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Basic income — the concept of giving people money with no strings attached— is having anything but a basic year.
Three months ago, the Dutch city of Utrecht announced it would launch a program to give people on welfare unconditional free money. The plan was so popular that it has spread to more than two dozen Dutch towns.
Now Finland wants in on the action.
The big difference: the country wants to give money to everybody, not just people on welfare.
In response, the Finnish Social Insurance Institution, known as KELA, has proposed an experiment to allot a monthly income of 800 euros (or roughly $870) tax-free. The cash will act as a replacement for other social benefits like housing and income support, but people will get it whether they work or not.
In other words, free money for all.
If approved in 2016, the project would begin with a pilot program in which people receive 550 euros per month and retain their benefits, before the model moves on to the real thing. The majority of Finnish residents support the plan, according to a recent survey.
In purely democratic countries, like the US, basic income has remained on the fringes for decades. The Nixon administration tested out a form of the basic income model in the 1960s, but was met with little success.
"The biggest challenge for the basic income movement is convincing the larger public that it makes sense to redistribute economic resources to provide a basic income to all," Almaz Zelleke, a basic income expert and associate professor at NYU Shanghai, tells Tech Insider. It involves "persuading the public that a basic income should be viewed as a basic democratic right, like the vote."
In socially democratic countries, like the Netherlands and Finland, that idea has more legs.
Under KELA's proposal, Finns could take in additional income on top of the 800 euros, although it would not be tax-free. But given Finland's already high income tax rate, that fact alone could sway people come the formal vote in 2016. Today, someone making 70,000 euros a year in the country can easily see half of that salary disappear as tax.
Basic income's greatest appeal in countries like Finland is that it provides yet another safety net for people who've fallen on hard times. It signals to people that their government trusts that they want to work, but might not be able to. More practically, it gives them the cash to get back on their feet.
The research suggests this does happen.
One 2013 study showed implementing a basic income model for four years in Uganda led to people working 17% longer hours and receiving 38% higher earnings, mostly from the growth of small businesses.
However, some are skeptical Finland's proposal is viable.
Given the average monthly income currently stands at just over 2,000 euros, a reduction to 800 might cause some to bristle at such a steep pay cut. Plus, there is legitimate uncertainty whether the Finnish government can keep everyone on its payroll. One estimate puts the cost at 52.2 billion euros a year, despite a projected yearly revenue of just 49.1 billion euros in 2016.
According to Zelleke, the future of basic income still shines bright.
"Basic income is being more widely discussed than ever before," she says. "Ultimately, it's the conversation about what a basic income could mean if permanently adopted on a national or regional level that will bring about change, not the results of another temporary pilot." | <urn:uuid:7b7edafe-6e26-4ddd-9fd5-86b0df61548a> | {
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The concepts of health and sustainability are highly important in today’s society. To be sure, various organizations and individuals are taking action to help spread awareness of the interconnected nature of health and sustainability; as a result, information on the matter appears in numerous places, from newspapers to television ads, and even to advertisements in grocery stores.
Of course, as adults, we have the ability to learn about health and sustainability through various sources of media. But how can we teach our children about these important concepts?
Ultimately, one of the best ways to teach kids about any topic is by taking them on a field trip. So in recognition of October as National Field Trip Month, we have provided a list of four fun field trip ideas to teach your little ones about health and sustainability. Make sure your kids have access to one or more of these trips this year for an exciting way to learn about their health and the future.
1. Head to the Grocery Store
While traveling to the grocery store may seem more like an errand than an elementary field trip idea, in reality it can be highly informative for your children. To be sure, when traveling with parents, kids may not be aware of what’s in the aisles; but when going as a school group, they may be more likely to remain attentive.
When you’re in the store, ask questions about the source of the food, the ingredients used to make it, and the nutritional value. This is a great opportunity to teach the children about the importance of food produced locally, unprocessed food, and food free of any hormones or antibiotics.
2. Visit a Local Garden
Do your children understand the hard work and persistence that goes into growing even a minute amount of food? While food may appear on the kitchen table three times a day, children may not have an appreciation for the dedication that goes into growing it from the ground.
So before the last harvest ends, for a great middle school field trip idea, visit a local garden to view the food in its natural environment. Here, your children may be able to ask questions of local gardeners, witness the harvest in action, and even get a chance to pull a few vegetables or tubers from the ground. Doing so will help children obtain a better understanding of the process behind putting food on the table in front of them each day.
3. Schedule a Visit with a Beekeeper
This elementary field trip idea may only be available to children and families in certain areas. However, if you have a local beekeeper in your area who is open to visits, you should consider taking advantage of this opportunity to provide your children with a fun and educational experience.
What can your children learn when you take them to visit a local beekeeper? To begin, during this field trip your children will learn about the process that goes into making honey, a natural sweetener and undoubtedly a healthier alternative to bleached sugar or corn syrup. Furthermore, your children can learn about the symbiotic relationship between bees and flora, and how any damage to that relationship can have devastating effects on the ecosystem as a whole. This is an integral concept that ultimately relates to the entire idea of natural sustainability.
4. Plan Your Garden for Next Year
This activity is slightly different from the rest; for this field trip idea, you will need to spend most of the year planning and preparing to plant a garden in the spring, and then taking action towards the middle of next year. You can spend the rest of this season discussing what you will need to start your garden, such as hours spent planting, watering, and weeding, as well as the types of plants you wish to grow together in your garden.
What will this teach your children about health and sustainability? Most importantly, by planning and taking action later on, this field trip idea will help the kids learn how much work goes into growing even a small garden, including the physical actions of planting in the beginning and harvesting at the end. In addition to this, when planning on what to plant in the ground, the kids will learn about various types of vegetables and their health benefits in a balanced diet.
Learn About Health and Sustainability with Your Children This Year
It is entirely undeniable: the connected topics of health and sustainability are extremely relevant in today’s society. And while we, as adults, may be bombarded with information about these topics on a routine basis, children may not be entirely aware. As such, if you want your kids to learn about sustainability and health in the present day, consider these great field trip ideas for the upcoming year for a fun way to learn together. | <urn:uuid:eeebbeb4-0fee-4624-a50f-9fc45ad7a053> | {
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.- Responding to the designation of Archbishop Jose Gomez as the next head of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, the archdiocese’s paper has explained the role of the bishop in the Catholic Church.
It explains that the local church, called a diocese, is a “community of faithful” with and under the authority of their bishop. This bishop in turn is in union with the Pope and other Catholic bishops throughout the world. This global union of bishops is known as the College of Bishops, The Tidings says.
This is in contrast to other Christian groups which see individual church communities as autonomous and independent, joined in a voluntary association of similar communities. It likewise differs from presbyterial churches governed by a regional council of ordained ministers, or episcopal churches joined in union with a national body of bishops.
The local bishop heading a diocese is known as an “ordinary” and is the successor of the Apostles in his own diocese.
“Although the Ordinary is selected and appointed by the Pope, he is neither the representative nor delegate of the Pope in the governing of his diocese,” The Tidings says. “Rather, through bonds of charity with the Holy Father and with all other Catholic bishops worldwide, he autonomously governs his own diocese in union with theirs and so contributes to the universality of the worldwide Catholic Church.”
The three parts of a bishop’s ministry is to sanctify, teach and govern the people of God in his local church. This parallels Christ’s threefold ministry as priest, prophet and king.
These episcopal duties are mirrored in three points: the altar at which he celebrates the principal liturgies of the diocese; the chair, or cathedra, from which the bishop exercises his office of teaching Catholics; and the crozier, which he carries as shepherd and ruler over the local church.
The Tidings also notes the organization of the Church into dioceses and archdioceses. The United States, for example, is divided into 33 geographic areas called provinces, each of which contains two or more dioceses.
The diocese associated with the principal city or metropolis of the province is termed the archdiocese, while the others are known as suffragan dioceses.
The bishop of an archdiocese is called an archbishop, but the title does not give him real authority over the other dioceses of the province.
According to The Tidings, the Metropolitan Province of Los Angeles is made up by the Archdiocese of Los Angeles and the dioceses of Fresno, Monterey, Orange, San Bernardino and San Diego.
Los Angeles’ current and two previous archbishops have been made cardinals, a “significant distinction and honor” with additional responsibilities.
Keeping in mind that the principal title and responsibility of the bishop of Los Angeles is “Archbishop,” The Tidings says, “we prepare to welcome the appointment of the next Archbishop of Los Angeles.” | <urn:uuid:05d97a94-4f13-40f9-9344-2c03dae9a5d1> | {
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The International Commission for Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), the body that regulates animal species names, took a big step earlier this week when it announced that electronic publication of a new species name is now sufficient to make that name official.
Prior to the announcement, the ICZN code stated that a new species name only became official once it was printed. The stipulation was intended to ensure that records of species names were securely archived and would remain accessible over the long term, but for an online-only publisher like PLOS, it meant that we had to print and store physical copies of each paper describing a new species in addition to our standard online publication. To put this in perspective, PLOS ONE published 25 papers presenting new animal species in 2011, and has already published 32 in 2012, including the tiny Brookesia chameleons pictured at the top of this post, so this additional printing and archiving is not trivial.
Now, though, the Commission has decided to adjust their standards in response to today’s increasingly electronic environment. According to the ICZN press release about the updated rules, the change “is intended to speed the process of publishing biodiversity information, to improve access to this information, and to help reduce the ‘taxonomic impediment’ that hinders our cataloguing of the living world.”
It won’t be a free-for-all: new species names must be published in journals or books with ISSNs or ISBNs, so purely web options like blogs or Wikipedia are not sufficient, and before publication authors must register their name with ZooBank, the official ICZN online registry for scientific names of animals. Overall, though, the hope is to reduce the barriers to proper nomenclature monitoring and archiving. The updated code is also in line with similar recent changes to the regulations for naming new botanical species.
The update is part of a broader discussion around how to ensure long-term reliability and durability for any type of electronic records, and while this problem may not yet be robustly solved, we at PLOS ONE applaud the ICZN’s efforts to address the changing needs of today’s scientists.
Image citation: Glaw F, Köhler J, Townsend TM, Vences M (2012) Rivaling the World’s Smallest Reptiles: Discovery of Miniaturized and Microendemic New Species of Leaf Chameleons (Brookesia) from Northern Madagascar. PLoS ONE 7(2): e31314. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031314 | <urn:uuid:27a26361-2e8f-431b-9861-cf7e339bb0ab> | {
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There's new environmental legislation on the books in Illinois. Governor Pat Quinn signed three laws Thursday aimed at protecting ecosystems from invasive species, improving recycling and promoting green technology in plumbing. he governor says the measures reflect a shared "responsibility to do what we can to protect our natural resources." One of the laws establishes a task force to review recycling and solid waste management practices. It will have two years to deliver recommendations for improvement to the governor and the General Assembly. It also sets out recycling and composting standards. Another new law requires aquatic plants and animals to be removed from the exteriors of seaplanes and watercraft before they move from one body of water to another to protect aquatic ecosystems from invasive species.
Support Your Public Radio Station | <urn:uuid:582beb21-fa7b-4b14-a509-01e15d43356f> | {
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Space X has been selected by the NASA for providing the launch services in the month of April 2021, for a mission with the main objective of contemplating whole of the planet “Earth” .
With the initiate of the “Surface Water and Topography” mission which will be handed over to Space X Falcon 9 rocket, leaving off from the Launch Complex 4E in California’s Vandenberg Air Force Base.
It is the first mission of the NASA, with the objective of providing high-res computation of the world’s oceans, along with that the computation of the changes occurring in the ocean’s over a long period of time. A minimal of about 90 percent of the world will be immersed in the survey, which will be covering all the freshwater as well as the saltwater rivers, lakes, oceans and many more things. The main purpose behind collecting all this data and figures is to provide a support to the climatic science, as well as an endeavour for managing the freshwater approach for all the people living around this beautiful world.
Space X at present is having almost nine NASA operations on its way, with the inaugurate for the forthcoming agreement, but the problem is that it has not furnished with a explicit date for recommencing launches for the succeeding detonation of Space X rocket throughout pre-flight checks on a launch pad in the month of September. Space X CEO Elon Musk uttered on CNBC in premature November that the company’s launches could be resuming as early as in the mid of December, as the examination into the cause of the explosion nears an end. | <urn:uuid:93bb5ae7-cd10-4143-a13f-aa96e4662bb6> | {
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EPA Final Guidance on Environmentally Preferable Purchasing - Guiding Principle 2
Background and Overview
This section gives the reader a glimpse at the enormous impact purchasing decisions can have on the environment. Definitions and terminology are provided here.
What is Purchasing?
For the individual unfamiliar with purchasing as a business function, this section describes the purchasing exchange. Links include sample purchasing specifications, how to identify a green product?
Making the Green Purchasing Change
This section describes steps you can take to implement green purchasing in whole or in part at your organization. Specific recommendations are provided in the links to several different green purchasing resources.
Reasons for Change
This section identifies incentives and benefits inducing an organization to change to green purchasing. Some links are provided to case studies demonstrating benefits.
Where To Go for P2 Help
Readers will find lists of organizations, experts, and databases useful in finding more specific information.
Complete List of Links
Lists all resources cataloged in this hub. If you know of resources relating to this topic, please let us know. We will review all suggestions and include them in the hub if they provide non-biased information not currently covered.
The Topic Hub™ is a product of the Pollution Prevention Resource Exchange (P2Rx)
The Green Procurement Topic Hub™ was developed by:
Hub Last Updated: 2/26/2013 | <urn:uuid:a178a7c9-021a-47c2-9b0d-934076927510> | {
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It looks like the interior of any new, still-empty condo development. The ceiling is white. The walls are a neutral gray. It has yet to be staged, save for a lone Dyson fan that whirs in the middle of the room.
You’re looking at a home designed just for bees. Developed by MIT’s Mediated Matter Group, which focuses on nature-inspired design and fabrication, the Synthetic Apiary is both a research facility and an architectural intervention in a natural world where our pollinating friends are struggling to survive.
The world is getting less and less habitable for bees. While three quarters of the world’s crops are pollinated by species like bees, global bee populations are but half what they were in 1945. In fact, for the first time in history, several bee species have been added to the U.S. endangered species list.
“Our goal is to create a new artificial habitat for bees, not simply introduce them into our own,” writes the Mediated Matter Group via email. “Habitat loss is one of the main reasons for the declining population–the Synthetic Apiary is our response to that fact. It is made for bees, for them to rebuild, flourish, and thrive.”
The key word is “artificial.” While apiaries are all manmade and can scale the size of greenhouses, they traditionally allow bees to come and go. MIT’s apiary is completely sealed, meaning that bees can’t fly in and out to feed on real-world flowers before coming home for the night. The Synthetic Apiary is essentially a place where bees are raised in complete, protective captivity.
As such, the space has been carefully designed both for bee study and for their long-term health. The white and gray walls are not a coincidence. They make it easy to photograph and examine bee behaviors–a species that flies up to seven miles in the wild daily.
“Currently, most field studies face the challenge that bees are not easily trackable and can traverse great distances, so non-hive-based behaviors are very difficult to observe,” the team explains. “This is a novel space that can allow for more true laboratory style observation and experimentation, so we . . . could more easily understand what causes individual and hive behaviors and events.”
The rest of the space has been designed as a sort of bee paradise. Humidity and light levels are meant to mimic May, when beehives grow and flourish after the winter thaw. They’re provided with synthetic pollen and sugared water. The space itself has several subtle touches to ensure bees can live there safely. The lights were covered in fabric to mitigate the appeal of bright lights to the insects, and the injuries accrued by striking them repeatedly. This fabric, a mix of polyester and spandex, stretches between wooden crossbeams to block the crevasses and corners in the ceiling, preventing the bees from establishing hives that cannot be observed.
So far, the experiment has been successful, leading to what MIT believes to be the first bee born in captivity.
Could these internal habitats for bees scale to battle extinction? And if so, is it crazy to think that humans might actually share these environments with their bee friends? “In nature, bees and humans have coexisted for thousands of years–though of course in recent years this has been problematic,” the team writes. “We do think it could be sustainable at scale, especially as we observe more behaviors and learn to automate tools in the space.”
Though admittedly, such a future–where the environment is such a disaster that your condo building might have a bee unit–is hard to imagine, because who would want to knock on a neighbor’s door for being too loud, knowing a SWARM OF BEES was on the other side? Which is why it’s good that MIT is experimenting with non-human beekeepers, too–including the Kuka robot arms used in the manufacturing industry. “We could incorporate more robotics to deposit physical materials such as wax, or chemical signals such as attractants and repellents, to modify the environment and influence bee behavior in a planned and automated way,” the team writes.
The ultimate goals of Synthetic Apiary are still unclear. Is it the future of bee research? Or a model for human-bee cohabitation? Or just a means to restore bee populations, breeding them like wolves in captivity, before releasing them periodically back into the wild to go back to work for our crops? Truth be told, it seems like it could be all of these things–that is, if we don’t figure out a way to save our bees without inviting them into human-built housing first. | <urn:uuid:91bc1580-f0af-4bd4-ad25-d742ddf7e23d> | {
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The first writing ink was invented in 2500 B. C. by the Egyptians and the Chinese. It is believed that this ink was made by mixing carbon with gum. It was then shaped into sticks and dried, before use it was dipped in water and made ready for writing. Chinese inventor Tien- Lcheu was the one who made the ink by mixing soot from pine trees and lamp oils. Gelatin was also used with this mixture. Gelatin was made from donkey’s skin and musk. The black writing ink gained popularity by 1200 B. C. and people tried changing it by changing the ingredients to natural dyes, adding different colors which they got from minerals and plants. Nutgalls, iron salts and gum were also added to this recipe and it became the standard formula for the writing ink for a number of years.
In India ink commonly called “masi” has been in use since 4th century. This was made of burnt bones, tar and other substances. The oldest form of ink known as India ink or China ink is still used in China and Japan with a small brush. Architects, artists and engineers use this ink because of its bright color and permanence.
Nowadays the markets are full of variety of inks, to name a few marker inks, fluorescent inks, printer inks etc. The facts say that intake of ink causes headache, skin irritation and nervous system break down due to presence of pigments or solvents in ink. | <urn:uuid:fcfe959d-2b56-4fc3-a7f7-f70583c0e6b8> | {
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You might have heard, even love, TED Talks, but did you know that TED does more than talks?
TEDed Lessons Worth Sharing is a FREE but totally priceless resource for teachers and students (searchable by content). The lessons are short, sweet, and to the point and even come with a comprehension quiz. You can use these resources to:
Springboard new content
the list goes on and on and on...
Each Lesson Comes in 4 parts:
If you have a couple more minutes, be blown away by an example video below. You'll love how clear, concise, short, and USABLE it is.
***Please leave us comments about how you like the content of TXTS 4 Teachers, or how you might use this resource in your classroom. We would love to hear from you.*** | <urn:uuid:ff081fce-f34e-46a5-8749-8303fbbf54c7> | {
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In your next play or novel study assignment, integrate diagrams and fiction. Ask students to create one setting they can visualize from the work.
The response might take the form of an overhead transparency or computer presentation software slide.
As a group work, students could create a set of transparencies or computer presentation frames.
Excellent illustration of a close reading inside a terrific presentation project!
Return from Integrate Diagrams and Fiction to Integrating Real World Content hub page for even more ideas for integrated teaching steps!
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When it comes to dangerous behavior, the elderly and adolescents have much in common.
Mary Cazzell, the first graduate of the College of Nursing's B.S.N. to Ph.D. program in 2009, discovered this while studying adolescent risk taking for her dissertation. Her conversations with recent graduate Kathryn Daniel fueled the finding.
Risk-taking behaviors are controlled by the prefrontal cortex of the brain, which does not mature until the mid-20s. This area of the brain also deteriorates with aging.
Dr. Daniel is a nurse practitioner who specializes in geriatric patients, and both she and Dr. Cazzell are now nursing faculty members.
"Kathryn saw parallel behaviors between teens and many of her elderly patients," Cazzell says, behaviors like binge drinking, driving under the influence, and having unprotected sex. "The highest number of new reported AIDS cases are among the heterosexual elderly."
“IF YOU CAN LESSEN THE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BONE DECLINE BY IMPROVING BLOOD FLOW, THAT’S A GREAT HELP TO MILLIONS OF PEOPLE.”
For her dissertation, Cazzell used two recently developed tools to measure the propensity of adolescents to take risks. In the Balloon Analog Risk Task, developed at the University of Maryland, subjects use a computer mouse to click a pump that inflates a balloon on the screen. Each pump of the balloon with no explosion places money into a reserve. The objective is to get the largest amount of money while avoiding explosions.
Should subjects pop their balloons, they lose the money and another balloon appears. At any time during play, subjects can click "collect money" and transfer the amount from a temporary bank account to a safe, permanent account.
The other tool was the Tower of Hanoi mathematical puzzle. Previous studies compared substance-involved adolescents with a control group of youth on their Tower of Hanoi performance. There were significantly different error patterns in the two groups, with the substance involved making more moves and spending less time per move.
After Cazzell's study with the adolescents was complete, Daniel entered the picture as principal investigator on a study to determine if the two tools would be effective in assessing subjects over 65.
"We know that many of the elderly have a problem with impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors," Daniel says. "We were looking for a tool that could identify those with that proclivity, before they have a problem."
Associate Dean of Nursing Research Carolyn Cason played a pivotal role in designing the study. For example, the length of the Tower of Hanoi test was problematic.
"We knew we could not get an over-65 group to sit still for 22 separate problems," Cason says. "I provided the psychometric guidance on how many problems and which ones to include with the older group."
As data collection neared completion, a pattern emerged: Risk taking can be accurately predicted in the elderly, just as with adolescents. | <urn:uuid:61af7182-d5a6-49e1-9309-607530bbe6e8> | {
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A Primer on Blepharitis
A Primer on Blepharitis
ANDREW S. MORGENSTERN, O.D., Rockville, Md., & IAN D. RADEN, O.D., San Antonio, Texas
You must reinforce your knowledge of the signs and symptoms, risk factors and treatment of blepharitis for two reasons:
1. It can lead to several significant ocular complications (see "Complications of Blepharitis," page 44).
2. You can educate general practitioners who eventually refer cases to you that this is a chronic condition that can result in sight-threatening corneal changes if left unmanaged.
Complaints and culprits
Patients who have blepharitis present with redness and inflammation of the anterior and/or posterior lid(s). They also have a crust-like substance or flaky debris at the base of their eyelashes.
Symptoms include stinging, itching, foreign-body sensation or burning, excessive tearing, dry eye, photophobia and blurred vision.
Anterior blepharitis is most commonly caused by scalp dandruff (seborrheic dermatitis) and a build-up of bacteria (Staphylococcus). Both become fixed in and around the base of the eyelashes.
Dandruff is a normal function of the scalp, but when the skin turnover becomes more frequent, noticeable buildup occurs. The two different causes of scalp dandruff are internal and external. Some of the internal causes: hormonal imbalance, poor hygiene, poor health, allergies, stress, lack of sleep, type (heavy in sugars) of diet, poor diet, lifestyle, hygiene and genetics.
|Knowledge of this lid disease will enable you to educate your patients and their primary-care physicians on its potential to cause serious ocular problems.|
Some of the external causes are cold weather, dry, indoor heating, cosmetic sprays, gels, make-up and failure to clean lids and lashes.
Bacteria is part of the normal flora of our lids and lashes. When there is an overproduction of bacteria or a lack of hygiene, the bacteria can overwhelm the tissue. An over-abundance of bacteria eventually leads to blepharitis and in some cases infection of the affected tissue.
Meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD), which is the inflammation and clogging of the glands, causes the posterior form of blepharitis. As the meibomian glands produce oil, these oils must be released into the tears to create a healthy tear layer. If the glands become congested, they can produce sebum that sometimes appears as a "frothy" tear lake.
The sebum is produced when the gland cannot work efficiently to secrete oils. As the sebum dries up, it may attach to the lid or lash to become apparent as blepharitis.
Without proper hygiene, the consequences affect the palpebral and or bulbar conjunctiva, producing a process known as blepharo-conjunctivitis. If the cornea is involved, the condition may be described as blepharo-keratoconjunctivitis.
Patients at risk
Blepharitis has three risk factors:
► acne. Scalp dandruff (seborrhoeic dermatitis), acne vulgaris (pimples) and acne rosacea have been implicated as causes for posterior blepharitis. These conditions predispose patients to blepharitis mainly by creating an environment on the skin that congests all the oil-producing glands necessary for a healthy dermis and epidermis.
► poor lid hygiene and certain foods. Blepharitis is an end point of a continuum that may begin with poor lid hygiene. Since our lids are used to protecting and clearing our ocular surface, failure to remove all the offending agents collected throughout the day, results in these agents working against a healthy lid and ocular surface. Certain foods that contain sugar and/or artificial sweeteners, such as cereal, catsup and salad dressing, can exacerbate issues that affect the skin. Spicy foods have also been implicated.
► compromised immune system. An intact and healthy immune system can help protect the lids and lashes from overproduction of the bacteria that causes blepharitis.
Much of the elderly population has all three of the aforementioned risk factors, so it should come as no surprise that blepharitis is most prevalent in this group.
Many elderly individuals have physical limitations that prevent them from practicing proper hygiene. In addition, it's widely known that as the body ages, the immune system weakens.1 And, acne rosacea, among other skin conditions, is common in the elderly.2
Consider: All healthy individuals have a certain amount of Demodex folliculorum and Demodex brevis (hair follicle mites). An over accumulation of these mites, however, has been linked with the pathogenesis of blepharitis.3 Studies have revealed that Demodex mites may play a role in acne vulgaris, acne rosacea, perioral dermatitis, seborrhoeic dermatitis and S. aureus — all causes of blepharitis.4-7
In one study of 435 patients ages three to 96, Demodex mites were found in 87% of those age 51 to 70 years and in 95% of those age 71 to 96. Further, 58% of all those infected with the mites suffered from chronic blepharitis.3
|Complications of Blepharitis|
|■ Corneal infections and infiltrates (especially when combined with contact lens usage)|
■ Dry eye and dysfunctional tear syndrome
■ Fungal keratitis
■ Angular keratitis
■ Dacryocystitis and dacryoadenitis
■ Acanthamoeba infection in cases with penetrating injuries or surgery (potentially blinding)
■ Chalazion Hordeolum
To diagnose blepharitis, use your slit lamp to examine both the anterior and posterior lid segments. It's important to note that a patient can have a combination of both anterior and posterior blepharitis. Evaluate both structures to rule-out the presence or absence of anterior and posterior components, as involvement of different tissues will dictate a differing treatment strategy.
Stretch and invert the lids to expose the entire area, so you can uncover any coexisting hidden ocular disease. In patients who have a ptosis or lid droop, for instance, the redundant skin tissue within the lid may hide underlying problems, such as acne or seborrhoeic dermatitis.
Anatomically, the bulbar conjunctiva migrates in to the palpebral conjunctiva, which lies adjacent to the lid margin. It's very easy to look at every feature of the eye as a separate entity, but in this case it may be important to imagine the lids and corresponding components as one unit.
Make sure to note specifically what part of the adnexa is involved to treat most effectively. Make careful notes in your chart as to the extent of lash vs. lid margin involvement. When the lashes are primarily involved, topical antibiotic ointments along with lid hygiene are the proper remedy. When the eyelids and glands themselves are involved, oral preparations may be required.
"Blepharitis" is a generic term. An example of a more descriptive and complete diagnosis is "posterior blepharitis with a secondary hyperemic lid margin."
Prior to prescribing a treatment, educate the patient on his condition and the necessity for aggressive, long-term treatment.
In our practice, we explain the potential causes of the patient's lid disease and the fact that blepharitis can be a chronic condition that can recur if the root cause isn't properly eliminated. We then discuss the treatment plan, and we explain the need to return for follow-up, so we can gauge the effectiveness of the treatment and alter if necessary.
Depending upon the root cause, some forms of blepharitis have the potential to be chronic and recurring.
Advise patients that controlling the condition is based upon the elimination of aggravating and mitigating factors. Medicinal therapies concentrate on eradicating organisms or improving physiology at six anatomical sites: the lids, lashes, lacrimal gland, conjunctiva (palpebral and bulbar), eyebrows and tear film.
Once you identify the root cause of the blepharitis, concentrate on that entity, but don't forget about the rest of the eye.
► Employ lid scrubs. Instruct the patient to soak a clean washcloth in warm water and then place it on his eyes for five to 10 minutes, b.i.d. (upon waking and before bedtime) to help facilitate the expression of the meibomian glands. Then, tell the patient to massage his lids in a vertical motion (top to bottom on the upper lids and bottom to top on the lower lids) for about a minute to effectively express any debris in the lids' glands and to free the lashes of flakes and crust.
|Prior to prescribing a treatment, educate the patient on his condition and the necessity for aggressive long-term treatment.|
Finally, instruct the patient to use a separate, clean washcloth to wipe clean the eyelids. You may also recommend the patient take a nice hot shower prior to starting this, as doing so will open the glands and skin pores.
► Use baby shampoo. If using the warm washcloth alone is not effective, have the patient apply baby shampoo on his lids and eyebrows, b.i.d. approximately 12 hours apart, as this will help to effectively eradicate some of the bacteria or debris. You can have the patient use the shampoo either straight out of the bottle, or he can dilute it with water. Regardless, have him scrub for 30 to 60 seconds.
► Prescribe an over-the-counter (OTC) lid scrub. If the baby shampoo is not effective on the lids, prescribe an OTC lid scrub. Pharmacy shelves contain several products that have anti-microbial components to create a bacteriocidal environment while cleaning the lids.
► Prescribe erythromycin ointment at bedtime. If the OTC lid scrub isn't effective, you may be dealing with a stubborn bacterial infection.
Erythromycin ointment applied before bedtime can eradicate this infection. Have the patient wash his hands prior to instillation. Then, tell him to apply a 1/4- to 1/2-inch thick ribbon of the ointment in the lower cul-de-sac of the lid with his finger. Tell the patient to never put the tube end up to the eye during application, as he could contaminate the ointment tube's tip.
► Prescribe a topical steroid. Since inflammation is a tell-tale sign of blepharitis, treating it is necessary to resolve this part of the patient's problem. Prescribe a steroid, such as loteprednol or fluoromethalone (FML) q.i.d. Begin the steroid taper one week after the signs of inflammation have resolved or if you detect an intraocular pressure (IOP) spike. Check IOP at every visit.
► Prescribe topical cyclosporine. If steroids alone aren't effective, use cyclosporine ophthalmic emulsion (Restasis, Allergan) b.i.d. approximately 12 hours apart. This off-label use of the drug successfully controls inflammation of the eyelid margin, which promotes healthier tear layers. In addition, it does not pose the risk of an IOP spike.
We use cyclosporine in conjunction with a steroid q.i.d. the first month or until the cyclosporine reaches its maximum effectiveness to add to the initial anti-inflammatory properties. I also prescribe a preservative-free lubricating eye drop every two hours to help dilute the tear film and help rid the eye of the offending agent that's causing the patient's blepharitis. Preservative-free solutions contain fewer additives, preventing further irritation.
► Consider oral medication. Blepharitis patients with acne rosacea, fair skin and light eyes and hair are commonly at risk for MGD and over production of oil from the meibomian glands. Doxycycline 50mg b.i.d. or tetracycline 250 q.i.d. orally (NOTE: tetracycline cannot be used for pediatric patients) can also control MGD in posterior blepharitis cases and control oil production in the tear film.
Nutraceutical therapy. An Omega-3 fatty acid or supplements have been shown to help produce meibomian oils that aid in the decrease of the onset and production of blepharitis.
Remember: Stay knowledgeable of blepharitis, so you can help patients regain their comfort and preclude more serious ocular complications. It's also important so you can educate those primary-care practitioners who may minimize the seriousness of the condition. OM
1. Hodkinson CF, Kelly M, Alexander HD, et al. Effect of zinc supplementation on the immune status of healthy older individuals aged 55-70 years: The ZENITH Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007 Jun;62(6):598-608.
2. WebMD. Skin Problems & Treatments Guide. Skin Conditions: Elderly Skin Conditions. www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/guide/elderly-skin-conditions. (Accessed July 10, 2007).
3. Czepita D, Kuzna-Grygiel W, Kosik-Bogacka D. Investigations on the occurrence as well as the role of demodex folliculorum and demodex brevis in the pathogensis of blepharitis. Klin Oczna. 2005;107(1-3):80-2.
4. Okyay P, Ertabaklar H, Savk E and Erfug S. Prevalence of Demodex folliculorum in young adults: relation with sociodemographic/hygienic factors and acne vulgaris. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2006 Apr;20(4):474-6.
5. Moravvej H, Dehghan-Mangabadi M, Abbasiab MR, et al. Association of rosacea with demodicosis. Arch Iran Med. 2007 Apr;10(2):199-303.
6. Raszeja-Kotelba B, Jenerowicz D, Izdebska JN, et al. Some aspects of the skin infestation by Demodex folliculorum. Wiad Parazytol. 2004;50(1):41-54.
7. Clifford CW, Fulk GW. Association of diabetes, lash loss, and Staphylococcus aureus with infestation of eyelids by demodex folliculorun. J Med Entomol. 1990 Jul;27 (4):467-70.
||Dr. Morgenstern is clinical director of TLC Laser Eye Centers in Rockville, Md. and teaches clinical refractive didactics at the University level.|
||Dr. Raden completed a residency in ocular disease and hospital-based optometry at the Baltimore VA Medical Center. He's the externship coordinator at the South Texas Veterans Healthcare System.|
Optometric Management, Issue: August 2007 | <urn:uuid:1b929b7d-db08-41ec-937d-518eea740e96> | {
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Geography isn’t just about knowing your way around a map.
It’s about knowing your way around our ever-changing world.
The Department of Geography at the University of Oregon in one of the top ten geography programs in the country. We feature faculty and students researching and teaching about the cutting edge of important societal issues, such as racism, climate change, water resources, economic development, land use, conflict, migration, spatial data science, cartography, and more. We offer two major programs of study, Geography and Spatial Data Science and Technology and a minor in Geography.
The Department of Geography knows that a safe environment free of hate, violence, and discrimination is the right of every student and essential for learning to happen. Along with the rest of campus, our department recognizes and values our responsibility to protect our environment from hate and discrimination in any form. Resources are available to anyone on campus experiencing or witnessing hate or discrimination at respect.uoregon.edu/
Geography Awareness Week 2018 is upon us, and the theme from National Geographic this year is Civil Rights, a timely topic, to be sure. We have a slew of events going on to celebrate all things geography. Check it out!
All week long we’re hosting a photo contest. With the theme of civil rights in mind, we ask:
What does civil rights at the UofO look like to you?
Take the photo and post it to Instagram or Facebook with the hashtag #uogaw2017
If you prefer to post anonymously, please email the photo to Leslie McLees, the geography undergraduate coordinator at [email protected]...
This past Friday, mappers, new and old, gathered in the the Knight Library for a Mapathon through the University of Oregon Youth Mappers chapter in the Department of Geography. Despite a last minute organization in response to the devastation of Hurricane Irma in Puerto Rico, about fifty-five people turned out to map critical infrastructure for disaster relief. Keene Corbin, Kyle Hendricks, Josie Imrie and Greg Fitzgerald organized this session along with the Knight Library (who provided the amazing computer lab and the pizza!). The organizers gave a brief lesson on how to map and the... | <urn:uuid:14b0ef41-f82e-4917-9e65-46d6e7c46aa1> | {
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Subsets and Splits