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class suburban county and is now one of the most diverse places in the united states all or parts of one five of new york s two nine congressional districts are located on long island of them only two are represented by republicans peter t king of seaford represents the three rd congressional district which includes most of eastern nassau county and parts of southwestern suffolk county the other vito fossella of the one three th congressional district represents parts of southwest brooklyn though his district is mainly located in staten island the other one three representatives are all democrats crime in two zero zero five forbes magazine listed long island as having two zero four two crimes per one zero zero zero zero zero residents the lowest crime rate and less than half the us average the island is patrolled by the nassau county police department reportedly the second highest paid police force in the country the suffolk county police department the highest paid the new york state troopers and several do |
zen town and village police departments both counties also have a sheriff s office which handles civil process domestic violence as well as running the county jails nassau county sheriff s deputies have full police officer powers and enforce all nys laws including the issuance of vehicle and traffic law summonses suffolk county sheriff s deputies have full police officer powers and a patrol divsion which mainly operates in the eastern part of the county new york city sheriff deputies are peace officers and have no patrol function see list of long island law enforcement agencies transportation the long island rail road long island expressway and northern and southern state parkways the latter three all products of the automobile centered planning of robert moses make east west travel on the island straightforward if not always quick indeed long island expressway is lovingly referred to by locals as the world s longest parking lot the mta long island bus provides bus transportation throughout nassau county and |
the western portions of suffolk county suffolk transit provides bus transportation throughout suffolk county for a less stressful ride one only needs to travel east across long island to the twin forks these two peninsulas offer a long and ambling journey far removed from the hustle and bustle of suburbia further west indeed even after one reaches the end of long island expressway in riverhead it is another four five minute drive along middle country road to reach the eastern end of the north fork at orient point and over an hour along sunrise and montauk highways to reach montauk point at the end of the south fork colleges and universities nassau and suffolk counties are home to numerous colleges and universities including public all are branches of state university of new york stony brook university suny college at old westbury farmingdale state university nassau community college suffolk county community college united states merchant marine academy private adelphi university five towns college briarcliffe |
college dowling college hofstra university katharine gibbs school melville long island university c w post campus long island university southampton college campus sold in two zero zero four to stony brook university molloy college new york institute of technology touro law center watson school of biological sciences webb institute st joseph s college suffolk campus leisure beaches long island has a great deal of beaches coney island in brooklyn the rockaways in queens rockaway beach far rockaway jones beach in nassau county long beach cedar beach sunken meadow state park kings park in suffolk county town of hempstead beaches at point lookout and lido town of north hempstead beaches bar beach and hempstead harbor town of babylon beaches gilgo beach cedar beach and overlook beach town of oyster bay beaches tobay beach robert moses state park smith point county park suffolk county cupsuogue beach suffolk county montauk point state park resort areas fire island national seashore which is a long barrier island o |
ff long island s south shore is a hot spot for tourists especially during the summer the village of ocean beach is the most populous community on fire island there are restrictions on automobile use and the island is not accessible by car except for one small westernly portion requiring passage by one of numerous ferries or other watercraft the hamptons in eastern long island s suffolk county is one of the area s most popular summer destinations parts of the hamptons are well known for being a playground for the rich and are frequented by residents of new york city during the summer months for weekend getaways this has given rise to the terms house in the hamptons or hamptons summer share food both nassau and suffolk county are host to numerous restaurants many of world class prestige as new york is known as a melting pot every kind of restaurant from mexican to hungarian can be found these specialty restaurants are often family owned and are of the highest quality small family owned pizzerias are ubiquitous |
it is not uncommon for a town on long island to have several different pizzerias each with its own distinct flavor corporate pizza companies such as dominos and pizza hut are often utilized to satisfy late night cravings but in general their cheezy circular bread products are not truly considered pizza by locals bagel stores and delis are also extremely common many bagel stores are jewish owned and approved as kosher long island bagels are considered some of the best if not in fact the best in the world at least one and ofen more than one deli can be found in a town sports nassau county is also home to the new york islanders of the national hockey league who play at the nassau coliseum in uniondale belmont park whose main track is the longest dirt thoroughbred racecourse in the world is located in the nassau county community of elmont long island is also home to the long island ducks minor league baseball team of the atlantic league their stadium citibank park is located in central islip the american basketba |
ll association two one st century s strong island sound play home games at colleges in the area the two main rugby teams are the long island rfc in east meadow and the suffolk bull moose in stony brook it also has a professional soccer club the long island rough riders who play at mitchel athletic complex in uniondale the rough riders have won two national championships in one nine nine five and two zero zero two music modern music has a long history on long island as it has long been part of us history and it being close to the largest population center in north america yet located in the suburbs and containing strong influences of youth culture psychedelic music was widely popular in the one nine six zero s as flocks of disaffected youth travelled to nyc to participate in protest and the culture of the time r andre doctor dre brown a native of westbury plied his trade at adelphi university s wbau prior to achieving success on wqht and mtv other famous artists also have roots in long island for example super |
star diva mariah carey was born and raised on long island and billy joel is from hicksville in nassau county joel s debut solo album cold spring harbor was a reference to the long island town of the same name many compositions by billy joel pertain to life on long island particularly his youth songs such as keepin the faith captain jack it s still rock n roll to me where he actually references the miracle mile located on northern boulevard in manhasset and most notably scenes from an italian restaurant which names local eateries and hangouts also the song movin out is a highly identifiable song for islanders it s commiseration of the increasing cost for living on long island has it s protagaonists working too hard just to move up all too familiar to this island s inhabitants the songs no man s land and downeaster alexa lament the increasing development of the island the latter song specifically referring to the eastern island and its effect on the fishing industry the pioneering heavy metal psychedelic rock g |
roup blue yster cult came together around stony brook university releasing hits such as don t fear the reaper astronomy and godzilla both of these artists had genre defining roles in the popular music scene of the one nine six zero s seven zero s and eight zero s also new orleans heavy metal band zebra while not experiencing much success elsewhere become popular on long island during the one nine eight zero s modern music in long island includes indie music which has rapidly grown in popularity especially in suffolk county with the local emo and hardcore punk scene that continues to grow it has been felt nationally by the moderate success of local bands such as quinn taking back sunday brand new straylight run the movielife and from autumn to ashes selling gold albums nationwide many churches and synagogues as well as vfw halls and community centers constantly house underground shows affording cheap entertainment and an underlying sense of scene community ska and pop punk bands also have an impressive followi |
ng with bands like patent pending high school football heroes long since disbanded edna s goldfish and arrogant sons of bitches topping the list of crowd pleasers it is a self serving business so to speak and most bands are known on the island spill over into the northeast regions such as new jersey and connecticut a long island based rock station wbab one zero two three fm plays classic rock music from the one nine six zero s seven zero s and eight zero s garden city based radio station wlir at nine two seven fm was nationally known in the one nine eight zero s and nine zero s for playing new wave bands from europe that were at the time unheard of in the u s many of the bands and songs eventually crossed over to more mainstream radio for example the groups frankie goes to hollywood and the pet shop boys since two zero zero four the station has operated under a spanish language format since being bought out by univision wlir has been reborn at one zero seven one fm but its more easterly location in riverhead |
means many parts of the new york metro area that used to be able to hear it can now only do so via the internet long island is probably along with new brunswick new jersey the biggest emo scene in the united states something that is consistantly hated by almost the entirety of those not participating in it jones beach is an extremely popular place to view summer concerts with new as well as classic artists performing there during the summer months at it s outdoor venue mercator projection of long island demography long island is one of the most densely populated regions in the united states in the two zero zero zero census the population of the nassau suffolk region totalled two seven eight million people the total population of long island including brooklyn and queens was more than eight million it was the first census in which the population of the larger less densely populated suffolk county was greater than that of nassau county while there is more diversity than in most suburban areas of the united stat |
es italians irish and jews make up a major portion of the local population especially in nassau county the town of massapequa has been nicknamed matzoh pizza by many locals reflecting the heavy presence of jews and italians in the town though this pattern is evident in any town within six zero miles of new york city long island has a huge italian american population history long island was shaped by ice age glaciers early colonial figures include wyandanch smith captain william kidd lionel gardner and john underhill the west of long island was settled by the dutch and the east settled by puritans from massachusetts long island was the scene of several witch hunts including one involving lionel gardner in easthampton during the american revolutionary war it was captured by the british early on in the battle of long island and always had a notable loyalist influence it was a british stronghold until the end of the war close ties with england since colonization and even after independence may account for the sim |
ilarities between english accents and the new york accent most notably the non rhotic pronunciation prior to the two zero th century the whole of long island remained outside the boundaries of new york city as the counties of queens kings and suffolk long island itself formerly possessed two incorporated cities the city of brooklyn and the city of long island in queens county now a neighborhood in the borough of queens the name long island city harks back to its former status both along with kings and queens counties were consolidated into greater new york in one eight nine eight kings and queens counties survive as names of court districts portions of queens county which rejected consolidation into new york city formed a separate county thereafter nassau one of several names by which the island was once known was revived to represent the newly established county the separation of brooklyn and queens from long island in popular usage must have begun around this time since the battle of long island the long is |
land rail road and long island city all nowadays in the city all allude to their geographical location on the island long island was the home of several prominent roosevelts such as author robert roosevelt and the summer home of his nephew president theodore roosevelt who made his home at sagamore hill in nassau county long island was also the home of the vanderbilt family immigrants spilling over from new york city have made comfortable lives on long island the immigration waves of southern and eastern europe have been pivotal in creating the diversity on long island that most other american regions lack these immigrations are reflected in the large italian american and jewish american populations in one nine nine six tragedy struck long island as twa flight eight zero zero exploded over water off the coast of the small town of east moriches two three zero people were killed in the disaster a monument to those lost now stands at smith point county park on fire island in suffolk county long island was also hi |
t especially hard by the nine one one attack on the world trade center many people who live on long island commute to manhattan for work on a daily basis also many of the firefighters called in to assist in evacuation efforts or quelling the underground fires that occured after the twin towers fell were from long island see also brooklyn list of famous long islanders nassau county queens suffolk county geography and environment of new york city external links long island wikicities main page links to town info anyone can edit longisland com long island exchange home page detailing everything on and around long island new york long island convention and visitors bureau north fork long island central pine barrens a state designated region on long island protected for its water resources and ecological communities shelter island a community driven website detailing shelter island and the hamptons regions of long island long island families articles news and community for long island long island wineries long isl |
and schools loving long island a passionate look at long island as a travel destination long island scenes a photo gallery notes long island new york places in new york the regions of lower michigan and their major cities are identified on this map michigan s lower peninsula is surrounded by water on all sides except its southern border which it shares with ohio and indiana geographically the lower peninsula has a recognizable shape that many people associate with a mitten this has led to several folkloric creation myths for the area one being that it is a hand print of paul bunyan a giant lumberjack and favorite folk character in michigan this has also led to the distinctive phenomenon of lower peninisula residents holding out their hand and pointing to a spot on it when asked where they are from the lower peninsula is also known to michiganders as the mitten below the bridge and occasionally the l p in parallel with the u p for the upper peninsula it is referred to with more than a little sarcasm as detroit |
by residents of the upper peninsula residents of the lower peninsula are also referred to as trolls because they live below the bridge michigan s lower peninsula can be divided into six main regions based on geological soil and vegetation differences amount of urban areas or rural areas minority populations and agriculture these are northern michigan central or mid michigan the thumb western michigan southern michigan and southeast michigan metro detroit the thumb major cities bad axe bay city saginaw port huron one flint one central michigan mid michigan major cities midland mount pleasant alma ithaca clare attractions central michigan university southeast michigan metro detroit major cities ann arbor dearborn detroit southfield sterling heights troy warren ypsilanti attractions cranbrook educational community detroit institute of arts detroit zoo eastern michigan university greektown the henry ford includes the henry ford museum and greenfield village university of michigan southern michigan major cities a |
lbion charlotte coldwater east lansing hillsdale jackson lansing attractions michigan international speedway michigan state university cascades park state capitol western michigan major cities battle creek kalamazoo benton harbor st joseph holland grand rapids grand haven muskegon attractions kalamazoo air zoo kellogg s cereal city frederik meijer gardens and sculpture park grand valley state university holland state park busiest state park in michigan muskegon air show tulip festival in holland unity christian music festival in muskegon western michigan university northern michigan major cities alpena cadillac charlevoix cheboygan gaylord mackinaw city manistee petoskey traverse city attractions sleeping bear dunes leelanau peninsula mackinac island national cherry festival in traverse city thunder bay national marine sanctuary notes note one port huron and flint are technically within the larger detroit combined metropolitan statistical area but are generally considered part of the thumb region instead geog |
raphy of michigan peninsulas location view of lake toba lake toba is a large lake one zero zero km long and three zero km wide in the middle of the northern part of the indonesian island of sumatra geology in one nine four nine the dutch geologist rein van bemmelen reported that lake toba was surrounded by a layer of ignimbrite rocks and was a large volcanic caldera later researchers found rhyolite ash similar to that in the ignimbrite around toba and now called young toba tuff in malaysia and india three zero zero zero km away oceanographers discovered toba ash on the floor of the eastern indian ocean and the bay of bengal landsat photo of lake toba landsat photo of sumatra surrounding lake toba the toba eruption is dated at seven three zero zero zero four zero zero zero years ago it had a volcanic explosivity index of eight making it the most recent supervolcano sized and probably the largest volcanic eruption within the last two million years a large area collapsed after the ejection of so much subsurface |
material forming a caldera which filled with water creating lake toba later the floor of the caldera uplifted to form samosir a large island in the lake such uplifts are common in very large calderas apparently due to the upward pressure of unerupted magma toba is probably the largest resurgent caldera on earth smaller eruptions have occurred at toba since the small cone of pusukbukit has formed on the southwestern margin of the caldera and lava domes the most recent eruption may have been at tandukbenua on the northwestern caldera edge since the lack of vegetation could be due to an eruption within the last few hundred years in addition some parts of the caldera have experienced uplift due to partial refilling of the magma chamber for example pushing samosir island and the uluan peninsula above the surface of the lake the lake sediments on samosir island show that it has been uplifted by at least four five zero metres since the cataclysmic eruption large earthquakes have occurred more recently notably in one |
nine eight seven along the southern shore of the lake the underwater fault off the west coast of sumatra has had several major earthquakes since one nine nine five including the nine zero two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake and the eight seven two zero zero five sumatra earthquake the epicenters of which were only a mere three two zero km from the lake children playing in lake toba people most of the people who live around lake toba are ethnically bataks traditional batak houses are noted for their distinctive roofs which curve upwards at each end like a boat s hull does and their colorful decor see also toba eruption toba catastrophe theory references external links satellite image on google maps lakes of indonesia vei eight supervolcanoes subduction volcanoes mountains of indonesia volcanoes of sumatra a lens a lens is a device for either concentrating or diverging light usually formed from a piece of shaped glass analogous devices used with other types of electromagnetic radiation are also called l |
enses for instance a microwave lens can be made from paraffin wax history the earliest records of lenses date to ancient greece with aristophanes play the clouds four two four bc mentioning a burning glass a convex lens used to focus the sun s rays to produce fire the writings of pliny the elder two three seven nine also show that burning glasses were known to the roman empire and mentions what is possibly the first use of a corrective lens nero was known to watch the gladiatorial games through a concave shaped emerald presumably to correct for myopia though the reference is vague both pliny and seneca the younger three bc six five described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water the arabian mathematician ibn sahl c nine four zero c one zero zero zero used what is now known as snell s law to calculate the shape of lenses and alhazen abu ali al hasan ibn al haitham nine six five one zero three eight wrote the first major optical treatise which described how the lens in the human eye formed an |
image on the retina recent excavations at the viking harbor town of fr jel gotland in sweden have revealed rock crystal lenses produced at fr jel in the one one th to one two th century via turning on pole lathes have been found that have an imaging quality comparable to that of one nine five zero s aspheric lenses the viking lenses quite effectively concentrate sunlight enough to ignite fires widespread use of lenses did not occur until the invention of spectacles probably in italy in the one two eight zero s lens construction the most common type of lenses are spherical lenses which are formed from surfaces that have spherical curvature that is the front and back surfaces of the lens can be imagined to be part of the surface of two spheres of given radii r one and r two which are called the radius of curvature of each surface sign convention of lens radii r one and r two the signs of the lens radii indicate whether the corresponding surfaces are convex bulging outwards from the lens or concave depressed in |
to the lens the sign convention used to represent this varies but in this article if r one is positive the first surface is convex and if r one is negative the surface is concave if r one is infinite the surface is flat or has zero curvature and is said to be planar the signs are reversed for the back surface of the lens if r two is positive the surface is concave and if r two is negative the surface is convex types of lenses the line joining the centres of the spheres making up the lens surfaces is called the axis of the lens in almost all cases the lens axis passes through the physical centre of the lens lenses are classified by the curvature of these two surfaces a lens is biconvex or just convex if both surfaces are convex likewise a lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave or concave if one of the surfaces is flat the lens is termed plano convex or plano concave depending on the curvature of the other surface a lens with one convex and one concave side is termed convex concave and in this case if both |
curvatures are equal it is a meniscus lens sometimes meniscus lens can refer to any lens of the convex concave type if the lens is biconvex or plano convex a collimated or parallel beam of light travelling parallel to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged or focused to a spot on the axis at a certain distance behind the lens known as the focal length in this case the lens is called a positive or converging lens if the lens is biconcave or plano concave a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is diverged spread the lens is thus called a negative or diverging lens the beam after passing through the lens appears to be emanating from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens the distance from this point to the lens is also known as the focal length although it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens if the lens is convex concave whether it is converging or diverging depends on the relative curvatures of the two surfaces if the curvatures are |
equal a meniscus lens then the beam is neither converged nor diverged lensmaker s equation the value of the focal length f for a particular lens can be calculated from the lensmaker s equation frac left frac one right left frac frac frac right where n is the refractive index of the lens material n is the refractive index of the medium the lens is in r one is the radius of the lens closest to the light source r two is the radius of the lens farthest from the light source and d is the thickness of the lens the distance along the lens axis between the two surfaces refer above to the sign convention associated with r one and r two if d is small compared to r one and r two then the thin lens assumption can be made and f can be estimated as frac left frac one right left frac frac right the focal length f is positive for converging lenses negative for diverging lenses and infinite for meniscus lenses the value one f is known as the optical power of the lens and so meniscus lenses are said to have zero power lens pow |
er is measured in dioptres which have units of inverse meters m one lenses are also reciprocal i e they have the same focal length when light travels from the front to the back as when light goes from the back to the front although other properties of the lens such as the aberration see below are not necessarily the same in both directions imaging properties as mentioned above a positive or converging lens will focus a collimated beam travelling along the lens axis to a spot known as the focal point at a distance f from the lens conversely a point source of light placed at the focal point will be converted into a collimated beam by the lens these two cases are examples of image formation in lenses in the former case an object at an infinite distance as represented by a collimated beam of light is focused to an image at the focal point of the lens in the latter an object at the focal length distance from the lens is imaged at infinity the plane perpendicular to the lens axis situated at a distance f from the l |
ens is called the focal plane if the distances from the object to the lens and from the lens to the image are s one and s two respectively for a lens of negligible thickness they are found by the thin lens formula frac frac frac what this means is that if an object is placed at a distance s one along the axis in front of a positive lens of focal length f a screen placed at a distance s two behind the lens will have an image of the object projected onto it as long as s one f this is the principle behind photography the image in this case is known as a real image note that if s one two becomes negative and the image is apparently positioned on the same side of the lens as the object although this kind of image known as a virtual image cannot be projected on a screen an observer looking through the lens will see the image in its apparent calculated position a magnifying glass creates this kind of image the magnification of the lens is given by m frac frac where m is the magnification factor if m one the image is |
larger than the object notice the sign convention here shows that if m is negative as it is for real images the image is upside down with respect to the object for virtual images m is positive and the image is upright in the special case that s one then s two f and m f zero this corresponds to a collimated beam being focused to a single spot at the focal point the size of the image in this case is not actually zero since diffraction effects place a lower limit on the size of the image see rayleigh criterion the formulas above may also be used for negative diverging lens by using a negative focal length f but for these lenses only virtual images can be formed aberrations lenses do not form perfect images and there is always some degree of distortion or aberration introduced by the lens which causes the image to be an imperfect replica of the object careful design of the lens system for a particular application ensures that the aberration is minimized there are several different types of aberration which can a |
ffect image quality spherical aberration spherical aberration is caused because spherical surfaces are not the ideal shape with which to make a lens but they are by far the simplest shape to which glass can be ground and polished and so are often used spherical aberration causes beams parallel to but away from the lens axis to be focused in a slightly different place than beams close to the axis this manifests itself as a blurring of the image lenses in which closer to ideal non spherical surfaces are used are called aspheric lenses these were formerly complex to make and often extremely expensive although advances in technology have greatly reduced the cost of manufacture for these lenses spherical aberration can be minimised by careful choice of the curvature of the surfaces for a particular application for instance a plano convex lens which is used to focus a collimated beam produces a sharper focal spot when used with the convex side towards the beam coma another type of aberration is coma which derives i |
ts name from the comet like appearance of the aberrated image coma occurs when an object off the optical axis of the lens is imaged where rays pass through the lens at an angle to the axis rays which pass through the centre of the lens of focal length f are focused at a point with distance f tan from the axis rays passing through the outer margins of the lens are focused at different points either further from the axis positive coma or closer to the axis negative coma in general a bundle of parallel rays passing through the lens at a fixed distance from the centre of the lens are focused to a ring shaped image in the focal plane known as a comatic circle the sum of all these circles results in a v shaped or comet like flare as with spherical aberration coma can be minimised and in some cases eliminated by choosing the curvature of the two lens surfaces to match the application lenses in which both spherical aberration and coma are minimised are called bestform lenses chromatic aberration chromatic aberration |
is caused by the dispersion of the lens material the variation of its refractive index n with the wavelength of light since from the formulae above f is dependent on n it follows that different wavelengths of light will be focused to different positions chromatic aberration of a lens is seen as fringes of color around the image it can be minimised by using an achromatic doublet or achromat in which two materials with differing dispersion are bonded together to form a single lens this reduces the amount of chromatic aberration over a certain range of wavelengths though it does not produce perfect correction the use of achromats was an important step in the development of the optical microscope an apochromat is a lens or lens system which has even better correction of chromatic aberration combined with improved correction of spherical aberration apochromats are much more expensive than achromats other kinds of aberration include field curvature barrel and pincushion distortion and astigmatism multiple lenses le |
nses may be combined to form more complex optical systems the simplest case is when lenses are placed in contact if the lenses of focal lengths f one and f two are thin the combined focal length f of the lenses can be calculated from frac frac frac since one f is the power of a lens it can be seen that the powers of thin lenses in contact are additive if two thin lenses are separated by some distance d the distance from the second lens to the focal point of the combined lenses is called the back focal length bfl this is given by mbox frac note that as d tends to zero the value of the bfl tends to the value of f given for thin lenses in contact if the separation distance is equal to the sum of the focal lengths d f one f two the bfl is infinite this corresponds to a pair of lenses that transform a parallel collimated beam into another collimated beam this type of system is called afocal since it produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam two lenses at this separation form the simplest type of optica |
l telescope although the system does not alter the divergence of a collimated beam it does alter the width of the beam the magnification of the telescope is given by m frac which is the ratio of the input beam width to the output beam width note the sign convention a telescope with two convex lenses f one zero f two zero produce a negative magnification indicating an inverted image a convex plus a concave lens f one zero f two produces a positive magnification and the beam is uninverted uses of lenses one important use of lenses is as a prosthetic for the correction of visual impairments such as myopia hyperopia presbyopia and astigmatism see corrective lens contact lens eyeglasses another use is in imaging systems such as a monocular binoculars telescope spotting scope telescopic gun sight theodolite microscope and camera photographic lens a single convex lens mounted in a frame with a handle or stand is a magnifying glass large convex lenses have been used for hundreds of years to light fires by concentrati |
ng the rays of the sun in this use they are commonly called a burning glass such a lens does not need to be optically accurate to work satisfactorily a modern variation of this is in combination with a photovoltaic cell which can work at a higher efficiency when sunlight is concentrated through a lens onto its surface radio astronomy and radar systems often use dielectric lenses commonly called a lens antenna to refract electromagnetic radiation into a collector antenna the square kilometre array radio telescope will employ such lenses to get a collection area nearly three zero times greater than what is currently the largest antenna ever built see also aberration in optical systems bokeh eyepiece f number fresnel lens gradient index lens gravitational lens history of lensmaking lens anatomy lens grinder microscope numerical aperture optical coatings photographic lens prime lens telescope zoom lens references general eugene hecht chapter five optics two nd ed one nine nine zero addison wesley isbn zero two ze |
ro one one one six zero nine x footnotes pliny the elder the natural history trans john bostock book xxxvii chap one zero ibid book xxxvii chap two zero rashed r one nine nine zero a pioneer in anaclastics ibn sahl on burning mirrors and lenses isis eight one four six four four nine one external links lens article at digitalartform com thin lens java applet article on ancient egyptian lenses optical devices lenses samuel john lamorna birch ra rws one eight six nine one nine five five was an artist in oils and watercolours at the suggestion of fellow artist stanhope forbes birch adopted the soubriquet lamorna to distinguish himself from lionel birch also an artist lamorna birch was born in egremont in cheshire he was self taught as an artist other than for a brief period of study at the atelier colarossi in paris during one eight nine five he is thought of as a painter of northern england but his most important period was when he settled in lamorna cornwall in one nine zero two and many of his most famous pict |
ures date from this time and the beautiful lamorna cove is usually their subject matter the nickname lamorna was given to him by the newlyn school artist stanhope forbes to distinguish him from lionel birch who was also working in the area at that time he exhibited at the royal academy from one eight nine two he held his first one man exhibition at the fine art society in one nine zero six he is said to have produced more than two zero zero zero zero pictures the exhibition a charmed circle lamorna birch and his circle of friends was shown at the mezzanine at warrington in two zero zero five this details his links with henry scott tuke and thomas cooper gotch and many others who settled in the artists colony in the one eight eight zero s and one eight nine zero s these painters helped to change the face of british art their emphasis on colour and light truth and social realism brought about a revolution in british art says the catalogue for the show external links penlee house one eight six nine births one ni |
ne five five deaths british painters ldp may mean liberal democratic party for example liberal democratic party japan linux documentation project laserdisc player lockdown project uk band label distribution protocol a routing protocol used in mpls networks livin dead productions labour commonwealth english or labor american english may mean manual labour physical work may or may not be as a profession unfree labour slavery or penal labour labour pool in employment see workforce labour economics one of the three main factors of production labour childbirth the process of childbirth especially the period from the start of uterine contractions to delivery the labour party of any given country organized labour in the form of trade unions the labour movement library of congress reading room the library of congress classification lcc is a system of library classification developed by the library of congress it is used by most research and university libraries in the u s and several other countries most public libra |
ries continue to use the dewey decimal classification ddc it is not to be confused with the library of congress subject headings the classification was originally developed by herbert putnam with the advice of charles ammi cutter in one eight nine seven before he assumed the librarianship of congress it was influenced by cutter expansive classification ddc and was designed for the use by the library of congress the new system replaced a fixed location system developed by thomas jefferson by the time of putnam s departure from his post in one nine three nine all the classes except k law and parts of b philosophy and religion were well developed it has been criticized as lacking a sound theoretical basis many of the classification decisions were driven by the particular practical needs of that library rather than considerations of epistemological elegance although it divides subjects into broad categories it is essentially enumerative in nature the national library of medicine classification system nlm uses unu |
sed letters w and qs qz some libraries use nlm in conjuction with lcc not using lcc s r medicine f history america colspan two g geography anthropology recreation h social sciences j political science k law l education m music and books on music n fine arts p language and literature q science r medicine s agriculture t technology u military science v naval science z bibliography library science information resources general letter classes i o w x and y are not in standard use external links library of congress cataloging home page classification outline how to read lcc call numbers library and information science knowledge representation library of congress library of congress classification classification systems a library classification is a system of coding and organizing library materials books serials audiovisual materials computer files maps manuscripts realia according to their subject a classification consists of tables of subject headings and classification schedules used to assign a class number to |
each item being classified based on that item s subject until the one nine th century most libraries had closed stacks so the library classification only served to organize the subject catalog in the two zero th century libraries opened their stacks to the public and started to shelve the library material itself according to some library classification to simplify subject browsing types there are many standard systems of library classification in use and many more have been proposed over the years these include used in english speaking world library of congress classification lc dewey decimal classification ddc dickinson classification these are the most common in the english speaking world collections in other languages nippon decimal classification ndc these are used for collections in other languages based upon synthesis bliss bibliographic classification colon classification cutter expansive classification universal decimal classification brinkler classification these systems are often considered to be th |
eoretically superior since they make use of the principle of synthesis combining codes from different lists to represent the different attributes of a work which is comparatively lacking in lc or ddc classification there are three main types of classification systems enumerative produce an alphabetical list of subject headings assign numbers to each heading in alphabetical order hierarchical divides subjects hierarchically from most general to most specific faceted or analytico synthetic divides subjects into mutually exclusive orthogonal facets the most common classification systems lc and ddc are essentially enumerative though with some hierarchical and faceted elements especially at the broadest and most general level the first true faceted system was the colon classification of s r ranganathan specialist classification systems have been developed for particular subject areas and some specialist libraries develop their own classification system that emphasises those areas they specialise in an example spec |
ialist classification system for art and iconography is iconclass another example are the medical subject headings devised by the us national library of medicine nlm there are also emerging metadata standards that are being developed for web resources digital images and other specialized materials library classification forms part of the field of library and information science it goes hand in hand with library descriptive cataloging under the rubric of cataloging and classification the library professional who engages in the process of cataloging and classifying library materials is called a cataloger or catalog librarian library and information science knowledge representation lexus lexus is a japanese brand name used by the toyota motor corporation for such export markets as north america middle east europe africa latin america asia and oceania for luxury automobiles the lexus brand lexus was inspired by the success of the toyota supra sports car and the luxury toyota cressida models both the supra and cre |
ssida were rear wheel drive cars with a powerful seven m ge seven m gte engine the first lexus badged models the v eight powered ls four zero zero and the smaller toyota camry based es two five zero appeared in one nine eight nine the lexus marque was launched in the united states in one nine eight nine followed by the uk and australia in one nine nine zero an image consulting firm presented a list of two one nine names from which vectre verone chaparel calibre and alexis were top candidates while alexis quickly became the front runner possibly due to the association with the alexis carrington character on the popular one nine eight zero s primetime drama dynasty and later morphed to lexus the name has been attributed to the combination of the words luxury and elegance according to toyota however the name had no meaning and was just meant to be pleasing and easy to remember just prior to the release of the first vehicles the database service lexisnexis obtained a temporary injunction forbidding the name lexus |
from being used as they stated it might cause confusion upon reflection the court lifted the injunction deciding that there was a low likelihood of confusion between the two products another theory has surfaced claiming that the lexus name was given to the project by toyota in the mid eight zero s as an acronym for luxury export united states hunter communications the agency who designed the l logo and also presented the name to toyota management says lexus was born of the le on the automaker s luxury edition vehicles which created the acronym luxury edition for the united states or leus with the x from luxury added to form lexus the marque was finally introduced to the japanese market on july two six two zero zero five the compact is two five zero is three five zero convertible sc four three zero and midsize gs three five zero gs four three zero will all be available in japan in the two zero zero six model year in some countries like new zealand ireland and the uk where there is a market in grey imports of |
japanese cars some equivalent toyota models have been retro fitted with lexus badges although they still differ from officially imported lexus models lexus directly competes with such luxury brands as the europe s audi bmw jaguar mercedes benz and porsche the american cadillac and lincoln and japanese peers acura and infiniti which started later in the same year lexus ls four zero zero four three zero the flagship ls four zero zero known as the toyota celsior in the japanese domestic market had a unique design sharing no major elements with previous toyota vehicles with a new four zero l v eight engine it was widely praised for its silence well appointed interior fine engine performance outstanding build quality and value in some markets it was priced against mid sized mercedes benz and bmw models while offering size performance and quality comparable to their full size cars it was generally regarded as a major shock to the european marques but was criticized by automobile columnists for anonymous styling and |
a suspension regarded as too compromising of handling for ride comfort nonetheless the ls four zero zero won several major motoring awards when released these attributes have been maintained in subsequent versions of the ls including the ls four three zero and the range has been expanded with other models the toyota windom based es three three zero the small sporty rear drive is two zero zero and is three zero zero based on the japanese domestic market toyota altezza the toyota land cruiser based lx four seven zero suv and the gs models based on the toyota aristo the world s second mass production hybrid suv was a lexus after the ford escape suv in summer two zero zero four the sc three zero zero four zero zero based on japanese domestic market toyota soarer was lexus first coupe that made its way to the united states subsequently the second generation sc four three zero became the first convertible ever to be offered by the company lexus has been the number one selling luxury nameplate in the united states |
for the past five years factories many lexus vehicles are manufactured in the tahara japan plant a highly sophisticated computerized manufacturing plant the north american market rx three three zero since the two zero zero four model year is produced in the city of cambridge in ontario canada and is the first lexus plant located outside of japan service lexus has become known for efforts to project a luxury image even with service provided after the sale the waiting areas in the service departments are complete with such amenities as a refreshment bar business center that is soundproofed and stocked with computers and a fax machine and the service bay is lined with large picture windows to allow the customers to watch the repairs formula one there has been speculation of a lexus f one operation in the near future in line with its expansion into the luxury car markets and increasing competition with bmw and mercedes benz lexus may enter for the two zero zero seven formula one season as an engine supplier to th |
e williamsf one team using toyota engines rebadged as lexus but these rumors are purely speculative the credit card in the united states lexus financial savings bank in conjunction with us bank has launched a lexus pursuits visa card lexus cars is compact rwd awd is two zero zero is three zero zero two zero zero six is two five zero is two five zero awd is three five zero is two two zero d es midsize fwd es two five zero es three zero zero es three three zero gs midsize rwd awd one nine nine three gs three zero zero one nine nine eight gs three zero zero gs four zero zero two zero zero one gs four three zero two zero zero six gs three zero zero gs three zero zero awd gs four three zero gs four five zero h ls full size rwd one nine eight nine ls four zero zero two zero zero one ls four three zero sc coupe coupe convertible rwd one nine nine two sc three zero zero sc four zero zero two zero zero two sc four three zero rx crossover suv rx three zero zero rx three three zero rx four zero zero h hybrid crossover s |
uv gx midsize suv gx four seven zero lx large suv lx four five zero lx four seven zero jx large suv two zero zero seven jx four seven zero lf c concept car lf a concept car external links lexus corporate webpage team lexus webpage official webpage of team lexus a factory backed team competing in the grand american cup road racing series launch of lexus in japan planet lexus pictures and information regarding every lexus model ever made car guys on plural of lexus clublexus lexus enthusiast website lexus magazine website automobile manufacturers lexus prestige vehicles toyota transsexual people are persons who establish a permanent identity with the opposite gender to their birth sex this raises many legal issues and aspects of transsexualism many transsexual people have their bodies permanently changed by surgical means or semi permanently changed by hormonal means see gender reassignment therapy in many countries some of these modifications are required for legal recognition in a few the legal aspects are di |
rectly tied to health care i e the same bodies or doctors decide whether a person can go ahead and the processes following automatically incorporates both matters the degree of legal recognition provided to transsexualism has been varied throughout the world many countries now extend legal recognition to sex reassignment by permitting a change of gender on the birth certificate a sometimes controversial question is the marriage of transsexual people a question to which different jurisdictions have come to different answers issues also arise in areas such as the right to change one s name eligibility to compete in single sex sports and insurance and social security where the benefits available depend on one s sex the amount to which non transsexual transgender people can benefit from the legal recognition given to transsexual people varies in some countries an explicit medical diagnosis of transsexualism is at least formally necessary in others a diagnosis of gender identity disorder or simply the fact that on |
e has established a different gender role can be sufficient for some or all of the legal recognition available europe all western european countries give transsexual people the right to at least change their first name most also provide a way of changing birth certificates several european countries recognize the right of transsexuals to marry in their post operative sex france germany italy the netherlands portugal denmark finland sweden and the united kingdom all recognize this right united kingdom historically in the united kingdom people had succeeded getting their birth certificates changed and marriages conducted however this was not legally tested until the case of corbett vs corbett where arthur corbett attempted to annul his marriage to april ashley on the grounds that transsexuals were not recognised in english law it was decided that for the purposes of marriage a post operative transsexual was to be considered to be of the sex they had at birth this set the precedent for the coming decades people |
who thought they had existing valid marriages turned out not to and the previous unofficial changing of birth certificates was stopped transsexual people were able to change their names freely to get passports and driving licenses altered to have their national insurance details changed and so forth a piece of legislation was also introduced to ban discrimination against transsexual people for employment in the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s the pressure group press for change helped people take several cases to the european court of human rights about this in rees vs united kingdom it was decided in one nine eight six that the uk was not violating rights but that they should keep the situation under review the uk government did nothing to look at the situation and in two zero zero two in the case goodwin vs united kingdom that the right to a privacy and family life were being infringed in response to its obligation parliament passed the gender recognition act two zero zero four which effectiv |
ely grants full legal recognition for transsexual people the first registrations under this act are expected in late two zero zero four or early two zero zero five in contrast to systems elsewhere in the world the gender recognition process will not require applicants to be post operative they need only demonstrate that they have suffered gender dysphoria have lived in the acquired gender for two years and intend to continue doing so until death medical treatment it has been established by the courts that no national health service health authority has the right to deny treatment for gender dysphoria as a matter of policy however effective access to treatment varies wildly depending upon the policies of the individual gender identity clinics with some taking a more relaxed approach than others trans people frequently characterise some centres as arrogant and controlling a minimum requirement of two four months real life experience before a surgical referral is permitted is not uncommon and many gics will forc |
e patients to transition before they are allowed access to hormones many trans people who can afford it instead seek private treatment though most private health insurance plans specifically exclude it often people will seek hormones privately and then later seek surgery on the nhs which may prove troublesome because the nhs likes to be involved at all stages of the process germany the transsexuellengesetz since one nine eight zero germany has a law that regulates the change of first names and legal gender it is called gesetz ber die nderung der vornamen und die feststellung der geschlechtszugeh rigkeit in besonderen f llen tsg law about the change of first name and determination of gender identity in special cases transsexual law tsg in germany as in many countries whose law is at least partly based on the code napoleon the first name has to be gender specific one can either obtain a change of name alone and proceed later with a change of legal gender if possible or desired or obtain both in a single procedu |
re for both two official expert opinions have to be presented to a court stating that a medical diagnosis of transsexualism has been made the person has felt the need of living according to their desires for at least three years and it is unlikely that the feeling of belonging to the other sex gender is going to change any more german does not differentiate between sex and gender the change of name can and almost certainly will be revoked if the person marries and then fathers or gives birth to a child that was conceived after the name change became valid for the change of legal gender it is also required that the person is unmarried permanently infertile and has had surgery through which their outer sexual characteristics are changed to a significant approximation to the appearance of the other sex gender originally the law stated that neither change of name nor legal gender were available for people under two five years of age this condition has been declared void by the courts and today there is no minimum |
age the tsg applies only to german citizens there are exceptions only for non german citizens with very specific legal status such as stateless people living legally in germany unless a person can show that they do not have the money to pay for the procedure the applicant has to pay the costs for the procedure the costs for the court itself are about six zero seven zero euros but the expert opinions can range in cost from zero euros to several thousand euros on average around six zero zero to one two zero zero euros several court decisions have further specified several matters for example a person with only a name change has the right to be called herr or frau mr or mrs according to their first name not their legal gender similarly documents have to be issued reflecting the actual gender role not legal gender job references certifications and similar from the time before the change of name have to be reissued with the new name so effectively there is no way for a new employer to learn about the change of na |
me and or gender also people with only a name change do not have to divulge their legal gender to employers even if the gender of the employee usually matters in a particular job for example a medical assistant to a gynaecologist criticism of the transsexuellengesetz in the last couple of years the tsg has come under intense criticism not only from the trans community but also some medical caregivers this criticism is directed against both the way the law is applied especially concerning the way expert opinions are done and the wording of the law itself particularly the following parts of the tsg are criticised the mandatory diagnosis of transsexualism instead of gender identity disorder or simply granting at least name changes on the basis of individual need the fact that almost only german citizens can obtain papers reflecting the gender role they live in resulting in significant problems for people living in germany who are not german citizens the need for expert opinions see below the proceedings can take |
a very long time especially because of the time that is often needed for the expert opinions but also because courts are often overloaded half a year is a rather fast decision one year or more is not unusual people who have only changed their name have a questionable legal status while most of the time this is perfectly sufficient there are several problems in specific situations a person with only a name change who is in hospital or prison has no right to be accommodated according to the gender role they live in but can be housed according to their legal gender can enter a registered partnership with a person of the same legal gender since two zero zero one but can not marry or enter any kind of legally secured partnership with a person of the opposite legal gender risks their name change when fathering or giving birth to a child the conditions for a change of legal gender are often considered too high the requirement to be unmarried means that people who are married and wish to remain so can not obtain a c |
hange of legal gender how a legal change of gender would affect a registered partnership is currently unknown since registered partnerships only became available since two zero zero one the requirement to be permanently infertile is seen as interfering with the right to physical integrity especially since a simple sterilization is usually not seen as sufficient but castration is required instead the requirement for surgery which is interpreted essentially as a requirement for genital reassignment surgery is seen as interfering with the right to physical integrity this is always applied to transwomen and transmen are only currently exempt because the results are seen as unacceptable this exemption is regularly challenged by judges as has already been mentioned the expert opinions can be very expensive some experts wish to test everything they can think of including intelligence and or every psychiatric disorder they can think of also the sexual history of the clients is of particular interest to some this resu |
lts in assessments which are lengthy several months are not unusual costly and humiliating many experts also consider only those people as transsexual who live in a gender role that the expert considers appropriate resulting in problems for example for transwomen who sometimes do not wear skirts or transmen with hair that is considered too long especially lesbian transwomen and gay transmen suffer from problems with these experts since the courts usually impose the experts on the applicants which is legally at least questionable there is no way to escape these often expensive lengthy and humiliating assessments not every expert who is asked for an expert opinion however will work according such questionable guidelines since there are many regional differences there is a certain amount of trans tourism people at least officially moving to the circuit of courts who are known to appoint liberal or reasonable experts however the general problems with expert opinions have led to demands to abandon these completely |
or at least to lower the required number to one and to lower the formal requirement for it many of this criticism applies also to expert opinions letters of recommendation or similar papers regarding medical procedures the same problems with experts are also experienced in all other countries legal aspects of medical treatment based on several court decisions some dating back to the late one nine seven zero s medical treatment of transsexualism and in fact all gender identity disorders has to be paid by health insurance which is mandatory in germany like all treatments that have to be paid for by health insurance medical necessity has to be shown in each particular case in some cases this can lead to lengthy procedures although this is not always the case however the less medical necessity can be shown the more difficult it gets to get coverage this is particularly true for surgeries like facial feminization surgery but also occasionally for more basic matters as the construction of a neo clitoris the regula |
tion of coverage of medical costs is formally completely unrelated to the tsg in practice there can be overlaps for example with expert opinions africa south africa south african courts have accepted the corbett decision but new zealand courts and more recently an australian court see re kevin validity of marriage of transsexual have rejected it some canadian courts have also accepted the decision though the law in question appears to vary from province to province americas united states the united states law on this issue varies from state to state since the issuance of birth certificates and the recognition of marriages are largely state matters several courts have come to the conclusion that sex reassignments are not to be recognized for the purpose of marriage including courts in ohio texas and new york other courts including courts in kansas and new jersey have recognized the reassignments most u s states permit the name and sex to be changed on a birth certificate either through amending the existing bi |
rth certificate or by issuing a new one but idaho ohio and tennessee refuse to permit a change of sex and florida will not even change the name california will amend birth certificates only for california natives currently living in california however on august two two zero zero three california joined minnesota rhode island and new mexico as well as new york city in expanding legal protection from discrimination to include gender identity or expression which may aid transsexuals in future cases in these jurisdictions u s cases the first case to consider transsexualism in the u s was mtr of anonymous v weiner five zero misc two d three eight zero two seven zero n y s two d three one nine one nine six six in which a post operative transsexual sought from new york city a change of their name and sex on their birth certificate the new york city health department refused to grant the request the person took the case to court but the court ruled that granting of the request was not permitted by the new york city h |
ealth code which only permitted a change of sex on the birth certificate if an error was made recording it at birth in the case of matter of anonymous five seven misc two d eight one three two nine three n y s two d eight three four one nine six eight a similar request was also denied however in that case and in the case of matter of anonymous six four misc two d three zero nine three one four n y s two d six six eight one nine seven zero a request was granted for a change of name the decision of the court in weiner was again affirmed in mtr of hartin v dir of bur of recs seven five misc two d two two nine two three two three four seven n y s two d five one five one nine seven three and anonymous v mellon nine one misc two d three seven five three eight three three nine eight n y s two d nine nine one nine seven seven however despite this there can be noted as time progressed an increasing support expressed in judgements by new york courts for permitting changes in birth certificates even though they still he |
ld to do so would require legislative action another important case was darnell v lloyd three nine five f supp one two one zero d conn one nine seven five where the court found that substantial state interest must be demonstrated to justify refusing to grant a change in sex recorded on a birth certificate the first case in the united states which found that post operative transsexuals could marry in their post operative sex was the new jersey case m t v j t one four zero n j super seven seven three five five a two d two zero four cert denied seven one n j three four five one nine seven six here the court expressly considered the english corbett v corbett decision but rejected its reasoning in k v health division two seven seven or three seven one five six zero p two d one zero seven zero one nine seven seven the oregeon supreme court rejected an application for a change of name or sex on the birth certificate of a post operative transsexual on the grounds that there was no legislative authority for such a cha |
nge to be made canada main article changing legal gender assignment in canada the situation in canada varies depending upon which province you are in it is possible to gain recognition in each of them but with varying requirements asia singapore singapore has also recently recognized the right of transsexuals to marry in their reassigned sex japan in july two zero zero three the parliament of japan unanimously approved a new law that enables transsexual people to change their legal sexes the law effective in two zero zero four however has controversial conditions which demand the applicants be both unmarried and childless on two eight july two zero zero four naha family court okinawa prefecture allowed an official sex change of a transsexual woman generally thought as the first court approval under the new law in may of two zero zero five the tokyo metropolitan government s transport authority announced that transsexual people and those suffering from a gender disorder will be permitted to ride in designated |
women only carriages on its subway lines australia re kevin validity of marriage of transsexual two zero zero one famca one zero seven four online copy is a groundbreaking recent judgement of the family court of australia concerning the right of transsexuals to marry kevin not his real name a post operative female to male transsexual married jennifer not her real name kevin had undergone hormonal treatment and sex affirmation surgeries his sex indicator had been changed on his birth certificate and other legal documentation the question faced by the court was whether kevin was a man for the purposes of family law in australia english law had decided in the case of corbett vs corbett one nine seven one that sex reassignment would not be recognized for purposes of marriage justice richard chisholm the judge in this case found fault with the logic of this decision and held it did not bind australian law justice chisholm stated that to determine a person s sex for the purpose of the law of marriage all relevant m |
atters need to be considered including the person s biological and physical characteristics at birth including gonads genitals and chromosomes the person s life experiences including the sex in which he or she is brought up and the person s attitude to it the person s self perception as a man or woman the extent to which the person has functioned in society as a man or a woman any hormonal surgical or other medical sex reassignment treatments the person has undergone and the consequences of such treatment and the person s biological psychological and physical characteristics at the time of the marriage including if they can be identified any biological features of the person s brain that are associated with a particular sex his honour stated that it is clear from the australian authorities that post operative transsexuals will normally be members of their reassigned sex holding that the sex of a person for the purposes of marriage is their sex at the time of the marriage he found kevin to be a man within the |
ordinary contemporaneous meaning of the word and declared his marriage was therefore valid the attorney general appealed the full court of the family court upholding the decision at first instance determined that the reasoning of the family division of the uk high court in w v w an intersex marriage case was a correct statement of the law in australia and that people with transsexualism like others with intersex conditions should be able to choose their sex affirm it and marry as a member of that sex see also list of transgender related topics transgender law in biochemistry a ligase from the latin verb lig re to bind or to glue together is an enzyme that can catalyse the joining of two molecules by forming a new chemical bond with accompanying hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate or other similar molecules an example of such an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a ligase a b a b nomenclature the common names of ligases often include the word ligase such as dna ligase an enzyme commonly used in mole |
cular biology laboratories to join together dna fragments other common names ligases include synthetase because they are used to synthesize new molecules or carboxylase when they are used to add carbon dioxide to a molecule note that synthetase should not be confused with synthases as synthases do not use adenosine triphosphate and belong to the lyase group while synthetases do use adenosine triphosphate classification ligases are classified as ec six in the ec number classification of enzymes ligases can be further classified into six subclasses includes ligases used to form carbon oxygen bonds includes ligases used to form carbon sulfur bonds includes ligases used to form carbon nitrogen bonds includes ligases used to form carbon carbon bonds includes ligases used to form phosphoric ester bonds includes ligases used to form nitrogen metal bonds see also hydrolase isomerase lyase oxidoreductase transferase references ec six introduction from the department of chemistry at queen mary university of london liga |
ses the logo programming language is an imperative programming language it is an adaptation by wally feurzeig and seymour papert of the lisp programming language that is easier to read it has been called lisp without the parentheses today it is known mainly for its turtle graphics but it also has significant facilities for handling lists files and i o logo can be used to teach most computer science concepts as uc berkeley professor brian harvey does in his computer science logo style trilogy it can also be used to prepare microworlds for students to investigate history of logo logo was created in one nine six six at bbn a cambridge research firm by wally feurzeig and seymour papert its intellectual roots are in artificial intelligence mathematical logic and developmental psychology the first four years of logo research development and teaching work was done at bbn the first implementation was written in lisp on a pdp one its name was ghost the goal was basic problem solving the turtle gave immediate non writt |
en feedback so bugs could be spotted lots of other effects have been proposed as causes power was not a significant factor in the design however ease of use for non typists who had to use a teletype was a big consideration plus informative error comments the turtle was a rather late innovation logo is not too much different now from the basic concepts before the first turtle the first turtle was a radio controlled wireless floor roamer named irving irving had touch sensors and could do forward back right left rotations and ding irving had a bell the earliest school users were at muzzy jr high lexington ma implementations of logo there are over one three zero implementations of logo each of which has its own strengths a popular cross platform implementation is ucblogo mswlogo its freeware windows derivative is commonly used in schools in the united kingdom comenius logo is available in dutch german czech etc soli logo was a french version widely used in primary schools in the one nine eight zero s in one nine |
eight four experlogo for the macintosh added turtles in three d and on the surface of spheres it was also compiled instead of interpreted and hence was very fast lego logo was a system for controlling the turtle or lego motors and sensors and was often used in the classroom in the mid nine zero s arlogo is an arabic port of ucblogo considered the first open source programming language in arabic a modern derivative of logo is a variation that allows thousands of turtles each moving independently there are two popular implementations mit starlogo and netlogo these derivatives allow for the exploration of emergent phenomena and come with many experiments in social studies biology physics and many other sciences although the focus is on the interactions of a large number of independent agents these variations still capture the original flavor of logo there is no single agreed upon logo language definition or standard only a loose tradition as a result there are substantial differences between the many dialects of |
logo that have evolved the code examples shown below would work in many logo dialects but not all logo programming the idea is that a turtle with a pen strapped to it can be instructed to do simple things like move forward one zero zero spaces or turn around from these building blocks you can build more complex shapes like squares triangles circles using these to draw houses or sail boats the turtle moves with commands that are relative to its own position left nine zero meant rotate left by nine zero degrees a student could understand and predict and reason about the turtle s motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle papert called this body syntonic reasoning the idea of turtle graphics is also useful for example in lindenmayer system for generating fractals turtle programming the following are examples of turtle code while seemingly very simple turtles can be given groups of instructions essentially creating libraries of more complex commands in practice short forms are used for exampl |
e left nine zero is written lt nine zero key words are usually written in upper case for beginners but more advanced texts use lower case example one a square forward one zero zero left nine zero forward one zero zero left nine zero forward one zero zero left nine zero forward one zero zero left nine zero basic square this would draw a square with sides one zero zero units long but the turtle still has to turn lt nine zero to be in the starting position example two a triangle the commands may be written on one line or more repeat four fd eight zero rt nine zero repeat four fd four zero rt nine zero repeat four fd two zero rt nine zero repeat four fd zero rt nine zero end example three dotted line the turtle s pen could be lifted and lowered drawing a dotted line was rudimentary in this example we ll use the short form for forward which is fd a typical command can then be read fd space one zero specifying everything clearly and saving frustration anything written after the semicolon is ignored allowing the cod |
er to insert comments fd two zero drawing a line and moving penup now we ve lifted the pen so it won t draw anything even if we do move fd two zero not drawing but moving pendown now we ve lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves fd two zero drawing a line and moving penup fd two zero etc pendown fd two zero dotted line example four loops you could also use loop repeat commands this would draw the exact same box as in the first example repeat four fd one zero zero right nine zero which would execute the command fd one zero zero right nine zero four times a simplistic circle consists of three six zero individual rotations with a step forward so repeat three six zero fd one right one would have the expected result example five new words you can teach the turtle new words i e groups of instructions or procedures this can be done from the logo prompt or an editor which is invoked by edall in many logo dialects the commands to chair and end must be entered on separate lines edall to chair repea |
t four fd one zero zero rt nine zero fd two zero zero end basic chair once one is finished with the editor it must be exited the new word is saved into the available vocabulary but the definition will be lost once the logo interpreter is stopped in this case any time chair is entered repeat four fd one zero zero left nine zero fd two zero zero will be executed chair can be used as a command for example repeat four chair would compound the chair operation four times example six erasing in the ucblogo dialect the turtle can erase a line using the command penerase pe the pen can be restored with the command penpaint ppt edall to enter the editor mode then the actual procedure to erasechair pe bk two zero zero repeat four fd one zero zero rt nine zero ppt end cs chair wait two zero zero erasechair this example introduces two new instructions which are best taught by running them through a logo interpreter and observing the result this typifies the general spirit of logo example seven parameters giving the word ch |
angeable information logo can pass extra information to its words and return information we must tell the word to expect something and give it a name notice the use of the colon we are passing by value and the colon is pronounced as the value of when the procedure is run with a command like chair two zero zero the size takes the value two zero zero so we go fd the value of two zero zero edall to enter the editor mode then the actual procedure to chair thesize repeat four fd thesize rt nine zero fd thesize fd thesize end try cs repeat nine chair five zero rt two zero chair one zero zero wait five zero rt two zero pattern if you do need help type help or help home note the single quote mark the language logo is an interpreted language it is not case dependent but retains the case used for formatting it is written in lines it is a compromise between a sequential programming language with block structures and a functional programming language there is no standard logo but ucblogo is highly regarded it is a teachi |
ng language but its list handling facilities make it remarkably useful for producing useful scripts functions and procedures each line is made up of function calls of which there are two types commands which do something effects but don t return a value like print operations which just return a value its output like sum first or readlist a command is similar to a pascal procedure and an operation is similar to a pascal function a special subset of operations called predicates which just output the word true or false are conventionally written with a final p examples include emptyp wordp and listp expressions can be primitives or can be defined by the user expressions can take zero one or more parameters mathematics in logo uses prefix notation like sum x y product x y difference x y quotient x y infix is also available help keyword will bring up a full description of the expression logo allows for recursion the process where a procedure calls itself example eight a spiral drawn using recursion to spiral size |
if size three zero stop a condition stop fd size rt one five many lines of action spiral size one zero two the tailend recursive call end spiral one zero recursive spiral data there are three datatypes in ucblogo the word the list the array a number is a special case of word there is no static typing the interpreter detects the datatype by context there are two important symbols the colon this means the contents of this is an extremely useful symbol that keeps reminding students that a variable is really some place in memory the quote this means the word is evaluated as itself or its value after evaluation is the same as it was before this is important a number is a special case of self evaluation it really could be written with a quote two is really two assignment in pascal x y three becomes in logo make x sum y three or make x sum y three make takes two parameters the second of which here is sum y three now sum takes two parameters and is a operation thus the calculation is possible three evaluates to three |
and y takes the contents of the thing called y these are summed giving a number the effect of make is to place the result into the first parameter an alternative way of looking at this maybe is that the second parameter is passed by value while the first is passed by address indirection within a procedure is possible with the form make x x one scoping variables don t have to be declared before use their scope is then global a variable may be declared local then its scope is limited to that procedure and its subprocedures a k a dynamic scope calling a procedure with inputs creates local variables which hold the contents of the parameters lists discussing lists comes as a surprise to a pascal programmer who has managed quite well without them however this opens many new possibilities arrays are also provided for the timid operators exist to convert words into lists and lists into arrays and back again this data type has the advantage over arrays that it is infinitely expandable data are extracted using the ope |
rations first butfirst last butlast butmember member and item data elements are added using sentence fput and lput a list can be considered to be a queue with the operators queue and dequeue or a stack with the operations push and pop recursion rather than iteration is the natural method to process lists example nine using list primitives to extract the first five members of a list one way would be to use iteration to firstfive alist ifelse lessp count alist six op alist make olist repeat five make olist lput first alist olist make alist bf alist output olist end show firstfive one two three four five six seven eight nine one two three four five foreach firstfive one two three four five six seven eight nine show one zero nine eight seven six five another more elegant way would be to firstn num list if num zero output output fput first list firstn num one butfirst list end to firstfive list output firstn five list end this method uses recursion and is an example of a functional rather than a imperative program |
ming approach control structure commands the standard pascal controls are available there is selection ifelse test do if true list do if false list there are iteration commands while condition instruction list until condition instruction list repeat number instruction list recursion is logo s preferred processing paradigm template iteration the pascal programmer will be surprised by a series of list based control structures the basic idea is that you have two lists operation a list of commands many data items each of the commands is applied in turn to each of the data items there are several of these template commands with names like map apply filter foreach reduce and cascade they repesent four flavours of template iteration known as explicit slot named procedure named slot or lambda and procedure text show map five six seven two five three six four nine show filter count four the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog quick brown jumps show foreach one two three four five one zero one zero two zero three z |
ero four zero five zero run list of commands run a list of commands or programs from in a program property lists a property list is a special list where the odd number items are property name and the even are property values there are three commands to process property list pprop listname name value to add a new pair to the list remprop listname name value to remove a pair to the list show gprop listname name to get the matching value from the list i o commands text may be written to the command window output stream using print show and to the graphics window using label the standard commands are readlist readword readchar with the normal input stream being the keyboard in unix tradition the input stream can be changed so input can come from a disk file similarly output can be redirected the technique will be familiar to pascal programmers using a sequence openread filename setreadfilename setreadpos nn readchar setread close filename there are equivalent commands to change the output stream openwrite openapp |
end setwrite setwritepos nn dribble filename creates a transcript of everything that is typed in or outputted to the command window nodribble this turns it off graphics turtle graphics is a powerful method of introducing thinking but logo also has a few useful cartesian commands home returns the turtle to zero zero setx xx sety yy sends the turtle still drawing to xx yy seth nn sets the turtle on a heading or compass bearing of nn example one zero calculating and drawing a sundial for a given latitude this is a typical garden dial the graphic can be printed and transferred to wood or brass to make an accurate garden timepiece to dial cs show type in your latitude as a whole number make latitude readword uses keyboard input for i zero six one make ang arctan product sin latitude tan product i one five the calculation rt ang fd two zero zero bk two zero zero lt ang draw the morning line lt ang fd two zero zero bk two zero zero rt ang use symmetry to draw the afternoon line pu setx three zero zero sety three zer |
o zero seth nine zero pd send the turtle to the bottom fd three zero zero seth two seven zero rt nine zero latitude fd three zero zero draw the style or gnomon pu home pd tidy it up end a sundial plate must be calculated for its latitude using the formula x arctan sin latitude tan hourdiff one five the gnomon angle latitude sundial in berkeley california this dial is set for three eight n the latitude of berkeley california the home of ucblogo a small correction should be made for longitude mswlogo extensions mswlogo supports multiple turtles and three d graphics mswlogo allows input from com ports and lpt ports and also hardware ports mswlogo also supports a windows interface thus i o is available through this gui and keyboard and mouse events can trigger interrupts hello world hello world program to hello print hello world end bibliography computer science logo style brian harvey mit press three volumes isbn zero two six two five eight one four eight five isbn zero two six two five eight one four nine three |
isbn zero two six two five eight one five zero seven the great logo adventure jim muller doone publications isbn zero nine six five one nine three four six two external links microworlds ex botz botz a web based logo like application program your bot to draw solve puzzles and even battle other bots can also save your bots online and email them to others or challenge others to a battle imagine logo imagine logo a modern superlogo successor featuring use of multimedia better object support and networking ai two logo written at edinburgh university in the early seven zero s used in an experimental program to teach children in the neighboring high school written in edinburgh imp recently reformatted and syntax colored for html adalogo a gentle introduction to the programming language ada in german terrapin logo a commercial logo system and optional hardware for education dynamically typed programming languages educational programming languages functional languages lisp dialects programming languages lamorna cove |
west cornwall lamorna cornish nansmornow is a small fishing village on the penwith peninsula in cornwall united kingdom it is effectively a small congregation of houses clustered around a natural harbour at the end of the one nine th century it became popular as a subject among many of the painters of the newlyn school including particularly the artist s j lamorna birch who lived there in a small cottage it has a pub the wink whose name alludes to the other occupation of its inhabitants in days gone by smuggling the wink being the indication that contraband could be obtained the pub is the subject of a novel by martha grimes entitled the lamorna wink towns in cornwall in chemistry the law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry alongside the law of definite proportions it is sometimes called dalton s law after its discoverer the english chemist john dalton one statement of the law is if two elements form more than one compound between them then the ratios of the masses of the second |
element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers for example considering two of the carbon oxides co and co two one zero zero grams of carbon may react with one three three grams of oxygen to produce carbon monoxide or with two six six grams of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide the ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with one zero zero grams of carbon is two six six one three three two one a ratio of small whole numbers john dalton first expressed this observation in one eight zero three a few years previously the french chemist joseph proust had proposed the law of definite proportions which expressed that the elements combined to form compounds in certain well defined proportions rather than mixing in just any proportion careful study of the actual numerical values of these proportions led dalton to propose his law of multiple proportions this was an important step toward the atomic theory that he would propose later that year and it laid the basis |
for chemical formulas for compounds the law of multiple proportions is best demonstrated using simple compounds for example if one tried to demonstrate it using the hydrocarbons decane chemical formula c one zero h two two and undecane c one one h two four one would find that one zero zero grams of carbon could react with one eight four six grams of hydrogen to produce decane or with one eight three one grams of hydrogen to produce undecane for a ratio of hydrogen masses of one two one one two zero which is hardly a ratio of small whole numbers physical chemistry the law of averages is a lay term used to express the view that eventually everything evens out for example two very similar people who drive similar cars in similar circumstances over a long period of time will have roughly the same number of accidents the more children you have the more likely you will have an equal division of boys and girls the longer you flip a coin the more likely the number of heads and tails will equalize simply put every out |
come in a fair game exhibits identical probabilities equal to the underlying probability of the game in order to understand this it is important to realise that no outcome in a fair game is at any point in any way whatsoever affected by any other past or future outcome within the game the formal mathematical result that supports the law of averages is called the law of large numbers it states that a large sample of a particular probabilistic event will tend to reflect the underlying probabilities for example after tossing a fair coin one zero zero zero times we would expect the result to be approximately five zero zero heads results because this would reflect the underlying zero five chance of a heads result for any given flip note however that while the average will move closer to the underlying probability in absolute terms deviation from the expected value will increase for example after one zero zero zero coin flips we might see five two zero heads after one zero zero zero zero flips we might then see fiv |
e zero nine six heads the average has now moved closer to the underlying five from five two to five zero nine six however the absolute deviation from the expected number of heads has gone up from two zero to nine six there are common ways to misunderstand and misapply the law of large numbers if i flip this coin one zero zero zero times i will get five zero zero heads results false while we expect approximately five zero zero heads it is not the case that we will always get exactly five zero zero heads results if the coin is fair the chance of getting exactly five zero zero heads is about two five two similarly getting five two zero heads results is not conclusive proof that the coin s true probability of getting heads on a single flip is five two i just got five tails in a row my chances of getting heads must be very good now false it was unlikely at the beginning that you would get six tails in a row but the probability of six tails was the same as five tails followed by a head one six four looking forward |
after the fifth toss these probabilities are still equal the only difference is that there are no other possibilities so the probability of either outcome is one two this error can be devastating for amateur gamblers the thought that i have to win soon now because i ve been losing and it has to even out can encourage a gambler to continue to bet more this is known as the gambler s fallacy there are situations in which a very small imbalance in probabilities can lead to a large imbalance in outcomes contrary to the usual notion of the law of averages the gambler s ruin is one such scenario graphical representation the following graphical representation illustrates one possibility for a game of heads or tails notice how the gamblers fallacy is erratic and essentially unpredictable whereas the average will always tend towards the underlying probability of zero five in this case over one zero zero random samples over one zero zero zero random samples adages probability theory below is a list of basic topics in li |
nguistics topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of linguistics for a comprehensive list see list of linguistic topics basic questions what are the basic questions asked in linguistics what is language how did it does it evolve how does language serve as a medium of communication how does language serve as a medium of thinking what is common to all languages how do languages differ is x a language or a dialect the answers are not necessarily basic or easy to understand basic concepts glossary of basic terms what basic concepts terms do i have to know to talk about linguistics morphology morpheme inflection paradigm derivation compound phonology phoneme segment syllable foot stress grammar tense aspect grammatical number grammatical gender declension syntax phrase clause grammatical function grammatical voice semantics entailment truth condition compositionality pragmatics presupposition implicature deixis timeline of discovery of basic concepts when were the basic concepts first de |
scribed and by whom ancient sanskrit grammarians ancient greek study of language roman elaborations of greek study medieval philosophical work in latin beginnings of modern linguistics in the one nine th century behaviorism and mental tabula rasa hypothesis chomsky and functionalism generative grammar leads to generative phonology and semantics birth of nicaraguan sign language alternate syntactic systems develop in eight zero s computational linguistics becomes feasible the late eight zero s neurolinguistics and the biological basis of cognition controversy over pirah number conception people people who had a significant influence on the development of the field benjamin lee whorf claude levi strauss edward sapir ferdinand de saussure franz bopp august schleicher john langshaw austin john r searle louis hjelmslev kenneth l pike m a k halliday noam chomsky panini rasmus rask roman jakobson sir william jones subfields cognitive linguistics computational linguistics comparative linguistics dialectology etymolog |
y historical linguistics grammar language didactics lexicology linguistic statistics linguistic typology mathematical linguistics morphology phonetics phonology pragmatics psycholinguistics semantics sociolinguistics schools movements approaches danish school functionalism generative linguistics geneva school neo grammarians prague school prescription and description soviet linguistics stratificational linguistics structuralism systemic linguistics sil international tagmemics linguistics lists of basic topics wikipedia missing topics below is a list of basic topics in law topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of law for a comprehensive list see list of law topics please see the legal disclaimer if you are looking for legal advice law list of legal topics list of basic criminal justice topics a list of international public law topics criminal law criminal law criminal procedure treason civil law civil law statutory law common law civil rights family law civil procedure laws by regi |
onal scope international law regional law european community law national law state province law county district law city law wikipedia missing topics below is a list of basic topics in literature topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of literature for a comprehensive list see list of literary topics literature history of literature history of the book western canon the teaching of writing composition rhetoric poetry prosody meter scansion constrained writing poetics villanelle sonnet sestina ghazal ballad blank verse free verse epic poetry prose fiction non fiction biography prose genres novel short story journalism essay theater history of theater literary criticism rhetoric metaphor metonymy symbol allegory basic procedural knowledge poetry analysis how to read an essay how to read prose how to write a story how to write a poem effective reasoning in argument writing techniques and conceits false document frame tale anecdote point of view varieties of literary criticism applica |
tions of literary theory marxist literary criticism semiotic literary interpretation psychoanalytic literary interpretation feminist literary interpretation new historicism queer literary interpretation lists of basic topics wikipedia missing topics the linux documentation project tldp is an all volunteer project that maintains a large collection of linux and linux related documentation and publishes the collection online it began as a way for linux hackers to share their documentation with each other and with their users and for users to share documentation with each other its documents tend to be oriented towards experienced users such as professional system administrators but also contains tutorials for beginners the ldp originally began as an ftp site in one nine nine two but it went on the world wide web at metalab in one nine nine three it is believed to have been the first linux related website ever today the ldp serves over four seven five documents contributed by even more authors about a dozen of th |
em are book length and most of those are available in print from major technical publishers including o reilly the ldp publishes many howto documents which instruct a user on the specific steps to take to achieve a desired goal these goals are sometimes very specific such as configuring a particular modem and sometimes very broad such as how to administer a network for an isp very broad topics are covered in the guides which are book length documents usually on broad subjects such as security or networking the ldp also publishes frequently asked question faq lists man pages and other documents as well as two webzines the linux gazette and linux focus much of the ldp collection is licensed under the gnu free documentation license gfdl many other licenses are also used as long as they are freely distributable current policy recommends the gfdl or the open publication license without exercising options a or b linux network administrators guide is one book in the series external links http www tldp org the linux |
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