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[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant event",
"Peninsular War"
] | null | null | null | null | 40 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"defensive wall"
] |
The Alcazar of Segovia is a medieval castle located in the city of Segovia, in Castile and León, Spain. It exists since at least the 12th century, and is one of the most renowned medieval castles globally and one of the most visited landmarks in Spain. It has been the backdrop for significant historical events and has been home to twenty-two kings, along with notable historical figures.
The fortress stands on a rocky crag at the western end of Segovia's Old City, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, above the confluence of rivers Eresma and Clamores. Today, it is used as a museum and a military archives building since its declaration as a National Archive by a Royal Decree in 1998. It has also worked at times as a state prison, a Royal Artillery College, and a military academy. The Alcazar served both as a royal palace and a fortress for the Castilian monarchs, and its architecture reflects the grandeur and is a notable example of "power architecture": the impenetrable walls, the deep moat, its impressive towers like the Homage or Juan II's, and the strategic location symbolize power and authority. Furthermore, the luxury and opulence of its interior, with lavishly decorated rooms and coffered ceilings, were designed to awe and subdue visitors, reinforcing the authority of the Kings of Castile. Similarly, the legends and rumors surrounding the Alcazar of Segovia have played a significant role in its history.
Despite its stern and fortified appearance, the Alcazar of Segovia has also been a place of daily life. Many princes, nobles, and infants have grown up within its halls, and their presence has helped soften the palace's appearance, making the castle a home for many.
Its history begins in the 12th or early 13th century when the royal family of Castile had quarters in the Alcazar, known as the "major palace". In the Homage tower, the treasure of the Crown of Castile was stored, from which funds were secured to finance Christopher Columbus's first voyage. In 1437, the books of the royal administration were moved to the Alcazar, establishing one of the first royal archives of Castile and laying one of the foundations for the current General Archive of Simancas. Additionally, the Alcazar housed the royal armory, which served as the basis for the one now exhibited in the Royal Armory of Madrid.
The Alcazar has been the stage for crucial events in Spain's history, such as the Cortes of Castile, held there on multiple occasions; the signing of the Concord of Segovia, which laid the groundwork for the formation of the Spanish nation, took place there; Isabel the Catholic, one of the most significant and influential women in history, left the Alcazar to proclaim herself queen of Castile. It was also the site of the last meeting between Christopher Columbus and King Ferdinand the Catholic before the explorer's death. The marriage of Philip II to Ana of Austria strengthened the alliance between the House of Habsburg and the Hispanic Monarchy. As the headquarters of the royal college of artillery, in the 18th century, the first military flight for military purposes was carried out, marking the beginning of military aviation, and the chemist Louis Proust, a professor at the Royal College, formulated the Law of Definite Proportions, a fundamental advance in modern chemistry.
The Alcazar of Segovia has made its mark on cinema and popular culture. It was used by Orson Welles in the film "Chimes at Midnight" and served as inspiration for Cinderella castle in the Walt Disney movie.
| null | null | null | null | 41 |
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Pedro I of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 42 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Enrique III of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 43 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"owned by",
"Segovia Artillery Academy"
] | null | null | null | null | 44 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"followed by",
"Royal Armoury of Madrid"
] | null | null | null | null | 48 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"owned by",
"Board of trustees of the Alcázar of Segovia"
] | null | null | null | null | 49 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"chemin de ronde"
] | null | null | null | null | 56 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Henry IV of Castile"
] |
Hall of the Kings (Sala de los Reyes)
King Alfonso X (r. 1252–1284) commissioned the construction of the Hall of the Kings. The space has ornamental ceilings and the upper portions of the four walls are decorated with a five-layer cloth.The design and layout of the Hall of the Kings borrowed iconography from the Palace of Alhambra. In the 1400s, King Henry IV of Castile (r. 1454–1474) played a large role in the final design of the Hall of the Kings. Historical and literary references are evident in the decoration, including the storied medieval Castilian knight, El Cid.King Henry IV's decision to incorporate a gallery that depicted various rulers of Castile and León, in seated positions, into the hall's decoration was designed to demonstrate the political legitimacy of those in power during 15th century Spain. Similar imagery can be found in the King's Hall (Sala de los Reyes) (also sometimes identified as the Hall of Justice) at the Alhambra, where an image of ten seated rulers located in the ceiling vault are believed by some scholars to represent different emirs from the Nasrid dynasty. Other scholars, however, have argued that due to the presence of small coats of arms below the figures and at the two ends of the image, the scene likely represents the ruler, in this case, Muhammad V of Granada (r. 1354–1359), accompanied by a group of wise men, various teachers and literary figures, is a meeting known as a maŷlis. Whoever is illustrated in the imagery in the Alcázar of Segovia's Hall of Kings, the message concerns the representation of political power, dominance, and legitimacy.Philip II of Spain (r. 1580–1598) commissioned Hernando de Ávila to design one of the statues that represented the kings of Asturias, León and Castile. One of the paintings in the room is a portrait of King Philip II of Spain and the others are portraits of two of his wives, Elisabeth of Valois (r. 1559–1568) and Anna of Austria (r. 1570–1580).
| null | null | null | null | 57 |
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"owned by",
"Hispanic Monarchy"
] | null | null | null | null | 59 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has use",
"military academy"
] | null | null | null | null | 60 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Eleanor of England"
] |
History
The Alcázar of Segovia, like many fortifications in Spain, started off as a Roman castrum, but apart from the foundations, little of the original structure remains. The alcázar was built by the Berber Almoravid dynasty. Almoravid art and architecture is scarcely talked about in scholarship in part because so little of the physical work has survived in Spain. Furthermore, the Almoravid dynasty was short-lived and therefore much of the art and architecture of that period was subsequently destroyed or converted by their successors.
The first reference to this castle was in 1120, around 32 years after the city of Segovia was conquered by the Christians (during the Reconquista when King Alfonso VI reconquered lands to the south of the Duero river, down to Toledo and beyond). In 1258, during the reign of King Alfonso X of Castile (r. 1252–1284), an intense thunderstorm caused a fire that destroyed several rooms, leading to centuries-long reconstruction during the reigns of various kings.It is not known what the shape and form of the Alcázar was before the reign of King Alfonso VIII (1155–1214), however early documentation mentioned a wooden stockade fence. It can be concluded that prior to Alfonso VIII's reign, the Muslim era structure was no more than a wooden fort built over the old Roman foundations. Alfonso VIII and his wife, Eleanor of England (sister of Richard the Lionheart), made this alcázar their principal residence and much work was carried out to erect the beginnings of the stone fortification we see today.The Alcázar of Segovia was one of the favorite royal residences starting in the 13th century that in turn, led to secular patronage to the city of Segovia. It was during this period that most of the current building was constructed by the House of Trastámara.In 1258, parts of the Alcázar had to be rebuilt by King Alfonso X after a cave-in and the Hall of Kings was built to house Parliament soon after. However, the single largest contributor to the continuing construction of the Alcázar was King John II of Castile who built the "New Tower" (John II tower as it is known today).In 1474, the Alcázar played a major role in the rise of Queen Isabella I. On 12 December news of King Henry IV's death in Madrid reached Segovia and Isabella immediately took refuge within the walls of the Alcázar where she received the support of Andres Cabrera and Segovia's council. She was enthroned the next day as Queen of Castile and León.
The next major renovation at the Alcázar was conducted by King Philip II after his marriage to Anna of Austria. He added the sharp slate spires to reflect the castles of central Europe. In 1587, architect Francisco de Morar completed the main garden and the School of Honor areas of the castle.During his visit to Spain known as the "Spanish match", Prince Charles of England visited the Alcázar in 1623, after dining at Valsain. He was entertained by Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón, who was then keeper of the Alcázar. Prince Charles was shown the Galley Room or "second great hall" with the heraldry of Catherine of Lancaster. In the evening there was a torchlit masque involving 32 mounted knights. Prince Charles gave the Count of Chinchón a jewel and rewarded the poet Don Juan de Torres for his verses. He left early in the morning for Santa María la Real de Nieva.The restoration of the Royal College of Artillery was among the many reforms conducted under the reign of King Charles III of Spain (r. 1759–1788). He appointed Count Félix Gazzola as the director of the artillery corps, who made the executive decision to install the academy in the Segovian fortress in the Alcázar. At its opening in 1764, the military college stood as a symbol of the city's new age of progress in political and military education.On 6 March 1862, another fire occurred at the castle, destroying the sumptuous ceilings of the private rooms that were reserved exclusively for the nobility. As demonstrated in the engravings by José María Avrial and Flores in 1839, the structures were restored to their previous appearances.
It was only in 1882 that the damaged roofs of the building were slowly restored to their original state, thanks to the existence of engravings made by José María Avrial in 1839. In 1896, King Alfonso XIII ordered the Alcázar to be handed over to the Ministry of War as a military college.The Board of Trustees of the Alcázar of Segovia was created by the Decree of the Presidency of the Government, on 18 January 1951. The purpose of this was to ensure cultural, artistic, and historical preservation of the Alcázar's triple function as a royal castle, military precinct, and military academy.
| null | null | null | null | 62 |
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Charles I of England"
] | null | null | null | null | 63 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Sancho III of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 64 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Ferdinand IV of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 65 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"owned by",
"Crown of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 69 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Dámaso Berenguer, 1st Count of Xauen"
] | null | null | null | null | 72 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Philip IV of Spain"
] | null | null | null | null | 73 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has use",
"Trésor royal"
] | null | null | null | null | 78 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"moat"
] | null | null | null | null | 80 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"keep"
] | null | null | null | null | 81 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Pedro Velarde y Santillán"
] | null | null | null | null | 82 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Henry II of Lorraine, Duke of Guise"
] | null | null | null | null | 83 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Juan Pacheco"
] | null | null | null | null | 84 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Berengaria of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 85 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Ferdinand III of León"
] | null | null | null | null | 86 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"drill hall"
] | null | null | null | null | 87 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Andrés Cabrera"
] | null | null | null | null | 88 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Félix Gazzola"
] | null | null | null | null | 89 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Alcázar of Segovia"
] | null | null | null | null | 90 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Beatriz Fernández de Bobadilla"
] | null | null | null | null | 91 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Joan of Portugal"
] | null | null | null | null | 93 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Jaroslav Lev of Rožmitál"
] | null | null | null | null | 94 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"castle chapel"
] |
Description
The exterior of the castle has a Herrerian style courtyard, moat, drawbridge, and keep. The interior rooms include a chapel and several noble rooms (cuartos del Trono, de la Galera, de las Piñas, de los Reyes and others) that can be visited today. A triumphal arch, located on the corner of the south-east part of the palace, just beyond the moat, was likely ornamented with heraldic devices and served as a grand entrance to the alcázar. However, today it no longer survives. It was changed during the Habsburg period sometime during the 16th century.The castle sits on a hill overlooking the city, with four towers, and several halls that are constructed with barrel vaults and twin windows. In the interior, the halls and rooms were decorated with great luxury and beauty by Mudéjar painters and artists.Currently, it houses an Armory Museum and the General Military Archive of Segovia, the oldest historical archive of the Spanish Armed Forces.
| null | null | null | null | 95 |
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant event",
"Carlist Wars"
] | null | null | null | null | 96 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Juana I of Castile"
] | null | null | null | null | 97 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Isabella II of Spain"
] |
History
The Alcázar of Segovia, like many fortifications in Spain, started off as a Roman castrum, but apart from the foundations, little of the original structure remains. The alcázar was built by the Berber Almoravid dynasty. Almoravid art and architecture is scarcely talked about in scholarship in part because so little of the physical work has survived in Spain. Furthermore, the Almoravid dynasty was short-lived and therefore much of the art and architecture of that period was subsequently destroyed or converted by their successors.
The first reference to this castle was in 1120, around 32 years after the city of Segovia was conquered by the Christians (during the Reconquista when King Alfonso VI reconquered lands to the south of the Duero river, down to Toledo and beyond). In 1258, during the reign of King Alfonso X of Castile (r. 1252–1284), an intense thunderstorm caused a fire that destroyed several rooms, leading to centuries-long reconstruction during the reigns of various kings.It is not known what the shape and form of the Alcázar was before the reign of King Alfonso VIII (1155–1214), however early documentation mentioned a wooden stockade fence. It can be concluded that prior to Alfonso VIII's reign, the Muslim era structure was no more than a wooden fort built over the old Roman foundations. Alfonso VIII and his wife, Eleanor of England (sister of Richard the Lionheart), made this alcázar their principal residence and much work was carried out to erect the beginnings of the stone fortification we see today.The Alcázar of Segovia was one of the favorite royal residences starting in the 13th century that in turn, led to secular patronage to the city of Segovia. It was during this period that most of the current building was constructed by the House of Trastámara.In 1258, parts of the Alcázar had to be rebuilt by King Alfonso X after a cave-in and the Hall of Kings was built to house Parliament soon after. However, the single largest contributor to the continuing construction of the Alcázar was King John II of Castile who built the "New Tower" (John II tower as it is known today).In 1474, the Alcázar played a major role in the rise of Queen Isabella I. On 12 December news of King Henry IV's death in Madrid reached Segovia and Isabella immediately took refuge within the walls of the Alcázar where she received the support of Andres Cabrera and Segovia's council. She was enthroned the next day as Queen of Castile and León.
The next major renovation at the Alcázar was conducted by King Philip II after his marriage to Anna of Austria. He added the sharp slate spires to reflect the castles of central Europe. In 1587, architect Francisco de Morar completed the main garden and the School of Honor areas of the castle.During his visit to Spain known as the "Spanish match", Prince Charles of England visited the Alcázar in 1623, after dining at Valsain. He was entertained by Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón, who was then keeper of the Alcázar. Prince Charles was shown the Galley Room or "second great hall" with the heraldry of Catherine of Lancaster. In the evening there was a torchlit masque involving 32 mounted knights. Prince Charles gave the Count of Chinchón a jewel and rewarded the poet Don Juan de Torres for his verses. He left early in the morning for Santa María la Real de Nieva.The restoration of the Royal College of Artillery was among the many reforms conducted under the reign of King Charles III of Spain (r. 1759–1788). He appointed Count Félix Gazzola as the director of the artillery corps, who made the executive decision to install the academy in the Segovian fortress in the Alcázar. At its opening in 1764, the military college stood as a symbol of the city's new age of progress in political and military education.On 6 March 1862, another fire occurred at the castle, destroying the sumptuous ceilings of the private rooms that were reserved exclusively for the nobility. As demonstrated in the engravings by José María Avrial and Flores in 1839, the structures were restored to their previous appearances.
It was only in 1882 that the damaged roofs of the building were slowly restored to their original state, thanks to the existence of engravings made by José María Avrial in 1839. In 1896, King Alfonso XIII ordered the Alcázar to be handed over to the Ministry of War as a military college.The Board of Trustees of the Alcázar of Segovia was created by the Decree of the Presidency of the Government, on 18 January 1951. The purpose of this was to ensure cultural, artistic, and historical preservation of the Alcázar's triple function as a royal castle, military precinct, and military academy.
| null | null | null | null | 98 |
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"John William, Baron Ripperda"
] | null | null | null | null | 100 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant event",
"Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis"
] | null | null | null | null | 101 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"has part(s) of the class",
"albarrana tower"
] | null | null | null | null | 103 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Luis Daoiz y Torres"
] | null | null | null | null | 104 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Álvaro de Luna, Duke of Trujillo"
] | null | null | null | null | 105 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"María de Molinillo"
] | null | null | null | null | 106 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Elisabeth of France"
] | null | null | null | null | 107 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant event",
"Revolts in Segovia (1506)"
] | null | null | null | null | 109 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant event",
"Revolts in Segovia (1476)"
] | null | null | null | null | 111 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant event",
"War of the Castilian Succession"
] | null | null | null | null | 112 |
|
[
"Alcázar of Segovia",
"significant person",
"Alfonso VIII"
] |
Hall of the Old Palace
Its construction corresponds to the reign of Alfonso VIII of Castile. In it the twinned windows that gave light to the palace are conserved, since the wall in which they were was the exterior wall of the old palace. The Mudéjar-style socles located between the windows come from a 13th-century house in the nearby Las Canonjías district. The decoration was completed with a set of German-style armor from the 15th century.
| null | null | null | null | 113 |
[
"Kenjutsu",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Japanese swordsmanship"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Kenjutsu",
"followed by",
"Kendo"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Kenjutsu",
"different from",
"Kendo"
] |
Kenjutsu (剣術) is an umbrella term for all (ko-budō) schools of Japanese swordsmanship, in particular those that predate the Meiji Restoration. Some modern styles of kendo and iaido that were established in the 20th century also included modern forms of kenjutsu in their curriculum. Kenjutsu, which originated with the samurai class of feudal Japan, means "methods, techniques, and the art of the Japanese sword". This is opposed to kendo, which means "the way of the sword" and uses a bamboo sword (shinai) and protective armour (bōgu).The exact activities and conventions undertaken when practicing kenjutsu vary from school to school, where the word school here refers to the practice, methods, ethics, and metaphysics of a given tradition, yet commonly include practice of battlefield techniques without an opponent and techniques whereby two practitioners perform kata (featuring full contact strikes to the body in some styles and no body contact strikes permitted in others). Contact striking during kata is used for example in Ono Ha Ittō-ryū.
Although kata training has always been the mainstay, in later periods, schools incorporated sparring under a variety of conditions, from using solid wooden bokutō to the use of a bamboo sword (shinai) and armor (bōgu).: XII, XIII In modern times sparring in Japanese martial art is more strongly associated with kendo and is mainly practiced by students or the police force. Although kendo is common in Japan, it is also practiced in other countries around the world.
| null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"2004 United States Grand Prix",
"followed by",
"2005 United States Grand Prix"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"2004 United States Grand Prix",
"uses",
"Indianapolis Motor Speedway Grand Prix circuit (2000-2007)"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Armistice of Belgrade",
"followed by",
"Treaty of Trianon"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Armistice of Belgrade",
"follows",
"Armistice of Villa Giusti"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Tasu'a",
"followed by",
"Ashura"
] |
Tasu'a (Arabic: تاسوعاء, romanized: Tāsū‘ā’) is the ninth day of Muharram and the day before Ashura. Several events occurred on this day, including: Shemr's entrance to Karbala, the granting of safe conduct for the children of Umm ul-Banin, preparation for war; and Husayn ibn Ali and his companions were besieged by the enemy (as part of the Battle of Karbala). The day is attributed to Abbas ibn Ali because of his actions as commander in the army of Husayn ibn Ali.
| null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"National Space Development Agency of Japan",
"followed by",
"Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)",
"followed by",
"Kingdom of the Two Sicilies"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)",
"follows",
"Kingdom of Naples"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Percentage",
"followed by",
"per mille"
] |
Examples
For example, 45% (read as "forty-five per cent") is equal to the fraction 45/100, the ratio 45:55 (or 45:100 when comparing to the total rather than the other portion), or 0.45.
Percentages are often used to express a proportionate part of a total.
(Similarly, one can also express a number as a fraction of 1,000, using the term "per mille" or the symbol "‰".)Related units
Percentage point difference of 1 part in 100
Per mille (‰) 1 part in 1,000
Basis point (bp) difference of 1 part in 10,000
Permyriad (‱) 1 part in 10,000
Per cent mille (pcm) 1 part in 100,000
Grade (slope)
Centiturn
| null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Percentage",
"different from",
"hundredth"
] |
Related units
Percentage point difference of 1 part in 100
Per mille (‰) 1 part in 1,000
Basis point (bp) difference of 1 part in 10,000
Permyriad (‱) 1 part in 10,000
Per cent mille (pcm) 1 part in 100,000
Grade (slope)
Centiturn
| null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Lordship of Brecknock",
"followed by",
"Kingdom of England"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Lordship of Brecknock",
"follows",
"Kingdom of Brycheiniog"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"APG system",
"followed by",
"APG II system"
] |
The APG system (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system) of plant classification is the first version of a modern, mostly molecular-based, system of plant taxonomy. Published in 1998 by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, it was replaced by the improved APG II in 2003, APG III system in 2009 and APG IV system in 2016.
| null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Windows Marketplace",
"followed by",
"Microsoft Store"
] |
Discontinuation and replacement
On November 14, 2008, Microsoft announced their intention to discontinue the Digital Locker in 2009. The company phased-out Windows Marketplace, and replaced it with the Microsoft Store.
At the Build conference on September 13, 2011, Microsoft announced Windows Store, a new software distribution platform for Windows 8, WinRT, and subsequent Windows versions. The Windows Store was accessible via WinRT client or web browser.References
| null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Good Friday",
"follows",
"Maundy Thursday"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Good Friday",
"followed by",
"Holy Saturday"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Spring and Autumn period",
"followed by",
"Warring States period"
] |
The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 481 BCE (or later) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period. The period's name derives from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 and 481 BCE, which tradition associates with Confucius (551–479 BCE). During this period, royal control over the various local polities eroded as regional lords increasingly exercised political autonomy, negotiating their own alliances, waging wars amongst themselves, up to defying the king's court in Luoyi. The gradual Partition of Jin, one of the most powerful states, is generally considered to mark the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the beginning of the Warring States period.Partition of Jin
After the great age of Jin power, the Jin rulers began to lose authority over their ministerial lineages. A full-scale civil war between 497 and 453 BCE ended with the elimination of most noble lines; the remaining aristocratic families divided Jin into three successor states: Han, Wei, and Zhao. This is the last event recorded in the Zuozhuan.
With the absorption of most of the smaller states in the era, this partitioning left seven major states in the Zhou world: the three fragments of Jin, the three remaining great powers of Qin, Chu and Qi, and the weaker state of Yan (燕) near modern Beijing. The partition of Jin, along with the Usurpation of Qi by Tian, marks the beginning of the Warring States period.
| null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Spring and Autumn period",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Spring and Autumn period"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Spring and Autumn period",
"follows",
"Western Zhou"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement",
"followed by",
"North American Free Trade Agreement"
] |
The Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA), official name as the Free Trade Agreement between Canada and the United States of America (French: Accord de libre-échange entre le Canada et les États-Unis d'Amérique), was a bilateral trade agreement reached by negotiators for Canada and the United States on October 4, 1987, and signed by the leaders of both countries on January 2, 1988. The agreement phased out a wide range of trade restrictions in stages, over a ten-year period, and resulted in a substantial increase in cross-border trade as an improvement to the last replaced trade deal. With the addition of Mexico in 1994, CUSFTA was superseded by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (French: Accord de libre-échange nord-américain (ALENA), Spanish: Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN)).As stated in the agreement, the main purposes of the Canadian-United States Free Trade Agreement were:
| null | null | null | null | 6 |
[
"Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement",
"different from",
"North American Free Trade Agreement"
] |
The Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA), official name as the Free Trade Agreement between Canada and the United States of America (French: Accord de libre-échange entre le Canada et les États-Unis d'Amérique), was a bilateral trade agreement reached by negotiators for Canada and the United States on October 4, 1987, and signed by the leaders of both countries on January 2, 1988. The agreement phased out a wide range of trade restrictions in stages, over a ten-year period, and resulted in a substantial increase in cross-border trade as an improvement to the last replaced trade deal. With the addition of Mexico in 1994, CUSFTA was superseded by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (French: Accord de libre-échange nord-américain (ALENA), Spanish: Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN)).As stated in the agreement, the main purposes of the Canadian-United States Free Trade Agreement were:
| null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"Communist International",
"founded by",
"Vladimir Lenin"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Communist International",
"replaces",
"Second International"
] |
The Communist International (Comintern), also known as the Third International, was an international organization founded in 1919 that advocated world communism, and which was led and controlled by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Comintern resolved at its Second Congress in 1920 to "struggle by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the state". The Comintern was preceded by the dissolution of the Second International in 1916.
The Comintern held seven World Congresses in Moscow between 1919 and 1935. During that period, it also conducted thirteen Enlarged Plenums of its governing Executive Committee, which had much the same function as the somewhat larger and more grandiose Congresses. Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, dissolved the Comintern in 1943 to avoid antagonizing his allies in the later years of World War II, the United States and the United Kingdom. It was succeeded by the Cominform in 1947.
| null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Communist International",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Comintern"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Communist International",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Comintern people"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Communist International",
"followed by",
"Cominform"
] |
Successor organizations
The Research Institutes 100 and 205 worked for the International and later were moved to the International Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, founded at roughly the same time that the Comintern was abolished in 1943, although its specific duties during the first several years of its existence are unknown.Following the June 1947 Paris Conference on Marshall Aid, Stalin gathered a grouping of key European communist parties in September and set up the Cominform, or Communist Information Bureau, often seen as a substitute to the Comintern. It was a network made up of the communist parties of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (led by Josip Broz Tito and expelled in June 1948). The Cominform was dissolved in 1956 following Stalin's 1953 death and the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
While the communist parties of the world no longer had a formal international organization, they continued to maintain close relations with each other through a series of international forums. In the period directly after the Comintern's dissolution, periodical meetings of communist parties were held in Moscow. Moreover, World Marxist Review, a joint periodical of the communist parties, played an important role in coordinating the communist movement up to the break-up of the Eastern Bloc in 1989–1991.
British historian Jonathan Haslam reports that even after in Moscow archives:
| null | null | null | null | 16 |
[
"Doom engine",
"followed by",
"Quake engine"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Doom engine",
"follows",
"Wolfenstein 3D engine"
] | null | null | null | null | 23 |
|
[
"Duodenum",
"followed by",
"jejunum"
] |
The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In mammals it may be the principal site for iron absorption.
The duodenum precedes the jejunum and ileum and is the shortest part of the small intestine.
In humans, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25–38 centimetres (10–15 inches) long connecting the stomach to the middle part of the small intestine. It begins with the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. Duodenum can be divided into four parts: the first (superior), the second (descending), the third (horizontal) and the fourth (ascending) parts.
| null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Duodenum",
"connects with",
"jejunum"
] |
The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In mammals it may be the principal site for iron absorption.
The duodenum precedes the jejunum and ileum and is the shortest part of the small intestine.
In humans, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25–38 centimetres (10–15 inches) long connecting the stomach to the middle part of the small intestine. It begins with the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. Duodenum can be divided into four parts: the first (superior), the second (descending), the third (horizontal) and the fourth (ascending) parts.
| null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Duodenum",
"connects with",
"stomach"
] |
The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In mammals it may be the principal site for iron absorption.
The duodenum precedes the jejunum and ileum and is the shortest part of the small intestine.
In humans, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25–38 centimetres (10–15 inches) long connecting the stomach to the middle part of the small intestine. It begins with the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. Duodenum can be divided into four parts: the first (superior), the second (descending), the third (horizontal) and the fourth (ascending) parts.
| null | null | null | null | 9 |
[
"Mastaba",
"followed by",
"Egyptian pyramids"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Mastaba",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Mastabas"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Viet Minh",
"followed by",
"National Liberation Front of South Vietnam"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Viet Minh",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Viet Minh"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"APG II system",
"follows",
"APG system"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"APG II system",
"followed by",
"APG III system"
] |
The APG II system (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II system) of plant classification is the second, now obsolete, version of a modern, mostly molecular-based, system of plant taxonomy that was published in April 2003 by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. It was a revision of the first APG system, published in 1998, and was superseded in 2009 by a further revision, the APG III system.Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2003). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141(4): 399-436. (Available online: Abstract | Full text (HTML) | Full text (PDF) doi: 10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x)Each of the APG systems represents the broad consensus of a number of systematic botanists, united in the APG, working at several institutions worldwide.
The APG II system recognized 45 orders, five more than the APG system. The new orders were Austrobaileyales, Canellales, Gunnerales, Celastrales, and Crossosomatales, all of which were families unplaced as to order, although contained in supra-ordinal clades, in the APG system. APG II recognized 457 families, five fewer than the APG system. Thirty-nine of the APG II families were not placed in any order, but 36 of the 39 were placed in a supra-ordinal clade within the angiosperms. Fifty-five of the families came to be known as "bracketed families". They were optional segregates of families that could be circumscribed in a larger sense.
The APG II system was influential and was adopted in whole or in part (sometimes with modifications) in a number of references. It was superseded 6½ years later by the APG III system, published in October 2009.
| null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Vosges (department)",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Vosges (department)"
] | null | null | null | null | 433 |
|
[
"Vosges (department)",
"followed by",
"Alsace–Lorraine"
] | null | null | null | null | 475 |
|
[
"Vosges (department)",
"followed by",
"Unterelsaß"
] | null | null | null | null | 557 |
|
[
"Camulodunum",
"followed by",
"Colchester"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Voigtländer",
"followed by",
"Zeiss Ikon"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Voigtländer",
"founded by",
"Johann Christoph Voigtländer"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Voigtländer",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Voigtländer"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Voigtländer",
"owned by",
"Cosina"
] |
Contemporary times
Since 1999, Voigtländer-branded products have been manufactured and marketed by the Japanese optics and camera company Cosina, under license from Ringfoto GmbH & Co. ALFO Marketing KG; for these, see Cosina Voigtländer.
| null | null | null | null | 9 |
[
"Lordship of Meath",
"followed by",
"county palatine"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Lordship of Meath",
"followed by",
"Meath"
] |
The Lordship of Meath was an extensive seigneurial liberty in medieval Ireland that was awarded to Hugh de Lacy by King Henry II of England by the service of fifty knights and with almost royal authority. The Lordship was roughly co-extensive with the medieval kingdom of Meath. At its greatest extent, it included all of the modern counties of Fingal, Meath (which takes its name from the kingdom), Westmeath as well as parts of counties Cavan, Kildare, Longford, Louth and Offaly. The Lordship or fiefdom was imbued with privileges enjoyed in no other Irish liberty, including the four royal pleas of arson, forestalling, rape, and treasure trove.
| null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Lordship of Meath",
"follows",
"Kingdom of Meath"
] |
The Lordship of Meath was an extensive seigneurial liberty in medieval Ireland that was awarded to Hugh de Lacy by King Henry II of England by the service of fifty knights and with almost royal authority. The Lordship was roughly co-extensive with the medieval kingdom of Meath. At its greatest extent, it included all of the modern counties of Fingal, Meath (which takes its name from the kingdom), Westmeath as well as parts of counties Cavan, Kildare, Longford, Louth and Offaly. The Lordship or fiefdom was imbued with privileges enjoyed in no other Irish liberty, including the four royal pleas of arson, forestalling, rape, and treasure trove.
| null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Modern era",
"followed by",
"contemporary history"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
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