text
stringlengths 640
1.02k
|
|---|
as been used to study the role of transport deposition sediment storage burial times and erosion on one zero five to one zero six year time scales cosmogenic two six al was first applied in studies of the moon and meteorites meteorite fragments after departure from their parent bodies are exposed to intense cosmic ray bombardment during their travel through space causing substantial two six al production after falling to earth atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further two six al production and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite s terrestrial age meteorite research has also shown that two six al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system possibly the energy released by the decay of two six al was responsible for the remelting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation four six billion years ago clusters in the journal science of one four january two zero zero five it was reported that clusters of one three aluminium ato |
ms al one three had been made to behave like an iodine atom and one four aluminium atoms al one four behaved like an alkaline earth atom the researchers also bound one two iodine atoms to an al one three cluster to form a new class of polyiodide this discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the periodic table superatoms the research teams were led by shiv n khanna virginia commonwealth university and a welford castleman jr penn state university precautions aluminium is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells but a few percent of people are allergic to it they experience contact dermatitis from any form of it an itchy rash from using styptic or antiperspirant products digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as rolaids amphojel and maalox antacids in other people aluminium is not considered |
as toxic as heavy metals but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts although the use of aluminium cookware popular because of its corrosion resistance and good heat conduction has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of toxicity it has been suggested that aluminium may be linked to alzheimer s disease although that research has recently been refuted aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the alzheimer s damage not the cause in any event if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime care must be taken to prevent aluminium from coming into contact with certain chemicals that can cause it to corrode quickly for example just a small amount of |
mercury applied to the surface of a piece of aluminium can break up the aluminium oxide barrier usually present within a few hours even a heavy structural beam can be significantly weakened for this reason mercury thermometers are not allowed on many airliners as aluminium is a common structural component in aircraft spelling etymology nomenclature history in one eight zero eight humphry davy originally proposed the name alumium while trying to isolate the new metal electrolytically from the mineral alumina in one eight one two he changed the name to aluminum to match its latin root the same year an anonymous contributor to the quarterly review objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium aluminium for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word in preference to aluminum which has a less classical sound q review viii seven two one eight one two this had the advantage of conforming to the ium suffix precedent set by other newly discovered elements of the period potassium sodium magnesium calcium a |
nd strontium all of which davy had isolated himself nevertheless um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time platinum which had been known to europeans since the one six th century molybdenum which was discovered in one seven seven eight and tantalum which was discovered in one eight zero two all have spellings ending in um the united states adopted the ium for most of the one nine th century with aluminium appearing in webster s dictionary of one eight two eight however in one eight nine two charles martin hall used the um spelling in an advertising handbill for his new efficient electrolytic method for the production of aluminium despite using the ium spelling in all of his patents filed between one eight eight six and one nine zero three it has consequently been suggested that the spelling on the flyer was a simple spelling mistake rather than a deliberate choice to use the um spelling hall s domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in north am |
erica even though the webster unabridged dictionary of one nine one three continued to use the ium version in one nine two six the american chemical society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications and american dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a british variant present day spelling in the english speaking world the spellings and associated pronunciations aluminium and aluminum are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts in the united states the spelling aluminium is largely unknown and the spelling aluminum predominates elsewhere in the english speaking world the spelling aluminium predominates and the spelling aluminum is largely unknown however in canada both spellings are common due to the multiple influences on the language of its proximity to the united states its british colonial past and the large number of native french speakers outside english the ium spelling is widespread the word is aluminium in french aluminium in german and identical or sim |
ilar forms are used in many other languages consequently it is the more common of the two spellings in global terms even though there may be more users of aluminum in the english speaking world the international union of pure and applied chemistry iupac adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in one nine nine zero but three years later recognised aluminum as an acceptable variant hence their periodic table includes both but places aluminium first iupac officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications although several iupac publications use the spelling aluminum chemistry oxidation state one alh is produced when aluminium is heated at one five zero zero c in an atmosphere of hydrogen al two o is made by heating the normal oxide al two o three with silicon at one eight zero zero c in a vacuum al two s can be made by heating al two s three with aluminium shavings at one three zero zero c in a vacuum it quickly disproportionates to the starting materials the seleni |
de is made in a parallel manner alf alcl and albr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri halide is heated with aluminium oxidation state two aluminium suboxide alo can be shown to be present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen oxidation state three fajans rules show that the simple trivalent cation al three is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as al two o three the hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak bases such as carbonate can t be prepared the salts of strong acids such as nitrate are stable and soluble in water forming hydrates with at least six molecules of water of crystallization aluminium hydride alh three n can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an excess of hydrogen it burns explosively in air it can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution but cannot be isolated free from the solvent aluminium carbide al four c three is made by heating a mixture of the elements above one zero zero zero c the |
pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure and react with water or dilute acids to give methane the acetylide al two c two three is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium aluminium nitride aln can be made from the elements at eight zero zero c it is hydrolysed by water to form ammonia and aluminium hydroxide aluminium phosphide alp is made similarly and hydrolyses to give phosphine aluminium oxide al two o three occurs naturally as corundum and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide nitrate or sulfate as a gemstone its hardness is only exceeded by diamond boron nitride and carborundum it is almost insoluble in water aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt it is amphoteric being both a very weak acid and forming aluminates with alkalis it exists in various crystalline forms aluminium sulfide al two s three may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide over aluminium powder it |
is polymorphic aluminium fluoride alf three is made by treating the hydroxide with hf or can be made from the elements it consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at one two nine one c it is very inert the other trihalides are dimeric having a bridge like structure organo metallic compounds of empirical formula alr three exist and if not also giant molecules are at least dimers or trimers they have some uses in organic synthesis for instance trimethylaluminium alumino hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known the most useful being lithium aluminium hydride lialh four it decomposes into lithium hydride aluminium and hydrogen when heated and is hydrolysed by water it has many uses in organic chemistry particularly as a reducing agent the aluminohalides have a similar structure aluminium in popular culture in the film star trek iv the voyage home scotty devises the fictional material transparent aluminum see also alloys of aluminium references los alamos national laboratory alumi |
num world wide words a history of the spelling of aluminium from a british viewpoint oxford english dictionary entries aluminum and aluminium available by subscription external links webelements com aluminium world aluminium world production of primary aluminum by country social and environmental impact of the aluminium industry sam s aluminium information site history of aluminium patents us four zero zero six six four process of reducing aluminum from its floride salts by electrolysis c m hall chemical elements poor metals inorganic pigments pyrotechnic chemicals rocket fuels structural engineering advanced chemistry are a german hip hop band from heidelberg members include toni l linguist torch affiliated boulevard bou discography one nine nine two fremd im eigenen land one two mcd mzee one nine nine three welcher pfad f hrt zur geschichte one two mcd mzee one nine nine four operation three one two mcd one nine nine four dir fehlt der funk one two mcd one nine nine five advanced chemistry two xlp cd hip ho |
p groups german musical groups abdication from the latin abdicatio disowning renouncing from ab from and dicare to declare to proclaim as not belonging to one is the act of renouncing and resigning from a formal office especially from the supreme office of state in roman law the term was also applied to the disowning of a family member as the disinheriting of a son a similar term for an elected or appointed official is resignation abdications in classical antiquity among the most memorable abdications of antiquity were those of lucius cornelius sulla the dictator in seven nine bc emperor diocletian in ad three zero five and emperor romulus augustus in ad four seven six the british crown probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of king edward viii of the united kingdom in one nine three six edward abdicated the british throne in order to marry american divorc e wallis simpson over the objections of the british establishment the governments of the commonwealth the royal family and the church |
of england see abdication crisis of edward viii this was also the first time in history that the british crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily richard ii of england for example was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin henry bolingbroke while richard was out of the country when james ii of england after throwing the great seal of the realm into the thames fled to france in one six eight eight he did not formally resign the crown and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated the latter designation was agreed upon for in a full assembly of the lords and commons met in convention it was resolved in spite of james s protest that king james ii having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and people and by the advice of jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental laws and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom has abdicated the government and tha |
t the throne is thereby vacant the scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition because the title to the crown depends upon statute particularly the act of settlement one seven zero one a royal abdication can only be effected by an act of parliament to give legal effect to the abdication of king edward viii of the united kingdom his majesty s declaration of abdication act one nine three six was passed modern abdications historically if a monarch abdicated it was seen as a profound and shocking abandonment of royal duty as a result abdications usually only occurred in the most extreme circumstances of political turmoil or violence this has changed in a small number of countries the monarchs of the netherlands luxembourg and cambodia have abdicated as a result of old age prince hans adam ii of liechtenstein recently made his son regent an act which amounted to an abdication in fact if not in law list the following is a list of the important abdications notes one charles abdicated as lord |
of the netherlands october two five one five five five and king of spain january one six one five five six in favor of his son philip ii of spain also in one five five six he separately voluntarily abdicated his german possessions and the title of holy roman emperor two pedro iv of portugal and pedro i of brazil were the same person he was already emperor of brazil when he succeeded to the throne of portugal in one eight two six but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter maria ii of portugal later he abdicated the throne of brazil in favor of his son pedro ii three hans adam ii made his son alois regent effectively abdicating however he still remains the formal head of state see also lists of incumbents list of monarchs who lost their thrones or abdicated in the two zero th century papal abdication the great abdication references public domain one nine one one edition of the new century book of facts published by the king richardson company springfield massachusetts monarchy the anglican communion us |
es the compass rose as its symbol signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature it is surmounted like ecclesiastical coats of arms by a bishop s mitre in the center is a cross of st george recalling the communion s origins in the church of england the greek motto the truth will set you free is a quotation from john eight three two the anglican communion is a world wide organisation of anglican churches there is no single anglican church since each national or regional church has full autonomy as the name suggests rather the anglican communion is an association of these churches in full communion with each other and particularly with the church of england which may be regarded as the mother church of the worldwide communion as a result all rites conducted in one member church are recognised by the others some of these churches are known as anglican explicitly recognising the link to england others such as the american and scottish episcopal churches or the church of ireland prefer a specific name eac |
h church has its own doctrine and liturgy based in most cases on that of the church of england and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal leadership from a local primate the archbishop of canterbury religious head of the church of england has no formal authority outside that country but is recognised as a symbolic head for the worldwide communion among the other primates he is primus inter pares or first among equals if the archbishop of canterbury is compared with other religious leaders such as the pope therefore it is only because of his prominent figurehead role in the media he has no formal authority outside his own province although they are not considered members some non anglican bodies have entered into communion with the anglican communion despite having non anglican origins and traditions there are also a number of anglican type bodies which separated from a member church of the anglican communion and thus are no longer in communion with the church of england they tend to |
call themselves continuing churches what holds the communion together the anglican communion has no official legal existence nor any formal governing structure there is an anglican communion office in london under the aegis of the archbishop of canterbury but it serves merely a supporting and organisational role some have asked what holds the communion together the first attempt at an answer was the chicago lambeth quadrilateral of one eight eight eight proposed by the american episcopal church in one eight eight six and adopted by the lambeth conference of one eight eight eight it set out four principles for future christian unity although wider union has not followed the quadrilateral has been useful within the communion itself the quadrilateral according to the wording adopted in lambeth consists of the holy scriptures of the old and new testaments as containing all things necessary to salvation and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith the apostles creed as the baptismal symbol and the nicene |
creed as the sufficient statement of the christian faith the two sacraments ordained by christ himself baptism and the supper of the lord ministered with unfailing use of christ s words of institution and of the elements ordained by him the historic episcopate locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of god into the unity of his church this then is the theoretical basis for unity but what holds it together organisationally in the last few years people have began to refer to four instruments of unity which are effectively symbols to which all the churches of the communion can feel tied in order of antiquity they are the archbishop of canterbury ab origine the lambeth conference first held in one eight six seven the anglican consultative council first met in one nine seven one the primates meeting first met in one nine seven nine since each province is legally independent and free to chart its own course the stress on these instruments of unity |
can easily be imagined in recent years for example some anglicans particularly in africa and asia have been displeased with the american and canadian branches upset by their welcoming attitudes towards homosexuals and by the confident way the changes have been made the conservatives condemned the action as unilateral and called for wider consultation within the communion before such steps were taken after the north american churches reaffirmed their belief that their actions had been righteous and prophetic they were asked to withdraw their delegates from the two zero zero five meeting of the anglican consultative council although it is not clear under whose authority or by what law they were eventually permitted at the meeting with voice but no vote they have not been expelled or suspended from the communion indeed no church ever has it is unclear how such an expulsion could ever be carried out since the communion is not a disciplinary entity but a spiritual construct based entirely on the new testament conc |
ept of koinonia provinces of the anglican communion the term province in this context refers to national churches many of which themselves contain several provinces in the sense of groups of dioceses presided over by an archbishop according to the secretariat of the anglican communion currently the member churches of the anglican communion are as follows the anglican church in aotearoa new zealand and polynesia the anglican church of australia the church of bangladesh the episcopal anglican church of brazil the anglican church of burundi the anglican church of canada the church of the province of central africa the anglican church in the central region of america the church of the province of the congo the church of england hong kong sheng kung hui the church of the province of the indian ocean the church of ireland the nippon sei ko kai the anglican communion in japan the episcopal church in jerusalem and the middle east the anglican church of kenya the anglican church of korea the church of the province of |
melanesia the anglican church of mexico the church of the province of myanmar burma the church of nigeria the church of north india the church of pakistan the anglican church of papua new guinea the episcopal church in the philippines the episcopal church of rwanda the scottish episcopal church church of the province of south east asia the church of south india the church of the province of southern africa the anglican church of the southern cone of the americas the episcopal church of the sudan the anglican church of tanzania the church of the province of uganda the episcopal church in the united states of america the church in wales the church of the province of west africa the church in the province of the west indies the church of ceylon extra provincial to the archbishop of canterbury the episcopal church of cuba bermuda extra provincial to canterbury the lusitanian catholic apostolic evangelical church of portugal extra provincial to the archbishop of canterbury the reformed episcopal church of spain ex |
tra provincial to the archbishop of canterbury falkland islands extra provincial to canterbury history main article see history of the anglican communion the anglican communion is a relatively recent concept ever since the church of england which until the two zero th century included the church in wales broke from rome in the reign of henry viii it has thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient english church and a reassertion of that church s rights as such it was a distinctly local phenomenon thus the only members of the present anglican communion existing by the late one eight th century were the church of england its closely linked sister church the church of ireland which also broke from rome under henry viii and the scottish episcopal church which for parts of the one seven th and one eight th centuries was partially underground it was suspected of jacobite sympathies however the enormous expansion in the one eight th and one nine th centuries of the |
british empire brought the church along with it at first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the bishop of london after the american revolution the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose earthly head was and remains the british monarch thus they formed their own dioceses and national church the episcopal church in the united states of america in a mostly amicable separation at about the same time in the colonies which remained linked to the crown the church of england began to appoint colonial bishops in one seven eight seven a bishop of nova scotia was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of british north america in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present day canada in one eight one four a bishop of calcutta was made in one eight two four the first bishop was sent to the west indies and in one eight three six to australia by one eight four zero there were still only ten colonial bishops for the |
church of england but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of anglicanism around the world in one eight four one a colonial bishoprics council was set up and soon many more dioceses were created in time it became natural to group these into provinces and a metropolitan appointed for each province although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies in one eight six one it was ruled that except where specifically established the church of england had just the same legal position as any other church thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home in time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from england and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of england a crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the lambeth conferences in one eight six seven at the suggestion of the canadian synod the then archbishop of canterbury charles t |
homas langley invited a great conference of bishops to meet with him at lambeth palace by inviting the bishops of the churches of england and ireland those of the semi autonomous colonial churches and those of the fully autonomous episcopal church in the united states of america he set a precedent that they all could meet together despite the absence of universal legal ties some bishops were initially reluctant to attend fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions these lambeth conferences have been held decennially since one eight seven eight the second such conference and remain the most visible coming together of the whole communion recent controversies recent disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other christian denominations see anglican views of homosexuality relationship with the roman catholic church efforts have been underway at least |
since one nine six six to effect a reconciliation with the roman catholic church focusing on theological issues and ways to further the convergence on authority in the church without agreement in this area we shall not reach the full visible unity to which we are both committed see also thirty nine articles book of common prayer anglican use anglican communion network affirming catholicism sydney anglicans external links official website decentralised nature of worldwide anglicanism comprehensive anglican vocabulary the conservative classical anglican net news website anglicans online anglican communion official website anglicanism christian group structuring arne kaijser born one nine five zero is a professor of history of technology at the royal institute of technology in stockholm and the head of the university s department of history of science and technology kaijser has published two books in swedish stadens ljus etableringen av de f rsta svenska gasverken and i f drens sp r den svenska infrastrukturens |
historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar and has co edited several anthologies kaijser is also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals journal of urban technology and centaurus lately he has been occupied with the history of large technical systems external links homepage extended homepage one nine five zero births living people swedish scholars an archipelago is a landform which consists of a chain or cluster of islands archipelagoes usually occur in the open sea less commonly a large land mass may neighbour them archipelagoes are often volcanic forming along ocean ridges or hotspots but there are many other processes involved in their construction including erosion and deposition the word comes from the aegean sea greek italian arcipelago which literally means chief sea from greek arkhi leader and pelagos sea the aegean sea is located between greece in the west and turkey in the east in the aegean the venetian dukes of the archipelago ruled from naxos one two one zero one five six s |
ix the archipelago exchange is a fully electronic stock exchange that agreed to merge with the new york stock exchange in april two zero zero five to form the for profit nyse group list of archipelagoes abc islands aegean islands cyclades dodecanese aleutian islands alexander archipelago andaman islands antilles west indies greater antilles puerto rican islands lesser antilles leeward islands windward islands azores bahama islands turks and caicos islands balearic islands baltic sea archipelagoes stockholm archipelago turku archipelago land islands bermuda islands bight of bonny islands british isles channel islands hebrides isles of scilly orkney islands shetland islands canadian arctic islands belcher islands queen elizabeth islands chagos archipelago channel islands of california chausey chonos archipelago comoro islands diego ram rez islands falkland islands malvinas faroe islands florida keys fox islands franz josef land frisian islands or wadden islands east frisian islands north frisian islands west fr |
isian islands furneaux group gal pagos islands col n gothenburg archipelago guayaneco archipelago japanese archipelago juan fern ndez islands kerguelen islands kermadec islands kornati lakshadweep laccadives lofoten los roques macaronesia canary islands cape verde islands barlavento sotavento madeira islands magdalen islands malay archipelago the world s largest maluku islands philippine islands luzon group mindanao group sulu archipelago visayas sunda islands greater sunda islands lesser sunda islands maldives maltese islands mascarene islands seychelles islands aldabra group amirante islands farquhar group melanesia bismarck archipelago fiji islands new caledonia kanaky loyalty islands solomon islands vanuatu new hebrides mergui archipelago micronesia caroline islands gilbert islands kiribati line islands mariana islands marshall islands ralik chain ratak chain palau phoenix islands new siberian islands nicobar islands new england and new york islands manhattan city island long island rikers island roosevel |
t island staten island block island nantucket martha s vineyard liberty island ellis island governors island long beach island elizabeth islands novaya zemlya islands polynesia cook islands hervey islands french polynesia austral islands gambier islands marquesas society islands les du vent windward islands les sous le vent leeward islands tuamotus hawaiian islands sandwich islands new zealand islands aotearoa pitcairn islands samoan islands navigators islands american samoa eastern samoa samoa western samoa tonga islands friendly islands tokelau union islands tuvalu ellice islands wallis and futuna islands horne islands pontine islands queen charlotte islands haida gwaii saint helena islands san juan islands severnaya zemlya solentiname islands south china sea islands paracel islands spratly islands south orkney islands south sandwich islands south shetland islands svalbard thousand islands tierra del fuego the world an archipelago of artificial islands being constructed off dubai tuscan archipelago venice i |
slands virgin islands see also island arc geography earth science geomorphology list of landforms plate tectonics lists of islands list of islands of antarctica and the southern ocean list of islands in the arctic ocean list of islands of asia list of islands in the atlantic ocean list of islands of australia list of islands of canada list of islands in the caribbean list of islands in the indian ocean list of islands of new zealand list of islands of north america list of islands in the pacific list of islands of south america list of islands in the united states archipelagoes sir arthur conan doyle sir arthur ignatius conan doyle may two two one eight five nine july seven one nine three zero was a scottish author most famously known for his stories about the detective sherlock holmes which are generally considered a major innovation in the field of crime fiction he was a prolific writer whose other works include science fiction stories historical novels plays and romances poetry and non fiction conan was or |
iginally a middle name but he used it as part of his surname in his later years life arthur conan doyle was born in one eight five nine in edinburgh to charles and mary doyle he was sent to the jesuit preparatory school stonyhurst at the age of nine and by the time he left the school in one eight seven five he rejected christianity to become an agnostic from one eight seven six to one eight eight one he studied medicine at the university of edinburgh including a period working in the town of aston now a district of birmingham following his term at university he served as a ship s doctor on a voyage to the west african coast and then in one eight eight two he set up a practice in plymouth he achieved his doctorate in one eight eight five his medical practice was unsuccessful while waiting for patients he began writing stories his first literary experience came in chambers s edinburgh journal before he was two zero it was only after he subsequently moved his practice to southsea that he began to indulge more ex |
tensively in literature his first significant work was a study in scarlet which appeared in beeton s christmas annual for one eight eight seven and featured the first appearance of sherlock holmes who was modelled after doyle s former university professor joseph bell interestingly rudyard kipling congratulated doyle on his success asking could this be my old friend dr joe while living in southsea he helped form portsmouth football club and played as the club s first goalkeeper in one eight eight five he married louise hawkins who suffered from tuberculosis and eventually died in one nine zero six he married jean leckie in one nine zero seven whom he had first met and fallen in love with in one eight nine seven but had maintained a platonic relationship with her out of loyalty to his first wife doyle had five children two with his first wife mary and kingsley and three with his second wife jean denis and adrian in one eight nine zero doyle studied the eye in vienna and in one eight nine one moved to london to |
set up a practice as an oculist this also gave him more time for writing and in november one eight nine one he wrote to his mother i think of slaying holmes and winding him up for good and all he takes my mind from better things in december one eight nine three he did so in order to dedicate more of his time to more important works namely his historical novels pitting holmes against his arch nemesis professor moriarty they apparently plunged to their deaths together down a waterfall in the story the final problem public outcry led him to bring the character back doyle returned to the story in the adventure of the empty house with the ingenious explanation that only moriarty had fallen but since holmes had other dangerous enemies he had arranged to be temporarily dead also holmes eventually appears in a total of five six short stories and four doyle novels he has since appeared in many novels and stories by other authors following the boer war in south africa at the turn of the two zero th century and the cond |
emnation from around the world over britain s conduct doyle wrote a short pamphlet titled the war in south africa its cause and conduct which justified britain s role in the boer war and was widely translated doyle believed that it was this pamphlet that resulted in his being knighted and appointed as deputy lieutenant of surrey in one nine zero two he also wrote the longer book the great boer war in one nine zero zero during the early years of the two zero th century sir arthur twice ran for parliament as a liberal unionist once in edinburgh and once in the border burghs but although he received a respectable vote he was not elected arthur conan doyle statue in crowboroughconan doyle was involved in the campaign for the reform of the congo free state led by the journalist e d morel and the diplomat roger casement he wrote the crime of the congo in one nine zero nine a long pamphlet in which he denounced the horrors in congo he become acquainted with morel and casement taking inspiration from them for two of |
the main characters of the novel the lost world one nine one two he broke with both when morel who was rather left wing became one of the leaders of the pacifist movement during the first world war and casement committed treason against britain out of conviction for his irish nationalist views doyle tried unsuccessfully to save casement from the death penalty arguing that he had been driven mad and was not responsible for his actions doyle was also a fervent advocate of justice and personally investigated two closed cases which led to two imprisoned men being released the first case in one nine zero six involved a shy half british half indian lawyer named george edalji who had allegedly penned threatening letters and mutilated animals police were dead set on edalji s conviction even though the mutilations continued even after their suspect was jailed it was partially as a result of this case that the court of criminal appeal was established in one nine zero seven so not only did conan doyle help george edalji |
his work helped to establish a way to correct other miscarriages of justice the story of conan doyle and edalji is told in fictional form in julian barnes s two zero zero five novel arthur that of oscar slater a german jew and gambling den operator convicted of bludgeoning an eight two year old woman in glasgow in one nine zero eight excited doyle s curiosity because of inconsistencies in the prosecution case and a general sense that slater was framed in his later years doyle became involved with spiritualism to the extent that he wrote a professor challenger novel on the subject the land of mist one of the odder aspects of this period of his life was his book the coming of the fairies one nine two one he was apparently totally convinced of the veracity of the cottingley fairy photographs which he reproduced in the book together with theories about the nature and existence of fairies and spirits his work on this topic was one of the reasons that one of his short story collections the adventures of sherlock h |
olmes was banned in the soviet union in one nine two nine for supposed occultism this ban was later removed doyle was friends for a time with the american magician harry houdini a prominent opponent of the spiritualist movement although houdini insisted that spiritualist mediums employed trickery and consistently attempted to expose them as frauds doyle became convinced that houdini himself possessed supernatural powers a view expressed in doyle s the edge of the unknown houdini was apparently unable to convince doyle that his feats were simply magic tricks leading to a bitter public falling out between the two richard milner an american historian of science has presented a case that doyle may have been the perpetrator of the piltdown man hoax of one nine one two creating the counterfeit hominid fossil that fooled the scientific world for over four zero years milner says that doyle had a motive namely revenge on the scientific establishment for debunking one of his favourite psychics and that the lost world c |
ontains several encrypted clues regarding his involvement in the hoax samuel rosenberg s one nine seven four book naked is the best disguise purports to explain how doyle left throughout his writings open clues that related to hidden and suppressed aspects of his mentality sir arthur conan doyle died of a heart attack in one nine three zero and is buried in the church yard at minstead in the new forest hampshire england a statue has been erected in sir arthur conan doyle s honour it may be seen at crowborough cross in crowborough east sussex england where sir arthur lived for two three years there is also a statue of sherlock holmes in picardy place edinburgh scotland close to the house where conan doyle was born selected bibliography sherlock holmes stories a study in scarlet one eight eight seven the sign of four one eight nine zero the adventures of sherlock holmes one eight nine two the memoirs of sherlock holmes one eight nine four the hound of the baskervilles one nine zero two the return of sherlock ho |
lmes one nine zero four the valley of fear one nine one four his last bow one nine one seven the case book of sherlock holmes one nine two seven professor challenger stories the lost world one nine one two the poison belt one nine one three the land of mists one nine two six the disintegration machine one nine two seven when the world screamed one nine two eight historical novels the white company one eight nine one micah clarke one eight eight eight the great shadow one eight nine two the refugees publ one eight nine three written one eight nine two uncle bernac one eight nine seven sir nigel one nine zero six other works j habakuk jephson s statement one eight eight three a story about the fate of the ship mary celeste mystery of cloomber one eight eight nine the captain of the polestar and other tales one eight nine zero the doings of raffles haw one eight nine one beyond the city one eight nine two round the red lamp one eight nine four the parasite one eight nine four the stark munro letters one eight ni |
ne five rodney stone one eight nine six songs of action one eight nine eight the tragedy of the korosko one eight nine eight a duet one eight nine nine the great boer war one nine zero zero the exploits of brigadier gerard one nine zero three through the magic door one nine zero seven the crime of the congo one nine zero nine the new revelation one nine one eight the vital message one nine one nine tales of terror see sir roger de mowbray one eight five nine births one nine three zero deaths arthur conan doyle freemasons knights commander of st michael and st george old stonyhurst sherlock holmes an author is the person who creates a written work such as a book story article or the like this can be short or long fiction or nonfiction poetry or prose technical or literature since capitalism the author also needs to do it for payment as a service role in critical theory one key issue in literary theory is the relationship between the meaning of a literary text and its author s conscious intent the phrase death |
of the author was popularized by roland barthes in his one nine six eight essay with the same name it is used to convey the idea that texts have meaning and an independent existence outside that intended by the author depending on the context and reader the death of the author is in self conscious opposition to the new criticism a literary critical movement popular in england and america in the first half of the two zero th century according to this movement the author s intent is assumed to be quite clear to the author and it becomes the critic s task to understand this intent see also novelist writer lists of authors lists of poets list of novelists media occupations literary criticism this is an article about russian mathematician andrey markov for ice hockey player andrei markov see andrei markov hockey player andrey andreyevich markov june one four one eight five six n s july two zero one nine two two was a russian mathematician markov was born in ryazan he studied at st petersburg university in one eigh |
t seven four under the tutelage of chebyshev in one eight eight six he became a member of the st petersburg academy of science he is best known for his work on theory of stochastic processes his research later became known as markov chains see also markov chain gauss markov theorem hidden markov model markov number markov property markov s inequality references two one five one three five one five six one nine zero six a a markov extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain reprinted in appendix b of r howard dynamic probabilistic systems volume one markov chains john wiley and sons one nine seven one external links the life and work of aa markov andrey andreevich markov one nine zero three one nine seven nine biography of markov s son located at the steklov institute of mathematics at st petersburg one eight five six births one nine two two deaths russian mathematicians an alumnus masculine or alumna feminine of a college university or school is a former st |
udent informal equivalents are alum and alumn with a silent n the term is often mistakenly thought of as synonymous with graduate alumni ae reunions are popular events at many institutions they are usually organized by alumni associations and are often social occasions for fundraising in latin alumnus is the masculine singular form and alumna the feminine singular form the words are derived from the latin verb alere to nourish and literally mean nourished one or nursling although these terms are recommended by leading english language dictionaries their use can be limited because they are gender specific the latin plural is alumni for men and mixed groups and alumnae for women the gender neutral english term alum alumn created by clipping the ending from alumnus is also used along with its plural alums alumns recently the definition of alum has expanded to include people who have matriculated at or exited from any kind of organization or process as such one can potentially be a corporate alum of xyz company o |
r an alum of a military branch non profit organization or training process educational institutions tend to follow latin usage alumnus for males alumna for females and alumni for mixed groups all women colleges use alumna and alumnae some institutions such as texas a alumni or even graduates choosing to use the term former students in the united kingdom and to a lesser extent australia the phrases old boy and old girl are traditionally used for former school pupils and old member for former university students some private schools in canada such as upper canada college and the bishop strachan school also use old boy and old girl the term old student can nowadays refer to the graduates of either schools or universities in scotland the term former pupil fp is also used especially when referring to sports teams of a school see also alma mater old boy network alumni association academia people by educational institution angst is a german dutch and north germanic word for fear or anxiety it is used in english to d |
escribe an intense feeling of internal emotional strife a different but related meaning is attributed to danish philosopher s ren kierkegaard one eight one three one eight five five kierkegaard used the word angst danish meaning dread to describe a profound and deep seated spiritual condition of insecurity and despair in the free human being where the animal is a slave to its god given instincts but always confident in its own actions kierkegaard believed that the freedom given to mankind leaves the human in a constant fear of failing its responsibilities to god kierkegaard s concept of angst is considered to be an important stepping stone for two zero th century existentialism while kierkegaard s feeling of angst is fear of actual responsibility to god in modern use angst is broadened to include general frustration associated with the conflict between actual responsibilities to self one s principles and others possibly including god still the angst in alternative music may be more accessible to most audience |
s than the esoteric tradition of existentialism the term angst is now widely used with a negative and derisive connotation that mocks the expression of a common adolescent experience of malaise angst in contemporary music angst in contemporary connotative use most often describes the intense frustration and other related emotions of teenagers and the mood of the music with which they identify punk rock grunge emo and virtually any alternative rock dramatically combining elements of discord melancholy and excitement may be said to assert angst there is an obvious connection to this music and the various subjugation of its proponent youth or racial or sociopolitical minority subculture angst was probably first discussed in relation to contemporary music in the mid to late one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s in the one nine eight zero s teen angst was expressed in music to a certain extent in the rise of punk but the word angst is currently more associated with and was probably first used in reference |
to the grunge movement and the band nirvana nirvana themselves seem to have been aware of this as evidenced by the first line of serve the servants in which kurt cobain describes the success of writing songs dealing with the subject teenage angst has paid off well now i m bored and old see also english words of german origin anxiety suffering anomie alienation ennui emotion existentialism german loanwords anxiety refers to a complex combination of negative emotions that includes fear apprehension and worry and is often accompanied by physical sensations such as palpitations chest pain and or shortness of breath anxiety is often described as having cognitive somatic emotional and behavioral components seligman walker blood pressure and heart rate are increased sweating is increased bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased and immune and digestive system functions are inhibited externally somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin sweating trembling and pupillary dilation emotionally anxiety cause |
s a sense of dread or panic nausea and chills behaviorally both voluntary and involuntary behaviors may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety these behaviors are frequent and often maladaptive being most extreme in anxiety disorders however anxiety is not always pathological or maladaptive it is a common emotion along with fear anger sadness and happiness and it has a very important function in relation to survival neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to underlie anxiety rosen zald hagen gorman two zero zero zero phobia this category involves a strong irrational fear and avoidance of an object or situation the person knows the fear is irrational yet the anxiety remains phobic disorders differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders because there is a specific stimulus or situation that elicits a strong fear response imagine how it would feel to be so frightened by a spider that you would try to jump out of a speeding car to get away from it t |
his is how a person suffering from phobia might feel people with phobias have especially powerful imaginations so they vividly anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering such feared objects as knives bridges blood enclosed places or certain animals these individuals recognize that their fears are excessive and unreasonable but are generally unable to control their anxiety in addition to specific phobias such as fears of knives rats or spiders there is another category of phobias known as social phobias individuals with this disorder experience intense fear of being negatively evaluated by others or of being publicly embarrassed because of impulsive acts almost everyone experiences stage fright when speaking or performing in front of a group but people with social phobias become so anxious that performance is out of the question in fact their fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliaton becomes so pervasive that normal life is impossible den boer two zero zero zero margolis stage fright many scie |
ntists believe that the benzodiazepines and other antianxiety drugs are greatly overprescribed and potentially addictive see for example fred leavitt s the real drug abusers rowman small doses either taken regularly through the day or when early symptoms are noticed by the patient valerian root is also reputed to have anti anxiety and sedative properties as are passion fruit passion flower st john s wort hops and chamomile popular nutritional supplements for dealing with anxiety include magnesium and b complex vitamins self help and relaxation techniques also play an important role in relieving anxiety symptoms self help includes proper diet this includes reduction in consumption of caffeine sugar and generally an improvement of eating habits caffeine reduction should be gradual some anxiety sufferers report considerable reductions in their anxiety just from taking these measures exercise some exercise is thought to relieve stress anxiety sufferers should note that rapid heart palpitations during exercise can |
trigger a panic attack so it is probably better to gradually develop an exercise routine while on a cognitive behavioral program laughing breathing techniques and proper breathing a diaphragmic breathing technique is often recommended as opposed to chest breathing proper sleep relaxation techniques a state of relaxation can be achieved with the help of relaxation tapes yoga or relaxation therapy stress management this may entail changes in lifestyle and time management there are a number of books specialized in stress management panic attack coping strategies specific strategies for dealing with panic episodes have been proposed such as slow abdominal breathing and use of reassuring self talk search for meaning and purpose some experts have indicated that residual generalized anxiety can be the result of a sort of boredom about existence they recommend looking for an occupation the sufferer finds meaningful alcoholic drinks are probably the most widely used substance for the alleviation of anxiety anxiety su |
fferers are cautioned that alcohol is also a powerful depressant and has a plethora of dangerous and uncomfortable side effects in addition to being highly addictive anxiety in palliative care some research has strongly suggested that treating anxiety in cancer patients improves their quality of life the treatment generally consists of counselling relaxation techniques or pharmacologically with benzodiazepines anxiety and alternative medicine a two zero zero two cdc survey see table three on page nine found that complementary and alternative methods were used to treat anxiety depression by four five percent of u s adults who used cam existential anxiety theologians like paul tillich and psychologists like sigmund freud have characterized anxiety as the reaction to what tillich called the trauma of nonbeing that is the human comes to realize that there is a point at which they might cease to be die and their encounter with reality becomes characterized by anxiety religion according to both tillich and freud th |
en becomes a carefully crafted coping mechanism in response to this anxiety test anxiety test anxiety is the uneasiness apprehension or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following the association of grades with personal worth embarrassment by a teacher taking a class that is beyond their ability fear of alienation from parents or friends time pressures or feeling a loss of control emotional cognitive behavioral and physical components can all be present in test anxiety sweating dizziness headaches racing heartbeats nausea fidgeting and drumming on a desk are all common an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam however when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum it results in a decline in performance see also angst social anxiety references bourne e j anxiety and phobia workbook rosen j b from normal fear to pathological anxiety psychological review one zero five two |
three two five three five zero seligman m e p walker e f neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions j neurophysiol eight seven two one zero six eight seven five zald d h emotion olfaction and the human amygdala amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation proc nat l acad sci usa nine four eight four one one nine two four external links healthyplace com anxiety community comprehensive information on anxiety and panic from causes of anxiety disorders to anxiety medications and alternative remedies anxiety tests boards journals support groups informative articles about anxiety emedicine article on anxiety blood test for anxiety an article anxiety anxiety information and support anxiety disorders symptoms motivation a a milne alan alexander milne january one eight one eight eight two january three one one nine five six also known as a a milne was a british author best known for his books about the animated teddy bear winnie the pooh and for various children s poems milne h |
ad made several reputations most notably as a playwright before the huge success of pooh overshadowed all his previous work biography milne was born in scotland but raised in london at a small private school in kilburn run by his father john vine milne one of his teachers was h g wells he attended westminster school and trinity college cambridge where he studied on a mathematics scholarship while there he edited and wrote for granta a student magazine he collaborated with his brother kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials akm milne s work came to the attention of the leading british humour magazine punch where milne was to become a contributor and later assistant editor of punch his son christopher robin was born in one nine two zero milne joined the british army in world war i but after the war wrote a denunciation of war titled peace with honour one nine three four which he retracted somewhat in one nine four zero with war with honour during the war milne was one of the most prominent critics |
of english comic writer p g wodehouse who was captured at his country home in france by the nazis and imprisoned for a year wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment which were broadcast from berlin although the lighthearted broadcasts made fun of the germans milne accused wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country s enemy wodehouse got some revenge by creating fatuous parodies of the christopher robin poems in some of his later stories in one nine two five milne bought a country home cotchford farm in hartfield east sussex he retired to the farm after brain surgery in one nine five two left him an invalid literary career milne is most famous for his pooh books about a boy named christopher robin after his son and various characters inspired by his son s stuffed animals most notably the bear named winnie the pooh reputedly a canadian black bear named winnie after winnipeg used as a military mascot by the royal winnipeg rifles a canadian infantry regiment in worl |
d war i and left to london zoo after the war is the source of the name e h shepard illustrated the original pooh books using his own teddy growler a magnificent bear as the model christopher robin s own toys are now under glass in new york the overwhelming success of his children s books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to milne whose self avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who until then had found a ready audience for each change of direction he had freed pre war punch from its ponderous facetiousness he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright like his idol jm barrie on both sides of the atlantic he had produced a durable character led and witty piece of detective writing in the red house mystery indeed his publisher was displeased when he announced his intention to write poems for children and he had never lacked an audience but once milne had in his own words said goodbye to all that in seven zero zero zero zero words the approximate length of the four children s boo |
ks he had no intention of producing a copy of a copy given that one of the sources of inspiration his son was growing older his reception remained warmer in america than britain and he continued to publish novels and short stories but by the late one nine three zero s the audience for milne s grown up writing had largely vanished he observed bitterly in his autobiography that a critic had said that the hero of his latest play god help it was simply christopher robin grown up what an obsession with me children are become even his old home punch where the when we were very young verses had first appeared was ultimately to reject him as christopher milne details in his autobiography the enchanted places though methuen continued to publish whatever milne wrote including the long poem the norman church and an assembly of articles entitled year in year out which milne likened to a benefit night for the author after milne s death the rights to the pooh characters were sold by his widow daphne to the walt disney comp |
any which has made a number of pooh cartoon movies as well as a large amount of pooh related merchandise she also destroyed his papers milne also wrote a number of poems including vespers they re changing guard at buckingham palace and king john s christmas which were published in the books when we were very young and now we are six his poems have been parodied many times including the books when we were rather older and now we are sixty he also adapted kenneth grahame s novel the wind in the willows for the stage as toad of toad hall the title was an implicit admission that such chapters as the piper at the gates of dawn could not survive translation to the theater biographies milne s friend frank swinnerton s book the georgian literary scene contains a substantial section about him his son has written several books of autobiography the enchanted places in particular is an account of his attempt to escape from the shadow of a famous father and a burdensome name the path through the trees continues the story |
into adult life ann thwaites aa milne his life is an excellent and detailed biography although it gives little space to the plays a spin off book tells the story for a younger readership concentrating on pooh works novels lovers in london one nine zero five some consider this more of a short story collection milne didn t like it and considered the day s play as his first book once on a time one nine one seven a fairytale with an adult slant mr pim passes by one nine two one the red house mystery one nine two one two people one nine three one inside jacket claims this is milne s first attempt at a novel four days wonder one nine three three chloe marr one nine four six non fiction peace with honour one nine three four it s too late now one nine three nine autobiography war with honour one nine four zero year in year out one nine five two punch articles the day s play one nine one zero once a week one nine one four the holiday round one nine one two the sunny side one nine two one those were the days one nine t |
wo nine selection of punch pieces from the above four books selections of newspaper articles and introductions to books by others not that it matters one nine two zero by way of introduction one nine two nine story collections for children gallery of children one nine two five winnie the pooh one nine two six the house at pooh corner one nine two eight short stories a table by the band poetry for the luncheon interval poems from punch when we were very young one nine two four now we are six one nine two seven behind the lines one nine four zero the norman church one nine four eight plays milne wrote over two five plays including wurzel flummery one nine one seven belinda one nine one eight the boy comes home one nine one eight make believe one nine one eight a play for children the camberley triangle one nine one nine mr pim passes by one nine one nine the red feathers one nine two zero the romantic age one nine two zero the stepmother one nine two zero the truth about blayds one nine two zero the dover road |
one nine two one the lucky one one nine two two the artist a duologue one nine two three give me yesterday one nine two three aka success in the uk the great broxopp one nine two three ariadne one nine two four the man in the bowler hat one nine two four one act to have the honour one nine two four portrait of a gentleman in slippers one nine two six success a play in three acts one nine two six miss marlow at play one nine two seven the fourth wall or the perfect alibi one nine two eight the ivory door one nine two nine toad of toad hall one nine two nine adaptation of the wind in the willows other people s lives one nine three three aka they don t mean any harm miss elizabeth bennett based on pride and prejudice one nine three six sarah simple one nine three seven gentleman unknown one nine three eight the ugly duckling one nine four six before the flood one nine five one michael and mary books on pooh and milne crews frederick the pooh perplex chicago london university of chicago press two zero zero three |
one st ed one nine six three isbn zero two two six one two zero five eight nine crews frederick postmodern pooh new york north point press two zero zero one isbn zero eight six five four seven six five four three hoff benjamin the tao of pooh new york penguin one nine eight three isbn zero one four zero zero six seven four seven seven hoff benjamin the te of piglet new york dutton adult one nine nine two isbn zero five two five nine three four nine six zero milne christopher robin and a r melrose ed beyond the world of pooh selections from the memoirs of christopher milne new york dutton one nine nine eight isbn zero five two five four five eight eight eight three thwaite ann a a milne his life new york random house one nine nine zero isbn zero three nine four five eight seven two four three tyerman williams john pooh and the philosophers in which it is shown that all of western philosophy is merely a preamble to winnie the pooh london methuen one nine nine five isbn zero five two five four five five two zero |
five wullschlager jackie inventing wonderland the lives and fantasies of lewis carroll edward lear j m barrie kenneth grahame and a a milne new york detroit the free press one nine nine six isbn zero six eight four eight two two eight six five films the fourth wall was made into a film called the perfect alibi michael and mary was filmed in one nine three two external links milne extract in the guardian one eight eight two births one nine five six deaths alumni of trinity college cambridge british army officers british novelists british children s writers old westminsters winnie the pooh addiction is a compulsion to repeat a behaviour regardless of its consequences a person who is addicted is sometimes called an addict there is a lack of consensus as to what may properly be termed addiction some within the medical community maintain a rigid definition of addiction and contend that the term is only applicable to a process of escalating drug or alcohol use as a result of repeated exposure however addiction is |
often applied to compulsive behaviors other than drug use such as overeating or gambling in all cases the term addiction describes a chronic pattern of behaviour that continues despite the direct or indirect adverse consequences that result from engaging in the behavior it is quite common for an addict to express the desire to stop the behaviour but find himself or herself unable to cease addiction is often characterized by a craving for more of the drug or behavior increased physiological tolerance to exposure and withdrawal symptoms in the absence of the stimulus many drugs and behaviours that provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of addiction or dependency terminology and usage the medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between physical dependence characterized by symptoms of withdrawal and psychological addiction or simply addiction addiction is now narrowly defined as uncontrolled compulsive use despite harm if there is no harm being suffered by or damage done to |
the patient or another party then clinically it may be considered compulsive but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as addiction in practice however the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish addictions often have both physical and psychological components there is also a lesser known situation called pseudo addiction where a patient will exhibit drug seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction however in this case the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated unlike true psychological addiction however these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated the term dry drunk is sometimes attached to patterns of behavior that persist after an object of dependence and or misuse has been removed from daily living routines this type of behaviour is fairly common in early recovery for those recovering from substance misuse the obsolete term physical addiction is deprecated because of its connotations in mode |
rn pain management with opioids physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare some of the highly addictive drugs hard drugs such as cocaine induce relatively little physical dependence not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is particularly because traditionally addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance for example alcohol tobacco or drugs which is ingested crosses the blood brain barrier and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily many people both psychology professionals and laypersons now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as gambling food sex pornography computers work and shopping spending however these are things or tasks which when used or performed cannot cross the blood brain barrier and hence do not fit into the traditional view of addiction symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours however it is said by those who adh |
ere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction but rather of a behavioural disorder in spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used thus failing the person with the behavioural problem popular media and some members of the field do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions note the diagnostic statistical manual dsm ivr specifically spells out criteria to define abuse and dependence conditions varied forms of addiction physical dependency physical dependency on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic withdrawal symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued while opioids benzodiazepines barbiturates alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive cortisone beta blockers and most antidepressants are examples so while physical depe |
ndency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm some drugs induce physical dependence or physiological tolerance but not addiction for example many laxatives which are not psychoactive nasal decongestants which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row and some antidepressants most notably effexor and paxil as they have quite short half lives so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants many non addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them the speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance the frequency of use the means of ingestion and the individual some alcoholics report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication while most |
people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted because of this variation some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated nicotine is one of the most addictive psychoactive substances although three five million smokers make an attempt to quit every year less than seven achieve even one year of abstinence while eating disorders like other behavioral addictions are usually considered primarily psychological disorders they are sometimes treated as addictions especially if they include elements of addictive behavior sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly this suggests that some common food substances especially chocolate sugar salt and white flour may have the potential for addiction in addition frequent overeating can also be considered an addiction from the nida research report on nicotine addiction psychological addiction psychological addictions are a dependency of the mind and lead to p |
sychological withdrawal symptoms addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional social or psychological dysfunctions taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained see rat park addiction and drug control legislation most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug like substances under the control of licensing systems typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates cannabinoids cocaine barbiturates hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs and unlicensed production supply or possession is a criminal offence usually however drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness the substances covered often have very different addictive properties some are highly prone to cause physical dependency whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever also alth |
ough the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment methods of care early editions of the american psychiatric association s diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence recent editions including dsm iv have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency rather than addiction the american society of addiction medicine recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on patient placement criteria currently listed in ppc two which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas including acute intoxication and or withdrawal potential biomedical conditions or complications e |
motional behavioral conditions or complications treatment acceptance resistance relapse potential recovery environment some medical systems including those of at least one five states of the united states refer to an addiction severity index to assess the severity of problems related to substance use the index assesses problems in six areas medical employment support alcohol and other drug use legal family social and psychiatric while addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges and may have roots in genetic predisposition treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification which can include doses of anxiolytics to reduce symptoms of withdrawal in chronic opiate addiction a surrogate drug such as methadone is sometimes offered as a form of opiate replacement therapy but treatment approaches universally focus on the individual s ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action therapists oft |
en classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain diverse explanations several explanations or models have been presented to explain addiction the moral model states that addictions are the result of human weakness and are defects of character those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction they often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an ad |
diction or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction the moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances perhaps purely for social or political reasons but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value elements of the moral model especially a focus on individual choices have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies the opponent process model generated by richard soloman states that for every psychological event a will be followed by its opposite psychological event b for example the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal or the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens this model is related to the opponent process color theory if you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green there are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste mot |
or movement touch vision and hearing opponent processes occurring at the sensory level may translate down stream into addictive or habit forming behavior the disease model holds that addiction is an illness and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy neurochemical or behavioral processes while there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model it is widely employed in therapeutic settings most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease the genetic model posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors it is frequently noted that certain addictions run in the family and while researchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency researchers have had difficulty assessing differences however between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors rel |
ated to heredity the cultural model recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions for example alcoholism is rare among saudi arabians where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited in north america on the other hand the incidence of gambling addictions soared in the last two decades of the two zero th century mirroring the growth of the gaming industry half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily suggesting that familiar influence genetic factors or more likely both play a role in the development of addiction the blended model attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency it holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals and that each case must be considered on its own merits the habit model proposed by thomas szasz questions the very concept of addiction he argues that ad |
diction is a metaphor and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction is to persecute somebody szasz one nine seven three the genetic neurobiological model called hypoism read about the science behind this and its implications at http www nvo com hypoism the scientific argument is at http www nvo com hypoism hypoismhypothesis neurobiological basis the development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of one increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and two the attenuation or shutting down of other behaviors for example animals allowed the unlimited ability to self administer psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food sleep and sex for continued access the neuro anatomical correlate of this that the brain regions involved in driving goal directed behavior grow increasingly selective for particular motivating stimuli and rewards to the point that the brain regions involved in the inhibition of behavior can no |
longer effectively send stop signals a good analogy is to imagine flooring the gas pedal in a car with very bad brakes in this case the limbic system is thought to be the major driving force and the orbitofrontal cortex is the substrate of the top down inhibition a specific portion of the limbic circuit known as the mesolimbic dopaminergic system is hypothesized to play an important role in translation of motivation to motor behavior and reward related learning in particular it is typically defined as the ventral tegmental area vta the nucleus accumbens and the bundle of dopamine containing fibres that connecting them this system is commonly implicated in the seeking out and consumption of rewarding stimuli or events such as sweet tasting foods or sexual interaction however ita importance to addiction research goes beyond its role in natural motivation while the specific site or mechanism of action may differ all known drugs of abuse have the common effect in that they elevate the level of dopamine in the nuc |
leus accumbens this may happen directly such as through blockade of the dopamine re uptake mechanism see cocaine it may also happen indirectly such as through stimulation of the dopamine containing neurons of the vta that synapse onto neurons in the accumbens see opiates the euphoric effects of drugs of abuse are thought to be a direct result of the acute increase in accumbal dopamine the human body has a natural tendency to maintain homeostasis and the central nervous system is no exception chronic elevation of dopamine will result in a decrease in the number of dopamine receptors available in a process known as downregulation the decreased number of receptors changes the permeability of the cell membrane located post synaptically such that the post synaptic neuron is less excitable ie less able to respond to chemical signalling with an electrical impulse or action potential it is hypothesized that this dulling of the responsiveness of the brain s reward pathways contributes to the inability to feel pleasure |
known as anhedonia often observed in addicts the increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both physiological tolerance and withdrawal associated with addiction downregulation can be classically conditioned if a behavior consistently occurs in the same environment or contigently with a particular cue the brain will adjust to the presence of the conditioned cues by decreasing the number of available receptors in the absence of the behavior it is thought that many drug overdoses are not the result of a user taking a higher dose than is typical but rather that the user is administering the same dose in a new environment in cases of physical dependency on depressants of the central nervous system such as opioids barbiturates or alcohol the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines valium family can result in seizures and even death by contrast withdrawal |
from opioids which can be extremely uncomfortable is rarely if ever life threatening in cases of dependence and withdrawal the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions endogenous ligands and instead produces opposing chemicals when the addictive substance is withdrawn the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming for example chronic use of sedatives alcohol barbiturates or benzodiazepines results in higher chronic levels of stimulating neurotransmitters such as glutamate very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells called excitatory neurotoxicity criticism levi bryant has criticized the term and concept of addiction as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient s identity and makes it harder to become a non addict the signifier addict doesn t simply describe what i am but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how i relate to others a stronger form or criticism comes from |
thomas szasz who denies that addiction is a psychiatric problem in many of his works he argues that addiction is a choice and that a drug addict is one who simply prefers a socially taboo substance rather than say a low risk lifestyle in our right to drugs szasz cites the biography of malcolm x to corroborate his economic views towards addiction malcolm claimed that quitting cigarettes was harder than shaking his heroine addiction szasz postulates that humans always have a choice and it is foolish to call someone an addict just becuase they prefer a drug induced euphoria to a more popular and socially welcome lifestyle a similar conclusion to that of thomas szasz may also be reached through very different reasoning this is the somewhat extreme yet tenanable view that humans do not have free will from this perspective being addicted to a substance is no different than being addicted to a job that you work everyday without the assumption of free will every human action is the result of the naturally occuring r |
eactions of particle matter in the physical brain and so there is no longer room for the concept of addiction since in this view choice is an illusion of the human experience casual addiction the word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for such addicts include biblioholics chocoholics workaholics see also one two step programs alcoholics anonymous narcotics anonymous moderation management cold turkey junkie love hate relationship tanha yes recovery higher order desire sexual addiction drug addiction computer addiction external links hypoism hypothesis nature neurosience focus on neurobiology of addiction freely available online through january two zero zero six national institute on drug abuse definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain two zero zero one a joint statement by the american academy of pain medicine the american pain society and the american society of addiction medicine world health organization terminology for subst |
ance use and dependence narcotics anonymous help for addicts by addicts alcoholics anonymous four stages of breaking an addiction marijuana anonymous methadone anonymous world services inc methadone methadone anonymous support national institute on chemical dependency harrowing heroin by geoff morton addictioninfo contemporary addiction information nida research report on nicotine addiction addiction motivation unsolved problems in neuroscience in epistemology an axiom is a self evident truth upon which other knowledge must rest from which other knowledge is built up not all epistemologists agree that any axioms understood in that sense exist in mathematics an axiom is not necessarily a self evident truth but rather a formal logical expression used in a deduction to yield further results mathematics distinguishes two types of axioms logical axioms and non logical axioms etymology the word axiom comes from the greek word axioma which means that which is deemed worthy or fit or that which is considered self evi |
dent the word comes from axioein meaning to deem worthy which in turn comes from axios meaning worthy among the ancient greek philosophers an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof mathematics in the field of mathematical logic a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms logical axioms and non logical axioms logical axioms these are certain formulas in a language that are universally valid that is formulas that are satisfied by every structure under every variable assignment function in colloquial terms these are statements that are true in any possible universe under any possible interpretation and with any assignment of values usually one takes as logical axioms some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language examples in the propositional calculus it is common to take as logical axioms all formulas of the following forms where phi psi and chi can be any formulas of the language phi to psi to phi phi to psi to c |
hi to phi to psi to phi to chi lnot phi to lnot psi to psi to phi each of these patterns is an axiom schema a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms for example if a b and c are propositional variables then a to b to a and a to lnot b to c to a to lnot b are both instances of axiom schema one and hence are axioms it can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and modus ponens one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus it can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with modus ponens these axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus but additional logical axioms are needed example let mathfrak be a first order language for each variable x the formula x x is universally valid this means that for any variable symbol x the formula x x can be regarded as an axiom also in this example for this not to fall into vagueness and a never ending series of primitive notions either a precise notion of what we mean by x x or for al |
l what matters to be equal has to be well established first or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol has to be enforced and mathematical logic does indeed do that another more interesting example is that which provides us with what is known as universal instantiation example given a formula phi in a first order language mathfrak a variable x and a term t that is substitutable for x in phi the formula forall x phi to phi x t is universally valid in informal terms this example allows us to state that if we know that a certain property p holds for every x and that if t stands for a particular object in our structure then we should be able to claim p t again we are claiming that the formula forall x phi to phi x t is valid that is we must be able to give a proof of this fact or more properly speaking a metaproof actually these examples are metatheorems of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of proof itself aside from this we can also have existential generaliz |
ation axiom scheme given a formula phi in a first order language mathfrak a variable x and a term t that is substitutable for x in phi the formula phi x t to exists x phi is universally valid non logical axioms non logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory specific assumptions reasoning about two different structures for example the natural numbers and the integers may involve the same logical axioms the non logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure or set of structures such as groups thus non logical axioms unlike logical axioms are not tautologies another name for a non logical axiom is postulate almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non logical axioms and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas this turned out to be impossible and proved to be quite a story see below non logical axioms are often simply referred to as axioms in mathe |
matical discourse this does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense for example in some groups the group operation is commutative and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom but without this axiom we can do quite well developing the more general group theory and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non commutative groups thus an axiom is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a deductive system examples this section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non logical axioms axioms henceforth a rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms basic theories such as arithmetic real analysis sometimes referred to as the theory of functions of one real variable linear algebra and complex analysis a k a complex variables are often introduced non axiomatically in mostly technical studies but any rigorous c |
ourse in these subjects always begins by presenting its axioms geometries such as euclidean geometry projective geometry symplectic geometry interestingly one of the results of the fifth euclidean axiom being a non logical axiom is that the three angles of a triangle do not by definition add to one eight zero only under the umbrella of euclidean geometry is this always true the study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology algebraic topology differential topology and all the related paraphernalia such as homology theory homotopy theory the development of abstract algebra brought with itself group theory rings and fields galois theory this list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics including axiomatic set theory measure theory ergodic theory probability representation theory and differential geometry arithmetic the peano axioms are the most widely used axiomatization of arithmetic they are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number |
theory and they allowed g del to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem we have a language mathfrak where zero is a constant symbol and s is a unary function and the following axioms forall x lnot sx zero forall x forall y sx sy to x y phi zero land forall x phi x to phi sx to forall x phi x for any mathfrak formula phi with one free variable the standard structure is mathfrak langle n zero s rangle where n is the set of natural numbers s is the successor function and zero is naturally interpreted as the number zero euclidean geometry probably the oldest and most famous list of axioms are the four one euclid s postulates of plane geometry this set of axioms turns out to be incomplete and many more postulates are necessary to rigorously characterize his geometry hilbert used two three the axioms are referred to as four one because for nearly two millennia the fifth parallel postulate through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel was suspected of being derivable from the first four ul |
timately the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four indeed one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist that exactly one exists or that infinitely many exist these choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic euclidean and hyperbolic geometries real analysis the object of study is the real numbers the real numbers are uniquely picked out up to isomorphism by the properties of a complete ordered field however expressing these properties as axioms requires use of second order logic the l wenheim skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to first order logic any axiom system for the reals admits other models including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger some of the latter are studied in non standard analysis role in mathematical logic deductive systems and completeness a deductive |
system consists of a set lambda of logical axioms a set sigma of non logical axioms and a set of rules of inference a desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete a system is said to be complete if for all formulas phi if sigma models phi then sigma vdash phi that is for any statement that is a logical consequence of sigma there actually exists a deduction of the statement from sigma this is sometimes expressed as everything that is true is provable but it must be understood that true here means made true by the set of axioms and not for example true in the intended interpretation g del s completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system note that completeness has a different meaning here than it does in the context of g del s first incompleteness theorem which states that no recursive consistent set of non logical axioms sigma of the theory of arithmetic is complete in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement phi suc |
h that neither phi nor lnot phi can be proved from the given set of axioms there is thus on the one hand the notion of completeness of a deductive system and on the other hand that of completeness of a set of non logical axioms the completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem despite their names do not contradict one another further discussion early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space and obviously there could only be one such model the idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the one nine th century and the developers of systems such as boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use as he algebraically solved many classical geometrical problems ultimately the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to b |
e more important than the details and modern algebra was born in the modern view we may take as axioms any set of formulas we like as long as they are not known to be inconsistent see also axiomatic system peano axioms axiom of choice axiom of countability axiomatic set theory parallel postulate continuum hypothesis axiomatization list of axioms external links metamath axioms page mathematical axioms logic for other uses see alpha alpha uppercase lowercase is the first letter of the greek alphabet in the system of greek numerals it has a value of one it derives from the phoenician letter alephaleph letters that arose from alpha include the latin a and the cyrillic letter a plutarch in moralia presents a discussion on the question of why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet plutarch s speaker suggests that cadmus the phoenician who reputedly settled in thebes and introduced the alphabet to greece placed alpha first because it is the phoenician name for ox which they like hesiod considered not the seco |
nd or third but the first of necessities this refers to a passage in works and days by hesiod who advised the early greek farmers first get an ox then a woman a simpler explanation is that it was the first letter in the phoenician alphabet according to plutarch s natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets alpha was connected with the moon oxen were also associated with the moon in both early sumerian and egyptian religious symbolism due to the crescent shape of their horns alpha both as a symbol and term is used to refer to or describe a variety of things including the first or most significant occurrence of something jesus declares himself to be the alpha and omega the beginning and the end the first and the last revelation two two one three kjv and see also one eight the uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase latin a the lower case letter is used as the symbol for the following in physics angular acceleration the a |
lpha particle and alpha decay molecular polarisability other uses alpha is also used to describe the strongest male in a pack of animals known as the alphamale greek letters alvin toffler alvin toffler born october three one nine two eight is an american writer and futurist known for his works discussing the digital revolution communications revolution corporate revolution and technological singularity a former associate editor of fortune magazine his early work focused on technology and its impact through effects like information overload then he moved to examining the reaction of and changes in society his later focus has been on the increasing power of two one st century military hardware weapons and technology proliferation and capitalism he is married to heidi toffler also a writer and futurist his ideas toffler explains society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest society needs people who work in hospitals society needs all kinds of skill that are not |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.