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is about one nine kj mol and is therefore still relatively small at ambient temperature the case of higher alkanes is similar the antiperiplanar conformation is always the most favoured around each carbon carbon bond for this reason alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models the actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules alkane molecules have no fixed structural form whatever the models may suggest the conformations of other organic molecules are based on those of alkanes and are discussed in the relevant articles properties physical properties melting blue and boiling pink points of the first one four n alkanes in c the molecular structure particularly the surface area of the molecule determines the boiling point of the alkane the smaller the surface the lower the boiling point as the van der waals forces between the molecules are weaker |
a reduction of the surface area can be achieved by chain branching or by a circular structure this means in practice that alkanes with higher number of carbon atoms usually have higher boiling points than those with lower numbers of carbon atoms and that branched chain alkanes and cycloalkanes have lower boiling points than their straight chain homologues under standard conditions from ch four to c four h one zero alkanes are gaseous from c five h one two to c one seven h three six they are liquids and after c one eight h three eight they are solids the boiling point increases between two zero and three zero c per ch two group the melting points of the alkanes also rise with the increase in the number of carbon atoms with only one exception propane however the melting points rise more slowly than the boiling points in particular for the higher alkanes in addition the melting points of alkanes with an odd number of carbon atoms increase faster than the melting points of alkanes with an even number of carbon a |
toms see figure the cause of this phenomenon is the higher packing density of the alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms the melting points of branched chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight chain alkanes depending on the efficiency of molecular packing this is particularly true for isoalkanes two methyl isomers which often have melting points higher than those of their normal analogues alkanes do not conduct electricity nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field for this reason they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule the coexistance of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order a reduction in entropy as there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising th |
e contact between alkane and water alkanes are said to be hydrophobic in that they repel water their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good a property which is called lipophilicity different alkanes are for example miscible in all proportions among themselves the density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water hence alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane water mixture chemical properties alkanes generally show a relatively low reactivity because their c h and c c bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken unlike all other organic compounds they possess no functional groups they react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances the p k a values of all alkanes are above six zero and so they are practically inert to acids and bases this inertness is the source of the term paraffins latin para affinis with the meaning here of lacking affinity in crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchange |
d for millions of years however redox reactions of alkanes in particular with oxygen and the halogens are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition in the case of methane the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon four is reached reaction with oxygen leads to combustion with halogens substitution in addition alkanes have been shown to interact with and bind to certain transition metal complexes free radicals molecules with unpaired electrons play a large role in most reactions of alkanes such as cracking and reformation where long chain alkanes are converted into shorter chain alkanes and straight chain alkanes into branched chain isomers in highly brached alkanes the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value one zero nine five in order to allow the different groups sufficient space this causes a tension in the molecule known as steric hinderance and can substantially increase the reactivity thermochemistry alkanes are stable molecules relative to their constituent |
elements which is manifested as a negative heat of formation for linear alkanes each methylene ch two unit contributes five kcal mol to the overal heat of formation branched alkanes are always a little bit more stable than their linear isomers for example two methylbutane is more stable than n pentane by one eight kcal mol and two two methylpropane is more stable than n pentane by five kcal mol see the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data spectroscopic properties virtually all organic compounds contain carbon carbon and carbon hydrogen bonds and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra alkanes are notable for having no other groups and therefore for the absence of other characreistic spectroscopic features infrared spectroscopy the carbon hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between two eight five zero and two nine six zero cm one while the carbon carbon stretching mode absorbes between eight zero zero and one three zero zero cm one the carbon hydrogen bending modes |
depend on the nature of the group methyl groups show bands at one four five zero cm one and one three seven five cm one while methylene groups show bands at one four six five cm one and one four five zero cm one carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around seven two five cm one nmr spectroscopy the proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at h zero one the carbon one three resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon c eight three zero methyl one five five five methylene two zero six zero methyne the carbon one three resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak due to the lack of nuclear overhauser enhancement and the long relaxation time it can be missed in routine spectra mass spectrometry alkanes have a high ionisation energy and the molecular ion is usually weak the fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret but in the case of branched chain alkanes the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or qua |
ternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals the fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group m one five is often absent and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units corresponding to sequential loss of ch two groups reactions reactions with oxygen all alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction although they become increasing difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases the general equation for complete combustion is two c n h two n two three n one o two two n one h two o two n co two in the absence of sufficient oxygen carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed as shown below for methane two ch four three o two two co four h two o ch four o two c two h two o alkanes usually burn with a non luminous flame with very little soot formation the standard enthalpy change of combustion c h o for alkanes increases by about six five zero kj mol per ch two group branched chain alkanes have lower values of c h o than straight c |
hain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable reactions with halogens alkanes react with halogens in a so called halogenation reaction the hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced or substituted by halogen atoms free radicals are the reactive species which participate in the reaction which usually leads to a mixture of products the reaction is highly exothermic and can lead to an explosion the chain mechanism is as follows using the chlorination of methane as a typical example one initiation splitting of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms initiated by ultraviolet radiation a chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and acts as a free radical cl two two cl two propagation two steps a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane then the methyl radical pulls a cl from cl two ch four cl ch three hcl ch three cl two ch three cl cl this results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical this radical will then go on to take part in anoth |
er propagation reaction causing a chain reaction if there is sufficient chlorine other products such as ch two cl two may be formed three termination recombination of two free radicals cl cl cl two or ch three cl ch three cl or ch three ch three c two h six the last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture notably this results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants in the case of methane or ethane all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and have an equal chance of being replaced this leads to what is known as a statistical product distribution for propane and higher alkanes the hydrogen atoms which form part of ch two or ch groups are preferentially replaced the reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably the relative rates are fluorine one zero eight chlorine one bromine seven one zero one one iodine two one zero two two hence the reaction of alkanes with fluorine is difficult to control that with chlorine is moderate to fast |
that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of uv irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non existent and thermodynamically unfavorable these reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons cracking and reforming cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones this can be done with a thermic or catalytic method the thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism that is bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of free radicals are formed the catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts usually solid acids such as silica alumina and zeolites which promote a heterolytic asymmetric breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion carbon localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement c c scission in position beta i e cracking and intra and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer in both types |
of processes the corresponding reactive intermediates radicals ions are permanently regenerated and thus they proceed by a self propagating chain mechanism the chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination here is an example of cracking with butane ch three ch two ch two ch three one st possibility four eight breaking is done on the ch three ch two bond ch three ch two ch two ch three after a certain number of steps we will obtain an alkane and an alkene ch four ch two ch ch three two nd possibility three eight breaking is done on the ch two ch two bond ch three ch two ch two ch three after a certain number of steps we will obtain an alkane and an alkene from different types ch three ch three ch two ch two three rd possibility one four breaking of a c h bond after a certain number of steps we will obtain an alkene and hydrogen gas ch two ch ch two ch three h two other reactions alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen alkanes can by chl |
orosulfonated and nitrated although both reactions require special conditions the fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance in the reed reaction sulfur dioxide chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides hazards methane is explosive in when mixed with air one eight ch four and is a strong greenhouse gas other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air the lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain pentane hexane heptane and octane are classed as dangerous for the environment and harmful the straight chain isomer of hexane is a neurotoxin and therefore rarely used commercially alkanes in nature although alkanes occur in nature in various way they do not rank biologically among the essential materials cycloalkanes with one four to one eight carbon atoms occur in musk extracted from deer of the family moschidae all further information refers to acyclic alkanes bacteria and archaea me |
thanogenic archaea in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the methane in the earth s atmosphere certain types of bacteria can metabolise alkanes they prefer even numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd numbered chains on the other hand certain archaea the methanogens produce large quantites of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidised organic compounds the energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen co two four h two ch four two h two o methanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them the methane output of cattle and other herbivores which can release up to one five zero litres per day and of termites is also due to methanogens they also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans methanogenic archaea are hence at the end of the carbon cycle with carbon being released back into the atmospher |
e after having been fixed by photosynthesis it is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way fungi and plants water forms droplets on a thin film of alkane wax on the skin of the apple alkanes also play a role if a minor role in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms fungi plants and animals some specialised yeasts e g candida tropicale pichia sp rhodotorula sp can use alkanes as a source of carbon and or energy the fungus amorphotheca resinae prefers the longer chain alkanes in aviation fuel and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions in plants it is the solid long chain alkanes that are found they form a firm layer of wax the cuticle over areas of the plant exposed to the air this protects the plant against water loss while preventing the leaching of important minerals by the rain it is also a protection against bacteria fungi and harmful insects the latter sink with their legs into the soft waxlike substance and have difficulty moving |
the shining layer on fruits such as apples consists of long chain alkanes the carbon chains are usually between twenty and thirty carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants from fatty acids the exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions temperature or humidity animals alkanes are found in animal products although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons on example is the shark liver oil which is approximately one four pristane two six one zero one four tetramethylpentadecane c one nine h four zero their occurrence is more important in pheromones chemical messenger materials on which above all insects are dependent for communication with some kinds as the support beetle xylotrechus colonus primarily pentacosane c two five h five two three methylpentaicosane c two six h five four and nine methylpentaicosane c two six h five four they are transferred by body contact with others lik |
e the tsetse fly glossina morsitans morsitans the pheromone contians the four alkanes two methylheptadecane c one eight h three eight one seven two one dimethylheptatriacontane c three nine h eight zero one five one nine dimethylheptatriacontane c three nine h eight zero and one five one nine two three trimethylheptatriacontane c four zero h eight two and acts by smell over longer distances a useful characteristic for pest control ecological relations early spider orchid ophrys sphegodes one example in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role is the ecological relationship between the sand bee andrena nigroaenea and the early spider orchid ophrys sphegodes the latter is dependent for pollination on the former sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate in the case of a nigroaenea the females emit a mixture of tricosane c two three h four eight pentacosane c two five h five two and heptacosane c two seven h five six in the ratio three three one and males are attracted by specifically this odour |
the orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees as a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempte to copulate with their imaginary partner although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms see also cycloalkane higher alkanes alkene alkyne functional group cracking chemistry list of alkanes hydrocarbons alkanes this article is about the legal term for other usages see appeal disambiguation an appeal is the act or fact of challenging a judicially cognizable and binding judgment to a higher judicial authority in common law jurisdictions most commonly this means formally filing a notice of appeal with a lower court indicating one s inten |
tion to take the matter to the next higher court with jurisdiction over the matter and then actually filing the appeal with the appropriate appellate court united states the united states legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals a trial de novo or an appeal on the record a trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by administrative agency referees masters commissioners and some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial if unchallenged these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all if a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal one generally has the power to request a trial de novo by a court of record in such a proceeding all issues and evidence may be developed newly as though never heard before and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding sometimes however the decision of the lower proceeding is itself a |
dmissible as evidence thus helping to curb frivolous appeals in an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments in order for the appeal to succeed the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error that is an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney admitting or excluding evidence improperly acting outside the court s jurisdiction injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so juror misconduct etc the failur |
e to formally object at the time to what one views as improper action in the lower court may result in the affirmance of the lower court s judgment on the grounds that one did not preserve the issue for appeal by objecting in cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact an appellate court will apply an abuse of discretion standard of review under this standard the appellate court gives deference to the lower court s view of the evidence and reverses its decision only if it was a clear abuse of discretion this is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness on the other hand the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court s decision on issues of law and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard in some rare cases an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that e |
vidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered in the case of new evidence there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel if a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation he is entitled to a new trial an appellate court is a court that hears cases in which a lower court either a trial court or a lower level appellate court has already made a decision but in which at least one party to the action wants to challenge this ruling based upon some legal grounds that are allowed to be appealed either by right or by leave of the appellate court these grounds typically include errors of law fact or due process in different jurisdictions appellate courts are al |
so called appeals courts courts of appeals superior courts or supreme courts who can appeal a party who files an appeal is called an appellant and a party on the other side is an appellee or respondent or in some jurisdictions the party who files is known as a petitioner and the party being sued is designated the respondent cross appeals can also occur when more than one party to a case is unhappy with the decision in some way often when the winning party claims that more damages were deserved than were awarded an appeal as of right is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle the appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal an appeal by leave or permission requires the appellant to move for leave to appeal in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the appellate court have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant s demand to appeal the lower court s decision in tort equity or other civil matters either party to a previous case may fi |
le an appeal in criminal matters however the state or prosecution generally has no appeal as of right and due to the double jeopardy principle the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict but in some jurisdictions the state or prosecution may appeal as of right from a trial court s dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court s granting of a defendant s suppression motion likewise in some jurisdictions the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law by leave from the trial court and or the appellate court how an appeal is processed generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not the appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court s findings of fact such as whether a defendant committed a particular act unless clearly erroneous and so will focus on the court s application of the law to those fact |
s such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue if the appellate court finds no defect it affirms the judgment if the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision below i e in the lower court it may modify the ruling to correct the defect or it may nullify reverse or vacate the whole decision or any part of it it may in addition send the case back remand or remit to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect in some cases an appellate court may review a lower court decision de novo or completely challenging even the lower court s findings of fact this might be the proper standard of review for example if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony another situation is where appeal is by way of re hearing certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to |
be heard afresh in the appellate court an example would be an appeal from a magistrate s court to the crown court in england and wales sometimes the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below this would happen for example if the appellant waited too long under the appellate court s rules to file the appeal in england and many other jurisdictions however the phrase appeal dismissed is equivalent to the u s term affirmed and the phrase appeal allowed is equivalent to the u s term reversed generally there is no trial in an appellate court only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed unless the appeal is by way of re hearing new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in very rare instances for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party |
for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct in some systems an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal in other systems the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court in those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court the appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee or respondent can present arguments against it arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers if represented or pro se if the party has not engaged legal representation those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing at such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs it is important to note th |
at in an adversarial system appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it therefore if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner or against legal precedent that judgment will stand even if it might have been overturned on appeal in the united states a lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words may it please the court see also list of legal topics appellate review supreme court of the united states court of appeal of england and wales court systems appellate review for the us radical anti war protest group see a n s w e r see also google answers answers com an answer derived from and against and the same root as swear was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something and thus generally any counter statement or defence a reply to a question or objection or a correct solution of a problem in the common law an answer is the first pleading by a defendant usually filed and served upon the plaintiff |
within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant it may have been preceded by an optional pre answer motion to dismiss or demurrer if such a motion is unsuccessful the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment the answer establishes which allegations cause of action in civil matters set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant and states all the defendant s defenses thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court in the case of a criminal case there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the court by the defendant the pleading in the criminal case which is entered on the record in open court is either guilty or not guilty generally speaking in private civil cases there is no guilt or innocence there is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as resti |
tution or an injunction criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment such as imprisonment the famous latin responsa prudentum answers of the learned were the accumulated views of many successive generations of roman lawyers a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative in music an answer is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another g sup garrett one nine zero two one eight zero seven one nine eight three one eight six one one eight seven two one nine six one back one three zero nine one eight two seven one nine three one one nine six two arraignment is a common law term for the formal reading of a criminal complaint in the presence of the defendant to inform him of the charges against him in response to arraignment the accused is expected to enter a plea acceptable pleas vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction but they generally include guilty not guilty and the peremptory pleas or pleas in bar which set out reasons why |
a trial cannot proceed in addition us jurisdictions allow pleas of nolo contendere no contest and the alford plea in some circumstances in the uk arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment the defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each individual charge guilty and not guilty pleas if the defendant pleads guilty an evidentiary hearing usually follows the court is not required to accept a guilty plea during that hearing the judge will assess the offense mitigating factors and the defendant s character and then pass sentence if the defendant pleads not guilty a date will be set for a preliminary hearing or trial what if the defendant enters no plea in the past a defendant who refused to plea or stood mute would be subjected to peine forte et dure law french for strong and hard punishment but today in all common law jurisdictions defendants who refuse to enter a plea will have a plea of not guilty entered fo |
r them on their behalf the federal rules of criminal procedure the us federal rules of criminal procedure state arraignment shall consist of an open reading of the indictment to the defendant and calling on him to plead thereto he shall be given a copy of the indictment before he is called upon to plead legal terms prosecution america the beautiful is an american patriotic song which rivals the star spangled banner the national anthem of the united states in popularity it is often found in christian hymnals in a wide variety of churches in the united states and may be sung as part of a christian service of worship to god history the words are by katharine lee bates an english teacher at wellesley college she had taken a train trip to colorado springs colorado in one eight nine three to teach a short summer school session at colorado college and several of the sights on her trip found their way into her poem the world s columbian exposition in chicago illinois the white city with its promise of the future cont |
ained within its alabaster buildings the wheat fields of kansas through which her train was riding on july four the majestic view of the great plains from atop pike s peak on that mountain the words of the poem started to come to her and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original antlers hotel the poem was initially published two years later in the congregationalist to commemorate the fourth of july it quickly caught the public s fancy amended versions were published in one nine zero four and one nine one three several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem the hymn materna composed in one eight eight two by samuel a ward was generally considered the best music as early as one nine one zero and is still the popular tune today ward had been similarly inspired the tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from coney island back to his home in new york city after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down ward died in one nine zero three not knowing the n |
ational stature his music would attain miss bates was more fortunate as the song s popularity was well established by her death in one nine two nine at various times in the more than one zero zero years that have elapsed since the song as we know it was born particularly during the john f kennedy administration there have been efforts to give america the beautiful legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to or in place of the star spangled banner but so far this has not succeeded proponents prefer america the beautiful for various reasons saying it is easier to sing more melodic and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as the star spangled banner some prefer america the beautiful over the star spangled banner due to the latter s war oriented imagery others prefer the star spangled banner for the same reason while that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem america the beautiful continue |
s to be held in high esteem by a large number of americans popularity of the song soared following the september one one two zero zero one attacks at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem ray charles is credited with the song s most well known rendition in current times although elvis presley had a good success with it in the seven zero s his recording is very commonly played at major sporting events such as the super bowl his unique take on it places the third verse first after which he sings the usual first verse in the third verse see below the author scolds the materialistic and self serving robber barons of her day and urges america to live up to its noble ideals and to honor with both word and deed the memory of those who died for their country a message that resonates just as strongly today an amusing oddity of the song is that its meter technically common meter double or eight six eight six eight six eight six is identical to that of auld lang s |
yne the two songs can be sung perfectly with lyrics interchanged lyrics oh beautiful for spacious skies for amber waves of grain for purple mountain majesties above the fruited plain america america god shed his grace on thee and crown thy good with brotherhood from sea to shining sea oh beautiful for pilgrims feet whose stern impassioned stress a thoroughfare for freedom beat across the wilderness america america god mend thine ev ry flaw confirm thy soul in self control thy liberty in law oh beautiful for heroes proved in liberating strife who more than self their country loved and mercy more than life america america may god thy gold refine til all success be nobleness and ev ry gain divine oh beautiful for patriot s dream that sees beyond the years thine alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears america america god shed his grace on thee and crown thy good with brotherhood from sea to shining sea takeoffs a song as popular and familiar as america the beautiful inevitably gets used out of its proper c |
ontext or time frame for humorous effect as the song seems to have always been there it is often presented as if christopher columbus had written it when he arrived at the new world though in fact columbus never set foot on north america all his voyages were to the caribbean islands south and central america some examples in one nine seven one the song inspired the cross country cannonball baker sea to shining sea memorial trophy dash race from new york to los angeles that later was the topic of several movies with burt reynolds a far side cartoon from one nine eight two reprinted in sherr s book shows columbus nearing land with his crew of conquistador types and saying look gentlemen purple mountains spacious skies fruited plains is someone writing this down in one of his comedy club routines in the early one nine six zero s flip wilson did a columbus story with an african american twist ironically the catchphrase repeated by queen isabel an early geraldine is chris gon find ray charles when his columbus see |
s land he comments it s america all right just look at those spacious skies those amber waves of grain dig that purple mountain s majesty i ll bet there s fruit out there on the plain in his satirical musical record album the united states of america volume one stan freberg plays columbus jesse white plays a skeptical king ferdinand and colleen collins does queen isabella mimicking tallulah bankhead resulting in this bit of dialogue ferdinand look at him in that hat is that a crazy sailor isabella crazy i ll tell you how crazy he s a man with a dream a vision a vision of a new world whose alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears with purple mountain majesties above the two cents plain ferdinand and columbus fruited isabella fruited mel brooks on a talk show once did an impression of how frank sinatra might sing the song complete with tuxedo black hat and coat and cigarette leaning up against a bar and rendering the song in lounge style george carlin performed a satirical version around one nine seven ze |
ro when environmental issues were becoming a hot political topic oh beautiful for smoggy skies insecticided grain for strip mined mountain s majesty above the asphalt plain america america man sheds his waste on thee and hides the pines with billboard signs from sea to oily sea wellesley college students and alumnae tend to change brotherhood to sisterhood in renditions of the song books lynn sherr s two zero zero one book america the beautiful discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth isbn one five eight six four eight zero eight five five sources external links one nine one three lyrics eight stanzas lyrics four stanzas a national treasure the antlers hotel history where katherine lee bates penned america the beautiful click on history on the top left hand corner of index to access page midi file of america the beautiful from the cyber hymnal mp three of america the beautiful as performed by the united states continental army band patriotic songs christian hymns assistive |
technology at is a generic term that includes assistive adaptive and rehabilitative devices and the process used in selecting locating and using them at promotes greater independence for people with disabilities by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish or had great difficulty accomplishing by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the technology needed to accomplish such tasks according to disability advocates technology all too often is created without regard to people with disabilities and unnecessary barriers make new technology inaccessible to hundreds of millions universal or broadened accessibility or universal design means excellent usability particularly for people with disabilities but argue advocates of assistive technology universally accessible technology yields great rewards to the typical user good accessible design is universal design they say the classic example of an assistive technology that has improved everyone s life is the |
curb cuts in the sidewalk at street crossings while these curb cuts surely enable pedestrians with mobility impairments to cross the street they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers shoppers with carts and travellers and workers with pull type bags not to mention skateboarders and inline skaters consider an example of an assistive technology the modern telephone is except for the deaf universally accessible combined with a text telephone also known as a tdd telephone device for the deaf and in the usa generally called a ttyteletypewriter which converts typed characters into tones that may be sent over the telephone line the deaf person is able to communicate immediately at a distance together with relay services where an operator reads what the deaf person types and types what a hearing person says the deaf person is then given access to everyone s telephone not just those of people who possess text telephones many telephones now have volume controls which are primarily intended for the benefi |
t of people who are hard of hearing but can be useful for all users at times and places where there is significant background noise another example calculators are cheap but a person with a mobility impairment can have difficulty using them speech recognition software could recognize short commands and make use of calculators a little easier people with cognitive disabilities would appreciate the simplicity others would as well toys which have been adapted to be used by children with disabilities may have advantages for typical children as well the lekotek movement assists parents by lending assistive technology toys and expertise to families telecare is a particular sort of assistive technology that uses electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer a good example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors thermometers for hypothermia risk flooding and unlit gas sensors for people |
with mild dementia the principle being that these alerts can be customised to the particular person s risks when the alert is triggered a message is sent to a carer or contact centre who can respond appropriately the range of sensors is wide and expanding rapidly technology similar to telecare can also be used to act within a person s home rather than just to respond to a detected crisis using one of the examples above unlit gas sensors for people with dementia can be used to trigger a device that turns off the gas and tells someone what has happened this is safer than just telling an external person that there is a problem designing for people with dementia is a good example of where the design of the interface of a piece of assistive technology at is critical to its usefulness it is important to make sure that people with dementia or any other identified user group are involved in the design process to make sure that the design is accessible and useable in the example above a voice message could be used to |
remind the person with dementia to turn of the gas himself but who s voice should be used and what should the message say questions like these must be answered through user consultantion involvement and evaluation assistive technology products standing frames support wheelchair users in a standing position increasing their reach as well as improving their health and self esteem magnifiers magnify computer displays for people with some degree of visual impairment sticky keys a feature of microsoft windows and mac os x operating systems allowing key combinations such as control alt delete to be pressed in sequence rather than simultaneously screen readers allow blind people to use computers by communicating what is on the screen via speech or braille refreshable braille display used to convert on screen text to braille characters reading machines allow blind people to access printed material cctv closed circuit television or video magnifier magnifies printed text for people with low vision further reading behr |
mann m an emerging way to touch the future amherst ma mcgowan publications mckeown s two zero zero zero unlocking potential how ict can support children with special needs the questions publishing company ltd isbn one eight four one nine zero zero four one nine nisbet p one four one two one zero pubmed id two three four two zero eight one adlam t et al the installation and support of internationally distributed equipment for people with dementia ieee transactions on information technology in biomedicine one zero eight nine seven seven seven one yr two zero zero four vol eight iss three pg two five three two five seven download from ieee six nine four k pdf external links assistive technology product database american foundation for the blind accessworld technology and people with visual impairments integrating assistive technology into the standard curriculum assistive technology for students with mild disabilities assistive technology for students with mild disabilities inclusive technology special needs art |
icles and information pages european organisations for assistive technology the association for the advancement of assistive technology in europe aaate uk based organisations for assistive technology the aidis trust the disabled living foundation abilitynet the call centre communication matters fast research and development organisations events and jobs including assistive technology at forum national library for the blind access technology primer rnib technology information service rnid technology uk dept of health page on telecare the ace centres bath institute of medical engineering bime a medical engineering design and development charity north american organizations for assistive technology rehabilitation engineering assistive technology society of north america abledata global database of at and rehab products the alliance for technology access assistive technology industry association the family center on technology and disability accessibility assistive technology disability educational technology acc |
essible computing covers assistive technology accessible software accessible web legal issues in accessible computing united states private lawsuits section five zero eight amendment to the rehabilitation act of one nine seven three accessibility assistive technology human computer interaction an abacus is a calculation tool often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires it was in use centuries before the adoption of the written hindu arabic numeral system and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in china and elsewhere the origins of the abacus are disputed suggestions including invention in babylonia and in china to have taken place between two four zero zero bc and three zero zero bc the first abacus was almost certainly based on a flat stone covered with sand or dust lines were drawn in the sand and pebbles used to aid calculations from this a variety of abaci were developed the most popular were based on the bi quinary system using a combination of two bases base two and base five |
to represent decimal numbers the use of the word abacus dates back to before one three eight seven when a middle english work borrowed the word from latin to describe a sandboard abacus the latin word came from abakos the greek genitive form of abax calculating table because abax also had the sense of table sprinkled with sand or dust used for drawing geometric figures it is speculated by some linguists that the greek word may be derived from a semitic root b q the hebrew word for dust though details of the transmission are obscure it may also be derived from the phoenician word abak meaning sand the plural of abacus is abaci babylonian abacus a tablet found on the island of salamis near greece in one eight four six dates back to the babylonians of three zero zero bc making it the oldest counting board discovered so far it was originally thought to be a gaming board its construction is a slab of white marble measuring one four nine cm in length seven five cm in width and four five cm thick on which are five |
groups of markings in the center of the tablet are a set of five parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line capped with a semi circle at the intersection of the bottom most horizontal line and the single vertical line below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semi circle at the top of the intersection the third sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line roman abacus reconstruction of roman abacus the late empire roman abacus shown here in reconstruction contains eight long and eight shorter grooves the former having up to five beads in each and the latter one the groove marked i indicates units x tens and so on up to millions the beads in the shorter grooves denote fives five units five tens etc essentially in a bi quinary coded decimal system obviously related to the roman numerals the |
short grooves on the right may have been used for marking roman ounces computations are made by means of beads which would probably have been slid up and down the grooves to indicate the value of each column chinese abacus the suanpan of the chinese is similar to the roman abacus in principle though has a different construction and it was designed to do both decimal and hexadecimal arithmetics chinese abacus the suanpan the chinese abacus is typically around two zero cm eight inches tall and it comes in various widths depending on the application it usually has more than seven rods there are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation the beads are usually rounded and made of a hard wood the beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam the abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center chinese abaci can b |
e used for functions other than counting unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do multiplication division addition subtraction square root and cube root operations at high speed bead arithmetic is the calculating technique used with various types of abaci in particular the chinese abacus japanese abacus soroban the japanese eliminated first one bead from the upper deck and later another bead from the lower deck in each column of the chinese abacus the japanese also eliminated the use of qiuchu chinese division table the method of chinese division table was still used when there were five lower beads there came the war of the multiplication table versus the division table the school of multiplication table prevailed in one nine two zero s the rods number of digits increase to usually two one two three two seven or even three one thus allowing calculation for more digits soroban is taught in elementary schools as a part of lessons in |
mathematics when teaching the soroban a song like instruction is given by the tutor the soroban is about eight cm three inches tall the beads on a soroban are usually shaped as a double cone bi cone to facilitate ease of movement often primary students may bring along with them two sorobans one with one upper bead and five lower beads the other with one upper bead with four lower beads when they learn soroban in school the size of beads of soroban is standardized and they come in two types the japanese classified soroban for native japanese and a separate size for foreigners since westerners tend to be larger than most japanese and therefore have larger hands and fingers the soroban that are for foreigners are made with a plastic pipe on both the left and right side of the frame while ones made for native japanese were all made with wooden frames in this way the thickness of the soroban for foreigners is higher rendering it easier for the non japanese to manipulate japanese soroban russian abacus russian aba |
cus the russian abacus the schoty or sjotty usually has a single slanted deck with ten beads on each wire except one wire which has four and acts as a separator or for fractions this wire is usually near the user the russian abacus is often used vertically with wires from left to right in the manner of a book the wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides it is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right during manipulation beads are moved to the left for easy viewing the middle two beads on each wire the five th and six th bead usually have a colour different to the other eight beads likewise the left bead of the thousands wire and the million wire if present may have a different color the russian abacus is still in common use today in shops and markets throughout the former soviet union although it is no longer taught in most schools school abacus school abacus used in danish elementary school early two zero th century around the |
world abaci have been used in pre schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching arithmetics in western countries a bead frame similar to the russian abacus but with straight wires has been common see image it is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy uses by the visually impaired abaci are still commonly used by individuals who have visual impairments they use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions multiplication division addition subtraction square root and cubic root a piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they don t move inadvertently this keeps the beads in place while the user feels or manipulates them recently abaci have been replaced to some extent by electronic calculators with speech but only in those countries where they are easily available and affordable however even when they are available many visually impaired people still prefer to use the abacus in addition many blind children are required to learn how to use the abacus before they are permitte |
d the use of a talking calculator or similar device this can be compared to sighted children being required to learn how to solve mathematical problems on paper before they are allowed the use of a calculator native american abacus some sources mention the use of an abacus called a nepohualtzintzin in ancient mayan culture this mesoamerican abacus uses the five digit base two zero mayan numeral system the khipu of the inkas was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data like advanced tally sticks but was not used to perform calculations see also chisenbop slide rule napier s bones history of computing history of computing hardware abacus logic mental abacus positional notation external links general and historical articles abacus photos and images abacus roman abacus tutorials bernazzani s soroban abacus handbook min multimedia suan pan abacus mystery of the bead an abacus manual abacus curiosities abacus in various number systems at cut the knot java applet of chinese japanese and russian abaci |
an atomic scale abacus ancient rome mathematical tools mechanical calculators an acid often represented by the generic formula ha is a water soluble sour tasting chemical compound that when dissolved in water gives a solution with a ph of less than seven definitions of acids and bases the word acid comes from the latin acidus meaning sour but in chemistry the term acid has a more specific meaning there are three common ways to define an acid namely the arrhenius the br nsted lowry and the lewis definitions in order of increasing generality arrhenius according to this definition an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ion h three o when dissolved in water while bases are substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions oh this definition limits acids and bases to substances that can dissolve in water around one eight zero zero many french chemists including antoine lavoisier incorrectly believed that all acids contained oxygen english chemists including sir humphry davy |
at the same time believed all acids contained hydrogen the swedish chemist svante arrhenius used this belief to develop this definition of acid br nsted lowry according to this definition an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor the acid is said to be dissociated after the proton is donated an acid and the corresponding base are referred to conjugate acid base pairs br nsted and lowry formulated this definition which includes water insoluble substances not in the arrhenius definition lewis according to this definition an acid as an electron pair acceptor and a base is an electron pair donor these are frequently referred to as lewis acids and lewis bases and are electrophiles and nucleophiles in organic chemistry lewis acids include substances with no protons such as iron iii chloride the lewis definition can also be explained with molecular orbital theory in general an acid can receive an electron pair in its lowest unoccupied orbital lumo from the highest occupied orbital homo of a base tha |
t is the homo from the base and the lumo from the acid combine to a bonding molecular orbital this definition was developed by gilbert n lewis although not the most general theory the br nsted lowry definition is the most widely used definition the strength of an acid may be understood by this defintion by the stability of hydronium and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation increasing stability of the the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound this concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as carboxylic acid the molecular orbital description where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair is connected to the lewis definition solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions acid base systems are different from redox reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state generally acids have the following chemical and physical properties taste acids generally are sour when dissolved in water touch acids produce a stinging fe |
eling particularly strong acids reactivity acids react aggressively with or corrode most metals electrical conductivity acids are electrolytes strong acids are dangerous causing severe burns for even minor contact generally acid burns are treated by rinsing the affected area abundantly with water and followed up with immediate medical attention nomenclature acids are named according to the ending of their anion that ionic ending is dropped and replaced with a new suffix according to the table below for example hcl has chloride as its anion so the ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid chemical characteristics in water the following equilibrium occurs between an acid ha and water which acts as a base ha aq h three o aq a aq the acidity constant or acid dissociation constant is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of ha with water k a three mbox cdota over ha strong acids have large k a values i e the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right the acid is almost completely dissociated to h thr |
ee o and a strong acids include the heavier hydrohalic acids hydrochloric acid hcl hydrobromic acid hbr and hydroiodic acid hi however hydrofluoric acid hf is relatively weak for example the k a value for hydrochloric acid hcl is one zero seven weak acids have small k a values i e at equilibrium significant amounts of ha and a exist together in solution modest levels of h three o are present the acid is only partially dissociated for example the ka value for acetic acid is one eight x one zero five most organic acids are weak acids oxoacids which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen may be quite strong or weak nitric acid sulfuric acid and perchloric acid are all strong acids whereas nitrous acid sulfurous acid and hypochlorous acid are all weak note the following the terms hydrogen ion and proton are used interchangebly both refer to h in aqueous solution the water is protonated to form hydronium ion h three o aq this is often abbreviated as h aq even though the symbol |
is not chemically correct the strength of an acid is measured by its acid dissociation constant k a or equivalently its p k a p k a log k a the ph of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of hydronium this will depend of the concnetration and nature of acids and bases in solution polyprotic acids polyprotic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names such as diprotic acid two potenital protons to donate and triprotic acid three potenital protons to donate a monoprotic acid can undergo one dissociation sometimes called ionization as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above ha aq h two o l h three o aq a aq k a a diprotic acid here symbolized by h two a can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the ph each dissociation has its own dissociation constant ka one and ka two h two a aq h two o l h three o aq ha aq k a o |
ne ha aq h two o l h three o aq a two aq k a two the first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second i e k a one k a two for example sulfuric acid h two so four can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion hso four for which k a one is very large then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion so four two wherein the k a two is intermediate strength the large k a one for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid in a similar manner the weak unstable carbonic acid h two co three can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion hco three and lose a second to form carbonate anion co three two both k a values are small but k a one k a two a triprotic acid h three a can undergo one two or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants where k a one k a two k a three h three a aq h two o l h three o aq h two a aq k a one h two a aq h two o l h three o aq ha two aq k a two ha two aq h two o l h three o aq a three aq k a three an inorganic example of a triprotic aci |
d is orthophosphoric acid h three po four usually just called phosphoric acid all three protons can be successively lost to yield h two po four then hpo four two and finally po four three the orthophosphate ion usually just called phosphate an organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent the successive k a values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged neutralization neutralization is the reaction between equal amounts of an acid and a base producing a salt and water for example hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water hcl aq naoh aq h two o l nacl aq neutralization is the basis of titration where a ph indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid common acids strong inorganic acids |
hydrobromic acid hydrochloric acid hydroiodic acid nitric acid sulfuric acid perchloric acid medium to weak inorganic acids boric acid carbonic acid chloric acid hydrofluoric acid phosphoric acid pyrophosphoric acid weak organic acids acetic acid benzoic acid butyric acid citric acid formic acid lactic acid malic acid mandelic acid methanethiol propionic acid pyruvic acid valeric acid acids in food acetic acid e two six zero found in vinegar adipic acid e three five five alginic acid e four zero zero ascorbic acid vitamin c e three zero zero found in fruits benzoic acid e two one zero boric acid e two eight four citric acid e three three zero found in citrus fruits carbonic acid e two nine zero found in carbonated soft drinks carminic acid e one two zero cyclamic acid e nine five two erythorbic acid e three one five erythorbin acid e three one seven formic acid e two three six found in bee and ant stings fumaric acid e two nine seven gluconic acid e five seven four glutamic acid e six two zero guanylic acid |
e six two six hydrochloric acid e five zero seven inosinic acid e six three zero lactic acid e two seven zero found in dairy products such as yoghurt and sour milk also is product of cellular fermentation the reason muscles burn malic acid e two nine six metatartaric acid e three five three methanethiol found in cheese and some other fermented foods niacin nicotinic acid e three seven five oxalic acid found in spinach and rhubarb pectic acid found in fruits and some vegetables phosphoric acid e three three eight propionic acid e two eight zero sorbic acid e two zero zero found in foods and drinks stearic acid e five seven zero a type of fatty acid succinic acid e three six three sulfuric acid e five one three tannic acid found in tea tartaric acid e three three four found in grapes sources listing of strengths of common acids and bases zumdahl chemistry four th edition see also acid number chemical substances acids arabic words the term asphalt is often used as an abbreviation for asphalt concrete asphalt is |
a sticky black and highly viscous liquid or semi solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits asphalt is composed almost entirely of bitumen there is some disagreement amongst chemists regarding the structure of asphalt however it is most commonly modeled as a colloid with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase asphalt is sometimes confused with tar which is an artificial material produced by the destructive distillation of organic matter tar is also predominantly composed of bitumen however the bitumen content of tar is typically lower than that of asphalt tar and asphalt have very different engineering properties asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil such as naphtha gasoline and diesel by the process of fractional distillation usually under vacuum conditions a better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a de asphalting unit which uses either propane or butane in |
a supercritical phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated further processing is possible by blowing the product namely reacting it with oxygen this makes the product harder and more viscous natural deposits of asphalt include lake asphalts primarily from the pitch lake in trinidad and tobago and bermudez lake in venezuela gilsonite the dead sea in israel and tar sands asphalt is rather hard to transport in bulk it hardens unless kept very hot so it is sometimes mixed with diesel oil or kerosene before shipping upon delivery these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture this mixture is often called bitumen feedstock or bfs the largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for pavements which accounts for approximately eight zero of the asphalt consumed in the united states roofing shingles account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption other uses include cattle sprays fence post treatments and waterproofing for fabrics in the ancient middle east natural asphalt |
deposits were used for mortar between bricks and stones ship caulk and waterproofing the persian word for asphalt is mumiya which may be the source for the english word mummy references barth edwin j asphalt science and technology gordon and breach one nine six two isbn zero six seven seven zero zero zero four zero five external links black stuff hawaii asphalt pavement guide petroleum products construction pavements the american national standards institute ansi is a nonprofit organization that oversees the development of standards for products services processes and systems in the united states the organization also coordinates u s standards with international standards so that american products can be used worldwide for example standards make sure that people who own cameras can find the film they need for them anywhere around the globe the american national standards institute approves standards that are developed by representatives of standards developing organizations government agencies consumer groups |
companies and others these standards make sure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent that people use the same definitions and terms and that products are tested the same way ansi accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards the ansi accreditation programs conform to international guidelines as verified by government and peer review assessments in one nine one eight five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the american engineering standards committee aesc the aesc became the american standards association asa in one nine two eight in one nine six six the asa was reorganized and became the united states of america standards institute usasi the present name was adopted in one nine six nine the organization s headquarters are in washington d c for more information see its web site at http www ansi org the asa photographic exposure system became the basis for the is |
o film speed system currently used worldwide in microsoft windows the phrase ansi refers to the windows ansi code pages most of these are fixed width though there are some variable width ones for ideographic languages some of these are very close to the iso eight eight five nine series leading many to falsely assume that they are identical ascii art which is colorized or animated by way of ansi terminal control codes x three six four sequences are commonly referred to as ansi art and were predominantly popular on bulletin board systems throughout the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s see also american national standards institute nanotechnology standards panel ansi nsp american national standards institute homeland security standards panel ansi hssp american national standards institute healthcare information technology standards panel ansi hitsp ansi art art created from a subset of x three six four ansi sys a device driver for ms dos ansi escape codes unified thread standard external links amer |
ican national standards institute official website ansi overview ansi historical overview online char ascii hex binary base six four etc encoder decoder standards organizations anchorage is a unified home rule municipality officially called the municipality of anchorage in the u s state of alaska it is also a census area with two six zero two eight three residents according to the two zero zero zero census anchorage is the largest city in the state of alaska composing more than two fifths of the state s population a state of alaska demographer in two zero zero four estimates the population at two seven seven four nine eight anchorage was founded in one nine one five and named after a place where a ship lies at anchor its official nickname is the city of lights and flowers garden writers call anchorage the hanging basket capital of the world when it comes to the city s one zero zero zero zero zero hanging baskets and aviation buffs refer to the city as the air crossroads of the world because of its geographica |
l location between the two northern continents in downtown anchorage along the streets and sidewalks are four two five baskets of bright gold triploid marigold drenched with trailing sapphire lobelia the blue and gold flowers represent the colors of the municipality of anchorage flag and the alaska state flag the city of anchorage blooms with vibrant color during the late spring and summer when it comes to flowers today anchorage has many features of a modern urban area such as parks and forests bike and city trails skiing and cross country ski trails business and commerce theaters and other entertainments the tourist industry is strong and offers many activities and attractions history russia was well established in north america by the one eight zero zero s in one eight six seven u s secretary of state william h seward brokered a deal to purchase alaska from debt ridden russia for seven two million about two cents an acre alaska s value was not appreciated by the american masses at that time calling it sewa |
rd s folly seward s icebox and walrussia by one eight eight eight gold was discovered along turnagain arm in one nine one two alaska became a united states territory anchorage was carefully laid out by city planners in one nine one four originally as a railroad construction port for the alaska railroad and on july nine one nine one five the first sale of town lots was held in one nine one five president woodrow wilson authorized funds for the construction of the alaska railroad that same year the anchorage chamber of commerce was formed ship creek landing in anchorage was selected as the headquarters of this effort soon a tent city sprang up at the mouth of ship creek and the population quickly swelled to more than two zero zero zero would be entrepreneurs flocked to this bustling frontier town and they brought with them everything necessary to build a city a popular hardware and clothing store the anchorage was actually an old dry docked steamship named berth although the area had been known by various names |
the u s post office department formalized the use of the name anchorage and despite some protests the name stuck in one nine two zero the united states government relinquished its direct control over the city and elections were held anchorage was incorporated on november two three one nine two zero in one nine two three william mulcahy establishes the anchorage baseball league mulcahy was a baseball fan who was working as the alaska railroad station auditor assistant and established the baseball league in his spare time later in life mulcahy introduced little league baseball and established the city s ymca the mulcahy park stadium and ball field were named in his honor for his contributions to early anchorage the one nine three zero s were a time that anchorage rebounded from the loss of population and industry it had suffered during world war i air transportation became increasingly important to anchorage in one nine three zero the original park strip landing field was replaced by a new facility merrill fie |
ld which had a beacon and a control tower and in a few short years it became one of the busiest centers of civilian aircraft activity in the united states in one nine three seven providence alaska medical center opened its doors the arrival of us army troops in one nine four zero marked a decade of growth based on military expansion for anchorage growth spurted in the one nine four zero s with the construction of elmendorf air force base and fort richardson which made anchorage a major defense center in one nine four zero a canal was built connecting lake spenard with lake hood making it the world s largest seaplane base the outbreak of world war ii with the threat of a japanese invasion prompted continued expansion of military personnel and aircraft and later the pressures of the cold war between the united states and the soviet union ensured continued heavy military investment in the anchorage area in one nine four seven the parking meter was introduced in anchorage and in one nine four nine the first traff |
ic lights were installed on fourth avenue between one nine three nine and one nine five zero anchorage s population spurted from four two three zero to three zero zero six zero and the cost of living soared anchorage also experienced an unfortunate rise in crime during this tumultuous growth period a problem the city would fight for decades the decade of the one nine five zero s was also eventful in one nine five one came the opening of the seward highway on december one zero one nine five one anchorage established itself as the air crossroads of the world when anchorage international airport opened with transpolar airline traffic flying between western europe and east asia the new airport also became a refueling stop for flights between the contiguous four eight states and east asia until nonstop flights became practical around one nine seven zero with the boeing seven four seven airliner in one nine five three health care expanded with the opening of the alaska native medical center also three volcanoes eru |
pted in the area including mount spurr which dumped several inches of ash on anchorage ktva the city s first television station began broadcasting in one nine five three in one nine five four the alyeska resort was established in one nine five seven oil was discovered on the kenai peninsula on january three one nine five nine alaska joined the union as the four nine th state the decade of the one nine six zero s began on a bright note for anchorage after alaska s attaining statehood after alaska became a state anchorage faced a severe housing shortage which was solved partially by suburban expansion in january one nine six four anchorage became both a city and a borough but on march two seven one nine six four anchorage was hit by the good friday earthquake which registered nine two on the richter scale and caused tremendous destruction in south alaska this earthquake was the strongest ever recorded in north america and united states history and anchorage lay only seven five miles one two zero km from the epi |
center it killed one three one people across south central alaska and property damage was estimated at over three zero zero million one nine six four dollars the brand new j c penney department store in anchorage was flattened anchorage s remarkable recovery from this disaster dominated life in the late one nine six zero s the continued threat of earthquakes has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in the city the tallest buildings are two one stories high in one nine six eight kincaid park was created in south anchorage from a former nike surface to air missile site that same year oil was discovered in prudhoe bay on the arctic slope and in one nine six nine oil lease sales brought billions of dollars to the state statue in downtown anchorage of balto the lead sled dog during the last part of the iditarod serum run the decade of the one nine seven zero s was an important time of growth for the anchorage economy on march three one nine seven three the first one zero four nine mile long one six nine zer |
o km iditarod trail sled dog race started from downtown anchorage with three four mushers twenty two mushers finished the race with the last one arriving in nome one month after he left the starting line in recent years winners have finished the race in less than one zero days in one nine seven four construction begain on the trans alaska pipeline system with valdez not anchorage as its southern terminus the oil discovery and pipline construction fueled a modern day boom when oil and construction companies set up their headquarters in anchorage the pipeline was completed in one nine seven seven at a cost of more than eight billion in one nine seven five bicentennial park was created in southeast anchorage on september one five one nine seven five the city and borough consolidated forming a unified government also included in this unification were eagle river eklutna girdwood glen alps and several other communities the unified area became officially known as the municipality of anchorage by one nine eight zero |
the population of anchorage had grown to one seven four four three one the decade of the one nine eight zero s was a time of growth thanks to a flood of north slope oil revenue into the state treasury capital projects and an aggressive beautification program combined with far sighted community planning greatly increased infrastructure and quality of life these included a new library civic center sports arena and performing arts center the one nine eight zero s was also a time when alaska s up and down economy struck the price of oil dropped dramatically and recession hit anchorage but in one nine eight four hilltop ski area was established which along with the alyeska resort in girdwood and alpenglow at arctic valley gave residents three fully operational skiing areas benefitting tourism and recreational activities in one nine eight six kincaid outdoor center opens in one nine eight nine mount redoubt erupted again curtailing aviation in the anchorage area for a short period of time the decade of the one nin |
e nine zero s was a time when anchorage saw gold in one nine nine six the arctic winter games were held in chugiak eagle river and in one nine nine nine the alaska native heritage center opened on july eight two zero zero zero the municipal airport was renamed ted stevens anchorage international airport in honor of alaska s longest serving united states senator in spite of the height limitations on buildings anchorage today has an attractive skyline nevertheless particularly with the chugach mountains cook inlet or the often visible mount mckinley also known as denali as a backdrop from government hill one can see the best view of mount mckinley though space is limited in the anchorage bowl as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located many parks greenbelts and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself making it particularly attractive to nature lovers to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city over the past thirty years however many of the |
se undeveloped areas have filled in with houses strip malls and other development nonetheless there is an enormous amount of land under the anchorage municipal control which totals some one nine five five square miles five zero six three km one nine six one one mi four three nine five eight km one six nine seven two mi of it is land and six eight three four km two six three nine mi of it is water the total area is one three four six water anchorage is located in south central alaska at six one one three zero six north latitude about the same as stockholm and st petersburg one four nine five three five seven west longitude about the same as hawaii northeast of the alaska peninsula kodiak island and cook inlet due north of the kenai peninsula northwest of prince william sound and alaska panhandle and nearly due south of mount mckinley denali the city is situated on a triangular peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged scenic and eminently hike worthy chugach mountains on the northwest by the knik arm and on |
the southwest by the turnagain arm upper branches of the cook inlet which itself is the northernmost reach of the pacific ocean despite this the city lacks coastal beaches instead having wide treacherous mudflats adjacent to the north is matanuska susitna borough alaska to the south is kenai peninsula borough alaska and to the east is valdez cordova census area alaska climate average daytime summer temperatures are approximately five five to eight zero degrees fahrenheit one three to two seven degrees celsius average daytime winter temperatures are about five to two zero degrees one five to seven degrees celsius warmer than many places in the contiguous united states ted stevens anchorage international airport panc average january low and high temperatures are nine f two two f one three c five c with an average winter snowfall of seven zero six zero inches one seven nine three cm the weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable some winters feature several feet of snow and |
bitterly cold temperatures while others just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws which puts dangerous ice on the streets on march one seven two zero zero two a record two four hour st patrick s day snow storm dumped two five seven inches six five three cm of snow on the anchorage area causing the airport and schools to close on that day and several days longer for the schools the one nine five four one nine five five winter had one three two eight inches three three seven three cm which made it the snowiest winter on record the coldest temperature ever recorded at ted stevens anchorage international airport was three eight f three eight eight c on february three one nine four eight summers are typically very mild and pleasant though it can rain frequently there isn t any beach bathing in anchorage except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days when those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular ted stevens anchorage international airport average july low and high temperatures are five two f six |
six f one one c one nine c and the hottest reading ever recorded was eight six f three zero c on june two five one nine five three the average annual precipitation at ted stevens anchorage international airport is one six zero seven inches four zero eight cm aside from the winter cold which most alaskans don t mind there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons in the summer mosquitoes which are much worse out in the bush than in the city itself in the winter long nights and very short days since anchorage is at such a high latitude for months in mid winter residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark those who don t study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun demographics as of the u s census of two zero zero zero anchorage had a population of two six zero two eight three and in all the municipality of anchorage is home to almost two fifths of alaska s population the population density is five nine two km one five three four mi there are one zero z |
ero three six eight housing units at an average density of two two eight km five nine one mi the racial makeup of the municipality is seven two two three white caucasian five five five are asian americans five eight four are african americans seven two eight are american indians or alaska natives zero nine three are pacific islanders five six nine are hispanic americans or latinos of any race five nine eight are from two or more races and two one nine are from other non white backgrounds there are nine four eight two two households out of which three eight nine have children under the age one eight living with them five one one are married couples living together one one five have a female householder with no husband present and three two four are non families two three four of all households are made up of individuals and three eight have someone living alone who is six five years of age or older the average household size is two six seven and the average family size is three one nine in the city the populat |
ion is spread out with two nine one under the age of one eight nine six from one eight to two four three three nine from two five to four four two one nine from four five to six four and five five who are six five years of age or older the median age is three two years for every one zero zero females there are one zero one six males for every one zero zero females age one eight and over there are one zero two four males the median income for a household in the city is five five five four six and the median income for a family is six three six eight two males have a median income of four one two six seven versus six three six eight two for females the per capita income for the city is two five two eight seven seven three of the population and five one of families are below the poverty line out of the total population eight eight of those under the age of one eight and six four of those six five and older are living below the poverty line anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among alaskans g |
enerally independence friendliness practical mindedness and a love of the outdoors there is even among businesspeople in anchorage a tendency to dress down there is no dress code in any anchorage restaurant this and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in alaska generally gives anchorage a relatively casual relaxed atmosphere compared to some other american cities these cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of alaska the city has traditionally served as a destination for immigrants and there are active asian eastern european and hispanic populations along with communities of african americans and various groups of aboriginal alaskans over nine five languages are spoken by students in the anchorage school district government anchorage is administered by an elected mayor and assembly and a city manager the city s current mayor is mark begich sister cities anchorage is internationally partnered with a number of sister cities to promote glo |
bal cooperation cultural exchange and economic collaboration today anchorage has six sister cities including chitose japan darwin australia incheon south korea magadan russia tromso norway and whitby england economy anchorage is the center of commerce for alaska and a major port receiving over nine five of all freight entering alaska passes as well as a major hub of the famous alaska railroad several oil and gas industries like bp exploration alaska inc conocophillips alaska inc doyon universal services enstar natural gas co exxonmobil production flint hills resources norcoast mechanical tesoro alaska petroleum co udelhoven oilfield system services inc union oil company of california and veco alaska inc are all headquartered in anchorage anchorage is home to two major corporations which provide communication services to alaska alaska communications systems and general communications inc both of which offer local and long distance telephone service dial up and broadband internet access and cellular telephone s |
ervice many corporations such as large banks real estate transportation other communications and government agencies are all headquartered in anchorage there are two strategically important u s military bases bordering anchorage on the north elmendorf afb and fort richardson both military bases together station over nine zero zero zero military personnels numerous visitor and tourist facilities and services are available throughout the municipality of anchorage nearly all alaska interior bound tourists pass through anchorage at some stage of their journeys in alaska this is particulatly true since the alaska railroad has its southern terminus in anchorage not surprisingly the summer is tourist season and downtown anchorage as well as the highways and railroads leading north and south of the city are typically teeming with tourists anchorage has seasonal factors contribute to a fluctuating though low unemployment rate education education in anchorage eagle river chugiak eklutna girdwood fort richardson and elm |
endorf afb is managed by the anchorage school district anchorage has an excellent public school system that is ranked among the finest in the nation the anchorage school district is the eight one st largest district in the united states with nearly five zero zero zero zero students attending eight eight schools the district s average sat and act college entrance exam scores are consistently above the national average and advanced placement courses are offered at each of the district s high schools the international baccalaureate diploma programme is also offered at west high one of the local high schools the average teacher student ratio in the district s elementary schools is one teacher to approximately every two five students the district offers a comprehensive curriculum that emphasizes the basic communication skills of reading writing and arithmetic the standard program also includes social studies health science and physical education all students receive a quality education enriched with technology for |
eign language visual and performing arts and social sciences a variety of programs and alternative learning environments meet the needs of the diverse student population some examples include abc back to basics curriculum and montessori schools open optional programs foreign language immersion vocational technical training and charter schools comprehensive services for bilingual students and students with special needs are also available colleges and universities ninety percent of anchorage s adults have high school diplomas six five percent have attended one to three years of college and one seven percent hold advanced degrees placing anchorage among the top metropolitan cities in educational attainment anchorage boasts four excellent higher education facilities that offer quality higher education the university of alaska anchorage and alaska pacific university are within walking distance of each other and charter college and wayland baptist university are also located in city limits culture performing arts |
despite the relative remoteness of the location the city sports a lively arts community located next to town square municipal park in downtown anchorage the alaska center for the performing arts is a three part complex host to many performing arts events the facility can accommodate more than three zero zero zero patrons in two zero zero zero nearly two four five zero zero zero people visited six seven eight public performances it is home to eight resident performing arts companies and has featured mega musicals such as cats grease les miserables phantom of the opera and big river the center hosts the anchorage symphony orchestra which is a semi professional symphony orchestra the center also hosts the world famous international ice carving competition as part of the fur rendezvous festival in february there are also weekly sessions of irish traditional music jazz and other musical scenes the anchorage concert association brings one five to two zero world class performing arts events to the community each win |
ter and numerous independent perforance groups museums and art collections the alaska aviation heritage museum is a museum with artifacts reflecting alaska s unique aviation history the alaska state troopers museum was formed in the late one nine six zero s and shares the history of the alaska state troopers the anchorage fire department museum is a museum that relive anchorage history among the displays of fire fighting memorabilia including a vintage one nine two one lafrance fire truck the imaginarium is a hands on science discovery center the oscar anderson house museum is anchorage s only house museum established in one nine one five the russian orthodox museum is a museum that represents history of the russian orthodox church in alaska the wolf song of alaska was incorporated in one nine eight eight is a world class observation facility the alaska museum of natural history is a non profit museum that educates exclusively on alaska s unique geological cultural and ecological history history art collectio |
ns are at the anchorage museum of history and art opened in one nine six eight is a world class museum the heritage library museum was established in one nine six eight and is viewed as one of the largest collections of alaska artifacts other cultural institutions the alaska zoo opened as a children s zoo in one nine six nine is home to just under one zero zero birds and mammals the alaska wildlife conservation center opened to the public in one nine nine three is a refuge for the orphaned injured wildlife a non profit organization the alaska native heritage center opened in one nine nine nine is a gathering place that celebrates perpetuates and shares alaska native cultures the alaska botanical garden contains over nine zero zero species of hardy perennials and one five zero native plant species local attractions the h two oasis indoor waterpark opened in two zero zero three is literally and figuratively the hottest spot in alaska for fun and adventure alpenglow at arctic valley is a ski resort that is locat |
ed on ski bowl road in the chugach state park near fort richardson the alyeska resort is a ski resort that is located in girdwood the hilltop ski area is located on the gentle slopes of southeast anchorage that weave against the base of chugach state park the nordic skiing association of anchorage is a non profit organization dedicated to promoting all forms of nordic skiing media anchorage s leading newspapers are the anchorage daily news the alaska star the insurgent four nine the anchorage press and the petroleum news anchorage is also well served by television and radio anchorage s major network television affiliates are kimo one three abc ktva one one cbs kakm seven pbs ktby four fox ktuu tv two nbc kyes five upn and kdmd three three pax shopping arcs the alaska rural communications service which provides some original programming and also cherry picks retransmissions from among the broadcast stations in anchorage though usually not kimo except in very rare occasions such as iditarod coverage to provide |
television service to remote areas leading radio stations include am stations ktzn five five zero clear channel communications khar five nine zero keni six five zero clear channel communications kbyr seven zero zero kfqd seven five zero and kudo one zero eight zero fm stations krua eight eight one university of alaska anchorage kakl eight eight five positive encouraging k love christian music k love emf broadcasting katb eight nine three knba nine zero three kska nine one one kfat nine two nine new northwest broadcasters kafc nine three seven keag nine seven three klef nine eight one kymg nine eight nine clear channel communications kbfx one zero zero five clear channel communications kgot one zero one three clear channel communications kdbz one zero two one new northwest broadcasters kmxs one zero three one kbrj one zero four one knik one zero five seven kwhl one zero six five and kash one zero seven five clear channel communications sports anchorage is home to the alaska aces of the echl hockey league the a |
nchorage bucs baseball club is a summer collegiate baseball team attracting players from universities throughout the world the anchorage glacier pilots is a member of the national baseball congress anchorage is also home to the great alaska shootout an annual college basketball tournament that features colleges from all over the u s the best ski jumper from the u s in the past one five years is from anchorage alan alborn he has finished four th in a stage of the world cup in engelberg switzerland and has a one one th place from the two zero zero two olympics in salt lake city utah he also holds the us skiflying record with two two one five meters from two zero zero two in planica slovenia infrastructure transportation anchorage is usually the starting or ending point of most visitors alaska vacations and it serves as the airline hub for the state being serviced by ted stevens anchorage international airport anchorage is served by some national airlines primarily seattle based alaska airlines as well as a numb |
er of international airlines the alaska railroad offers daily summer service to seward talkeetna denali national park and fairbanks these communities are also served by inter city bus line from anchorage transportation to downtown anchorage is convenient by taxicab airport shuttle or hotel courtesy shuttles upon arrival visitors can stop by the anchorage convention multiple beautiful cross country ski trails america s highest percentage of licensed airplane pilots with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby a very low population density for a city its size frequent small earthquakes spring windstorms chinook winds active volcanoes nearby to the southwest in the alaska range volcanoes such as mount spurr augustine volcano mount redoubt and others have coated the city with ash in recent years its extreme youth it was founded in one nine one five but didn t grow much until the one nine four zero s and much else despite this or perhaps because of it anchorage is definitely an american city repl |
ete with a vibrant business climate large shopping malls traffic congestion one can t easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter suburban style subdivisions and two suburbs eagle river and chugiak unless one counts the massive numbers of commuters who drive from as far away as the matanuska valley communities of wasilla and palmer anchorage has been named an all america city in the years one nine five six one nine six five one nine eight four eight five and most recently in two zero zero two the city won its latest award based on civic activities like the two zero zero one special olympics winter games the anchorage youth court and bridge builders see also south central alaska neighborhoods of anchorage alaska port of anchorage references anchorage alaska fact sheet united states census bureau url accessed on december three zero two zero zero five anchorage climate records list national weather service url accessed on december three zero two zero zero five the weather channel |
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