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ilgabat see hanilgalbat and mitanni hittites kings of the hittites leaders of the huns india list of indian monarchs the kurus see janjua the pauravas emperors of magadha see shishunaga dynasty emperors of nanda see nanda dynasty the pandyas mauryan emperors see list of maurya emperors emperors of sunga see sunga dynasty kings of chera see chera emperors of satavahana see satavahana greco bactrian kings see greco bactrian kingdom indo greek kings see indo greek kingdom indo scythian kings see indo scythian indo parthian kings see indo parthian kingdom chola emperors kushan emperors see kushan empire western kshatrapas emperors of gupta see gupta dynasty khilji emperors list of mughal emperors rulers of mysore see kingdom of mysore ancient jewish rulers kings of israel kings of judah kings of judea high priests of israel kommagene kings of kommagene kush kushite kings list of egyptian viceroys of kush lydia kings of lydia macedon kings of macedon mauretania kings of mauretania the medes kings of the medes naba |
tea rulers of nabatea numidia kings of numidia osroene paionia list of paionian kings pergamon attalid kings of pergamon persia kings of persia see history of persia achaemenid dynasty seleucid dynasty arsacid dynasty sassanid dynasty pontus kings of pontus rome kings of rome republican roman consuls early imperial roman consuls and late imperial roman consuls censors roman dictators roman emperors roman usurpers scandinavia mythological kings of sweden sparta kings of sparta sumer kings of sumer rulers of lagash see lagash syracuse tyrants of syracuse see syracuse italy thrace kings of odrysia see odrysian tyre kings of tyre ugarit kings of ugarit see ugarit urartu kings of urartu middle ages and early modern period africa rulers and heads of state of ethiopia kanem bornu emperors see kanem bornu empire list of manikongo of kongo kings of makuria see makuria emperors of mali see mali empire kings of sennar see kingdom of sennar songhai emperors see songhai empire kings of buganda see buganda rulers of the as |
hanti see asantehene kings of axum kings of mali see mansa americas aztec emperors see hueyi tlatoani incan emperors see inca empire mayans rulers of caracol see caracol rulers of calakmul see calakmul rulers of palenque see palenque rulers of tikal see tikal rulers of tonina see tonina kings of xukpi see cop n toltec rulers asia excl latin hellenic and arabic adil shahi kings of bijapur list of kings of ani list of armenian kings monarchs of the armenian kingdom of cilicia ahom rulers of assam kings of ayutthaya see ayutthaya kingdom bahmani sultans see bahmani sultanate bhonsle maharajas of satara thanjavur kolhapur and nagpur rulers of chalukya chauhan rulers of ajmer the table of chinese monarchs sultans of delhi see delhi sultanate gaekwad maharajas of vadodara ghaznavid emperors see ghaznavid empire gokturk kagans kings of golconda see qutb shahi dynasty khans of the golden horde emperors of gupta see gupta dynasty kings of gujarat see solanki kings of haripunchai see haripunchai nizams of hyderabad lis |
t of indian monarchs list of emperors of japan kachwaha rulers of amber and jaipur khans of kara khitai see kara khitan khanate list of kazan khans list of khazar rulers maitraka dynasty of gujarat khilji sultans of delhi and malwa khmer emperors see khmer empire rulers of korea kings of lanna see lanna sultans of malacca see sultanate of malacca kings of mataram see kingdom of mataram list of mughal emperors muzaffarid dynasty of gujarat kings of mysore see kingdom of mysore nizam shahi dynasty of ahmadnagar datus and sultans of the philippine islands see sultanate of sulu and history of the philippines emperors of pala see pala empire paramara kings of malwa pallava emperors see pallava peshwa rulers of the maratha empire ponwar rulers of chhatarpur and dewas rulers of rashtrakuta rathore rulers of marwar and bikaner reddy dynasty saffarid dynasty scindia maharajas of ujjain and gwalior sesodia ranas and maharanas of mewar shahi dynasty slave dynasty of delhi kings of tamil nadu see cholas list of emperors |
of tibet kings of sukhothai see sukhothai kingdom vaghela kings of gujarat vijayanagaran emperors see vijayanagara empire kings of vietnam see history of vietnam ly dynasty wodeyar dynasty of mysore yadava rulers of devagiri arabic turkish and kurdish states near east europe and africa abbadid dynasty aghlabid dynasty rulers of aleppo almohad dynasty almoravid dynasty of morocco emirs of badajoz bahri dynasty of egypt banu isam kings kings of berghouata burji dynasty of egypt buwayhid dynasty caliphates abbasid caliphs see abbasid ayyubid dynasty of syria and egypt caliph of cordoba fatimid caliphs see fatimid umayyad caliphs see umayyad rulers of damascus ghassanid kings hafsid dynasty hammadid dynasty of algeria ilkhans see ilkhanate merinid dynasty nasrid dynasty kings of nekor see kingdom of nekor rustamid dynasty safavids saffarid dynasty samanid dynasty seljuk sultans see seljuk turks seljuk sultans of r m see sultanate of r m emirs of shaizar tahirid dynasty timurid dynasty turkmen white sheep turkmen |
black sheep zengid dynasty of syria zirid dynasty of tunisia ziyanid dynasty ziyarid emirs europe kings of albania see kingdom of albania barbarian states hasdingii rulers see vandal visigothic rulers see visigoth suevi rulers see suevi or kingdom of galicia ostrogothic rulers see ostrogoth barbarian kings of italy list of rulers of bosnia british isles england angleland kings and queens of england kings of east anglia kings of essex kings of hwicce kings of kent kings of lindsey kings of mercia kings of northumbria kings of sussex kings of wessex kings of jorvik earls of york earls of northumbria scotland kings of dalriada kings of the picts kings of the isles lords of galloway wales rulers of wales kings of gwynedd ireland kings of ireland kings of breifne kings of east breifne kings of connacht kings of moylurg kings of dublin kings of hy many kings of leinster kings of munster kings of siol anmchada kings of ulaid kings of the isle of man and the isles kings of the isle of man list of bulgarian monarchs k |
ing of burgundy list of crimean khans chancellor of florence frankish kings list of the mayors of the palaces french monarchs prince of cond prince of conti dukes of aiguillon counts and dukes of alen on counts and dukes of angouleme counts and dukes of anjou duke of aquitaine counts and dukes of auvergne duc de berry duke of bourbon duke of brittany duke of burgundy counts and dukes of tampes dukes of gascony see gascony duc de guise duke of lorraine counts and dukes of maine counts and dukes of montpensier see montpensier duc de nemours duke of normandy duke of orl ans counts and dukes of rethel counts and dukes of vend me counts of arles count of armagnac count of artois see county of artois lords counts and dukes of aumale see list of rulers of aumale county of auxerre count of blois count of boulogne counts of brienne see county of brienne count of burgundy count of champagne count of clermont en beauvaisis count of comminges count of eu count of flanders count of foix count of la marche count of meaux c |
ount of meulan count of mortain count of nevers count of paris count of perche count of ponthieu count of poitiers counts of provence counts of rouergue count of st pol see saint pol sur ternoise counts of toulouse count of valentinois count of vermandois counts of the v xin viscounts of b arn see b arn lords of albret see albret lords of baux lords of le puiset see le puiset lords of lusignan see lusignan lords of montpellier see montpellier lords of montlh ry see montlh ry lords of montmorency see montmorency family great officers of the crown of france marshal of france constable of france german monarchs counts princes and dukes of arenberg margraves dukes and archdukes of austria rulers of baden counts and dukes of bar list of rulers of bavaria counts of bentheim counts of bentheim alpen counts of bentheim bentheim counts of bentheim limburg counts of bentheim lingen counts of bentheim steinfurt counts of bentheim tecklenburg counts of bentheim tecklenburg rheda electors of brandenburg dukes of prussia e |
tc see hohenzollern and elector of brandenburg dukes of brunswick l neburg dukes of carinthia see carinthia duchy counts of castell counts of castell castell counts of castell r denhausen counts of celje counts of f rstenberg counts of f rstenberg baar counts of f rstenberg blomberg counts of f rstenberg donaueichingen counts of f rstenberg f rstenberg princes of f rstenberg f rstenberg counts of f rstenberg geisingen counts of f rstenberg heiligenberg princes of f rstenberg heiligenberg counts of f rstenberg m hringen counts of f rstenberg m tzkirch princes of f rstenberg m tzkirch princes of f rstenberg p rglitz counts of f rstenberg st hlingen counts of f rstenberg taikowitz counts of f rstenberg weitra counts of f rstenberg wolfach rulers of hanover rulers of hesse counts princes of hohenzollern sigmaringen dukes of holstein gottorp princes of klingenberg dukes of krumau dukes grand dukes of mecklenburg schwerin dukes grand dukes of mecklenburg strelitz list of margraves of mei en burgrave of nuremberg co |
unts of ortenburg neuortenburg counts palatine of the rhine and electors palatinate palatinate simmern counts palatines of zweibr cken counts princes of reuss counts of salm counts of salm horstmar wildgraves rhinegraves princes of salm kyrburg counts of salm reifferscheid dyck counts of salm reifferscheid hainsbach counts princes of salm reifferscheid krautheim counts of salm reifferscheid raitz counts princes of salm salm counts of sayn berleburg counts of sayn wittgenstein hohnstein dukes of saxe coburg and gotha rulers of saxony counts of sch nborn wiesentheid counts of solms braunfels counts of solms hohensolms lich counts of solms laubach counts of solms r delheim assenheim counts of solms wildenfels counts of stadion thannhausen counts of stadion warthausen counts of stolberg stolberg counts of stolberg wernigerode dukes of swabia dukes of styria see styria duchy princes of thurn und taxis counts of toggenburg counts of veldenz counts of waldburg waldsee counts of waldburg wurzach counts of waldburg ze |
il princes of waldeck rulers of w rttemberg georgia bagrationi dynasty list of georgian kings list of holy roman emperors list of hungarian rulers italy king of italy list of dukes and princes of benevento list of princes of capua list of princes of salerno marquises and dukes of mantua see duchy of mantua rulers of milan marquess of montferrat house of savoy list of monarchs of naples and sicily princes of taranto see taranto list of counts of apulia and calabria counts of aversa see aversa rulers of tuscany marcheses of saluzzo see saluzzo doges of genoa doges of venice list of dukes of ferrara and of modena rulers of kievan rus grand prince of tver low countries netherlands belgium rulers of east frisia rulers of frisia prince of orange duke of brabant dukes and counts of guelders see guelders duke of lower lorraine count of bouillon see bouillon count of flanders count of hainaut count of holland counts of leuven bishop of utrecht marquis of namur list of counts and dukes of luxembourg list of polish rule |
rs dukes of silesia dukes of mazovia dukes of greater poland dukes of little poland dukes of cuiavia dukes of leczyca dukes of sieradz dukes of pomerania list of portuguese monarchs romania rulers of wallachia rulers of moldavia rulers of transylvania scandinavia denmark danmark list of dubious danish kings list of danish monarchs iceland list of icelandic rulers list of lawspeakers see lawspeaker norway list of norwegian monarchs kings of agder see s rlandet kings of hadeland kings of hedmark kings of oppland kings of sogn kings of sol r kings of toten kings of vestfold kings of vingulmark earls of lade see tr ndelag sweden svearike swedish semi legendary kings swedish kings non legendary kings of geatland list of serbian monarchs spain kings of arag n lieutenants of the kingdom of arag n chancellors and council presidents of arag n kings of asturias kings of castile kings of galicia see kingdom of galicia kings of le n kings of majorca see kingdom of majorca kings of navarre kings of valencia counts of barc |
elona viscounts of barcelona counts of besal see besal counts of emp ries see county of emp ries counts of roussillon counts of urgell kings of alpuente see alpuente caliphs of c rdoba hellenic and latin crusader states byzantine emperors emperors of nicaea see empire of nicaea emperors of trebizond see empire of trebizond despots of epirus see despotate of epirus despots of morea see despotate of morea princes of lesbos see gattilusio crusader states latin emperors of constantinople see latin empire kings of cyprus see kingdom of cyprus officers of the kingdom of cyprus kings of jerusalem vassals of the kingdom of jerusalem princes of galilee see principality of galilee lords of toron see toron counts of jaffa and ascalon see county of jaffa and ascalon lords of ramla see lordship of ramla lords of ibelin see ibelin lords of oultrejordain see oultrejordain lords of sidon see lordship of sidon officers of the kingdom of jerusalem kings of thessalonica kingdom of thessalonica princes of achaea see principality |
of achaea lords of argos and nauplia see argos and nauplia princes of antioch see principality of antioch officers of the principality of antioch dukes of the archipelago see duchy of the archipelago dukes of athens see duchy of athens counts of edessa see county of edessa counts of tripoli see county of tripoli officers of the county of tripoli oceania kings of easter island list of rulers of tahiti heads of state or government modern entities see also list of national leaders in office state leaders by year middle east i comoros heads of state of the comoros see also presidents of comoros with biographical tracts heads of government of the comoros colonial heads of the comoros congo democratic republic of the zaire congo kinshasa heads of state of the democratic republic of the congo heads of government of the democratic republic of the congo heads of state of the congo free state colonial heads of congo rulers of katanga rulers of kuba rulers of luba rulers of ruund luunda rulers of kasongo luunda yaka ru |
lers of kongo congo republic of the congo brazzaville heads of state of the republic of the congo heads of government of the republic of the congo colonial heads of french equatorial africa c te d ivoire ivory coast heads of state of c te d ivoire heads of government of c te d ivoire colonial heads of the c te d ivoire ivory coast djibouti heads of state of djibouti heads of government of djibouti colonial heads of djibouti french somaliland ftai afars and issas equatorial guinea heads of state of equatorial guinea heads of government of equatorial guinea colonial heads of equatorial guinea fernando p o spanish guinea eritrea heads of state of eritrea provincial colonial and federal heads of eritrea ethiopia rulers and heads of state of ethiopia see also presidents of ethiopia heads of government of ethiopia monarchies of ethiopia rulers of bosha rulers of the giba state of limu enarya rulers of the giba state of gera rulers of the giba state of goma rulers of the giba state of guma rulers of the gibe state o |
f jimma rulers of the janjero state of gimirra rulers of leqa naqamte rulers of leqa qellam rulers of shewa rulers of walayta colonial heads of italian east africa colonial heads of addis ababa colonial heads of amhara colonial heads of galla sidama colonial heads of harar colonial heads of showa gabon heads of state of gabon heads of government of gabon colonial heads of gabon rulers of orungu the gambia heads of state of the gambia see also governors general of the gambia heads of government of the gambia colonial heads of the gambia ghana heads of state of ghana see also governors general of ghana colonial heads of ghana gold coast colonial heads of danish gold coast colonial heads of dutch gold coast akan states rulers of the akan state of adanse rulers of the akan state of akuapem rulers of the akan state of akuapem anafo rulers of the akan state of akuapem guan rulers of the akan state of akuapem okere rulers of the akan state of akyem abuakwa rulers of the akan state of akyem bosume rulers of the akan |
state of akyem kotoku rulers of the akan state of asante asanteman rulers of the akan state of assin apimenem rulers of the akan state of assin atadanso rulers of the akan states of akwamu and twifo heman rulers of the akan state of bono tekyiman rulers of the akan state of denkyira rulers of the akan state of dwaben rulers of the akan states of fante fante confederation rulers of the akan state of gyaaman rulers of the akan state of manya krobo ewe states rulers of the ewe state of anlo rulers of the ewe state of peki g nkran accra rulers of g nkran northern states rulers of the northern state of dagomba rulers of the northern state of gonja rulers of the northern state of mamprusi rulers of the northern state of nanumba rulers of the northern state of wa guinea heads of state of guinea heads of government of guinea colonial heads of guinea guinea bissau heads of state of guinea bissau heads of government of guinea bissau colonial heads of portuguese guinea colonial heads of bissau colonial heads of cacheu k |
enya heads of state of kenya see also governors general of kenya heads of government of kenya colonial heads of kenya colonial heads of mombasa rulers of the masai rulers of the nandi rulers of pate rulers of wanga rulers of wituland kongo rulers of kongo lesotho kings of lesotho heads of government of lesotho liberia presidents of liberia colonial heads of liberia colonial heads of maryland colonial heads of mississippi colonial heads of port cresson and bassa cove madagascar presidents of madagascar heads of government of madagascar colonial heads of madagascar malawi former nyassaland heads of state of malawi heads of government of malawi colonial heads of malawi nyasaland rulers of maravi rulers of nkamanga rulers of the ngoni dynasty of jere qeko rulers of the ngoni dynasty of maseko gomani mali former french sudan heads of state of mali heads of government of mali colonial heads of mali mauritius governors general of mauritius presidents of mauritius prime ministers of mauritius mozambique heads of stat |
e of mozambique heads of government of mozambique heads of national resistance government of mozambique colonial heads of mozambique colonial heads of delagoa bay namibia presidents of namibia prime ministers of namibia leaders of damaraland leaders of east caprivi lozi leaders of hereroland leaders of kavangoland leaders of namaland leaders of ovamboland leaders of rehoboth basterland leaders of tswanaland niger heads of state of niger heads of government of niger nigeria governors general of nigeria presidents of nigeria heads of state of biafra rwanda kings of rwanda presidents of rwanda prime ministers of rwanda s o tom and pr ncipe heads of state of s o tom and pr ncipe heads of government of s o tom and pr ncipe presidents of the regional government of pr ncipe colonial heads of s o tom and pr ncipe senegal presidents of senegal seychelles presidents of seychelles sierra leone governors general of sierra leone presidents of sierra leone heads of government of sierra leone somalia presidents of somalia p |
rime ministers of somalia presidents of somaliland presidents of puntland south africa list of zulu kings governors general of south africa president of south africa prime ministers of south africa heads of state of bophuthatswana heads of state of ciskei heads of state of transkei heads of government of transkei heads of state of venda chief ministers of gazankulu chief ministers of kwandebele chief ministers of kangwane chief ministers of kwazulu chief ministers of lebowa chief ministers of qwaqwa swaziland kings of swaziland heads of government of swaziland tanzania presidents of tanzania prime ministers of tanzania presidents of zanzibar prime ministers of zanzibar governors general of tanganyika presidents of tanganyika sultans of zanzibar togo heads of state of togo heads of government of togo uganda governors general of uganda presidents of uganda prime ministers of uganda kings of nkole zambia presidents of zambia zimbabwe presidents of rhodesia presidents of zimbabwe america central and the caribbean |
antigua and barbuda governors general of antigua and barbuda prime ministers of antigua and barbuda bahamas governors general of the bahamas heads of government of the bahamas colonial heads of the bahamas barbados governors general of barbados prime ministers of barbados belize governors general of belize prime ministers of belize british virgin islands colonial heads of the british virgin islands presidents of the british virgin islands governors of the british virgin islands administrators of the british virgin islands heads of government of the british virgin islands costa rica presidents of costa rica cuba presidents of cuba premiers of cuba colonial heads of cuba dominica presidents of dominica prime ministers of dominica dominican republic presidents of the dominican republic el salvador presidents of el salvador grenada governors general of grenada prime ministers of grenada colonial heads of grenada guatemala presidents of guatemala haiti presidents of haiti honduras presidents of honduras jamaica g |
overnors general of jamaica prime ministers of jamaica nicaragua presidents of nicaragua panama presidents of panama saint kitts and nevis governors general of saint kitts and nevis prime ministers of saint kitts and nevis saint lucia governors general of saint lucia prime ministers of saint lucia saint vincent and the grenadines governors general of saint vincent and the grenadines prime ministers of saint vincent and the grenadines trinidad and tobago governors general of trinidad and tobago presidents of trinidad and tobago prime ministers of trinidad and tobago windward islands colonial heads of the windward islands america north canada see also canadian incumbents by year governors general of canada one eight six seven cabinet of canada prime ministers of canada one eight six seven deputy prime ministers of canada one nine seven seven ministers of agriculture one eight six seven ministers of canadian heritage one nine nine six ministers of citizenship and immigration one nine nine four ministers of the e |
nvironment one nine seven one ministers of finance one eight six seven ministers of fisheries and oceans one nine seven nine ministers of foreign affairs one nine nine five ministers of forestry one nine nine zero one nine nine five ministers of health one nine four four ministers of human resources development one nine nine six two zero zero three ministers of indian affairs and northern development one nine six six ministers of industry one nine nine five ministers of industry science and technology one nine nine zero one nine nine five ministers of intergovernmental affairs one nine nine three ministers for international cooperation one nine nine six ministers of international trade one nine eight three ministers of justice one eight six seven ministers of national defence one nine two three ministers of natural resources one nine nine five ministers of pensions and national health one nine two eight one nine four four ministers of public safety and emergency preparedness two zero zero three ministers of p |
ublic works and government services one nine nine six ministers of veterans affairs one nine four four secretaries of state for external affairs one nine zero nine one nine nine five leaders of the opposition one eight six seven members of the canadian house of commons canadian senators canadian order of precedence mexico presidents of mexico united states president of the united states vice president of the united states united states presidential line of succession members of the united states senate current former members of the united states senate former members of the u s house of representatives justices of the supreme court chief justice of the united states united states cabinet secretary of state secretary of the treasury secretary of defense prior to one nine four seven secretary of war and secretary of the navy attorney general head of the department of justice secretary of homeland security secretary of the interior secretary of agriculture secretary of commerce secretary of labor before secretar |
y of commerce and labor secretary of housing and urban development secretary of transportation secretary of health and human services before united with education in the secretary of health education and welfare secretary of education secretary of energy secretary of veterans affairs other executive department positions director of the cia administrators of the environmental protection agency united states order of precedence hawaiian monarchy america south argentina presidents of argentina bolivia presidents of bolivia brazil brazilian monarchs presidents of brazil governors of distrito federal governors of minas gerais governors of rio de janeiro mayors of rio de janeiro chile presidents of chile colombia presidents of colombia ecuador presidents of ecuador heads of state of ecuador guyana governors general of guyana presidents of guyana prime ministers of guyana uruguay presidents of uruguay paraguay presidents of paraguay peru presidents of peru suriname presidents of suriname venezuela presidents of vene |
zuela other asia afghanistan afghan transitional administration personnel leaders of afghanistan heads of government of afghanistan rulers of kabul rulers of herat rulers of kandahar rulers of peshawar rulers of ghazni bangladesh presidents of bangladesh prime ministers of bangladesh bhutan kings of bhutan brunei sultans of brunei cambodia king of cambodia china chinese sovereigns table of chinese monarchs people s republic of china president of the people s republic of china premier of the people s republic of china hong kong governor of hong kong under british rule now replaced by chief executive chief executive of hong kong macau governor of macau under portuguese rule now replaced by chief executive chief executive of macau republic of china taiwan president of the republic of china premier of the republic of china governors and chairpersons of taiwan see taiwan province india prime minister of india president of india viceroy of india indonesia presidents of indonesia japan rulers of japan emperors regen |
ts shoguns and prime ministers emperors of japan prime minister of japan ashikaga shogunate kamakura shogunate tokugawa shogunate korea rulers of korea north korea presidents of north korea premiers of north korea south korea presidents of south korea malaysia yang di pertuan agong prime ministers of malaysia mongolia grand khan of mongolia prime minister of mongolia nepal kings of nepal philippines presidents of the philippines governor general of the philippines singapore president of singapore prime minister of singapore sri lanka presidents of sri lanka prime ministers of sri lanka syria kings of syria taiwan republic of china see china entry above tajikistan presidents of tajikistan thailand prime ministers of thailand kings of thailand chakri dynasty turkey ottoman empire list of ottoman sultans presidents of turkey prime ministers of turkey pretenders of the ottoman empire vietnam vietnamese dynasties nguyen dynasty prime minister of vietnam oceania australia governors general of australia cabinet of a |
ustralia prime ministers of australia deputy prime ministers of australia attornies general of australia ministers for defence ministers for foreign affairs treasurers of australia cocos islands king of the cocos islands cook islands prime ministers of the cook islands fiji chairmen of fiji s great council of chiefs chief justice of fiji colonial governors of fiji fijian heads of state foreign ministers of fiji governors general of fiji house of representatives of fiji current membership two zero zero four ministers for fijian affairs presidents of fiji prime ministers of fiji senate of fiji current membership two zero zero four speakers of the fijian house of representatives vice presidents of fiji nauru presidents of nauru see politics of nauru new zealand governors general of new zealand new zealand cabinet prime ministers of new zealand deputy prime ministers of new zealand ministers of finance ministers of foreign affairs speakers of the house of representatives m ori kings and queens papua new guinea pr |
ime ministers of papua new guinea europe albania prime ministers of albania presidents of albania kings of albania princes of albania monarchs of albania andorra andorran heads of government co princes of andorra bishop of urgell austria rulers of austria emperors of austria foreign ministers of austria hungary ministers president of austria federal presidents of austria chancellors of austria vice chancellors of austria habsburg babenberg belarus list of belarusian rulers belgium belgian monarchs prime ministers of belgium governors of the habsburg netherlands bulgaria bulgarian monarchs presidents of bulgaria prime ministers of bulgaria croatia list of rulers of croatia presidents of croatia prime ministers of croatia governors and heads of state of fiume heads of state of krajina heads of government of krajina czechoslovakia list of prime ministers of czechoslovakia list of presidents of czechoslovakia czech republic bohemia czech lands rulers of bohemia czech lands presidents of the czech republic prime m |
inisters of the czech republic see also czechoslovakia denmark danish monarchs prime ministers of denmark estonia estonian rulers ministers of war of estonia finland prime minister of finland president of finland finnish rulers france french monarchs presidents of france prime ministers of france foreign ministers of france interior ministers of france finance ministers of france defence ministers of france justice ministers of france education ministers of france police ministers one seven nine six one eight one eight one eight five two five three presidents of the national assembly presidents of the senate germany list of german monarchs presidents of germany list of german presidents since one nine one nine chancellors of germany heads of state of east germany premiers of east germany ministers of the federal republic of germany deputy and vice chancellors foreign ministers interior ministers finance ministers justice ministers postal ministers colonial ministers naval ministers defence ministers economics |
ministers agriculture ministers labour ministers transportation ministers kings of prussia prime ministers of prussia deputy prime ministers of prussia foreign ministers of prussia interior ministers of prussia war ministers of prussia rulers of hanover rulers of bavaria counts palatine of the rhine and electors palatinate rulers of w rttemberg rulers of saxony rulers of baden rulers of hesse electors of brandenburg dukes of prussia etc see hohenzollern counts princes of hohenzollern sigmaringen counts princes of reuss margrave of ansbach margrave of bayreuth see also german rulers by year german rulers in one eight seven four german rulers in one eight seven five german rulers in one eight seven six german rulers in one eight seven seven german rulers in one eight seven eight german rulers in one eight seven nine german rulers in one nine zero four german field marshals greece prime ministers of greece kings of greece kings of the hellenes presidents of greece greenland prime ministers of greenland governor |
s of greenland inspectors of greenland hungary hungarian rulers prime ministers of hungary iberian peninsula spain portugal kings of aragon and counts of barcelona asturian monarchs kings of castile and of leon kings of navarre spanish monarchs prime ministers of spain portuguese monarchs duke of braganza prime ministers of portugal presidents of portugal presidents of catalonia dukes of medina sidonia iceland presidents of iceland prime ministers of iceland icelandic rulers ireland ireland up to one nine two two high kings of ireland kings of connacht kings of ulster kings of leinster kings of munster lords of ireland kings of ireland lord deputies and lord lieutenants of ireland chief secretary for ireland lord chancellors of ireland attorneys general for ireland lord presidents of munster lords chief justice of ireland up to one nine two four irish masters of the rolls up to the one eight seven zero s pr omh air presidents of the republic presidents of d il ireann irish free state ire and republic of irela |
nd one nine two two present governor general of the irish free state one nine two two one nine three six presidents of the executive council one nine two two one nine three seven president of ireland one nine three eight present taoisigh of ireland prime minister one nine three seven present t naistithe of ireland one nine three seven present attorneys general one nine two two present irish chief justices one nine two four present presidents of the high court one nine two four present irish european commissioners one nine seven three present irish foreign ministers northern ireland one nine two one present governors of northern ireland one nine two two present prime minister of northern ireland one nine two two one nine seven two secretaries of state for northern ireland one nine seven two present first and deputy first ministers of northern ireland one nine nine eight two zero zero two county court judges of northern ireland italy presidents of the italian republic prime ministers of italy italian minister o |
f the interior italian minister of foreign affairs italian minister of defense italian minister of justice italian minister of public instruction tuscany rulers of tuscany milan rulers of milan monarchs of naples and sicily dukes of savoy kings of sardinia and kings of italy from one eight six one doges of venice dukes of parma dukes of modena latvia presidents of latvia prime ministers of latvia liechtenstein princes of liechtenstein liechtenstein heads of government lithuania list of lithuanian rulers presidents of lithuania prime ministers of lithuania luxembourg prime ministers of luxembourg grand duke of luxembourg grand ducal family of luxembourg malta presidents of malta prime ministers of malta nobility of malta moldova presidents of moldova prime ministers of moldova monaco princes of monaco succession to the monegasque throne ministers of state montenegro rulers of montenegro netherlands dutch monarchy prime ministers of the netherlands governors of the habsburg netherlands norway norwegian monarchs |
line of succession to the norwegian throne norwegian prime ministers poland polish rulers timeline of rulers of poland polish prime ministers presidents of poland dukes of silesia dukes of mazovia dukes of greater poland dukes of little poland dukes of cuiavia dukes of leczyca dukes of sieradz portugal see iberian peninsula above romania prime ministers of romania presidents of romania kings of romania russia and the soviet union list of russian rulers early grand dukes and tsars leaders of the soviet union president of the soviet union premier of the soviet union president of russia prime minister of russia san marino captains regent of san marino one nine zero zero present captains regent of san marino one seven zero zero one nine zero zero captains regent of san marino one five zero zero one seven zero zero captains regent of san marino one two four three one five zero zero serbia presidents of serbia prime ministers of serbia monarchs of serbia spain see iberian peninsula above slovakia historic rulers o |
f slovakia presidents of slovakia prime ministers of slovakia parliament leaders of slovakia see also czechoslovakia slovenia presidents of slovenia prime minister of slovenia sweden swedish monarchs prime minister of sweden swedish field marshals switzerland members of the swiss federal council presidents of the confederation heads of the department of defence civil protection and sports see military of switzerland heads of the department of foreign affairs see international relations of switzerland heads of the department of home affairs heads of the federal department of finance heads of the federal department of environment transport energy and communications heads of the federal department of economic affairs heads of the federal department of justice and police federal chancellors of switzerland presidents of the swiss national council presidents of the swiss council of states members of the swiss national council members of the swiss council of states chief justices of the swiss supreme court president |
s of the swiss diet before one eight four eight two zero zero five office holders in switzerland turkey see under asia above united kingdom monarchs of england scotland great britain and the united kingdom line of succession to the british throne prince of wales duke of york cabinet of the united kingdom prime minister of the united kingdom one seven two one present chancellor of the exchequer one five five nine present secretary of state for northern ireland one nine seven two present secretary of state for foreign and commonwealth affairs one nine six eight present secretary of state for the colonies one seven six eight one seven eight two one seven nine four one eight zero one one eight five four one nine six six secretary of state for india one eight five eight one nine four seven secretary of state for the southern department one six six zero one seven eight two secretary of state for the northern department one six six zero one seven eight two secretary of state for the home department one seven eight t |
wo present secretary of state for foreign affairs one seven eight two one nine six eight secretary of state for war one seven nine four one eight zero one one eight five four one nine six six secretary of state for war and the colonies one eight zero one one eight five four secretary of state for air one nine one eight one nine six six secretary of state for dominion affairs one nine two five one nine four seven secretary of state for commonwealth relations one nine four seven one nine six six secretary of state for commonwealth affairs one nine six six one nine six eight secretary of state for scotland one nine two six present secretary of state for wales one nine six four present secretary of state for economic affairs one nine six four one nine six nine secretary of state for international development one nine seven zero one nine seven nine one nine nine seven present secretary of state for work and pensions one nine seven zero present secretary of state for education and skills and preceding positions one |
nine zero two present secretary of state for employment and preceding positions one nine one six present secretary of state for transport and preceding positions one nine two four present secretary of state for culture media and sport and preceding positions one nine nine two present secretary of state for northern ireland one nine seven two present secretary of state for the environment one nine seven zero one nine nine seven secretary of state for the environment transport and the regions one nine nine seven two zero zero one secretary of state for environment food and rural affairs two zero zero one present lord chancellor one zero six eight present lord president of the council one six seven eight present lord privy seal one three zero seven present minister of agriculture fisheries and food and preceding positions one eight eight nine two zero zero one minister of technology one nine six four one nine seven zero first lord of the admiralty one seven zero nine one nine six four see also admiralty master |
general of the ordnance one five four four one eight five five president of the board of trade one six nine six one seven eight two one seven eight four present chancellor of the duchy of lancaster one four one three present postmaster general one eight two three one nine six eight paymaster of the forces one six six one one eight three six master general of the ordnance one five four four one eight five five master of the mint one five seven two one eight six nine treasurer of the navy one five four four one eight three six secretary at war one six six one one eight six three first commissioner of woods and forests one eight one zero one eight five one first commissioner of works one eight five one one nine three seven president of the poor law board one eight three four one eight seven one president of the local government board one eight seven one one nine one nine secretary for scotland one eight eight five one nine two six hm treasury chancellor of the exchequer lord treasurers one one two six one seven |
one four first lord of the treasury one seven one four one nine zero five commissioners of the treasury one seven one four present leader of the house of commons one seven two one present great officers of state lord high steward lord high constable lord great chamberlain earl marshal keeper of the great seal of scotland keeper of the privy seal of scotland lord clerk register lord lyon king of arms officers of the royal household lord steward lord chamberlain historiographer royal astronomer royal for scotland sculptor in ordinary for scotland hm painter and limner for scotland her majesty s botanist legal officers attorney general for england and wales solicitor general for england and wales lord advocate solicitor general for scotland advocate general for scotland judges lord chief justice master of the rolls chief justice of the court of common pleas to one eight seven three chief baron of the exchequer to one eight seven three lord justice general lord justice clerk members of parliament elected in two z |
ero zero one members of parliament elected in two zero zero five scotland members of the scottish parliament first minister of scotland list of scottish executive ministerial teams wales members of the national assembly for wales members of the northern ireland assembly northern ireland see under ireland above heads of london government list of lord mayors of london members of the house of lords judiciary lords justices of appeal of england and wales lords justices of appeal of northern ireland senators of the college of justice duke of devonshire tenants of herm duke of norfolk seigneurs of sark tenants of brecqhou rulers of wales united kingdom order of precedence viscounts in order of precedence overseas territories of the united kingdom gibraltar governors of gibraltar chief minister of gibraltar british antarctic territory commissioners of the british antarctic territory high commissioners of the british antarctic territory crown dependencies of the united kingdom guernsey bailiffs of guernsey jersey bai |
liffs of jersey isle of man kings of the isle of man lords of the isle of man governors of the isle of man lieutenant governors of the isle of man vatican city popes cardinal secretary of state heads of modern subnational entities australia premiers of new south wales premiers of queensland premiers of south australia premiers of tasmania premiers of victoria premier of western australia heads of government of norfolk island chief minister of the northern territory chief minister of the australian capital territory governors of new south wales governors of queensland governors of south australia governors of tasmania governors of victoria governor of western australia administrative heads of norfolk island administrator of the northern territory administrative heads of jervis bay administrative heads of australian antarctic territory administrative heads of macquarie island belgium minister presidents of brussels minister presidents of flanders minister presidents of wallonia canada premiers of alberta premie |
rs of british columbia premiers of manitoba premiers of new brunswick premiers of newfoundland and labrador premiers of the northwest territories premiers of nova scotia premiers of nunavut premiers of ontario premiers of prince edward island premiers of quebec premiers of saskatchewan premiers of yukon lieutenant governors of alberta lieutenant governors of british columbia lieutenant governors of manitoba lieutenant governors of new brunswick lieutenant governors of newfoundland and labrador commissioners of northwest territories lieutenant governors of nova scotia commissioners of nunavut lieutenant governors of ontario lieutenant governors of prince edward island lieutenant governors of quebec lieutenant governors of saskatchewan commissioners of yukon see also canadian history timeline for the premiers in any given year list of mayors in canada china people s republic of hong kong see under asia above macau see under asia above finland provincial governors of finland france colonial and departmental head |
s of guadeloupe germany minister presidents of baden w rttemberg premiers of bavaria mayors of berlin minister presidents of brandenburg mayors of bremen mayors of hamburg minister presidents of hesse minister presidents of mecklenburg western pomerania minister presidents of lower saxony minister presidents of north rhine westphalia minister pres of rhineland palatinate minister pres of the saarland minister pres of saxony minister pres of saxony anhalt minister pres of schleswig holstein minister pres of thuringia india chief ministers of tamil nadu governors of tamil nadu chief ministers of west bengal new zealand mayors of auckland mayors of christchurch mayors of dunedin mayors of wellington sweden county governors of sweden blekinge governors dalarna governors g vleborg governors gotland governors halland governors j mtland governors j nk ping governors kalmar governors kronoberg governors norrbotten governors sk ne governors stockholm governors s dermanland governors uppsala governors v rmland governor |
s v sterbotten governors v sternorrland governors v stmanland governors v stra g taland governors rebro governors sterg tland governors united states united states governors governors of alabama governors of alaska governors of arizona governors of arkansas governors of california governors of colorado governors of connecticut governors of delaware governors of florida governors of georgia governors of hawaii governors of idaho governors of illinois governors of indiana governors of iowa governors of kansas governors of kentucky governors of louisiana governors of maine governors of maryland governors of massachusetts governors of michigan governors of minnesota governors of mississippi governors of missouri governors of montana governors of nebraska governors of nevada governors of new hampshire governors of new jersey governors of new mexico governors of new york governor of north carolina governors of north dakota governors of ohio governors of oklahoma governors of oregon governors of pennsylvania governo |
rs of rhode island governors of south carolina governors of south dakota governors of tennessee governors of texas governors of utah governors of vermont governors of virginia governors of washington governors of west virginia governors of wisconsin governors of wyoming governors of american samoa governors of guam governors of northern mariana islands governor of puerto rico governors of u s virgin islands ministers by portfolio defence minister list of ministers of the environment finance minister foreign minister list of foreign ministers in one nine five zero list of foreign ministers in two zero zero two list of foreign ministers in two zero zero three list of foreign ministers in two zero zero four interior minister municipal leaders see lists of mayors by country religious leaders see also religious leaders by year christian list of patriarchs archbishops and bishops current patriarchs catholic catholic popes grand masters of the teutonic knights grand masters of the knights templar grand masters of th |
e knights hospitaller priors of st john of jerusalem in england grand masters of the livonian brothers of the sword several denominations president of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints judaism chief rabbis chief rabbis of israel islam caliphate shia imam buddhist dalai lama supreme patriarch of thailand supreme patriarch of cambodia supreme patriarch of laos ancient rome pontifices maximi external links http www rulers org detailed lists including regional and religious leaders from one seven zero zero http www friesian com philhist htm lists of incumbents including historical analysis of their eras http www kessler web co uk historyfiles htm list of rulers of all states regnal chronologies worldwide lists archontology world statesmen z rate s political collections lists of office holders this article concerns the modern australian political party for the australian liberal party active from one nine zero nine to one nine one six see commonwealth liberal party the liberal party of australia is a |
n australian liberal conservative political party since its foundation in one nine four five it has been the dominant party of the centre right in australia and competes with the centre left australian labor party for political office both at the federal level and in the australian states and territories the liberal party was founded on three one august one nine four five after robert menzies called a conference in one nine four four of conservative parties and other groups opposed to the ruling australian labor party the liberal party absorbed several former conservative parties principally the united australia party the australian women s national league a powerful conservative women s organisation also merged with the new party a conservative youth group menzies had set up the young nationalists was also merged into the new party it became the liberal party s youth division the young liberals in federal politics the liberal party has held power since winning government in one nine nine six and governs in i |
ts traditional coalition with the national party in state politics however the reverse applies the liberals and nationals are in opposition in all australian states and territories policies the liberal party is generally an advocate of economic liberalism and support of free markets however during the menzies era the party was quite interventionist in its economic policy and maintained australia s high tarriff levels it should be noted that at this time the liberal s coalition partner the country party had considerable influence over the government s economic policies since the one nine eight zero s the party has moved further to the right economically developing a strong new right element in its platforms and policies socially the liberal party is a conservative party although it has a minority socially liberal wing it generally takes a tough line on law and order issues at federal and state levels it has also strongly supported the australia s traditional alliances with the united states and the united king |
dom sometimes at the cost of relations with australia s asian neighbours in terms of immigration policy the liberal party under john howard has had the highest intake of migrants chiefly refugees and skilled workers in australia s history but has also extended the labor r gime of mandatory detention in place for people entering the country without following the proper procedures usually to claim political asylum history the liberals immediate predecessor was the united australia party formed in one nine three one the uap led by menzies disintegrated after suffering a heavy defeat in the one nine four three elections more broadly the party s ideological ancestry stretched back to the anti labor groupings in the first commonwealth parliaments the commonwealth liberal party was a fusion of the non labor parties in one nine zero nine in response to labor s growing electoral prominence menzies deliberately chose the name liberal in reference to this and in claiming inheritance from alfred deakin in one nine four n |
ine menzies led the liberals to victory and they stayed in office for a record two three years after the retirement of menzies in one nine six six and the death of his successor harold holt in one nine six seven the liberals went into decline and were defeated by labor under gough whitlam in one nine seven two after the dismissal of one nine seven five they returned to office under the prime ministership of malcolm fraser and stayed in power for eight years losing government in one nine eight three to the alp led by bob hawke the liberals lost five elections in a row under four different leaders before returning to power in one nine nine six under john howard at the state level the liberals have been dominant for long periods in all states except queensland where they have been subordinate to the national party not to be confused with the old nationalist party the liberals were in power in victoria from one nine five five the election in which they defeated john cain sr to one nine eight two in which they wer |
e defeated by the last labor premier s son john cain jr and in south australia under several names from one nine three two to one nine six five since the one nine eight zero s however the liberals have become increasingly unsuccessful in state elections the most radically conservative liberal premier jeff kennett of victoria was defeated in one nine nine nine and as of two zero zero six no australian state or territory government is run by the liberal national coalition throughout their history the liberals have been the party of the middle class whom menzies in the era of the party s formation called the forgotten people though such class based voting patterns are no longer as clear as they once were in the one nine seven zero s a left wing middle class emerged that no longer voted liberal one effect of this was the success of a breakaway party the australian democrats founded in one nine seven seven by former liberal minister don chipp and members of minor liberal parties other members of the left leaning s |
ection of the middle class became labor supporters on the other hand the liberals have done increasingly well among socially conservative working class voters in recent years in country areas they either compete heavily or have a truce with the nationals depending on various factors strong opposition to socialism and communism in australia has long been a liberal preoccupation and raison d etre anti communism was successfully exploited through the one nine five zero s and one nine six zero s by robert menzies and his political successors menzies went so far as to unsuccessfully attempt to ban the communist party in one nine five one menzies was an ardent royalist devoted towards maintaining australia as a constitutional monarchy nowadays the party is divided with some liberals such as peter costello being minimalist republicans while others such as john howard and tony abbott remain devout monarchists the liberals have also positioned themselves as the party most committed to the alliance with the united stat |
es domestically menzies presided over a fairly regulated economy in which utilities were publicly owned and commercial activity was highly regulated through centralised wage fixing and high tariff protection it was not until the late one nine seven zero s and through their period out of power federally in the one nine eight zero s that the party came to be dominated by what was known as the new right a thatcher inspired or neo liberal group who advocated market deregulation privatisation of public utilities and reductions in the size of government programs and thus tax cuts this program has been largely implemented since the election of the howard government in one nine nine six although certain reforms were pre empted by the hawke keating labor governments of the one nine eight zero s early one nine nine zero s socially the party has wavered between what is termed small l liberalism and social conservatism the current leader howard is in most respects socially conservative his most likely successor peter cos |
tello is potentially more liberal on some issues other liberal state and federal governments have also been more liberal particularly in victoria and south australia the liberal party s organisation is dominated by the six state divisions reflecting the party s original commitment to a federalised system of government a commitment which was strongly maintained by all liberal governments until one nine eight three but has been to a large extent abandoned by the howard government which has shown strong centralising tendencies menzies deliberately created a weak national party machine and strong state divisions party policy is made almost entirely by the parliamentary parties not by the party s rank and file members although liberal party members do have a degree of influence over party policy in the two zero zero four federal elections the party strengthened its majority in the lower house and with its coalition partners became the first federal government in twenty years to gain an absolute majority in the sen |
ate they will therefore be able to pass legislation without the need to negotiate with independents or minor parties with only internal dissent within the coalition presenting an obstacle to the implementation of the decisions of the liberal cabinet while the party holds government federally it does not in any of the states or territories furthermore it does not officially contest most local government elections although many members do run for office in local government as independents the most notable current example being the lord mayor of brisbane campbell newman liberal federal leaders from present to the one nine four five founding of the liberal party john howard since one nine nine five prime minister since one nine nine six alexander downer one nine nine four one nine nine five dr john hewson one nine nine zero one nine nine four andrew peacock one nine eight nine one nine nine zero john howard one nine eight five one nine eight nine andrew peacock one nine eight three one nine eight five malcolm fra |
ser one nine seven five one nine eight three prime minister one nine seven five eight three billy snedden one nine seven three one nine seven five william mcmahon one nine seven one one nine seven two prime minister one nine seven one seven two john gorton one nine six eight one nine seven one prime minister one nine six eight seven one harold holt one nine six six one nine six seven prime minister one nine six six six seven robert menzies one nine four five one nine six six prime minister one nine four nine six six list of liberal party of australia leaders by time served current liberal state parliamentary leaders peter debnam new south wales robert doyle victoria bob quinn queensland matt birney western australia rob kerin south australia premier two zero zero one zero two rene hidding tasmania new south wales liberal premiers john fahey new south wales one nine nine two nine five nick greiner new south wales one nine eight eight nine two robert askin new south wales one nine six five seven five queensland |
liberal premiers gordon chalk queensland one august one nine six eight eight august one nine six eight western australian liberal premiers richard court western australia one nine nine three two zero zero one charles court western australia one nine seven four eight two david brand western australia one nine five nine seven one south australian liberal premiers rob kerin south australia two zero zero one zero two john olsen south australia one nine nine six two zero zero one dean brown south australia one nine nine three nine six david tonkin south australia one nine seven nine eight two steele hall south australia one nine six eight seven zero tom playford south australia one nine three eight six five tasmanian liberal premiers tony rundle tasmania one nine nine six nine eight ray groom tasmania one nine nine two nine six robin gray tasmania one nine eight two eight nine victorian liberal premiers jeff kennett victoria one nine nine two nine nine lindsay thompson victoria one nine eight one eight two rupert |
hamer victoria one nine seven two eight one henry bolte victoria one nine five five seven two see also history of australia liberalism conservatism list of political parties in australia further reading gerard henderson menzies child the liberal party of australia one nine four four one nine nine four allen and unwin one nine nine four dean jaensch the liberals allen and unwin one nine nine four john nethercote ed liberalism and the australian federation federation press two zero zero one marian simms a liberal nation the liberal party and australian politics hale and iremonger one nine eight two graeme starr the liberal party of australia a documentary history drummond heinemann one nine eight zero sources how will humanity survive the two one st century january two two two zero zero five the canberra times p one six external links liberal party of australia official site the liberal party is anything but critical commentary by a former political adviser to the howard government liberal party of australia e |
phemera digitised and held by the national library of australia conservative parties political parties in australia liberal conservative parties international democrat union lindisfarne castle lindisfarne also called holy island variant spelling lindesfarne is a tidal island off the north east coast of england which is connected to the mainland of northumberland by a causeway and is cut off twice a day by tides something well described by sir walter scott for with the flow and ebb its style varies from continent to isle dry shood o er sands twice every day the pilgrims to the shrine find way twice every day the waves efface of staves and sandelled feet the trace according to the two zero zero one census it had a usual population of one six two nature reserve large parts of the island and all of the adjacent inter tidal area are protected as lindisfarne national nature reserve to help safeguard the internationally important wintering bird populations species for which the reserve is important include pale bell |
ied brent goose wigeon teal pintail merlin dunlin bar tailed godwit and many others the situation on the east coast also makes it a good place for observing migrating arriving from the east including large numbers of redwing and fieldfare and also scarcer siberian birds including regular annual yellow browed warblers rare species such as radde s warbler dusky warbler and red flanked bluetail have all occurred on holy island altogether a total of almost three zero zero species have been recorded on the island and adjacent reserve with the large number and variety of birds present the area is very popular with birders particularly in autumn and winter grey seals are frequent visitors to the rocky bays at high tide history the monastery of lindisfarne was founded by saint aidan who had been sent from iona off the west coast of scotland to northumbria at the request of king oswald around ad six three five it became the base for christian evangelising in the north of england and also sent a successful mission to m |
ercia monks from the community of iona settled on the island northumberland s patron saint saint cuthbert was a monk and later abbot of the monastery and his miracles and life are recorded by the venerable bede cuthbert later became bishop of lindisfarne at some point in the early seven zero zero s the famous illuminated manuscript known as the lindisfarne gospels an illustrated latin copy of the gospels of mark luke matthew and john was probably made at lindisfarne sometime in the second half of the tenth century a monk named aldfrith added an anglo saxon old english gloss to the latin text producing the earliest surviving old english copies of the gospels the gospels were illustrated in an insular style containing a fusion of celtic germanic and roman elements they were probably originally covered with a fine metal case made by a hermit called billfrith in seven nine three a viking raid on lindisfarne caused much consternation throughout the christian west and is now often taken as the beginning of the age |
of viking raids eventually the monks fled the island taking with them the body of st cuthbert which is now buried at the cathedral in durham the bishopric was transferred to durham in ad one zero zero zero the lindisfarne gospels now reside in the british library in london somewhat to the annoyance of some northumbrians the priory was re established in norman times as a benedictine house and continued until its suppression in one five three six under henry viii it is now a ruin in the care of english heritage who also run a museum visitor centre nearby the neighbouring parish church see below is still in use lindisfarne also has the small lindisfarne castle based on a tudor fort which was refurbished in the arts and crafts style by sir edwin lutyens and has a garden created by gertrude jekyll the castle garden and nearby limekilns are in the care of the national trust and open to visitors turner thomas girtin and charles rennie mackintosh all painted on holy island lindisfarne had a large lime burning industr |
y and the kilns are among the most complex in northumberland there are still some traces of the jetties by which the coal was imported and the lime exported close by at the foot of the crags lime was quarried on the island and the remains of the waggonway between the quarries and the kilns makes for a pleasant and easy walk holy island was considered part of the islandshire unit along with several mainland parishes this came under the jurisdiction of the county palatine of durham until the counties detached parts act one eight four four present day lindisfarne was mainly a fishing community for many years with farming and the production of lime also of some importance tourism grew steadily throughout the twentieth century and it is now a popular place with visitors sometimes a little too popular as space and facilities are limited by staying on the island while the tide cuts it off time permitting the non resident visitor can experience the island in a much quieter mood as most day visitors leave when the tid |
e is rising again it is possible weather and tide permitting to walk at low tide across the sands following the older crossing line known as the pilgrims way and marked with posts it also has refuge boxes for the careless walker in the same way as the road has a refuge box for those who have left their crossing too late please see the safety note below a popular delicacy on the island is crab sandwiches which are sold to tourists at many shops and caf s lindisfarne castle based on a tudor fort was refurbished in the arts and crafts style by sir edwin lutyens and has a garden created by gertrude jekyll the castle garden and nearby limekilns are in the care of the national trust and open to visitors recently lindisfarne has become the centre for the revival of celtic christianity in the north of england the minister of the church there david adam is a well known author of celtic christian books and prayers following from this lindisfarne has become a popular retreat centre as well as holiday destination holy is |
land was featured on the television programme seven natural wonders as one of the wonders of the north the lindisfarne gospels have also featured on television among the top few treasures of britain lindisfarne seen from the mainland safety visitors wishing to walk across are urged to keep to the marked path check tides and weather carefully and seek local advice if in doubt visitors driving should pay close attention to the timetables prominently displayed at both ends of the causeway and where the holy island road leaves the a one great north road at beal the causeway is generally open from about three hours after high tide until two hours before the next high tide but there is no substitute for checking the timetables for a specific date lindisfarne in culture on film lindisfarne particularly the castle is the setting of the roman polanski film cul de sac one nine six six with donald pleasence and lionel stander shot entirely on location there the island is semi fictionalised into lindisfarne island and th |
e castle is rob roy there is no village the tide rises round a car which is stuck on the causeway also featured are the characteristic sheds made from cobles local fishing boats inverted and cut in half these may still be seen on the island in music the german power metal band stormwarrior wrote a song called lindisfarnel about the viking raid in ad seven nine three the norwegian metal band enslaved also released a song titled after the invasion called seven nine three slaget om lindisfarne the belgian folk power black metal band ancient rites has a song lindisfarne anno seven nine three on their two zero zero one album dim carcosa lindisfarne is also the name of a folk group who recorded a duet of fog on the tyne revisited with footballer paul gascoigne see also tidal island external links the island s own web site northumberland county council s tide tables for crossing times buildings and structures in northumberland castles in england english heritage historic houses in northumberland history of northumbe |
rland islands of england monasteries in england national nature reserves in england northumberland viking age world illiteracy rates by country literacy is the ability to read and write in modern context the word means reading and writing in a level adequate for written communication and generally a level that enables one to successfully function at certain levels of a society the standards for what level constitutes literacy vary among societies other skills such as computer skills or basic numeracy may also be included as there are many people who cannot read letters but can read numbers and even learn to use a computer in a limited way while remaining unable to read text these and the increasing inclusion of sound still and moving images and graphical elements in digitally based communication call for an even broader concept of literacy see literacy in the information age final report of the international adult literacy survey oecd two zero zero zero pdf recently the national council of teachers of english |
have added visually representing to the list of communicative competences that are considered to constitute literacy many policy analysts consider literacy rates a crucial measure of a region s human capital this claim is made on the grounds that literate people can be trained less expensively than illiterate people policy makers also argue that literacy increases job opportunities and access to higher education in kerala india for example female and child mortality rates childrates declined dramatically in the one nine six zero s when girls schooled to literacy in the education reforms after one nine four eight began to raise families recent researchers however argue that correlations such as the one listed above may have more to do with the effects of schooling rather than literacy in general world literacy rates see also list of countries by literacy rate illiteracy is most prevalent in developing countries south asian arab and sub saharan african countries are regions with the highest illiteracy rates at |
about four zero to five zero east asia and latin america have illiteracy rates in the one zero to one five region while developed countries have illiteracy rates of a few percent within ethnically homogeneous regions literacy rates can vary widely from country or region to region this often coincides with the region s wealth or urbanization though many factors play a role literacy history graph of declining illiteracy rates world wide the history of literacy goes back several thousand years but before the industrial revolution finally made cheap paper and cheap books available to all classes in industrialized countries in the mid nineteenth century only a small percentage of the world s population was literate up until that point materials associated with literacy were prohibitively expensive for people other than wealthy individuals and institutions for example in england in one eight four one three three of men and four four of women signed marriage certificates with their mark as they were unable to write |
only in one eight seven zero was government financed public education made available in england what constitutes literacy has changed throughout history it has only recently become expected and desirable to be fully literate and demeaning if you are not at one time a literate person was one who could sign their name at other points literacy was measured by the ability to read the bible literacy has also been used as a way to sort populations and control who has access to power in the united states following the civil war the ability to read and write were used to determine whether one had the right to vote this effectively served to prevent former slaves from joining the electorate and maintained the status quo examples of highly literate cultures in the past the slow spread of literacy in the ancient world the dark blue areas were literate at around two three zero zero bce the dark green areas were literate at around one three zero zero bce the light green areas were literate at around three zero zero bce n |
ote that other asian societies were literate at these times but they are not included on this map note also that even in the colored regions functional literacy was usually restricted to a handful of ruling elite the existence of secular and religious texts as well as references to great metaphysical debates including reading and writing contests in those texts from the indian subcontinent south asia points to a highly perhaps selectively literate culture there as far back as five to eight thousand years ago some major hindu texts and other discourses contesting them are supposed to be eight thousand years old because of its emphasis on the individual reading of the qur an in the original arabic alphabet many islamic countries have known a comparatively high level of literacy during most of the past twelve centuries in islamic edict or fatwa to be literate is an individual religious obligation not a privilege given to a few in the society in the middle ages literacy rates among jews in europe were much higher |
than in the surrounding christian populations most jewish males learned to read and write hebrew at least judaism places great importance on the study of holy texts the tanakh and the talmud in new england the literacy rate was over five zero percent during the first half of the one seven th century and it rose to seven zero percent by one seven one zero by the time of the american revolution it was around nine zero percent this is seen by some as a side effect of the puritan belief in the importance of bible reading in wales the literacy rate rocketed during the one eight th century when griffith jones ran a system of circulating schools with the aim of enabling everyone to read the bible in welsh it is claimed that in one seven five zero wales had the highest literacy rate of any country in the world historically the literacy rate has also been high in the lutheran countries of northern europe already in the one six eight six church law kyrkolagen of the kingdom of sweden which at the time included all of |
modern sweden finland and estonia literacy was enforced on the people and a hundred years later by the end of the one eight th century the literacy rate was close to one zero zero percent even before the one six eight six law literacy was widespread in sweden however the ability to read did not automatically imply ability to write and as late as the one nine th century many swedes especially women could not write teaching literacy some people argue that one of the most effective methods of teaching literacy involves direct instruction of simplified phonetic systems others however argue that a more holistic method modelled after the way language is acquired is the most effective for teaching literacy this disagreement has been termed the reading wars and is most evident in the pressures placed on schools to use commodified pre packaged basal series and literacy programs to teach their children in english for example the distar system developed by the rand corporation has been adapted into a simple literacy ins |
truction manual teach your child to read in one zero zero lessons that permits an adult to teach a child by simply reading and following instructions all of the complex instructional lesson design skill building and optimal repetition and review have been canned in the book s instructional design a computer program is even available that uses a similar system but directly pronounces and tests the lessons eliminating the need for a literate adult comprehensive phonic programs exist based on such systems as the orton phonogram system which was originated to teach brain damaged veterans to read again using the seven three orton phonograms and one four spelling rules five zero zero zero zero english words can be accurately pronounced and spelled with only two three exceptional words such systems provide students with powerful basic language skills there are complete and free downloadable books and mp three files at don potter s education page and free quicktime movies at the phonics page a key technique in many c |
omprehensive phonic systems is a spelling copybook a sort of personal dictionary in which a student keeps a personal alphabetized list of words for review the copybook usually shows how the word is pronounced accented and syllabalized and how standard spelling rules are invoked to determine its conventional spelling many educators today are changing practices of literacy instruction to reflect new knowledge about teaching and learning a balanced approach to literacy instruction combines language and literature rich activities associated with holistic reading instruction with the explicit teaching of skills as needed to develop the fluency and comprehension that proficient readers possess such instruction stresses the love of language gaining meaning from print and instruction of phonics in context the balanced literacy approach to reading instruction incorporates many reading strategies in order to meet the varying needs of all students some of the components of the approach include phonemic awareness and pho |
nics instruction reading aloud to children independent reading guided reading shared reading and literacy centers for independent practice a running record a documentation of a child s reading behavior is often used as an assessment tool to allow teachers to monitor the progress of students the conditions for whether one has achieved a certain state of literacy differ depends on who is defining the standard and why for one attempt to define a standard of literacy see the higher the level of literacy a person has the more they are able to earn you can see a graph showing this relationship at the phonics page this relationship is contested by literacy researchers such as brian street who point out that the socioeconomic level of a family has more to do with a child s literacy levels than literacy levels have to do with income the higher a family s income the more likely it is that the child will have a high literacy level illiteracy does not cause poverty rather poverty causes illiteracy literacy readiness it i |
s well established that children become able to blend sounds at different ages thus phonetic systems often cannot be applied by very young children experts differ in their approach to this issue some advocating a delayed but more rapid acquisition of reading by means of phonetics while others advocate early acquisition of a basic vocabulary through a see and say method a secondary advantage of phonetics is that it improves readers spelling and writing abilities see and say methods are said to increase the word acquisition rate and reading speed of many students the problem with phonetics is that it does not address the issue of comprehension while young children often require several hundred hours of instruction spread over much of a year motivated adults using a good instructional method can often acquire basic literacy with forty or fewer hours of instruction this is most likely related to the wealth of contextual knowledge adults bring with them allowing them to make connections that young children are not |
yet able to do steiner schools that follow the teachings of rudolf steiner do not introduce children to literacy until the age of seven arguing that children are too young to learn to read before this age according to unesco statistics almost a billion illiterate people remain as we approach ed the year two zero zero zero illiteracy many have been concerned about the illiteracy in the world population despite the fact that literacy rates have increased steadily over the past few decades especially in the third world third world nations which adopted marxist ideology china cuba and vietnam for example experienced some of the most dramatic growth of literacy approaching us and european rates the united nations defines illiteracy as the inability to read and write a simple sentence in any language figures of one nine nine eight show that one six of the world population is illiterate by the un definition united states in the united states alone one in seven persons i e over four zero million people can barely re |
ad a job offer or utility bill which arguably makes them functionally illiterate in a developed country such as the us in two zero zero three the national assessment of adult literacy naal conducted by the us department of education found that fourteen percent of american adults scored at this below basic level in prose literacy more than half of these persons did not have a high school diploma or ged thirty nine percent of persons at this level were hispanic twenty percent were black and thirty seven percent were white according to the national center for education statistics results showed that the average quantitative literacy scores of adults increased eight points between one nine nine two and two zero zero three though average prose and document literacy did not differ significantly from one nine nine two among blacks average prose literacy scores increased by six points and average document literacy scores rose by eight points between one nine nine two and two zero zero three the average prose scores o |
f asians pacific islanders increased as well rising one six points between one nine nine two and two zero zero three the average prose literacy scores of hispanics fell one eight points from one nine nine two to two zero zero three while average document literacy scores decreased by one four points average prose and document literacy scores among whites did not change significantly literacy among college graduates declined between one nine nine two and two zero zero three with less than one third of all graduates at the highest proficient level in two zero zero three and less than half of all graduates with advanced degrees at this level united kingdom seven million uk residents are functionally illiterate according to government figures another problem in the develo yo yo maped countries is the rise of secondary and tertiary illiteracy in recent years i e the complete or partial loss of previously existing reading and writing skills due to lack of practice other countries among the arab states more than two |
five of men and five zero of women were not literate as of two zero zero zero the most likely reason for low levels of literacy is lack of education many people in the third world cannot see the point of learning to read as they are able to function perfectly well without doing so some have suggested that the lower the illiteracy rate of a country generally the longer the life span although critics have argued that this is a post hoc fallacy literacy does aid the provision of healthcare in a number of very practical ways ability to read prescriptions and understand doctors conclusions are two examples of this literacy in the two one st century new literacy studies a theoretical approach to understanding literacy that argues that literacy is not autonomous or a set of discrete technical and objective skills such as reading and writing that can be applied across context instead what counts as literacy is determined by the cultural political and historical contexts of the community in which it is used definition |
s of literacy are based on ideologies scholars associated with the new literacy studies include brian street james paul gee allan luke colin lankshear and michele knobel to name a few the new literacy studies draws across academic disciplines including cultural anthropology and linguistic anthropology the importance of technological literacy for the contemporary world literacy now comes to mean more than just the ability to read write and be numerate it involves at all levels the ability to use and communicate in a diverse range of technologies since the computer and the internet became mainstream in the early one nine nine zero s its importance and centrality in communication has become unassailable we should now properly speak of literacies these literacies always involve technology and the ability to use technology to negotiate the myriad of discourses that face us in the modern world these literacies concern using information skillfully and appropriately and are multi faceted and involve a range of techno |
logies and media one such group of literacies that is growing in significance as personal computers become more powerful is multimedia literacy in sum today s students need to cope with a complex mix of visual oral and interactive media as well as traditional text people of lesser education or older people may see themselves falling behind as the informational gap between them and the people literate in the new media and technologies widens see also list of countries by literacy rate numeracy dick and jane functional illiteracy frank laubach external links www theliteracysite com canadian language reading in the two one st century adult literacy education national institute for literacy supports literacy in the united states national center for education statistics naal page literacy statistics for the united states history of the literacy campaign in nicaragua in spanish literacy facts with focus on the us an assortment of literacy facts with sources literacy and learning quotes bibliography bright william o |
ne nine eight four the virtues of illiteracy in american indian linguistics and literature pp one four nine one five nine berlin mouton publishers finnegan ruth one nine seven three literacy vs non literacy the great divide some comments on the signficance of literature in non literate cultures in r horton r finnegan eds modes of thought essays on thinking in western and non western societies pp one one two one four four london faber and faber kozol jonathan one nine eight five illiterate america anchor books new york tannen deborah one nine eight zero spoken written language and the oral literate continuum in proceedings of the six th annual meeting berkely linguistic society pp two zero seven two one eight human skills reading knowledge socioeconomics local loop unbundling llu is the process of allowing telecommunications operators to use the twisted pair telephone connections from the telephone exchange s central office to the customer premises this local loop is owned by the incumbent local exchange carri |
er ilec policy background unlike most other economic liberalisation measures llu involves more not less regulation it is considered an application of the essential facilities doctrine found in u s and arguably ec antitrust law llu is generally opposed by the ilecs which in most cases used to be state monopoly enterprises before the telecommunications sector was liberalised they argue that llu amounts to a regulatory taking that they are forced to provide competitors with essential business inputs that llu stifles infrastructure based competition and technical innovation because new entrants prefer to parasitise the incumbent s network instead of building their own and that the regulatory interference required to make llu work e g to set the price is detrimental to the market new entrants on the other hand argue that since they cannot economically duplicate the incumbent s local loop they cannot actually provide certain services such as adsl without llu thus allowing the incumbent to monopolise the respective |
market and stifle innovation they point out that alternative access technologies such as wireless local loop wll have proven uncompetitive and or impractical and that under current pricing models the incumbent is guaranteed a fair price for the use of his facilities including an appropriate return on investment finally they argue that the ilecs generally did not construct their local loop in a competitive risk fraught environment but under state monopoly protection and using taxpayer money which means according to the new entrants that ilecs ought not to be entitled to continue to extract monopoly rents from the local loop most developed nations including the usa and the eu member states have introduced regulatory frameworks providing for llu given the above mentioned problems regulators face the challenging task of regulating a market that is changing very rapidly without stifling any type of innovation and without improperly disadvantaging any competitor unbundling developments around the world u k as of fe |
bruary two zero zero two the collapse of the alternative telco market in britain has had adverse consequences for oftel s strategy for telecoms deregulation in the uk and leaves british telecom bt as the unchallenged dominant operator in adsl connections as well as traditional fixed line telephony as of one four january two zero zero six two one zero zero zero zero local loop connections have been unbundled from bt operation under local loop unbundling ofcom hopes that one million local loop connections will be unbundled by june two zero zero six u s the federal communications commission fcc requires that ilecs lease local loops to competitors at a certain pre set wholesale price new zealand the commerce commission recommended against local loop unbundling in late two zero zero three as telecom new zealand offered a market led solution in may two zero zero four this was confirmed by the government despite the intense call four change campaign by some of telecom s competitors part of telecom s commitment to th |
e commerce commission to avoid unbundling was a promise to deliver two five zero zero zero zero new residential broadband connections by the end of two zero zero five one third of which are to be wholesaled through other providers as of november two zero zero five telecom looks to be falling short of that target leading to the possibility of unbundling in the future new zealand is one of the few oecd countries that have examined and then rejected local loop unbundling switzerland switzerland is one of a very few oecd nations that does not presently provide for unbundling because the swiss federal supreme court held in two zero zero one that the one nine nine six swiss telecommunications act does not require it the government has enacted an ordinance providing for unbundling in two zero zero three and an amendment to the act is underway in parliament unbundling requests under the two zero zero three ordinance continue to be tied up before the supreme court hong kong at the meeting of the executive council on s |
ix july two zero zero four the council advised and the chief executive ordered that the regulatory intervention under the current type ii interconnection hong kong traditional chinese policy applicable to telephone exchanges for individual buildings covered by such exchanges should be withdrawn subject to conditions documented in http www ofta gov hk tas interconnect ta two zero zero four zero seven zero six pdf germany details on the actual situation of llu in germany can be found at http www regtp de en reg tele start fs zero five html wto some provisions of wto telecommunications law can be read to require unbundling sect five a of the gats annex on telecommunications one requires wto members to guarantee service suppliers access to and use of public telecommunications transport networks for the supply of a service new entrants argue that without llu they cannot supply services such as adsl sect two two b of the one nine nine eight reference paper two to which some members have subscribed requires sufficie |
ntly unbundled interconnection with major providers however the paper s definition of interconnection appears to exclude llu sect one of the reference paper requires members to maintain appropriate measures for the purpose of preventing major suppliers from engaging in or continuing anti competitive practices new entrants argue that such practices include not giving competitors access to facilities essential to market entry such as the local loop the question has not been settled before a wto judicial body and at any rate these obligations only apply where the respective wto member has committed itself to open its basic telecommunications market to competition about eight zero mostly developed members have done so since one nine nine eight references oecd developments in local loop unbundling eu telecommunications liberalization framework telephony broadband leda a suburb of perth western australia leda a moon of jupiter three eight leda is an asteroid leda queen of sparta from greek mythology a river in germ |
any tributary of the ems see leda river leda is also a multiparadigm programming language align left atmospheric pressure zero kpa lysithea lye sith ee or l sith ee greek is a moon of jupiter it was discovered by seth barnes nicholson in one nine three eight at mount wilson observatory and is named after the mythological lysithea daughter of oceanus and one of zeus lovers lysithea did not receive its present name until one nine seven five before then it was simply known as jupiter x it was sometimes called demeter it belongs to the himalia group five moons orbiting between one one and one three gm from jupiter at an inclination of about two seven five external links seth b nicholson two new satellites of jupiter pasp five zero one nine three eight two nine two two nine three himalia lysithea elara jupiter s moons leda and the swan copy after a lost original by michelangelo one of the iconic images of one six th century mannerism the motif of leda and the swan from greek mythology in which the greek god zeus c |
ame to leda in the form of a swan was rarely seen in gothic art but resurfaced as a classicizing theme with erotic overtones in italian painting and sculpture of the one six th century the most familiar examples are the copies of leonardo da vinci s lost painting with the two sets of infant twins correggio s elaborate composition of c one five three zero berlin and two versions of a lost michelangelo illustration right that is also known from an engraving by cornelis de bos c one five six three the marble sculpture by bartolomeo ammanati in the bargello florence and the painting after michelangelo c one five three zero in the national gallery london the michelangelo composition is a definitive example of mannerism leda and the swan furnished a common motif for the rapidly unfolding visual arts into the one nine th century leda and the swan is a poem by william butler yeats first published in one nine two four reviving what had become an insipid classical clich by combining psychological realism with a mystic |
vision it describes the swan s mating with leda who became the mother of two sets of twins important in greek mythology castor and pollux also known as gemini and helen of troy and her sister clytemnestra the faithless wife of agamemnon a sudden blow the great wings beating still above the staggering girl her thighs caressed by the dark webs her nape caught in his bill he holds her helpless breast upon his breast how can those terrified vague fingers push the feathered glory from her loosening thighs and how can body laid in that white rush but feel the strange heart beating where it lies a shudder in the loins engenders there the broken wall the burning roof and tower one and agamemnon dead being so caught up so mastered by the brute blood of the air did she put on his knowledge with his power before the indifferent beak could let her drop one was this the face that launched a thousand ships and burnt the topless towers of ilium christopher marlowe doctor faustus both helen and clytemnestra were leda s daugh |
ters external links yeats leda and the swan an image s coming of age irish poems greek mythology ladino is a romance language derived mainly from old castilian spanish and hebrew speakers are currently almost exclusively sephardic jews although historically there have also been ashkenazi speakers for example in thessaloniki and istanbul the relationship of ladino to castilian spanish is comparable to that of yiddish to german name of language the name ladino is a variant of latin the language is also called jud o spanish sefardi dzhudezmo judezmo and spanyol haquit a from the arabic haka tell refers to the dialect of north africa especially morocco the dialect of the oran area of algeria was called tetuani after the moroccan town t touan since many oranais jews came from this city in hebrew the language is called spanyolit according to the ethnologue the name dzhudezmo is used by jewish linguists judeo espanyol by turkish jews judeo spanish by romance philologists ladino by laymen especially in israel hakitia |
by moroccan jews spanyol by some others authors like haim vidal sephiha reserve ladino for a very hebraicized form used in religious translations as in the ferrara bible like old spanish ladino keeps the and palatal phonemes both changed to in modern spanish but unlike old spanish it has an phoneme taken over from hebrew in some places it has also developed certain characteristic usages such as muestro for nuestro our the structure is linguistically related to spanish with the addition of many terms from the hebrew portuguese french turkish greek and south slavic languages depending on where the speakers resided orthography today ladino is most commonly written with the latin alphabet especially in turkey however it is still sometimes written in the hebrew alphabet especially in rashi characters a practice that was very common possibly almost universal until the one nine th century and called aljamiado by analogy with arabic usage although the greek and cyrillic alphabets have been employed in the past this |
is rare nowadays following the decimation of sephardic communities throughout much of europe particularly in the netherlands and the balkans during the holocaust the greatest proportion of speakers remaining were turkish jews as a result the turkish variant of the latin alphabet is widely used for publications in ladino the israeli autoridad nasionala del ladino promotes another spelling there are also those who with iacob m hass n claim that ladino should adopt the orthography of the standard spanish language perhaps more conservative and less popular others along with pablo carvajal vald s suggest that ladino should adopt the orthography used during the time of the jewish expulsion of one four nine two from spain the orthography of that time has standardized and eventually changed by a series of reforms it was finally changed by an orthographic reform in the one eight th century ladino has retained some of the pronunciation that at the time of reforms had become archaic in standard spanish adopting one five |
th century orthography for ladino would bring back into existence the s originally ts c before e and i and z cedilla such in ca a which was a letter of spanish origin the s ss such as in passo and the x like in dixo the original pronunciation of g before e or i and j mujer would be reestablished and the z originally dz z would remain in ladino words like fazer and dezir the z s in between vowels like in casa would regain its pronunciation under this orthography as well like in modern spanish in ladino the z s is also present before m d and others like in mesmo or desde the distinctive ladino s like in buscar cosquillas mascar pescar or after is endings like in s is favl is or sois could be reflected through writing by the x the difference between b and v would be clearer thus some concessions to latin spelling as in the case of the reflex of intervocalic b eg latin debet post one eight zero zero spanish debe will return to its old castilian deve spelling the use of the digraphs ch ph and th today k f and t i |
n standard spanish respectively formally reformed in one eight zero three would be in used in words like orthograph a theolog a latin q before words like quando quanto and qual would also be used some argue that using old castilian orthography will only distance non hispanic characteristics about ladino and create problems that phonetical systems solve nevertheless classical and golden age spanish literature would gain renewed interest better appreciation and understanding should its orthography be used again history during the middle ages jews were instrumental in the development of castilian into a prestige language in the toledo school of translators erudite jews translated arabic and hebrew works often translated earlier from greek into castilian and christians translated again into latin for transmission to europe until recent times the language was widely spoken throughout the balkans turkey the middle east and north africa having been brought there by jewish refugees fleeing spain following the expulsi |
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