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one nine nine five two zero zero five monthly climatolgy graph url retrieved on december three zero two zero zero five municipality of anchorage traffic department long range transportation plan url accessed on january one eight two zero zero six anchorage historical highlights url accessed on january two one two zero zero six the great alaska earthquake of one nine six four url accessed on january two one two zero zero six external links municipality of anchorage official site anchorage convention and visitors bureau alaska visitors center alaska com information anchorage municipal libraries anchorage all america city two zero zero two information photographic virtual tour of anchorage anchorage cam includes camera links national weather service anchorage office all america city anchorage alaska cities in alaska coastal cities independent cities in the united states an argument is a collected series of statements to establish a definite proposition and may refer to logical argument a demonstration of a proof |
or using logical reasoning for persuasion oral argument a verbal presentation to a judge by a lawyer verb argument a phrase in a sentence that qualifies a verb heuristic argument a proof or demonstration relying on experimental results or one which is not fully rigorous ontological argument a proof by intuition or reason of the existence of god political argument the use of logic rather than propaganda in promoting political ideas doublespeak argument the use of misleading or irrelevant reasoning by one side during a debate javelin argument a cosmological reasoning about the infinite size of the universe the argument an album by the band fugazi released in two zero zero one argument literature the brief summary at the beginning of a section of a poem grand argument story a type of story that is intended to be conceptually complete in mathematics argument may also mean independent variable or input of a function the argument of f x is x complex argument the angular component of a complex number represented in |
polar coordinates argument principle a theorem in complex analysis about meromorphic functions inside and on a closed contour diagonal argument a type of proof over an infinite domain used to identify the cardinal class of the real numbers probabilistic argument any proof using probability theory in computer science argument may also mean argument computer science an input to a subprogram or subroutine see also philosophical arguments argument form a method of logically analyzing sentences argumentation theory the science and theory of civil debates argumentative a type of evidentiary objection to a question for a witness during a trial default argument an actual parameter to a program that is used when no other actual parameter is provided existence of god contains lists of common ontological arguments for and arguments against the existence of god toulmin model the model of an argument distinction without a difference apollo one one was an american space mission part of the apollo program and the first man |
ned mission to land on the moon it launched on july one six one nine six nine on july two zero mission commander neil armstrong and pilot edwin buzz aldrin became the first humans to set foot on the moon crew neil armstrong flew in gemini eight running long eagle was four seconds further along its descent trajectory than planned and would land miles west of the intended site the lm navigation and guidance computer reported several unusual program alarms as it guided the lm s descent these alarms tore the crew s attention away from the scene outside as the descent proceeded in nasa s mission control center in houston texas a young controller named steve bales told the flight director that it was safe to continue the descent in spite of the alarms once they returned their attention to the view outside the astronauts saw that their computer was guiding them toward a landing site full of large rocks scattered around a large crater armstrong took manual control of the lunar module at that point and guided it to a |
landing at two zero one seven utc on july two zero with about three zero seconds worth of fuel left the saturn v carrying apollo one one took several seconds to clear the tower on july one six one nine six nine the program alarms were executive overflows indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted the cause was later determined to be the lm rendezvous radar being left on during the descent causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar steve bales received a medal of freedom for his go call under pressure although apollo one one landed with less fuel than other missions they also encountered a premature low fuel warning it was later found caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant slosh uncovering a fuel sensor extra baffles in the tanks were subsequently added at two five six utc on july two one six and a half hours after landing armstrong made his descent to the moon surface and took his famous one giant leap for mankind aldrin joined h |
im and the two spent two and a half hours drilling core samples photographing what they saw and collecting rocks they planned placement of the early apollo scientific experiment package easep and the u s flag by studying their landing site through eagle s twin triangular windows which gave them a six zero field of view preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his plss according to veteran moonwalker john young a redesign of the lm to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the plss backpack so some of the highest heart rates recorded from apollo astronauts occurred during lm egress and ingress buzz aldrin poses on the moon allowing neil armstrong to photograph both of them using the visor s reflection the remote control unit controls on armstrong s chest prevented him from seeing his feet while climbing down the nine rung ladder armstrong pulled a d ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assemb |
ly mesa folded against eagle s side and activate the tv camera the first images used a slow scan television system and were picked up at goldstone in the usa but with better fidelity by honeysuckle creek in australia minutes later the tv was switched to normal television and the feed was switched to the more sensitive radio telescope station at the parkes observatory in australia despite some technical and weather difficulties ghostly black and white images of the first lunar eva were received and were immediately broadcast to at least six zero zero million people on earth after describing the surface very fine grained almost like a powder armstrong stepped off eagle s footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world he reported that moving in the moon s gravity one sixth of earth s was perhaps even easier than the simulations in addition to fulfilling president john f kennedy s mandate to land a man on the moon before the end of the one nine six zero s apollo one one was an engineerin |
g test of the apollo system therefore armstrong snapped photos of the lm so engineers would be able to judge its post landing condition he then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick he folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh he removed the tv camera from the mesa made a panoramic sweep and mounted it on a tripod one two m four zero ft from the lm the tv camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the eva photo of the actual plaque left on the moon attached to the ladder of the lm descent stage aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around including two footed kangaroo hops the plss backpack created a tendency to tip backwards but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance loping became the preferred method of movement the astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead the fine soil was quite slippery aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into e |
agle s shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit though the helmet was warmer in sunlight so he felt cooler in shadow a visible shockwave formed as the saturn v encountered maximum dynamic pressure max q at about one minute two zero seconds into the flight altitude one two five km four km downrange velocity four four zero m s together the astronauts planted the u s flag then took a phone call from president richard nixon the mesa failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow slowing work somewhat as they worked the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits the integrated thermal meteoroid garment they deployed the easep which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector then armstrong loped about one two zero m four zero zero ft from the lm to snap photos at the rim of east crater while aldrin collected two core tubes he used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes the only time the hammer was used on apollo one one the astrona |
uts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles many of the surface activities took longer than expected so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted three four min neil armstrong works at the lm in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface nasa photo as one one four zero five eight eight six during this period mission control used a coded phrase to warn armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down he was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk however so mission control granted the astronauts a one five minute extension lunar ascent and return aldrin entered eagle first with some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than two two kg four eight lb of lunar surface material to the lm hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the lunar equipment conveyor armstrong then jumpe |
d to the ladder s third rung and climbed into the lm after transferring to lm life support the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their plss backpacks lunar overshoes one hasselblad camera and other equipment then they lifted off in eagle s ascent stage to rejoin cmp michael collins aboard columbia in lunar orbit eagle was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit later nasa reports mentioned that eagle s orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an uncertain location on the lunar surface after more than two hours on the lunar surface they returned to collins on board columbia bringing two zero eight seven kilograms of lunar samples with them the two moon walkers had left behind scientific instruments such as a retroreflector array used for the lunar laser ranging experiment they also left an american flag and other mementos including a plaque mounted on the lm descent stage ladder bearing two drawings of earth of the western and eastern hemispheres an inscription and |
signatures of the astronauts and richard nixon the inscription read here men from planet earthfirst set foot upon the moonjuly one nine six nine a d we came in peace for all mankind the astronauts returned to earth on july two four welcomed as heroes the splashdown point was two six six zero km one four four zero nm east of wake island or three eight zero km two one zero nm south of johnston atoll and two four km one five mi from the recovery ship uss hornet the command module is displayed at the national air and space museum washington d c the crew of apollo one one in quarantine after returing to earth visited by richard nixon contingency television address the national archives in washington d c has a copy of the following contingency memo titled in event of moon disaster and dated july one eight one nine six nine which was prepared by william safire for president nixon to read on television in the event the apollo one one astronauts were stranded on the moon fate has ordained that the men who went to the |
moon to explore in peace will stay on the moon to rest in peace these brave men neil armstrong and edwin aldrin know that there is no hope for their recovery but they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice these two men are laying down their lives in mankind s most noble goal the search for truth and understanding they will be mourned by their families and friends they will be mourned by their nation they will be mourned by the people of the world they will be mourned by a mother earth that dared send two of her sons into the unknown in their exploration they stirred the people of the world to feel as one in their sacrifice they bind more tightly the brotherhood of man in ancient days men looked at stars and saw their heroes in the constellations in modern times we do much the same but our heroes are epic men of flesh and blood others will follow and surely find their way home man s search will not be denied but these men were the first and they will remain the foremost in our hearts arms |
trong on lunar surface with gold visor raised from one six mm film nasa for every human being who looks up at the moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind the last line of the statement is reminiscent of a rupert brooke poem called the soldier the poem starts if i should die think only this of me that there s some corner of a foreign fieldthat is forever england following this address radio communications with the moon would have been cut off the astronauts left alone to die while a clergyman was to commend their souls to the deepest of the deep in the fashion of a burial at sea gallery image apollo one one png aldrin stands next to the passive seismic experiment package with the lunar module in the background image aldrin near module leg jpg aldrin inspects the lm landing gear image apollo one one one zero zero zero jpg aldrin unpacks experiments from the lm image buzz aldrin with u s flag jpg aldrin with the u s flag image two three a one one ea |
st jpg panoramic assembly of east crater communications link early in the planning of the project apollo nasa decided to combine all communications between spacecraft and earth into a single multiplexed feed called the unified s band system including audio communications television images crew medical telemetry and the spacecraft systems telemetry the signal was picked up by three purpose built stations goldstone california honeysuckle creek australia and fresnedillas spain and backed up by deep space network stations known as wing stations in australia spain and the united states at first the signal was routed to greenbelt maryland by way of submarine telephone cables using twelve voice circuits the signal was divided into twelve parts using inverse multiplexing sent onto the circuits and reintegrated in maryland before being sent on to nasa in houston intelsat satellites began taking over the trans oceanic transmissions toward the end of the one nine six zero s and nasa ended its contracts for the submarine |
telephone circuits which were then reallocated by telephone administrations for normal voice use on one four july one nine six nine the intelsat satellite over the atlantic failed a replacement was launched on one six july but went into a useless orbit and would not be reoriented in time to be used the early bird satellite was activated but thought it might not have enough power to get a signal to the united states the australia station was vital to picking up the signal during the moonwalks or keeping the astronauts waiting on the moon eight hours before venturing out a communications team was dispatched to spain to begin setting up the telephone circuits for nasa s inverse multiplexed signal european telecommunications administrators mostly government post offices were not accustomed to doing the business required they would normally require telegram messages to be exchanged with top level administrative approval but the twelve circuits had to be recovered from six countries to be made available to nasa wh |
ich had set a time limit two hours before launch or the launch would be canceled it would be the last ideal launch window before one nine seven zero other launch windows had been missed due to spacecraft equipment problems an official with the spanish communications authority helped the team secure the circuits with his own personal list of contacts the last circuit using inverse multiplexing was accepted by nasa just minutes before the time limit three days later the transmissions from the moon were picked up in spain relayed to the united states over the undersea circuits and made available by nasa to the americas they were beamed across the pacific ocean and from the far east were carried on the indian ocean satellite the postal telephone authority in west germany turned a large radio dish to aim at the indian ocean satellite picking up the signal from australia and providing it to western europe therefore viewers in western europe saw neil armstrong set foot on the moon a full half second later than those |
in the united states and some one eight seconds after it actually happened had this vital communications link not been restored the pledge of president john f kennedy to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade would have been missed mission trivia and urban legends trivia some internal nasa planning documents referred to the callsigns of the csm and lm as snowcone and haystack these were quietly changed before being announced to the press shortly after landing before preparations have begun for the eva aldrin broadcast that this is the lm pilot i d like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in whoever and wherever they may be to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way he then took holy communion privately at this time nasa was still fighting a lawsuit brought by madalyn murray o hair who had objected to the apollo eight crew reading from the book of genesis which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious |
activities while in space as such aldrin an episcopalian chose to refrain from directly mentioning this he had kept the plan quiet not even mentioning it to his wife and did not reveal it publicly for several years several books indicate that early mission timelines had buzz aldrin not neil armstrong as the first man on the moon a replica of the footprint left by neil armstrong is located in tranquility park in houston texas the park was dedicated in one nine seven nine a decade after the first moon landing the australian movie the dish two zero zero zero tells the slightly fictionalised story of how the images of the moon walk were received by the radio telescope at parkes observatory new south wales according to the hbo mini series from the earth to the moon michael collins made the following suggestion as to what armstrong should say upon stepping onto the lunar surface if you had any balls you d say oh my god what is that thing then scream and cut your mic armstrong claims to have said that s one small s |
tep for a man one giant leap for mankind although the a is not at all clear in recordings made at ground control it has been pointed out that the audio and video links were somewhat intermittent partly due to storms near parkes observatory recently digital analysis of the tape by nasa revealed the a may have been spoken but obscured by static folklore at some point while on the moon armstrong supposedly said good luck mr gorski some years later gorski died so he felt he could now explain this remark as a boy he heard a couple next door arguing and the wife said oral sex is it oral sex you want you ll get oral sex when the kid next door walks on the moon mr gorski this story is untrue neil armstrong apparently took a tartan where no tartan had been worn before a tiny swatch of the clan armstrong plaid was affixed to his suit when he walked on the moon another item that armstrong took with him was a special diamond studded astronaut pin which was given to deke slayton by the widows of the apollo one crew the pi |
n had been intended to be flown in apollo one then given to deke after the mission but due to the disaster the widows ended up giving the pin to him after the funerals deke gave the pin to neil to leave at tranquility base two main conspiracy theories surround the mission firstly that the landing was a hoax this is generally discounted although it has slowly grown in popularity particularly since the release of the movie capricorn one one nine seven eight which portrays a nasa attempt to fake a landing on mars secondly a less well known urban legend suggests that they were being watched while on the moon and had seen alien vehicles there this grew in popularity after the book someone else is on our moon was published according to another legend a survey undertaken in the one nine eight zero s in morocco revealed that a substantial percentage didn t think man had landed on the moon this was not due to conspiracy theory but rather to that segment not having been informed see also extra vehicular activity list o |
f spacewalks splashdown list of artificial objects on the moon google moon external links nasa apollo lunar surface journal apollo one one entry in encyclopedia astronautica usgs apollo mission traverse maps description of the lunar module computer record of lunar events first moon landing in one nine six nine marked an entire generation apollo simulation for orbiter spaceflight sim references discussing mis quote lunar landing sites in honor of the first manned moon landing apollo program human spaceflights lunar spacecraft one nine six nine apollo eight was the second manned mission of the apollo space program in which commander frank borman command module pilot james lovell and lunar module pilot william anders became the first humans to leave earth orbit and to orbit around the moon it was also the first manned launch of the saturn v rocket nasa prepared for the mission in only four months the hardware involved had only been used a few times the saturn v had launched only twice before and the apollo space |
craft had only just finished its first manned mission apollo seven however the success of the mission paved the way for the successful completion of john f kennedy s goal of landing on the moon before the end of the decade after launching on december two one one nine six eight the crew took three days to travel to the moon which they orbited for two zero hours while in lunar orbit they made a christmas eve television broadcast this was one of the most watched broadcasts of all time planning on december two two one nine six six nasa announced the crew for the third manned apollo flight frank borman michael collins and bill anders collins was replaced by his backup jim lovell in july one nine six eight after collins had to have surgery as he was suffering cervical intervertebral disc herniation an intervertebral disc had slipped into the spinal cavity and required two vertebrae to be fused together collins recovered and went on to be the command module pilot for apollo one one in september one nine six seven th |
e manned spacecraft center in houston texas proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing seven mission types were outlined each testing a specific set of components and tasks each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken these were a unmanned command service module csm test b unmanned lunar module lm test c manned csm in low earth orbit d manned csm and lm in low earth orbit e manned csm and lm in an elliptical earth orbit with an apogee of four six zero zero mi seven four zero zero km f manned csm and lm in lunar orbit g manned lunar landing of all the components of the apollo system the lunar module lm which would eventually be used to land on the moon presented the most problems it was behind schedule and when the first model was shipped to cape canaveral in june one nine six eight over one zero one separate defects were discovered grumman aircraft engineering corporation which was the lead contractor for the lm predict |
ed that the first mannable lm to be used for the d mission would not be ready until at least february one nine six nine delaying the entire sequence apollo csm diagram nasa george low the manager of the apollo spacecraft program office proposed a solution in august since the command service module csm would be ready three months before the lunar module they could fly a csm only mission in december one nine six eight but instead of just repeating the flight of apollo seven the c mission that would fly the csm in earth orbit they could send the csm all the way to the moon and maybe even enter into orbit this mission was dubbed the c prime mission this new mission would allow nasa to test procedures that would be used on the manned lunar landings that would otherwise have to wait until apollo one zero the f mission there were also concerns from the cia that the soviets were planning their own circumlunar flight for december to upstage the americans once again see zond program the first stage of as five zero thre |
e being erected in the vab on february one one nine six eight almost every senior manager at nasa agreed with this new mission the only person who needed some convincing was james e webb the nasa administrator however outvoted by the rest of the agency he gave his approval after leading the agency for eight years he would resign just four days before the launch of apollo seven the first manned apollo flight deke slayton the director of flight crew operations decided to swap the crews of the d and e missions james mcdivitt the original commander of the d mission has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight but would probably have turned it down as he wanted to fly the lunar module borman on the other hand jumped at the chance his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight except in a higher orbit this swap also meant a swap of spacecraft borman s crew would now use csm one zero three while mcdivitt s crew would use csm one zero four in the end the e mission was canceled as mo |
st its objectives had been covered by the apollo eight and apollo nine flights mission managers were also confident that apollo one zero would also cover the remaining objectives with its lunar orbit flight on september nine the crew entered the simulators to begin their preparation for the flight by the time the mission flew the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight although all crew members were trained for all aspects of the mission it was necessary to specialize borman as commander was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the re entry lovell was trained on navigating the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the earth anders was placed in charge of checking the spacecraft was in working order it was not until november one two that a public announcement was made about the change of mission for apollo eight previous to this thomas o paine the deputy administrator of nasa had made a fleeting remark that all options were being considered borman s ma |
in concern during the four months leading up to the launch was keeping the flight plan as simple as possible not accepting any addition that went beyond the simple objectives of performing the first manned saturn v launch going to the moon and orbiting it he made sure that they stayed in lunar orbit only as long as necessary one zero orbits the crew now living in the crew quarters at kennedy space center received a visit from charles lindbergh the night before the launch they talked about how before his flight lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from new york to paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight the total was a tenth of the amount that the saturn v would burn every second the saturn v the apollo eight saturn v being rolled out to pad three nine a the saturn v rocket used by apollo eight was designated sa five zero three the third flight model when it was erected in the vertical assembly building on two zero december one nine six seven it was thou |
ght that the rocket would be used for an unmanned test flight carrying a boilerplate command service module although apollo six had suffered several major problems it suffered severe pogo oscillation during its first stage and two second stage engines shutdown early marshall space flight center in charge of the saturn v was confident that it could solve all the issues without the need for another unmanned test flight the sa five zero three mission was thus changed to a manned one however nasa managers did impose some restrictions on a manned flight taking place the s ii second stage had to undergo cryogenic testing at the mississippi test facility and other changes were to be made to man rate the vehicle so on april three zero the saturn v was unstacked and the s ii second stage shipped by barge to the test site the spark igniters on the second and third stage engines were also modified in may one nine six eight a leak was found in a first stage engine requiring it to be replaced with only two launches of the |
saturn v under its belt the ground crew at kennedy space center ksc was having problems keeping to the schedule the grumman crew was also having issues with the lunar module concern was expressed at the fact so much work had to be done on the lunar module after it had shipped to the cape the ascent engine developed leaks that caused redesigns and valve changes then in august one nine six eight the entire mission changed sa five zero three would launch men to the moon and would not be carrying a lunar module instead carrying a mass equivalent called a lunar module test article lta similar to ones used for apollo four and apollo six in order to speed up the pre launch preparations much of the modification of the saturn v was taken out of the hands of ksc and given to appropriate development centers only changes that affected crew safety were made the apollo eight spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on september two one and the rocket made the slow three mile five km journey to the launch pad on nine oct |
ober testing continued all through december until the day before launch the sa five zero three designation stood for saturn apollo and was used by nasa departments concerned with the launch vehicle however departments concerned with the manned flight often used as five zero three standing for apollo saturn both of these designations were used at the time to refer to the mission as a whole the five zero three number indicated that it was flight number three five zero three of the saturn v five zero three the mission launch and trans lunar injection apollo eight launch the photo is a double exposure as the moon was not visible at the time of launch nasa apollo eight launched at seven five one zero zero a m eastern standard time on december two one one nine six eight the entire launch phase was practically flawless with only minor problems the s ic first stage s engines underperformed by zero seven five causing the engines to burn for two four five seconds longer than planned towards the end of the second stage |
burn the rocket underwent pogo oscillations that frank borman estimated were of the order of one two hz and about zero two five g two five m s the first manned saturn v placed the spacecraft into a one one two eight mi by one one eight nine mi one eight one five km by one nine one three km earth orbit with a period of eight eight minutes and one zero seconds the apogee was also slightly higher than intended with a planned circular orbit of one one five mi one eight five km the s ic impacted the atlantic ocean at and the s ii at for the next two hours and three eight minutes the crew and mission control worked to check that the spacecraft was in working in order and ready for trans lunar injection tli the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the moon at the same time the crew transformed the capsule from a rocket payload to a spacecraft and the s ivb third stage had to be in working order on the previous unmanned test the s ivb had failed to re ignite during the flight there would be three cap |
sule communicators usually referred to as capcoms on a rotating roster these were the only people who would normally communicate with the crew michael collins was the first of these on duty and at two hours two seven minutes and two two seconds after launch radioed apollo eight you are go for tli mission control had given official permission for the crew to go to the moon over the next twelve minutes before the burn the crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket the s ivb third stage rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for five minutes and one seven seconds the burn increased the velocity of the spacecraft to three five five zero five ft s one zero eight two two m s and their altitude at the end of the burn was two one five four mi three four six seven km they were the fastest humans in history now that the s ivb had performed its required tasks it was jettisoned the crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage as well as practiced flying in formation with |
it as the crew rotated the spacecraft around they had their first views of the earth as they moved away from it this was the first time humans had been able to see the entire earth in one go borman became worried that the s ivb was staying too close to the csm and suggested to mission control that the crew perform a separation maneuver mission control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards earth and using the reaction control system rcs thrusters on the service module to add three ft s zero nine m s away from the earth but borman did not want to lose sight of the s ivb after much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at nine ft s two seven m s these discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan five hours after launch mission control commanded the s ivb booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the moon and enter into a solar orbit so as to pose no future hazard to the crew it went |
into a zero nine nine by zero nine two au solar orbit with an inclination of two three four seven and a period of three four zero eight zero days the members of the apollo eight crew were the first humans to pass through the van allen radiation belts which extend up to one five zero zero zero mi two five zero zero zero km from earth although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest x ray or one milligray during the course of a year the average human receives a dose of two to three mgy there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew so each crewmember wore a personal radiation dosimeter that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew by the end of the mission the average radiation dose of the crew was one six mgy coasting to the moon one of the first images taken by humans of the whole earth probably photographed by bill anders south is up wit |
h south america in the middle jim lovell s main job as command module pilot was to act as navigator although mission control performed all the actual navigation calculation it was necessary that in case of communication loss the crew could navigate their way home this was done by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft measuring the angle between a star and the earth s or the moon s horizon this proved to be difficult as the venting by the s ivb had caused a large cloud of debris to form around the spacecraft making it hard to distinguish what were the actual stars by seven hours into the mission the delay in moving away from the s ivb and lovell s star sightings meant that they were behind schedule on the flight plan by about one hour and four zero minutes the crew now placed the spacecraft into passive thermal control ptc or what is more aptly called barbecue mode this had the spacecraft roll about one rotation per hour along its long axis in order to ensure even heat distribution of the sp |
acecraft in direct sunlight the spacecraft could be heated to over two zero zero c while the parts in shadow would be one zero zero c these temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack or propellant lines to burst as it was impossible to get a perfect roll the spacecraft actually swept out a cone as it rotated this would have to be trimmed every half hour as it started to get larger and larger the first mid course correction came one one hours into the flight testing on the ground had shown there was a small chance that the service propulsion system sps engine would explode when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was coated first this could be done by burning the engine for a short period this first correction burn was only two four seconds and added about two zero four ft s six two m s prograde in the direction of travel this was less than the two four eight ft s seven five m s planned and the shortfall was due to a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines causing lower than expected fu |
el pressure requiring the crew to use the small reaction control system rcs thrusters to make up the shortfall two later planned midcourse corrections were cancelled as the trajectory was found to be perfect eleven hours into the flight the crew had been awake for over one six hours having been awakened about five hours before launch so it was time for frank borman to start his scheduled seven hour sleep period it proved difficult to sleep nasa had decided that at least one crewmember should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise but the constant radio chatter with the ground and the air circulation fans made it hard to sleep as well as this sleeping in space is a somewhat unnatural experience you cannot rest your head on a pillow and bill anders said that he would suddenly jolt awake with the sensation that he was falling apollo eight s ivb rocket stage nasa about an hour after starting his sleep period borman requested clearance to take a seconal sleeping pill but the pill had little |
effect after borman slept for seven hours fitfully he awoke feeling ill he vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces the crew cleaned up as best as they could borman decided that he did not want the world to know about his medical problems but lovell and anders still wanted to tell the ground they decided to use the data storage equipment dse which could be used by the crew to tape voice recordings and telemetry which were then dumped to the ground at high speed after recording a description of borman s illness they requested that mission control check the recording as the crew would like an evaluation of the voice comments a conference between the crew and medical personnel was held using the unoccupied second floor control room there were two identical control rooms in houston on the second and third floor of which only one is used during the course of a mission during a private communication with the crew it was decided that there was littl |
e to worry about and that it was either a two four hour flu as borman thought or just a reaction to the sleeping pill in fact it is now thought that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness it had never arisen on previous spacecraft mercury and gemini as they had been too small to move freely in in flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the moon in the center is frank borman the cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight with little happening except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and they were on course during this time nasa scheduled a television broadcast for three one hours after launch the camera used was two kg and broadcast in black and white only using a vidicon tube it had two lenses a very wide angle one six zero lens and a telephoto nine lens during this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of t |
he spacecraft and attempted to show how the earth appeared however this proved impossible as the narrow angle lens was difficult to aim without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at also without proper filters the image became saturated by any bright source in the end all the crew could do was show the people watching back on earth a bright blob after broadcasting for one seven minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the high gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on earth and they ended the transmission with lovell wishing his mother happy birthday by this time the planned sleep periods had completely been abandoned three two hours into the flight lovell went to bed three hours before he had planned to a short while later anders also went to bed after taking a sleeping pill somewhat strangely the crew were unable to see the moon for much of the outward cruise three of the five windows had fogged up due to outgassed oils from the silicone sealant and due to the attitude required |
for the ptc the moon was almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft in fact it was not until the crew had gone behind the moon that they would be able to see it for the first time a second television broadcast came at five five hours this time the crew had managed to rig up filters meant for the still cameras so that they could acquire images of the earth through the telephoto lens although difficult to aim as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft the crew was able to broadcast back to earth the first television pictures of the earth the crew spent the transmission describing the earth and what was visible and the colors that could be seen the transmission lasted two three minutes lunar sphere of influence at about five five hours and four zero minutes into the flight the crew of apollo eight became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body or to put it another way the moon s gravitational force became stronger than that of the earth at the time it |
happened they were three eight seven five nine mi six two three seven seven km from the moon and had a speed of three nine nine zero ft s one two one six m s with respect to the moon this historic moment was of little interest to the crew as they still calculated their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at kennedy space center and would do so until they performed their last midcourse correction when they would switch to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit it was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit the last major event before lunar orbit insertion was a second midcourse correction it was in retrograde against direction of travel and slowed the spacecraft down by two zero ft s zero six m s in effect lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon at exactly six one hours after launch about two four two zero zero mi three nine zero zero zero km from the moon the crew burned the rcs for one one seco |
nds they would now pass seven one seven mi one one five four km from the lunar surface at six four hours into the flight the crew began to prepare for lunar orbit insertion one loi one this maneuver had to be performed perfectly and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the moon out of contact with the earth after mission control was polled for a go no go decision the crew was told at six eight hours they were go and riding the best bird we can find at six eight hours and five eight minutes the spacecraft went behind the moon and out of radio contact with the earth with ten minutes before the loi one the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place then they finally got their first glimpses of the moon they had been flying over the unlit side and it was lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface but the burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view lunar |
orbit igniting at six nine hours eight minutes and one six seconds after launch the sps burned for four minutes and one three seconds placing the crew of apollo eight in orbit around the moon the crew described this as being the longest four minutes of their lives if the burn had not lasted exactly the right amount of time the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space if it lasted too long they could have ended up impacting the moon after making sure the spacecraft was working they finally had a chance to look at the moon which they would orbit for the next two zero hours the first earthrise photographed by humans on earth mission control continued to wait if the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time the crew would appear early from behind the moon however this time came and went without apollo eight reappearing and then exactly at the predicted moment the signal was received from the spacecraft indicating it |
was in a one nine three three mi by six nine five mi three one one one km by one one one nine km orbit about the moon after reporting on the status of the spacecraft lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like the moon is essentially grey no color looks like plaster of paris or sort of a grayish beach sand we can see quite a bit of detail the sea of fertility doesn t stand out as well here as it does back on earth there s not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters the craters are all rounded off there s quite a few of them some of them are newer many of them look like especially the round ones look like hit by meteorites or projectiles of some sort langrenus is quite a huge crater it s got a central cone to it the walls of the crater are terraced about six or seven different s on the way down lovell continued to describe the terrain that they were passing over one of the crew s major tasks was reconnaissance of the planned landing sites on the moon especially one |
in mare tranquillitatis that would be the apollo one one landing site the launch time of apollo eight had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for the site a film camera had been set up in one of the windows to record a frame every second of the moon below and bill anders would spend much of the next two zero hours taking as many photographs as he could of targets of interest by the end of the mission the crew would take seven zero zero photographs of the moon and one five zero of the earth a portion of the lunar near side the large crater in the bottom half of the photo is goclenius throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with the earth borman kept asking how the data for the sps looked he wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the earth if necessary he also asked that they receive a go no go decision before they passed behind the moon on each orbit as they reappeared for their second pass in front of the moon the crew set up the telev |
ision to broadcast a view of the lunar surface anders described the craters that they were passing over at the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven second loi two burn of the sps to circularize the orbit to seven zero zero mi by seven one three mi one one two six km by one one four eight km over the next two orbits the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the moon during the third pass borman read a small prayer for his church as he was meant to lay read during the midnight service at st christopher s episcopal church near seabrook texas but due to the apollo eight flight was unable a fellow parishioner and engineer at mission control rod rose suggested that borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service it was as the spacecraft came out from behind the moon for its fourth pass across the front that the crew witnessed an event never before seen earthrise anders glanced out the window and saw a blue and white orb and rea |
lized it was the earth instantly the crew understood that they needed to take a photograph of this anders took both the first photograph which was black and white and then later the more famous color photo after the flight borman and anders both claimed they took the first earthrise photo lovell also did but more as a joke than anything else it was determined that it was probably anders earth as seen from apollo eight december two four one nine six eight nasa anders continued to take photographs while lovell took the controls of the spacecraft so that borman could get some rest as always resting was difficult in the cramped and noisy capsule though borman was able to doze for two orbits he would awaken at times to ask a question about their status only to be told that everything was going fine borman did wake up however when he started to hear his fellow crewmembers make mistakes they were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated borman realized that everyone |
was extremely tired having not had a good night s sleep in over three days taking command he ordered anders and lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the moon be scrubbed at first anders protested saying that he was fine but borman would not be swayed at last anders agreed as long as the commander would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the moon borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted to crew to be alert for the next two orbits anders and lovell slept while borman sat at the helm as they rounded the moon for the ninth time the second television transmission began borman introduced the crew followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the moon borman described it as being a vast lonely forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing and then after talking about what they were flying over anders |
said that the crew had a message for all those on earth the only thing left for the crew now was to perform the trans earth injection or tei which would occur two hours after the end of the television transmission this was the most critical burn of the whole flight if the sps failed to ignite then the crew would be stuck in orbit around the moon with only about five more days of oxygen and no chance of escape and once again the burn had to be performed while the crew was out of contact with earth on the far side of the moon the burn occurred perfectly on time the spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re emerged from behind the moon at eight nine hours two eight minutes and three nine seconds the exact time predicted when voice contact was regained lovell announced please be informed there is a santa claus to which ken mattingly the capcom replied that s affirmative you are the best ones to know it was christmas day one nine six eight rupes cauchy in eastern mare tranquillitatis unplanned manual re alignme |
nt later lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard however an accidental entry erased some of the computer s memory which caused the inertial measuring unit imu to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift off and fire the thrusters to correct the module s attitude once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module s attitude they realized they would have to re enter data that would tell the computer its real position it took lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers using the thrusters to get the stars rigel and sirius aligned and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer sixteen months later lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re alignment under more critical conditions during the apollo one three mission after that module s imu had to be turned off to conserve energy in his one nine nine four book l |
ost moon the perilous voyage of apollo one three later re titled apollo one three when the movie based on it apollo one three came out lovell wrote my training on apollo eight came in handy in that book he dismissed the incident as a planned experiment requested by the ground crew however in subsequent interviews lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident caused by his mistake as described in robert zimmerman s one nine nine eight book genesis the story of apollo eight cruise back to earth and re entry the cruise back to earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft as long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly the spacecraft would re enter two days after tei and splashdown in the pacific on christmas afternoon the crew made their fifth and final television broadcast this time they gave a tour of the spacecraft showing how an astronaut lived in space when they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from deke slayton in the foo |
d locker real turkey with stuffing and three miniature bottles of brandy which remained unopened there were also small presents to the crew from their wives the apollo eight command module on the deck of the uss yorktown after two uneventful days the crew prepared for re entry the computer would control the re entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude blunt end forward if the computer broke down borman would take over after separating from the service module all the crew could do was sit and wait six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere the crew saw the moon rising above the earth s horizon just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists as they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the capsule the capsule started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at six g five nine m s with the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the capsule apollo eight rose briefly li |
ke a skipping stone before descending to the ocean at three zero zero zero zero feet nine km the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at one zero zero zero zero feet three km by the three main parachutes the spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be when it hit the water the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down in what was termed stable two position as they were buffeted by a one zero foot three m swell borman was sick waiting for the three floatation balloons to right the capsule it was four three minutes after splashdown before the first frogman from the uss yorktown arrived as the capsule had landed before sunrise forty five minutes later they were on the deck of the aircraft carrier the command module is now displayed at the chicago museum of science and industry along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by lovell and frank borman s spacesuit jim lovell s spacesuit can be found at nasa s glenn research center historical impo |
rtance apollo eight came at the end of one nine six eight a year that had seen much upheaval around the world soviet tanks had put a stop to the prague spring in czechoslovakia martin luther king jr and robert f kennedy had been assassinated the vietnam war had escalated with the tet offensive university campuses across the united states had seen rioting and occupation of buildings by students may had seen rioting in paris that almost led to revolution yet over all these other events time magazine chose the crew of apollo eight as their men of the year for one nine six eight recognizing them as the people that most influenced events in the preceding year they had been the first people to ever leave the gravitational influence of the earth and orbit another celestial body they had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty fifty chance of fully succeeding the effect of apollo eight can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger received by borman after the mission that si |
mply stated thank you apollo eight you saved one nine six eight january three one nine six nine cover of time magazine with the apollo eight crew one of the most famous aspects of the flight was the earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the moon although it was not the first image taken of the whole earth nor would it be the last this was the first time that humans had taken such a picture some regard the picture as being the start of the environmentalist movement with the first earth day in one nine seven zero the mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first american orbital flight mercury atlas six by john glenn in one nine six two there were one two zero zero journalists covering the mission with the bbc coverage being broadcast in five four countries in one five different languages the soviet newspaper pravda even covered the flight without the usual anti american editorializing it is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw |
either live or delayed the christmas eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the moon it had a tremendous impact touring the world after the mission borman met with pope paul vi he was told i have spent my entire life trying to say to the world what you did on christmas eve the militant atheist madalyn murray o hair later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against nasa over the reading from genesis she wished the courts to ban us astronauts who were all government employees from public prayer in space this was eventually rejected by the courts but it caused nasa to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the apollo program buzz aldrin on apollo one one took communion on the surface of the moon after landing he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years and only obliquely referred to it at the time crew frank borman flew on gemini seven cassutt michael one nine nine five deke an autobiography forge books isbn zero three one two eight five nine one eight x compiled |
by nasa manned spacecraft center one nine six nine analysis of apollo eight photography and visual observations us government printing office nasa pdf online version apollo program human spaceflights lunar spacecraft one nine six eight in the united states u s space shuttle astronaut bruce mccandless ii using a manned maneuvering unit mmu outside the challenger in one nine eight four picture courtesy nasa an astronaut cosmonaut russian spationaut or taikonaut taikongren is a person who travels into space or who makes a career of doing so the criteria for determining who has achieved human spaceflight vary see edge of space in the united states people who travel above an altitude of five zero miles eight zero km are designated as astronauts the fai defines spaceflight as over one zero zero km six one miles as of october one two two zero zero five a total of four four eight humans have reached space according to the u s definition four four two people qualify under the fai definition while four three eight peo |
ple have reached earth orbit or beyond these individuals have spent over two eight zero zero zero crew days or a cumulative total of seven six seven years in space including over one zero zero crew days of spacewalks a person who has traveled in space is said to hold astronaut wings astronauts from at least three four countries have gone into space international variations by convention a space traveller employed by the russian aviation and space agency or its soviet predecessor is called a cosmonaut cosmonaut is an anglicisation of the russian word kosmonavt which in turn derives from the greek words kosmos universe and nautes sailor in the usa a space traveller is called an astronaut the term derives from the greek words stron star and nautes sailor for the most part cosmonaut and astronaut are synonyms in all languages and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons however in the united states the term astronaut is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins while in russ |
ia an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight the first known use of the term was by neil r jones in his short story the death s head meteor in one nine three zero on march one four one nine nine five astronaut norman thagard became the first american to ride to space on board a russian launch vehicle arguably becoming the first american cosmonaut in the process european outside of the uk space travellers are sometimes especially in french speaking countries called spationauts a hybrid word formed from the latin spatium space and greek nautes sailor apart from the soviet union europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with russia and the united states taikonaut is sometimes used in english for astronauts from china by western news media the term was coined in may one nine nine eight by chiew lee yih from malaysia who used it first in newsgroups almost simultaneously chen lan coined it for use in the western media based on the |
term t ik ng literally great emptiness chinese for space in chinese itself however a single term y h ng yu n universe navigator has long been used for astronauts the closest term using taikong is a colloquialism t ik ng r n space person which refers to people who have actually been in space official english texts issued by the chinese government use astronaut space milestones yuri gagarin valentina tereshkova the first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the one six th century by a chinese ming dynasty official a skilled stargazer named wan hu this attempt was not successful the first cosmonaut was yuri gagarin who was launched into space on april one two one nine six one aboard vostok one the first woman cosmonaut was valentina tereshkova launched into space in june one nine six three aboard vostok six alan shepard became the first american in space in may one nine six one vladimir remek became the first non soviet european in space in one nine seven eight on a russian |
soyuz rocket on july two three one nine eight zero pham tuan of vietnam became the first asian in space when he flew aboard soyuz three seven also in one nine eight zero arnaldo tamayo m ndez became the first person of african descent to fly in space the first person born in africa to fly in space was patrick baudry in june one nine eight five shannon lucid became the first chinese born person in space in two zero zero two mark shuttleworth became the first citizen of an african country to fly in space on one five october two zero zero three yang liwei became china s first astronaut on the shenzhou five spacecraft the first mission to orbit the moon was apollo eight which included william anders who was born in hong kong making him the first asian born astronaut in one nine six eight the youngest person to fly in space is gherman titov who was roughly two six years old when he flew vostok two and the oldest is john glenn who was seven seven when he flew on sts nine five the longest stay in space was four thre |
e eight days by valeri polyakov as of two zero zero five the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven a record held by both jerry l ross and franklin chang diaz the furthest distance from earth an astronaut has traveled was four zero one zero five six km during the apollo one three emergency the first non governmental astronaut was byron k lichtenberg an mit researcher who flew on space shuttle mission sts nine in one nine eight three in december one nine nine zero toyohiro akiyama became the first commercial space farer as a reporter for tbs who paid for his flight the first self funded space tourist was dennis tito on two eight april two zero zero one while the first astronaut to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was mike melvill on spaceshipone flight one five p though this flight was sub orbital in the united states persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver astronaut wings once they have flown in space they receive gold astronaut wings the united states air force also |
presents astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed five zero miles eight zero km in altitude international astronauts astronauts on the international space station british astronaut michael foale can be seen exercising in the foreground up until the end of the one nine seven zero s only americans and soviets were active astronauts in one nine seven six the soviets started the intercosmos program with a first group of six cosmonauts from fellow eastern bloc countries and cuba a second group started training in one nine seven eight at about the same time in one nine seven eight the european space agency selected four astronauts to train for the first spacelab mission on board of the space shuttle in one nine eight zero france started their own selection of astronauts followed in one nine eight two by germany in one nine eight three by the canadian space program in one nine eight five by japan and italy in one nine eight eight several international payload specialists were selected for the space shuttle and also |
later for international soyuz missions of russia in one nine nine eight the european space agency formed a single astronaut corps of one eight by dissolving the former national corps of france germany and italy the united kingdom does not contribute to esa s human spaceflight programme and so its citizens must receive training from either the united states or russia if they wish to become astronauts astronaut training the first astronauts both in the usa and ussr tended to be jet fighter pilots often test pilots from military backgrounds u s military astronauts receive a special qualification badge known as the astronaut badge upon completion of astronaut training and participation in a space flight astronaut deaths dick scobee commander of the space shuttle challenger during the sts five one l mission to date eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions and at least ten more have been killed in ground based training accidents see also space disaster trivia many people who claim the apollo moon lan |
dings were faked often call the astronauts astronots see also list of astronauts by name list of astronauts by selection timeline of astronauts by nationality list of human spaceflights one nine six one one nine eight six one nine eight seven one nine nine nine two zero zero zero present list of spacewalks and moonwalks x one five spaceflight records shirley thomas author of men of space series one nine six zero one nine six eight external links encyclopedia astronautica encyclopedia astronautica phantom cosmonauts astronauts transportation occupations science occupations a modest proposal for preventing the children of poor people in ireland from being a burden to their parents or country and for making them beneficial to the publick commonly referred to as a modest proposal is a satirical pamphlet written by jonathan swift in one seven two nine the work has now become one of the epitomes of satire and the modern phrase a modest proposal derives from the work theme the work is written in first person point o |
f view however the narrator should not be confused with swift himself because the writer is merely a persona he argues through economic reasoning as well as a self righteous moral stance for a way to turn the problem of squalor among the catholics in ireland into its own solution his proposal is to fatten up the undernourished children and feed them to ireland s rich land owners children of the poor could be sold into a meat market at the age of one thus combating overpopulation and unemployment sparing families the expense of child rearing while providing them with a little extra income improving the culinary experience of the wealthy and contributing to the overall economic well being of the nation he offers statistical support for his assertions and gives specific data about the number of children to be sold their weight and price and the projected consumption patterns he suggests some recipes for preparing this delicious new meat and he feels sure that innovative cooks will be quick to generate more he al |
so anticipates that the practice of selling and eating children will have positive effects on family morality husbands will treat their wives with more respect and parents will value their children in ways hitherto unknown his conclusion is that the implementation of this project will do more to solve ireland s complex social political and economic problems than any other measure that has been proposed this is widely believed to be the greatest example of sustained irony in the history of the english language reactions the satirical intent of a modest proposal was misunderstood by many of swift s peers and he was harshly criticized for writing prose in such exceptionally bad taste he came close to losing his patronage because of this essay the misunderstanding of the intent of the satirical attack came about largely because of the disparity between the satirical intent of the cannibalistic proposal and the sincere tone of the narrative voice modern usage in modern usage the phrase modest proposal has come to |
indicate a proposal that is anything but modest such a proposal may serve to advance a cause or argument by promoting discussion on the merits of the argument s opposite other examples of modest proposals modest proposals and other literary hoaxes report from iron mountain sokal affair miscegenation origin of the word dihydrogen monoxide jack thompson attorney has been criticised for writing an open letter similar to swift s piece one that included a promise of donating money to charity external links a modest proposal gutenberg free audiobook from librivox sniggle net modest proposals satire essays non fictional british literature one seven two nine books the alkali metals are the series of elements in group one iupac style of the periodic table excluding hydrogen in all but one rare circumstance lithium li sodium na potassium k rubidium rb caesium cs and francium fr they are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental form in nature the alkali metals are silver colored caesium has a golden tinge so |
ft low density metals which react readily with halogens to form ionic salts and with water to form strongly alkaline basic hydroxides these elements all have one electron in their outermost shell so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled electron shell is to lose one electron to form a singly charged positive ion hydrogen with a solitary electron is sometimes placed at the top of group one but it is not an alkali metal except under extreme circumstances as metallic hydrogen rather it exists naturally as a diatomic gas removal of its single electron requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron for the alkali metals as in the halogens only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen forming the negative hydride ion binary compounds of hydride with the alkali metals and some transition metals have been prepared under extremely high pressure such as is found at the core |
of jupiter hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal see metallic hydrogen alkali metals periodic table in logic the argument form or test form of an argument results from replacing the different words or sentences that make up the argument with letters along the lines of algebra the letters represent logical variables the sentence forms which classify argument forms of common arguments important are studied in college logic here is an example of an argument a all humans are mortal socrates is human therefore socrates is mortal we can rewrite argument a by putting each sentence on its own line b all humans are mortal socrates is human therefore socrates is mortal to demonstrate the important notion of the form of an argument substitute letters for similar items throughout b c all s are p a is s therefore a is p all we have done in c is to put s for human and humans p for mortal and a for socrates what results c is the form of the original argument in a so argument form c is the form of ar |
gument a moreover each individual sentence of c is the sentence form of its respective sentence in a attention is given to argument and sentence form because form is what makes an argument valid or cogent some examples of valid arguments forms are modus ponens modus tollens and the disjunctive syllogism two invalid argument forms are affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent see also analytic proposition synthetic proposition logic an alphabet is a complete standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a phoneme of a spoken language either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past there are other systems of writing such as logograms in which each symbol represents a morpheme or word and syllabaries in which each symbol represents a syllable the word alphabet itself comes from alpha and beta the first two symbols of the greek alphabet there are dozens of alphabets in use today most of them are linear which means that they are made up of lines notable exc |
eptions are the braille alphabet morse code and the cuneiform alphabet of the ancient city of ugarit types the term alphabet is currently used by linguists both in a wider and in a narrower sense in the wider sense the term refers to any script that is segmental on the phoneme level i e that has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words in the narrower sense some scholars distinguish true alphabets from two other subtypes abjads and abugidas the three types differ from each other in the way vowels are treated in relation to consonants abjads record only consonants and leave vowels or most vowels unexpressed in abugidas the vowels are indicated by diacritical marks or systematic modification of the form of the consonants in alphabets in the narrow sense both consonants and vowels have separate symbols the first alphabet in the wider sense was the proto canaanite alphabet an abjad which through its successor phoenician became the ancestor of all later alphabets th |
e first alphabet in the narrow sense was the greek alphabet examples of present day abjads are the arabic and hebrew scripts true alphabets include latin cyrillic and korean hangul and abugidas are used to write amharic hindi and thai the canadian aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as a glyph stands for a consonant and is rotated to represent the vowel rather than each consonant vowel combination being represented by a separate glyph as in a true syllabary the boundaries between these three types are not always clear cut for example iraqi kurdish is written in the arabic script which is normally an abjad however in kurdish writing the vowels is mandatory and full letters are used so the script is a true alphabet other languages may use a semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics effectively making them abugidas on the other hand the phagspa script of the mongol empire was based closely on the tibetan abugida but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rathe |
r than as diacritic marks although short a was not written as in the abugidas one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet conversely the vowel marks of the amharic abugida have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the system is learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script even more extreme the pahlavi abjad became logographic see below thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels for tonal languages further classification can be based on the treatment of tone though there are as yet no names to distinguish the various types some alphabets disregard tone entirely especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load as in somali and many other languages of africa and the americas such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels most commonly tones are indicated with diacritics the way vowels are treated in abugidas this is the case for vietnamese a true alphabet and thai an abugida in thai tone is determined primari |
ly by the choice of consonant with diacritics for disambiguation in the pollard script an abugida vowels are indicated by diacritics but the placement of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates the tone more rarely a script has separate letters for the tones as is the case for hmong and zhuang for many of these languages regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used the most common tone is not marked just as the most common vowel is not marked in indic abugidas alphabets can be quite small the book pahlavi script an abjad had only twelve letters at one point and may have had even fewer later on today the rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters the hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small but it actually consists of one eight letters including the okina and five long vowels while rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent just eleven book pahlavi was small because many letters had been conflated that is the graphic distinctions had been lost over time and d |
iacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in arabic another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes for example a comma shaped letter represented g d y k and j however such simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated in later pahlavi papyri up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions were lost and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all but had to be learned as word symbols that is as logograms like egyptian demotic the largest segmental script is probably an abugida devanagari when written in devanagari vedic sanskrit has an alphabet of five three letters including the visarga mark for final aspiration and special letters for k and j though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used the hindi alphabet must represent both sanskrit and modern vocabulary and so has been expanded to five eight with the khutma letters letters with a dot added to represent sounds from persian and english the largest known abjad is sin |
dhi with five one letters the largest true alphabets include kabardian and abxaz for cyrillic with five eight and five six letters respectively and slovak for the latin alphabet with four six however these scripts either include di and tri graphs similar to spanish ch or diacritics like slovak the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably georgian with four one letters syllabaries typically include five zero to four zero zero glyphs though the m ra pirah language of brazil would require only two four if tone were not indicated and rotokas three zero and the glyphs of logographic systems number from the hundreds to the thousands thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script it is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet french uses the same basic alphabet as english but many of the letters can carry diacritic and other marks for example or in french these marks are not considered to create addition |
al letters however in icelandic the accented letters such as and are considered distinct letters of the alphabet some adaptations of the latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures such as in old english and in algonquian by borrowings from other alphabets such as the thorn in old english and icelandic which came from the futhark runes and by modifying existing letters such as the eth of old english and icelandic which came from d other alphabets only use a subset of the latin alphabet such as hawaiian or italian which only uses the letters j k x y and w for foreign words spelling each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes but depending on the language these rules may or may not be consistently followed in a perfectly phonological alphabet the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spel |
ling however languages often evolve independently of their writing systems and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language languages may fail to achieve a one to one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways a language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter two letter combinations are called digraphs and three letter groups are called trigraphs kabardian uses a tesseragraph four letters for one of its phonemes a language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters a language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence different dialects of a language may |
use different phonemes for the same word a language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries or the various rules in english for spelling words from latin and greek or the original germanic vocabulary national languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard however with an international language with wide variations in its dialects such as english it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet some national languages like finnish have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one to one correspondence between letters and phonemes the italian verb corresponding to spell compitare is unknown to many italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed each phoneme of standard italian is represented in only one way however pronunciation cannot always be predicted |
from spelling because certain letters are pronounced in more than one way in standard spanish it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling but not vice versa this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way but a given letter is consistently pronounced french with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy at the other extreme however are languages such as english and irish where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way for english this is because the great vowel shift occurred after the orthography was established and because english has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels however even english has general rules that predict pronun |
ciation from spelling and these rules are successful most of the time the sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet a standard for this is the international phonetic alphabet collation an alphabet also serves to establish an order among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists called collating note that the order does not have to be constant among different languages using this alphabet for examples see latin alphabet collating in other languages in recent years the unicode initiative has attempted to collate most of the world s known writing systems into a single character encoding as well as its primary purpose of standardising computer processing of non roman scripts the unicode project has provided a focus for script related scholarship the alphabet effect some communication theorists notably those associated with the so called toronto school of communications such as marshall mcluhan harold innis and more recently robert k log |
an have advanced hypotheses to the effect that alphabetic scripts in particular have served to promote and encourage the skills of analysis coding decoding and classification this set of hypotheses may be known as the alphabet effect after the title of logan s one nine eight six work the theory claims that a greater level of abstraction is required due to the greater economy of symbols in alphabetic systems and this abstraction needed to interpret phonemic symbols in turn has contributed in some way to the development of the societies which use it proponents of this theory hold that the development of alphabetic as distinct to other types of writing systems has made a significant impact on western thinking and development because it introduced a new level of abstraction analysis and classification mcluhan and logan one nine seven seven postulates that as a result of these skills the use of the alphabet created an environment conducive to the development of codified law monotheism abstract science deductive lo |
gic objective history and individualism according to logan all of these innovations including the alphabet arose within the very narrow geographic zone between the tigris euphrates river system and the aegean sea and within the very narrow time frame between two zero zero zero b c and five zero zero b c logan two zero zero four however many of these abstractions first occurred in societies which did not use an alphabet such as the codified law of hammurabi in babylonia which predated similar codes in societies with the alphabet since the alphabet quickly spread to become nearly ubiquitous it is difficult to trace cause and effect in this matter see also abecedarium abjad abugida akshara alphabetical order alphabets derived from the latin artificial scripts character set lipogram list of alphabets syllabary transliteration unicode a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z references overview of modern and some ancient writing systems chapter three traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic wri |
ting mcluhan marshall logan robert k one nine seven seven alphabet mother of invention etcetera vol three four pp three seven three three eight three chapter four traces the invention of writing external links alphabetic writing systems michael everson s alphabets of europe the unicode consortium evolution of alphabets animation by prof robert fradkin at the university of maryland history of alphabet the hebrew alphabet alphabetic writing systems documents writing in chemistry and physics the atomic number z is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom in an atom of neutral charge the number of electrons also equals the atomic number the atomic number originally meant the number of an element s place in the periodic table when mendeleyev arranged the known chemical elements grouped by their similarities in chemistry it was noticeable that placing them in strict order of atomic mass resulted in some mismatches iodine and tellurium if listed by atomic mass appeared to be in the wrong order and would |
fit better if their places in the table were swapped placing them in the order which fit chemical properties most closely their number in the table was their atomic number this number appeared to be approximately proportional to the mass of the atom but as the discrepancy showed reflected some other property than mass the anomalies in this sequence were finally explained after research by henry gwyn jeffreys moseley in one nine one three moseley discovered a strict relationship between the x ray diffraction spectra of elements and their correct location in the periodic table it was later shown that the atomic number corresponds to the electric charge of the nucleus in other words the number of protons it is the charge which gives elements their chemical properties rather than the atomic mass the atomic number is closely related to the mass number although they should not be confused which is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom the mass number often comes after the name of the element |
e g carbon one four used in carbon dating see also periodic table list of elements by number effective atomic number chemical properties nuclear physics anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the encyclop die anatomical chart from the cyclopaedia one seven two eight anatomy from the greek anatomia from anatemnein to cut up cut open is the branch of biology that deals with the structure and organization of living things it can be divided into animal anatomy zootomy and plant anatomy phytonomy furthermore anatomy can be covered either regionally or systemically that is studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest for the former or studying by specific systems such as the nervous or respiratory systmes for the latter major branches of anatomy include comparative anatomy histology and human anatomy animal anatomy animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of different animals when it is called comparative anatomy or animal morphology or it may be limited to one animal only in wh |
ich case it is spoken of as special anatomy human anatomy from a utilitarian point of view the study of humans is the most important division of special anatomy and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view from that of medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form position size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given though it is often less happily spoken of as anthropotomy so intricate is the human body that only a small number of professional human anatomists after years of patient observation are complete masters of all its details most of them specialize on certain parts such as the brain or viscera contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest topographical anatomy must be learned by repeated dissection and inspection of dead human bodies it is no more a science than a pilot s knowledge is and like that knowledge must be exact and available in mom |
ents of emergency from the morphological point of view however human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study having for its object the discovery of the causes which have brought about the existing structure of humans and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of embryology or developmental biology phylogeny and histology pathological anatomy or morbid anatomy is the study of diseased organs while sections of normal anatomy applied to various purposes receive special names such as medical surgical gynaecological artistic and superficial anatomy the comparison of the anatomy of different races of humans is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy in the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system such as nerves arteries heart and so forth as it is found in humans this is followed by an account of the development embryo |
logy and comparative anatomy morphology as far as vertebrate animals are concerned but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining human body structure are here dealt with the articles have a twofold purpose first to give enough details of structure to make the articles on physiology surgery medicine and pathology intelligible and secondly to give the non expert inquirer or the worker in some other branch of science the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built major body systems circulatory system digestive system endocrine system excretory system immune system integumentary system lymphatic system muscular system nervous system reproductive system respiratory system skeletal system human skeleton organs anus appendix brain breast colon or large intestine diaphragm ear eye heart kidney labia larynx liver lung nose ovary pharynx pancreas penis placenta rectum skin small intestine spleen stomach tongue uterus bones in the human skeleton collar bo |
ne clavicle thigh bone femur humerus mandible patella radius skull cranium tibia ulna rib costa vertebrae pelvis sternum glands ductless gland mammary gland salivary gland thyroid gland parathyroid gland adrenal gland pituitary gland pineal gland tissues connective tissue endothelial tissue epithelial tissue glandular tissue lymphoid tissue externally visible parts of the human body abdomen arm back buttock chest ear eye face genitals head joint leg mouth neck scalp skin teeth tongue other anatomic terms not classified artery coelom diaphragm gastrointestinal tract hair exoskeleton lip nerve peritoneum serous membrane skeleton skull spinal cord vein see also list of anatomical topics list of human anatomical features important publications in anatomy history of anatomy human anatomy organ anatomy superficial anatomy zootomical terms for location external links high resolution cytoarchitectural primate brain atlases free online anatomy atlas the npac visible human viewer on line medical dictionary anatomy of t |
he human body by henry gray online radiology anatomy resources gray s anatomy wiki http immunity info net anatomy atlases a digital library of anatomy information anatomy affirming the consequent is a logical fallacy in the form of a hypothetical proposition propositionally speaking affirming the consequent is the logical equivalent of assuming the converse of a statement to be true the fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when a hypothetical proposition comprising an antecedent and a consequent asserts that the truthhood of the consequent implies the truthhood of the antecedent this is fallacious because it assumes a bidirectionality when it does not necessarily exist this fallacy has the following argument form if p then q q therefore p this logical error is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent because it is mistakenly concluded from the second premise that the affirmation of the consequent entails the truthhood of the antecedent one way to demonstrate the invalidity is to use a counterexamp |
le here is an argument that is obviously incorrect if stephen king wrote the bible p then stephen king is a good writer q stephen king is a good writer q therefore stephen king wrote the bible p the previous argument was obviously incorrect but the next argument may be more deceiving if someone is human p then she is mortal q anna is mortal q therefore anna is human p but in fact anna can be a cat very much a mortal but not a human one however be aware that a similar argument form is valid in which the first premise asserts if and only if rather than if similarly the converse of a statement can be validly assumed to be true so long as the if and only if phrase is attached see also modus ponens modus tollens denying the antecedent fallacy of the undistributed middle logical fallacies andrei tarkovsky andrei arsenyevich tarkovsky april four one nine three two december two eight one nine eight six was a russian movie director writer and actor he is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers |
of the soviet era in russia and one of the greatest in the history of cinema biography tarkovsky son of the prominent poet arseniy tarkovsky was a product of the golden era of soviet arts education he received a classical education in moscow studying music and arabic before training for over five years at the vgik film school studying directly under mikhail romm among others he also worked as a geologist in siberia although the orthodox christian symbolism of his films led to prevarication and occasional suppression of the finished product by the soviet authorities the soviet mosfilm studio system enabled him to make films that would not have been commercially viable in the west however tarkovsky s principal complaint about his treatment by the authorities was that he had many more ideas in him than he was allowed to bring to the screen and in one nine eight four after shooting nostalghia in italy he decided not to return to russia he made only one more film the sacrifice a european co production filmed in s |
weden before dying of cancer in the suburb of paris at the early age of five four andrei tarkovsky was buried in a graveyard for russian migr s in the town of sainte genevi ve des bois le de france france work tarkovsky s films are characterised by metaphysical themes extremely long takes and memorable images of exceptional beauty recurring motifs in his films are dreams memory childhood running water accompanied by fire rain indoors reflections and characters re appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called sculpting in time by this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time the speedy jump cutting style that is prevalent in mtv videos and hollywood movies by contrast overrides any sense of time by imposing the editor s viewpoint by using long takes and few cuts in his films he aimed to give the viewers a sense of t |
ime passing time lost and the relationship of one moment in time to another up to and including his film mirror tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory after mirror he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by aristotle a concentrated action happening in one place within the span of a single day the sacrifice is the only film that truly reflects this ambition it is also considered by many to be a near perfect reflection of the sculpting in time theory filmography the killers one nine five eight tarkovsky s first student film at vgik the soviet state film school concentrate one nine five eight tarkovsky s second student film at vgik the soviet state film school there will be no leave today one nine five nine tarkovsky s final student film at vgik the soviet state film school the steamroller and the violin one nine six zero tarkovsky s graduation film from vgik the soviet state film school cowritten with andrei konchalovsky my name is ivan ivan s |
childhood one nine six two winner of golden lion for best film at one nine six two venice film festival set in the second world war this is tarkovsky s most conventional feature film although it still has moments of lyrical beauty andrei rublev one nine six six an epic based on the life of andrei rublev the most famous medieval russian painter of icons solaris one nine seven two based on the science fiction novel by stanis aw lem mirror one nine seven five a loosely autobiographical reconstruction of key scenes in tarkovsky s life the film he d tried to make earlier but abandoned for solaris we can note thematic ties between them said by tarkovsky to be closest to his own vision of cinema stalker one nine seven nine inspired by the novel roadside picnic by boris and arkady strugatsky tempo di viaggio italian journey one nine eight two a documentary made for italian television while scouting locations for nostalghia with italian co writer and frequent screenwriter for michelangelo antonioni tonino guerra nost |
alghia one nine eight three a russian scholar retraces the footsteps of an one eight th century russian composer in italy an encounter with a local lunatic a man who believes he can save humanity by carrying a lit candle across an empty swimming pool crystalizes the poet s melancholic sense of longing for his family faith and homeland the sacrifice one nine eight six the film is about the prospect of nuclear annihilation and man s spiritual response to this and other dilemmas set in counterpoint to a minor fable of failed adultery bibliography sculpting in time reflections on the cinema translated by kitty hunter blair one nine eight seven time within time the diaries one nine seven zero one nine eight six translated by kitty hunter blair one nine nine three external links stalker we re now into the zone the one and only fan forum nostalghia com a comprehensive site about tarkovsky tarkovsky museum the genius of andrei tarkovsky by alan pavelin one nine three two births one nine eight six deaths russian actor |
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