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nge all the observations from lowest value to highest value and pick the middle one if there are an even number of observations one often takes the mean of the two middle values popular explanation suppose one nine paupers and one billionaire are in a room everyone removes all money from their pockets and puts it on a table each pauper puts five on the table the billionaire puts one billion that is one zero nine there the total is then one zero zero zero zero zero zero zero nine five if that money is divided equally among the two zero persons each gets five zero zero zero zero zero zero four seven five that amount is the mean or average amount of money that the two zero persons brought into the room but the median amount is five since one may divide the group into two groups of one zero persons each and say that everyone in the first group brought in no more than five and each person in the second group brought in no less than five in a sense the median is the amount that the typical person brought in by cont |
rast the mean or average is not at all typical since no one present pauper or billionaire brought in an amount approximating five zero zero zero zero zero zero four seven five non uniqueness there may be more than one median there may be more than one median for example if there are an even number of cases then there is no unique middle value notice however that half the numbers in the list are less than or equal to either of the two middle values and half are greater than or equal to either of the two values and the same is true of any number between the two middle values thus either of the two middle values and all numbers between them are medians in that case measures of statistical dispersion when the median is used as a location parameter in descriptive statistics there are several choices for a measure of variability the range the interquartile range and the absolute deviation since the median is the same as the second quartile its calculation is illustrated in the article on quartiles medians of probab |
ility distributions for any probability distribution on the real line with cumulative distribution function f regardless of whether it is any kind of continuous probability distribution in particular an absolutely continuous distribution and therefore has a probability density function or a discrete probability distribution a median m satisfies the equality p x leq m p x geq m int m df x in which a riemann stieltjes integral is used for an absolutely continuous probability distribution with probability density function f we have p x leq m p x geq m int m f x dx zero five medians of particular distributions the median of a normal distribution with mean and variance two is in fact for a normal distribution mean median mode the median of a uniform distribution in the interval a b is a b two which is also the mean the median of a cauchy distribution with location parameter x zero and scale parameter y is x zero the location parameter the median of an exponential distribution with parameter is the scale parameter |
times the natural log of two ln two the median of a weibull distribution with shape parameter k and scale parameter is log two one k medians in descriptive statistics the median is primarily used for skewed distributions which it represents more accurately than the arithmetic mean consider the set the median is two in this case as is the mode and it might be seen as a better indication of central tendency than the arithmetic mean of three one six six calculation of medians is a popular technique in summary statistics and summarizing statistical data since it is simple to understand and easy to calculate while also giving a measure that is more robust in the presence of outlier values than is the mean theoretical properties an optimality property the median is also the central point which minimises the average of the absolute deviations in the example above this would be one zero zero zero one seven six one five using the median while it would be one nine four four using the mean in the language of probability |
theory the value of c that minimizes e left x c right is the median of the probability distribution of the random variable x an inequality relating means and medians for continuous probability distributions the difference between the median and the mean is less than or equal to one standard deviation see an inequality on location and scale parameters efficient computation even though sorting n items takes in general o n log n operations by using a divide and conquer algorithm the median of n items can be computed with only o n operations in fact you can always find the n th element of a list of values with this method this is called the selection problem see also multidimensional median order statistic an inequality on location and scale parameters external links calculating the median a problem involving the mean the median and the mode mathworld statistical median statistics the mammals are the class of vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for the |
nourishment of young the presence of hair or fur and endothermic or warm blooded bodies the brain regulates endothermic and circulatory systems including a four chambered heart mammals encompass some five five zero zero species distributed in about one two zero zero genera one five two families and up to four six orders though this varies depending on the classification scheme adopted phylogenetically mammalia is defined as all of the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of monotremes e g echidnas and platypuses and therian mammals marsupials and placentals including humans characteristics taxonomy currently emphasizes common ancestry diagnostic characteristics are useful for identifying this ancestry but if for example a cetacean were found that had no hair at all it would still be classified as a mammal while most mammals give birth to live young there are a few mammals the monotremes that lay eggs live birth also occurs in a variety of non mammalian species such as guppies and hammerhead sharks |
thus it is not a distinguishing characteristic of mammals although all mammals are endothermic so are birds and so this too is not a main defining feature while monotremes do not have nipples they do have mammary glands meaning that they meet all conditions for inclusion in the class mammalia mammals have three bones in each ear and one the dentary on each side of the lower jaw all other vertebrates with ears have one bone the stapes in the ear and at least three on each side of the jaw a group of therapsids called cynodonts had three bones in the jaw but the main jaw joint was the dentary and the other bones conducted sound the extra jaw bones of other vertebrates are thought to be homologous with the malleus and incus of the mammal ear all mammalian brains possess a neocortex this brain region is unique to mammals mammals have integumentary systems made up of three layers the outermost epidermis the dermis and the hypodermis the epidermis is typically ten to thirty cells thick its main function being to pro |
vide a waterproof layer its outermost cells are constantly lost its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward the middle layer the dermis is fifteen to forty times thicker than the epidermis the dermis is made up of many components such as bony structures and blood vessels the hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue its job is to store lipids and to provide cushioning and insulation the thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species most mammals are terrestrial but a number are aquatic including sirenia manatees and dugongs and the cetaceans dolphins and whales whales are the largest of all animals there are semi aquatic species such as seals which come to land to breed but spend the majority of the time in water true flight has evolved only once in mammals the bats mammals such as flying squirrels and flying lemurs are actually gliding animals no mammals have hair naturally blue or green in colour some cetaceans along with the mandrills appear to have shades of blue skin many |
mammals are indicated as having blue hair or fur but in all cases it will be found to be a shade of grey the two toed sloth can seem to have green fur however this colour is caused by algae growths origins mammals belong among the amniotes and in particular to a group called the synapsids distinguished by the shape of their skulls in particular the presence of a single hole on each side where jaw muscles attach called temporal fenestra in comparison dinosaurs birds and most reptiles are diapsids with two temporal fenestrae on each side of the skull and turtles with no temporal fenestra are anapsids from synapsids came the first mammal precursors therapsids and more specifically the eucynodonts two two zero ma mega annum million years ago during the triassic period pre mammalian ears began evolving in the late permian to early triassic to their current state as three tiny bones incus malleus and stapes inside the skull accompanied by the transformation of the lower jaw into a single bone other animals includi |
ng reptiles and pre mammalian synapsids and therapsids have several bones in the lower jaw some of which are used for hearing and a single ear bone in the skull the stapes this transition is evidence of mammalian evolution from reptilian beginnings from a single ear bone and several lower jaw bones for example the sailback pelycosaur dimetrodon to progressively smaller hearing jaw bones for example the cynodont probainognathus and finally possibly with morganucodon but definitely with hadrocodium true mammals with three ear bones in the skull and a single lower jaw bone hence pelycosaurs and cynodonts are sometimes called mammal like reptiles though this is strictly incorrect since in modern parlance these two are not reptiles but rather synapsids during the mesozoic period mammals diversified into four main groups multituberculates allotherium monotremes marsupials and placentals multituberculates went extinct during the oligocene about three zero million years ago but the three other mammal groups are all r |
epresented today most early mammals remained small and shrew like throughout the mesozoic but rapidly developed into larger more diverse forms following the cretaceous tertiary extinction event six five mya the names prototheria metatheria and eutheria expressed the theory that placentalia were descendants of marsupialia which were in turn descendants of monotremata but this theory has been refuted however eutheria and metatheria are often used in paleontology especially with regards to mammals of the mesozoic mammal evolutionary progression is below jawless fish cambrian period to mid ordovician periods bony fish mid ordovician period to late devonian period amphibians late devonian period to early carboniferous period reptiles late carboniferous period pelycosaurs synapsids or mammal like reptiles late carboniferous period to very early triassic period therapsids early permian triassic cretaceous includes dicynodonts dinocephalia etc cynodonts permian cretaceous paleocene mammaliformes mid triassic to early |
oligocene includes non therian mammals mammals mid jurassic period to today monotremes metatheria and eutheria in the mesozoic most early mammals were tiny shrew like animals that fed on insects however in january two zero zero five the journal nature reported the discovery of two one three zero million year old fossils of repenomamus one more than a meter in length the other having remains of a baby dinosaur in its stomach nature jan one five two zero zero five and the two zero zero four discovery in china of a one six four million year old five zero cm long aquatic mammal like fossil of a thus far unknown species dubbed castorocauda by a team led by dr ji qiang of nanjing university and the chinese academy of geological sciences was reported in february two zero zero six in the journal science science feb two four two zero zero six the earliest mammals include eozostrodon triassic and jurassic deltatheridium cretaceous jeholodens mid cretaceous megazostrodon late triassic and early jurassic triconodont tri |
assic to cretaceous zalambdalestes late cretaceous although mammals existed alongside the dinosaurs mammals only began to dominate after the mass extinction of the dinosaurs six five mya in the cenozoic in the paleocene during the next eight million years the paleocene period six four five eight mya mammals exploded into the ecological niches left by the extinction of the dinosaurs small rodent like mammals still dominated but medium and larger sized mammals evolved ptilodus multituberculate pucadelphys andinus an opposum like marsupial purgatorius a primate like mammal placental ectoconus an early hoofed mammal placental classification main article mammal classification george gaylord simpson s classic principles of classification and a classification of mammals amnh bulletin v eight five one nine four five was the original source for the taxonomy listed here simpson laid out a systematics of mammal origins and relationships that was universally taught until the end of the two zero th century since simpson s |
one nine four five classification the paleontological record has been recalibrated and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself partly through the new concept of cladistics though field work gradually made simpson s classification outdated it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals standardized textbook classification a somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks the following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is taken from vaughan et al two zero zero zero class mammalia subclass prototheria monotremes platypus and echidnas subclass theria live bearing mammals infraclass metatheria marsupials infraclass eutheria placentals mckenna bell classification in one nine nine seven the mammals were comprehensively revised by malcolm c mckenna and susan k bell which has resulted in the mckenna bell classification mckenna and bell cla |
ssification of mammals above the species level one nine nine seven is the most comprehensive work to date on the systematics relationships and occurrences of all mammal taxa living and extinct down through the rank of genus the new mckenna bell classification was quickly accepted by paleontologists the authors work together as paleontologists at the american museum of natural history new york mckenna inherited the project from simpson and with bell constructed a completely updated hierarchical system covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of mammalia the mckenna bell hierarchical listing of all of the terms used for mammal groups above the species includes extinct mammals as well as modern groups and introduces some fine distinctions such as legions and sublegions ranks which fall between classes and orders that are likely to be glossed over by the layman the published re classification forms both a comprehensive and authoritative record of approved names and classifications a |
nd a list of invalid names click on the highlighted link for a table comparing the traditional and the new mckenna bell classifications of mammals extinct groups are represented by class mammalia subclass prototheria monotremes platypuses and echidnas subclass theriiformes live bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives infraclass allotheria multituberculates infraclass triconodonta triconodonts infraclass holotheria modern live bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives supercohort theria live bearing mammals cohort marsupialia marsupials magnorder australidelphia australian marsupials and the monito del monte magnorder ameridelphia new world marsupials cohort placentalia placentals magnorder xenarthra xenarthrans magnorder epitheria epitheres grandorder anagalida lagomorphs rodents and elephant shrews grandorder ferae carnivorans pangolins creodonts and relatives grandorder lipotyphla insectivorans grandorder archonta bats primates colugos and treeshrews grandorder ungulata ungulates order tubulid |
entata incertae sedis aardvark mirorder eparctocyona condylarths whales and artiodactyls mirorder meridiungulata south american ungulates mirorder altungulata perissodactyls elephants manatees and hyraxes molecular classification of placentals molecular studies based on dna analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families over the last few years the most recent classification systems based on molecular studies have proposed four groups or lineages of placental mammals molecular clocks suggest that these clades diverged from early common ancestors in the cretaceous but fossils have not been found to corroborate this hypothesis these molecular findings are consistent with mammal zoogeography the first divergence was that of the afrotheria one one zero one zero zero mya the afrotheria proceeded to evolve and diversify in the isolation of the african arabian continent the xenarthra isolated in south america diverged from the boreoeutheria approximately one zero zero nine five mya the boreoeutheria |
split into the laurasiatheria and euarchontoglires between nine five and eight five mya both of these groups evolved on the northern continent of laurasia after tens of millions of years of relative isolation africa arabia collided with eurasia exchanging afrotheria and boreoeutheria the formation of the isthmus of panama linked south america and north america which facilitated the exchange of mammal species in the great american interchange the traditional view that no placental mammals reached australasia until about five million years ago when bats and murine rodents arrived has been challenged by recent evidence and may need to be reassessed it should however be noted that these molecular results are still controversial because they are not reflected by morphological data and thus not accepted by many systematists group i afrotheria clade afro insectiphillia order macroscelidea elephant shrews africa order afrosoricida tenrecs and golden moles africa order tubulidentata aardvark africa south of the sahara |
clade paenungulata order hyracoidea hyraxes or dassies africa arabia order proboscidea elephants africa southeast asia order sirenia dugong and manatees cosmopolitan tropical group ii xenarthra order xenarthra sloths and anteaters neotropical and armadillos neotropical and nearctic clade boreoeutheria group iii euarchontoglires superorder euarchonta order scandentia treeshrews southeast asia order dermoptera flying lemurs or colugos southeast asia order primates lemurs bushbabies monkeys apes cosmopolitan superorder glires order lagomorpha pikas rabbits hares eurasia africa americas order rodentia rodents cosmopolitan group iv laurasiatheria order insectivora moles hedgehogs shrews solenodons order chiroptera bats cosmopolitan order cetartiodactyla cosmopolitan includes former orders cetacea whales dolphins and porpoises and artiodactyla even toed ungulates including pigs hippopotamus camels giraffe deer antelope cattle sheep goats order perissodactyla odd toed ungulates clade ferae order pholidota pangolins |
or scaly anteaters africa south asia order carnivora carnivores cosmopolitan classification system used in related articles in light of all the options available the following classification system has been adopted for use in related articles class mammalia subclass order monotremata egg laying mammals order monotremata echidnas and platypus subclass marsupialia marsupials order didelphimorphia new world opossums order paucituberculata shrew opossums order microbiotheria monito del monte order dasyuromorphia marsupial carnivores order notoryctemorphia marsupial mole order peramelemorphia bandicoots and bilbies order diprotodontia koalas wombats kangaroos possums etc subclass placentalia order xenarthra sloths anteaters armadillos order pholidota pangolins superorder glires order rodentia rodents order lagomorpha rabbits hares and pikas order macroscelidea elephant shrews superorder archonta order primates primates order scandentia treeshrews order chiroptera bats order dermoptera colugos order insectivora sh |
rews tenrecs moles hedgehogs etc order carnivora dogs cats weasels seals etc superorder ungulata ungulates order tubulidentata aardvark order hyracoidea hyraxes order proboscidea elephants order sirenia manatees dugong order perissodactyla horses tapirs rhinoceroses order artiodactyla even toed ungulates order cetacea whales references bergsten johannes february two zero zero five a review of long branch attraction cladistics two one one six three one nine three pdf version mckenna malcolm c and bell susan k one nine nine seven classification of mammals above the species level columbia university press new york six three one pp isbn zero two three one one one zero one three eight nowak ronald m one nine nine nine walker s mammals of the world six th edition johns hopkins university press one nine three six pp isbn zero eight zero one eight five seven eight nine nine simpson george gaylord one nine four five the principles of classification and a classification of mammals bulletin of the american museum of nat |
ural history eight five one three five zero springer mark s michael j stanhope ole madsen and wilfried w de jong two zero zero four molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree trends in ecology and evolution one nine four three zero four three eight pdf version vaughan terry a james m ryan and nicholas j capzaplewski two zero zero zero mammalogy fourth edition saunders college publishing five six five pp isbn zero zero three zero two five zero three four x brooks cole one nine nine nine wilson don e and deeann m reeder eds one nine nine three mammal species of the world two nd edition smithsonian institution press one two zero six pp isbn one five six zero nine eight two one seven nine see also list of mammals list of regional mammals lists list of prehistoric mammals mammal classification external links north american fossil mammal systematics database paleocene mammals a site covering the rise of the mammals evolution of mammals a brief introduction to early mammals the evolution of mesozoic mammals a r |
ough sketch an informal introduction carnegie museum of natural history some discoveries of early mammal fossils mammal taxonomy database of mammals of the world updated each month mammal species of the world searchable online version of two nd edition one nine nine three of mammal species of the world mammals music is an art entertainment or other human activity which involves organized and audible sound though definitions vary allegory of music by filippino lippi allegory of music by lorenzo lippi the definition of music as sound with particular characteristics is taken as a given by psychoacoustics and is a common one in musicology and performance in this view there are observable patterns to what is broadly labeled music and while there are understandable cultural variations the properties of music are the properties of sound as perceived and processed by people traditional philosophies define music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies music theory within this realm is stu |
died with the presupposition that music is orderly and often pleasant to hear john cage is the most famous advocate of the idea that anything can be music saying for example there is no noise only sound though some argue that this somewhat fascistically imposes the definition on everything according to musicologist jean jacques nattiez one nine nine zero p four seven eight five five the border between music and noise is always culturally defined which implies that even within a single society this border does not always pass through the same place in short there is rarely a consensus by all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be in support of the view that music is a label for a totality of different aspects which are culturally constructed often a definition of music lists the aspects or elements that make up music molino one nine seven five four three argues that in addition to a lack of consensus any element belonging to the total musical fact can be is |
olated or taken as a strategic variable of musical production nattiez gives as examples mauricio kagel s con voce with voice where a masked trio silently mimes playing instruments in this example sound a common element is excluded while gesture a less common element is given primacy the platonic ideal of music is currently the least fashionable in the philosophy of criticism and music because it is crowded on one side by the physical view what is the metasubstance of music made of if not sound and on the other hand by the constructed view of music how can one tell the difference between any metanarrative of music and one which is merely intersubjective however its appeal finding unexpected mathematical relationships in music and finding analogies between music and physics for example string theory means that this view continues to find adherents including such critics and performers as charles rosen and edward rothstein aspects of music the traditional or classical european aspects of music often listed are t |
hose elements given primacy in european influenced classical music melody harmony rhythm tone color timbre and form a more comprehensive list is given by stating the aspects of sound pitch timbre loudness and duration four these aspects combine to create secondary aspects including structure texture and style other commonly included aspects include the spatial location or the movement in space of sounds gesture and dance silence is also often considered an aspect of music if it is considered to exist as mentioned above not only do the aspects included as music vary their importance varies for instance melody and harmony are often considered to be given more importance in classical music at the expense of rhythm and timbre john cage considers duration the primary aspect of music because it is the only aspect common to both sound and silence it is often debated whether there are aspects of music that are universal the debate often hinges on definitions for instance the fairly common assertion that tonality is a |
universal of all music may necessarily require an expansive definition of tonality a pulse is sometimes taken as a universal yet there exist solo vocal and instrumental genres with free improvisational rhythms with no regular pulse five one example is the alap section of a hindustani music performance according to dane harwood we must ask whether a cross cultural musical universal is to be found in the music itself either its structure or function or the way in which music is made by music making i intend not only actual performance but also how music is heard understood even learned six common terms common terms used to discuss particular pieces include note which is an abstraction that refers to either a specific pitch and or rhythm or the written symbol melody which is a succession of notes heard as some sort of unit chord which is a simultaneity of notes heard as some sort of unit chord progression which is a succession of chords simultaneity succession harmony which is the relationship between two or mo |
re pitches counterpoint which is the simultaneity and organization of different melodies and rhythm which is the organization of the durational aspects of music production the music industry is that which creates performs and promotes music a great deal of music is produced by amateurs performance chinese naxi musicians someone who performs composes or conducts music is a musician performance is a method for musicians to share music with others solo and ensemble the concert by gerrit van honthorst many cultures include strong traditions of solo or soloistic performance such as in indian classical music while other cultures such as in bali include strong traditions of group performance all cultures include a mixture of both and performance may range from improvised solo playing for one s enjoyment to highly planned and organized performance rituals such as the modern classical concert or religious processions what is called chamber music is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works a performer is called |
a musician a group being a musical ensemble such as a rock band or symphony orchestra oral tradition and notation musical notation music is often preserved in memory and performance only handed down orally or aurally by ear such music especially that which has no known individual composer is often classified as traditional different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material from quite strict to those which demand improvisation if the music is written down it is generally in some manner which attempts to capture both what should be heard by listeners and what the musician should do to perform the music this is referred to as musical notation and the study of how to read notation involves music theory written notation varies with style and period of music and includes scores lead sheets guitar tablature among the more common notations generally music which is to be performed is produced as sheet music to perform music from notation require |
s an understanding of both the musical style and performance practice expected or acceptable improvisation interpretation composition most cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical material or composition as held in western classical music many but fewer cultures also include the related concept of interpretation performing material conceived by others to the contrasting concepts of improvisation and free improvisation which is material that is spontaneously thought of imagined while being performed not preconceived however many cultures and people do not have this distinction at all using a broader concept which incorporates both without discrimination improvised music virtually always follows some rules or conventions and even fully composed includes some freely chosen material see also precompositional composition does not always mean the use of notation or the known sole authorship of one individual music can also be determined by describing a process which may create musical soun |
ds examples of this range from wind chimes through computer programs which select sounds music which contains elements selected by chance is called aleatoric music and is most famously associated with john cage and witold lutos awski compositions musical composition is a term that describes the makeup of a piece of music methods of composition vary widely however in analyzing music all forms spontaneous trained or untrained are built from elements comprising a musical piece music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be improvised composed on the spot the music can be performed entirely from memory from a written system of musical notation or some combination of both study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of western classical music but the definition of composition is broad enough to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and african drummers what is important in understanding the composition of a piece is si |
ngling out its elements an understanding of music s formal elements can be helpful in deciphering exactly how a piece is made a universal element of music is time or more generally rhythm when a piece appears to have no time it is considered rubato the italian term meaning free time does not mean without rhythm but rather that the tempo or time of the piece changes dynamically even random placement of random sounds often occurring in musical montage occurs within some kind of time and thus employs time as a musical element any musical event comprised of elements can be considered a composition reception and audition concert in the mozarteum salzburg the field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of music including how it is processed by listeners music is experienced by individuals in a huge variety of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert concerts take many different forms and may include people dressing in formal wear and sitting quietly in the rows of audito |
riums drinking and dancing in a bar or loudly cheering and booing in an auditorium deaf people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body the most famous example of a deaf musician is the composer ludwig van beethoven who composed many famous works even after he had completely lost his hearing in more modern times evelyn glennie who has been deaf since the age of twelve is a highly acclaimed percussionist also chris buck a violinist virtuoso and new zealander has recently lost his hearing media the music that composers make can be heard through several media the most traditional way is to hear it live in the presence or as one of the musicians live music can also be broadcast over the radio television or the internet some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played live recording even of styles which are essentially live often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordin |
gs which are considered better than the actual performance in many cultures there is less distinction between performing and listening to music as virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity often communal in industrialized countries listening to music through a recorded form such as sound recording or watching a music video became more common than experiencing live performance roughly in the middle of the two zero th century sometimes live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds for example a dj uses disc records for scratching audiences can also become performers by using karaoke invented by the japanese which uses music video and tracks without voice so the performer can add their voice to the piece education training many people including entire cultures compose perform and improvise music with no training and feel no need for training other cultures have traditions of rigorous formal training that may take years and serious dedication sometimes this training takes the form of appr |
enticeship for example indian training traditionally take more years than a college education and involves spiritual discipline and reverence for one s guru or teacher in bali everyone learns and practices together it is also common for people to take music lessons short private study sessions with an individual teacher when they want to learn to play or compose music usually for a fee secondary education the incorporation of music performance and theory into a general liberal arts curriculum from preschool to postsecondary education is relatively common western style secondary schooling is increasingly common around the world such as stsi in bali meanwhile western schools are increasingly including the study of the music of other cultures such as the balinese gamelan of which there are currently more than two zero zero in the united states of america study many people also study about music in the field of musicology the earliest definitions of musicology defined three sub disciplines systematic musicology h |
istorical musicology and comparative musicology in contemporary scholarship one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory music history and ethnomusicology research in musicology has often been enriched by cross disciplinary work for example in the field of psychoacoustics the study of music of non western cultures and the cultural study of music is called ethnomusicology in medieval times the study of music was one of the quadrivium of the seven liberal arts and considered vital to higher learning within the quantitative quadrivium music or more accurately harmonics was the study of rational proportions zoomusicology is the study of the music of non human animals or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non human animals as george herzog one nine four one asked do animals have music fran ois bernard m che s musique mythe nature ou les dauphins d arion one nine eight three a study of ornitho musicology using a technique of ruwet s language musique po sie one nine seven two |
paradigmatic segmentation analysis shows that birdsongs are organized according to a repetition transformation principle in the opinion of jean jacques nattiez one nine nine zero in the last analysis it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical even when the sound is not of human origin if we acknowledge that sound is not organized and conceptualized that is made to form music merely by its producer but by the mind that perceives it then music is uniquely human music theory is the study of music generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines more broadly it refers to any study of music usually related in some form with compositional concerns and may include mathematics physics and anthropology what is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period or tonal music theory even that which studies music of the common practice period may take many other forms musical set theory is the application of mathem |
atical set theory to music first applied to atonal music speculative music theory contrasted with analytic music theory is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials for example tuning systems generally as preparation for composition history the history of music in relation to human beings predates the written word and is tied to the development and unique expression of various human cultures music has influenced man and vice versa since the dawn of civilization popular styles of music varied widely from culture to culture and from period to period different cultures emphasized different instruments or techniques music history itself is the distinct subfield of musicology and history which studies the history of music theory genres as there are many definitions for music there are many divisions and groupings of music many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music among the larger genres are classical music popular music or commercial music including rock and roll count |
ry music and folk music there is often disagreement over what constitutes real music mozart stravinsky serialism jazz rap punk rock and electronica have all been considered non music at various times and places the term world music has been applied to a wide range of music made outside of europe and european influence although its initial application in the context of the world music program at wesleyan university was as a term including all possible music genres including european traditions in academic circles the original term for the study of world music comparative musicology was replaced in the middle of the twentieth century by ethnomusicology which is still an unsatisfactory coinage giants of the two zero th century frank sinatra and ella fitzgerald genres of music are as often determined by tradition and presentation as by the actual music while most classical music is acoustic and meant to be performed by individuals or groups many works described as classical include samples or tape or are mechanic |
al some works like gershwin s rhapsody in blue are claimed by both jazz and classical music as world cultures have been in greater contact their indigenous musical styles have often merged into new styles for example the us american bluegrass style contains elements from anglo irish scottish irish german and some african american instrumental and vocal traditions and could only have been a product of the two zero th century many current music festivals celebrate a particular musical genre notes molino one nine seven five three seven nattiez one nine nine zero p four seven eight five five molino one nine seven five four three owen two zero zero zero six johnson two zero zero two harwood one nine seven six five two two sources harwood dane one nine seven six universals in music a perspective from cognitive psychology ethnomusicology two zero no three five two one three three johnson julian two zero zero two who needs classical music cultural choice and musical value oxford university press isbn zero one nine fi |
ve one four six eight one six molino jean one nine seven five fait musical et s miologue de la musique musique en jeu no one seven three seven six two nattiez jean jacques one nine eight seven music and discourse toward a semiology of music musicologie g n rale et s miologue one nine eight seven translated by carolyn abbate one nine nine zero isbn zero six nine one zero two seven one four five owen harold two zero zero zero music theory resource book oxford university press isbn zero one nine five one one five three nine two see also music portal external links varied topics the virginia tech multimedia music distionary with definitions pronunciations examples quizzes and simulations malaysian jazz photos penang island jazz festival two zero zero five ricci adams musictheory net note piano and guitar lessons the biggest online music video database wikisound forums message boards lists nabble forums music topics music theory sheet music writing music music composition chord progressions music school subjects s |
ound mode may mean mode statistics the value that has the largest number of observations musical mode a kind of scale mode computer interface distinct method of operation within a computer program in which the same user input can produce different results depending of the state of the computer grammatical mood normal mode patterns of vibration in acoustics electromagnetic theory etc longitudinal mode or transverse mode transport mode refers to the means of transport being used see also modality memory is the ability of the brain to store retain and subsequently recall information although traditional studies of memory began in the realms of philosophy the late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology in the recent decades it has become one of the principal pillars of a new branch of science that represents a marriage between cognitive psychology and neuroscience called cognitive neuroscience there are several ways of classifying memories based on duration |
nature and retrieval of information from an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory encoding processing and combining of received information storage creation of a permanent record of the encoded information retrieval recall calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in some process or activity classification by duration a basic and generally accepted classification of memory is based on the duration of memory retention and identifies three distinct types of memory sensory memory short term memory and long term memory the sensory memory corresponds approximately to the initial moment that an item is perceived some of this information in the sensory area proceeds to the sensory store which is referred to as short term memory sensory memory is characterized by the duration of memory retention from milliseconds to seconds and short term memory from seconds to minutes these stores are generally characterised as of strictly li |
mited capacity and duration whereas in general stored information can be retrieved in a period of time which ranges from days to years this type of memory is called long term memory it may be that short term memory is supported by transient changes in neuronal communication whereas long term memories are maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural structure that are dependent on protein synthesis some psychologists however argue that the distinction between long and short term memories is arbitrary and is merely a reflection of differing levels of activation within a single store if we are given a random seven digit number we may remember it only for a few seconds and then forget short term memory on the other hand we can remember telephone numbers for many years assuming we use them often enough those long lasting memories are said to be stored in long term memory additionally the term working memory is used to refer to the short term store needed for certain mental tasks it is not a synonym fo |
r short term memory since it is defined not in terms of duration but rather in terms of purpose some theories consider working memory to be the combination of short term memory and some attentional control for instance when we are asked to mentally multiply four five by four we have to perform a series of simple calculations additions and multiplications to arrive at the final answer the ability to store the information regarding the instructions and intermediate results is what is referred to as working memory classification by information type long term memory can be divided into declarative explicit and procedural implicit memories declarative memory requires conscious recall in that some conscious process must call back the information it is sometimes called explicit memory since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved declarative memory can be further sub divided into semantic memory which concerns facts taken independent of context and episodic memory which concerns informatio |
n specific to a particular context such as a time and place semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world such as paris is the capital of france episodic memory on the other hand is used for more personal memories such as the sensations emotions and personal associations of a particular place or time autobiographical memory memory for particular events within one s own life is generally viewed as either equivalent to or a subset of episodic memory visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience we are able to place in memory information that resembles objects places animals or people in sort of a mental image visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system or prs underlies this phenomenon in contrast procedural memory or implicit memory is not based on the conscious recall of information but on implicit learning procedural memory is primarily employed in learning moto |
r skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory it is revealed when we do better in a given task due only to repetition no new explicit memories have been formed but we are unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia so far nobody has successfully been able to isolate the time dependence of these suggested memory structures psychology first contains more information on sensory memory classification by temporal direction prospective memory tying ribbon or string around a finger is the iconic mnemonic device for remembering a particular thought which one consciously trains oneself to associate with the string a further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past retrospective memory or whether the content is to be remembered in the future prospective memory thus retrospective memory as a category includes semantic memory and episo |
dic autobiographical memory in contrast prospective memory is memory for future intentions or remembering to remember winograd one nine eight eight prospective memory can be further broken down into event and time based prospective remembering time based prospective memories are triggered by a time cue such as going to the doctor action at four pm cue event based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues such as remembering to post a letter action after seeing a mailbox cue cues do not need to be related to the action as the mailbox example is and lists sticky notes knotted hankerchiefs or string around the finger see box are all examples of cues that are produced by people as a strategy to enhance prospective memory physiology overall the mechanisms of memory are not well understood brain areas such as the hippocampus the amygdala or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in certain kinds of memory for example the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarativ |
e learning damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information however rather than implicating a specific area it could be that damage to adjacent areas or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit further it is not sufficient to describe memory and its counterpart learning as solely dependent on specific brain regions learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses thought to be mediated by long term potentiation and long term depression disorders much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders loss of memory is known as amnesia there are many sorts of amnesia and by studying their different forms it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub systems of the brain s memory systems and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain other neurological disorders such as alzheimer s disease can also affect memory |
and cognition memorization memorization or rote learning is a method of learning that conditions an individual to recall important information verbatim this method of learning involves repetition with the assumption that an individual can learn a necessary process or an amount of information through repetitive action or study such to the point that it becomes near automatic artistic connections artworks often explore the nature of memory the film memento about a man afflicted with anterograde amnesia reflects on the nature and meaning of memory and implications of its loss the paintings of howard hodgkin while apparently abstract are said by the artist to be representations of his memories and their emotional associations the late works of the two zero th century composer morton feldman explore the nature of memory and methods through which it can be disorientated several works of the czech author milan kundera explore the nature of personal memory in relation to social or historical memory especially the no |
vels ignorance the book of laughter and forgetting and immortality perhaps the most renowned work of literature dealing largely with the concept of memory is marcel proust s monumental in search of lost time looking at wider cultural influences sigmund freud s concept of memory has been extremely important to twentieth century art especially as stated in his one eight nine nine essay screen memories in this essay he discussed the way in which mild and inoffensive childhood memories might screen other more frightening or dramatic ones the masking of one memory by another and its gradual revelation has featured as a plot device in film particularly from hitchcock s spellbound to total recall to ridley scott s blade runner see also alzheimers amnesia attention versus memory in prefrontal cortex dementia educational psychology hebbian learning long term potentiation the memory prediction framework an acclaimed unifying theory of memory mnemonic muscle memory or proprioception the sense and memory of how parts of |
the body are trained to move neural adaptation synaptic plasticity list of memory biases further reading draaisma d two zero zero five why life speeds up as you get older how memory shapes our past cup cambridge tulving e and craik f eds two zero zero zero the oxford handbook of memory oxford university press new york jung carl gustave synchronicity an acausal connecting principle one nine five two princeton university press wieman c and perkins k transforming physics education physics today november two zero zero five relevant quotes memory is but the storage of fragmentary but relevant features walter j ong it s a poor sort of memory that only works backwards through the looking glass by lewis carroll ch five wool and water the existence of writing changed the nature of memory jennifer wise in dionysus writes the invention of theatre in ancient greece one nine nine eight p two five the language of the homeric epic exhibits a formulaic linguistic style to aid the memory jennifer wise in dionysus writes the i |
nvention of theatre in ancient greece one nine nine eight p two seven external links stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry memory related resources from the national institutes of health cueflash web based pogram to memorize terms and definitions cognition memory educational psychology limbic system unsolved problems in neuroscience feral mouse the mouse is a mammal that belongs to one of numerous species of small rodents in the genus mus and various related genera of the family murid old world mice the best known mouse species is the common house mouse mus musculus it is found in nearly all countries and as the laboratory mouse serves as an important model organism in biology it is also a popular pet non biologists often use the term mouse synonymously with mus musculus the american white footed mouse peromyscus leucopus and the deer mouse peromyscus maniculatus also sometimes live in houses these species of mice live commensally with humans although they may live up to two years in the lab the average m |
ouse in the wild lives only three months primarily due to heavy predation cats wild dogs birds of prey and snakes prey heavily upon mice mice can be harmful pests damaging and eating crops and spreading diseases through their parasites and feces the original motivation for the domestication of cats is thought to have been for their predation of mice and their relatives the rats a mouse trap can also be used to catch mice mice cannot see colors but they can see shades from black to white there are three eight species in the genus mus diet mice generally live on a herbivore diet but are actually omnivores they will eat meat the dead bodies of other mice and have been observed to self cannibalise their tails during starvation mice eat grains and fruits for a regular diet which is the main reason they damage crops mice in laboratory experiments mice are very common experimental animals in biology and psychology primarily because they are mammals and thus share a high degree of homology with humans but can be mani |
pulated in ways that would be considered unethical to do with humans usually genetically uniform strains of mice are used in experiments mice can be deleted for specific genes to study the function of the gene in question mice which have deletions of both copies of the same gene are called knock outs for that gene the so called nude mice is a strain bearing a spontaneous mutation nude mice have no hair and they are also called scid mice for severe combined immunodeficiency as their immunesystem is impaired nude mice can be used in cancer studies they do not reject cells and tissue from other mice or even other species which can be tested in the mouse for tumorforming capacities additional benefits of mice in laboratory research include the fact that mice are small relatively inexpensive and several generations can be observed in a short period of time the mouse genome has been sequenced and many genes which share homology to human genes have been identified in the two zero zero six biosatellite project a grou |
p of mice will orbit earth inside a spinning spacecraft to determine how mice react to gravity equivalent to that of mars mice in fiction mice are popular in fiction usually as anthropomorphic funny animals mickey mouse in particular is recognized throughout the whole world jerry of tom and jerry is also extremely well known and are part of the list of fictional mice it is perhaps ironic that although they have been regarded by mankind as pests for ages they are often featured as sympathetic in books and cartoons perhaps this may be because due to their famously small size they are considered the embodiment of the little guy indeed in many depictions such as mrs frisby and the rats of nimh humans are the enemy and mice are the protagonists mention must be made here of robert burns famous poem to a mouse written in one seven eight five which gave us the immortal proverb the best laid schemes of mice and men go oft awry burns who owned a farm for a time was inspired to write the poem after he had disturbed a fi |
eld mouse s nest with his plow on a cold november day the poem could be described as his apology to the mouse and it expresses his apparent longing that man could once again be part of nature s social union there is also franz kafka s short story josephine the singer an allegorical story about the role of the artist in society where society is represented by a community of mice and the artist is a mouse named josephine with a gift of song a noteworthy dubious duo of mice is pinky and the brain who are still trying to take over the world in the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy by douglas adams white mice are pan dimensional beings who commissioned the construction of a giant computer the earth that would provide for them the question of the meaning of life the universe and everything this is revealed after the earth is destroyed by a vogon construction crew five minutes before the question is finally calculated the mice re appear to commission a second earth and discover arthur dent the sole survivor of earth |
s destruction and offer to buy his brain expecting it to contain the question which they seek see races from the hitchhiker s guide to the galaxy mice as pets main article fancy mouse mice are now one of the leading rodent pets although their main purpose in pet stores is to be sold as snake food many people buy mice as companion pets some common products used are cage usually a hamster or gerbil cage but special mouse cages are now available food special pelleted and seed based food is available bedding usually hardwoods such as aspen cedar or pine should not be used because it contains harmful oils that can damage any rodent s respiratory system a fairly new product in the market is recycled virgin wood pulp an environmentally friendly safe clean and efficient product the most popular is carefresh bedding another excellent litter available is chopped up dried corn cobs some benefits of having mice as pets are minimal shedding and allergens entertaining and affectionate inexpensive clean contrary to popular |
belief socially self sufficient when in a group of other mice there are however some disadvantages to having pet mice small and quite fragile not as easy to handle as a dog or a cat nocturnal frequent eye infections under stress easily subject to disease when without optimal care frequent reproduction short lifespan the male s urine gives off an unpleasant odor taxonomy of the genus mus genus mus subgenus pyromys mus platythrix mus saxicola mus philipsi mus shortridgei mus fernandoni subgenus coelomys mus mayori mus pahari mus crociduroides mus vulcani mus famulus subgenus mus mus caroli mus cervicolor mus cookii mus booduga mus terricolor mus musculus mus spretus mus macedonicus mus spicelegus mus fragilicauda subgenus nannomys mus callewaerti mus setulosus mus triton mus bufo mus tenellus mus haussa mus mattheyi mus indutus mus setzeri mus musculoides mus minutoides mus orangiae mus mahomet mus sorella mus kasaicus mus neavei mus oubanguii mus goundae mus baoulei trivia an estimated half million mice live o |
n the london underground mostly running around the tracks see also mouse trap mickey mouse cat fancy mouse external links impact of mice on endangered species fancy mice a complete resource for pet owners and show breeders rat genesh ganesh rides a mouse petco see care sheets for pet mouse information mice at petwebsite mice fansite mice fanlisting mice as pets animals kept as pets muroid rodents old world rats and mice multics mult iplexed i nformation and c omputing s ervice was an extraordinarily influential early time sharing operating system overview initial planning and development for multics started in one nine six four originally it was a cooperative project led by mit with fernando corbat along with general electric and bell labs bell labs dropped out in one nine six nine and in one nine seven zero ge s computer business including multics was taken over by honeywell multics was conceived as a commercial product for ge and it did achieve that for honeywell although it was not a very successful one ho |
wever it had a powerful impact in the computer field due to its many novel and valuable ideas although it was much derided at the time by its critics history has shown these complaints to be canards it had numerous features intended to result in high availability so that it would produce a computing utility similar to the telephone and electricity services to achieve this in addition to being modular in software structure the hardware was too and the system could grow in size by simply adding more of the appropriate resource computing power main memory disk storage etc separate access control lists on every file provided flexible information sharing but also provided complete privacy when needed it contained a number of standard mechanisms to allow engineers to analyze the performance of the system as well as a number of adaptive performance optimization mechanisms novel ideas multics was an early operating system that implemented a single level store for data access discarding the clear distinction between f |
iles called segments in multics and process memory the memory of a process consisted solely of segments which were mapped into its address space to read or write to them the process simply used normal cpu instructions and the operating system took care of making sure that all the modifications were saved to disk in posix terminology it was as if every file was mmap ed however in multics there was no concept of process memory separate from the memory used to hold mapped in files as unix has all memory in the system was part of some segment which appeared in the file system this included the temporary scratch memory of the process its kernel stack etc one disadvantage of this in practice due only to the particular hardware architecture of the particular machines it ran on and not a result of the basic concept was that the size of segments was limited to two five six k three six bit words roughly equal to one megabyte by today s standards and therefore extra code had to be used to work on files larger than this |
called multi segment files in the days before large databases and later huge bitmap graphics this limit was rarely encountered this led to the second of multics major new ideas dynamic linking in which a running process could request that other segments be added to its address space segments which could contain code that it could then execute with this facility available applications automatically used the latest version of any external routine they called since those routines were kept in other segments which were dynamically linked in only when a process first tried to begin execution in them since different processes belonging to different users could use different search rules different users could end up using different versions of external routines automatically equally importantly with the appropriate settings on the multics security facilities the code in the other segment could then gain access to data structures maintained in a different process thus to interact with an application running in part a |
s a daemon in another process a user s process simply performed a normal procedure call instruction to a code segment which it had dynamically linked to a code segment which implemented some operation associated with the daemon the code in that segment could then modify data maintained and used in the daemon when the action necessary to commence the request was completed a simple procedure return instruction returned control of the user s process to the user s code it is worth noting that these two ideas in their full power are even now still not available in other widely used operating systems despite the rapid and otherwise enormous advance in the computer field since the one nine six zero s although in more limited forms they are now becoming more widely accepted and available e g dynamic linking multics also supported extremely aggressive on line reconfiguration cpus memory banks disk drives etc could all be added and removed while the system continued operating being added into service or removed from it |
as required in fact it was common practice at the mit system where most early software development was done to split the system which was a multi processor system into two separate systems during off hours by incrementally removing enough components to form a second working system leaving the rest still running the original logged in users system software development testing could be performed on the second machine when testing was over the components of the second system would be added back onto the main user system without ever having shut it down since multiple cpus were thus supported it was thus one of the earliest multi processor systems multics was also notable for its early emphasis on computer security by design and multics was possibly the very first operating system to be designed as a secure system from the ground up in spite of this early versions of multics were broken into not once but repeatedly this led to further work on improved security that both prefigured modern security engineering tec |
hniques and made the system much more secure once the second generation hardware base was adopted with hardware support for ring oriented security a multi level refinement of the concept of master mode break ins became very rare in addition to having been the first operating system to provide a hierarchical file system filenames could be of almost arbitrary length and syntax a given file or directory could have multiple names typically a long and short form and symbolic links between directories were also supported it was the first to use the now standard concept of having per process stacks in the kernel with a separate stack for each security ring it was also one of the first written in a high level language pl i was used though the burroughs b five zero zero zero system which used algol preceded multics project history multics was developed initially for the ge six four five mainframe a three six bit system later it was supported on the honeywell six one eight zero series machines bell labs pulled out of t |
he project in one nine six nine some of the people who had worked on it there went on to create the unix system though superficially unix shows the influence of multics in many areas down to the naming of commands the design philosophy was quite different however focusing on keeping the system as small and as simplistic as possible and thus correcting what was seen as the deficiencies of multics the name unix originally unics is itself a hack on multics the u in unix is rumoured to stand for uniplexed as opposed to the multiplexed of multics further underscoring the designers rejections of multics complexity in favour of a more straightforward and workable approach honeywell bought g e s computer division released a better hardware base and continued system development until one nine eight five about eight zero multi million dollar sites were installed at universities industry and government sites the french university system had quite a few in the early one nine eight zero s after honeywell stopped supportin |
g multics users migrated to other systems including the unix system the last multics machine was shut down on october three one two zero zero zero at the canadian department of national defence retrospective observations it is more than a little startling to realize that the permanently resident kernel of this powerful multi processor mainframe computing utility much derided in its day as being too large and too complex was a mere one three five kbytes of code the first mit ge six four five had five one two k words of memory two mbytes so the kernel only used a moderate portion of multics main memory measured another way the entire system including not just the operating system but also the complex pl i compiler user commands and subroutine libraries consisted of about one five zero zero total source modules these averaged roughly two zero zero lines of source code each and compiled to produce a total of roughly four five mbytes of procedure code which though small today was fairly large by the standards of t |
he day multics compilers generally optimised more for code density than cpu performance for example using small sub routines called operators for short standard code sequences making direct comparison of object code size with more modern systems less useful high code density was a good optimisation choice for a multi user system with expensive main memory such as multics see also fernando j corbat leader of the project while m i t was involved jerome h saltzer jack b dennis peter j denning robert m graham victor a vyssotsky further reading the literature contains a large number of papers about multics and various components of it a fairly complete list is available here the most important and or informative ones are listed below f j corbat v a vyssotsky introduction and overview of the multics system afips one nine six five is a good introduction to the system f j corbat c t clingen j h saltzer multics the first seven years afips one nine seven two is an excellent review after a considerable period of use and |
improvement further reading technical details jerome h saltzer introduction to multics mit project mac one nine seven four is a considerably longer introduction to the system geared towards actual users elliott i organick the multics system an examination of its structure mit press one nine seven two is the standard work on the system although it documents an early version and some features described therein never appeared in the actual system v a vyssotsky f j corbat r m graham structure of the multics supervisor afips one nine six five describes the basic internal structure of the multics kernel jerome h saltzer traffic control in a multiplexed computer system mit project mac june one nine six six is the original description of the idea of switching kernel stacks one of the classic papers of computer science r c daley p g neumann a general purpose file system for secondary storage afips one nine six five describes the file system including the access control and backup mechanisms a bensoussan c t clingen r |
c daley the multics virtual memory concepts and design acm sosp one nine six nine describes the multics memory system in some detail paul green ftp ftp stratus com pub vos multics pg mvm html multics virtual memory tutorial and reflections is a good in depth look at the multics storage system roger r schell dynamic reconfiguration in a modular computer system mit project mac one nine seven one describes the reconfiguration mechanisms further reading security paul a karger roger r schell multics security evaluation vulnerability analysis air force electronic systems division one nine seven four describes the classic attacks on multics security by a tiger team jerome h saltzer michael d schroeder the protection of information in computer systems proceedings of the ieee september one nine seven five describes the fundamentals behind the first round of security upgrades another classic paper m d schroeder d d clark j h saltzer d h wells final report of the multics kernel design project mit lcs one nine seven eig |
ht describes the security upgrades added to produce an even more improved version paul a karger roger r schell thirty years later lessons from the multics security evaluation ibm two zero zero two is an interesting retrospective which compares actual deployed security in today s hostile environment with what was demonstrated to be possible decades ago it concludes that multics offered considerably stronger security than most systems commercially available in two zero zero two external links http www multicians org is a great site with a lot of material multics papers online myths discusses numerous myths about multics in some detail including the myths that it failed that it was big and slow and numerous other canards as well as a few understandable misapprehensions multics security multics repository ftp ftp stratus com pub vos multics multics html multics repository at stratus computer multics at universitaet mainz operating systems something that is monolithic is something created in one piece resembling a |
monolith such as an obelisk it mostly signifies artifacts without any subcomponents i e a non modularized non componentized non dismantlable building block mon o lith ic adj massive solid uniform constituting or acting as a single often rigid uniform whole uses in society there is a myth in regards to families that families are of a monolithic form united as one in computer programming a monolithic program is a program built or shipped as one large program file or executable image that is it is not sectioned into a main program and supporting libraries on modern systems such a program might also be called statically linked in computer operating systems a monolithic kernel is a kernel which behaves as a single program rather than as a collection of intercommunicating programs as in the microkernel design the term monolithic kernel was coined as a mild term of abuse during a period in operating systems research when microkernels were believed to be more advanced and capable in electronics a monolithic integrat |
ed circuit is a circuit constructed of many different components in a single piece of semiconductor see also monolith monolithic band marxist film theory is one of the oldest forms of film theory sergei eisenstein and many other soviet filmmakers in the one nine two zero s used marxism as justification for film in fact the hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the kuleshov experiment and the development of montage while this structuralist approach to marxism and filmmaking was used the more vociferous complaint that the russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of hollywood filmmaking they believed as many marxists since have believed that hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the capitalist propaganda shot reverse shot is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology eisenstein s solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual protagonist and tell stories where the action is moved |
by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next whether in composition motion or idea so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over eisenstein himself however was accused by the soviet authorities of formalist error of highlighting form as a thing of beauty instead of portraying the worker nobly french marxist film makers such as jean luc godard would employ radical editing and choice of subject matter as well as subversive parody to heighten class consciousness and promote marxist ideas situationist film maker guy debord author of the society of the spectacle began his film in girum imus nocte et consumimur igni wandering around in the night we are consumed by fire with a radical critique of the spectator who goes to the cinema to forget about his dispossesed daily life situationist film makers produced a number of important films where the only contribution by the situationist film cooperative was the soun |
d track in can dialectics break bricks one nine seven three a japanese samurai film was transformed by redubbing into an epistle on state capitalism and proletarian revolution the intellectual technique of using capitalism s own structures against itself is known as detournement marxism film theory propaganda mars may refer to most commonly to mars the fourth planet from the sun mars god the god of war in roman mythology the mars icon a symbol for male sex mars god or in alchemy for iron a present tense form of the verb to mar confectionary mars incorporated a confectioner mars bar a chocolate bar produced by mars inc media veronica mars a tv detective show that airs on upn mars the bringer of war is a movement in gustav holst s the planets suite mars band a short lived no wave band mars manga the title of a manga comic book mars actor an actor from hong kong member of the jackie chan stunt team mars film a one nine nine eight movie starring shari belafonte mars russian film a two zero zero four russian film |
sailor mars is the codename of rei hino in the sailor moon franchise technology hms mars seven ships of the royal navy mars probe program a series of unmanned craft launched by the soviet union in the early one nine seven zero s the code name for a family of pdp one zero compatible digital computers built by systems concepts mars in computing a memory array redcode simulator a machine that simulates a corewar battle mars in cryptography a block cipher designed by ibm and one of the finalists for the advanced encryption standard military affiliate radio system mars an auxiliary communications system for the united states armed forces mars tension leg platform the largest oil drilling platform in the gulf of mexico the modern architectural research society or mars group a british architectural think tank founded in one nine three three the project name for sega s three two x add on video game console the mars automatic pistol a semi automatic pistol developed in one nine zero zero places france mars is the name |
or part of the name of several communes in france mars in the ard che d partement mars in the gard d partement mars in the loire d partement mars la tour meurthe et moselle d partement mars sous bourcq in the ardennes d partement mars sur allier in the ni vre d partement mars is also a common slang term used to refer to the city of marseille in france as popularised by the french hip hop group iam greece mars hill is an obsolete translation used for instance in the authorised version of the acts of the apostles for the areopagus hill of ares in athens united states mars pennsylvania a borough located in butler county mars hill maine a town in aroostook county maine mars hill north carolina a town in southwestern north carolina mars hill college north carolina a small private liberal arts college in southwestern north carolina in morpheme based morphology a morpheme is the smallest language unit that carries a semantic interpretation morphemes are generally a distinctive collocation of phonemes as the free fo |
rm pin or the bound form s of pins having no smaller meaningful members english example the word unbelievable has three morphemes un negatory a bound morpheme believe a free morpheme and able un is also a prefix able is a suffix both are affixes types of morphemes free morphemes like town dog can appear with other lexemes as in town hall or dog house or they can stand alone or free allomorphs are variants of a morpheme e g the plural marker in english is sometimes realized as z s or z bound morphemes like un appear only together with other morphemes to form a lexeme bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes morphemes existing in only one bound form are known as cranberry morphemes from the cran in that very word inflectional morphemes modify a word s tense number aspect and so on as in the dog morpheme if written with the plural marker morpheme s becomes dogs derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create derive another word the addition of ness to happy for example to give happines |
s reference external links university of oregon linguistics course the structure of english words ling one five zero morpheme study aid linguistic morphology a phylogenetic tree of living things based on rrna sequence data showing the separation of bacteria archaea and eukaryotes the monera is a biological kingdom comprising most living things with a prokaryotic cell organization for this reason the kingdom is sometimes called prokaryotae prior to its creation these were treated as two separate divisions of plants the schizomycetes or bacteria considered fungi and the cyanophyta or blue green algae the latter are now considered a group of bacteria typically called the cyanobacteria and are known not to be closely related to plants fungi or animals studies by woese in one nine seven seven showed the prokaryotes are divided into two separate groups which do not appear closer relatives than they are to the eukaryotes these were called the eubacteria and archaebacteria and later the bacteria and archaea they may |
be treated as subkingdoms but most newer schemes tend to abandon the monera and treat these as separate domains ernst haeckel proposed the fourth kingdom which is monera he found out that there are many fundamental characteristics rarely seen in other organisms but found in bacteria and blue green algae also in the three kingdom system monera includes eukaryotic microorganisms however it was later agreed upon that the monera had proven to be too diverse to be seriously considered one single kingdom see prokaryotes for more information prokaryotes mtv s famous times square studio in new york mtv music television is a young adult cable television network headquartered in new york city originally devoted to music videos especially popular rock music mtv later became an outlet for a variety of different material aimed at adolescents and young adults the network was founded on august one one nine eight one as an operation of warner amex satellite entertainment a joint venture of warner communications and american |
express in one nine eight five it was acquired by viacom inc and was folded into mtv networks becoming a wholly owned subsidiary mtv s combination of music videos youthful video jockeys irreverent commentary promotion of special rock concerts and news and documentaries about bands and performers established the network s popularity with youthful viewers and it became a leading promoter of new rock music and rock musicians in the nine zero s mtv was often considered to be the driving force in american pop culture but this influence has dramatically declined history steve fiorilla s sculpture for the animated mtv logo guillotine mtv s roots can be traced back to one nine seven seven when warner amex cable a joint venture between warner communications and american express launched the first two way interactive cable tv system qube in columbus ohio the qube system offered many specialized channels including a children s channel called pinwheel which would later become nickelodeon one of these specialized channels |
was sight on sound a music channel that featured concert footage and music oriented tv programs with the interactive qube service viewers could vote for their favorite songs and artists the popularity of the channel prompted warner amex to market the channel nationally to other cable services at midnight on august one one nine eight one the format was changed to music video using a concept originally devised and sold to warner amex by michael nesmith previously a cast member of the hit television show the monkees and the name was changed to mtv music television the programming was created by the visionary music producer bob pittman who later became president and chief executive officer of mtv networks mtv started in new york city but was available in most of the united states by the mid one nine eight zero s with the nationwide expansion of cable it went to air with the words ladies and gentlemen rock and roll appropriately the first music video shown on mtv was video killed the radio star by the buggles oft |
en wrongly attributed to one of their contemporaries with a similar name the bangles with similar tongue in cheek humor the first video shown on mtv europe was money for nothing by dire straits which starts and finishes with repetition of the line i want my mtv voiced by sting on mtv latino the first video shown was we are southamerican rockers by the chilean band los prisioneros the early format of the network was modeled after top four zero radio fresh faced young men and women were hired to host the show s programming and to introduce videos that were being played the term vj video jockey was coined a play on the acronym dj disc jockey many vjs eventually became celebrities in their own right the original five mtv vjs in one nine eight one were nina blackwood mark goodman alan hunter j j jackson and martha quinn in two zero zero five this group except for j j jackson who had passed away in two zero zero four was reunited as hosts on sirius satellite radio numerous animation studios created mtv animated log |
os featuring work by such artists and sculptors as ken brown and steve fiorilla the early music videos that made up the bulk of the network s programming in the eight zero s were often crude promotional or concert clips from whatever sources could be found as the popularity of the network rose and record companies recognized the potential of the medium as a tool to gain recognition and publicity they began to create increasingly elaborate clips specifically for the network several noted film directors got their start creating music videos including spike jonze michel gondry and david fincher a large number of rock stars of the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s were made into household names by mtv one nine eight zero s bands immediately identifiable with mtv include eurythmics ratt culture club def leppard duran duran and bon jovi michael jackson launched the second wave of his career as an mtv staple madonna rose to fame on mtv in the one nine eight zero s to her best advantage and to this day c |
ontinues to use the network to promote her music making her the most successful female artist in one nine eight four the network produced its first mtv video music awards show seen as a fit of self indulgence by a fledgling network at the time the vmas developed into a music industry showcase marketed as a hip antidote to the grammy awards in one nine nine two the network would add a movie award show with similar success after mtv s programming shifted towards heavy metal and rap music mtv networks launched a second network video hits one vh one in one nine eight five vh one featured more popular music than mtv today mtv networks also owns nickelodeon a cable channel airing children s and family programming mtv in the mid nine zero s shortly before the transition to non music programming mtv started off showing music videos nearly full time but as time passed they introduced a variety of other shows including animated cartoons such as beavis and butt head and daria reality shows such as the real world and roa |
d rules prank comedic shows such as the tom green show jackass and punk d and soap operas such as undressed by the second half of the one nine nine zero s mtv programming consisted primarily of non music programming in two zero zero zero mtv s fear became the first scary reality show where contestants filmed themselves the show ran for three seasons and spawned numerous imitations including the currently running fear factor on nbc in two zero zero two mtv aired the first episode of another reality show the osbournes based on the everyday life of former black sabbath frontman ozzy osbourne his wife sharon and two of their children jack and kelly the show went on to become one of the network s biggest ever success stories and kick started a musical career for kelly osbourne while sharon osbourne went on to host a talk show on u s television in two zero zero three newlyweds another popular reality tv show that follows the lives of jessica simpson and nick lachey a music celebrity couple began it has run for thre |
e seasons the success of newlyweds was followed in june two zero zero four by the ashlee simpson show which documented the beginnings of the music career of ashlee simpson jessica simpson s younger sister in the fall of two zero zero four ozzy osbourne s reality show battle for ozzfest aired in two zero zero four mtv s parent company viacom bought germany s largest provider for music television viva media ag thereby creating the largest company for music on the european mainland in november two zero zero four mtv announced it would begin airing in february two zero zero five mtv base in africa thereby reaching the world s last major populated area previously not served by mtv in two zero zero six mtv plans to launch mtv ukraine to pursue the emerging music market diversification the advent of digital satellite and cable has also brought greater diversity including channels such as mtv two which features the slogan where the music s at in the u s mtv two initially focused on playing music videos and other musi |
c related programming exclusively in europe mtv two plays specific genres of music mainly alternative and rock viacom parent company of the mtv networks is also behind vh one which is aimed at celebrity and popular culture programming and cmt which targets the country music market mtv recently broadcast a new indian pop culture channel called mtv desi and university oriented channel mtvu international divisions mtv networks and viacom have launched numerous native language mtv branded music channels to countries worldwide these channels include but are not limited to mtv canada formerly talktv mtv uk and ireland mtv spain mtv france mtv germany mtv europe mtv portugal mtv adria mtv denmark mtv finland mtv italy mtv netherlands mtv norway mtv poland mtv romania mtv sweden mtv asia mtv japan mtv china mtv korea mtv taiwan hong kong mtv india mtv latin america mtv brazil and mtv australia mhd image music hd jpg mhd music high definition is a high definition channel that mtv networks launched on january one six t |
wo zero zero six originating from a studio in vail co mhd features programming from all three music themed channels owned by mtv networks mtv vh one if any promotional videos available from black and other minority acts although artists such as diana ross and the jacksons had been making music videos before mtv existed some critics from one nine eight one to one nine eight five complained that the channel frequently aired videos by hall a white act with motown and philly soul influences and heavy airplay on black radio but not the black artists with whom they shared the r billie jean and thriller and prince s album one nine nine nine in particular the videos for the title track and little red corvette later sister channel vh one introduced in one nine eight five would specialize in heavy rotation of black acts as part of its format subsequently mtv delved heavily into black musical acts developing several hip hop music themed programs such as yo mtv raps and got rid of mtv x to make room for mtv jams in recen |
t years mtv has been criticized for playing too much rap and r this is an ongoing problem for punk and emo bands as early as one nine eight five some musicians were criticizing mtv for these reasons perhaps most famously dead kennedys with mtv get off the air mtv uk has recently been under fire as it no longer airs any daytime music videos outside of parts of a few shows like total request live and making the video and focuses primarily on mtv produced reality shows such as the osbournes and punk d many argue however that as mtv runs nine music channels in the uk it has delegated music videos to its genre channels in a bid to differentiate itself from the competition of the fourteen other music video oriented channels videos are also often played between other shows and at night the same criticism has also been made of mtv in the usa with its dearth of music videos and its stronger focus on reality shows such as road rules the real world laguna beach and others as well the primary u s mtv channel does occasio |
nally play music videos albeit rarely instead of exclusively relegating them to their genre channels mtv uk has also been attacked for over use of on screen graphics such as logos programme promotion and countdown timers and its electronica themed genre channel mtv dance is often derided for playing a lack of dance music during the day preferring a mix of pop dance pop and r and that mtv has too much influence in the music industry although it could be argued that mtv is simply giving airtime to the most popular acts in a given country the counter argument could also be made that these acts get popular simply because of the exposure that mtv gives them there have also been some critics who have said that mtv promotes bad behavior mainly premarital sex war propaganda and recreational drug use to the youth of america by embracing the behaviors of certain celebrities who are not good role models there are also critics of mtv and their reality shows such as next the game dating show that demoralizes individuals b |
y making the daters complete various tasks and games only to be nexted when they were not pleasing enough because of their looks the show also airs homosexual daters which can be seen as controversial mtv and vh one drew heavy criticism for their coverage of live eight the multinational concert of musical artists which raised awareness for african debt relief the broadcast of music was limited as the network cut to its on air personalities celebrity interviews and commercials in the middle of live acts the epitome of this was the widely reported decision to cut to commercial during pink floyd s performance in london which was bassist roger waters first performance with the rest of the band since one nine eight one mtv vj s came onscreen to talk during the first guitar solo in comfortably numb then cut back for a few seconds before playing a commercial one because of the criticism the channel received over this both mtv and vh one decided to show the whole one zero hour live eight concert again the following w |
eekend this time without any commercial breaks or vj interruptions the channel also faced criticism in the wake of the super bowl xxxviii half time show which it had produced this infamous halftime show featured the exposure of one of janet jackson s breasts which was shown on live television afterwards the nfl indicated that mtv would not produce any further super bowl halftime shows or any public event mtv has also come under criticism for being far too politically correct and sensitive when it came to censorship this was most prevalent in the eventual decline of the hit show jackass the creators of jackass often felt that mtv s producers did not let the show run its free course due to the excessive restraints under which they put the jackass team mtv has also heavily edited a number of music videos frequently to remove references to drugs or weapons edits include four five by shinedown it is renamed starring down and a good portion of the chorus is edited to eliminate gun references we are all on drugs by |
weezer it is renamed we are all in love and lyrics are changed from on drugs to in love and hash pipe by weezer the word hash is obscured and the vocal has been edited to sound like half also the song four kicks by kings of leon has the words guns and switchblade censored in the chorus the song stinkfist by tool was renamed track one since the title was considered too offensive for public consumption political influence after so many shots to the network about the content of programmes mtv started airing a plethora of political and economic shows these shows included think mtv which talks about current political issues such as gay marriage the u s presidential election two years ago the network spent a large amount of time on the two zero zero four election and war in other countries among other topics mtv aired a popular band s sum four one trip to the democratic republic of congo documenting the conflict there the group ended up being caught in the midst of an attack outside of the hotel and were subsequent |
ly flown out of the country other politically diverse programmes include true life which documents people s lives and problems and shows an epilogue of after the show was shot mtv news specials which centers on very current events in both the music industry and the world and a lot of other shows based on the current times it covered the two zero zero four u s presidential election airing programs focused on the issues and opinions of young people including a program where viewers could ask questions of senator john kerry on live tv however many people believe that mtv is biased towards liberals cartoons mtv has a history of cartoons with mature themes the most notable probably being beavis and butt head and its spin off daria most of its other cartoons have lasted only for a single season despite usually being original and creative some of the cartoons mtv has produced beavis and butt head celebrity deathmatch clone high daria downtown quads undergrads cartoon sushi on flux the maxx spy groove the brothers gr |
unt liquid television three south slogans i want my mtv mtv proud as a moon man weird al yankovic s spoof of nbc s one nine seven nine one nine eight one slogan proud as a peacock mtv lives in your music some people just don t get it watch and learn m m m m t t t t v v v v mtv news you hear it first mt blah blah blah tele blah i love my mtv the number one music channel slogan used for mtv uk from two zero zero zero to two zero zero two as the channel broadcasts on digital cable and digital satellite the slogan was axed in two zero zero three the fact that since then mtv has played very little music may also add to why this slogan was dropped i like mtv asia don t let jerry win best watch your mtv s think not on tv on m tv best watch your mtvs just see mtv mtv enjoy nongkrong di mtv slogan in mtv asia for mtv indonesia before mtv indonesia aired one nine nine seven two zero zero one mtv gue banget mtv indonesia two zero zero one present mtv ayos mtv philippines habla tu mtv you down wit mtv references in popul |
ar culture george michael s freedom nine zero makes reference to the pressures the network placed on visual image i went back home got a brand new face for the boys at mtv the declining popularity of mtv was noted as bart scrawled i no longer want my mtv in a simpsons season nine chalkboard gag dire straits one nine eight five song money for nothing at the start and end of the song guest singer sting repeatedly sung the the channel s slogan i want my mtv the song mtv get off the air by the dead kennedys was a protest against the content and style of music that dominated mtv during the eight zero s bowling for soup s one nine eight five contains the line bring back springsteen madonna way before nirvana there was u two and blondie and music still on mtv lyrics to manowar s blow your speakers include wrote a letter to the mtv what s goin on now don t ya care about me lyrics to reel big fish s don t start a band include and even if you make itall the way to mtv i don t think you could take it all the bullshit an |
d the greed lyrics to beck s mtv makes me wanna smoke crack include mtv makes me wanna burn flesh having an orgy down in the satellite dish cartoon series megas xlr frequently features the destruction of billboards and other paraphernilia for a group called pop tv whose symbol is clearly based on the mtv logo xlr was directed by chris prynoski a former mtv animator whose own show downtown had been cancelled by mtv years ago the opening track on pantera s the great southern trendkill song with the same name include the lyrics buy it at a store from mtv to on the floor you look just like a star it s proof you dont know who you are in the eminem song without me the fcc wont let me be let me be me so let me see they try to shut me down on mtv but it feels so empty without me the band sublime made a song called don t wanna be no mtv motherf er the lyrics to this song can be found here in canadian singer esthero s two zero zero five song we r in need of a musical revolution as an introduction she sings i m so sick |
and tired of the shit on the radio and mtv they only play the same thing no matter where i go i see ashanti in the video i want something more related channels mtv two mtvu mtvx mtv jams mtv hits mtv puerto rico owned by lin tv under license by viacom see also mtv generation mtv europe music awards much music external links mtv us mtv adria mtv africa mtv asia mtv australia mtv brazil mtv canada coming in the first half of two zero zero six mtv europe mtv france mtv germany mtv india mtv indonesia mtv italy mtv latin america mtv netherlands mtv poland mtv romania mtv russia mtv thailand mtv uk ireland mtv tempo mtv networks europe http www mtvexit org mtv three index html mtv s campaign against human trafficking companies based in new york city mtv networks music video networks tv channels with british versions viacom subsidiaries one nine eight one establishments mustelidae is a family of carnivorous mammals many kinds of mustelids are maligned by humans however mustelidae is among the most successful and di |
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