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nd early two zero th centuries and the communist party of the united states of america in the one nine three zero s made some inroads while many american liberals might be social democrats in european terms very few of them openly embrace the term left in the united states the term is mainly embraced by new left activists certain portions of the labor movement and people who see their intellectual or political heritage as descending from one nine th century socialist movements the new left refers to radical left wing movements from the one nine six zero s onwards who claimed to be breaking with some institutions and traditions of the left where earlier left wing movements were generally rooted in labour activism the new left generally adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly called social activism the new left has had varying degrees of unity since its rise in the one nine six zero s losing some of its initial radicalism and mainly existing as loose coalitions of numerous distinct movements |
including but not limited to feminists greens some labour unions some atheists some gay rights activists and some minority ethnic and racially oriented civil rights groups many greens deny that green politics is on the left nonetheless their economic policies can generally be considered left wing and when they have formed political coalitions most notably in germany but also in local governments elsewhere it has almost always been with groups that would generally be classified as being on the left left wing issues the left has historically opposed the concentration of wealth and power especially in an institutionalized form in the hands of those who have traditionally controlled them as such the left often works to create or support equality in the state outside the united states which lacked an historical ruling class or nobility this often included at the most basic level demands for democratisation of the political system and land reform in agricultural areas with the spread of the industrial revolution l |
eft wing politics became concerned with the conditions and rights of large numbers of workers in factories and of lower classes in general partial or full socialism the welfare state or trade unionism have been specific ways in which some leftists have tried to advance the interests of the poor in modern times the left also criticized what it perceives as the exploitative nature of globalization through the rise of sweatshops and the race to the bottom and has sought to promote fair trade as civil and human rights gained more attention during the twentieth century the left allied itself with advocates of racial and gender equality and cultural tolerance it has also been opposed to some forms of aggressive nationalism such as imperialism and offensive war which have been seen as a vehicle to advance the interests of capitalism although specific means of achieving these ends are not agreed upon by different left wing groups almost all those on the left agree that some form of government or social intervention i |
n economics is necessary to advance the interests of the poor and middle class advocacy of government or social intervention in the market puts those on the left at odds with advocates of the free market as well as corporations who oppose democratic control of the markets but not necessarily all control if they see their interests threatened many on the left describe themselves as progressive a term that arose from their self identification as the side of social progress left wing positions on social issues such as opposition to social hierarchy and authority over moral behaviour strict adherence to tradition and monoculturalism may make them allies with right wing advocates of individual freedom though their solutions are very different the above strands of left wing thought come in many forms and individuals who support some of the objectives of one of the above stands will not necessarily support all of the others at the level of practical political policy there are endless variations in the means that lef |
t wing thinkers advocate to achieve their basic aims and they sometimes argue with each other as much as with the right communism and left wing politics despite the important differences from other left wing ideologies the communism of the ussr and china is almost universally considered to be a part of the left this is somewhat parallel to the customary inclusion of fascism and in particular that of nazi germany and fascist italy in the right nonetheless communism differs significantly from other politics that are usually classified as left wing and most left wingers even many far left groups reject any association with it on the grounds that communism is too totalitarian to be politically humane or egalitarian the argument that communism should be viewed independently of the conventional left right spectrum has perhaps been made by karl popper through his development of the concept of totalitarianism there are however many communists most notably trotskyists and council communists who regard the totalitarian |
ism of the former soviet union to be the result of stalinism and its betrayals of genuine communist ideology likewise most right wingers including many nationalists reject any association with nazism and fascism some say that leftist welfare state reforms in many non communist countries such as the establishment of social security and recognition of labour unions helped to stave off communism by alleviating the excesses of capitalism hence protecting and preserving social support for capitalism the soviet union in the days of the soviet union left wing movements worldwide had different relationships with moscow line communist parties ranging from enthusiastic support to outright opposition lincoln steffens in one nine one nine said of having visited the soviet union i have seen the future and it works while others increasingly numerous over the years loathed the perceived crimes of those regimes and denounced them at every turn throughout the history of the soviet union the large social democratic parties of |
western europe were largely opposed to what they saw as its totalitarianism a large majority of members of the british labour party the west german spd and the french socialists were never supportive of the soviet regime and nor were their respective leaderships the american democratic party took a strong anti soviet stand especially at the height of the cold war one example of an internal dispute within communism is that most trotskyists adhere to some variant of leon trotsky s view of the post lenin soviet union as a degenerated workers state and denounce stalin as a traitor some even claiming that the soviet union was actually a kind of monopoly capitalist state others such as the american activist hal draper argued that the ussr was neither capitalist nor socialist but bureaucratic collectivist large segments of the left never took inspiration from the soviet model and actually rejoiced to see the ussr s system collapse as michael albert of z magazine put it one down one to go referring to stalinism and c |
apitalism china in recent decades china has undergone a transition from a communist state to what is in many ways a right wing authoritarian regime chinese neo left wing politics embracing postmodernism and chinese nationalism and opposed both to democracy and to what they see as a return of china to the capitalist world arose as a political idea during the mid one nine nine zero s neo left wing politics is seen as being more appealing to students in mainland china today than liberalism as problems faced in mainland china during its modernisation such as inequality and the widening gap between the rich and the poor are becoming more serious the left and postmodernism as barbara epstein notes many people inside and outside the world of postmodernism and for that matter inside and outside the left have come to equate postmodernism with the left while some postmodernists such as francis fukuyama are widely identified with the right most postmodernists would describe themselves as on the left postmodernism is far |
from being widely accepted within left wing political movements it has been most widely accepted amongst left wing academics left wing postmodernism claims to reject attempts at universal explanatory theories such as marxism deriding them as grand narratives it tends to embrace culture and ideology as the battle grounds for change rejecting traditional ways of organising such as political parties and trade unions instead it focuses on critiquing or deconstructing existing society critiques from within the left left wing critics of postmodernism generally see it as a reaction of the failure of socialist movements of the one nine six zero s both in europe and latin america and the usa and the disillusionment with the old communist parties they claim that disconnected from any mass movements and pessimistic about the possibility for any mass activism these academics justified their retreat into cultural studies courses by inflating the importance of culture through denying the existence of an independent realit |
y the sokal affair probably the most famous critique of postmodernism from within the left came in the form of a one nine nine six prank by physicist and self described leftist alan sokal concerned about what he saw as the increasing prevalence on the left of a particular kind of nonsense and sloppy thinking that denies the existence of objective realities or downplays their practical relevance sokal composed a nonsensical article entitled transgressing the boundaries toward a transformative hermeneutics of quantum gravity in which a mix of mis stated and mis used terms from physics postmodernism literary analysis and political theory are used to claim that physical reality and especially gravitation do not objectively exist but are psychologically and politically constructed the journal social text published the paper in its spring summer one nine nine six issue whereupon sokal publically revealed his hoax while some saw sokal as attacking leftism in general he was very clear that this was intended as a crit |
ique from within politically i m angered because most though not all of this silliness is emanating from the self proclaimed left we re witnessing here a profound historical volte face for most of the past two centuries the left has been identified with science and against obscurantism epistemic relativism betrays this worthy heritage and undermines the already fragile prospects for progressive social critique theorizing about the social construction of reality won t help us find an effective treatment for aids or devise strategies for preventing global warming nor can we combat false ideas in history sociology economics and politics if we reject the notions of truth and falsity the results of my little experiment demonstrate at the very least that some fashionable sectors of the american academic left have been getting intellectually lazy critiques from the right right wing critics have generally seen acceptance of post modernism as an indication of the poorly thought out fashionable nature of the academic l |
eft some right wing critics mirror the idea that left wing postmodernism is a product of the failure of marxism to bring liberation for example gary jason claims that the failure of socialism both empirically and theoretically brought about a crisis of faith among socialists and postmodernism is their response the left and darwinism the left s relationship with darwinism has historically been congenial on the scientific front with the exception of stalin s support of trofim lysenko s lamarckian views it has been hostile on the philosophical front because the left was resisting various non scientific right wing political theories using evolutionary language such as social darwinism in one eight seven five friedrich engels wrote a letter to pyotr lavrov saying i accept the theory of evolution but darwin s method of proof struggle for life natural selection i consider only a first provisional imperfect expression of a newly discovered fact the interaction of bodies in nature inanimate as well as animate includes |
both harmony and collision struggle and cooperation when therefore a self styled natural scientist takes the liberty of reducing the whole of historical development with all its wealth and variety to the one sided and meager phrase struggle for existence a phrase which even in the sphere of nature can be accepted only cum grano salis such a procedure really contains its own condemnation the left and war historically various groups on the left have been either enthusiastic supporters or high profile opponents of various wars while anti war movements have never been exclusively left wing they have generally been led inspired and organised by those on the left while some on the left are inspired by pacifism most left wing opposition to war arises from anti imperialism which leads them to reject specific wars because they see them as being in capitalist interests rather than being morally against all violence left wing opposition to war is also often characterised by the internationalist belief that the world s |
workers share common interests with one another rather than with the powers governing their respective countries first and second world wars until the first world war there was broad agreement among those on the left on opposition to imperialist wars few left wingers supported their nation in conflicts such as the boer wars the first world war triggered fierce debate among socialist groups as to the right response to take the second world war was generally seen as an anti fascist war and thus supported it however some groups saw it as in the interests of capitalism and thus opposed it these debates about positions on war co incided with debates about wider political strategy crudely the debate between revolutionary socialism and social democracy part of the driving force of the russian revolution was revolt by soldiers against the first world war epitomised in the slogan taken up by the bolsheviks bread land and peace spanish civil war the spanish civil war was seen by many on the left as an important fight b |
etween fascism and democracy in response to the outbreak of war many people joined the international brigades or other left wing militias organized by trade unions or political parties others campaigned for the democratic countries to impose arms embargoes and to work through the league of nations to stop the war vietnam and the post september one one anti war movements the next large anti war movement that involved the western left was the vietnam war it triggered much opposition beyond the ranks of the left and is generally thought of as part of a growing counter culture movement which took up many different left wing issues the american led wars in afghanistan and iraq which came in the wake of the september one one two zero zero one attacks led to new anti war movements forming though various social democratic political parties such as tony blair s labour party supported and sent their countries troops to participate in these wars seeing them as appropriate responses to the terrorist threat much of the or |
ganised left particularly the socialist left opposed these wars this opposition was generally based to a large extent on their perception of the wars as imperialist commonly claiming that oil and control of the middle east were their goals rather than liberation some criticism has been levelled at various left wing groups for forming anti war coalitions with organisations that are presented as being conservative or fundamentalist islamists the general response has been to claim that such characterisations of all muslim groups as extremists are racist and that broad united fronts are positive there has also been some controversy over the left s use of the palestine issue in an anti war context the anti war movement was generally seen as re invigorating left wing movements though there was a large current on the french left especially within attac that saw them as detracting from the economic issues of the anti globalisation movement in the u s much of the left wing radicalisation was channelled into anybody bu |
t bush campaigns which effectively meant supported the pro war centrist democratic party in the u k anti war feeling lead to a drop in support for the pro war labour party and gains for the liberal democrats some of the left wing groups that had been involved in the anti war movement sought to harness the increase in popular radicalism through the setting up of a new political party called respect the left and anti globalisation the anti globalisation movement also known as the global justice movement or alter globalization movement is a collection of social movements which are prominent in protests against global trade agreements and the negative consequences they perceive them to have for the poor for the environment and for peace it is generally characterised as left wing though some activists within it reject association with the traditional left likewise some within the left reject it being left certainly it is concerned with what are generally thought of as left wing issues wing issues from the right th |
e anti globalisation movement is often caricatured as an attempt by far left groups to repackage themselves and it might also be regarded as existing within a broader set of anti capitalist movements and philosophies political parties on the left depending on the political viewpoint of the categoriser different groups might be categorized as on the left one might generally characterize parties as on the political left in their respective countries though even then they might have relatively little in common with other left wing groups beyond their opposition to the right however even this can cause issues for example the democratic leadership council an organization of centrists affiliated with the democratic party in which former president bill clinton was active is generally considered to be the right wing of the u s democratic party notes revolutions in the east michael albert and robin hahnel z magazine date postmodernism and the left barbara epstein new politics vol six no two new series whole no two two |
winter one nine nine seven postmodernism and the left barbara epstein new politics vol six no two new series whole no two two winter one nine nine seven postmodernism commodity fetishism and hegemony n stor kohan international socialism issue one zero five chomsky on postmodernism noam chomsky z magazine s left on line bulletin board a physicist experiments with cultural studies alan sokal transgressing the boundaries towards a transformative hermeneutics of quantum gravity alan sokal first published in social text issule four six four seven one nine nine six a physicist experiments with cultural studies alan sokal socialism s last bastion gary jason liberty engels to pyotr lavrov in london marx engels correspondence one eight seven five marx engels internet archive two zero zero zero unfading commitment simon jeffery the guardian february one five two zero zero five see also left wing ideologies communism socialism anarchism marxism democratic socialism left communism libertarian socialism post left anarchy |
progressivism social democracy social liberalism syndicalism left wing issues egalitarianism environmentalism labour movement democracy trade unionism secularism new left liberal elite the left and war related political topics new social movements political spectrum discusses various writers views of the usefulness or not of the left right dichotomy and of alternative spectra right wing politics left right politics discusses the range of various writers meanings when they use the terms left and right in a political context christian socialism external links reference sites us progressive candidates of two zero zero four progressive candidates running for house and senate races in two zero zero four the marxists internet archive a free online marxist library the political compass an alternate view of the political spectrum the official website of the socialist international industrial workers of the world leftist parties of the world list of present day leftist parties and organizations of the world with link |
s to their websites politics luther s seal lutheranism is a christian tradition committed to the main theological insights of martin luther it is numerically the third largest single christian movement with an estimated eight two six million people belonging to the various congregations bodies and churches which call themselves lutheran luther s insights are generally held to have been a major foundation of the protestant movement the relationship between lutheranism and the protestant tradition is however ambiguous some lutherans consider lutheranism to be outside the protestant tradition while most see it as part of this tradition as the evangelical lutheran church in canada states it we derive our teachings from the holy scriptures and confess the three ecumenical creeds of the christian church we hold to orthodox catholic theology as enunciated in the ecumenical councils of the first five centuries of christianity history of lutheranism early history lutheranism as a movement traces its origin to the work |
of martin luther a german priest and religious scholar who sought to reform the practices of the roman catholic church in the early one six th century the symbolic beginning of the reformation occurred on october three one one five one seven which lutherans and other protestants regard as reformation day when doctor luther posted an open invitation to debate his nine five theses concerning the teaching and practice of indulgences within the church between one five one seven and one five two zero luther preached and published his criticisms of the catholic church in books and pamphlets his ideas were supported by many other christian theologians and they also had a certain populist appeal as a result luther gained many supporters and followers from all levels of society from peasants who considered him a folk hero to knights who swore to protect him to rulers of german lands who wanted more independence from papal interference in their domestic policies luther also gained some powerful enemies including the p |
ope in rome and the youthful holy roman emperor charles v concerned about the problem of luther the pope and roman officials decided to send representatives to luther to discuss his concerns and to persuade him to retract his challenges to papal authority the effort was largely unsuccessful luther continued to discover new areas in need of reform finally the papal bull called the exsurge domine was issued in one five two zero calling on luther to condemn and abandon his ideas luther replied by burning the bull and volumes of canon law in a bonfire at wittenberg finally a new bull excommunicating luther and those who agreed with him was issued charles v wanted to outlaw the now excommunicated luther and his followers but he was warned by advisors that doing so outright would cause a revolt since luther had become so popular more importantly the ruler of luther s land elector frederick the wise refused to allow any of his subjects to be condemned without trial so instead luther was to be summoned to appear befo |
re the diet of worms luther went to worms but when called upon by imperial and papal officials to retract his ideas luther replied i cannot submit my faith either to the pope or to the councils because it is clear as day they have frequently erred and contradicted each other unless therefore i am convinced by the testimony of scripture and plain reason i cannot and will not retract martin luther april one six one five two one luther had been granted a safe conduct to travel to and from his trial but remembering how a similar promise had been violated in the case of jan hus luther s supporters prevailed upon him to escape from worms in the dark of night before he too could be seized and executed luther remained in hiding for some time all the while continuing to write and develop his ideas shortly after luther escaped charles v issued the edict of worms which outlawed luther and his followers declared luther and his followers heretics and banned luther s writings religious war what had started as a strictly th |
eological and academic debate had now turned into something of a social and political conflict as well pitting luther his german allies and northern european supporters against charles v france the italian pope their territories and other allies the conflict would erupt into a religious war after luther s death fueled by the political climate of the holy roman empire and strong personalities on both sides in one five two six at the first diet of speyer it was decided that until a general council could meet and settle the theological issues raised by martin luther the edict of worms would not be enforced and each prince could decide if lutheran teachings and worship would be allowed in his territories in one five two nine at the second diet of speyer the decision the previous diet of speyer was reversed despite the strong protests of the lutheran princes free cities and some zwinglian territories these states quickly became known as protestants at first this term protestant was used politically for the states |
that resisted the edict of worms over time however this term came to be used for the religious movements that opposed the roman catholic tradition in the sixteenth century lutheranism would become known as a separate movement after the one five three zero diet of augsburg which was convened by charles v to try to stop the growing protestant movement at the diet philipp melanchthon presented a written summary of lutheran beliefs called the augsburg confession several of the german princes and later kings and princes of other countries signed the document to define lutheran territories these princes would ally to create the schmalkaldic league in one five three one which lead to the schmalkald war that pitted the lutheran princes of the schmalkaldic league against the catholic forces of charles v after the conclusion of the schmalkald war charles v attempted to impose catholic religious doctrine on the territories that he had defeated however the lutheran movement was far from defeated in one five seven seven t |
he next generation of lutheran theologians gathered the work of the previous generation to define the doctrine of the persisting lutheran church this document is known as the formula of concord in one five eight zero it was published with the augsburg confession the apology of the augsburg confession the large and small catechisms of martin luther the schmalcald articles and the treatise on the power and primacy of the pope together they were distributed in a volume titled the confessions of the evangelical lutheran church this book is still used today and is referred to as the book of concord results of the lutheran reformation luther and his followers began a large exodus from the roman catholic church known as the protestant reformation in the years and decades following luther s posting of the nine five theses on the door of the wittenberg church large numbers of europeans left the roman church including the majority of german speakers the only german speaking areas where the population remained mostly in |
the catholic church were those under the domain or influence of catholic austria and bavaria or the electoral archbishops of mainz cologne and trier because luther sparked this mass movement he is known as the father of the protestant reformation and the father of protestantism in general today approximately one out every four christians in the world is a protestant and one out of every five protestants in the world is a lutheran thus approximately one out of every two zero christians in the world is a lutheran lutheran doctrine the holy scripture and the lutheran confessions the formal principle of lutheranism and one of the signature teachings of the lutheran reformation is the teaching named sola scriptura scripture alone lutherans believe that the bible is divinely inspired and is the final authority for all matters of faith and doctrine lutherans also hold that the holy scripture is explained and interpreted by the book of concord a series of confessions of faith composed by lutherans in the one six th |
century traditionally lutheran pastors congregations and church bodies agree to teach in harmony with the book of concord because it teaches and faithfully explains the word of god for this reason lutherans who follow the book of concord closely especially conservative lutherans often refer to themselves as confessional lutherans other lutherans who agree with the main teachings of the lutheran confessions but may take exception to some of its doctrine subscribe to the book of concord in so far as they are in harmony with holy scripture a few lutheran church bodies also teach biblical inerrancy the lutheran church missouri synod has long been one such body but has been increasingly nonuniform in many such teachings in the midst of political turmoil since the final decades of the two zero th century others adopt the viewpoint that the bible contains god s word but is essentially a human document subject to error in non spiritual matters those who hold to the former reject modern liberal scholarship while those |
that hold to the latter embrace it central doctrines the material principle of lutheranism is the lutheran doctrine of justification that is salvation by god s grace alone sola gratia through faith alone sola fide for the sake of christ s merit alone solus christus lutherans believe god made the world humanity included perfect holy and sinless however adam and eve chose to disobey god trusting in their own strength knowledge and wisdom because of this original sin the sin from which all other sins come all descendents of adam and eve thus all humans are born in sin and are sinners for lutherans original sin could be characterized as the chief sin a root and fountainhead of all actual sins formula of concord lutherans teach that sinners cannot do anything i e good works to satisfy god s justice every human thought and deed is colored by sin and sinful motives god has intervened in this world because he loves sinners and does not want them to be eternally damned and by his grace alone his free gift of mercy a |
person is forgiven adopted as a child of god and given eternal salvation for this reason lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the eternal sacrifice made manifest in the birth perfect life of obedience sufferings death and resurrection of jesus christ in the person of jesus christ lutherans believe god and man meet because he is god he is sinless and so a worthy sacrifice without spot or blemish because he is a man he could die in his death death is destroyed in an ultimate sense our debt paid and our sins forgiven lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation by faith alone a full and complete trust in god s promises to forgive and to save even faith itself is seen as a gift of god created in the hearts of christians by the work of the holy spirit when they hear god s word proclaimed and when they are baptized lutherans believe that all who trust in jesus alone can be sure of their salvation for it is in christ s work and his promises in which their surety lies they t |
each that at death christians are immediately taken into the presence of god in heaven where they await the resurrection of the body at the second coming of christ although lutherans believe good works do not satisfy god s justice this is not to say that good works play no role in the christian life good works always and in every instance spring spontaneously from true faith and have their true origin in god not in the fallen human heart or in human striving their complete absence would demonstrate that faith too is absent a substantial milestone was reached in ecumenical relations in one nine nine nine when the lutheran world federation and the roman catholic church were able to issue a joint declaration on the doctrine of justification essentially adopting the old catholic position of justification by grace through faith working by love together we confess by grace alone in faith in christ s saving work and not because of any merit on our part we are accepted by god and receive the holy spirit who renews ou |
r hearts while equipping and calling us to good works with the whole christian community lutherans believe that there is one god existing in three persons see trinity lutherans historically taught and confessed the distinction between law and gospel single predestination god chose to save his children before the world was created but does not predestine the lost to be damned unlike calvin who explained how the reprobate come to be damned double predestination luther said it was a mystery something which humanity cannot and probably should not try to comprehend infant baptism baptismal regeneration the real presence of christ s body and blood in with and under the forms of bread and wine in the lord s supper amillennialism at the close of the two zero th century especially in the us many lutherans are confusing and blending all of the aforementioned doctrines with those of many other creeds the distinctions are muddled as the historical sola scriptura of the lutheran heritage is being abandoned influences from |
the megachurches of american evangelicalism eg hybels becoming a contagious christian from willow creek and warren s purpose driven life from saddleback church have displaced lutheran theology in some lutheran congregations for an overview of lutheran theology see elca perspective braaten carl e principles of lutheran theology philadelphia fortress press one nine eight three lcms historical perspective pieper franz christian dogmatics three volumes saint louis mo concordia publishing house one nine five zero one nine five seven lutheran religious practices lutherans generally place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services music forms a large part of a traditional lutheran service lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales and luther himself composed hymns and hymn tunes the most famous of which is a mighty fortress is our god ein feste burg ist unser gott lutheran hymnody is reputed for its doctrinal didactic and musical riches many lutheran churches are active musically with choirs ha |
nd bell choirs children s choirs and sometimes carillon societies to ring bells in a bell tower johann sebastian bach a devout lutheran composed music for the lutheran church lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the eucharist holy communion or the lord s supper is considered the central act of christian worship martin luther wrote we do not abolish the mass but religiously keep and defend it among us the mass is celebrated every lord s day and on other festivals when the sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it after they have been examined and absolved we also keep traditional liturgical forms such as the order of readings prayers vestments and other similar things apology of the augsburg confession article xxiv one many lutheran churches since the one nine nine zero s also hold contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelical outreach some of these include folk masses jazz masses and variations on the techno cosmic mass however many such contemporary worship ser |
vices are a hotly debated offshoot of what is sometimes known as the church growth movement in these cases marketing approaches are adopted to cater to the unchurched by addressing perceived needs rather than emphasizing those historically taught and confessed in the scriptures pastors in such parishes are criticized as focusing less on teaching and preaching and more on administration lay people and pastors whose convictions are slow to adopt such practices have complained of feeling shunned and dismissed in both cases the rich hymnody which is characteristic of the lutheran heritage is usually foregone in such services in favor of contemporary praise music catechism especially children s is considered fundamental in most lutheran churches almost all maintain sunday schools and many host or maintain private nursery schools primary schools regional high schools and universities some lutheran pastors and staff are repeatedly reminded that most evangelism occurs within the church with children life long cateche |
sis since martin luther s day was intended for all ages so that the abuses of the church of that day would not reoccur reference prefaces to luther s large and small catechisms with the emphasis on proper life long catechesis the lutheran church has a heritage rich in theology and doctrine pastors usually teach in the common language of the parish in the u s some congregations and synods traditionally taught in german or norwegian but this custom has been in significant decline since the early middle two zero th century pastors almost always have substantial theological educations including greek and hebrew so that they can refer directly to the canonical christian scriptures in the original language lutheran pastors may marry and have families lutheran churches in the united states use a number of hymnals the most widely uses are christian worship wels the lutheran book of worship elca and elcic the lutheran hymnal lcms wels however these rules are currently under study the lcms is divided into three five di |
stricts including two non geographical districts it permits only qualified men to serve as pastors it encourages women to be active in the church and has affirmed women s suffrage within congregations since one nine six nine in two zero zero four resolution three zero eight a in its synodical convention permitted women to serve in humanly established offices such as congregation president elder reader or usher the lcms does not permit active homosexuals to serve in the ministry and it has affirmed an exclusively heterosexual definition of marriage officially the lcms only communes members of its own synodical congregations or those who are in fellowship with the lcms there are unfortunate internal struggles within the lcms but this in turn is prompting a new reformation within that body the vast majority of lcms congregations are doctinally very conservative so the political divisions can t be accurately classified as conservative and liberal they might be better defined as traditionalists who believe in a tr |
aditional approach to worship and to sharing conservative doctrine and progressives who embrace cultural relevance in worship style and or mission outreach with conservative doctrine notable influences in the recent internal transformations of the lcms include the official lcms ablaze movement jesus first day star and voices vision renewal in missouri and the pastoral leadership institute pli the wels is also divided into districts as with the lcms it permits only qualified men to serve as pastors and adopts similar positions on homosexuality and marriage wels does not support women s suffrage in the church wels teaches the unit concept of fellowship strict adherence to this requires members to refrain from all worship including prayer with those not in fellowship with wels one historic difference between the elca and the lcms that can be seen today are the ethnic origins of both synods the synods that merged into the elca came from a mix of german scandinavian and baltic congregations while the lcms has a pr |
imarily german background in canada the elcic is divided into five synods and is in full communion with the anglican church of canada the lcc based out of winnipeg manitoba is divided into three districts and maintains strong ties to the lcms there are at least two zero smaller lutheran denominations in the u s with many of them being cultural or doctrinal offshoots of the main three inter denomination relations u s denominations differ on doctrine and practice doctrinally the differences are primarily based on the degree of authority denominations place on the written text of scripture the elca subscribes to the historical critical method of scripture interpretation which attempts to interpret the text while taking account of the historical cultural and scientific limitations or biases imposed by the original writers many members of the elca believe that such criticism represents the best efforts of modern scholarship the lcms and wels still largely follow the traditional historical grammatical method of int |
erpreting the scripture text which seeks to understand the text as it is written within the context of history culture and language many members of these denominations believe this approach best reflects the original meaning of the text a detailed discussion of differences between the denominations can be found at their respective pages elca lcms wels as a result of doctrinal differences cooperation between different denominations varies there is collaboration on some forms of outreach for example lutheran world relief in worship practice however the conservative denominations typically practice closed communion limiting celebration of the eucharist lord s supper to those within their own denominations out of concern for doctrinal differences lutheran publishers english language publishers of books on luther and lutheran theology concordia publishing house lcms augsburg fortress and fortress press elca northwestern publishing house wels church of the lutheran confession bookhouse clc openbook publishers luthe |
ran church of australia ambassador publications aflc repristination press emmanuel press american lutheran publicity bureau modern lutheranism in europe lutheranism is the state religion in most of the nordic countries norway denmark finland and iceland in these countries the churches are supported directly by taxes the church tax an income tax of about one two is collected only from the members of the church but the church also gets its share from other taxes such as the municipal corporation tax priests are educated at the faculties of theology of the state universities with the extension of the european union the status of state churches is largely revised they remain a state church but win greater autonomy in sweden lutheranism was the state religion up until two zero zero zero the church is no longer supported by taxes but the fees are collected along with taxes in the midst of the church of sweden s constitution of two zero zero zero different traditional and biblical movements continued dissension from |
the political bondage to the state notable personalities in the conflict include the first bishop of the missions province the right reverend arne olsson and the bishop of the evangelical church of kenya the right reverend walter obare lutheranism is also prominent in estonia and latvia members of the predominant churches in germany whether lutheran reformed or catholic are also required by the state to pay a church tax in addition to their normal income tax certain parts of germany are traditionally lutheran generally towards the north and east while others are historically catholic especially bavaria and areas along the rhine modern mobility and a decrease in religiosity have however been instrumental in shifting the demographic situation as did the movements of german refugees from areas lost to poland and russia as a result of world war ii there are smaller notable confessionally lutheran denominations in europe that are neither state religions nor supported by fees associated with taxes they are support |
ed by parishioners tithings though the practice has been mostly lost in recent european generations examples include the evangelical lutheran church of england elce and the glise vang lique luth rienne synode de france et de belgique elc sfb both of which are international lutheran council ilc members notably the larger state affiliated european churches have relatively low attending memberships at the offices due to the history of those european churches most parts of them knew persecution during the one seven th and one eight th centuries the church attendance on sunday is not decisive and house offices are still perennial particularly in southern europe most people feel it is more important to attend to the lot of conference and training and biblical studies so in northern europe many attend religious services only for baptisms confirmations weddings funerals and possibly at christmas and easter confirmation is treated seriously and is usually delayed until the end of the high school courses the lutheran c |
onfirmation training usually constitutes the largest exposure of northern europeans to christian doctrines in one nine nine three the lutheran churches of the nordic and baltic states entered into a full communion agreement the porvoo common statement with the anglican churches of europe and the british isles to form the porvoo communion the north american lutheran and anglican churches in full communion with each other are also in full communion with the porvoo communion as anglicans are in full communion with the old catholic churches of the utrecht union that union began negotiations in two zero zero five with the church of sweden on entering into a full communion agreement with the lutherans in other european areas such as spain the presence of lutherans was extinguished during the one six th century inquisition in spain new lutheran missions activities started as recently as two zero zero zero by missionaries from the evangelical lutheran church of argentina iela recently the lutheran church in the kingd |
om of the netherlands merged with two reformed churches the nederlandse hervormde kerk and the gereformeerde kerken creating the two zero zero zero zero zero zero strong protestant church of the netherlands the pkn claims to be both reformed and lutheran and is a member of both the warc and the lutheran world federation the lutheran congregations in the netherlands have remained largely autonomous except in northern europe see above very few seminaries are state supported due to large agreements like the concorde de leuenberg one nine six two involving many churches raising from the reformation the training for students in theology embraces a wide range of theologies including modern and contemporary movements in biblical criticism and theology many major seaports contain the outposts of the respective nordic lutheran churches e g norwegian and finnish to provide aid social opportunities and pastoral care for visiting seamen in their own language lutherans in australia at present two zero zero five around nin |
e of the australian population call themselves lutherans most lutherans in australia are members of congregations that form the synod lutheran church of australia lca at present the lutheran church of australia has elected only to be an associate member of the two large world wide lutheran fellowships lwf and ilc more conservative groups of australian lutherans exist as the evangelical lutheran congregations of the reformation elcr and the australian evangelical lutheran church most lutherans in australia live in rural areas although this is changing a popular myth shared amongst lutherans in australia is that their church fathers came to australia to escape religious prosecution in prussia in one eight three nine early history of the church shows much diversity which resulted in many splits and the formation of many small lutheran synods throughout australia lutherans are most prominate in south australia queensland and victoria after many years of discussion in one nine six six the two main synods and there |
fore most lutheran congregations joined together to form the lutheran church of australia international bodies the three largest international lutheran bodies are the lutheran world federation lwf of which the elca is a member the international lutheran council ilc of which the lcms and the lcc are members and the confessional evangelical lutheran conference celc of which the wels and els are members the lutheran world federation supports the activities of lutheran world relief a relief and development agency active in more than five zero countries these three communions together consist of about two zero zero church bodies in about eight zero nations examples of the lwf include lutheran church of taiwan and the taiwan lutheran church examples of the ilc include china evangelical lutheran church and the lutheran church hong kong synod many smaller lutheran churches exist throughout the world non affiliated with the large lwf ilc and celc such as those affiliated with the clc especially active in east africa a |
nd india and those affiliated with the church of the lutheran brethren which are especially active elsewhere in asia see also list of lutherans neo lutheranism external links famous lutherans lutheranism reformation protestantism los angeles class attack submarine uss greeneville off the coast of honolulu hawaii class overview class typeattack submarine class namein honor of los angeles california preceded bychronologically benjamin franklin class ballistic missile submarineuss narwhal uss glenard p lipscombby type sturgeon class attack submarine succeded bychronologically ohio class ballistic missile submarineby type seawolf class attack submarine ships of the class see the list below for the all ships of the los angeles class the los angeles class attack submarines ssn are the most numerous class of nuclear powered submarines built by any nation and form the bulk of the u s attack submarine force as of two zero zero four they were preceded by the sturgeon class and followed by the seawolf class named after |
us cities the class broke a long standing navy tradition of naming attack submarines after sea creatures la class submarines are extremely fast they are publicly acknowledged as being faster than two five knots four six km h two nine mph and it is widely believed that they can exceed three five knots six five km h four zero mph under good conditions they carry about two five torpedo tube launched weapons any boat of this class may launch a tomahawk cruise missile from its horizontal torpedo tubes the last three one boats of this class have one two vertical launch tubes specifically for this purpose the final two three boats in the series referred to as six eight eight i are even quieter incorporate an advanced combat system and are configured for under ice operations with diving planes on the bow and a reinforced sail the navy is phasing out older non vertical launch system vls los angeles class attack submarines in favor of the virginia class attack submarines specifications builders gd electric boat and new |
port news shipbuilding displacement six nine two seven tons submerged length three six zero ft one one zero m beam three three ft one zero m draft three two ft nine seven m armament four x two one in five three three mm forward torpedo tubes on ssns seven one nine seven two five and seven five zero seven seven three one two vertical launch system tubes propulsion s six g reactor speed two five knots four six km h submerged depth greater than eight zero zero ft two four zero m complement one four zero boats homeported at the naval submarine base groton connecticut uss philadelphia ssn six nine zero uss memphis ssn six nine one uss dallas ssn seven zero zero uss augusta ssn seven one zero uss pittsburgh ssn seven two zero uss san juan ssn seven five one uss miami ssn seven five five uss alexandria ssn seven five seven uss annapolis ssn seven six zero uss springfield ssn seven six one uss hartford ssn seven six eight uss toledo ssn seven six nine homeported at the naval submarine base norfolk virginia uss jackso |
nville ssn six nine nine uss minneapolis saint paul ssn seven zero eight uss hyman g rickover ssn seven zero nine uss norfolk ssn seven one four uss oklahoma city ssn seven two three uss newport news ssn seven five zero uss albany ssn seven five three uss scranton ssn seven five six uss boise ssn seven six four uss montpelier ssn seven six five uss hampton ssn seven six seven homeported at the naval submarine base pearl harbor hawaii uss los angeles ssn six eight eight uss la jolla ssn seven zero one uss buffalo ssn seven one five uss olympia ssn seven one seven uss honolulu ssn seven one eight uss chicago ssn seven two one uss key west ssn seven two two uss louisville ssn seven two four uss pasadena ssn seven five two uss columbus ssn seven six two uss santa fe ssn seven six three uss charlotte ssn seven six six uss tucson ssn seven seven zero uss columbia ssn seven seven one uss greeneville ssn seven seven two uss cheyenne ssn seven seven three homeported at the naval shipyard portsmouth new hampshire uss p |
rovidence ssn seven one nine uss albuquerque ssn seven zero six homeported at the naval submarine base san diego california uss helena ssn seven two five uss topeka ssn seven five four uss asheville ssn seven five eight uss jefferson city ssn seven five nine uss dolphin agss five five five homeported at naval forces marianas apra harbor guam uss houston ssn seven one three uss san francisco ssn seven one one uss city of corpus christi ssn seven zero five stricken to be disposed of by submarine recycling uss omaha ssn six nine two uss cincinnati ssn six nine three uss groton ssn six nine four uss birmingham ssn six nine five uss new york city ssn six nine six uss indianapolis ssn six nine seven uss phoenix ssn seven zero two uss baltimore ssn seven zero four uss portsmouth ssn seven zero seven uss atlanta ssn seven one two disposed of by submarine recycling uss baton rouge ssn six eight nine uss boston ssn seven zero three further information globalsecurity org ssn six eight eight los angeles class role of the |
modern submarine world war ii submarine veterans oral history project submarine classes los angeles class submarines lucretia death of lucretia by sandro botticelli lucretia is a mythical figure in the history of the roman republic according to livy s version of the establishment of the republic the last king of rome lucius tarquinius superbus superbus the proud had a violent son sextus tarquinius who raped a roman noblewoman named lucretia lucretia compelled her family to take action by gathering the men telling them what happened and killing herself they then were forced to avenge her and led an uprising that drove the tarquins out of rome to take refuge in etruria the result was the replacement of the monarchy with the new roman republic among the avengers were her husband collatinus who was a nephew of tarquinius priscus and one of the first consuls of rome along with brutus lucretia is also the title of a song by the heavy metal band megadeth on their album rust in peace the song refers to a witch or gh |
ost that the song s narrator sneaks into his attic to visit doing so quietly at night so he won t arouse suspicions about his sanity see also the rape of lucrece a poem by william shakespeare the rape of lucretia an opera by benjamin britten le viol de lucr ce a play by andr obey external links the rape of lucretia by livy lyrics to rust in peace along with quotes and interpretations roman mythology in computer networking the lightweight directory access protocol or ldap is a networking protocol for querying and modifying directory services running over tcp ip an ldap directory usually follows the x five zero zero model it is a tree of entries each of which consists of a set of named attributes with values while some services use a more complicated forest model the vast majority use a simple starting point for their database organization an ldap directory often reflects various political geographic and or organizational boundaries depending on the model chosen ldap deployments today tend to use domain name sy |
stem dns names for structuring the most simple levels of the hierarchy further into the directory might appear entries representing people organizational units printers documents groups of people or anything else which represents a given tree entry or multiple entries its current version is ldapv three as defined in rfc three three seven seven origin and influences ldap was originally intended to be a lightweight alternative protocol for accessing x five zero zero directory services x five zero zero directory services were traditionally accessed via the x five zero zero directory access protocol which required the cumbersome open systems interconnection osi protocol stack with ldap a client could access these directory services through a ldap to dap gateway dap being the x five zero zero directory access protocol the gateway would translate ldap requests to dap requests and dap responses to ldap this model of directory access was borrowed from dixie and the directory assistance service standalone ldap directo |
ry servers soon followed as did directory servers supporting both dap and ldap the former has become popular in enterprises as they removed any need to deploy an osi network today x five zero zero directory protocols including dap can be also used directly over tcp ip the protocol was originally created by tim howes of the university of michigan steve kille of isode and wengyik yeong of performance systems international further development has been done via the internet engineering task force ietf it is noted that in the early engineering stages of ldap it was known as lightweight directory browsing protocol or ldbp it was renamed as the scope of the protocol was expanded to not only include directory browsing functions e g search but also directory update functions e g modify ldap has influenced subsequent internet protocols including later versions of x five zero zero xml enabled directory xed directory services markup language dsml service provisioning markup language spml and the service location protocol |
slp protocol overview a client starts an ldap session by connecting to an ldap server by default on tcp port three eight nine the client then sends operation requests to the server and the server sends responses in return with some exceptions the client need not wait for a response before sending the next request and the server may then send the responses in any order the basic operations are in order bind authenticate and specify ldap protocol version start tls protect the connection with transport layer security tls to have a more secure connection search search for and or retrieve directory entries compare test if a named entry contains a given attribute value add a new entry delete an entry modify an entry modify dn move or rename an entry abandon abort a previous request extended operation generic operation used to define other operations unbind close the connection not the inverse of bind in addition the server may send unsolicited notifications that are not responses to any request e g before it times |
out a connection ldap is defined in terms of asn one and protocol messages are encoded in the binary format ber it uses textual representations for a number of asn one fields types however directory structure the protocol accesses ldap directories which follow the x five zero zero model a directory is a tree of directory entries an entry consists of a set of attributes an attribute has a name an attribute type or attribute description and one or more values the attributes are defined in a schema see below each entry has an unambiguous name its distinguished name dn this consists of its relative distinguished name rdn constructed from some attribute s in the entry followed by the parent entry s dn think of the dn as a full filename or a database index value and the rdn as a relative filename in a folder an entry can look like this when represented in ldif format ldap itself is a binary protocol dn cn john doe dc example dc com cn john doe givenname john sn doe telephonenumber one five five five six seven eigh |
t nine telephonenumber one five five five one two three four mail john example com manager cn barbara doe dc example dc com objectclass inetorgperson objectclass organizationalperson objectclass person objectclass top dn is the name of the entry it s not an attribute nor part of the entry cn john doe is the entry s rdn and dc example dc com is the dn of the parent entry the other lines show the attributes in the entry attribute names are typically mnemonic strings like cn for common name dc for domain component and mail for e mail address a server holds a subtree starting from a specific entry e g dc example dc com and its children servers may also hold references to other servers so an attempt to access ou some department dc example dc com could return a referral or continuation reference to a server which holds that part of the directory tree the client can then contact the other server some servers also support chaining which means the server contacts the other server and returns the results to the client |
ldap rarely defines any ordering the server may return the values in an attribute the attributes in an entry and the entries found by a search operation in any order operations the client gives each request a positive message id and the server response has the same message id the response includes a numeric result code indicating success some error condition or some other special cases before the response the server may send other messages with other result data for example each entry found by the search operation is returned in such a message bind authenticate the bind operation authenticates the client to the server simple bind sends the user s dn and password in cleartext so the connection should be protected using transport layer security tls the server typically checks the password against the userpassword attribute in the named entry anonymous bind with empty dn and password resets the connection to anonymous state sasl simple authentication and security layer bind provides authentication services throu |
gh a wide range of mechanisms e g kerberos or the client certificate sent with tls bind also sets the ldap protocol version normally clients should use ldapv three which is the default in the protocol but not always in ldap libraries start tls the start tls operation establishes transport layer security the descendant of ssl on the connection that can provide data confidentiality protection hide the data and or data integrity protection protect from tampering during tls negotiation the server sends its x five zero nine certificate to prove its identity the client may also send a certificate to prove its identity after doing so the client may then use sasl external to have this identity used in determining the identity used in making ldap authorization decisions servers also often support the non standard ldaps secure ldap commonly known as ldap over ssl protocol on a separate port by default six three six the ldaps differs from ldap in two ways one upon connect the client and server establish tls before any l |
dap messages are transferred without a start tls operation and two the ldaps connection must be closed upon tls closure search and compare the search operation is used to both search for and read entries its parameters are baseobject the dn distinguished name of the entry at which to start the search scope baseobject search just the named entry typically used to read one entry singlelevel entries immediately below the base dn or wholesubtree the entire subtree starting at the base dn filter how to examine each entry in the scope e g the bind operation itself is that with the anonymous bind option clients can abort a session by simply closing the connection but they should use unbind otherwise the server cannot tell the difference between a failed network connection and a discourteous client ldap urls an ldap url format exists which clients support in varying degree and which servers return in referrals and continuation references ldap host port dn attributes scope filter extensions where most components after |
ldap can be omitted scope can be base the default one or sub attributes is a comma separated list of attributes to retrieve extensions are extensions to the ldap url format as in other urls special characters must be escaped with hex format there is a similar non standard ldaps url scheme for ldap over ssl for example ldap ldap example com cn john two zero doe dc example dc com refers to all user attributes in john doe s entry in ldap example com ldap dc example dc com sub givenname john searches for him in the default server schema the contents of the entries in a subtree is governed by a schema the schema defines the attribute types that directory entries can contain an attribute definition includes a syntax and most non binary values in ldapv three use utf eight string syntax for example a mail attribute might contain the value user example com a jpegphoto attribute would contain photograph s in binary jpeg jfif format a member attribute contains the dns of other directory entries attribute definitions al |
so include whether the attribute is single valued or multi valued how to search compare the attribute e g case sensitive vs case insensitive and whether substring matching is supported etc the schema defines object classes each entry must have an objectclass attribute containing named classes defined in the schema they describe what kind of object an entry represents e g a person organization or domain they also say which attributes the entry may contain and which ones it must contain the schema also includes various other information controlling directory entries most schema elements have a name and a globally unique object identifier oid server administrators can define their own schemas in addition to the standard ones schemas for representing individual people within organizations are termed white pages schema variations a lot of the server operation is left to the implementor or administrator to decide accordingly servers may be set up to support a wide variety of scenarios for example data storage in th |
e server is not specified the server may use flat files databases or just be a gateway to some other server access control is not standardized though there has been work on it and there are commonly used models users passwords may be stored in their entries or elsewhere the server may refuse to perform operations when it wishes and impose various limits most parts of ldap are extensible examples one can define new operations controls may modify requests and responses e g to request sorted search results new search scopes and bind methods can be defined attributes can have options that may modify their semantics extensions should be defined so that implementations which do not recognize them can handle them gracefully but this is not always done still a lot of work has been done since ldap was invented to improve interoperability between different implementations other data models as ldap has gained momentum vendors have provided it as an access protocol to other services the implementation then recasts the da |
ta to mimic the ldap x five zero zero model but how closely this model is followed varies for example there is software to access sql databases through ldap even though ldap does not readily lend itself to this x five zero zero servers may support ldap as well similarly data which were previously held in other types of data stores are sometimes moved to ldap directories for example unix user and group information can be stored in ldap and accessed via pam and nss modules ldap is often used by other services for authentication terminology beware the ldap terminology one can encounter is quite a mess some of this is due to misunderstandings other examples are due to its historical origins others arise when used with non x five zero zero services that use different terminology for example ldap is sometimes used to refer to the protocol other times to the protocol and the data a ldap directory may be the data or also the access point an attribute may be the attribute type or the contents of an attribute in a dire |
ctory or an attribute description an attribute type with options an anonymous and an unauthenticated bind are different bind methods that both produce anonymous authentication state so both terms are being used for both variants the uid attribute should hold user names rather than numeric user ids supporting vendors ldap has gained wide support from vendors such as apache through apache directory server apple through open directory openldap at abstract syntax notation one asn one specification of basic notation one nine nine four basic encoding rules ber itu t rec x six nine zero specification of asn one encoding rules basic canonical and distinguished encoding rules one nine nine four rfc two two four six the tls protocol version one zero rfc two two two two simple authentication and security layer sasl sasl mechanisms registered at iana see also ldap data interchange format ldap application program interface directory service x five zero zero transport layer security tls simple authentication and security l |
ayer sasl external links paldap a lazy directory administrator s pal a fairly new ldap wiki linux ldap howto ldap articles links whitepapers ldap software tools ldap irc channel in the freenode irc network ldap v three revision ldapbis working group https www one ietf org mailman listinfo ldapext ldapext ldap extension mailing list originally created for an ietf working group the list is archived at gmane rfcs ldap is defined by a series of request for comments documents rfc two two five one ldapv three the specification of the ldap on the wire protocol rfc two two five two ldapv three attribute syntax definitions rfc two two five three ldapv three utf eight string representation of distinguished names rfc two two five four ldapv three the string representation of ldap search filters rfc two two five five ldapv three the ldap url format rfc two two five six ldapv three a summary of the x five zero zero nine six user schema for use with ldapv three rfc two eight two nine ldapv three authentication methods for |
ldap rfc two eight three zero ldapv three extension for transport layer security rfc three three seven seven ldapv three technical specification ldap extensions and usages rfc one eight two three ldap api in c rfc two two four seven use of dns domains in distinguished names rfc two three zero seven using ldap as a network information service rfc two seven nine eight inetorgperson ldap object class rfc two eight four nine the ldap data interchange format ldif rfc two eight nine one server side sorting of search results rfc three zero six two ldap password modify extended operation rfc three two nine six named subordinate references in ldap directories rfc three three eight three internet assigned numbers authority iana considerations for the lightweight directory access protocol ldap rfc three eight six six language tags and ranges in ldap rfc three nine zero nine ldap cancel operation chaining documentation at openldap not yet defined in an rfc historical rfc one four eight seven x five zero zero lightweight |
directory access protocol one nine nine three first ldapv two rfc one six one seven naming and structuring guidelines for x five zero zero directory pilots one nine nine four rfc one seven seven seven lightweight directory access protocol one nine nine five revised ldapv two internet protocols internet standards the linux mascot tux created by larry ewing the linux kernel is a free software unix like operating system kernel that was begun by linus torvalds in one nine nine one and subsequently improved with the assistance of developers around the world it was originally developed for the intel eight zero three eight six processor but has since been ported to many other platforms it is written almost entirely in c with some gnu c language extensions along with snippets of assembly language in the gnu assembler s at t style syntax developed under the gnu general public license linux is free software the kernel is best known as the core of gnu linux operating systems distributions of software based on this kerne |
l are technically called gnu linux distributions although they are more often referred to simply as linux distributions history the project was launched in one nine nine one with a famous post to the usenet newsgroup comp os minix that includes this sentence i m doing a free operating system just a hobby won t be big and professional like gnu for three eight six four eight six at clones at the time the gnu project had created many of the components required for a free operating system but its own kernel the gnu hurd was incomplete and unavailable the bsd operating system had not yet freed itself from legal encumbrances this left a space for the linux kernel to fill and despite the limited functionality of the early versions it rapidly accumulated developers and users early on minix hackers contributed code and ideas to the linux kernel and today it has received contributions from thousands of programmers originally linux was only the name of the kernel the term kernel properly refers to the low level system s |
oftware that provides a hardware abstraction layer disk and filesystem control multi tasking load balancing networking and security enforcement a kernel is not a complete operating system as the term is usually understood a complete system built around the linux kernel is commonly known as the linux operating system although some prefer to call the system gnu linux and there is some controversy on the point people often confuse the kernel with the operating system leading to many mistaken notions e g the idea that torvalds wrote or coordinates other parts of the system than the kernel timeline apr one nine nine one linus torvalds then two one starts working on some simple ideas for an operating system he starts with a task switcher in three eight six assembly and a terminal driver two five august one nine nine one linus posts to comp os minix i m doing a free operating system just a hobby won t be big and professional like gnu for three eight six four eight six at clones this has been brewing since april and |
is starting to get ready i d like any feedback on things people like dislike in minix as my os resembles it somewhat same physical layout of the file system due to practical reasons among other things i ve currently ported bash one zero eight and gcc one four zero and things seem to work this implies that i ll get something practical within a few months yes it s free of any minix code and it has a multi threaded fs it is not portable uses three eight six task switching etc and it probably never will support anything other than at harddisks as that s all i have it s mostly in c but most people wouldn t call what i write c it uses every conceivable feature of the three eight six i could find as it was also a project to teach me about the three eight six as already mentioned it uses a mmu for both paging not to disk yet and segmentation it s the segmentation that makes it really three eight six dependent every task has a six four mb segment for code c files specifically mm c are almost as much assembler as c unl |
ike minix i also happen to like interrupts so interrupts are handled without trying to hide the reason behind them september one nine nine one linux version zero zero one is released one zero two three nine lines of code october one nine nine one linux version zero zero two is released december one nine nine one linux zero one one is released this version is the first that is self hosted that is you can compile linux zero one one under linux zero one one one nine january one nine nine two first post to alt os linux newsgroup three one march one nine nine two the newsgroup comp os linux is created march one nine nine two linux version zero nine five is the first to be capable of running the x window system during the whole of one nine nine three and early one nine nine four one five development versions zero nine nine with zero nine nine one one july one nine nine three introducing bogomips into the kernel one four march one nine nine four linux one zero zero is released one seven six two five zero lines of co |
de march one nine nine five linux one two zero is released three one zero nine five zero lines of code nine may one nine nine six tux the penguin is suggested as mascot for linux nine june one nine nine six linux two zero zero is released seven seven seven nine five six lines of code two five january one nine nine nine linux two two zero is released very buggy at first one eight zero zero eight four seven lines of code one eight december one nine nine nine ibm mainframe patches for two two one three published bringing linux into the biggest enterprises four january two zero zero one linux two four zero is released three three seven seven nine zero two lines of code one seven december two zero zero three linux two six zero is released five nine two nine nine one three lines of code one seven june two zero zero five linux two six one two is released two nine august two zero zero five linux two six one three is released two eight october two zero zero five linux two six one four is released with these changes th |
ree january two zero zero six linux two six one five is released mascot the linux mascot is a penguin named tux created by larry ewing many variants of the tux graphic exist the mascot is a penguin because as torvalds put it linus likes penguins that s it the name tux was suggested to represent t orvalds u ni x and it stuck licensing terms initially torvalds released linux under a license which forbade any commercial exploitation this was soon changed to the gnu general public license gpl this license allows distribution and even sale of possibly modified versions of linux but requires that all those copies be released under the same license and be accompanied by source code torvalds has described licensing linux under the gpl as the best thing i ever did one general question about the application of the gpl to linux involves whether loadable kernel modules are considered derived works under copyright law and thereby fall under the terms of the gpl torvalds has stated his belief that modules using only a limi |
ted public subset of the kernel interfaces can sometimes be non derived works thus allowing some binary only drivers and other modules not obeying the gpl not all kernel contributors agree with this interpretation however and even torvalds agrees that many kernel modules are clearly derived works and indeed he states that kernel modules are derivative by default ultimately such questions can only be resolved by a court currently the linux kernel is licensed under version two of the gpl and there is some controversy over how easily it could be changed to use later gpl versions such as the upcoming version three and whether this is desirable torvalds himself indicated in version two four zero that his own code is only under version two but alan cox pointed out that very few other kernel contributors have specified a particular version of the gpl the terms of the gpl state that if no version is specified then any version may be used linux is a registered trademark of linus torvalds this is the result of an incid |
ent in which william della croce jr who was not involved in the linux project trademarked the name and subsequently demanded royalties for its use several linux backers retained legal counsel and filed suit against della croce who agreed in one nine nine eight to assign the trademark to torvalds litigation in march two zero zero three the sco group sco filed a lawsuit against ibm claiming that ibm had contributed some portions of sco s copyrighted unix source code to the linux kernel project in violation of ibm s license to use that unix source code additionally sco sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of linux without a license from sco may be a violation of copyright law and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual linux users this controversy has generated lawsuits by sco against novell daimlerchrysler partially dismissed in july two zero zero four and autozone and retaliatory lawsuits by red hat and others against sco to date no proof of sco s claims of copied code |
in linux has been provided and sco s claims have varied widely a few of novell s press releases seem to demonstrate serious problems with sco s claims two zero zero three may one five novell statement on sco contract amendment good news for linux users two zero zero three may two eight novell challenges sco position reiterates support for linux two zero zero three may three zero novell statement re sco press conference allegations two zero zero three jun zero six novell statement on sco contract amendment two zero zero three nov one eight novell statement on sco claims regarding a non compete clause in novell sco contracts the most comprehensive coverage of this suit is given by groklaw technical features architecture the linux kernel includes true multitasking virtual memory shared libraries demand loading shared copy on write executables proper memory management and tcp ip networking today linux is a module loading monolithic kernel device drivers and kernel extensions typically run in ring zero with full a |
ccess to the hardware although some run in user space unlike standard monolithic kernels device drivers are easily configured as modules and loaded or unloaded while running the system also unlike standard monolithic kernels device drivers can be pre empted under certain conditions this latter feature was added to handle hardware interrupts correctly and to improve support for symmetric multiprocessing preemption also improves latency increasing responsiveness and making linux more suitable for real time applications the fact that linux is not a microkernel was the topic of a famous flame war between linus torvalds and andy tanenbaum on comp os minix in one nine nine two the complete source code of various versions of the linux kernel can be browsed at http lxr linux no the complete source code of the latest versions of the linux kernel can be downloaded from http www kernel org kernel panic in linux a panic is an unrecoverable system error detected by the kernel as opposed to similar errors detected by user |
space code it is possible for kernel code to indicate such a condition by calling the panic function located in the header file sys system h however most panics are the result of unhandled processor exceptions in kernel code such as references to invalid memory addresses these are typically indicative of a bug somewhere in the call chain leading to the panic they can also indicate a failure of hardware such as a failed ram cell or errors in arithmetic functions in the processor caused by a processor bug or overheating damaged processor programming languages the linux kernel is written in that version of the c programming language which is supported by the gnu gcc compiler which has introduced a number of extensions and changes to standard c together with a number of relatively short sections of code written in the assembly language of the target architecture at last count linux supported about two zero different processor families because of the extensions to c supported by the gcc compiler the gcc was for a |
long time the only compiler capable of correctly building a linux kernel more recently intel claims to have modified its c compiler so that it also is capable of correctly compiling the kernel many other languages are used in some way primarily in connection with the kernel build process the methods whereby the bootable image is created from the sources these include perl python and various shell scripting languages some drivers may also be written in c fortran or other languages but this behavior is strongly discouraged the kernel s build system only officially supports the gcc as a kernel and driver compiler portability while not originally intended as a portable operating system linux is now one of the most widely ported operating system kernels although netbsd has been ported to almost as many architectures running on a diverse range of systems from the ipaq a handheld computer to the ibm system z nine a massive mainframe server that can run hundreds or even thousands of concurrent linux instances linux i |
s intended to run as the main operating system on ibm s new blue gene supercomputer architecture when it is finished linus included perhaps humorously bogomips into the kernel as a performance pseudo comparison tool it is important to note that linus efforts were also directed successfully at a different sort of portability portability according to linus was the ability to easily compile applications from a variety of sources on his system thus linux originally became popular in part because it required the least effort to get popular gpled and other open source applications running linux currently runs on the following machine architectures arm acorn archimedes a five zero zero zero and risc pc series strongarm intel xscale etc hp s ipaq palm stungsten http palmtelinux sf net nintendo s ds ds linux project apple s ipod ipodlinux ipodlinux project axis communications cris fujitsufr v hewlett packard s alpha hewlett packard s pa risc hitachi superh sega dreamcast h eight three zero zero ibm s s three nine zero |
three one bit ibm s zseries and system z nine mainframes six four bit intel eight zero three eight six and up ibm pcs and compatibles with cpus eight zero three eight six eight zero four eight six and their amd cyrix ti and ibm variants the entire pentium series amd five x eight six k five k six athlon all three two bit versions duron sempron amd six four amd s six four bit processor technology formerly known as x eight six six four cyrix five x eight six six x eight six m one six x eight six mx and mediagx national amd geode series via technologies via c three and later processors support for intel eight zero eight six eight zero eight eight eight zero one eight six eight zero one eight eight and eight zero two eight six cpus is under development see elks project microsoft s xbox pentium iii processor see xbox linux sgi visual workstation pentium ii iii processor s with sgi chipset intel ia six four mips silicon graphics inc cobalt qube cobalt raq sony playstation two see ps two linux decstation godson mips |
like several others motorola six eight zero two zero and up newer amigas a one two zero zero a two five zero zero a three zero zero zero a four zero zero zero apple macintosh ii lc quadra centris and early performa series sun microsystems three series workstations experimental uses sun three mmu non sun six eight zero two zero based machines require the motorola six eight eight five one pmmu nec v eight five zero e renesas m three two r powerpc and ibm power most newer apple computers all pci based power macintoshes limited support for the older nubus power macs clones of the pci power mac marketed by power computing umax and motorola amigas upgraded with a power up card such as the blizzard or cyberstorm ibm rs six zero zero zero iseries and pseries systems pegasos i and ii boards nintendo gamecube several other embedded powerpc platforms sparc and ultrasparc sun four series sparcstation sparcserver ultra blade and fire series workstations and servers as well as clones made by tatung and others a complete l |
ist of ports is at linux ports versions further developing his own code and integrating changes made by other programmers linus torvalds keeps releasing new versions of the linux kernel these are called vanilla kernels meaning they have not been modified by anyone many providers of gnu linux operating systems modify the kernels of their product mainly in order to add support for drivers or features which have not officially been released as stable while some distributions such as slackware rely on vanilla kernels version numbering the version number of the linux kernel currently consists of four numbers following a recent change in the long standing policy of a three number versioning scheme for illustration let it be assumed that the version number is composed thus a b c d e g two two one two four one three or two six one two three the a number denotes the kernel version it is changed least frequently and only when major changes in the code and the concept of the kernel occur it has been changed twice in the |
history of the kernel in one nine nine four version one zero and in one nine nine six version two zero the b number denotes the major revision of the kernel even numbers indicate a stable release i e one that is deemed fit for production use such as one two two four or two six odd numbers are development releases such as one one or two five they are for testing new features and drivers until they become sufficiently stable to be included in a stable release the c number indicates the minor revision of the kernel in the old three number versioning scheme this was changed when security patches bugfixes new features or drivers were implemented in the kernel with the new policy however it is only changed when new drivers or features are introduced minor fixes are handled by the d number a d number first occurred when a grave error which required immediate fixing was encountered in two six eight s nfs code however there were not enough other changes to legitimize the release of a new minor revision which would ha |
ve been two six nine so two six eight one was released with the only change being the fix of that error with two six one one this was adopted as the new official versioning policy bug fixes and security patches are now managed by the fourth number whereas bigger changes are only implemented in minor revision changes the c number maintenance while linus torvalds supervises code changes and releases to the latest kernel versions he has delegated the maintenance of older versions to other programmers other linux kernel programmers include robert love and ingo molnar see the linux maintainers file stable version history version one zero of march one nine nine four supported only single processor i three eight six machines version one two of march one nine nine five added support for alpha sparc and mips version two zero of june one nine nine six added support for more processors and included smp support version two two of january one nine nine nine the wonderful world of linux two two version two four zero of jan |
uary two zero zero one cpu support hewlett packard s pa risc processor axis communications etrax cris code reduced instruction set processors added isa plug and play added usb and pc card support two four six added bluetooth support filesystem and data storage added logical volume manager version one lvm support for raid devices two four one five support for intermezzo filesystem were added for more information see article wonderful world of linux two four version two six current december one seven two zero zero three to the present integrated uclinux for microcontrollers cpu support with support for hitachi s h eight three zero zero series the nec v eight five zero and motorola s embedded m six eight k processors numa support support for ncr s voyager architecture support for intel s hyperthreading and pae physical address extension integrated the alsa sound driver os support improved apic support increased the maximum number of users and groups from six five zero zero zero to over four billion increased the |
maximum number of process ids from three two zero zero zero to one billion increased the maximum number of device types major device from two five five to four zero nine five and the maximum number of devices of each type minor device from two five five to more than a million improved six four bit support and filesystems of up to one six terabytes on common hardware improvements to the overall responsiveness for interactive processes the kernel became fully pre emptible and the i o scheduler was rewritten support for futexes a rewrite of threading infrastructure to allow the native posix thread library nptl to be used an improved module loader user mode linux integration two six one one infiniband support storage support lvm updated to version two support for sgi s xfs filesystem a new system filesystem called sysfs destined to relieve procfs of its system related information two six one two one seven june two zero zero five iscsi support two six one three inotify support two six one four fuse support and mo |
re changes the wonderful world of linux two six references torvalds linus diamond david two zero zero one just for fun the story of an accidental revolutionary harperbusiness isbn zero zero six six six two zero seven two four hardcover harperaudio isbn zero six nine four five two five three nine one audio tape abridged ed read by david diamond on the beginnings of the linux kernel nikolai bezroukov portraits of open source pioneers ch four a benevolent dictator softpanorama e book linksys and binary modules lwn net weekly edition october one six two zero zero three revolution os a documentary on the history of linux featuring several interviews with prominent hackers including torvalds external links www kernel org the linux kernel archives the official kernel repository linux kernel howto kernel traffic a summary of the high traffic linux kernel mailing list kerneltrap lwn net kernel page linux kernel source code viewer linux kernel janitor linux device drivers three rd edition understanding the linux kernel |
three rd edition linux the gpl and binary modules the linux documentation project the following are to be merged http web archive org web one nine nine nine zero one one seven zero seven zero five one zero www forbes com forbes nine eight zero eight one zero six two zero three zero nine four a htm http old lwn net two zero zero one features timeline http www nd edu ljordan linux tuxhistory html http www linuxjournal com article php sid six zero zero zero https netfiles uiuc edu rhasan linux linux two six upgrade to two six kernel the wonderful world of linux two six joseph pranevich december two zero zero three understanding the linux two six eight one cpu scheduler josh aas one seven february two zero zero five pages with links to kernel resources linux kernel dmoz org linux kernel google http www linuxlinks com kernel http www topology org soft lkernel html http loll sourceforge net linux links kernel http www linux org dist kernel html kernel newbies org linux kernel developers email list free software li |
nux operating system kernel linux software the software revolution inc design level linux documentation lart can refer to los angeles rapid transit luser attitude readjustment tool jargon file latina may refer to one of the following in the united states the female gender of the noun latino in reference to latin american immigrants and their descendants lingua latina is the autochthonous name for latin the language of the romans province of latina an italian province in the region of latium lazio italy latina a town the capital of the above province of latina etymology latino feminine latina derives from latin the adjectives latinus latina originally referring to latium the area of rome by aitiology derived from a king of the name latinus the term should not be confused with ladino the spanish based language traditionally spoken by sephardic jews or ladin a rhaeto romance language spoken in the italian alps even though the origin for all three names is the same usage in the united states in the united states |
of america the term latino refers loosely to any person of latin american origin living in the u s it is typically contrasted with anglo american and or african american in common speech more widely it is occasionally used to denote anyone who speaks or whose national or ethnic origin is traditionally associated with the languages derived from latin this meaning however is very uncommon in us usage since it is generally thought to refer specifically to latin america and not to latin or latium as is the case elsewhere in a us setting most frequently the term latino is applied exclusively to immigrants from hispanophone countries in north and south america and their descendants this widespread meaning has gone into common usage but remains problematic some define latino as encompassing latin american immigrants in the us only distinct from spanish people us inhabitants originating in countries of the western hemisphere where other languages derived from latin are widespread such as aruba brazil canada or haiti |
where papiamento portuguese french and kreyol are spoken are usually not considered to be latino inhabitants of french guiana and the french west indies for example are typically thought to have more in common culturally with english speaking west indians than they do with residents of mexico and central and south america similarly an immigrant from latin america whose origins are entirely british or other non spanish would most likely be considered latino by the u s census bureau criticism of united states usage the word latino is debated as to whether it is an appropriate label for the people living in the americas outside of the united states and canada controversy surrounds on the usage since it implies a mirroring of europe latin area see latin europe in the americas which never took place aside of portugal and spain latin europe includes many other countries that have no role in latin america moreover in doing so it has excluded millions of indigenous descendants many of whom speak only a native languag |
e that are very much grounded in what is called the americas thus the critique of the word falls on the exclusion of others and or perpetuating a homogeneity of one race in the americas the exclusion falls on the indigenous societies and the seized populations of africa recently mexican descent organizations such as the mexica movement have challenged the legitimacy of the newly introduced term of latino on the grounds of its non applicability to people who are non european since the term latino refers to latin europe and its descendents people of american indigenous descent are necessarily excluded from such a term the heavy promotion of the term latino by european descent cubans in miami onto the much larger mexican population that is non european has fueled sharp critiques of the term as it is currently applied given that approximately one zero of mexico s population continues to speak an indigenous language as its mother tongue the latino moniker is especially problematic the media application of the term |
latino in conjunction with non latino patrimony images such as aztec and mayan pyramids promises to stir debate about an umbrella term encompassing people of separate races and separate civilizations critics further point out that native americans primarily speak english but are never referred to as anglos or as britannic latino they assert is likewise non applicable as an identity to people of indigenous stock full blood and mixed blood in other regions of the same continent further criticism arises from the fact that within latin america most people consider latino to be a cultural rather than a racial term many feel it describes in a general way a contemporary latin american cultural identity which is the result of mixture of diverse cultural and racial roots many latin americans therefore describe themselves as latino in the rest of the world whether they be of indigenous white black east asian or mixed descent see also use of the word american see also afro latino ancient rome asian latino boricua brasi |
l chicano filipino france hispania hispanic hispanic america ibero american isle os italy la raza latin rap latin union list of u s cities with hispanic majority populations lusitanic mexican american mestizo mesti o moors mulatto portugal portuguese portuguese american romania spain spanish spanish american neoconquistador ethnic groups in the united states latin america image map latin america two png area two one zero six nine five zero one sq km population five six zero two eight seven six eight eight countries two zero dependencies four gdp two two six trillion exchange rate languages spanish portuguese french quechua aymara nahuatl mayan languages guaran italian german welsh time zones largest cities mexico city s o paulo buenos aires rio de janeiro caracas bogot latin america see also ibero america and use of the word american is the region of the americas where romance languages derived from latin are officially or primarily spoken alternatively latin america is typically contrasted with anglo america |
where english a germanic language predominates definitions for what comprises latin america may vary from a sociopolitical perspective including only independent countries latin america corresponds roughly to all nations south of the united states including mexico most of central and south america and the countries of the caribbean where spanish portuguese french or related creole languages are spoken other territories where some languages derived from latin such as french papiamento or kreyol predominate e g quebec in canada are frequently not reckoned as parts of latin america sometimes particularly in the united states the term latin america is used to refer to all of the americas south of the u s including countries such as belize guyana jamaica and suriname where languages other than spanish or portuguese prevail geopolitically latin america is divided into two zero independent countries and several dependent territories brazil is by far the largest country in latin america both in area and in populatio |
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