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he ki society there are forms taigi competitions held from time to time defense aikido techniques are largely designed towards keeping the attacker off balance and locking joints much of aikido s repertoire of defenses can be performed either as throwing techniques nage waza or as pins katame waza depending on the situation entering irimi and turning tenkan are widely used aikido concepts as is striking atemi the use of striking techniques is dependent on the organization and to some extent the individual dojo some dojo teach the strikes that are integral to all aikido techniques as mere distractions used to make the application of an aikido technique easier while others teach that strikes are to be used for more destructive reasons o sensei himself wrote while describing the aikido technique ikkyo first smash the eyes this might well refer to the fact that the classic opener for ikkyo is a knife hand thrust towards the face to make uke block and thus expose his or her arm to the joint control thus as though |
moving to smash uke s eyes manipulation of uke s balance by entering is often referred to as taking uke s center it is sometimes said that aikido contains only defense and the attacks that are performed are not really aikido from a historical perspective this claim is questionable but many if not most aikidoka have the defense techniques as the focus of their training attacks in the early days when ueshiba began teaching to the public students tended to be proficient in another martial art due to this attacks per se are generally not focused on in contemporary aikido dojos students will learn the various attacks from which an aikido technique can be practiced although attacks seldom are studied to the same extent as some arts good attacks are needed to study correct and effective application of technique honest attacks are considered important an honest attack would be an attack with full intention or a strong neutral neither pulling or pushing grab or hold the speed of an attack may vary depending on the exp |
erience and level of the nage the partner who executes the throw or technique whether the attack is fast or slow the uke s intention to strike or control if grabbing or pinning should remain in order to provide the nage a realistic training scenario aikido attacks used in normal training include various stylized strikes and grabs such as shomenuchi a vertical strike to the head yokomenuchi a lateral strike to the side of the head and or neck munetsuki a straight punch ryotedori a two handed grab or katadori a shoulder grab many of the uchi strikes resemble blows from a sword or other weapon kicks are sometimes used but are not usually part of basic curricula most aikido techniques can also be applied to a response to an attack e g to a block and some schools use this as the basic form of a given class of technique beginners also tend to work with techniques executed in response to a grab grabs are considered good for basic practice because the connection with uke is very clear and strong and it is easier to f |
eel out body mechanics and lines of force there is also the matter of atemi or strikes employed during an aikido technique the role and importance of atemi is a matter of some debate in aikido some view atemi as strikes to vital points that can be delivered during the course of a technique s application to increase effectiveness others consider atemi to be methods of distraction particularly when aimed at the face for instance if a movement would expose the aikido practitioner to a counter blow he or she may deliver a quick strike to distract the attacker or occupy the threatening limb such a strike will also usually break the target s concentration making them easier to throw than if they are able to focus on resisting atemi can be interpreted as not only punches or kicks but also for instance striking with a shoulder or a large part of the arm some throws are arguably effected through an unbalancing or abrupt application of atemi many sayings about atemi are attributed to morihei ueshiba although their prec |
ise content varies considerably based on the one doing the telling weapons weapons training in aikido usually consists of jo four foot staff bokken wooden sword and wooden or sometimes rubber tanto knife both weapons taking and weapons retention are sometimes taught to integrate the armed and unarmed aspects of aikido for example a technique done with a straight punch may be done with a tanto or jo thrust instead or a grab technique may be illustrated as a way to draw strike with a weapon while being grabbed many schools use versions of morihiro saito s weapons system aiki jo and aiki ken the system contains solo kata with jo and paired exercises for both jo and bokken some lineages use bokken kata derived from older sword schools also quite a few aikido teachers such as mitsugi saotome and kazuo chiba have developed their own weapons systems this is largely due to the fact that o sensei did not teach weapons to his students excepting a few clothing the aikidogi used in aikido is similar to the keikogi used i |
n most other modern budo arts simple trousers and a wraparound jacket usually white in some places a keikogi of karate cut is preferred in others most people use judo keikogis keikogi made specially for aikido exist but usually not in the lower price ranges many dojos insist that the sleeves are cut short to elbow length to reduce the risk of trapped fingers and injuries in grab techniques to the wrist to the keikogi adds the traditional garment hakama wide pleated trousers the hakama is usually black or dark blue and in most dojos the hakama is reserved for practitioners with dan black belt ranks systems also exist where hakama is never worn or are worn from a specific kyu rank others exist where women are allowed to wear it earlier than men the belt obi is wrapped twice around the body similar to in karate or judo although some systems use many belt colours similar to the system in judo the most common version is that dan ranks wear black belt and kyu ranks white sometimes with an additional brown belt for |
the highest kyu ranks in some dojos it is common to have the same color belt at different levels spirituality the ending do in the word aikido indicates a spiritual path unlike the ending jutsu in the word aikijujutsu which indicates a system of techniques many people see this difference as important as well as regarding iaijutsu and iaido jujutsu and judo and kenjutsu and kendo others see this distinction as a historically incorrect and somewhat unnatural division for example literally do refers to a path and jitsu to a technique therefore some argue aikido involves both a way do and technical study jutsu ueshiba taught that while it was important to become proficient in physical technique this is not the ultimate purpose of training he taught that the principles learned through training in physical technique are universal and are to be applied to all aspects of one s life he once commented that he was teaching students not how to move their feet but rather how to move their minds many agree that ueshiba s s |
tyle became softer more fluid and effortless as he grew older some suggest this was due to a shift in focus to the spiritual aspects of the art while others suggest that this was simply a natural result of ueshiba becoming more proficient in physical technique various interpretations have arisen since ueshiba s death a range of aikido schools can be found each placing a different emphasis on physical techniques underlying principles and spiritual concepts this is largely a result of at what point the founder of each of these schools trained with ueshiba earlier or later in ueshiba s life the former tend to focus more on physical technique while the latter tend to focus more on spiritual concepts however this should not be overstated especially since there is considerable variance from sensei to sensei and an aikido continuum is quite problematic to actually construct some aikidoka view physical vs spiritual as a false separation or a failed attempt to stereotype branches of aikido ki society is an example of |
a school that focuses heavily on the spiritual concepts of aikido rather than physical technique ki obsolete form of the ki kanji the japanese character for ki is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice the steam being contained within is ki this same word is applied to the ability to harness one s own breath power power or energy this ki is the same as the qi in qi gong but many people argue it is not the same as the chi in t ai chi when aikidoka say that someone is training with a lot of ki they usually want to express that the person is very non forcefully compelling in the execution of his technique timing a sense for the correct distance and a centered undisturbed mind and body are particularly important most teachers claim to locate ki in the hara which might be loosely defined as the body s center of gravity situated in the lower abdomen about two inches below and behind the navel in training it is constantly emphasized that one should keep one s hara that is remain centered very |
high ranking teachers sometimes reach a level of coordination that enables them to execute techniques with very little apparent movement sometimes even without seeming to touch their opponent s body essentially ki corresponds to the physical concepts of center of gravity center of momentum and center of force however these centers are not necessarily the same so ki also encompasses the biological and mental aspect of training oneself to have exquisite control over motion the spiritual interpretation of ki depends very much on what school of aikido one studies as some emphasize it more than others ki society dojos for example tend to spend much more time on ki related training activities than do for example yoshinkan dojos the importance of ki in aikido cannot be denied the name of the martial art after all can be translated as the meeting of ki but what ki is is debated by many within the discipline o sensei himself appears to have changed his views over time for example yoshinkan aikido which largely follow |
s o sensei s teachings from before the war is considerably more martial in nature reflecting a younger more violent and less spiritual o sensei within this school ki perhaps could be better thought of as having its original chinese meaning of breath and aikido as coordination of movement with breath to maximize power as o sensei evolved and his views changed his teachings took on a much more ethereal feel and many of his later students almost all now high ranking senseis within the aikikai teach about ki from this perspective see also qi qigong body aikido training is for all around physical fitness flexibility and relaxation the human body in general can exert power in two ways contractive and expansive aikidofaq com many fitness activities for example weight lifting emphasize the former which means that specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone mass and power the disadvantage of this however is that whole body movement and coordination are rarely stressed thus while muscle si |
ze and power may increase there is no emphasis on the ways in which those muscles can work together most efficiently also this sort of training tends to increase tension decrease flexibility and stress the joints the result may be aesthetically pleasing but when done to excess may actually be detrimental to overall health the second type of power expansive is mostly stressed in activities such as dance or gymnastics in these activities the body must learn to move in a coordinated manner and with relaxation aikido also mostly stresses this sort of training while both types of power are important it is interesting to note that a person who masters the second type of power can in a martial context often overcome a person who is much bigger or stronger the reason for this is that the contractive power is only as great as the mass and power of your individual muscles expansive power however as used in aikido can be much greater than your size may lead you to believe this is because you move with your whole body ra |
ther than stressing and tensing only a few muscles you learn to relax and move from the center of your body where you are most powerful power is then extended out naturally through the relaxed limbs which become almost whip like in their motion needless to say the power behind an entire person s body will be more than that of someone s arm or leg alone hence aikido develops the body in a unique manner aerobic fitness is obtained through vigorous training flexibility of the joints and connective tissues is developed through various stretching exercises and through the techniques themselves relaxation is learned automatically since without it the techniques will not function a balanced use of contractive and expansive power is mastered enabling even a small person to pit his entire body s energy against their opponent with this different masters stress different aspects of training some masters stress importance of body posture while executing the technique in order to coordinate different parts of the body whi |
le others deal with the physical aspects of it with each way comes a different means of interpretation of the same basic principles of the art which is discussed in more detail above mind aikido training does not consider the body and mind as independent entities the condition of one affects the other for example the physical relaxation learned in aikido also becomes a mental relaxation likewise the confidence that develops mentally is manifested in a more confident style psychological or spiritual insight learned during training must become reflected in the body else it will vanish under pressure when more basic ingrained patterns and reflexes take over aikido training requires the student to squarely face conflict not to run away from it through this experience an aikido student may learn to face other areas of life in a similarly proactive fashion rather than in with avoidance and fear styles the major styles of aikido each have their own hombu dojo in japan have an international breadth and were founded b |
y direct students of morihei ueshiba although there has been an explosion of independent styles generally only the first five listed have been considered major iwama ryu is a debatable sixth as although its influence is major it has until recently been part of the aikikai see below aikikai is the largest aikido organisation and is led by the family of the founder numerous sub organisations and teachers affiliate themselves with this umbrella organisation which therefore encompasses a wide variety of aikido styles training methods and technical differences these sub organisations are often centred around prominant shihan and are usually organised at the national level although sub national and inter national sub organisations exist please see list of famous aikidoka for more detail yoshinkan founded by gozo shioda has a reputation for being the most rigidly precise students of yoshinkan aikido practise basic movements as solo kata and this style has been popular among the japanese police the international orga |
nization associated with the yoshinkan style of aikido is known as the yoshinkai and has active branches in many parts of the world yoseikan was founded by minoru mochizuki who was an early student of o sensei and also of jigoro kano at the kodokan this style includes elements of aiki budo together with aspects of karate judo and other arts it is now carried on by his son hiroo mochizuki the creator of yoseikan budo shodokan aikido often called tomiki aikido after its founder use sparring and rule based competition in training as opposed to most others people tend to compete to train rather than to train to compete kenji tomiki an early student of o sensei and also of judo s jigoro kano believed that introducing an element of competition would serve to sharpen and focus the practice since it was no longer tested in real combat this latter view was the cause of a split with o sensei s family who firmly believed that there was no place for competition in aikido training tomiki said that at no point did o sensei |
actually cast him out the ki society founded by former head instructor of the hombu dojo one zero th dan koichi tohei emphasizes very soft flowing techniques and has a special program for the development of ki it also has a special system of ki ranks alongside the traditional kyu and dan system this style is called shin shin toitsu aikido or ki aikido iwama ryu emphasizes the relation between weapon techniques and barehand techniques and a great deal of emphasis is placed on weapons training since the death of its founder morihiro saito the iwama style has been practiced by clubs within the aikikai and an independent organization headed by hitohiro saito saito sensei was a long time uchideshi of o sensei beginning in one nine four six and staying with him through his death many consider that saito sensei was the student who spent most time directly studying with o sensei saito sensei said he was trying to preserve and teach the art exactly as the founder of aikido taught it to him technically iwama ryu seems |
to resemble the aikido o sensei was teaching in the early five zero s mainly in the iwama dojo the technical repertoire is fairly large the new separate from aikikai iwama ryu aikido has been renamed iwama shin shin aikishurenkai shin ei taido founded by the late noriaki inoue nephew of morihei ueshiba yoshokai aikido begun by then hachidan takashi kushida of yoshinkan aikido is a remarkably centralized style of aikido with test techniques yearly passed down with explanations from the home dojo the syllabus contains a considerable amount of weapons study and like yoshinkan yoshokai includes many solo movements and exercises doshinkan aikido begun by yukio utada of yoshinkan aikido utada was a student of both the yoshinkan founder gozo shioda and yoshokai founder takashi kushida like yoshokai the syllabus also contains a considerable amount of weapons study and like yoshinkan doshinkan includes many solo movements and exercises doshinkan aikido aikido association of north america and doshinkan aikido internat |
ional is still affiliated with the international yoshinkan aikido federation tendoryu aikido headed by kenji shimizu shin budo kai headed by shizuo imaizumi kokikai aikido founded by shuji maruyama in one nine eight six focuses on minimalist but effective technique it emphasizes natural stances and ukemi that do not require high breakfalls and deemphasizes atemi and techniques that cause pain or undue discomfort to uke as such it is considered by some to be a soft style of aikido seidokan aikido founded by rod kobayashi tends to utilize movements which are very small and economical encourages students to discover an aikido which is truly their own stresses the importance of doing away with the extraneous and focusing on that which works nippon kan headed by gaku homma nishio aikido a part of the aikikai although techically well defined according to its head shoji nishio nishio sensei passed away in march two zero zero five nihon goshin aikido headed by richard bowe it is considered a hard style of aikido comb |
ining techniques from karate judo and daito ryu aikijutsu there are roughly a dozen dojos in the united states and none left in japan founded by shoto morita in japan circa one nine five zero derivative styles include nihon goshin aikijutsu founded by walter kopitov in two zero zero zero for more information see the black belt master course in nihon goshin aikido takemusu aiki tomita academy academy for the development of takemusu aiki founded in one nine nine two by takeji tomita this training method incorporates tai jutsu aiki ken and aiki jo for the study of the inter related principles of takemusu aiki and japanese budo aiki manseido headed by kanshu sunadomari independent style centred in kyushu japan aikidoka it is sometimes said that in japan the term aikidoka mainly refers to a professional while in the west any one who practices may call themselves an aikidoka the term aikidoist is also used as a more general term especially by those who prefer to maintain the more restricted japanese meaning of the |
term aikidoka see list of famous aikidoka external links aikiweb aikido information is a comprehensive site on aikido with essays forums images reviews columns wiki and other information chief among its notable content is its aikido dojo search engine the aikido faq a large but loose collection of essays multimedia and humour aikido journal website the most comprehensive source of aikido historical information aikido japanese martial arts winged victory of samothrace exihibited in the louvre by its original and broadest definition art from the latin ars meaning skill or craft is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge and a set of skills this meaning is preserved in such phrases as liberal arts and martial arts however in the modern use of the word which rose to prominence during the renaissance art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works or artwork which from concept to creation adhere to the creative impulse that is art is distinguished |
from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity by biological drive or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation by both definitions of the word artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind from early pre historic art to contemporary art the creative arts are a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is in the output of material that is compelled by a personal drive and echoes or reflects a message mood and symbolism for the viewer to interpret as such the term art may be taken to include forms as diverse as prose writing poetry dance acting music sculpture and painting in addition to serving as a method of pure creativity and self expression the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas such as in politically religiously and philosophically motivated art to create a sense of beauty see aesthetics and fine art or pleasure or to generate strong emotions the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent as a form of cultural expression art may be defined by the pu |
rsuit of diversity and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration i e art history art criticism and art theory to mediate its boundaries this distinction may be applied to objects or performances current or historical and its prestige extends to those who made found exhibit or own them other than originality there are no widely agreed upon criteria for what is or isn t considered art and there are many divergent definitions of art to seek more specific requirements etymology the word art derives from the latin ars which roughly translates to skill or craft and derives in turn from an indo european root meaning arrangement or to arrange this is the only near universal definition of art that whatever is described as such has undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent a few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact artificial artifice artillery medical arts and military arts however there are many other colloquial uses of the word all with some relation to its etymo |
logical roots art forms there are a variety of arts including visual arts and design decorative arts plastic arts and the performing arts artistic expression takes many forms painting drawing printmaking sculpture music literature and architecture are the most widely recognised forms however since the advent of modernism and the technological revolution new forms have emerged these include photography film video art installation art conceptual art performance art community arts land art fashion comics computer art anime and most recently video games within each form a wide range of genres may exist for instance a painting may be a still life a portrait or a landscape and may deal with historical or domestic subjects in addition a work of art may be representational or abstract most forms of art fit under two main categories fine arts and applied arts though there is no clear dividing line in the visual arts the term fine arts most often refers to painting and sculpture arts which have little or no practical f |
unction and are valued in terms of the visual pleasure they provide or their success in communicating ideas or feelings other visual arts typically designated as fine arts include printmaking drawing photography film and video though the tools used to realize these media are often used to make applied or commercial art as well architecture typically confounds the distinctions between fine and applied art since the form involves designing structures that strive to be both attractive and functional the term applied arts is most often used to describe the design or decoration of functional objects to make them visually pleasing artists who create applied arts or crafts are usually referred to as designers artisans or craftspeople defining art there is often confusion about the meaning of the term art because multiple meanings of the word are used interchangeably individuals use the word art to identify painting as well as singing characteristics of art there follow some generally accepted characteristics of art |
after this there is some lengthier discussion of several of those facets perceived as universal or central to art encourages an intuitive understanding rather than a rational understanding as for example with an article in a scientific journal was created with the intention of evoking such an understanding or an attempt at such an understanding in the audience was created with no other purpose or function other than to be itself a radical pure art definition elusive in that the work may communicate on many different levels of appreciation one may take the example of gericault s raft of the medusa in the case of which special knowledge concerning the shipwreck the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it but allows the appreciation of gericault s political intentions in the piece in relation to the above the piece may offer itself to many different interpretations or though it superficially depicts a mundane event or object invites reflection upon elevated themes demonstrates a high level of a |
bility or fluency within a medium this characteristic might be considered a point of contention since many modern artists most notably conceptual artists do not themselves create the works they conceive or do not even create the work in a conventional demonstrative sense one might think of tracey emin s controversial my bed the conferral of a particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structure or form upon an original set of unrelated passive constituents skill art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium an example of this is the contemporary young master josignacio creator of plastic paint medium it can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language so as to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth a common view is that the epithet art particular in its elevated sense requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist whether this be a demonstration of technical ability such as one might find in many works of the rennaissance or in the plays of s |
hakespeare or an originality in stylistic approach or a combination of these two for example a common contemporary criticism of some modern painting occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object one might take tracey emin s my bed or hirst s the physical impossibility of death in the mind of someone living as examples of pieces wherein the artist exercised little to no traditionally recognised sets of skills in the first case emin simply slept and engaged in other activities in her bed before placing the result in a gallery she has however been insistent that there is a high degree of selection and arrangement in this work which includes objects such as underwear and bottles around the bed in the second case hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork although he physically particpated in the creation of this piece he has left the eventual creation of many other works to employed artisans these approaches are exempla |
ry of a particular kind of contemporary art conceptual art the exclusionary view that art requires a certain skill level to produce is often described as a lay critique it derives from the fact that in western culture at least art has traditionally been pushed in the direction of representationalism the literal presentation of reality through literal images on the other hand criticism has often been brought to bear on modern artists for having no creative involvement whatsoever in their creations one might take hirst s work again as emblematic of this approach it may be further noted that certain forms of art outside a western tradition such as islamic geometric designs and calligraphy buddhist or hindu mandalas and celtic knotwork though they are non representational still require a measure of skill and certain creative involvement in their execution judgments of value somewhat in relation to the above the word art is also used to apply judgments of value as in such expressions as that meal was a work of art |
the cook is an artist or the art of deception the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised it is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism at the simplest level a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art whether it is perceived to be attractive or repellent though perception is always colored by experience and thus a reaction to art on these grounds is necessarily subjective it is commonly taken that that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art however good art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers in other words an artist s prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic and art often depicts terrible images made for social moral or thought provoking reasons for example francisco goya s painting depicting the spanish shootin |
gs of three rd of may one eight zero eight is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians yet at the same time the horrific imagery demonstrates goya s keen artistic ability in composition and execution and his fitting social and political outrage thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction if any is required to define art the assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing indeed the reverse is often true that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re invigoration of aesthetic sensibility and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality yet they all seem to agree in at least one point once their aesthetic choices are accepted the value of the work of art is determine |
d by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in order to strike some universal chord or by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist communicating emotion art appeals to human emotions it can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings artists have to express themselves so that their public is aroused but they do not have to do so consciously art explores what is commonly termed as the human condition that is essentially what it is to be human and art of a superior kind often brings about some new insight concerning humanity not always positive or demonstrates a level of skill so fine as to push forward the boundaries of collective human ability this is not to say that technical skill is a necessary prerequisite of art but rather that a high degree of skill goes some way in conferring a judgement of high standard upon an artist or artwork creative impulse from one perspective art i |
s a generic term for any product of the creative impulse out of which sprang all other human pursuits such as science via alchemy and religion via shamanism the term art offers no true definition besides those based within the cultural historical and geographical context in which it is applied though to the artists themselves the impulse to create is undeniable an artist can no more deny that impulse than he she could ignore breathing one might compare kandinsky s inner necessity to this popular view it is because of the overbearing need to create in the face of financial ruin public obscurity or political opposition that artists are typically conceived of as unstable even crazy or misguided differences in defining art definitions of art and aesthetic arguments usually proceed from one of several possible perspectives art may be defined by the intention of the artist as in the writings of dewey art may be seen as being in the response emotion of the viewer as tolstoy claims in danto s view it can be defined a |
s a character of the item itself or as a function of an object s context plato for plato art is a pursuit whose adherents are not to be trusted given that their productions imitate the sensory world itself an imitation of the divine world of forms art necessarily is an imitation of an imitation and thus is hopelessly far from the source of the truth plato it may be noted barred artists from access to his ideal city in his republic aristotle aristotle saw art in less of a bad light though he shared plato s poor opinion of it he nevertheless thought that art might serve the purpose of emotional catharsis that is by witnessing the sufferings and celebrations of actors onstage onlookers might vicariously experience these same feelings themselves and thereby purge such negative feelings institutional definition many people s opinions of what art is would fall inside a relatively small range of accepted standards or institutional definition of art george dickie one nine seven four this derives from education and ot |
her social factors most people did not consider the depiction of a brillo box or a store bought urinal to be art until andy warhol and marcel duchamp respectively placed them in the context of art i e the art gallery which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art although strictly speaking warhol s artwork was not an actual brillo box but an exact replica of one so it met the traditional criterion of skill at the very least most viewers of these objects initially rejected such associations because the objects did not themselves meet the accepted criteria the objects needed to be absorbed into the general consensus of what art is before they achieved the near universal acceptance as art in the contemporary era once accepted and viewed with a fresh eye the smooth white surfaces of duchamp s urinal are strikingly similar to classical marble sculptural forms whether the artist intended it or not this type of recontextualizing provides the same spark of connection expected fro |
m any traditionally created art it should be noted however that duchamps act might be as readily interpreted as a demonstration of the not always beneficial power of artistic institutions rather than the universal art potentially inherent in all objects the placement of an object in an artistic context is not taken as a universal standard of art but is a common characteristic of conceptual art prevalent since the one nine six zero s notably the stuckist art movement criticises this tendency of recent art related issues social criticism art is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others in this context art is seen as a high status activity associated with wealth the ability to purchase art and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it the palaces of versailles or the hermitage in st petersburg with their vast collections of art amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of europe exemplify this view collecting such art is the preserve of the rich in one viewpoint before the one three th ce |
ntury in europe artisans were considered to belong to a lower caste since they were essentially manual labourers after europe was re exposed to classical culture during the renaissance particularly in the nation states of what is now italy florence siena artists gained an association with high status however arrangements of fine and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status this is seen in the two zero th and two one st century by the commissioning or purchasing of art by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices utility there are many who ascribe to certain arts the quality of being non utilitarian this fits within the art as good system of definitions and suffers from a class prejudice against labor and utility opponents of this view argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function and these objects claimed to be non utilitarian actually have the rather mundane and banal utility of attempting to mystify and codify unworkable |
justifications for arbitrary social hierarchy it might also be argued that non utilitarian is in this context a mis usage that art is not in and of itself useless but rather that it particularly use does not manifest itself in any traditionally demonstrable way though advances in neuroscience may arguably enable the isolation of those associated cortices of the brain concerned with the creation or appreciation of art art is also used by art therapists and some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy the end product is not the principal goal in this case rather a process of healing through creative acts is sought the resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy the use of art from the artist s standpoint is as a means of expression when art is conceived as a device it serves several context and perspective specific functions from the artist s pers |
pective it allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers in a social context it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale in a more negative aspect of this facet art is often utilised as a form of propaganda and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood in some cases artworks are appropriated to be used in this manner without the creator s initial intention from a more anthropological perspective art is a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a somewhat universal language the interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer s perspective and context and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of art demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of people might congregate and mingle history of art the term art history typically |
refers to a historical examination of the various trends of the visual arts through certain periods of human history it may also be taken to encompass a study of the theories of art which may or may not include an examination of their historical context symbols much of the development of individual artist deals with finding principles for how to express certain ideas through various kinds of symbolism for example vasily kandinsky developed his use of color in painting through a system of stimulus response where over time he gained an understanding of the emotions that can be evoked by color and combinations of color contemporary artist andy goldsworthy on the other hand chose to use the medium of found natural objects and materials to arrange temporary sculptures cultural differences of art several genres of art are grouped by cultural relevance examples can be found in terms such as african art american craft islamic art asian art as found in buddhist art chinese art japanese art tibetan art thai art laotian |
art visual arts of the united states latin american art see also aesthetics the philosophy of beauty art criticism art groups art history art sale art school art styles periods and movements art techniques and materials art theft artist definition of music applied art fine art modern art psychedelic art what is art further reading peter magyar thought palaces amsterdam architectura natura press one nine nine nine aristotle metaphysics plato theory of forms carl jung man and his symbols gyorgy doczi the power of limits benedetto croce aesthetic as science of expression and general linguistic one nine zero two louis torres michelle marder kamhi what art is the esthetic theory of ayn rand open court two zero zero zero external links resources online arts artlex com dictionary of art terms artcyclopedia com reference site art on topic net art topic reference site art atlas net the international art directory the art millennium comprehensive art encyclopedia history of art world history of art hamilton museum of |
art online educational art museum professional links the art museum partnership american association of museums art top one zero actors in period costume sharing a joke whilst waiting between takes during location filming an actor is a person who acts or plays a role in an artistic production the term commonly refers to someone working in movies television live theatre or radio and can occasionally denote a street entertainer besides playing dramatic roles actors may also sing or dance or work only on radio or as a voice artist a female actor may be known as an actress although the term actor is also used as a gender neutral term an actor usually plays a fictional character in the case of a true story or a fictional story that portrays real people an actor may play a real person or a fictional version of the same occasionally actors appear as themselves etymology actor is directly from the masculine latin noun actor feminine actrix from the verb agere to do to drive to pass time the suffix or so st who perfor |
ms the action indicated by the stem alternatively from greek aktor leader from the verb ag to lead or carry to convey to bring history the first recorded case of an actor performing took place in five three four bc probably on two three november though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly when the greek performer thespis stepped on to the stage at the theatre dionysus and became the first person to speak words as a character in a play the machinations of storytelling were immediately revolutionized prior to thespis act stories were told in song and dance and in third person narrative but no one had assumed the role of a character in a story in honour of thespis actors are commonly called thespians theatrical myth to this day maintains that thespis exists as a mischievous spirit and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention actors were traditionally not people of high status and in the early middle ages travelling acting troupes were often vie |
wed with distrust however this negative perception dramaticaly changed in two zero th century as acting became an honored and popular profession and art part of the reason is due to the rise of the popular appeal and access to dramatic film entertainment and the resulting rise of the movie star in social status and the large salaries they commanded the combination of public presence and wealth had a profound rehabilitation to the image in the past only men could become actors in the ancient and medieval world it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage and this belief continued right up until the one seven th century when in venice it was broken in the time of william shakespeare women s roles were played by men or boys though there is some evidence to suggest that women disguised as men also illegally performed actors playing the opposite sex women sometimes play the roles of prepubescent boys because in some regards a woman has a closer resemblance to a boy than does a man the role of peter |
pan for example is traditionally played by a woman the tradition of the principal boy in pantomime may be compared an adult playing a child occurs more in theater than in film the exception to this is voice actors in animated films where boys are generally voiced by women as heard in the simpsons opera has several pants roles traditionally sung by women usually mezzo sopranos examples are hansel in h nsel und gretel and cherubino in the marriage of figaro mary pickford played the part of little lord fauntleroy in the first film version of the book linda hunt won an academy award for best supporting actress in the year of living dangerously in which she played the part of a man having an actor play the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long standing tradition in comic theatre and film most of shakespeare s comedies include instances of cross dressing and both dustin hoffman and robin williams appeared in hit comedy films where they were required to play most scenes dressed as women tony curtis and jack |
lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the billy wilder film some like it hot techniques of acting actors employ a variety of techniques that are learned through training and experience some of these are the rigorous use of the voice to communicate a character s lines and express emotion this is achieved through attention to diction and projection through correct breathing and articulation it is also achieved through the tone and emphasis that an actor puts on words physicalisation of a role in order to create a believable character for the audience and to use the acting space appropriately and correctly use of gesture to complement the voice interact with other actors and to bring emphasis to the words in a play as well as having symbolic meaning shakespeare is believed to have been commenting on the acting style and techniques of his era when hamlet gives his famous advice to the players speak the speech i pray you as i pronounced it to you trippingly on the tongue but if you mouth it as many |
of your players do i had as lief the town crier spoke my lines nor do not saw the air too much with your hand thus but use all gently for in the very torrent tempest and as i may say the whirlwind of passion you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness o it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig pated fellow tear a passion to tatters to very rags to split the ears of the groundlings who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumbshows and noise i would have such a fellow whipped for o erdoing termagant it out herods herod pray you avoid it be not too tame neither but let your own discretion be your tutor suit the action to the word the word to the action with this special observance o erstep not the modesty of nature for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing whose end both at the first and now was and is to hold as twere the mirror up to nature to show virtue her own feature scorn her own image and the very age and body of the time his for |
m and pressure now this overdone or come tardy off though it make the unskilful laugh cannot but make the judicious grieve the censure of the which one must in your allowance o erweigh a whole theatre of others o there be players that i have seen play and heard others praise and that highly not to speak it profanely that neither having the accent of christians nor the gait of christian pagan nor man have so strutted and bellowed that i have thought some of nature s journeymen had made men and not made them well they imitated humanity so abominably o reform it altogether and let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them for there be of them that will themselves laugh to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too though in the mean time some necessary question of the play be then to be considered that s villanous and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it go make you ready acting awards academy awards also known as the oscars for film golden globe awards for |
film and television emmy awards for television genie awards for film gemini awards for television british academy of film and television arts award for film and television tony awards for the theatre specifically broadway theatre european theatre awards for the theatre laurence olivier awards for the theatre screen actors guild awards for actors in film and television see also acting celebrities charisma method acting movie star stunt work suggested reading an actor prepares by konstantin stanislavski theatre arts books isbn zero eight seven eight three zero nine eight three seven one nine eight nine a dream of passion the development of the method by lee strasberg plume books isbn zero four five two two six one nine eight eight one nine nine zero sanford meisner on acting by sanford meisner vintage isbn zero three nine four seven five zero five nine four one nine eight seven letters to a young actor by robert brustein basic books isbn zero four six five zero zero eight zero six two two zero zero five the al |
exander technique manual by richard brennan connections book publishing isbn one eight five nine zero six one six three x two zero zero four actors entertainment occupations agnostida the agnostids is an order of trilobite these small trilobites first appeared toward the end of the lower cambrian and thrived in the middle cambrian the last agnostids held out until the late ordovician the agnostida are divided into two suborders agnostina and eodiscina that are then divided into a number of families the eodiscina appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax some resemble trilobites of the order ptychopariida as a group agnostids have pygidia tails that are similar in size and shape to their cephalons heads neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites there has been more than one argument about which end is the head agnostids were probably benthic bottom dwelling creatures most agnostid species have no eyes they likely lived on areas of the ocean floor th |
at received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom unfortunately the appendages are known only for one genus of agnostid the legs of that genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs of other trilobites with preserved appendages this has caused many taxonomists to question whether the agnostids are truly trilobites another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites however four orders of trilobites redlichiida corynexochida naraoidia ptychopariida considerably predate the earliest agnostids in the fossil record agnostina are generally referred to simply as agnostids even though they probably should be called agnostines external links agnostida fact sheet a guide to the eight orders of trilobites by sam gon iii prehistoric arthropods an abortion is the termination of a pregnancy associated with the death of an embryo or a fetus this can occur spontaneously in the form of a miscarriage or be intent |
ionally induced through chemical surgical or other means generally abortions are performed by gynaecologists or obstetricians all mammalian pregnancies can be aborted however this article focuses exclusively on the abortion of human pregnancy there have been various methods of inducing an abortion throughout the centuries in the two zero th century the ethics and morality of abortion became the subject of intense political debate in many areas of the world definitions pregnancy is defined by the medical community as beginning at the implantation of the embryo others differ however placing this initiation at conception the following medical terms are used to define an abortion spontaneous abortion miscarriage an abortion due to accidental trauma or natural causes induced abortion an abortion deliberately caused induced abortions are further subcategorized into therapeutic abortions and elective abortions therapeutic abortion to save the life of the pregnant woman to preserve the woman s physical or mental heal |
th to terminate a pregnancy that would result in the birth of a child with defects which would be incompatible with life or associated with significant morbidity to selectively reduce the number of fetuses in a multiple pregnancy to lessen health risks involved elective abortion an abortion performed for any other reason methods of birth control that prevent implantation such as emergency contraception are not considered to be abortion however emergency contraception is generally considered equivalent to abortion by those who reject the medical definition of pregnancy a pregnancy that ends earlier than three seven completed weeks of gestation and where an infant is born and survives is termed a premature birth a pregnancy that ends with an infant dead upon birth at any gestational stage due to causes including spontaneous abortion or complications during delivery is termed a stillbirth in common parlance the term abortion is synonymous with induced abortion of a human fetus incidence the incidence of and reas |
ons for induced abortion vary in regions in which abortion is generally permitted it has been estimated that the total number of induced abortions performed globally is approximately four six million per year two six million of these are said to occur in places in which abortion is legal the other two zero million happen where it is illegal some countries such as belgium and the netherlands experience a low rate of induced abortion while others like russia and vietnam have a comparatively high rate a one nine nine eight study aggregated data from studies in two seven countries on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies it concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were the desire to delay or end childbearing concern over the interruption of work or education issues of financial or relationship stability and perceived immaturity in finland and the united states concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given whe |
reas in bangladesh india and kenya such a concern was found to be more prevalent a two zero zero four study in which american women at clinics answered a questionnaire yielded similar results some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures such as eugenics the stigmatization of disabled persons preference for children of a specific sex disapproval of single motherhood insufficient economic support for families lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods or efforts toward population control such as china s one child policy a combination of these factors can sometimes result in forced abortion forced sterilization infanticide child abandonment or sex selective abortion and infanticide which is illegal in most countries but difficult to stop in many areas especially in developing nations or where abortion is illegal women sometimes resort to back alley or self induced procedures the world health organization suggests that there are one nine million terminations annually which fit its |
criteria for an unsafe abortion see social issues for more information on these subjects forms of abortion spontaneous abortion spontaneous abortions generally referred to as miscarriages occur when an embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes a miscarriage is spontaneous loss of the embryo or fetus before the two zero th week of development spontaneous abortions after the two zero th week are generally considered to be preterm deliveries most miscarriages occur very early in a pregnancy approximately one zero five zero of pregnancies end in miscarriage depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman the risk for spontaneous abortion is greater in those with a history of more than three previous known spontaneous abortions those who have had a previous induced abortion those with systemic diseases and in women over age three five other causes can be infection of either the woman or the fetus immune responses or serious systemic diseases of the woman a spontaneous abortion can also be caused by ac |
cidental trauma intentional trauma to cause miscarriage is considered an induced abortion some governments have laws increasing the criminal liability of a person who causes a miscarriage during an assault or other violent crime induced abortion a pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in a number of ways the manner selected depends chiefly upon the gestational age of the fetus in addition to the legality regional availability and or doctor patient preference for specific procedures surgical abortion u s president george w bush signs the partial birth abortion ban act of two zero zero three in the first fifteen weeks suction aspiration or vacuum abortion is the most common method manual vacuum aspiration or mva abortion consists of removing the fetus or embryo by suction using a manual syringe while the electric vacuum aspiration or eva abortion method uses an electric pump these techniques are equivalent differing only in the mechanism use to apply suction from the fifteenth week up until around the twenty s |
ixth week a surgical dilation and evacuation d e is used d e consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction dilation and curettage d c is a standard gynaecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy investigation of abnormal bleeding and abortion curettage refers to the cleaning of the walls of the uterus with a curette the world health organization recommends this sort of procedure also called sharp curettage only when mva is unavailable sharp curettage only accounted for two four of abortion procedures in the us in two zero zero two the term d and c can more generally be used to refer to the first trimester abortion procedure irrespective of the method used to perform the procedure other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the third trimester premature delivery can be induced with prostaglandin this can be coupled with injecting the amniotic fluid with caustic solution |
s containing saline or urea very late abortions can be brought about by intact dilation and extraction intact d x which requires the surgical decompression of the fetus s head before evacuation and is sometimes termed partial birth abortion a hysterotomy abortion similar to a caesarian section but resulting in a terminated fetus can also be used at late stages of pregnancy it can be performed vaginally with an incision just above the cervix in the late mid trimester chemical abortion the molecular structure of the abortifacient drug mifepristone effective in the first trimester of pregnancy chemical also referred to as a medical abortion or non surgical abortions comprise one zero of all abortions in the united states and europe the process begins with the administration of either methotrexate or mifepristone followed by misoprostol when appropriately used nine eight of women undergoing medical termination of pregnancy will experience completed abortion without surgical intervention the food and drug administ |
ration currently approves the use of mifepristone up to four nine days gestation seven weeks though evidence based regimens exist for its use up to six one days gestation with similar success rates misoprostol alone can also be used though it is not fda approved for this purpose misoprostol cytotec alone has the advantage of costing less than one dollar for an effective dose as opposed to several hundred dollars for an effective dose of mifepristone in cases of failure of medical abortion vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically other means of abortion historically a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine tansy pennyroyal black cohosh and the now extinct silphium see history of abortion the use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious even lethal side effects such as multiple organ failure and is not recommended by physicians abortion is sometimes attempted through means of trauma to the abdomen the degree of force applied |
if severe can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries in burma indonesia malaysia the philippines and thailand there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage reported methods of unsafe self induced abortion include the misuse of the ulcer drug misoprostol and the insertion of non surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus health effects early term surgical abortion is a simple procedure and when performed by competent doctors and in some states nurse practitioners nurse midwives and physician assistants in first world nations before the one six th week is safer than carrying the pregnancy to term as with most surgical procedures the most common surgical abortion methods carry the risk of potentially serious complications these risks include a perforated uterus perforated bowel o |
r bladder septic shock sterility and death the risk of complications occurring can increase depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed but may be counterbalanced by complications that would occur from carrying the pregnancy to term it is difficult to accurately assess the risks of induced abortion due to a number of factors these factors include wide variation in the quality of abortion services in different societies and among different socio economic groups a lack of uniform definitions of terms and difficulties in patient follow up and after care the degree of risk is also dependent upon the skill and experience of the practitioner maternal age health and parity gestational age pre existing conditions methods and instruments used medications used the skill and experience of those assisting the practitioner and the quality of recovery and follow up care a highly skilled practitioner operating under ideal conditions will tend to have a very low rate of complications an inexperienced practitioner in an |
ill equipped and ill staffed facility on the other hand will often have a higher incidence of complications in the united kingdom the number of deaths due to legal abortion between the years of one nine nine one and one nine nine three was five as compared to the nine deaths caused by ectopic pregnancy during the same time frame in the united states during the year one nine nine nine there were a total of four deaths due to legal abortion some practitioners advocate using minimal anesthesia so that the patient can alert them to possible complications others recommend general anesthesia in order to prevent patient movement which might cause a perforation general anesthesia carries its own risks including death which is why public health officials recommend against its routine use dilation of the cervix carries the risk of cervical tears or perforations including small tears that might not be apparent and might cause cervical incompetence in future pregnancies most practitioners recommend using the smallest po |
ssible dilators and using osmotic rather than mechanical dilators after the first trimester of pregnancy instruments are placed within the uterus to remove the fetus these can on rare occasions cause perforation or laceration of the uterus and damage to structures surrounding the uterus laceration or perforation of the uterus or cervix can again on rare occasions lead to even more serious complications incomplete emptying of the uterus can cause hemorrhage and infection use of ultrasound verification of the location and duration of the pregnancy prior to abortion with immediate follow up of patients reporting continuing pregnancy symptoms after the procedure will virtually eliminate this risk the sooner a complication is noted and properly treated the lower the risk of permanent injury or death in rare cases the abortion will be unsuccessful and the pregnancy will continue an unsuccessful abortion can also result in the delivery of a live neonate or infant this termed a failed abortion is more likely to occur |
if the procedure is carried out later in the pregnancy some doctors faced with this situation have voiced concerns about the ethical and legal ramifications of then letting the neonate die as a result recent investigations have been launched in the united kingdom by the confidential enquiry into maternal and child health cemach and the royal college of obstetricians and gynecologists in order to determine how widespread the problem is and what an ethical response in the treatment of the infant might be use of other methods e g overdose of various drugs insertion of various objects into uterus for abortion is potentially dangerous carrying a significantly elevated risk for permanent injury or death compared to abortions done by physicians suggested effects there is controversy over a number of proposed risks and effects of abortion evidence whether in support of or against such claims might in part be influenced by the political and religious beliefs of the parties behind it breast cancer the abortion breast |
cancer abc hypothesis posits a causal relationship between having an induced abortion and a higher risk of developing breast cancer in the future an increased level of estrogen in early pregnancy helps to initiate cellular differentiation growth in the breast in preparation for lactation if this process is terminated through abortion before full differentiation in the third trimester then more vulnerable undifferentiated cells will be left than there were prior to the pregnancy it is proposed that this might result in an elevated risk of breast cancer the majority of interview based studies have indicated a link and some have been demonstrated to be statistically significant but there remains debate as to their reliability because of possible response bias larger and more recent record based studies such as one in one nine nine seven which used data from two national registries in denmark found the correlation to be negligible to non existent after statistical adjustment the national cancer institute conducte |
d an official workshop with dozens of experts on the issue between february two four february two six two zero zero three which concluded from its examination of various evidence that it is well established that induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk these findings and how the denmark study statistically adjusted their overall results have been disputed by dr joel brind an invitee to the workshop and the leading scientific advocate of the abortion breast cancer hypothesis nevertheless gaps and inconsistencies remain in the research and the subject continues to be one of political and scientific contention fetal pain the experience of the fetus during abortion is a matter of medical ethical and public policy concern evidence is conflicting with some authorities holding that the fetus is capable of feeling pain from the first trimester and others maintaining that the neuro anatomical requirements for such experience do not exist until the second or third trimester pain recepto |
rs begin to appear in the seventh week of pregnancy the thalamus the part of the brain which receives signals from the nervous system and then relays them to the cerebral cortex starts to form in the fifth week however other anatomical structures involved in the nociceptic process are not present until much later in gestation links between the thalamus and cerebral cortex aren t forged until around the two three rd week researchers have observed changes in the heart rates and hormonal levels of newborn infants after circumcision blood tests and surgery effects which were alleviated with the administration of anesthesia others suggest that the human experience of pain being more than just physiological cannot be measured in such reflexive responses mental health some women will experience negative feelings as a result of elective abortion however whether this phenomenon is significant enough to warrant a general diagnosis or even classification as an independent syndrome see post abortion syndrome is a subject |
that is debated among members of the medical community data on the incidence of clinical depression mental illness post traumatic stress disorder and suicide in association with abortion remain inconclusive a comparative analysis of the suicide rates among postpartum and post abortive women in finland found a statistical correlation between abortion and suicide other studies have suggested a link between the elective termination of an unwanted pregnancy and an improvement in reported mental well being elective abortion may reduce the occurrence of depression in cases of unwanted pregnancy as compared to cases in which the pregnancy has been carried to completion but it is also sometimes reported as an additional stressor ibid the majority of evidence would seem to indicate that adverse emotional reactions to the procedure are most strongly influenced by pre existing psychological conditions and other negative factors ibid spontaneous abortion or miscarriage is known to present an increased risk of depression |
in women history of abortion bottom most dr caton s tansy pills an example of a clandestine advertisement the practice of induced abortion according to some anthropologists can be traced to ancient times there is evidence to suggest that historically pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods including the administration of abortifacient herbs the use of sharpened implements the application of abdominal pressure and other techniques soranus a two nd century greek physician suggested in his work gynecology that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in violent exercise energetic jumping carrying heavy objects and riding animals he also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal bathes pessaries and bloodletting but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ perforation it is also known that the ancient greeks relied upon the herb silphium as both a contraceptive and an abortifacient the plant as the chief export of cyrene was driven |
to extinction but it is suggested that it might have possessed the same abortive properties as some of its closest extant relatives in the apiaceae family such folk remedies however varied in effectiveness and were not without risk tansy and pennyroyal for example are two poisonous herbs with serious side effects that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy one nine th century medicine saw advances in the fields of surgery anaesthesia and sanitation in the same era that doctors with the american medical association lobbied for bans on abortion in the united states and the british parliament passed the offences against the person act demand for the procedure continued however as the disguised but nonetheless open advertisement of abortion services in victorian times would seem to suggest social issues a number of of complex issues exist in the debate over abortion these like the suggested effects upon health listed above are a focus of research and a fixture of discussion among members on all sides the |
controversy effect upon crime rate a controversial theory attempts to draw a correlation between the unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall crime rate witnessed in the united states during the one nine nine zero s and the decriminalization of abortion two zero years prior the suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a one nine nine nine academic paper the impact of legalized abortion on crime authored by the economists steven d levitt and john donohue they attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes unwanted children especially those born to mothers who are african american impoverished adolescent uneducated and single the change coincided with what would ve been the adolescence or peak years of potential criminality of those who had not been born as a result of roe v wade and similar cases donohue and levitt s study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the l |
owering crime rate pattern earlier and that those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions fellow economists christopher foote and christopher goetz criticized the methodology in the donahue levitt study noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita they found no statistically significant results levitt and donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns but they claim maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime levitt states in his book freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action merely reporting data as economists sex selective abortion the advent of both ultrasound and amniocentesis has allowed parents to determine sex before birth th |
is has lead to the occurrence of sex selective abortion or the targeted termination of a fetus based upon its gender it is suggested that sex selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some places the preference for male children is reported in many areas of asia and the use of abortion to limit female births has been reported in mainland china taiwan south korea and india in india the economic role of men the costs associated with dowries and a hindu tradition which dictates that funeral rites must be performed by a male relative have lead to a cultural preference for sons the widespread availability of diagnostic testing during the one nine seven zero s and eight zero s lead to advertisements for services which read invest five zero zero rupees for a sex test now save five zero zero zero zero rupees for a dowry later in one nine nine one the male to female sex ratio in india was skewed from its biological norm of on |
e zero five to one zero zero to an average of one zero eight to one zero zero researchers have asserted that between one nine eight five and two zero zero five as many as one zero million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted the indian government passed an official ban of pre natal sex screening in one nine nine four and moved to pass a complete ban of sex selective abortion in two zero zero two in the people s republic of china there is also a historic son preference the implementation of the one child policy in one nine seven nine in response to population concerns lead to an increased disparities in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted daughters sex selective abortion might be a part of what is behind the shift from the baseline male to female birth rate to an elevated national rate of one one seven one zero zero reported in two zero zero two the trend was more pronounced in rural regions as high as one three zero |
one zero zero in guangdong and one three five one zero zero in hainan a ban upon the practice of sex selective abortion was enacted in two zero zero three unsafe abortion where and when access to safe abortion has been barred due to explicit sanctions or general unavailability women seeking to terminate their pregnancies have sometimes resorted to unsafe methods back alley abortion is a slang term for any abortion not practiced under ideal conditions of sanitation and professionalism the world health organization defines an unsafe abortion as being a procedure carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards or both this can include a person without medical training a professional health provider operating in sub standard conditions or the woman herself unsafe abortion remains a public health concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications such as incomplete abortion sepsis hemorrhage and damage |
to internal organs who estimates that one nine million unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that six eight zero zero zero of these result in the death of a woman complications of unsafe abortion are said to account globally for approximately one three of all maternal mortalities with regional estimates including one two in asia two five in latin america and one three in sub saharan africa health education access to family planning and improvements in healthcare during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon abortion debate pro life activists in washington dc stage a silent demonstration before the supreme court over the course of the history of abortion induced abortions have been a source of considerable debate and controversy regarding the morality and legality of this practice an individual s position on the complex ethical moral philosophical biological and legal issues have a strong relationship with that individual s value system a person s position on abortion m |
ay be best described as a combination of their personal beliefs on the morality of abortion and that person s beliefs on the ethical scope and responsibility of legitimate governmental and legal authority another factor for many individuals is religious doctrine see religion and abortion abortion debates especially pertaining to abortion laws are often spearheaded by advocacy groups belonging to one of two camps most often those in favor of legal prohibition of abortion describe themselves as pro life while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as pro choice both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to life for pro life advocates and for those who are pro choice does a woman have the right to choose whether or not to have an abortion in both public and private debate arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion or jus |
tification of laws permitting or restricting abortion arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine complicating the issue at hand debate also focuses on whether the pregnant woman should have to notify and or have the consent of others in distinct cases a minor her parents a legally married or common law wife her husband or a pregnant woman the biological father in a two zero zero three gallup poll in the united states seven two of respondents were in favor of spousal notification with two six opposed of those polled seven nine of males and six seven of females responded in favor public opinion political sides have largely been divided into absolutes the abortion debate as such tends to center around individuals who hold strong positions however public opinion varies from poll to poll country to country and region to region australia in a february two zero zero five ac nielsen poll as reported in the age five six thought the current abortion laws which generally allow abortion for the sake o |
f life or health were about right one six want changes in law to make abortion more accessible and one seven want changes to make it less accessible a one nine nine eight poll conducted by roy morgan research asked do you approve of the termination of unwanted pregnancies through surgical abortion six five of the australians polled stated that they approved of surgical abortion and two five stated that they disapproved of it canada a recent poll of canadians conducted in april two zero zero five by gallup found that five two of those polled want abortion laws to remain the same two zero want the laws to be less strict and two four would prefer that the laws become more strict an earlier gallup poll from december two zero zero one asked do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances legal only under certain circumstances or illegal in all circumstances and in what circumstances three two of canadians responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstance five two that it shoul |
d be legal in certain circumstances and one four that it should be legal in no circumstances see abortion in canada ireland a one nine nine seven irish times mrbi poll of the republic of ireland s electorate found that one eight believe that abortion should never be permitted three five that one should be allowed in the event that the woman s life is threatened one eight if her health is at risk two eight that an abortion should be provided to those who need it and five were undecided the united kingdom an online yougov daily telegraph poll in august two zero zero five found that three zero of britons would back a measure to reduce the legal limit for abortion to two zero weeks one nine support a limit of one two weeks nine support a limit of less than one two weeks and two five support maintaining the current limit of two four weeks six responded that abortion should never be allowed while two said it should be permitted throughout the entirety of pregnancy the united states in a january two zero zero six cb |
s news poll which asked what is your personal feeling about abortion two seven said that abortion should be permitted in all cases one five that it should be permitted but subject to greater restrictions than it is now three three that it should be permitted only in cases such as rape incest or to save the woman s life one seven that it should only be permitted to save the woman s life and five that it should never be permitted a november two zero zero five pew research center poll asked in one nine seven three the roe versus wade decision established a woman s constitutional right to an abortion at least in the first three months of pregnancy would you like to see the supreme court completely overturn its roe versus wade decision or not with two nine indicating they want it overturned and six five that they do not abortion law international status of abortion law the soviet union one nine two zero and iceland one nine three five were some of the first countries to generally allow abortion the second half of |
the twentieth century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in many other countries in one nine seven three the u s supreme court struck down state laws banning abortion ruling that such laws violated an inferred right to privacy in the u s constitution the supreme court of canada similarly discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in one nine eight eight after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under in the canadian charter of rights and freedoms in the case of r v morgentaler canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of r v morgentaler one nine nine three ireland on the other hand added an amendment to its constitution in one nine eight three by popular referendum recognizing the right to life of the unborn see abortion in ireland current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse religious moral and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world the right to life the right to liberty and the ri |
ght to security of person are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or the absence of laws controlling abortion many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained often but not always using a trimester based system to regulate the window in which abortion is still legal to perform in the united states some states impose a two four hour waiting period before the procedure prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion in the united kingdom as in some other countries two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed other countries in which abortion is illegal will allow one to be performed in the case of rape incest or danger to the pregnant woman s life or health a handful of nations ban abortion entirely such as chile el salvador and mal |
ta see also abortion in australia abortion in canada abortion in ireland abortion in the united kingdom abortion in the united states adoption partial birth abortion pregnancy religion and abortion selective reduction self induced abortion wrongful abortion sources reproductive endocrinology and infertility recurrent pregnancy loss recurrent miscarriage n d retrieved two zero zero six zero one one eight from washington university school of medicine department of obstetrics and gynecology web site henshaw stanley k singh susheela abortions one nine eight four two zero zero four two zero zero five retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven from web japan statistics bureau two zero zero four current population estimates as of october one two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight ewing ian statistics new zealand two zero zero five zero six one five abortions year ended december two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven statistics new zealand two zero zero five z |
ero five one five demographic trends two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight statistics norway two zero zero five zero six zero eight induced abortions by woman s county of residence one nine eight zero two zero zero four retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven statistics norway two zero zero five population by age sex marital status and foreign citizenship retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight health systems trust n d tops terminations of pregnancy retrieved two zero zero six zero one one seven statistics south africa two zero zero one zero seven zero two mid year estimates two zero zero one retrieved two zero zero six zero one two eight nilsson emma fifty babies a year are alive after abortion the sunday times retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one american abortion breast cancer studies melbye m wohlfahrt j olsen j h frisch m westergaard t helweg larsen k et al one nine nine seven induced abortion and the risk of breast cancer electronic version new england j |
ournal of medicine three three six eight one five retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one from pubmed national cancer institute two zero zero three zero three zero four summary report early reproductive events and breast cancer workshop retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one national cancer institute two zero zero three minority dissenting comment regarding early reproductive events and breast cancer workshop retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one parliamentary office of science and technology one nine nine seven fetal awareness retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one mulligan larossa maureen crime abortion study continues to draw pro life backlash one nine nine nine zero eight one one the pro life infonet retrieved two zero zero six zero two one seven from ohio roundtable online library abortion and the lower crime rate two zero zero zero january st anthony messenger retrieved two zero zero six zero two one seven banister judith one nine nine nine zero three one six son preference in as |
ia report of a symposium retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two mutharayappa rangamuthia kim choe minja arnold fred selective abortion blamed for india s missing girls reuters alertnet retrieved two zero zero six zero one zero nine mudur ganapati two zero zero two india plans new legislation to prevent sex selection british medical journal news roundup retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two graham maureen j larsen ulla china bans sex selection abortion two zero zero two zero three two two xinhua news agency retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two salter c johnson h b and hengen n one nine nine seven care for postabortion complications saving women s lives population reports two five one retrieved two zero zero six zero two two two world health organization one nine nine eight address unsafe abortion retrieved two zero zero six zero three zero one the pew research center for the people and the press two zero zero five one one zero two public opinion supports alito on spousal notification even |
as it favors roe v wade pew research center pollwatch retrieved two zero zero six zero three zero one grattan michelle two zero zero five zero two one six poll backs abortion laws the age retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one roy morgan international one nine nine eight zero three zero three almost two thirds of australians approve of abortion retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one kennedy geraldine one nine nine seven one two one one seven seven say limited abortion right should be provided the irish times retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one yougov two zero zero five zero seven three zero yougov daily telegraph survey results retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one the polling report two zero zero six retrieved two zero zero six zero one one one the pew forum on religion public life two zero zero five one one two nine abortion seen as most important issue for supreme court retrieved two zero zero six zero one one two external links abortion statistics and other data abortion laws o |
f the world abortion policies a global review the following links may be biased abortion com the alan guttmacher institute american life league carenet just facts abortion planned parenthood abortion in law an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers abstraction of title the abstraction of title used in real estate transactions is the more common form of abstract an abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land a house or a building before it came into possession of the present owner the abstract also records all deeds wills mortgages and other documents that affect ownership of the property an abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners clear title a clear title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property it reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership after the records of the proper |
ty have been traced and the title has been found clear it is sometimes guaranteed or insured in a few states a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities after this is accomplished no abstract of title is necessary patent law in the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step or non obviousness in united states patent law of an invention references world book encyclopedia one nine eight eight see also academic conference external links rule eight pct defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under patent cooperation treaty pct article eight five and rule three three epc defining the abstract related requirements in a european patent application legal research see also internet troll an aolamer or aol lamer is a person using aol that posts flamebait or |
other off topic messages in a newsgroup in order to disrupt the newsgroup during the early one nine nine zero s many regular non aol internet newsgroup users routinely killed all messages coming from aol as many of the messages coming from aol were non informative in addition the term aolamer is often used as a derogatory term for aol subscribers by users of other internet service providers who view aol as a provider associated with people who know little about computers america online internet trolling alan alda as benjamin franklin hawkeye pierce alan alda born january two eight one nine three six as alphonso joseph d abruzzo is an american actor writer director and sometimes political activist he is most famous for his role as hawkeye pierce in the television series m a s h in the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s he was viewed as the archetypal sensitive male though in recent years he has appeared in roles which counter that image family and early life alda was born in new york city his ita |
lian american father robert alda born alphonso giuseppe giovanni roberto d abruzzo was a successful actor and his mother joan brown was crowned miss new york in a beauty pageant the adopted surname alda is a contraction of al phonso and d a bruzzo when alan alda was growing up his parents divorced alan alda contracted polio when he was seven years old which kept him bedridden for two years as he received treatments alan alda s half brother anthony alda was christened antonio d abruzzo on the nine th of december one nine five six he received his bachelor s degree from fordham university in one nine five six during his junior year he studied in europe where he acted in a play in rome and performed with his father on television in amsterdam after graduation he joined the u s army reserve and served a six month tour of duty as a gunnery officer in korea following the korean war a year after graduation he married arlene weiss with whom he has three daughters eve elizabeth and beatrice arlene alda is a well known p |
hotographer author and clarinettist raised as a devout catholic he has since left the church but continues to celebrate religious holidays and events his specific religious beliefs are difficult to define he is also an activist for feminist causes and has been for many years acting career fame and m a s h alda began his career in the one nine five zero s as a member of the compass players comedy revue in the eleven years seven two eight three he starred in m a s h he was nominated for two one emmy awards winning five he wrote or co wrote twenty episodes and directed thirty episodes when he won his first emmy award for writing he was so happy that he performed a cartwheel before running up to the stage to accept the award he also was the first person to win emmy awards for acting writing and directing for the same series interestingly enough the late richard hooker who wrote the novel on which m a s h was based did not like alan alda s portrayal of hawkeye pierce hooker had based hawkeye on himself though hook |
er didn t care for the show in general after m a s h alda s prominence in the enormously successful m a s h gave him a platform to speak out on political topics and he has been a strong and vocal supporter of women s rights as such he has been something of a boogeyman for some political social conservatives who disagree with his views he has also appeared in at least two tv commercials both of these were in the small computer industry first for atari and later with the rest of the m a s h cast for ibm s ps two product line with microchannel architecture alan alda as senator vinick alan alda has also played nobel prize winning physicist richard feynman in the play qed which has only one other character although peter parnell wrote the play alda both produced and inspired it alda has also appeared frequently in the films of woody allen and he has been a guest star five times on er playing dr gabriel lawrence as of two zero zero four alda is a regular cast member on the nbc program the west wing portraying repub |
lican u s senator and presidential hopeful arnold vinick he made his premiere in the sixth season s tenth episode in the room and was added to the opening credits with the thirteenth episode king corn throughout his career he has been nominated for the emmy award three one times and the tony award twice and has won seven people s choice awards six golden globe awards and three director s guild of america awards however it was not until two zero zero four after a long acting career that alda received his first nomination for an academy award this was the best supporting actor nomination for his role as senator ralph owen brewster in martin scorsese s film the aviator in the spring of two zero zero five alda starred as shelly levene in the tony award winning broadway revival of david mamet s glengarry glen ross for which he received a tony award nomination for best featured actor in a play it has become quite normal for alda in his later roles to have some reference to his early work in m a s h for instance bot |
h the senator he played in the aviator and hawkeye pierce came from maine in a line on er his character mentions that he uses a surgical technique he picked up in a military hospital the same character also undergoes a mental acuity test where he has to identify pictures of objects he sees a funnel and identifies it as a martini glass without the base hawkeye pierce was very fond of martinis alda s west wing character has also made at least one reference to korea when he said i could take these people to the dmz and it still wouldn t take their minds off ethanol and abortion in two zero zero five alda published his first round of memoirs never have your dog stuffed and other things i ve learned published by random house isbn one four zero zero zero six four zero nine zero among other stories he recalls his intestines becoming strangulated while on location in chile for his pbs show scientific american frontiers he also talks about his mother s battle with schizophrenia filmography gone are the days one nine s |
ix three paper lion one nine six eight the extraordinary seaman one nine six nine jenny one nine seven zero the moonshine war one nine seven zero the mephisto waltz one nine seven one to kill a clown one nine seven two the glass house one nine seven two kill me if you can tv one nine seven seven same time next year one nine seven eight california suite one nine seven eight the seduction of joe tynan one nine seven nine also writer the four seasons movie one nine eight one also director and writer sweet liberty one nine eight six also director and writer a new life one nine eight eight also director and writer crimes and misdemeanors one nine eight nine betsy s wedding one nine nine zero also director and writer whispers in the dark one nine nine two manhattan murder mystery one nine nine three canadian bacon one nine nine five flirting with disaster one nine nine six everyone says i love you one nine nine six murder at one six zero zero one nine nine seven mad city one nine nine seven the object of my affecti |
on one nine nine eight keepers of the frame one nine nine nine documentary what women want two zero zero zero the aviator two zero zero four external links bio on scientific american frontiers comprehensive bio military service geocities fan site page interview with alda on npr s fresh air september two one two zero zero five never have your dog stuffed web site daily alan alda news one nine three six births actors and actresses appearing on er actors and actresses appearing on the west wing american film actors american television actors best supporting actor oscar nominee hollywood walk of fame italian americans m a s h actors people from new york city roman catholics worst supporting actor razzie nominee living people united states army officers the ball used in american football has a pointed oval or vesica piscis shape and usually has a large set of stitches along one side american football known in the united states simply as football is a competitive team sport the object of the game is to advance the |
football towards the opposing team s end zone and score points the ball can be advanced by carrying the ball or by throwing or handing it from one teammate to the other points can be scored in a variety of ways including carrying the ball over the goal line throwing the ball to another player past the goal line or kicking it through the goal posts the winner is the team with the most points when the time expires outside of the united states and a few other countries such as american samoa the sport is usually referred to as american football or sometimes as gridiron to differentiate it from other football games especially association football soccer and rugby football american football evolved as a separate sport from rugby football in the late one nine th century arena football is a variant of american football in canada the unqualified term football typically refers to canadian football a game which is a close relative of american football but different in several respects popularity since the one nine six |
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