text
stringlengths 640
1.02k
|
|---|
zero s football has surpassed baseball as the most popular spectator sport in the united states the three two team national football league nfl is the most popular and only major professional american football league its championship game the super bowl is watched by nearly half of us television households and is also televised in over one five zero other countries super bowl sunday has become an annual ritual in late january or early february football is also the most watched sport on television in the us the nfl also operates a developmental league nfl europe with six teams based in european cities a colorado state university player runs with the ball as an air force academy player lines up a tackle college football is also extremely popular throughout the u s especially in markets not served by an nfl team several college football stadiums seat more than one zero zero zero zero zero fans which regularly sell out even high school football games can attract five figure crowds especially in hotbeds like weste |
rn pennsylvania nebraska florida georgia and most especially texas ohio and california the weekly autumn ritual of college and high school football which includes marching bands cheerleaders and parties including the ubiquitous tailgate party is an important part of the culture in much of smalltown america it is a long standing tradition in the united states though not universally observed that high school football games are played on friday college games on saturday and professional games on sunday with an additional professional game on monday nights see monday night football it is often said of an outstanding college football player that he is likely to be playing on sundays one day meaning that he is a good pro prospect certain fall and winter holidays most notably thanksgiving christmas and new years day have traditional football games associated with them football is also played recreationally by amateur club and youth teams e g the pop warner little league programs there are also many semi pro teams in |
leagues where the players are paid to play but at a small enough salary that they generally must also hold a full time job pro football is played only in the united states and in the above mentioned nfl europe league the sport is popular as an amateur activity in mexico and american samoa and to a lesser extent in japan europe and australia a very similar sport canadian football is widely played in canada organized football is played almost exclusively by men and boys although a few amateur and semi professional women s leagues have begun play in recent years the rules of american football the object of american football is to score more points than the opposing team within a set time limit field and players the numbers on the field indicate the number of yards to the nearest end zone the field is often called the gridiron because the markings on the field resemble a grill the game is played on a rectangular field one two zero yards one one zero metres long by five three one three yards four nine metres wide |
the longer boundary lines are sidelines while the shorter boundary lines are end lines near each end of the field is a goal line they are one zero zero yards apart a scoring area called an end zone extends one zero yards beyond each goal line to each end line yard lines cross the field every five yards and are numbered from each goal line to the five zero yard line or midfield similar to a typical rugby league field two rows of lines known as hash marks parallel the side lines near the middle of the field all plays start with the ball on or between the hash marks at the back of each end zone are two goal posts also called uprights that are one eight five feet apart the posts are connected by a crossbar one zero feet from the ground successful kicks must go above the crossbar and between the uprights at many fields the uprights and crossbar are attached by a curved bar to a post outside the field of play to reduce the chance of players running into the supports each team has one one players on the field at a |
time however teams may substitute for any or all of their players between plays as a result players have very specialized roles and almost all of the five three players on an nfl team will play in any given game thus teams are divided into three separate units the offense the defense and the special teams see below in the nfl players jersey numbers are distributed according to a strict system e g quarterbacks always wear between one one nine game duration a standard football game consists of four one five minute typically one two minutes in high school football periods called quarters with an intermission called halftime after the second quarter the clock stops after certain plays therefore a game can last considerably longer often more than three hours in real time if an nfl game is tied after four quarters the teams play up to another one five minutes in an nfl overtime game the first team that scores wins if neither team scores the game is a tie college overtime rules are more complicated and are described |
at overtime sport advancing the ball advancing the ball in american football resembles the six tackle rule and the play the ball in rugby league football the team that takes possession of the ball the offense has four attempts called downs to advance the ball one zero yards towards their opponent s the defense s end zone when the offense gains one zero yards it gets a first down or another set of four downs to gain one zero yards if the offense fails to gain a first down one zero yards after four downs it loses possession of the ball except at the beginning of halves and after scores see kickoffs and free kicks below the ball is always put into play by a snap all players line up facing each other at the line of scrimmage the position on the field where the play begins one offensive player the center then passes or snaps the ball between his legs to a teammate usually the quarterback players can then advance the ball in two ways by running with the ball also known as rushing one ball carrier can hand the ball |
to another this is known as a handoff by throwing the ball to a teammate known as passing the forward pass is a key factor distinguishing american and canadian football from other football sports the offense can throw the ball forward only once on a play and only from behind the line of scrimmage the ball can be thrown sideways or backwards at any time this type of pass is known as a lateral and is much rarer in american football than in rugby league or rugby union where a backwards pass is mandatory a play or down ends and the ball becomes dead after any of the following the player with the ball is forced to the ground or has his forward progress halted by members of the other team as determined by an official a forward pass flies out of bounds or touches the ground before it is caught this is known as an incomplete pass the ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down the ball or the player with the ball goes beyond the dimensions of the field out of bounds a team scores a certain p |
enalty is committed such as false start that causes the play to be blown dead and replayed officials blow a whistle to notify all players that the play is over at all times players and fans must be aware of the sequence of downs and the distance to a new first down when a team has a first down the scoreboard or television screen flashes one st and one zero that is first down and one zero yards to go if the team gains three yards on the first play for example the next down will be two nd and seven changes of possession the offense maintains possession of the ball unless one of the following things happens the team fails to get a first down that is move the ball forward at least one zero yards in four downs the defensive team takes over the ball at the spot where the play ends a change of possession in this manner is commonly called a turnover on downs the offense scores a touchdown or field goal the team that scored then kicks off the ball to the other team see scoring and kickoffs below the offense punts the |
ball to the defense a punt is a kick in which a player drops the ball and kicks it before it hits the ground punts are nearly always made on fourth down when the offensive team does not want to risk giving up the ball to the other team at its current spot on the field through a failed attempt to make a first down and feels it is too far from the other team s goal posts to kick a field goal a defensive player catches a forward pass this is called an interception and the player who makes the interception can run with the ball until tackled forced out of bounds or scores after the intercepting player is tackled or forced out of bounds his team s offensive unit returns to the field and takes over at his last position an offensive player drops the ball a fumble and a defensive player picks it up as with interceptions a player recovering a fumble can run with the ball until tackled or forced out of bounds lost fumbles and interceptions are together known as turnovers the offensive team misses a field goal attempt t |
he defensive team gets the ball at the spot where the previous play began or in the nfl at the spot of the kick if the unsuccessful kick was attempted from within two zero yards of the end zone the other team gets the ball at its own two zero yard line that is two zero yards from the end zone an offensive player is tackled forced out of bounds or commits certain penalties in his own end zone this rare occurrence is called a safety see scoring below scoring a team scores points by the following plays a touchdown td is worth six points a touchdown is scored when a player runs the ball into or catches a pass in his opponent s end zone after a touchdown the scoring team attempts a conversion the ball is placed at the other team s three yard line the two yard line in the nfl the team can attempt to kick it over the crossbar and through the goal posts in the manner of a field goal for one point an extra point or run or pass it into the end zone in the manner of a touchdown for two points a two point conversion in c |
ollegiate and professional leagues the extra point is usually preferred its success rate is nine four in the nfl and nine three eight in the ncaa compared to four three in the nfl and four three five in the ncaa for two point conversions if the defense forces a turnover on an attempted conversion and runs the ball back to their opponent s endzone they are awarded with two points does not apply in the nfl a field goal fg is worth three points and it is scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar and through the goal posts field goals may be placekicked kicked when the ball is held vertically against the ground by a teammate or drop kicked a field goal is usually attempted on fourth down instead of a punt when the ball is close to the goal line or when there is little or no time left to otherwise score a safety is worth two points a safety is scored by the defense when the offensive player in possession of the ball is forced back into his own end zone and is tackled there or fumbles the ball out of the end zon |
e certain penalties by the offense occurring in the end zone also result in a safety kickoffs and free kicks each half begins with a kickoff teams also kick off after scoring touchdowns and field goals the ball is kicked from a kicking tee which is made from one s own three zero yard line in the nfl and from the three five yard line in college football the other team s kick returner tries to catch the ball and advance it as far as possible where he is stopped is the point where the offense will begin its drive or series of offensive plays if a kick returner does not want to run with the ball he has the option to signal for a fair catch by waving his hands in the air before the catch he will then be allowed to catch the ball and kneel it down on the field without being tackled if the kick returner catches the ball in his own end zone he can either run with the ball or elect for a touchback by kneeling in the end zone the receiving team can then start its offensive drive from its own two zero yard line a touchb |
ack can also occur when the kick goes out of the end zone punts and turnovers in the end zone can also end in touchbacks if a kickoff goes out of bounds over the sidelines without being interfered by the receiving team the ball will be placed three zero yards from the spot of the kickoff traditionally at the receiving team s four zero yard line in the nfl or the three five yard line in college football after safeties there is a free kick instead of a kickoff a free kick is made from a team s own two zero yard line and can be punted or placekicked penalties rule violations are punished with penalties most penalties result in moving the football either towards the endzone in the case of a defensive penalty or away from the endzone in the case of an offensive penalty some defensive penalties give the offense an automatic first down in addition if a penalty gives the offensive team enough yardage to gain a first down the first down is automatically given if a penalty occurs during a play an official throws a yell |
ow flag near the spot of the foul when the play is over the team that did not commit the penalty has the option of taking either the penalty or the result of the play for example say a defensive player commits an offsides penalty on first down by passing the line of scrimmage before the snap and the offense gains eight yards on the play the team with the ball has the option of taking the penalty and repeat the first down with five yards to go or declining the penalty and scrimmaging with two nd and two some common penalties false start a player on the offense other than a back moving parallel to the line of scrimmage moves just prior to the snap five yards offsides a player is on the wrong side of the ball at the start of a play five yards similar fouls touching an opponent before the snap is encroachment lining up alongside the football instead of behind it is a neutral zone infraction holding a blocker unfairly impedes a would be tackler or pass receiver by grabbing the player s jersey hooking or tackling w |
hen commited by the offense or by either team on a change of possession the penalty is ten yards when committed by the defense the penalty is five yards and an automatic first down is awarded to the offense if the penalty occurred beyond the line of scrimmage the penalty would be enforced from the spot of the foul pass interference after a pass is launched into the air a defender pushes hooks grabs or knocks down a would be pass receiver or if the receiver does the same to the defender to prevent an interception first down at the spot of the foul if against the defense one five yards from the previous spot in college football or ten yards from the previous spot if against the offense similar penalties before a pass are called as holding or illegal contact facemask a player places his hand on an opponent s facemask during a play five yards or fifteen a personal foul if the player hooks his fingers into the facemask or pulls on it roughing the passer kicker a player places a hard hit on a passer long enough aft |
er a pass has been thrown to consider the contact avoidable or places a hard hit on a punter or place kicker fifteen yards and automatic first down running into the kicker a lighter contact on a kicker especially after the kick has been made five yards intentional grounding the passer throws a forward pass not near any eligible receiver without first leaving the area behind where the blocking linemen were standing before the snap the pocket or the passer throws a forward pass outside of the pocket which does not reach the original line of scrimmage and is not near any eligible receiver ten yards plus loss of down except if the penalty occurred in the end zone then it is ruled a safety and the defense is awarded two points in college football and high school football the defense is also credited with a quarterback sack note that spiking the ball to stop the clock is exempt from this ineligible receiver downfield on every play the offense must have seven players on the line of scrimmage the player furthest from |
the ball on each side are eligible receivers the interior five players are considered ineligible to receive passes this penalty is called if one of the five interior players is more than five yards past the line of scrimmage during a forward pass dead ball personal foul after the play is blown dead a player tackles or makes rough contact with a player on the other team fifteen yards automatic first down if on defense unnecessary roughness a catch all for rough play that doesn t merit its own foul an example is an avoidable late hit on a ball carrier who has run out of bounds fifteen yards unsportsmanlike conduct another catch all call commonly used for taunting excessive celebration after a touchdown and certain banned forms of pantomime like slashing the throat fifteen yards the players as noted above most football players have highly specialized roles at the college and nfl levels most play only offense or only defense offense the offensive line consists of five players whose job is to protect the passer a |
nd clear the way for runners by blocking members of the defense except for the center offensive linemen generally do not handle the ball the quarterback receives the ball on most plays he then hands or tosses it to a running back throws it to a receiver or runs with it himself running backs line up behind or beside the qb and specialize in rushing with the ball they also block catch passes and on rare occasions pass the ball to others wide receivers line up near the sidelines they specialize in catching passes tight ends line up outside the offensive line they can either play like wide receivers try to catch passes or like offensive linemen protect the qb or create spaces for runners not all of these types of players will be in on every offensive play teams can vary the number of wide receivers tight ends and running backs on the field at one time defense the defensive line consists of three to five players who line up across from the offensive line they try to tackle the running backs before they can gain ya |
rdage or the quarterback before he can throw a pass at least three players line up as defensive backs they cover the receivers and try to stop pass completions they occasionally rush the quarterback the other players on the defense are known as linebackers they line up between the defensive line and backs and may either rush the quarterback or cover potential receivers special teams the units of players who handle kicking plays are known as special teams special teams feature players that include the punter who handles punts and the placekicker or kicker who kicks off and attempts field goals and extra points basic football strategy to many fans the chief draw of football is the chess game that goes on between the two coaching staffs each team has a playbook of dozens to hundreds of plays plays are the directions for what the players should do on a down some plays are very safe they are very likely to get a few yards but not much more than that other plays have the potential for long gains but a greater risk |
of a loss of yardage or a turnover generally speaking rushing plays are less risky than passing plays however there are relatively safe passing plays and risky running plays to fool the other team there are passing plays designed to look like running plays and vice versa there are many trick or gadget plays such as when a team lines up like it is going to kick and then tries to run or pass for a first down such high risk plays are a great thrill to the fans when they work however they can spell disaster if the opposing team realizes the deception and acts accordingly it has been said that football is the closest sport that strategically resembles real war which may explain why it is by far the most popular sport in the american military in fact the united states military academy the united states naval academy and the united states air force academy each field football teams that participate in division i a of the ncaa army and navy have a particularly historic rivalry a physical game american football is a c |
ollision sport to stop the offense from advancing the ball the defense must tackle the player with the ball by knocking him down as such defensive players must use some form of physical contact to bring the ball carrier to the ground within certain rules and guidelines tacklers cannot kick punch or trip the runner they also cannot grab the face mask of the runner s helmet lead into a tackle with their own helmet or lift the ball carrier up off his feet and drop him despite these and other rules regarding unnecessary roughness most other forms of tackling are legal blockers and defenders trying to evade them also have wide leeway in trying to force their opponents out of the way quarterbacks are regularly hit by defenders coming on full speed from outside the quarterback s field of vision the high level of physical contact in football makes it more dangerous than other major american team sports to compensate for this players must wear a good deal of special protective equipment such as a padded plastic helmet |
shoulder pads hip pads and knee pads these protective paddings were introduced decades ago and improved ever since to help minimize lasting injury to players despite protective equipment and rule changes to emphasize safety injuries remain very common in football due to its physical nature twenty five football players mostly high schoolers died from injuries directly related to football from two zero zero zero two zero zero four according to the national center for catastrophic sport injury research concussions are common with an estimated six two zero zero zero suffered every year among high school players according to the brain injury association of arizona it is common to see injuries in the game and deaths are not unheard of the game is particularly risky when played by amateurs without proper gear such as is common amongst americans in backyards and parks across the country some have criticized american football as a violent sport american football is indeed quite physical in comparison to sports like b |
asketball and soccer as well as other major american team sports tackle football is often banned in american schoolyards in favor of touch football which uses two hand touching instead of tackling or flag football in which a player is tackled when an opponent pulls a flag off a belt attached to the player s waist school physical education classes often use the two hand touch version of the game leaving the tackles to the school s official after school sports program which can provide the appropriate gear and supervision the level of physical aggression and risk of injury has also made football less appealing to females as they generally lack the muscle and body mass to compete without serious risk the tackle nature of football also tends to favor the largest and strongest players along with the fastest the average weight of players in the nfl has increased in recent years all these factors have brought the sport into controversy in the past few decades joining the group of other violent and thus controversial |
sports such as dodgeball wrestling hockey and boxing critics argue that these sports emphasize size physical strength and brute force and breed aggression and unhealthy competitive attitudes in children others argue that such sports teach sportsmanship and teamwork and though contact sports are all violent to some degree they always emphasize skill and strategy over mere belligerence development of the game both american football and soccer have their origins in varieties of football played in the united kingdom in the mid one nine th century and american football is directly descended from rugby football rugby was first introduced to north america in canada brought by the british army garrison in montreal which played a series of games with mcgill university both canadian and american football evolved from this point for an in depth overview of the differences and similarities of canadian football and american football see comparison of canadian and american football american colleges spearheaded the growth |
of football the first inter collegiate football game was played between rutgers and princeton universities on november six one eight six nine the game was won by rutgers six four although the game which bore little resemblance to its modern day counterpart was played with two teams of two five men each under rugby like rules but like modern football it was replete with surprise strategy prodigies of determination and physical prowess to use the words of one of the rutgers players rutgers football american football in its current form grew out of a series of three games between harvard university and mcgill university of montreal in one eight seven four mcgill played rugby football while harvard played the boston game which was closer to soccer as often happened in those days of far from universal rules the teams alternated rules so that both would have a fair chance the harvard players liked having the opportunity to run with the ball and in one eight seven five persuaded yale university to adopt rugby rules |
for their annual game in one eight seven six yale harvard princeton and columbia formed the intercollegiate football association which used the rugby code except for a slight difference in scoring in one eight eight zero walter camp introduced the scrimmage in place of the rugby scrum in one eight eight two the system of downs was introduced to thwart princeton s and yale s strategy of controlling the ball without trying to score in one eight eight three the number of players was reduced at camp s urging to eleven and camp introduced the soon standard arrangement of a seven man offensive line with a quarterback two halfbacks and a fullback on september three one eight nine five the first professional football game was played in latrobe pennsylvania between the latrobe ymca and the jeannette athletic club latrobe won the contest one two zero by the one eight nine zero s interlocking offensive formations such as the flying wedge and the practice of teammates physically dragging ball carrying players forward ha |
d made the game extremely dangerous despite restrictions on the flying wedge and other precautions in one nine zero five eighteen players were killed in games president theodore roosevelt informed the universities that the game must be made safer to force them to respond to his concerns he threatened to pressure congress to make playing football a federal crime in one nine zero six two rival organizing bodies the intercollegiate rules committee and the intercollegiate athletic association met in new york eventually they agreed on several new rules intended to make the game safer among them the addition of a neutral zone between the scrimmage lines and a requirement that at least six players from each team line up on them the most far reaching innovation they considered though was the legalization of the forward pass this was very controversial at the time much derided by purists as an alternative means of opening out the play walter camp would have preferred widening the field but representatives from harvard |
pointed to recently constructed harvard stadium which could not be widened and the forward pass was adopted it has come to shape the whole history of american football as opposed to its cousins around the world in one nine one zero after further deaths interlocking formations were finally outlawed and in one nine one two the field was changed to its current size the value of a touchdown increased to six points and a fourth down added to each possession the game had achieved its modern form problems in football injuries are more common in american football than in many other sports although rule changes made in the past nine zero years for instance the elimination of horse collar tackles have gradually lowered the rates of injuries in addition protective equipment has become better for example the optional leather helmets introduced during the one eight nine zero s have been replaced in several stages by required high tech padded plastic helmets with bars protecting the face more recently the use of steroids |
and the extent thereof has become an object of debate in professional college and even high school football leagues another problem with football is that it is an expensive sport the specialized helmets uniforms and pads can cost hundreds of dollars there is a widespread perception that football teams based in schools and public recreational leagues consume far more than their fair share of the sports budget although sales of tickets to college and to some extent high school football games often make it a revenue producing sport cleveland browns stadium in cleveland ohio home of the cleveland browns professional college and other leagues football is played at a number of levels in the united states these include the following national football league nfl the top level men s professional league nfl europe semi professional league in europe college football played at many u s colleges american football association national organization for the advancement and promotion of semi pro minor league football teams an |
d leagues in the united states north american football league amateur minor league with more than one zero zero member organizations since one nine nine six women s american football since two zero zero zero there has been a surge of women s professional leagues high school football played at most u s high schools pop warner or youth football involves younger children who are too young to play high school generally in middle school sprint football players must weigh no more than one seven two pounds american football is also played in many nations around the world some of the organizations leagues that play american football are mexican college football league or onefa played by many mexican colleges with essentially ncaa rules british collegiate american football league bcafl fast growing college football league in the uk british american football league bafl higher league of american football in the uk european federation of american football www efaf info european organization that crowns its champion in t |
he euro bowl german football league gridiron australia national body of several state level leagues international federation of american football international governing body for american football with three nine member associations from north america europe asia and oceania the ifaf also overseas the world championship of american football okinawan football league various football teams made up of u s servicemembers and one from ryuku university other kinds of football with quite different rules canadian football league cfl men s professional league based in canada played using different rules known as canadian football arena football league mid level men s professional league played in indoor stadiums hence the name arena football one of the nation s fastest growing sports nine man football eight man football and six man football variations of high school football usually played in sparsely populated areas amateur and youth league football flag football and touch football non tackle almost exclusively amate |
ur the descriptions in this article are based primarily on the current rules of the national football league nfl one nine two zero present differences with college rules will be noted professional college high school and amateur rules are similar professional leagues that no longer exist world football league wfl one nine seven four seven five united states football league usfl one nine eight three one nine eight five xfl xfl two zero zero one all america football conference aafc one nine four six one nine four nine two teams are now in the nfl world league of american football wlaf one nine nine one one nine nine three now nfl europe american football leagues afl four separate ones i one nine two six ii one nine three seven three eight iii one nine four zero one nine four one and iv one nine six zero one nine six nine the fourth afl one nine six zero one nine six nine merged with the nfl in one nine seven zero and now exists mostly as the afc with several new teams the old nfl appeared as the nfc fore more i |
nformation list of leagues of american football references see also american football strategy national women s football association canadian football league german football league american football glossary list of american football players pro football hall of fame list of defunct sports leagues fantasy football gridiron football external links the national football league nfl the top professional league nfl players association ncaa playing rules complete college football rules are available as a pdf file american football coaches association movie of one nine zero three football game between the university of chicago and the university of michigan chronology of many events in the nfl the women s league annual survey of football injury research football basics football faq football plays drills fundamentals resource for coaches players american football team sports the american revolutionary war one seven seven five one seven eight three also known as the american war of independence was the military compon |
ent of the american revolution it was fought primarily between great britain and revolutionaries within thirteen british colonies in north america who proclaimed themselves as the united states of america early in the war the war began largely as a colonial revolt against the economic policies of the british empire and eventually widened far beyond british north america with france spain and the netherlands entering the war against great britain additionally many native americans fought on both sides of the conflict throughout the war the british were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities but control of the countryside where most of the population lived largely eluded them french involvement proved decisive with a naval victory in the chesapeake leading to the surrender of a british army at the battle of yorktown in one seven eight one the treaty of paris in one seven eight three recognized the independence of the united states of america the terms american revolutionary war |
and american revolution are often used interchangeably though the american revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself this article refers solely to the military campaign for a broader perspective including the origins and aftermath of the war see the article on the american revolution combatants choosing sides colonists were divided over which side to support in the war in some areas the struggle was a civil war the revolutionaries also known as americans or patriots had the support of about four zero to four five percent of the colonial population about one five to two zero percent of the population supported the british crown during the war and were known as loyalists or tories loyalists fielded perhaps five zero zero zero zero men during the war years in support of the british empire after the war some seven zero zero zero zero loyalists departed most going to canada great britain or to british colonies in the caribbean when the war began the americans did not ha |
ve a professional army also known as a standing army each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local militia militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time were generally reluctant to go very far from home and would often come and go as they saw fit militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops but could be effective when an emergency energized them seeking to coordinate military efforts the continental congress established on paper a regular army the continental army in june one seven seven five and appointed george washington as commander in chief the development of the continental army was always a work in progress and washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war although as many as two five zero zero zero zero men may have served as regulars or as militiamen for the revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war there were never more than nine zero zero zero zero total men under arms for the |
americans in any given year armies in north america were small by european standards of the era the greatest number of men that washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than one seven zero zero zero european nations german troops serving with the british in north america c ziegler after conrad gessner one seven nine nine early in one seven seven five the british army consisted of about three six zero zero zero men worldwide but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number additionally over the course of the war the british hired about three zero zero zero zero german mercenaries popularly known in the colonies as hessians because many of them came from hesse kassel germans would make up about one third of the british troop strength in north america by one seven seven nine the number of british and german troops stationed in north america was over six zero zero zero zero though these were spread from canada to florida france the netherlands and spain entered the war against |
great britain in an attempt to dilute britain s emerging superpower status early on all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the american rebels france officially entered the war in one seven seven eight and soon sent troops ships and military equipment to fight against the british for the remainder of the war spain entered the war in one seven seven nine officially as an ally of france but not the united states spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in her own empire the netherlands entered the war late in one seven eight zero but was soon overwhelmed by the british blacks and native americans african americans slaves and free blacks served on both sides during the war black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset but this was forbidden in the south where slaveowners feared arming slaves lord dunmore the royal governor of virginia issued an emancipation proclamation in november one seven seven five promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the british |
sir henry clinton issued a similar edict in new york in one seven seven nine tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the british lines although possibly as few as one zero zero zero served under arms many of the rest served as orderlies mechanics laborers servants scouts and guides although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the british forces and a number were driven out of the british lines when food ran low despite dunmore s promises the majority were not given their freedom in response and because of manpower shortages washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the continental army in january one seven seven six all black units were formed in rhode island and massachusetts many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters another all black unit came from haiti with french forces at least five zero zero zero black soldiers fought for the patriot cause most american indian communities east of the mississippi river were affected by the war many divided over the que |
stion of which side to support most native americans who joined the fight fought against the united states since native lands were threatened by expanding american settlement an estimated one three zero zero zero warriors fought on the british side the largest group the iroquois confederacy fielded about one five zero zero warriors against the americans war in the north massachusetts one seven seven four to one seven seven six map of campaigns in the revolutionary war in one seven seven four the british parliament effectively abolished the provincial government of massachusetts lieutenant general thomas gage already the commander in chief of british troops in north america was also appointed governor of massachusetts and was instructed by king george s government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony however popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in boston gage commanded four regiments of british regulars about four zero zer |
o zero men from his headquarters in boston but the countryside was in the hands of the revolutionaries on the night of april one eight one seven seven five general gage sent nine zero zero men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at concord massachusetts several riders including paul revere alerted the countryside and when the british troops entered lexington on the morning of april one nine they found seven five minutemen formed up on the village common shots were exchanged and the british moved on to concord where there was more fighting by the time the redcoats as the british soldiers were called began the return march several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road a running fight ensued and the british detachment suffered heavily with the battle of lexington and concord the shot heard round the world the war had begun afterwards thousands of militiamen converged on boston bottling up the british in the city late in may gage received by sea about four five zero zero reinforcements and |
a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war william howe john burgoyne and henry clinton they formulated a plan to break out of the city on june one seven one seven seven five british forces under general howe seized the charleston peninsula at the battle of bunker hill the battle was technically a british victory but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up thus the siege was not broken and general gage was soon replaced by general howe as the british commander in chief in july one seven seven five newly appointed general washington arrived outside boston to take charge of the colonial forces the standoff continued throughout the fall and winter in early march one seven seven six heavy cannons that had been captured by the revolutionaries at fort ticonderoga were moved to boston a difficult feat engineered by henry knox when the guns were placed on dorchester heights overlooking the british positions howe s situation became untenable the british evacuated the city on march one |
seven one seven seven six and sailed for temporary refuge in halifax nova scotia the local militia dispersed and in april washington took most of the continental army to fortify new york city canada one seven seven five to one seven seven six during the long standoff at boston the continental congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere congress had initially invited french canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony but when that failed to happen an invasion of canada was authorized in an attempt to drive the british from the primarily francophone colony of quebec comprising present day quebec and ontario two expeditions were undertaken on september one six one seven seven five brigadier general richard montgomery marched north from fort ticonderoga with about one seven zero zero militiamen capturing montreal on november one three general guy carleton the governor of canada escaped to quebec city the second expedition led by colonel benedict arnold set out from fort western present day maine o |
n september two five the expedition was a logistical nightmare and many men succumbed to smallpox by the time arnold reached quebec city in early november he had but six zero zero of his original one one zero zero men nevertheless arnold demanded the surrender of the city to no avail montgomery joined arnold and they attacked quebec city on december three one but were soundly defeated by carleton montgomery was killed arnold was wounded and many men were taken prisoner the americans held on outside quebec city until the spring of one seven seven six and then withdrew another attempt was made by the revolutionaries to push back towards quebec but failed at trois rivi res on june eight one seven seven six carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated arnold in the battle of valcour island in october arnold fell back to fort ticonderoga where the invasion of canada had begun the invasion of canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the revolutionaries but arnold s improvised navy on lake champlain dela |
yed the fateful british counter thrust the saratoga campaign until one seven seven seven new york and new jersey one seven seven six to one seven seven seven having withdrawn from boston the british now focused on capturing new york city general howe with the services of his brother admiral lord howe began amassing troops on staten island in july one seven seven six general washington with a smaller army of about two zero zero zero zero men unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare and divided his troops about equally between long island and manhattan thus allowing the howes to engage only one half of the continental army at a time in late august the howes transported about two two zero zero zero men including nine zero zero zero hessians to long island in the battle of long island on august two seven one seven seven six the british expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver driving the revolutionaries back to the brooklyn heights fortifications general howe then laid siege to the works but washingt |
on skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to manhattan having taken long island the howes moved to seize manhattan on september one five general howe landed about one two zero zero zero men on lower manhattan quickly taking control of new york city the revolutionaries withdrew to harlem heights where they skirmished the next day but held their ground when howe moved to encircle washington s army in october the revolutionaries again fell back and a battle at white plains was fought on october two eight one seven seven six once more washington retreated but howe instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal returned to manhattan and captured fort washington in mid november taking almost three zero zero zero prisoners four days later fort lee across the hudson river from fort washington was also taken emanuel leutze s one eight five one painting washington crossing the delaware is an iconic image of american history general lord cornwallis continued to chase washington s army through new jersey until the re |
volutionaries withdrew across the delaware river into pennsylvania in early december with the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season the british entered winter quarters although howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing rebel army he had killed or captured over five zero zero zero americans he controlled much of new york and new jersey and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring with the rebel capital of philadelphia in striking distance the outlook of the continental army and thus the revolution itself was bleak these are the times that try men s souls wrote thomas paine who was with the army on the retreat the army had dwindled to fewer than five zero zero zero men fit for duty and would be reduced to one four zero zero after enlistments expired at the end of the year spirits were low popular support was wavering and congress had abandoned philadelphia in despair washington reacted by taking the offensive stealthily crossing the delaware on christmas night a |
nd capturing nearly one zero zero zero hessians at the battle of trenton on december two six one seven seven six cornwallis marched to retake trenton but was outmaneuvered by washington who successfully attacked the british rearguard at princeton on january three one seven seven seven washington then entered winter quarters at morristown new jersey having retaken much of new jersey and having secured two bold morale boosting victories in quick succession to reinvigorate the flagging revolution saratoga campaign one seven seven seven in the summer of one seven seven seven the british launched a new expedition from canada led by general burgoyne the intention was to seize the lake champlain and hudson river corridor effectively isolating new england from the rest of the american colonies burgoyne s invasion had two components he would lead about one zero zero zero zero men along lake champlain towards albany new york while a second column of about two zero zero zero men led by barry st leger would move down the |
mohawk river valley and link up with burgoyne in albany burgoyne set off in early july recapturing fort ticonderoga from the retreating revolutionaries without firing a shot he then proceeded overland towards albany but revolutionaries slowed his progress through the wilderness by destroying bridges and felling trees in his path running short on supplies in august burgoyne sent a detachment to raid nearby bennington vermont the raiders were decisively defeated by local militia depriving burgoyne of nearly one zero zero zero men and the much needed supplies the mohawk leader joseph brant commanded both american indians and white loyalists during the american revolutionary war meanwhile st leger half of his force american indians led by joseph brant had laid siege to fort stanwix on the mohawk river about eight zero zero revolutionary militiamen and their indian allies marched to relieve the siege but were ambushed and scattered by british and indians on august six at the battle of oriskany iroquois warriors f |
ought on both sides of the battle marking the beginning of a civil war within the six nations when a second relief expedition approached this time led by benedict arnold the siege was lifted and st leger s expedition returned to canada burgoyne was on his own burgoyne pushed on towards albany his forces now reduced to about six zero zero zero men a revolutionary army of about eight zero zero zero men commanded by the newly arrived general horatio gates had entrenched about one zero miles one six km south of saratoga new york burgoyne sent two zero zero zero men to outflank the revolutionary position but was checked by generals benedict arnold and daniel morgan in the first battle of saratoga on september one nine one seven seven seven after the battle the two armies dug in burgoyne was in trouble now but he hoped that help from the south might be on the way all along burgoyne had suggested that his invasion from canada might be supported by a british offensive up the hudson river from howe s location in new y |
ork city however british war planners did not coordinate their efforts general howe had instead sailed away from new york on an expedition to capture philadelphia see next section british general henry clinton left in command at new york did indeed sail up the hudson in october capturing several forts and burning kingston then the rebel capital of new york but his efforts were not enough to affect the events at saratoga revolutionary militiamen many of them outraged by the reported murder of an american woman at the hands of burgoyne s indian allies flocked to gates s army swelling his force to one one zero zero zero by the beginning of october burgoyne his position becoming desperate launched a new offensive the second battle of saratoga on october seven the attack was repelled and general arnold though relieved of command by gates rushed to the battle and led a decisive counterattack badly beaten burgoyne surrendered on october one seven saratoga is often regarded as the turning point of the war revolutiona |
ry confidence and determination suffering from howe s successful occupation of philadelphia was renewed even more importantly the victory encouraged france to enter the war against great britain spain and the netherlands soon did the same for the british the war had now become much more complicated philadelphia campaign one seven seven seven to one seven seven eight having secured new york city in his one seven seven six campaign in one seven seven seven general howe concentrated on capturing philadelphia the seat of the revolutionary government he moved slowly landing one five zero zero zero troops in late august at the northern end of chesapeake bay about five five miles nine zero km southwest of philadelphia washington positioned his one one zero zero zero men between howe and philadelphia but was outflanked and driven back at the battle of brandywine on september one one one seven seven seven the continental congress once again abandoned the city british and revolutionary forces maneuvered around each oth |
er for the next several days clashing in minor encounters such as the so called paoli massacre on september two six howe finally outmaneuvered washington and marched into philadelphia unopposed after taking the city the british garrisoned about nine zero zero zero troops in germantown five miles eight km above philadelphia washington unsuccessfully attacked germantown in early october and then retreated to watch and wait meanwhile the british secured the delaware river by taking with difficulty forts mifflin and mercer in november general washington s problems at this time were not just with the british in the so called conway cabal some politicians and officers unhappy with washington s recent performance as commander in chief secretively discussed his removal washington offended by the behind the scenes maneuvering laid the whole matter openly before congress his supporters rallied behind him and the episode abated washington and his army encamped at valley forge in december one seven seven seven about two |
zero miles three two km from philadelphia where they would stay for the next six months over the winter two five zero zero men out of one zero zero zero zero died from disease and exposure however the army eventually emerged from valley forge in good order thanks in part to a training program supervised by baron von steuben meanwhile there was a shakeup in the british command with general clinton replacing howe as commander in chief french entry into the war had changed british war strategy and clinton was ordered by the government to abandon philadelphia and defend new york city now vulnerable to french naval power washington s army shadowed clinton on his withdrawal and forced a battle at monmouth on june two eight one seven seven eight the last major battle in the north washington s second in command general charles lee ordered a controversial retreat during the battle allowing clinton s army to escape by july clinton was in new york city and washington was again at white plains both armies were back where |
they had been two years earlier with the exception of scattered minor actions in the north like the battle of stony point the focus of the war now shifted elsewhere war in the west main article frontier warfare during the american revolution george rogers clark s one eight zero mile two nine zero km trek in the dead of winter led to the capture of general henry hamilton lieutenant governor of canada west of the appalachian mountains the american revolutionary war was an indian war the british and the continental congress both courted american indians as allies or urged them to remain neutral and many native american communities became divided over what path to take like the iroquois confederacy tribes such as the cherokees and the shawnees split into factions delawares under white eyes signed the first american indian treaty with the united states but other delawares joined the british the british supplied their indian allies from forts along the great lakes and tribesmen staged raids on revolutionary settle |
ments in new york kentucky pennsylvania and elsewhere joint iroquois loyalist attacks in the wyoming valley and at cherry valley in one seven seven eight helped provoke the scorched earth sullivan expedition into western new york during the summer of one seven seven nine on the western front every man woman and child regardless of race was a potential casualty in the ohio country the virginia frontiersman george rogers clark attempted to neutralize british influence among the ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of kaskaskia and vincennes in the summer of one seven seven eight when general henry hamilton the british commander at detroit retook vincennes clark returned in a surprise march in february one seven seven nine and captured hamilton himself however a decisive victory in the west eluded the united states even as their fortunes had risen in the east the low point on the frontier came in one seven eight two with the gnadenhutten massacre when pennsylvania militiamen unable to track down enemy warriors |
executed nearly one zero zero christian delaware noncombatants mostly women and children later that year in the last major encounter of the war a party of kentuckians was soundly defeated by a superior force of british regulars and native americans war in the south during the first three years of the american revolutionary war the primary military encounters were in the north one notable exception was in june one seven seven six when general henry clinton sailed south to attack charleston south carolina this ended in humiliating defeat for the british and the patriots remained in control of the southern states for the next three years starting in one seven seven eight the british once again turned their attention to georgia south carolina north carolina and virginia where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of loyalists on december two nine one seven seven eight an expeditionary corps of three five zero zero men from clinton s army in new york captured savannah georgia an attempt by french an |
d revolutionary forces to retake savannah failed on october nine one seven seven nine in this assault count casimir pulaski the polish commander of american revolutionary cavalry was mortally wounded with savannah secured clinton could now launch a new assault on charleston south carolina where he had failed in one seven seven six carolinas one seven eight zero to one seven eight one the young and dashing banastre tarleton was perhaps the best cavalry commander in the war and the most hated man in the south this portrait was painted by sir joshua reynolds in one seven eight two clinton finally moved against charleston in one seven eight zero blockading the harbor in march and building up about one zero zero zero zero troops in the area inside the city general benjamin lincoln commanded about two six five zero continentals and two five zero zero militiamen when british colonel banastre tarleton cut off the city s supply lines in victories at monck s corner in april and lenud s ferry in early may charleston was |
surrounded on may one two one seven eight zero general lincoln surrendered his five zero zero zero men the largest surrender of u s troops until the american civil war with relatively few casualties clinton had seized the south s biggest city and seaport winning perhaps the greatest british victory of the war and paving the way for what seemed like certain conquest of the south the remnants of the southern continental army began to withdraw to north carolina but were pursued by colonel tarleton who defeated them at the battle of waxhaws on may two nine one seven eight zero among the americans a story spread that tarleton had massacred many americans after they had surrendered the truth of this charge is still debated bloody tarleton became a hated name and tarleton s quarter referring to his reputed lack of mercy or quarter soon became a rallying cry with these events organized american military activity in the south had collapsed the states however carried on their functions and the war was carried on by pa |
rtisans such as francis marion general clinton turned over british operations in the south to lord cornwallis the continental congress dispatched general horatio gates to the rescue with a new army but gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in u s military history at the battle of camden on august one six one seven eight zero setting the stage for cornwallis to invade north carolina the tables were quickly turned on cornwallis however one wing of his army was utterly defeated at the battle of kings mountain on october seven one seven eight zero delaying his move into north carolina kings mountain was noteworthy because it was not a battle between british redcoats and colonial troops it was a battle between american loyalists and american patriots the british plan to raise large loyalist armies failed not enough loyalists enlisted and those who did were at risk once the british army moved on only in georgia did the crown manage to create a counter revolutionary civil government gates was replaced by |
george washington s most dependable subordinate general nathanael greene greene assigned about one zero zero zero men to general daniel morgan a superb tactician who crushed tarleton s troops at the battle of cowpens on january one seven one seven eight one greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of battles guilford court house hobkirk s hill ninety six and eutaw springs each of them tactically a victory for the british but giving no strategic advantage to the victors greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous we fight get beat rise and fight again unable to capture or destroy greene s army cornwallis moved north to to virginia virginia one seven seven five to one seven eight one virginia had been under revolutionary control since loyalist forces including runaway slaves under governor dunmore had been defeated at the battle of great bridge on december nine one seven seven five after the defeat dunmore and his troops took refuge on british ships off of norfolk which dunm |
ore bombarded and burned on january one one seven seven six he was driven from an island in chesapeake bay that summer never to return british forces raided virginia sporadically during the war in january one seven eight one the rebel capital of richmond was put to the torch by none other than benedict arnold now a turncoat who had sold his services to the other side and was now a british general in march one seven eight one general washington dispatched lafayette to defend virginia the young frenchman had three two zero zero men at his command but british troops in the state now reinforced and commanded by cornwallis totaled seven two zero zero lafayette skirmished with cornwallis avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements the boy cannot escape me cornwallis is supposed to have said however cornwallis was unable to trap lafayette and so he moved his forces to yorktown virginia in july in order to link up with the british navy war at sea main article naval operations in the american revolutiona |
ry war meanwhile the co operation of the french became active in july count rochambeau arrived at newport rhode island that place had been occupied by the british from one seven seven six to the close of one seven seven nine an unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them out in one seven seven eight by the revolutionaries assisted by the french admiral d estaing and a french corps first battle of ushant july two seven one seven seven eight john paul jones continental navy battle of cape st vincent one seven eight zero second battle of ushant december one two one seven eight one gulf coast after spain declared war against great britain in june of one seven seven nine count bernardo de g lvez the spanish governor of louisiana seized three british mississippi river outposts manchac baton rouge and natchez g lvez then captured mobile on march one four one seven eight zero and in may of one seven eight one forced the surrender of the british outpost at pensacola florida on may eight one seven eight two g lvez capt |
ured the british naval base at new providence in the bahamas galvez also supplied soldiers to george rogers clark and had been supplying substantial quantities of war supplies to the american rebels from as early as one seven seven seven caribbean the battle of the saintes took place in one seven eight two during the american war of independence and was a victory of a british fleet under admiral sir george rodney over a french fleet under the comte de grasse the defeat dashed the hopes of france and spain to take jamaica and other colonies from the british india the franco british war spilled over into india in one seven eight zero in the form of the second anglo mysore war the two chief combatants were tipu sultan ruler of the kingdom of mysore and a key french ally and the british government of madras the anglo mysore conflict was bloody but inconclusive and ended in a draw at the treaty of mangalore in one seven eight four netherlands also in one seven eight zero the british struck against the united provi |
nces of the netherlands in the fourth anglo dutch war to preempt dutch involvement in the league of armed neutrality directed primarily against the british navy during the war agitation by dutch radicals and a friendly attitude towards the united states by the dutch government both influenced by the american revolution also encouraged the british to attack the war lasted into one seven eight four and was disastrous to the dutch mercantile economy mediterranean on february five one seven eight two spanish and french forces captured minorca which had been under british control since the treaty of utrecht in one seven one three a further franco spanish effort to recover gibraltar was unsuccessful minorca was ceded to spain in the peace treaty whitehaven an interesting footnote to this war was the actual landing on britain itself of a ship from the u s navy this occurred in one seven seven eight when the port of whitehaven in cumberland was raided by john paul jones the landing was a surprise attack taken as an a |
ction of revenge by jones and was never intended as an invasion nevertheless it caused hysteria in england with the attack showing a weakness that could be exploited by other states such as france or spain its result was an intense period of fortification in british ports war s end the northern southern and naval theaters of the war converged at yorktown in one seven eight one on september five one seven eight one french naval forces defeated the british royal navy at the battle of the chesapeake cutting off cornwallis s supplies and transport washington hurriedly moved his troops from new york and a combined franco american force of one seven zero zero zero troops commenced the battle of yorktown on october six one seven eight one cornwallis s position quickly became untenable and on october one nine his army surrendered the war was all but over surrender of cornwallis at yorktown john trumbull one seven nine seven on the right is the american flag on the left is the french flag white flag of the monarchy de |
spite the painting s title cornwallis claiming illness was not present and is not depicted washington is on horseback in the right background because the british commander was absent military protocol dictated that washington have a subordinate in this case benjamin lincoln accept the surrender british prime minister lord north resigned soon after hearing the news from yorktown in april one seven eight two the british house of commons voted to end the war in america on november three zero one seven eight two preliminary peace articles were signed in paris the formal end of the war did not occur until the treaty of paris was signed on september three one seven eight three and the united states congress ratified the treaty on january one four one seven eight four the last british troops left new york city on november two five one seven eight three the reasons for great britain s misfortunes and defeat may be summarized as follows misconception by the home government of the temper and reserve strength of her col |
onists disbelief at the outset in the probability of a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in america consequent failure of the british to use their more efficient military strength effectively the safe and fabian generalship of washington and perhaps most significantly the french alliance and european combinations by which at the close of the conflict left great britain without a friend or ally on the continent decisive victory eluded the united states on the western frontier great britain negotiated the paris peace treaty without consulting her indian allies however and ceded much american indian territory to the united states full of resentment native americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the united states in a series of treaties but the result was essentially an armed truce the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier the largest being the northwest indian war casualties the total loss of life resulting from the american revolutionary war is unknown as wa |
s typical in the wars of the era disease claimed more lives than battle the war took place in the context of a massive smallpox epidemic in north america that probably killed more than one three zero zero zero zero people historian joseph j ellis suggests that washington s decision to have his troops inoculated may have been the commander in chief s most important strategic decision casualty figures for the american revolutionaries have varied over the years a recent scholarly estimate lists six eight two four killed and eight four four five wounded in action the number of revolutionary troop deaths from disease and other non combat causes is estimated at about one eight five zero zero approximately one two zero zero germans were killed in action and six three five four died from illness or accident about one six zero zero zero of the remaining german troops returned home but roughly five five zero zero remained in the united states after the war for various reasons many becoming american citizens no reliable |
statistics exist for the number of casualties among other groups including american loyalists british regulars american indians french and spanish troops and civilians see also list of important people in the era of the american revolution battles of the american revolutionary war intelligence in the american revolutionary war american revolution prisoners of war british prison ships new york france in the american revolutionary war spain in the american revolutionary war the netherlands in the american revolutionary war the society of the cincinnati daughters of the american revolution timeline of united states revolutionary history one seven six zero one seven eight nine newburgh conspiracy list of british forces in the american revolutionary war list of continental forces in the american revolutionary war last surviving united states war veterans south carolina during the american revolution new jersey during the american revolution evacuation day new york notes percentage of loyalists and revolutionaries |
robert m calhoon loyalism and neutrality in the blackwell encyclopedia of the american revolution p two four seven number of loyalist troops boatner p six six three size of revolutionary armies boatner p two six four british troop strength black pp two seven two nine number of germans hired boatner pp four two four two six british usage of escaped slaves kaplan indians and the new republic in the blackwell encyclopedia of the american revolution p three nine three number of iroquois warriors boatner p five four five smallpox epidemic fenn p two seven five a great number of these smallpox deaths occurred outside the theater of war in mexico or among american indians west of the mississippi river washington and inoculation ellis p eight seven revolutionary dead and wounded chambers p eight four nine references black jeremy war for america the fight for independence one seven seven five one seven eight three st martin s press new york and sutton publishing uk one nine nine one isbn zero three one two zero six s |
even one three five one nine nine one isbn zero three one two one two three four six nine one nine nine four paperback isbn zero seven five zero nine two eight zero eight five two zero zero one paperpack boatner mark mayo iii encyclopedia of the american revolution new york mckay one nine six six revised one nine seven four isbn zero eight one one seven zero five seven eight one chambers john whiteclay ii ed in chief the oxford companion to american military history oxford oxford university press one nine nine nine isbn zero one nine five zero seven one nine eight zero ellis joseph j his excellency george washington new york knopf two zero zero four isbn one four zero zero zero four zero three one zero fenn elizabeth anne pox americana the great smallpox epidemic of one seven seven five eight two new york hill and wang two zero zero one isbn zero eight zero nine zero seven eight two zero one greene jack p and j r pole eds the blackwell encyclopedia of the american revolution malden massachusetts blackwell one |
nine nine one reprint one nine nine nine isbn one five five seven eight six five four seven seven kaplan sidney and emma nogrady kaplan the black presence in the era of the american revolution amherst massachusetts the university of massachusetts press one nine eight nine isbn zero eight seven zero two three six six three six wood w j battles of the revolutionary war one seven seven five one seven eight one originally published chapel hill n c algonquin one nine nine zero reprinted by da capo press one nine nine five isbn zero three zero six eight zero six one seven seven paperback isbn zero three zero six eight one three two nine seven two zero zero three paperback reprint further reading allen gardner w a naval history of the american revolution one nine one three black jeremy war for america the fight for independence one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine nine one british viewpoint boatner mark mayo iii encyclopedia of the american revolution new york mckay one nine six six revised one nine |
seven four isbn zero eight one one seven zero five seven eight one buchanan john the road to valley forge how washington built the army that won the revolution two zero zero four fischer david hackett washington s crossing two zero zero four pulitzer prize winning narrative of one seven seven six seven seven higginbotham don the war of american independence military attitudes policies and practice one seven six three one seven eight nine one nine eight three online in acls history e book project overview of military topics kwasny mark v washington s partisan war one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine nine six mccullough david one seven seven six two zero zero five mackesy piers the war for america one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine nine two british viewpoint middlekauff robert the glorious cause the american revolution one seven six three one seven eight nine one nine eight four miller john c triumph of freedom one seven seven five one seven eight three one nine four eight schect |
er barnet battle for new york the city at the heart of the american revolution two zero zero two the largest military venture of the entire war and the british albatross thayer theodore nathanael greene strategist of the american revolution one nine six zero unger harlow giles lafayette two zero zero two valentine alan lord george germain one nine six two the british war minister ward christopher the war of the revolution two vol one nine five two battle history weintraub stanley iron tears america s battle for freedom britain s quagmire one seven seven five one seven eight three two zero zero five external links battlefield atlas of the american revolution west point atlas histories of the battle of saratoga one seven seven seven american revolutionary war history resources entry to us army center for military history a huge bibliography spain s role in the american revolution from the atlantic to the pacific ocean african american soldiers in the revolution american revolution independence american revoluti |
onary war national liberation movements rebellion for the different meanings of amp re see the disambiguation page the ampere symbol a is the si base unit of electric current equal to one coulomb per second it is named after andr marie amp re one of the main discoverers of electromagnetism definition the ampere is that constant current which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular cross section and placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce between these conductors a force equal to two newton per metre of length explanation because it is a base unit the definition of the ampere is not tied to any other electrical unit the definition for the ampere is equivalent to fixing a value of the permeability of vacuum to zero four h m prior to one nine four eight the so called international ampere was used defined in terms of the electrolytic deposition rate of silver the older unit is equal to zero nine nine nine eight five a the ampere is most accurately realise |
d using an ampere balance but is in practice maintained via ohm s law from the units of voltage and resistance the volt and the ohm since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce the josephson junction and the quantum hall effect respectively the unit of electric charge the coulomb is defined in terms of the ampere one coulomb is the amount of electric charge formerly quantity of electricity carried in a current of one ampere flowing for one second current electricity then is the rate at which charge flows through a wire or surface one ampere of current i is equal to a flow of one coulomb of charge q per second of time t mathrm since a coulomb is approximately equal to six two four elementary charges one ampere is equivalent to six two four elementary charges such as electrons moving through a surface in one second more precisely using the si definitions for the conventional values of the josephson and von klitzing constants the ampere can be defined as exactly si |
x two four one five zero nine six two nine one five two six five elementary charges per second see also si ohm s law electric shock external links a short history of the si units in electricity si base units units of electrical current notoc the following terms are used in american football and canadian football see also see also football football strategy zero nine n m defense a defense with n down linemen and m linebackers such as three three a defense with three lineman three linebackers and five defensive backs often called a three three stack three four defense a defensive formation with three linemen and four linebackers a professional derivative in the one nine seven zero s of the earlier oklahoma or five zero defense which had five linemen and two linebackers the three four outside linebackers resemble stand up ends in the older defense four three defense a defensive formation with four linemen and three linebackers several variations are employed first used by coach joe kuharich four six defense pron |
ounced four six defense a defense with four four down linemen and six six linebackers four six defense pronounced forty six defense a formation of the four three defense four linemen and three linebackers in which three defensive backs the two cornerbacks and the strong safety crowd the line of scrimmage the remaining safety which is the free safety stays in the backfield it is also known as the bear defense because it was popularized by buddy ryan while coaching for the chicago bears not to be confused with the four six four six defense five zero defense a once popular college defense with five defensive linemen and two linebackers a audible from latin aud re to hear to listen to a play called by the quarterback at the line of scrimmage to change the play that was called in the huddle automatic see audible automatic first down for several of the most severe penalties including pass interference and all personal fouls a first down is rewarded to the offensive team even if the yardage of that penalty is less t |
han the yardage needed for a first down b back a position behind the offensive line or behind the linebackers on defense blitz a defensive maneuver in which one or more linebackers or defensive backs who normally remain behind the line of scrimmage instead charge into the opponents backfield however in the three four defense one linebacker typically rushes the passer with the three down linemen this is not considered a blitz if an additional linebacker is sent bringing the total number of rushers to five it is a blitz blocking when a player obstructs another player s path with his body bootleg an offensive play predicated upon misdirection in which the quarterback pretends to hand the ball to another player and then carries the ball in the opposite direction of the supposed ballcarrier with the intent of either passing or running sometimes the quarterback has the option of doing either a naked bootleg is a risky variation of this play when the quarterback has no blockers pulling out with him contrast with scr |
amble sneak and draw the box an area on the defensive side of the ball directly opposite the offensive linemen and about five yards deep having eight players in the box means bringing in a defensive back normally the strong safety to help stop the offensive team s running game c center a player position on offense the center snaps the ball centre canadian center chains the one zero yard long chain that is used by the chain crew to measure for a new series of downs check off see audible chuck and duck a style of offense with minimal pass protection requiring the quarterback to chuck the ball then duck to avoid a defensive lineman clipping an illegal block in which the victim is blocked from the back and below the waist the penalty is one five yards originally clipping was defined as any block from the back but is now restricted to blocks below the waist other blocks from the back are now punished with one zero yard penalties coffin corner the corner of the field of play a punter if he is close enough will ofte |
n attempt to kick the ball out of bounds close to the receiving team s goal line and pin them back near their own end zone contain a defensive assignment on outside runs such as the sweep one defensive player usually a cornerback or outside linebacker is assigned to keep the rusher from getting to the edge of the play and turning upfield if executed properly the rusher will have to turn upfield before the play calls for it giving the linebackers a better chance of stopping the play for little or no gain cornerback cb a defensive back who lines up near the line of scrimmage across from a wide receiver their primary job is to disrupt passing routes and to defend against short and medium passes in the passing game and to contain the rusher on rushing plays counter a running play in which the running back will take a step in the apparent direction of the play ie the direction the line is moving only to get the handoff in the other direction weak side linemen will sometimes pull and lead the back downfield sometim |
es called a counter trap but not necessarily the play is designed to get the defense to flow away from the action for a few steps as they follow the linemen allowing more room for the running back crackback block an illegal block delivered below the opponent s waist by an offensive player who had left the area of close line play and then returned to it or was not within it at the snap the term is also used to describe a legal block delivered from the front or from the side with the offensive player s helmet in front of the blocked player by a wide receiver on a player who lined up inside of him cut a sharp change of direction by a running player also called a cutback see cut blocking below cut blocking a blocking technique in which offensive linemen and sometimes other blockers block legally below the waist i e from the front of the defensive player in an attempt to bring the defenders to ground making them unable to pursue a running back for the short time needed for the back to find a gap in the defense the |
technique is somewhat controversial as it carries a risk of serious leg injuries to the blocked defenders the nfl s denver broncos are especially famous or infamous for using this technique d dead ball a ball which is no longer in play defensive back a cornerback or safety position on the defensive team commonly defends against wide receivers on passing plays generally there are four defensive backs playing at a time but see nickel back and dime back defensive end de a player position on defense who lines up on the outside of the defensive line defensive tackle dt a player position on defense on the inside of the defensive line when a defensive tackle lines up directly across from the center he is known often as a nose tackle defensive team the team that begins a play from scrimmage not in possession of the ball dime back the second extra or sixth total defensive back named because a dime has the same value as two nickels double reverse a play in which the ball reverses direction twice behind the line of scr |
immage this is usually accomplished by means of two or three hand offs each hand off going in an opposite direction as the previous one such a play is extremely infrequent in football some people confuse the double reverse with a reverse which is a play with two hand offs instead of three down one of a series of plays in which the offensive team must advance at least one zero yards or lose possession first down is the first of the plays fourth is the last down in american and third in canadian football a first down occurs after a change of possession of the ball after advancing the ball one zero yards following a previous first down or after certain penalties down lineman a player stationed in front of his line of scrimmage and who has either one three point stance or two four point stance hands on the ground draw play a play in which the quarterback drops back as if to pass then hands off to a running back or runs with the ball himself contrast with scramble drive a continuous set of offensive plays gaining |
substantial yardage and several first downs usually leading to a scoring opportunity a blocking technique drive block in which an offensive player through an advantaged angle or with assistance drive a defensive player out of position creating a hole for the ball carrier drop kick a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked once it hits the ground and before it hits it again a half volley kick e eligible receivers players who may legally touch a forward pass on the passer s team these are the ends see below the backs and except in the nfl one player in position to take a hand to hand snap i e a t quarterback provided the player s shirt displays a number in the ranges allowed for eligible receivers all players of the opposing team are eligible receivers and once the ball is touched by a player of the opposing team anywhere in american or beyond the lines of scrimmage in canadian football all players become eligible encroachment an illegal action by a player to cross the line of scrimmage and make contact wi |
th an opponent before the ball is snapped or to line up offside and remain there when the ball is put in play end a player position either on offense or defense see linemen end zone the area between the end line or deadline in canadian amateur football and the goal line bounded by the sidelines extra point a single point scored in a conversion attempt by making what would be a field goal or a safety during general play f fair catch an unhindered catch of an opponent s kick the player wanting to make one must signal for a fair catch by waving an arm overhead while the ball is in the air after that signal if he gains possession of the ball it is dead immediately and opponents will receive a fifteen yard penalty for hitting him fantasy football american a game in which the participants called owners each draft on their own or with the aid of software a team of real life nfl players and then score points based on those players statistical performance on the field field of play the area between both the goal lines |
and the sidelines and in some contexts the space vertically above it field goal score of three points made by place or drop kicking the ball through the opponent s goal other than via a kickoff or free kick following a safety formerly goal from the field flanker a player position on offense a wide receiver who lines up one or more yards off the line of scrimmage outside of another receiver flat an area on the field between the line of scrimmage and one zero yards into the defensive backfield and within one five yards of the sideline running backs often run pass routes to the flat when they are the safety valve receiver flea flicker a trick play in which a running back laterals the ball back to the quarterback who then throws a pass to a wide receiver or tight end formation an arrangement of the offensive skill players a formation usually is described in terms of how the running backs line up e g i formation which refers to the half back is lined up about seven yard deep and the fullback is lined up about fiv |
e yards deep both directly behind the quarterback or how the wide receivers line up e g trips left in which three wide receivers line up to the left of the linemen frequently the formation will allude to both such as with strong i slot right in which the halfback is lined up seven yards deep behind the quarterback the fullback is five yards deep behind the guard or tackle on the strong side and both wide receivers are lined up on the right side of the offensive line there are rules limiting what is legal in a formation all five offensive linemen must be on the line of scrimage a small amount of leeway is given to tackles when lined up for pass protection also there must be one receiver usally one tight end and one wide receiver lined up on the line on either side of the offensive line it doesn t matter how close they are to the tackles as long as they are on the line a receiver who is on the line may not go in motion forward pass a pass that touches a person object or the ground closer to the opponent s end l |
ine than where it was released from or is accidentally lost during a forward throwing motion four point stance a down lineman s stance with four points on the ground in other words his two feet and his two hands free kick a kick made to put the ball in play as a kickoff or following a safety the score safety touch in canadian football or fair catch free safety fs a player position on defense free safeties typically play deep or center field and often have the pass defense responsibility of assisting other defensive backs in deep coverage compared to strong safeties who usually have an assigned receiver and run support responsibilities fullback fb a player position on offense originally lined up deep behind the quarterback in the t formation in modern formations this position may be varied and this player has more blocking responsibilities in comparison to the halfback or tailback fumble a ball that a player accidentally lost possession of in canadian football the term includes muffs g goal a surface in space |
marked by a structure of two upright posts one eight feet six inches apart extending above a horizontal crossbar whose top edge is one zero feet off the ground the goal is the surface above the bar and between the lines of the inner edges of the posts extending infinitely upward centered above each end line in american and each goal line in canadian football goal area the end zone in canadian professional football goal line the front of the end zone gridiron a football field so called for its markings guard one of two player positions on offense see linemen a five player defensive line will have one and a defensive line of six or more players two guards while a defensive line of fewer than five players has no guard h hail mary a long pass play thrown towards a group of receivers near the end zone in hope of a touchdown used by a team as a last resort as time is running out in either of two halfs usually by a team trailing in the second half refers to the catholic prayer halfback a player position on offense a |
lso known as a tailback halfback option play a trick play in which the halfback throws a pass halo violation from one nine eight three until the end of the two zero zero two season in the ncaa college football the halo rule was a penalty for interference with the opportunity to catch a kick the so called halo rule stated that no player of the kicking team may be within two yards of a receiving team player positioned to catch a punt or kickoff before that person has touched the ball the rule was abolished beginning in the two zero zero three season hand off also known as backward pass a player s handing of a live ball to another player the hand off goes either backwards or laterally as opposed to a forward pass sometimes called a switch in touch football note different usage of term from its rugby meaning hash marks lines between which the ball begins each play the lines are parallel to and a distance in from the side lines and marked as broken lines h back a player listed in a roster or depth chart as a fullb |
ack and playing as a h ybrid of a fullback and a tight end holder a player who holds the ball upright for a place kick often backup quarterbacks are used for their superior ball handling ability holding there are two kinds of holding offensive holding illegally blocking a player from the opposing team by grabbing and holding his uniform or body and defensive holding called against defensive players who impede receivers who are more than five yards from the line of scrimmage but who are not actively making an attempt to catch the ball if the defensive player were to impede an offensive player in the act of catching the ball that would be the more severe penalty of pass interference huddle an on field gathering of members of a team in order to secretly communicate instructions for the upcoming play i i formation a formation that includes a fullback and tailback lined up with the fullback directly in front of the tailback if a third back is in line this is referred to as a full house i if the third back is lined |
up along side the fullback it is referred to as a power i incomplete pass a forward pass of the ball which no player legally caught inbounds lines the hash marks inside of a player s path relatively close in reference to the sides of the field to where the ball was snapped from thus a ballcarrier s path in crossing the neutral zone may be said to be inside of an opponent or an inside run in general and a rushing defensive player may be said to put on an inside move or inside rush of the movement of the ball between players directed toward a player who cuts between a player in the backfield who throws or hands the ball and the place from which it was snapped thus an inside pass or inside handoff an inside reverse sometimes called a scissors play is a reverse play via an inside handoff intentional grounding an illegal forward pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage without an intented reciever and no chance of completion to any offensive player intentional grounding is not called in the case of a spike or if |
the quarterback was outside the tackle box at the time of the pass interception the legal catching of a forward pass thrown by an opposing player j jumbo an offensive package which includes two tight ends a full back and a half back similar to heavy jumbo in which either the half back or the fullback is replaced by another tight end often one or more of the tight ends is actually a linebacker the new england patriots use mike vrabel this way he has six career regular season tds or offensive linemen in these cases the player must report in as an eligible receiver whereas a tight end is assumed to be one k kick as a verb to strike the ball deliberately with the foot as a noun such an action producing a punt place kick or drop kick kickoff a free kick which starts each half or restarts the game following a touchdown or field goal the kickoff may be a place kick in american or canadian football or a drop kick in american football kick returner a player on the receiving team who specializes in fielding kicks and r |
unning them back kneel down a low risk play in which the quarterback kneels down after receiving the snap ending the play used to run out the clock l lateral a pass thrown to the side or backward also called backward pass in american football onside pass in canadian football line of scrimmage scrimmage line one of two vertical planes parallel to the goal line when the ball is to be put in play by scrimmage for each team in american football the line of scrimmage is through the point of the ball closest to their end line the two lines of scrimmage are called offensive line of scrimmage and defensive line of scrimmage in canadian football the line of scrimmage of the defensive team is one yard their side of the ball line to gain a line parallel to the goal lines such that having the ball dead beyond it entitles the offense to a new series of downs i e a new first down the line is one zero yards in advance of where the ball was to be snapped for the previous first down linebacker a player position on defense the |
linebackers typically play one to three yards behind the defensive linemen and have both run and pass defense responsibilities however they are often called on to blitz and in some formations a linebacker may be designated as a rush linebacker rushing the passer on almost every play lineman a defensive or offensive position on the line of scrimmage on offense the player snapping the ball is the center the players on either side of him are the guard s and the players to the outside of him are the tackle s the players on the end of the line are the end s this may be varied in an unbalanced line on defense the outside linemen are end s and those inside are tackle s if there are five or six linemen the inner most linemen are known as guard s this is rare in professional football except for goal line defense but is sometimes seen in high school or college live ball any ball that is in play whether it is a player s possession or not the ball is live during plays from scrimmage and free kicks including kickoffs lon |
g snapper a center who specializes in the long accurate snaps required for punts and field goal attempts most teams employ a specialist long snapper instead of requiring the normal center to perform this duty loose ball any ball that is in play and not in a player s possession this includes a ball in flight during a lateral or forward pass m man coverage same as man to man coverage man in motion a player on offense who is moving backwards or parallel to the line of scrimmage just before the snap in american football only one offensive player can be in motion at a time cannot be moving toward the line of scrimmage at the snap and may not be a player who is on the line of scrimmage in canadian football more than one back can be in motion and may move in any direction as long as they are behind the line of scrimmage at the snap man to man coverage a defense in which all players in pass coverage typically linebackers and defensive backs cover a specific player pure man coverage is very rare defenses typically mix |
man and zone coverage mike the m iddle linebacker mo the other middle linebacker in a three four formation muff a loose ball that is dropped or mishandled while the player is attempting to gain possession n national football league the largest professional american football league neutral zone the region between the lines of scrimmage or between the free kick restraining lines nfl the national football league nickel back an extra or fifth defensive back named after the coin worth five cents popularized by the miami dolphins in the one nine seven zero s now common no huddle offense a tactic wherein the offense quickly forms near the line of scrimmage without huddling before the next play nose tackle a tackle in a three man defensive line who lines up opposite the center s nose o offensive team the team with possession of the ball offside an infraction of the rule that requires both teams to be on their own side of their restraining line as or before the ball is put play offside is normally called on the defen |
sive team in canadian football at the time a ball is kicked by a teammate being ahead of the ball or being the person who held the ball for the place kick one back formation a formation where the offensive team has one running back in the backfield with the quarterback other eligible receivers are near the line of scrimmage onside kick a play in which the kicking team tries to recover the kicked ball option usually a type of play in which the quarterback has the option of handing off keeping or laterally passing to one or more backs often described by a type of formation or play action such as triple option veer option or counter option teams running option plays often specialize in them less often a play in which a back may either pass or run outside opposite of inside p package the group of players on the field for a given play for example the nickel package substitutes a cornerback for either a linebacker or a defensive lineman the latter is referred to as a three three five nickel or the jumbo package sub |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.