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In an upbeat biography, Wallmark (Ada Byron Lovelace and the Thinking Machine) introduces readers to self-assured tech pioneer Grace Hopper. From the time Hopper was a girl, she "wanted to understand how things worked so she could make them better." After becoming an engineer for the Navy and being assigned to work as a computer programmer, Hopper developed a new (and time-saving) method of writing code. Newcomer Wu's digital illustrations are rendered in a vivid and appealing cartoon style that harmonizes with Wallmark's enthusiastic writing, which emphasizes how Hopper's accomplishments arose as much from her intuition as her number sense. Quotes from Hopper, scattered throughout, further amplify the personality and drive of a trailblazing programmer. Ages 5-up. Author's agent: Liza Fleissig, Liza Royce Agency. Illustrator's agent: Jennifer Mattson, Andrea Brown Literary. (May)Copyright 2017 Publishers Weekly, LLC Used with permission.
Gr 2-4-Grace Hopper (nee Murray), a girl with a keen mind and a determined attitude, grows up to become the "queen of computer code." Wallmark shares incidents and stories from the scientist's remarkable life that illustrate "Grace being Grace," and with these anecdotes, the author paints an engaging portrait of a unique woman in this bright and informative biography. At age seven, Hopper dismantled several clocks in her house to find out what made them tick. Finishing high school two years early, she overcame difficulties with Latin before she was admitted to Vassar College. Convinced she could make a difference to the war effort, Hopper enlisted in the U.S. Navy during World War II and embarked on a lifelong military career writing computer programs. After finding a moth trapped inside a navy computer, she coined the phrase computer bug. Colorful and crisp digital illustrations accompany the text. The vibrant palette and straightforward composition are eye-catching, and Hopper's curiosity, love of learning, and ambition shine through in her expressive features. Be sure to examine the endpapers, which offer supplemental information. VERDICT Inquisitive readers who, like Hopper, "want to understand how things work" will appreciate this upbeat biography of a woman who was ahead of her time. A sound purchase for most collections.--Linda L. Walkins, Saint Joseph Preparatory High School, BostonCopyright 2017 School Library Journal, LLC Used with permission. | <urn:uuid:0228e5b2-4b19-4442-968e-cec98478678f> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://www.bookelicious.com/book/37647/grace-hopper-queen-of-computer-code-people-who-shaped-our-world-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679099942.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20231128183116-20231128213116-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.942521 | 502 | 2.640625 | 3 |
There are many ways to teach basic concepts to children at a preschool level and when it comes to tools, we definitely have our favourites! One of the most commonly used tool in the classroom is the flash card and for good reason. They are simple cards with words and pictures to quickly show the meaning of the word or idea you want to teach. We absolutely love our flash cards!
The best thing about flash cards is that you can create one for just about anything you want to teach the kids! There are the basics for ideas such as: the alphabet, numbers, colours, and shapes. Then, we have flash cards for the days of the week, the months of the year and even the weather (great visuals to go with the words)! Our flash cards for the classroom rules are used daily and the images help solidify classroom expectations.
For our weekly themes, we also create specific vocabulary flash cards that go along with the theme of the week. This allows children to see visuals of the words they are learning about that week and really engage them in their learning. This is also beneficial for students just learning the language and so, the visuals help to express the ideas behind the words.
Flash cards are also fun to play with. We have created different games that incorporate the use of flash cards. For example, you can play the classic memory card game. Simply make two sets of the same flash cards and have children turn over two of them, looking for a match. You can also have them match lower and upper case letters for the alphabet as a game or match the number word with the correct image of the number. The possibilities are endless!
We suggest laminating your flash cards to make them last longer and to keep them for future lessons, especially the themed ones. You can also pull them out for games or as a review. Keep them colourful and where possible, make sure there is an image to go along with the word. This benefits visual learners.
Using flash cards is just another way to add visual aids and help build language skills in young learners. Use them often!
Come and see the buzz! Only at Busy Bee!
Have a BEE-utiful day!
BUSY BEE EDUCATION | <urn:uuid:911b28d1-d6af-452d-919f-2250ce144aa3> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://www.busybeeeducation.com/blog/flash-cards | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585204.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20211018155442-20211018185442-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.957134 | 453 | 3.53125 | 4 |
by Pat Boyd
from Signs of the Times No. 17 - Apr 2005
Consensus has been reached within Scottish Education about the nature of religious education but much confusion remains over the nature and purpose of religious observance.
The statutory position relating to religious observance in Scottish schools is summarised in Religious and Moral Education, 5-14 National Guidelines, the Scottish equivalent of a national curriculum, as follows.
Religious observance is a statutory requirement in schools under the Education (Scotland) Act 1980, which repeats the legislation of previous Acts in giving education authorities 'liberty to continue the said custom' and prohibiting them from discontinuing it without a poll of local electors. Parents have the legal right to withdraw their children if they wish.
In a report, Standards and Quality in Secondary Schools: Religious and Moral Education 1995-2000, H.M. Inspectors included a special note on religious observance. They were concerned that many non-denominational secondary schools were failing to provide time for religious observance. They did not believe that schools were being deliberately negligent but that they were finding difficulty in taking account of the guidance contained in Provision of Religious Education and Religious Observance in Primary and Secondary Schools , a circular which had been issued to all schools and local authorities by the Scottish Education Department in 1991, and which expressed the intentions of legislation going back to 1872. Schools had difficulty in interpreting this in ways meaningful to the social, cultural and educational context of today.
The foreword to the H.M.I.'s report even raised the question of the continuing appropriateness of current advice on religious observance. The advice, set out in the 1991 circular, expressed the view that religious observance was a valid educational experience which 'made an important contribution to pupils' spiritual development'. It recognised that it could also 'have a subsidiary role in promoting the ethos of a school by bringing pupils together and creating a feeling of corporate identity'. It stated that in non-denominational schools religious observance should be of a 'broadly Christian character'. It was this phrase that made head teachers, particularly those of secondary schools, reluctant to adhere to the instruction 'that all secondary schools should take part in religious observance at least once a month and preferably with greater frequency'.
Following publication of the H.M.I.'s report, the then Minister for Education, now First Minister of the Scottish Executive, Jack McConnell, established a group to review the provision of religious observance in all schools, to consider the current guidance on arrangements for religious observance, and to make recommendations for the future. The Review Group was made up of representatives from education, religious organisations and parent groups and was chaired by Anne Wilson, Director of Education at Dundee City Council. It was asked 'to make recommendations to Ministers on any changes which are required to ensure that revised guidance to schools is relevant and appropriate for pupils, that it fulfils the requirements of the 1980 Act and also provides practical advice on religious observance'.
In her foreword to the final report, Anne Wilson wrote:
Ours was not an easy task as religion is a topic that always provokes a variety of often very emotive responses and views. These range across a wide spectrum of opinion from those who wish no religious observance in schools to those who wish to see much more.
This tension was very real. The fact that the Review Group began its work in August 2001 and that the new circular replacing that of 1991 was not published until February 2005 underlines this.
It is important to stress that from the outset, the Review Group's remit was to provide guidance to schools in order to help them meet their statutory requirements in respect of the provision of opportunities for religious observance in schools. Neither the legislation, nor the continuing use of the term 'religious observance', was under discussion.
The Review Group's work can be divided into three phases:
- The preparation of a consultation paper entitled Review of Religious Observance in Scottish Schools.
- A series of six consultation meetings held at various locations throughout Scotland. Members of the Group facilitated meetings and were assisted by members of a research team from the Scottish Council for Research in Education at the University of Glasgow. The participants included pupils, teachers, parents, representatives from the faith communities, chaplains from local Presbyteries of the Church of Scotland, and chaplains from the Roman Catholic Church and the other denominations and religious organisations. Secular interests were represented by the Humanist Society of Scotland. The Group was keen to involve young people. Overall they achieved some success as approximately thirty children's forums contributed their views, as did the National Youth Assembly of the Church of Scotland.
- The development of a brief questionnaire prepared by the research team. This was publicised at the six consultation meetings and through the Review Group's website. A total of 1473 submissions were received.
Three general conclusions can be reached from the submissions elicited by the consultations and the questionnaire:
- There were strong views from those individuals and organisations who considered that the consultation represented a threat to the range of religious practices that they espoused.
- The relatively small number of responses from denominational schools indicated that religious observance is a less contentious issue for them.
- The responses from local authorities indicated that the consultation ignited a far wider debate on the role and status of religious observance in a multi-cultural society.
In the Religious Observance Circular published in February 2005, Ministers make the following points in the light of the Review Group's report:
- Definition: They accept the report's definition of religious observance: 'community acts which aim to promote the spiritual development of all members of the school community and express and celebrate the shared values of the school community'.
- Approach: Religious observance should provide opportunities for the school community to reflect on and develop a deeper understanding of the dignity and worth of each individual. In recognition of Scotland's Christian heritage, schools are encouraged to use the rich resources of this tradition. However, where there are significant numbers of the school community of other faiths or none, this should be taken into account in the devising of forms of religious observance. Material and training events will be provided to support schools and authorities.
- Frequency: Every school should provide opportunities for religious observance at least six times in a school year. It was recognised that many primary schools value weekly religious observance and will wish to continue it.
- Worship in schools: The Review Group's conclusion, in the following terms, was endorsed;
'Where the school, whether denominational or non-denominational, is continuous with a faith community, that community's faith in the "focus of worship", may be assumed and worship may be considered to be appropriate as part of the formal activity of the school. Where, as in most non-denominational schools, there is a diversity of beliefs and practices, the review group believed that the appropriate context for an organised act of worship is within the informal curriculum as part of the range of activities offered for example by religions, groups, chaplains and other religious leaders.' | <urn:uuid:5b4bdefa-5f0a-400a-811b-6d3852141b0c> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://modernchurch.org.uk/signs-of-the-times/stpast/st2005/no-17-apr/new-developments-in-religious-observance-in-scottish-schools | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218190295.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212950-00472-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969713 | 1,445 | 2.96875 | 3 |
- beta-amyloid plaques
are considered one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. The plaques are hard, insoluble aggregations of various peptides and proteins, chiefly and most important amyloid-beta peptides. Recent research suggests plaques attach primarily to blood vessels, damaging them.
one of three forms of secretase, it and gamma-secretase are implicated in the formation of plaques.
- brain-derived neurotrophic factor
a neuropeptide important for neuronal growth, survival, differentiation, connectivity and synaptic plasticity. The gene controlling BDNF expression comes in two variants, one of which is linked to poorer memory.
Glossary of neurological terms
Click one of the letters above to go to the page of all terms beginning with that letter. | <urn:uuid:661f8001-7b6b-4373-8b9a-f6fe9c8d4199> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | http://www.memory-key.com/lexicon/2/letter_b | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948567785.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20171215075536-20171215095536-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.897052 | 164 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Market economies can be defined as a market-oriented economic system. A market economy system is where all decisions regarding the production, distribution, investment, consumption, competition, prices policy are created by the forces of the market, such as individuals or organization seeking their benefit.
Theoretically, free-market economies are possible, but in real life, the government intervenes from time to time either to encourage or reduce the demand or to minimize the chances of emergence of monopolies.
The concept of “Market economy” was first introduced by economists David Ricardo, Adam Smith, and Jean-Baptiste. The reason behind developing this concept was their belief that people who run their own business take better and productive decisions regarding the production, distribution, investment, consumption, competition, and price policy to order to make profits.
They believe that these forces take a better decision than the government as their benefit is involved in it. Market economies can also be referred to as a free economy, open economy, a free-market economy, or the free market.
But in reality, in the market is ever free market because there is always an intervention of government which leads to economic inefficiencies.
This market system works based on supply and demand. Based on the information obtained from the forces (Supply and demand), important decisions about the prices and production quantities of the products and services are taken.
Companies produce products and services using different factors like land, labor, and capital for consumers or other businesses. Sellers want to sell their goods to buyers who offer the highest prices and on the other hand buyers choose products with the lowest prices and best quality.
Both seller and buyer negotiate the prices and take a mutual decision where both hope to make a profit out of the deal. People in the business also allocate their resources to different business deals based on the profit that they expect to make from the business deal.
Businessmen who earn more than what they have invested are the successful players of the market, and they use that money to invest in future businesses.
The concept of market economies is purely theoretical in modern times. No country has pure market economies, but there are mixed market economies where the government controls not all but several decisions of the market players.
For example, entrepreneurs are required to obtained licenses, government permits, and various clearance in order to sell any type of drug in the market, and they can’t simply sell drugs to the people who are paying more. They can sell drugs if the customers fulfill certain conditions.
A market economy is a favorite economic system of entrepreneurs as it is the most successful economic system among all other economic systems. However, the amount of intervention of government is always a topic of debate.
Features of the market economy
#1. The limited intervention of government:
An important feature of the market economy is that there is limited control of the government. Organizations and individuals take all the important decisions regarding production, consumption, prices policy, etc.
However, the role of government is to make sure that no organization is restricting competition in the market by creating a monopoly, and the government also make sure that the market is open and working.
#2. Freedom to choose:
In the market economy, players of the market have the freedom to choose what and how much they want to produce and sell in the form of product and services. They can use various strategies to get a competitive edge in the market.
However, there are two things that they can’t choose freely are prices of the product and amount of capital.
Competition is a driving feature of the market economy. Competition is a factor which doesn’t let companies charge desired prices for the products and services they sell.
In addition to this, the competition also enables producers to produce goods and services of higher quality. For example, people consider two factors one is price, and another is the quality of a product before making a purchase decision.
Therefore, companies try to provide products of higher quality at the lowest prices possible. However, competition not only impacts the competitors in the market, but it also put pressure on workers and consumers.
#4. Privately-owned properties:
Market economies give freedom to individuals and organization to own private properties. People can buy and sell things and can own them privately and use them to make profits. Buyers are required to make legally-binding contracts to own properties.
However, there are a few things that the government restrict people to own privately and buy and sell. For example, it is illegal to sell and buy human beings and sources of natural resources.
#5. Selfish Motives:
An interesting feature of the market economy is the selfish motives of individuals behind running businesses. All their actions and business decisions are motivated by the desire to make the highest profits.
This might sound bad, but it is beneficial for the economy in the long run. It also gives a clear picture of supply and demand in the market.
#6. Prices and markets-based system:
Market economies run on buying and selling goods and services. All the players in the market have equal access to the information. They use that information to make maximum profits.
However, prices of products and services vary based on the supply and demand in the market.
Types of Market economies
This type of market economy is an economic system where businesses are completely or largely privately-owned. People who own businesses work for selfish motives, and their main motive is to generate maximum profit at the lowest costs.
In this market economy system, capitalists have the power to determine investment, production, distribution, and prices, etc. There are various forms of the capitalist market based on its relationship with the market. Let us learn about the different types of capitalism market economy.
#2. Free Market Economy:
In a free-market economy, the prices of goods and services are decided based on supply and demand. As a result of which prices of goods become high when there is high demand and prices drop in case of lower demand in the market.
However, government policies are applied to break the equilibrium of supply and demand cycle.
Laissez-Faire market economy system is referred to the market system, which is completely free from any type of government intervention.
Private parties have the freedom to do business with one another without the limitations imposed by government policies, regulations, privileges, tariffs, imperialism, subsidies, etc.
People who support “laissez-faire” market economy demand that there should be zero-intervention of government in the economic sector. This type of market economy is not a modern concept it has been in practice from the mid 18th century, and the phrase “Laissez-faire” is French.
The meaning of “Laissez-faire” is “let do.” which means the government should let the entrepreneurs do business on their own. This type of market economy system is not suitable for society as it is an anti-capitalist and anti-socialist system.
#4. Welfare Capitalism:
Welfare capitalism is a type of capitalism market economy where public policies are a part of the capitalist economy. This system provides extensive provisions for social welfare services.
In this system, businesses are owned by a private individual who also includes welfare services for employees of the organization and the people of the society.
#5. Socialism Market:
Socialism market is a type of market economy where an individual citizen of the society does not completely own the production business. In socialism market, businesses are either owned by the government or are owned by the workers working for it.
That means profit made by the business accrues to the society as a whole and not by the private owners. The profit incurred by socialism market is either reinvested in future businesses to make more profit or is used for the well-being of the society or can be divided among the members of the society to fulfill their needs.
The socialism market aims for equality in society and works towards to attain economic stability.
Advantages of market economies
- Market economies encourage innovation as the main focus of people is to generate profits.
- Market economies encourage the production of goods in demand as this economy works on the principle of supply and demand.
- Companies generate high profit In such a market environment as consumers are willing to pay the highest prices for the products they desire.
- Market economies are good for the economy of a country as it is focused on
- There is less wastage of resources as entrepreneurs want to make the most of their investment.
- Market economy encourages a wide variety of goods and services as companies want to gain a competitive edge over their competitors by providing a variety of goods and services.
Disadvantages of Market economies
- The gap between rich and poor increases because of the market economy system as in this system individual runs the business. Rich people get richer and poor people to get poorer.
- This economic system may look beneficial for the country, but it has a disadvantage which is not good for a country in the long run. For example, a person who might invent something big tomorrow might be stuck doing a small job to provide support to his family.
- The market economic system is not good for the environment as people might harm the environment to produce higher profits because the environment-friendly procedure of working is more expensive and thus results in lower profits.
- Entrepreneurs might not provide a safe and healthy work environment to the worker due to its high cost, which will result in lower profits. | <urn:uuid:ad9ceaa6-4b2e-4532-80e3-9f2bb03009c9> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://www.marketing91.com/market-economies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499790.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20230130003215-20230130033215-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.965752 | 1,976 | 3.828125 | 4 |
A disorder in which the laryngeal saccule is inflated and becomes abnormally enlarged. A common symptom of a laryngocele is hoarseness.
How it develops:
The laryngeal saccule, or laryngeal appendix, is a very small blind sac—a dead-end corridor, so to speak—which is located just above the vocal cords, one on each side, and is lined with glands that supply lubrication to the cords. When a person makes voice, it is possible for a little bit of the air being pushed up out of the trachea to slip into this saccule. If over time enough air enters the saccule with enough force, the saccule may begin to be inflated and stretched out, leading to a laryngocele.
In some cases, the air that slips into and inflates the laryngocele will slip back out again as soon as the person stops making voice, so that the laryngocele abruptly inflates and deflates with each start and stop of speech or voice-making. (The photos and video below are an example of this.) In other cases, the air cannot exit the laryngocele as easily, but it may be reabsorbed slowly during quiet times or during sleep—only to be inflated again at the next instance of more active speaking.
Laryngocele vs. saccular cyst:
A much more common disorder of the laryngeal saccule (compared with a laryngocele) is a saccular cyst, which can occur if the entrance to the laryngeal saccule becomes blocked. In this scenario, air is absorbed, but secretions build up and gradually expand the saccule.
Symptoms and treatment:
A common symptom is hoarseness, because while the saccule is inflated, it may press press down on the vocal cords, not allowing them to vibrate freely, or it may block the laryngeal vestibule just above the cords and partially muffle the sound produced by the cords. Standard treatment is surgical removal, through one of two approaches: a small incision on the neck that leads into the larynx from the outside, or a laryngoscope that is inserted through the mouth and down into the larynx so that the laryngocele can be removed using a laser.
Laryngocele (3 of 5)
The saccule is at peak inflation. Note how this obstructs the laryngeal airway.
Laryngocele (4 of 5)
Phonation ending: the saccule is deflating. Note the motion blur; inflation and deflation each happens in a fraction of a second.
Bilateral laryngocele (1 of 8)
Vocal cords approaching point of best closure possible (due to left cord paresis). Faint dotted lines outline the approximate boundary of each laryngeal saccule, which not yet inflated.
Bilateral laryngocele (2 of 8)
As air just begins coming upward between the cords, one can see subtle inflation (dotted lines), particularly of the right saccule (left of image).
Bilateral laryngocele (3 of 8)
As phonation continues, inflation of the (now diagnosable) laryngocele becomes obvious, and the left laryngocele (right of image) is now more obviously inflated than before, again indicated by the dotted lines.
Bilateral laryngocele (4 of 8)
Near the end of a sustained period of voicing, maximum inflation of the laryngoceles is seen (dotted lines). On the right side (left of image), the stretching mucosa is so thinned as to appear translucent.
Bilateral laryngocele, after removal (5 of 8)
Same patient, breathing position, 12 weeks after complete removal of the bilateral laryngoceles via false cord incisions (lines of incision shown by dotted lines). This patient also has long-standing paralysis of the right vocal cord (left of image) and limited mobility of the left cord, so the cords don’t open fully for breathing.
Bilateral laryngocele, after removal (6 of 8)
Phonatory position. Note the lack of inflation of the now-absent laryngoceles, and compare that with photos 3 and 4 of this series.
Bilateral laryngocele, after removal (7 of 8)
Closer view of the posterior ends of the true vocal cords during maximal abduction for breathing. Space between the vocal cords is an estimated 50% of normal, because of the paralyzed right cord and the limited mobility of the left cord.
Bilateral laryngocele, after removal (8 of 8)
Same close-up view, but during phonation. The left vocal cord (right of image) has shifted slightly toward the midline, but the cords do not actually close and, thus, the patient cannot produce glottic (true vocal cord) voice. An implant could help to close this gap, but the patient will first try developing a “false cord voice.”
Laryngocele, seen in a CT image (1 of 1)
The patient’s left-sided saccule is dilated and filled by air, forming a laryngocele (the largest black spot in the image). The right-sided saccule is not seen because it is of normal size. The two smaller black spots show air in the pyriform sinuses (a normal finding). | <urn:uuid:b7b12d85-a0b5-41a0-853d-a90e667b7ea1> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | https://laryngopedia.com/laryngocele-video-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195529480.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20190723151547-20190723173547-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.910663 | 1,202 | 3.4375 | 3 |
(b. Athens [?], 427 B.C.; d. Athens, 348/347 B.C.)
theory of knowledge; advocacy, in theory and practice, of education based on mathematics; organization of research.
Plato’s enthusiasm for mathematics, astronomy, and musical theory appears everywhere in his writings, and he also displays a far from superficial knowledge of the medicine and physiology of his day. In ancient times competent judges held that he had promoted the advance of mathematics, especially geometry, in his lifetime.1 Theodore of Cyrene and Archytas of Tarentum were his friends, and Eudoxus of Cnidus, Theaetetus, and Menaechmus his colleagues or pupils. His critics assert that his theory of knowledge rules out any empirical science and that, owing to his idealism, he had a radically false idea of the procedure and value of the mathematics that he admired. Even so, it can be said that the Academy, founded by him at Athens at a date not exactly known (380 B.C.?), became a center where specialists—not all of them sympathizers with his philosophy and epistemology—could meet and profit by discussion with him and with one another.
Our object here must be to trace Plato’s intellectual development and, incidentally, to submit part of the material upon which an estimate of his services or disservices to science must be based. It must be considered how far he is likely to have carried out in his school the project, sketched in the Republic, of a mathematical training preparatory for and subordinate to dialectic, and whether, in the writings believed to belong to the last twenty years of his life, he took note of recent scientific discoveries or was influenced by them in matters belonging to philosophy.
As for sources of information, the account of Plato’s life and doctrine by Diogenes Laertius (probably early third century A.D.) is based on previous authorities of unequal value. He reports some evidently reliable statements by men who were in a position to know the facts and who were neither fanatical devotees nor detractors, and he has preserved the text of Plato’s will. Aristotle gives us a few details, and Cicero a few more.
The Epistles, ascribed to Plato and printed in the Herrmann and Burnet editions of the Greek text of his works, would, if genuine, furnish us with a personal account of his conduct at important crises in his life; and, what is more, they would tell far more about his ideals of education and the work of the Academy than can be gathered from the dialogues. Unfortunately, opinion regarding authenticity of the Epistles is so divided that caution is essential. In the ensuing account, where reference is made to this source, the fact has been indicated.
Plato’s writings have been preserved entire. But the double fact that they are dialogues and that the scene is usually laid in the past leads to difficulties of interpretation which are sufficiently obvious. Moreover, nothing definite is known about either the manner of their first publication or their relative order, still less the dates. Some hypothesis about the latter is a presupposition of fruitful discussion of Plato’s development.
A statistical study of the style of Plato’s works, in which the pioneer was the Reverend Lewis Campbell (1869), has led to results which have met with wide approval: many scholars hold that Parmenides and Theaetetus were written later than the Republic, and that a group of dialogues having close stylistic affinity to one another and to the Laws (which is plainly a work of old age) came still later. This is credible from a philosophical point of view, and its correctness is assumed here; but such a method can only yield a probable result.
Several members of Plato’s family are mentioned, or appear as characters, in his dialogues. He himself was the son of Ariston2 and Perictione, and was born either at Athens or Aegina, where his father may have gone as a settler when the Athenians occupied the island. Nothing reliable is known of his father’s ancestors, but those on his mother’s side were men of distinction. Perictione was descended from Dropides, a close friend (some say brother) of Solon, the famous poet-statesman of the sixth century B.C. She was a cousin of Critias, son of Callaeschrus, an intellectual daring in both speculative thought and action. It was Critias who in 404 B.C. led the extremists among the Thirty Tyrants and put to death the moderate Theramenes. He became guardian of Perictione’s brother Charmides and drew him into public affairs. Both perished in the battle which put an end to the Thirty’s six months of power.
Plato was one of four children. His brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon take a leading part in the Republic, where they are depicted with admiration and a clear impression of their personality is left. They appear once more briefly in the Parmenides, and Xenophon presents Socrates proving to Glaucon the folly of his trying to address the Assembly when he is not yet twenty.3 The brothers were considerably older than Plato, and his sister Potone (mother of Speusippus, who followed him as head of the Academy) was doubtless born in the interval.
Plato’s father, Ariston, appears to have died young. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, son of Antiphon, who had been prominent in state affairs as a close associate of Pericles; he was probably her uncle. Another son, called Antiphon after his grandfather, was born; this half brother of Plato’s has a part in the Parmenides. Most of these persons are mentioned either in Charmides (155–158), or in Timaeus (20E), or at the opening of Parmenides.4
Plato’s social position was such that he might well have aspired to an active part in public affairs, but it could not have been easy for him to decide what role to assume. Some scholars take it for granted that the example and writings of Critias left a deep impression upon him; others point out that it was only in the concluding phase of the Athenian struggle against the Peloponnesians that Plato’s maternal relatives emerged as reactionary extremists, and that in his stepfather’s home he would have been imbued with liberal opinions and respect for the memory of Pericles.
No one can say with certainty what the complexion of his views was at the age of twenty-four, except that he was obviously no friend to egalitarianism and full democracy. The story which he tells, or is made to tell, in Epistle VII seems probable. His friends and relatives among the Thirty at once called upon him to join them, but instead he determined to wait and see what they would do. They soon made the former regime seem highly desirable by comparison. Socrates was commanded to help in the arrest of a man who was to be put to death illegally under a general sentence, so that he would either be involved in their impious actions or refuse and thus expose himself to punishment. When the Thirty were overthrown, Plato again thought of public affairs—but with less eagerness than before. The democratic leaders restored to power showed moderation at a time when ruthless acts of revenge might have been expected. Nevertheless Socrates was brought to trial on the pretext of impiety and found guilty. As Plato grew older and the politicians, laws, and customs of the day displeased him more and more, he was thrown back on a theorist’s study of ways of reform.5
None of this is inconsistent with what is otherwise known. Socrates’ disobedience to the illegal command of the Thirty was a fact widely spoken of. Plato would probably have been impressed to an equal degree by Socrates’ courageous independence in such matters and by his faith in argument (argument with himself when he could not find a respondent). He became conspicuous among Socrates’ habitual companions, as distinct from the occasional listeners to his conversation. With Adeimantus he heard Socrates’ provocative defense in court against the charge of impiety;6 when a majority had found him guilty, Plato was one of those who induced Socrates to offer to pay a substantial fine, for which he would be a guarantor.7
Owing to illness, Plato was absent from the last meeting of Socrates’ with his friends.8 After the tragedy, he retried, with other Socratics, to Megara, the home of Euclid.9 The attack on Socrates was personal, and perhaps the prosecutors did not desire his death. His Athenian friends can hardly have been in danger. But there are some hints in the Phaedo that he advised those present, among whom were the Megarians Euclid and Terpsion, to pursue the search for truth in common and not lose heart when plausible reasoning led them nowhere; rather, they must make it their business to master the “art of argument,” logōn techuē.10
Probably his wish was piously carried out by his followers, and a few years elapsed before the different direction of their interests became clear. As a metaphysician Euclid was a follower of Parmenides, and accepted the Socratic thesis that there is a single human excellence, not a plurality of “virtues.” His thought had no religious coloring, nor was he an educational reformer. His younger disciples turned in earnest fee the hoped-for logon techne, and not without result; they prepared the way for the propositional logic of the Stoic school.11 This might be supposed to go together with an interest in the sciences, but this is not recorded of the Megarians. Plato, on the other hand, began to turn in that direction; his first dialogues and the Apology must have been written during the years 399–388 B.C. He felt it his duty to defend the memory of Socrates, especially since controversy about his aims had been revived by hostile publications. As the chance of political action remained remote, he gradually developed the idea of a training of the young not in rhetoric but in mathematics—and in Socratic interrogation only after the mathematical foundation had been laid. Part of his diagnosis of the ills of Athens was that young men had bewildered themselves and others by engaging too soon in philosophical controversy; these ideas probably found little sympathy among the Megarians. How long he remained among them is not recorded, but he was liable to Athenian military service, probably as a cavalryman. A statement has indeed come down to us 12 that he went on expeditions to Tanagra (in Boeotia) and Corinth. This is credible in itself, and in the latter case the reference could be to an engagement in 394 B.C. outside Corinth, in which the Spartans and their allies defeated the Athenians and Thebans. But neither does it seem inconsistent with Plato’s regarding Megara for a time as his home. About 390 he resolved to visit the West, where Archytas of Tarentum survived as a maintainer of the Pythagorean system of education and was also active in research.
Plato’s views at the time of departure on his journey to the West are well seen in the Gorgias. It is his first major constructive effort as a moralist, but there is as yet no positive doctrine of knowledge and reality. When Callicles spurns conventional justice, as a means of defrauding the strong and energetic of what naturally belongs to them, and declares that temperance is not a virtue (why should a clear-sighted man choose to curb his own desires?), Socrates confidently develops an answering thesis: the supervision of the soul must be supposed comparable in its operation to the arts, which impose form and design (eidos, taxis) and preserve the natural subordination of one part of a subject to another (kosmos). Human good does not consist in the ceaseless satisfaction of desires, irrespective of their quality (if it did, man would stand apart from the general world order), and self-discipline is the basis of happiness. But the statesmen of Athens, the dramatists and musicians, the teachers and learners of rhetorical persuasion, have all alike failed to understand this and have flattered rather than guided the public.
In his use of the varied senses of kosmos (which, according to the context, means world or world order, moral discipline, or adornment). Socrates is here on Pythagorean ground; and ideas are already present which Plato expanded only in his later writings and his oral instruction.13 The Gorgias passage is also an emphatic answer to the friends who had sought to draw Plato into Athenian politics.14
Concerning the journey itself, in Epistle VII Plato says, or is made to say, that he was then forty years old (324A) and that in Italy and Sicily he was appalled by the sensuous indulgence which he found taken for granted there. On crossing to Syracuse he made the acquaintance of Dion, the young brother-in-law of the tyrant Dionysius the Elder, who listened attentively to his discourses and aroused his admiration by his intelligence and preference for a sober life. In the tyrant’s entourage this was viewed as an affectation of singularity and led to Dion’s becoming unpopular.15
If this evidence is set aside as suspect, the next best source is Cicero.16 He says that Plato visited Egypt before proceeding to Italy; that he spent a considerable time with Archytas and with Timaeus of Locri; and that the object of the voyage was to gain acquaintance with Pythagorean studies and institutions. To this some reservations must be made. First, it can hardly be true—if Cicero means this that when he boarded the ship Plato was altogether ignorant of mathematics. In his own dialogues there is clear evidence that the sciences were to some extent taught to boys at Athens and that there was an opportunity of learning from specialists in mathematics and astronomy, no less than from those in music, meter, and grammar. About Pythagoreanism also Plato already had some information, judging from the Gorgias passage mentioned above; he could have obtained this (as Wilamowitz suggests) from the Thebans Simmias and Cebes, pupils of Socrates who are said to have met Philolaus.17
Secondly, it does not seem likely that Timaeus of Locri was still alive at the time of Plato’s journey. In Timaeus 20A he is described as a man of intellectual distinction who has already held high office, and this is at a time certainly previous to 415 B.C. (It is possible that at this time Plato met Philistion of Locri, and derived from him the interest in the physiology of the Sicilian Empedocles, which is visible in both Meno and Phaedo) Cicero’s report may be wrong in some of its detail, but it seems true in spirit. Plato’s purpose in visiting the West was to see for himself how the Pythagoreans conducted their science-based educational system, and he did at this time establish a connection with Archytas.
Plato returned to Athens, after two years’ absence, in 388 B.C. (Ancient biographers related, with some circumstantial detail, that at Syracuse he had exasperated the tyrant Dionysius the Elder by open criticism of his rule and had been handed over as a prisoner to a Spartan envoy. But such insolence is hardly in character for Plato, and probably his voyage home was of a less sensational kind.) He might at this time have visited the Pythagoreans at Phlius, in the Peloponnesus. The setting of the Phaedo suggests personal acquaintance with their leader Echecrates, and Cicero confirms this.18
Nothing definite is recorded about Plato’s personal life during the ensuing twenty-two years. But the Academy was founded, or gradually grew up, during this time, and he composed further dialogues in Socratic style. The Meno and Euthyplwo, Euthydemus. Phaech, Symposium, and Republic must all be assigned to these years. In them he puts forward the distinctive account of knowledge which has taken shape in his mind; explains his purpose and method in education and shows the continuity of his aims with those of Socrates; and differentiates himself, where necessary, from the Italian Pythagoreans. It is natural to place the Republic at the end of this series, and to regard it as either a prospectus for a proposed school or as a statement to the Athenian public of what was already being carried out among them.
Aristotle gives a clear analysis of the factors which produced Plato’s doctrine of Forms.19 Plato was acquainted from youth with an Athenian named Cratylus, who declared with Heraclitus that there is no stable substance, or hold for human knowledge, in the sense world. Plato did not deny this then or later but, wishing to take over and continue the Socratic search for universals, in the sphere of morals, which do remain permanent, he necessarily separated the universals from sensible particulars. It was he who termed them Ideas and Forms. In his view particulars (that is, things and states of things, actions and qualities) derive reality from Forms by “participation” and when we name or speak of these particulars, we in effect name Forms.
In the dialogues Plato often starts from a contrast between knowledge and opinion. To live in a state of opinion is to accept assertions, either of fact or of principle, on authority or from mere habit. The opinion may be true and right; but since it is held without a rational ground, it may be driven from the mind by emotion and is less proof against forgetfulness than knowledge is. The holder of it may also be deceived in an unfamiliar instance. Based as it is on habit, an opinion cannot easily be transmitted to another; or, if the transmission takes place, this is not teaching. In terms of the theory of Forms, the holder of knowledge knows the Forms and can relate particular instances to them (although Plato did not successfully explain how this occurs), whereas the contented Holder of opinions moves about among half-real particulars.
In middle life, then, Plato had advanced from his Socratic beginnings toward beliefs, held with assurance, from which many practical consequences flowed. The chief elements were the knowledge-opinion contrast; the belief in a realm of immutable Forms, with which human minds can make intermittent contact and which on such occasions the minds recognize as “their own” or as akin to them;20 given this, the soul, or its intellectual part, is seen to be likewise eternal; and the belief that the Forms, each of which infuses reality into corresponding particulars, in turn derive their existence, intelligibility, and truth from one supreme Form, the Good.
The advance from the plurality of Forms to their source is in consequence regarded as the ultimate stage in human study, megiston mathēma;21 it is a step which will be taken by only a few, but for the welfare of mankind it is important that a few should take it. Within the dialogue it is described but cannot be accomplished. There are hints of a methodical derivation of the other Forms from the Good; but for the present the image, whereby the Good is shown to have the same relation to other objects of intellection as the sun has to other visible things, takes its place. In reading the Republic and later dialogues, one must therefore reckon with the possibility that in the school Plato amplified or corrected the exposition which he chose to commit to writing.
The Athenians thought it suitable that young men should exercise themselves in argument on abstract themes before turning to serious business, and were prepared to tolerate “philosophy” on these terms. But Plato, as has been said, speaks out against this practice and holds that it has brought philosophy into discredit. Indeed, according to him, the order of procedure should be reversed. Argument, or its theory, is the hardest branch of philosophy and should come later. Men and women to whom legislation and administration are ultimately to be entrusted should undergo discipline in the sciences (including reflection on their interrelation) before they embark, say, at the age of thirty, on dialectical treatment of matters which have to be grasped by the intellect without the help of images. Such a discipline will single out those who have capacity for dialectic. To them will fall the task of making good laws, if these are not found in existence, and of interpreting and applying them if they are. For this purpose knowledge must be reinforced by experience.22 Lawless government is the common fault of despotism and democracy.
Plato holds that ignorance of mathematical truths which are in no way recondite, for example, the wrong belief that all magnitudes are copoensurable, is a disgrace to human nature.23 It is not, however, this that is emphasized in his educational plan in the Republic. He explains that it is characteristic of mathematical studies that they gently disengage the intellect from sensible appearances and turn it toward reality; no other discipline does this. They induce a state of mind (which Plato terms dianoia, discursive thought) clearer than “opinion” and naive trust in the senses but dimmer than knowledge and reason. In geometry, for instance, the learner is enabled or compelled, with the aid of figures, to fix his attention on intelligible objects. Also, mathematicians “lay down as hypotheses the odd and even, various figures, and the three kinds of angles and the like”24 but leave them unexamined and go on to prove that the problem that gave rise to their investigation has been solved. In this respect mathematical procedure tends to divert the mind from reality and can provide only conditional truth. But such studies, pursued steadily and without continual talk of their practical use, are a good preparation for methodical treatment of such relations among Forms as cannot be visibly depicted.
Arithmetic and plane geometry will be the basis of an education which is to end in knowledge; the geometry of three-dimensional figures must also be studied. When, in the dialogue, Glaucon observes that this hardly yet exists as a science, Socrates says that there are two reasons for this: first, no state at present honors the study and encourages men to devote themselves to it; and second, a director is needed in order to coordinate the research.25 Such a man will be hard to find; and at present even if he existed the researchers are too self-confident to defer to him. Even without these conditions, and even when the researchers do not succeed in explaining what they are striving to achieve, the intrinsic charm of the study of three-dimensional figures is carrying it forward. This is one of the passages in which speakers in Plato’s dialogues refer prophetically, but in veiled terms, to circumstances at the time of writing. It is somewhat enigmatic for us. The intention is perhaps to compliment Theaetetus, who had discovered constructions for inscribing in a sphere the regular octahedron and icosahedron. Either he or Plato himself is cast for the role of a director, and there is a plea for public support of the Academy so that research can continue.
There is a similar personal reference in the treatment of the sciences of astronomy and musical theory.26 Socrates dissociates himself from the Pythagoreans while approving of their statement that the two sciences are closely akin. Their theory of harmony is restricted to a numerical account of audible concords; and the aim of their astronomy is to discover the proportion between month, year, and the period of revolution of the planets. Instead of this, heard harmonies should be studied as a special case of the harmonies between numbers; and the proportion between month, year, and so forth (which is doubtless not unvarying) as an application of some wider theory dealing with the spatial relations of any given number of bodies of any shape, moving at any regular speeds at any distances. The visible universe will be to the “true astronomer” what a beautifully contrived diagram might be to the geometer, that is, an aid to the science, not the object of contemplation. Here Plato is indicating that he has not simply established on Athenian soil a replica of the Pythagorean schools. Attachment to the sense world must be loosened and the sciences taught with emphasis on their affinity to one another; for it is the power of synopsis, the perception of common features, that is to be strengthened. Those few who excel in this are to be set apart and trained to pursue another method which treats hypotheses as provisional until they have been linked to the unconditionally real and so established.27
There is no question here, as some have thought, of a fusion of the existing special sciences. The ideal held out is probably this: The One is an aspect of the Good (this was common ground to Euclid of Megara and Plato); from the concept of unity, the number series can be made to emerge by deduction; and from the Good, by a process which makes more use of Socratic questioning, the system of moral and aesthetic concepts can likewise be evolved.28
Boys will have some introduction to all the sciences that have been mentioned. Compulsion is to be avoided in the training of the mind, especially since what is learnt under duress leaves no lasting impression. At the age of twenty when state-enforced physical exercise is to cease, those judged capable of further progress must begin to bring together the knowledge that they have hitherto acquired randomly and to consider in what way the sciences are akin to one another and to reality. Until they are thirty this will be their occupation. After this there can follow five years of that dialectical exercise that Athenian custom regards as a fitting occupation for mere adolescents.29
The program here outlined is our safest guide to the actual institutions of the Academy. But it is an ideal that is sketched, and one need not insist that it was carried out in detail. For instance, Plato did not admit women, and it is highly improbable that he gave no philosophical instruction to those under thirty; it would doubtless occur to him that since he could not prevent them from obtaining such instruction, it would be better to make sure that they were well taught.
“Academy” was an area to the northeast of the city which had been laid out as a park, including a public gymnasium. According to Lysias, the Spartans encamped there during the troubled year 403 B.C. Plato may have copoenced teaching in the gymnasium itself; but he soon purchased an adjoining garden and erected buildings there, and from this moment he may be said to have instituted a school. Hitherto he could not exclude chance listeners. The buildings may have included lodgings for students or visitors, and Plato himself presumably lived in the neighborhood. Common meals had been a feature of Pythagorean life, and this precedent was followed. Legal recognition was secured by making the Academy a religious fraternity devoted to the Muses.
Plato nominated his nephew Speusippus to be his successor, but later the head seems to have been elected. Presumably the power of admission rested with the head, and those accepted contributed to the maintenance of the school according to their means. The story that the words “Let no man unversed in geometry enter” were inscribed over the door cannot be traced back further than John Philoponus (sixth century). In the first century B.C., “academic” teaching was being given in the gymnasium of Ptolemy near the agora of Athens.30
In the teaching, Plato will doubtless have been assisted from an early stage by Theaetetus, who, as the dialogue named after him shows, was a boy of exceptional promise in 399 B.C. He was an Athenian. The dialogue records his death from wounds received in battle at Corinth, complicated by illness, and was obviously written soon afterward (ca. 368–367 B.C.). Hence his collaboration with Plato may have lasted about fifteen years.
Somewhat later, Eudoxus of Cnidus resided occasionally at the Academy. He is known to have died at the age of fifty-three, and the dates for his life now usually accepted are ca. 400-ca. 347 B.C. in mathematics he was a pupil of Archytas, but it is not clear when this instruction was received. During a first visit to Athens at the age of twenty-three, he heard lectures from Plato. Later he established a school at Cyzicus in northwest Asia Minor, one of those Greek cities which had been abandoned to Persian control under the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 B.C.; Eudoxus probably felt insecure there and was glad to maintain a connection with the Platonists.
Eudoxus was at Athens when Aristotle first arrived as a student in 367 B.C., and it is plain from several Aristotelian passages31 that he deeply influenced his juniors and played an important part in the life of the school. In Plato’s Philebus there is probably some concealed allusion to him. Mathematics and astronomy were his main business, but he took part as a friendly outsider in philosophical debate arising from Plato’s writings. He was not one to pledge himself to accept philosophical dogmas, nor was this expected of him, and his work exhibits the close attention to phenomena which the Socrates of the Republic deprecates.
But Eudoxus recognized that philosophy has a legitimate role in criticizing the procedure of specialists. His explanation of the celestial movements in terms of homocentric spheres, rotating about a stationary spherical earth, was put forward in answer to a problem posed by Plato: “What are the uniform and ordered movements by the assumption of which the apparent movements of the planets can be accounted for?” Eudoxus did not abandon his own school and merge it with that of Plato; and Proclus’ statement that he “became a companion of Plato’s disciples” does not mean this, for we know that Aristotle later carried on the connection with Cyzicene mathematicians which Plato had established. Epistle XIII, ascribed to Plato, mentions Helicon as a pupil of Eudoxus and implies the presence of other Cyzicenes at Athens in the period 365–362 b.c.
If we consider Plato’s relation to Theaetetus and Eudoxus and also bring in the evidence of Aristotle, his personal role in the Academy begins to appear. He probably committed all the specialist instruction to them. He took note of their research and sometimes criticized their methods, speaking as a person with authority; he guided the juniors in that reflection about first principles and about the interrelation of sciences that in Republic VII is designated as suitable for them;32 and he confided to some an ethico-mathematical philosophy in which two ultimate principles, from which Form-Numbers were derived, were found by analysis.
The last item is outside the scope of this article, and concerning the other two a few examples must suffice. Theaetetus added to previously known constructions of regular solid figures those for the octahedron and icosahedron, and gave a proof33 that there can be no more than five regular solids. He also tried to classify incopoensurable relations, connecting them with the three kinds of means. Plato’s inspiration may be seen in this effort to systematize. Plato is credited by Proclus with beginning the study of conic sections, which his followers developed, and with either discovering or clearly formulating the method of analysis, which proved fruitful in geometry in the hands of Leodamas of Thasos.34 According to Plutarch, Plato criticized Eudoxus, Archytas, and Menaechmus for trying to effect the duplication of the cube by mechanical means and so losing the benefit of geometry.35 Aristotle says that Plato (in oral instruction) “used to object vigorously to the point, as a mathematical dogma, and on the other hand often posited his indivisible lines.”36
The view that the sciences contemplate objects situated halfway between Forms and sensibles and having some of the characteristics of both, which is not found in Plato’s dialogues, was probably at home in the same discussion. Observation of the heavens went on, perhaps under the direction of Eudoxus or his companions. Aristotle says that he had seen an occultation of Mars by the moon (then at half-moon); this must have been in April or May 357 B.C., a calculation first made by Kepler.37
It was maintained by H. Usener in 1884 that the Academy was the first known institute for scientific research, a statement which initiated a debate not yet closed. It has been opposed from one point of view by those who compare the Academy to a modern school of political science (and perhaps jurisprudence) thoroughly practical in its orientation; and from another especially by Jaeger, who thinks that it was no part of Plato’s intention to teach science in encyclopedic fashion and promote its general advance.38 The Academy was not a place in which all science was studied for its own sake but one in which selected sciences were taught and their foundations examined as a mental discipline, the aim being practical wisdom and legislative skill, which in Plato’s opinion are inseparable from contemplative philosophy.
Evidently the crux of this matter is whether empirical sciences, which had no place in the curriculum projected for the guardians in the Republic, were, in fact, pursued under Plato’s auspices. Jaeger seems to be right in his skepticism about the apparent evidence of such activity. It may be added that proofs that Plato was personally interested in (for instance) medicine and physiology, which Timaeus affords, are not quite what is wanted. One might argue that he was indeed an empirical scientist manqué, pointing to his interest in the manufacturing arts in the Statesman, his marvelous sketch of the geology of Attica in the Critias, and his attention to legislative detail in the Laws. It was an imperfectly suppressed love of the concrete and visible, rather than any retreat from his avowed opinions, that led him to pose the problem concerning celestial phenomena which Eudoxus later solved. But it is a long step from these admissions to the pronouncement that the Academy became an institute of scientific research.
Plato’s activity at Athens was interrupted by two more visits to Sicily. When Dionysius the Elder died in the spring of 367 B.C., two problems in particular demanded solution: what the future form of government Syracuse itself should be; and when and how several Greek cities, whose populations had been transferred elsewhere under Dionysius’ policy, should be refounded. Plato’s admirer Dion planned to make his nephew, Dionysius the Younger, a constitutional monarch, and appealed for Plato’s aid in educating him for his responsibility. His proposal was that Plato should come to Syracuse and take charge of a group of earnest students, which Dionysius might unobtrusively join.
Plato yielded to pressure and arrived in the spring of 366 b.c. But, according to Epistle VII, he found a situation of intrigue. Some Syracusans believed that Dion’s aim was to occupy his nephew with interminable study while he himself wielded effective power. From another side there was pressure for the restoration of full democracy. A war with Carthage (or against the Lucanians) was in progress. Three months after Plato’s arrival the young ruler charged Dion with attempting to negotiate with the Carthaginians and expelled him. Plato left the following year (365 b.c.), after obtaining what he took to be a promise that Dion would be recalled.
In 362 b.c. he once more left the Academy (appointing, it is said, Heraclides Ponticus as his deputy) and returned to Syracuse. There were reports that Dionysius was now genuinely interested in philosophy; but in consenting to go Plato was more influenced, according to Epistle VII, by a promise that a favorable settlement of Dion’s affairs could be reached on condition that he return. Dion had spent his years of exile in Athens and had become a friend of Plato’s nephew Speusippus.
Plato’s mission ended in failure. Dion’s agents were forbidden to send him the revenue from his estates; and Plato made his escape with some difficulty, returning home in 361 b.c. Dion thereupon took steps to effect his return to Syracuse by force, urging Plato to aid him and to punish Dionysius as a violator of hospitality. But Plato answered (still according to the Epistle) that he was too old, that after all Dionysius had spared his life, and that he wished to be available if necessary as a mediator. Other members of the Academy, however, joined the expedition. Dion succeeded in his enterprise but failed to reconcile the warring parties; and after a brief period of power he was murdered by the Athenian Callippus (354 b.c.). Epistles VII and VIII, addressed to Dion’s partisans, belong to this time or were fabricated as belonging to it. They contain constructive advice which, in language and spirit, closely resembles Laws III. Plato died in 348/347 b.c., at the age of eighty.
Was Plato at all influenced in his later years by progress in the special sciences? It may be replied that later modifications in his general theory of knowledge seem to have been the product of his own reflection rather than of any remarkable discoveries and were not such as to affect his educational ideals. He did, however, absorb new scientific ideas and make use of them for his purposes as a moralist. This is seen in one way in the Timaeus, where the world is shown to be a product of beneficent rational design, and in another in the Laws, where theological consequences are drawn from the perfect regularity of the planetary movements.
In the Timaeus, Plato has not abandoned his theory of Forms, for Timaeus declares that the perpetually changing, visible cosmos can at best be an object of “right opinion.” The view earlier attributed to Socrates in Phaedo—that the only satisfactory explanation of physical facts is a teleological one—is assumed from the start and carried out in detail. Timaeus opposes mechanistic views with a superior atomism, in which Theaetetus’ construction of the mathematical solids plays a part. Sicilian influence is especially strong. From Empedocles“system the doctor Philistion of Locri, with whom Plato was personally acquainted,39 developed a theory whereby the heart is the center of life and consciousness, and the veins and arteries carry pneuma along with blood. Timaeus adopts this physiology and the explanation of disease which went with it, except that in making the brain the organ of consciousness he follows Alcmaeon. (It appears then to have been the Academy, with its Sicilian connections, which brought the knowledge of Empedoclean medicine to the mainland.) All this leads up to the conclusion that man can learn to regulate his life by study of the cosmos, which is a divine artifact but also an intelligent being.
The Athenian Stranger in the Laws says that he was no longer a young man when he became persuaded that each of the planets moves in a single path, and that we malign them when we call them “wanderers.” He evidently speaks for Plato, and the remark is a formal withdrawal of what was said in RepublicVII of the erratic celestial movements; but in favor of what new system? Surely that of Eudoxus. This may not have lasted long, and was open to an objection that was soon seen, but it was the first scientific astronomy. From it Plato could, and did, argue that all movement stems from a soul (matter is inactive); perfectly regular movement stems from a wise and beneficent soul; and the rotation of the stars, sun, and planets is perfectly regular.
In these later developments Plato may appear not as a lover of science but as a biased user of it. But “an intense belief that a knowledge of mathematical relations would prove the key to unlock the mysteries of the relatedness within Nature was ever at the back of Plato’s cosmological speculations” (Whitehead, Adventures of Ideas, p. 194).40
1. Proclus in his copoentary on Euclid’s Elements gives a summary account of the development of geometry from the time of Thales. He claims that Plato brought about a great advance, and names some of those who worked with his encouragement in the Academy. Closely similar language is used in a fragmentary papyrus found at Herculaneum, “Academicorum philosophorum index Herculanensis,” where Plato’s role is said to be that of a supervisor who propounded problems for investigation by mathematicians. Simplicius in his copoentary on Aristotle’s De Caelo informs us that Eudoxus’s astronomical system was a solution of a carefully formulated problem set by Plato. The common source of the first two reports is probably the history of mathematics by Eudemus of Rhodes, and Simplicius says that his statement is derived from Book 2 of Eudemus’ History of Astronomy. Greek texts are in K. Gaiser, “Testimonia Platonica” (Appendix to Platons Ungeschriebene Lehre), nos. 15–21, 460–479. An English translation of the latter part of the Proclus passage is in Heath, A Manual of Greek Mathematics, 184–185.
2.Apology 34a; RepublicII , 368a.
3.Memorabilia III, 6.
4. For a family tree, see John burnet, Greek Philosophy From Thales to Plato (London, 1924), appendix; or C. Ritter, Platon, I, 13.
5.Epistles VII, 324–326.
8.Phaedo 59b, c.
9. Diogenes Laertius III , 6, and II , 106, quoting Hermodorus, a pupil of Plato.
10.Phaedo 78a, 107b.
11. W. and M. Kneale, The Development of Logic (Oxford, 1962), ch. 3; B. Mates, Stoic Logic (Berkeley-Los Angeles, 1961), intro.
12. Aelian, V, 16; VII 14; and Diogenes Laërtius, III, 8, where there is confusion between Plato and Socrates.
13. Robin, Platon, pp. 101–103.
14. Cornford, Republic of Plato, Intro., p. xvii.
15.EpistlesVII , 326–327.
16.De RepublicaI , 10.
18.De finibusV , 29.87.
20.Phaedo 75E, 76e.
21.RepublicVI , 503–505.
22.RepublicVI , 484c, d.
23.LawsVII , 819–820.
24.RepublicVI , 510c.
25.Ibid., VII , 528b.
26.Ibid., 528e ff.
28. Cornford, who gives this exposition, relies upon Parmenides 142D ff. See his trans. of the Republic, p. 245, and his “Mathematics and Dialectic in the Republic VI-VII.”
29.RepublicVII , 535–540.
30. See Cicero, De finibus V, 1, for an eloquent description of a walk to the gymnasium’s original site, now deserted.
31. Especially Nicomachean Ethics X, ch. 1.
32.RepublicVII , 535–540.
33. Euclid XIII, 18A
34. See Cornford, “Mathematics and Dialectic in the RepublicVI–VII ,” pp. 68–73.
35.Quaestiones convivales 718f.
36.Metaphysics A, 992a20; see Ross ad. loc
37. See Stocks’s note in oxford trans. of Aristotle, vol. II ; and Guthrie’s ed. of Aristotle’s on the Heavens (Loeb), p. 205.
38. Aristotle, p. 18 and elsewhere.
39.Epistles II, 314d.
40. That the system presented through Timaeus is formulated in antithesis to mechanist atomism—whether or not Plato knew of Democritus as its chief author—is clearly shown by Frank, Platon u. die sogenannten Pythagoreer, pp. 97–108. On the meaning of Timaeus 40b, c, concerning the earth’s rotation, see Cornford, Plato’s Cosmology, pp. 120–134. On Philistion, see Jaeger, Diokles von Karystos, pp. 7, 211. For the argument that laws 822a–e can refer only to the system of Eudoxus, and for Plato’s astronomy in general, see Burkert, Weisheit und Wissenschaft, pp. 302–311.
I. Original Works. For present purposes the most important dialogues are Meno, Phaedo, Republic, Parmenides, Theaetetus, Timaeus, and Laws. The Epistles and Epinomis, even if they are not authentic, are informative. There are translations with introductions and notes in many modern languages.
Some useful English versions are Phaedo, R. Hackforth, trans. (Cambridge, 1955); Republic, F. M. Cornford, trans. (Oxford, 1941); Theaetetus, Parmenides, and Timaeus, F. M. Cornford, trans., in vols. entitled, respectively, Plato’s Theory of Knowledge (London, 1935), Plato and Parmenides (London-New York, 1939), and Plato’s Cosmology (London, 1937); Timaeus and Critias, A.E. Taylor, trans. (London, 1929); Philebus and Epinomis, A.E. Taylor, trans., R. Klibansky et al., eds. (Edinburgh-London, 1956), with intro. to the latter by A. C. Lloyd; Epinomis, J. Harward, trans. (Oxford, 1928); Epistles, J. Harward, trans. (Cambridge, 1932); Epistles, Glenn R. Morrow, trans. (Urbana, III., 1935; repr. New York 1961); Laws, A. E. Taylor, trans. (London, 1934; repr. 1960).
The appropriate vols. in the French trans., Oeuvres complètes, 13 vols. in 25 pts. (Paris, 1920–1956), published under the patronage of the Association Guillaume Budé, should also be consulted.
II. Secondary Literature. On Plato’s life, see H. Leisegang, Platon, in Pauly-Wissowa, Realenzyklopādie, 1st ser., XX. The following books and articles are important for his views concerning method and for an estimate of his understanding of science.
J. Adam, The Republic of Plato, II (Cambridge, 1902); W. Burkert, Weisheit und Wissenschaft (Nuremberg, 1962), containing a useful bibliography; F.M. Cornford, “Mathematics and Dialectic in the Republic VI–VII,” in Mind, 41 (1932), 37–52, 173–190, repr. in Studies in Plato’s Metaphysics, R. E. Allen, ed. (London, 1965), 61–95; and E. Frank, Platon und die sogenannten Pythagoreer (Halle, 1923).
See also K. Gaiser, Platons ungeschriebene Lehre, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart, 1968), which contains in an app. the Testimonia Platonica, ancient evidence relative to the organization of the Academy and to Plato’s esoteric teaching; and “Platons Menon und dic Akademie,” in Archiv für Geschichte der philosophie, 46 (1964), 241–292; T. L. Health, History of Greek Mathematics (Oxford, 1921), and Aristarchus of Samos (Oxford, 1913), esp. chs. XV and XVI ;G. E. R. Lloyd. “Plato as Natural Scientist,” inJournal of Hellenic Studies, n 88 919680, 78–92; C. Ritter, Platon, 2 vols. (Munich, 1910–1922), containing a chapter on plato’s doctrine of nature and his attitude toward the problems of science; L. Robin, platon (paris 1935); F. Solmsen, “Platonic Influences in the Formation of Aristotle and Plato in the Mid-Fourth Century Goteborg,1960);and A. E. Taylor, Plato, the Man and His Work, 4th ed. (London,1937).
There is a review of literature relating to plato, 1950–1957, by H. Cherniss in Lustrum, 4 (1959),5–308, and 5 (1960), 323–648; sec. II.B deals with the Academy, sec. V.E with mathematics and the sciences.
On the Academy, the comprehensive account in E. Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen, 6th ed. (Hildesheim, 1963), has not yet been superseded; and H. Usener, “Organisation der wissenchaftlichen Arbeit,” in Preussische Jahrbucher, 53 (1884), repr. in Vortrage und Aufsätze (1907), 67 ff., has been a starting point for later discussion. See also E. Berti, La filosofia del primo Aristotele (Padua, 1962), pp. 138–159; H. Cherniss, The Riddle of the Academy (Berkeley, 1945); H. Herter, platons Akademie, 2nd ed. (Bonn, 1952); W. Jaeger, Aristole, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1948), Diokles von Karystos (Berlin, 1938), and Paideia (Oxford, 1944), II and III; G. Ryle, Plato’s Progress (Cambridge, 1966); P.M. Schuhl, “Une école de sciences politiques,” inRevue Philosophique de la France et de L’étranger, 84 (1959), 101–013; J. Stenzel, platon der Erzieher (Leipzig, 1928); and U. von Wilamowitz, platon (Berlin, 1919; 5th ed. 1959).
On Eudoxus, se K. von Fritz, “Die Lebenszeit des Eudoxos v. Knidos,” in philologus, 85 (1929–1930), 478–481; H. Karpp, Die philosophie des Eudoxos v. Knidos (Wurzburg, 1933); and E. Frank, “die Begründung der mathematischen Naturwissenschaft durch Eudoxus?” in L. Edelstein, ed., Wissen, Wollen, Glauben (Zurich, 1955),134–157.
On the mathematical intermediates in Plato’s philosophy, see W. D. Ross, Metaphysics of Aristotle (Oxford, 1924), I, 166 ff.; J. A. Brentlinger, “The Divided Line and Plato’s Theory of Intermediates,” in phronesis, 7, no. 2 (1963) 146–166; S. Mansion, “L’objet des mathematiques et de la dialectique selon platon,” in Reuue philosophique de Louvain, 67 (1969), 365–358.
On the number in RepublicVIII , 546, see The Republic of Plato, Adam. ed., II, 201–203, 264–312; A. Diès, “Le Nombre de platon,” in Mémoires de l’Académie des inscriptions, 14 (1940); Gasier, Platons ungeschribene Lehre, pp. 271–273,409–414. On the shape of the earth in the Phaedo, see Burkert, Weisheit und Wissenschaft, pp. 282–284, and earlier literature there mentioned. On Platon as geographer and as physicist, see P. Friedländer, Platon, 2nd ed. (Berlin,1954), I, chs. 14, 15. On the Epinomis and the history of science, see E, des Places, “Notice” to the Epinomis, in Platon, Oeuvres completes, Collection Bude, XII, 118–128.
D. J. Allan
"Plato." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830903443.html
"Plato." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830903443.html
Plato, son of Ariston, a member of the Athenian nobility, was born in 427 B.C. and died at the age of eighty in 347 B.C. Perhaps the greatest thinker of all times, he was not only a philosopher but the founder of political theory (he was himself involved in practical politics) and of sociology; he was, moreover, a physicist and a cosmologist. His influence, direct as well as indirect, upon European (and thus American) thought is incalculable. Whether his influence was on the whole beneficial or not is a question which has recently become highly controversial. For his political philosophy is authoritarian and hostile to democratic ideas, as when he said, “The wise shall lead and rule, and the ignorant shall follow” (Laws 690b), just as his social theory is collectivistic and hostile to individualistic ideas: “You are created for the sake of the whole, and not the whole for the sake of you” (Laws 903c). He identified individualism with egoism and group egoism with altruism, overlooking the fact that people may be unselfish not only for the sake of “the whole” (the collective, the state) but also for the sake of other individuals.
Plato’s deep interest in the problems of politics and of society seems to have had two roots. One was a family tradition of assuming political responsibilities. (His father claimed descent from Codrus, the last king of Athens, and his mother from Dropides, a kinsman of Solon.) The other was the terrifying experience of the political and social disintegration which affected not only Athens but the whole of the Greek world during the later years of the Peloponnesian War (the “Decelean war” of 419–404 b.c.). This period coincided with Plato’s formative years and culminated for him in the trial and death of his friend and teacher Socrates in 399 b.c.
The Peloponnesian War (or wars; 431–404 b.c.) was not merely a war between the two most powerful city-states of Greece; it became, one might say, the first ideological war, and it involved some of the first large-scale ideological persecutions. The clash was between the ideologies of a tribalist and authoritarian (and perhaps even totalitarian) Sparta and the maritime trading empire of democratic Athens (the “Delian League”). It became the more terrible because some of the leading families of Athens and its democratic allies were traditionally antidemocratic and oligarchic, and sympathetic to Sparta. (Thus Aristotle mentioned in his Politics, 1310a, an oligarchic oath which even in his time was still in vogue, as he said; it consisted of the formula “I promise to be an enemy of the people, and to try my best to give them bad advice.”)
When the Spartan King Lysistratus captured Athens in 404, he instituted there an oligarchic puppet government, under Spartan protection, known as the Thirty Tyrants. The Thirty were led by two of Plato’s maternal uncles, the highly gifted Critias and the much younger Charmides. During the eight months of their reign of terror, the Thirty killed scores of Athenian citizens—almost a greater number of Athenians than the Spartan armies had killed during the last ten years of the war (Meyer [1884–1902] 1953–1958, vol. 5, p. 34). But in 403, when Plato was 24 years old, Critias and the Spartan garrison were attacked and defeated by the returning democrats. Originally only 70 men, led by Thrasybulus and Anytus, the democrats established themselves first in the Piraeus, where Plato’s uncles were killed in battle. For a time, their oligarchic followers continued the reign of terror in the city of Athens itself, but their forces were in a state of confusion and dissolution. Having proved themselves incapable of ruling, they were ultimately abandoned by their Spartan protectors, who concluded a treaty with the democrats. The peace treaty re-established democracy in Athens. Thus the democratic form of government had proved its superior strength under the most severe trials, and even its enemies began after a few years to think it invincible.
As soon as the restored democracy had re-established normal legal conditions, a case was brought against Socrates for “corrupting the youth”; its meaning was clear enough: he was accused of having corrupted Alcibiades, Critias, and Charmides, who were thought responsible for the defeat of Athens and for the bloody regime of the Thirty. In his defense Socrates insisted that he had no sympathy with the policy of the Thirty and that he had risked his life defying their attempt to implicate him in one of their crimes. He also made it clear that he preferred death to being prevented from speaking his mind freely to the young. Found guilty, he became the first martyr for the right of free speech.
Such were the tumultuous times of Plato’s most important formative years. They led him in his time of maturity to pose his fundamental problem: Society, and the body politic, are sick. How can they be cured?
Beginning of literary activity. That the historical events described influenced Plato in the sense indicated is, of course, conjectural. Indeed, it should be stressed that almost everything about the evolution of Plato’s thought, the sequence of his works, and the events of his life is conjectural. Our sources, so far as they are consistent, seem to be largely interdependent. Thus, we cannot be certain that this story of Plato’s life is not a legend. What is probably the oldest source, the Book of Plato’s Letters, may well be an ancient forgery. Even the most informative “Seventh Letter,” which many scholars accept as genuine, is suspect. (Certain other works transmitted under Plato’s name are almost certainly forgeries.) Yet even though the “Seventh Letter” is probably a forgery, it appears to be very old, and the writer must surely have been well informed about the facts of Plato’s life to get his forgery accepted. For the temporal order of Plato’s works, we have now what appears to be very good evidence from the statistics of minor stylistic peculiarities (“stylometry”). This method (which in the main leads to groupings rather than to a definite sequence) may fail, however, in cases in which Plato revised or rewrote his books. (We seem to have some independent evidence for the revision, by Plato, of at least one of his works, the Theaetetus; see Popper 1963, vol. 1, addendum II.) These uncertainties should be kept in mind throughout this account.
Most of Plato’s literary work consists of “Socratic dialogues”—dialogues, that is, in which Socrates is the main speaker and the superior intellect. Socratic dialogues were composed by several other writers, notably Xenophon; yet most of Plato’s dialogues bear the stamp of supreme originality, and we may therefore conjecture that it was Plato who invented this literary form. If so, then the view expressed by some scholars that it was the tragic death of Socrates which turned Plato into an author —into a writer of Socratic dialogues, to commemorate (and defend) his friend and teacher—is not only attractive but also likely to be true. This view would also suggest that the Apology of Socrates— Plato’s report of Socrates’ defense and of his condemnation—was Plato’s first work. Admittedly, there is important evidence against this: the Apology is a masterwork, and quite a number of the early dialogues are, in comparison, immature. On the other hand, it is not so very unusual that an author’s first work shows him at a peak which he is not soon to reach again; and in this particular case, the unique personality of Socrates and the immediate impression made by his defense in court (Plato made it quite clear that he was present) may be more than sufficient to explain how one of the greatest and most moving works of all literature could be the first fruits of a literary novice.
At at any rate, until we have good evidence to the contrary, it seems reasonable to accept the Apology as a true portrait of the historical Socrates and as a faithful report of the proceedings (hundreds of eyewitnesses of these proceedings must have been alive when the Apology was first published). It is a marvelous portrait, and the first (or almost the first, in view of Xenophanes and Pericles and Euripides) and the greatest manifesto of what may be called “critical rationalism”—the characteristically Socratic view that we ought to be aware of how little we know, and that we can learn by means of those critical discussions to which all theories and beliefs ought to be made subject. Though this is hardly a view which could ever become a generally accepted one, its influence upon Western thought (and Western science) has been of decisive importance.
Socrates’ critical rationalism is not skeptical, nor does it take pride in reason or cleverness: he believes in truth and in human beings, of whose intrinsic fallibility and intrinsic goodness he is equally convinced. Moreover, he is loyal to the democratic laws of Athens, and he loathes the crimes of the Thirty: he is a democrat, though one who is not greatly impressed by the democratic party leaders; he is a man passionately interested in other men; he is ready to die for the right of free discussion but despises the art of flattering the people.
Three periods of Platonic works. It is here proposed to divide Plato’s work into three periods. The first, or Socratic, period develops Plato’s portrait of Socrates as a man, teacher, and lover of truth. Its dialogues (I mention only the Crito, the Protagoras, and the Meno) are opposed neither to democracy nor to the value of the individual.
In the second period, Plato’s attitude, imputed to the Socrates of his dialogues, is different: Plato now blames democratic Athens—nay, democracy itself, the rule of the many, of the mob—for having murdered Socrates. This mob rule threatens every just man, who is like “a man who has fallen among wild beasts, unwilling to share their misdeeds and unable to hold out singly against the savagery of all” (Republic 496c).
This shows that the social body is sick. Plato has found his problem: how to heal the sick body of society.
The problem itself involves a theory—the organic theory of the state and of society. (The origin of this most dubious and ever-influential theory is Oriental.)
Plato’s new and very personal version of the organic theory of society is his analogy between the city-state and the soul of man: the city-state is the soul writ large, and the soul is a state in miniature. He thus originated the psychological theory of the state and also the political theory of the soul. The state is class-divided. Its structure is characterized by an unstable equilibrium between the ruling classes, consisting of the rulers and their helpers (or auxiliaries), and the ruled classes, the money-earning classes and the slaves. Similarly, the structure of the soul is characterized by an unstable equilibrium—indeed a schism—between its upper functions, reason and will, and its lower functions, the instincts or appetites. (It is interesting to note that Marx and Freud were unconscious Platonists. They also were anti-Platonists in accepting Plato’s scheme and inverting it, Marx by demanding the emancipation of the workers, Freud by demanding the emancipation of the instincts or appetites.)
The challenge of his problem led Plato to an almost superhuman intellectual effort. He developed not only a diagnosis and a therapy but (especially in his third period) a whole cosmology on which he based his diagnosis, and a theory of knowledge on which he based his therapy.
His social diagnosis goes deep. He is not satisfied with blaming democracy, which for him is a symptom rather than the malady itself. For the malady is social revolution—the revolutionary change which has overcome society and which has led to the dissolution of the old patriarchal society in which everybody knew his place and was happy. Society is in a process of degeneration: change is evil; stability is divine.
The stages of political degeneration are seen by Plato in the history of the Greek city-states. They begin with a golden age of hereditary kingship— the rule of the one, the best, the wisest—and an organic division of labor: the wisest rule, the courageous help them to keep order and defend the state, and the people work (in a variety of occupations). From here we move through aristocracy (or timarchy), the rule of the few who are the best, to the rule of the many, democracy. In the Republic, democracy is shown to lead only too easily to a final state of decay: to the rule of the ruthless demagogue who makes himself the tyrant of the city.
What are the causes of political degeneration? According to the Republic, the main work of Plato’s second period, it is the racial degeneration of the ruling class which undermines its fitness and its determination to rule. According to the Laws, the main work of his third period, the main cause of social change is culture clash, which is an unavoidable concomitant of the development of industry (such as the Athenian silver mines), of trade, of possessing a harbor and a fleet, and of founding colonies. All this shows astonishing insight, as does the remark that population pressure is one of the main causes of an unsettled society. (It seems not unlikely that Plato connected population increase, or increase in quantity, with racial degeneration, or decrease in quality: his view of the few who are good and the many who are bad may have suggested this to him (Laws 710d, 740d-741a, 838e).
So much for Plato’s sociological diagnosis.
The therapy which Plato advocated—his political program—fits the diagnosis: Arrest all social change! Return (so far as this is possible) to the patriarchic state! Strengthen the stability and the power of the ruling class, its unity, and its will to rule! For Plato formulated the following diagnostic-sociological law of revolution: “Change in the constitution originates, without exception, in the ruling class itself, and only when this class becomes the seat of dissension,” or when its will to rule is sapped, or when it is defeated in war (Republic 545d, 465b). Thus, the proper education of the ruling class becomes a major instrument of politics; the degeneration of the ruling class must be prevented by eugenics; the unity of the ruling class must be strengthened by a radical communism (confined to the ruling class) that involves the common ownership of women and children: nobody may know who his actual parents are, and everybody must look upon all the members of the older generation of their class as their parents. (This startling communism is the only major point of Plato’s program given up in the Laws as demanding too much, even though it is still declared to be ideally the best form of society.) Culture clash must be prevented, and it is said in the Laws that the city must therefore possess no harbor and no fleet, and that no citizen may possess means for traveling: the currency must be a token currency without intrinsic value (Laws 742a-c), though the government will possess a treasure of “general Hellenic currency.” Religion and rites are to be developed as important instruments for preventing change, and no variation in them may be tolerated. (This view, which anticipates the idea that religion is opium for the people, is the more remarkable for the absence of any churchlike organization in Greece.)
In his third period (especially in the Laws) Plato no longer used Socrates as his main speaker: it seems that he had become conscious that he had moved far away from Socrates’ teaching. Plato developed the political ideas of his middle period further and gave them (especially in the Statesman and the Timaeus) a cosmological background: the deepest cause of racial degeneration and political decay is that we are living in a world period in which the world is moving away from its divine origin; every change makes it less like its original model—the divine Form, or Idea, in whose image it was created.
In this third period, Plato developed further his theory of knowledge. In his first period, it was an optimistic theory which made it possible for every man to learn (Meno 81b–d). In his second and third periods, only the highly trained philosopher can attain true knowledge—knowledge of the divine Forms or Ideas.
Later life. It is difficult to relate the works of Plato’s second and third periods to his later life, whose most important events, according to tradition, were his journeys (one to Egypt and three to Syracuse), the foundation of the Academy, and the Academy’s (and Plato’s) participation in Syracusan high politics: his friend Dio invaded Syracuse, supported by other members of the Academy, and overthrew the Dionysian dynasty. Dio was murdered by Callipus, another member of the Academy, who in turn was murdered by the Pythagorean philosopher Leptines. (At least nine pupils of Plato’s Academy made themselves tyrants of some city or other.)
Traces of these journeys, such as allusions to Egyptian institutions, and of some others of these events, may be discerned in Plato’s work, but most of these interpretations, though interesting, are highly controversial.
The influence (for good or ill) of Plato’s work is immeasurable. Western thought, one might say, has been either Platonic or anti-Platonic, but hardly ever non-Platonic.
Karl R. Popper
Plato. With an English translation. 10 vols. The Loeb Classical Library. London: Heinemann; New York: Putnam, 1917–1929. → Volume 1: Euthyphro; Apology; Crito; Phaedo; Phaedrus, 1917. Volume 2: Theaetetus; Sophist, 1921. Volume 3: The Statesman; Philebus; Ion, 1925. Volume 4: Laches; Protagoras; Meno; Euthydemus, 1924. Volume 5: Lysis; Symposium; Gorgias, 1925. Volume 6: Cratylus; Parmenides; Greater Hippias; Lesser Hippias, 1926. Volume 7: Timaeus; Critias; Cleitophon; Menexenus; Epistles, 1929. Volume 8: Charmides; Alcibiades I and II; Hipparchus; The Lovers; The Ages; Minos; Epinomis, 1927. Volumes 9–10: The Laws, 1926.
The Republic. With an English translation by Paul Shorey. 2 vols. The Loeb Classical Library. London: Heinemann; New York: Putnam, 1930–1935.
AristotlePolitics. With an English translation. London: Heinemann; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1959.
Bluck, Richard S. H. (1949) 1951 Plato’s Life andThought. Boston: Beacon.
Burnet, John 1928 Platonism. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
Cherniss, Harold F. (1945) 1962 The Riddle of the Early Academy. New York: Russell.
Cherniss, Harold F. 1959–1960 Plato (1950–1957). 2 parts. Lustrum, Nos. 4–5. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Chroust, Anton-Herman 1962 Plato’s Detractors in Antiquity Review of Metaphysics 16:98–118.
Crossman, R. H. S. (1937) 1959 Plato Today. 2d ed. London: Allen & Unwin; New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Demos, Raphael 1939 The Philosophy of Plato. New York and London: Scribner.
Dodds, Eric R. 1951 The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. → A paperback edition was published in 1963.
Field, Guy C. 1930 Plato and His Contemporaries: A Study in Fourth-century Life and Thought. London: Methuen.
Fite, Warner 1934 The Platonic Legend. New York and London: Scribner.
FriedlÅnder, Paul (1928–1930) 1958–1964 Plato. 2 vols. New York: Pantheon.
Gomperz, Theodor (1896–1909)1955 Greek Thinkers: A History of Ancient Philosophy. 4 vols. New York: Humanities Press. → First published in German. See especially volumes 2 and 3.
Grote, George (1865) 1888 Plato, and the Other Companions of Sokrates. 2d ed. 4 vols. London: Murray.
Kelsen, Hans 1942 Platonic Love. American Imago 3:3–110.
Kelsen, Hans 1957 What Is Justice? Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press. → See especially pages 82–109, “Platonic Justice.”
KoyrÉ, Alexandre 1945 Discovering Plato. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. → A paperback edition was published in 1960.
Levinson, Ronald B. 1953 In Defense of Plato. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press.
Lodge, Rupert C. 1956 The Philosophy of Plato. London: Routledge.
Meyer, Eduard (1884–1902) 1953–1958 Geschichte des Altertums. 4th ed. 5 vols. Stuttgart (Germany): Cotta.
Morrow, Glenn R. 1939a Plato and Greek Slavery. Mind New Series 48:186–201.
Morrow, Glenn R. 1939b Plato’s Law of Slavery in Its Relation to Greek Law. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
Morrow, Glenn R. 1960 Plato’s Cretan City: A Historical Interpretation of The Laws. Princeton Univ. Press.
Popper, Karl R. (1945) 1963 The Open Society and Its Enemies. 4th rev. & enl. ed. 2 vols. Princeton Univ. Press. → Volume 1: The Spell of Plato. Volume 2: The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath.
Popper, Karl R. (1960) 1963 On the Sources of Knowledge and of Ignorance. Pages 3–30 in Karl R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. New York: Basic Books; London: Routledge.
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"Plato." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045000949.html
"Plato." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045000949.html
Plato (427?–347 B.C.E.)
PLATO (427?–347 B.C.E.)
Plato (427?–347 b.c.e.) was a prominent Athenian philosopher who posed fundamental questions about education, human nature, and justice.
A student of the famous philosopher Socrates, Plato left Athens upon his mentor's death in 399 b.c.e. After traveling to other parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily, Plato returned to Athens in 387 b.c.e. and founded a school of mathematics and philosophy called the Academy, which became the most prominent intellectual institution in all of ancient Greece. Plato authored a number of dialogues that often depicted Socrates engaging in the educational mode of dialectic. Like his mentor, Plato suspected that most people did not know what they claimed to know, and hence wondered why rigorous qualifications for rulers did not exist. Challenging the Sophists' claims that knowledge and truth were relative to the perspective of each individual, Plato developed an epistemology and metaphysics that suggested an absolute truth that could only be gleaned through rigorous self-examination and the development of reason–skills crucial for enlightened political leaders.
The Ideal State
Plato's educational ideas derived in part from his conception of justice, both for individuals and for the ideal state. He viewed individuals as mutually dependent for their survival and well-being, and he proposed that justice in the ideal state was congruent with justice in the individual's soul.
Plato's ideal state was a republic with three categories of citizens: artisans, auxiliaries, and philosopher-kings, each of whom possessed distinct natures and capacities. Those proclivities, moreover, reflected a particular combination of elements within one's tripartite soul, composed of appetite, spirit, and reason. Artisans, for example, were dominated by their appetites or desires, and therefore destined to produce material goods. Auxiliaries, a class of guardians, were ruled by spirit in their souls and possessed the courage necessary to protect the state from invasion. Philosopher-kings, the leaders of the ideal state, had souls in which reason reigned over spirit and appetite, and as a result possessed the foresight and knowledge to rule wisely. In Plato's view, these rulers were not merely elite intellectuals, but moral leaders. In the just state, each class of citizen had a distinct duty to remain faithful to its determined nature and engage solely in its destined occupation. The proper management of one's soul would yield immediate happiness and well-being, and specific educational methods would cultivate this brand of spiritual and civic harmony.
The Dialectical Method
Plato's educational priorities also reflected his distinct pedagogy. Challenging the Sophists–who prized rhetoric, believed in ethical and epistemological relativism, and claimed to teach "excellence"–Plato argued that training in "excellence" was meaningless without content and that knowledge was absolute, certain, and good. As a result, teachers assumed a high moral responsibility. Plato doubted whether a standard method of teaching existed for all subjects, and he argued that morally neutral education would corrupt most citizens. He preferred the dialectical method over the Sophists' rhetorical pedagogy. For Plato, the role of the teacher was not to fill an empty reservoir with specific skills, but to encourage the student to redirect his or her soul and to rearrange the priorities within it to allow reason to rule over the irrational elements of spirit and appetite.
In the Meno, Plato examined a paradox that challenged the dialectical method of education: if one knows nothing, then how will one come to recognize knowledge when he encounters it? In response, Plato's Socrates proposed a different idea. Through a geometry lesson with a slave boy, he attempted to demonstrate that all possessed some minimal knowledge that served as a window into one's eternal and omniscient soul. Through dialectic, the teacher could refute the student's false opinions until the student pursued a true opinion that survived the rigors of critical examination. Unacquainted with the storehouse of knowledge in one's soul, a person needed to learn how to access or "recollect" it. Plato distanced himself further from the Sophists by distinguishing knowledge (eternal and certain) from opinion (unreliable and ephemeral).
Plato developed this idea more fully in the Republic, declaring knowledge superior to opinion in both an epistemological and ontological sense. Opinion reflected a misapprehension of reality, while knowledge belonged to an essential or "intelligible" realm. In particular, Plato proposed a linear hierarchy of knowledge starting with the "visible" realms of imagination and then belief, and moving to the "intelligible" realms of reason, and ultimately, knowledge. In his celebrated cave metaphor, Plato's Socrates depicted chained prisoners, who presumed shadows of representations cast by artificial light to be real. The first step of education, then, was to turn one's soul away from this artificial world of shadows and toward the representations of objects and ideas themselves–leading one to the realm of belief. The objects of belief, however, were still empirical, and thus, ephemeral, relative, and unreliable. Beyond the cave lay the intelligible realm of reason and knowledge. Plato asserted that ideas did not possess any physical qualities, and to ascend beyond the world of tangible objects and ideas, one needed to develop the power of abstract thinking through the use of postulates to draw conclusions about the universal essence or "form" of an object or idea. Mathematics constituted a particularly useful tool for the development of reason, as it relied heavily on logic and abstract thought. The ultimate stage of awareness for Plato was knowledge of the "form of the good"–a transcendence of all postulates and assumptions through abstract reasoning that yielded a certain and comprehensive understanding of all things.
Plato also made clear that not all citizens of the ideal state possessed the same capacity to realize the "form of the good." As a result, he proposed distinct educational programs for future artisans, auxiliaries, and philosopher-kings. Plato favored mathematics as a precise and abstract model for the development of thought in the future rulers of the just state. Knowledge, however, could only be attained through the use of dialectic to shed all assumptions and to glean the first principle of all, the "form of the good." After many years of mathematical and dialectical study, followed by fifteen years of public service, the best of this group would have come to understand the "form of the good" and have become philosopher-kings. Cognizant of the interrelationship of all things and confident of the reasons behind them, the intellectually and morally elite would be equipped to rule the just state in an enlightened manner.
The Cultivation of Morals
In addition, Plato advocated the removal of all infants from their natural families to receive a proper aesthetic education–literary, musical, and physical–for the development of character in the soul and the cultivation of morals necessary for sustaining the just state. Suspecting that most writers and musicians did not know the subjects they depicted–that they cast mere shadows of representations of real objects, ideas, and people–Plato feared that artistic works could endanger the health of the just state. Consequently, he wanted to hold artists and potential leaders accountable for the consequences of their creations and policies. This is why Plato advocated the censorship of all forms of art that did not accurately depict the good in behavior. Art, as a powerful medium that threatened the harmony of the soul, was best suited for philosophers who had developed the capacity to know and could resist its dangerous and irrational allures. Exposure to the right kinds of stories and music, although not sufficient to make a citizen beautiful and good, would contribute to the proper development of the elements within one's soul. For Plato, aesthetics and morality were inextricable; the value of a work of art hinged on its propensity to lead to moral development and behavior.
A Less-Ideal State
In the Laws, Plato considered the possibility that not only the majority, but all citizens could be incapable of reaching the "form of the good." He thus envisioned a second-best state with rulers ignorant of the "form of the good" but capable of thought. Such a society had absolute and unyielding rulers who eradicated any idea or thing that questioned their authority. Acting as if they possessed wisdom, such leaders established laws that reflected their opinions and their imperfect conception of the good.
Contemporary advocates of popular democracy have criticized Plato's republican scheme as elitist and tyrannical in prizing order over individual liberty. Indeed, Plato believed that individuals could not stand alone, and as most would never reach internal harmony or virtue, the majority needed to be told how to conduct its life by those who possessed that knowledge. Incapable of understanding the reasons behind the laws, most citizens needed merely to obey them.
Some scholars have also questioned Plato's treatment of women in his just state. For instance, Jane Roland Martin has argued that although he did not differentiate education or societal roles on the basis of sex, Plato was not committed to gender equality. Despite his abolition of the family, gender distinctions would have likely persisted, as Plato did not seek to ensure the equal portrayal of men and women in literature. According to this view, Plato's female guardians-in-training warranted a distinct education from men to help mitigate the cultural, symbolic, and epistemological assumptions of female subordination. Identical education, then, did not necessarily constitute equal education, a point that holds significant implications for contemporary assumptions about the effects of coeducation.
These criticisms illustrate the longevity of Plato's educational, metaphysical, and ethical ideas. In addition, other scholars have eschewed the tendency to evaluate the modern implications of Plato's specific educational doctrines, and instead have highlighted his assumption that education could address fundamental social problems. They view Plato's method of inquiry–critical self-examination through the dialectical interplay of teacher and student–as his primary contribution to educational thought. Indeed, perhaps education itself embodied the highest virtue of Plato's just state.
See also: Philosophy of Education.
Barrow, Robin. 1976. Plato and Education. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Blankenship, J. David. 1996. "Education and the Arts in Plato's Republic. " Journal of Education 178:67–98.
Martin, Jane Roland. 1985. Reclaiming a Conversation: The Ideal of the Educated Woman. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Parry, Richard D. 1996. "Morality and Happiness: Book IV of Plato's Republic. " Journal of Education 178:31–47.
Plato. 1976. Meno, trans. G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
Plato. 1976. Protagoras, trans. C. C. W. Taylor. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Plato. 1980. The Laws of Plato, trans. Thomas L. Pangle. New York: Basic Books.
Plato. 1992. Republic, trans. G. M. A. Grube and rev. C. D. C. Reeve. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
Scolnicov, Samuel. 1988. Plato's Metaphysics of Education. London and New York: Routledge.
Sevan G. Terzian
TERZIAN, SEVAN G.. "Plato (427?–347 B.C.E.)." Encyclopedia of Education. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3403200492.html
TERZIAN, SEVAN G.. "Plato (427?–347 B.C.E.)." Encyclopedia of Education. 2002. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3403200492.html
In his written dialogues, Plato developed accounts of knowledge, reality, humanity, society, goodness, God, and beauty. Usually, when people speak of Platonism, they are referring to his theory of Forms, accompanied by a doctrine of the immortality of the soul and values that transcend power, prestige, and pleasure. Western thought has developed either by following and adapting his accounts or by reacting to them, either directly or indirectly through, most notably, Aristotle, Plotinus, Philo, and Augustine. The theory of Forms established the most basic concept of science as it came to be practiced in Europe, namely, that science aims to discover objective principles, in other words, "Forms." Plato's doctrine of the immortality of the soul and values that transcend the material world have reinforced and shaped systematic thinking within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Life and times
Plato (428–347 b.c.e.) was born in Athens to a rich and politically powerful family. Instead of taking his place in the ruling class, he became a philosopher. He founded the Academy and invented a new form of literature, the dramatic dialogue. His dialogues, featuring the philosopher Socrates (469–399 b.c.e.), have profoundly shaped history, in a way comparable to the writings of Paul about Jesus.
Plato chose philosophy because he fell under the spell of Socrates as a young man while witnessing the horrors of political life in his time and city. At the time of Plato's birth, Athens, a city-state in Greece, was the world's first democracy, inventing such wonders as trial by jury, as well as some of the greatest sculpture, architecture, and drama of any age. But during this time of extraordinary human achievement, the wisest man of all, as confirmed by a religious oracle, was one who professed to have no wisdom at all: Socrates. Socrates would closely question people who professed to know politics, religion, or any deep wisdom about life, and he would show that their pretenses to wisdom were false. Socrates would also use his chains of questions to lead anyone who would speak with him to agree human excellence was exclusively a matter of wisdom, and that the search for wisdom was the best way to spend one's life.
Plato was fascinated by Socrates and joined other young men in spending time in his company. At the same time Plato observed how demagogues led Athens to prolong its Peloponnesian War (431–404 b.c.e.) against Sparta, a war that ended in utter defeat for Athens. The Spartans installed an antidemocratic government that included members of Plato's family. This government ruled murderously, but briefly, until a citizens' armed rebellion restored the democracy, although Athens's empire and military preeminence were gone forever. Under this same democracy, just a couple of years later (399 b.c.e.), a religiously conservative prosecutor brought Socrates to trial on charges of atheism, heresy, and corrupting the young. The jury found Socrates guilty and sentenced him to death. It is no wonder that Plato became disillusioned with a life aimed at political rule, and decided instead to devote his life to developing Socrates's ideas.
Plato spent his time in private conversations with friends about Socrates' ideas, honoring his memory by continuing to seek wisdom. Some of these friends were Pythagoreans. Pythagoras lived about a hundred years before Plato in Greek colonies in the south of Italy. According to reports, Pythagoras had supernatural powers and formed a religious school of followers. He believed that human souls are reincarnated in animal and human bodies. Pythagoras also was aware of the mathematical structure of musical harmony and believed that numbers provide the explanation of all the order in the universe. Plato traveled to southern Italy a couple of times in his life, at least in part because of his interest in Pythagoras. In his written dialogues, Plato developed Pythagorean as well as Socratic ideas. Plato also followed Pythagoras in forming a school, which became known as the Academy.
Next to nothing is known of the way the Academy was run, but a great deal is known about Plato's writings, since all of his dialogues have survived. The dialogues present at least three different theoretical systems, probably from Plato's early, middle, and late periods, though any such dating is speculative and controversial. The early dialogues focus on ethical issues, and usually end with the speakers admitting their ignorance. For example, in the Laches the question is "What is courage?" in the Euthyphro "What is reverence?" in the Charmides "What is moderation?" in the Lysis "What is a friend?" and in the Protagoras "How are the virtues alike?" Though the arguments are inconclusive, they give an account of virtue as purely a matter of intellect, which is contrary to the widespread belief, then and now, that virtue requires proper desires or a good will in addition to technical know-how.
The middle and late dialogues end with the speakers reaching positive conclusions that are not limited to ethics. In the middle dialogues, such as the Phaedo, Symposium, Phaedrus, and Republic, Plato uses arguments to prove, as well as myths and metaphors to embellish, an account of the soul as having three parts: reason, which aims at truth; emotion, which seeks social values such as prestige; and desire, which aims at material satisfaction. This soul is immortal and destined to enjoy the beauty of divine objects that are not seen with the senses but understood, in much the way one understands mathematics with the intellect. It is the nature of these souls to be constantly reincarnated into various human and animal bodies. The process of reincarnation disorients the soul and makes it believe that sense objects are the only realities. Proper reflection on human crafts and sciences, as reflected in the use of language, enables human souls to recognize ultimate reality. The crucial turning point comes when one realizes that all well-made or beautiful or good objects share the same qualities or structure or Form. For example, it is not by sensory perception of particular beds that an expert carpenter or engineer designs and builds a bed, but by an intellectual recognition of what function beds are meant to perform. When the soul recognizes the reality of the Forms, and turns away from the senses towards such intellectual, math-like reasoning, it begins its path towards salvation. The soul achieves salvation by recognizing that the realm of Forms, not the material world, is true reality, so that one's desires for bodily and social goods cease to attach the soul to the material world, with the result that, at death, the soul is not drawn back into another body but ascends to the realm of the gods, if only for a limited time.
In the Timaeus, perhaps his most influential contribution to the dialogue between science and religion, Plato extends this account to general cosmology, explaining the design in the visible world by referring to a divine craftworker who fashioned the whole (by referring to Formal reality, of course) and insured its proper function by making it a living thing with a soul. Plato begins the tradition of perfect-being theology, which argues that God must be perfect, hence good, unchanging, eternal, and so on. In the later dialogues, beginning with the Parmenides, Plato raises problems with his theory of Forms, leading him not to abandon it but to abandon his middle period confidence that the Forms are simple enough that human minds can unmistakably know them without possibility of error.
Plato's influence on science and religion is probably greater than any other single person's. He lived at a time when there was no sharp distinction between the methods of religion and of science, and he was early enough in the history of western civilization to cast his shadow over the development of western science and religion. His influence on science is largely through Aristotle, who accepted with modifications Plato's view that the world can be explained in terms of form and matter and teleology, that is, the function objects are designed to perform. These categories dominated, and perhaps stifled, scientific thinking until the scientific revolution of the 1600s, when mathematical advances allowed scientists to try to explain the laws of nature in purely mechanistic terms (of particles pushing and pulling particles). Even in that revolution, Plato's influence continued. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) used Plato's method of writing dialogues in the great debate between Ptolemaic and Copernican world systems to challenge the weight of religious authority by appeal to the light of reason.
Plato's influence on religion is even more profound. Philo (c. 20 b.c.e.–c. 50 c.e.) attempted to explain Jewish religion in Platonist terms and set a model that would be followed by Christians. In the three centuries after the death of Jesus, Christians had to choose between different interpretations of their faith as found in their sacred writings. As they worked to establish a biblical canon and creeds, they found themselves engaging in discussions shaped by Plato's and Aristotle's metaphysical and theological ideas. Some of these early writers, such as Tertullian (c. 160–c. 225), deplored any attempt to produce a platonic Christianity. Others, such as Origen (c. 185–c. 254), used platonic reasoning to defend the faith in a manner that would be followed by Augustine of Hippo (354–430), who in turn influenced all later Christian theology. Christian apologists appealed to platonic arguments to show that God exists and is perfectly good, that God designed the world, and that human beings have immortal souls. Then they supplemented these arguments with revelations from scripture. While critics of Christianity's Hellenization continue to this day, orthodox Christianity remains in the mold of perfect-being theology, and apologists continue to use platonic arguments.
See also Aristotle; Augustine; Christianity; Galileo Galilei; Idealism; Judaism; Soul; Teleology
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tarnas, richard. the passion of the western mind. new york: harmony books, 1991.
george h. rudebusch
RUDEBUSCH, GEORGE H.. "Plato." Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200399.html
RUDEBUSCH, GEORGE H.. "Plato." Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. 2003. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200399.html
The Greek philosopher Plato (428-347 B.C.) founded the Academy, one of the great philosophical schools of antiquity. His thought had enormous impact on the development of Western philosophy.
Plato was born in Athens, the son of Ariston and Perictione, both of Athenian aristocratic ancestry. He lived his whole life in Athens although he traveled to Sicily and southern Italy on several occasions, and one story says he traveled to Egypt. Little is known of his early years, but he was given the finest education Athens had to offer the scions of its noble families, and he devoted his considerable talents to politics and the writing of tragedy and other forms of poetry. His acquaintance with Socrates altered the course of his life. The compelling power which Socrates's methods and arguments had over the minds of the youth of Athens gripped Plato as firmly as it did so many others, and he became a close associate of Socrates.
The end of the Peloponnesian War (404 B.C.) left Plato in an irreconcilable position. His uncle, Critias, was the leader of the Thirty Tyrants who were installed in power by the victorious Spartans. One means of perpetuating themselves in power was to implicate as many Athenians as possible in their atrocious acts. Thus Socrates, as we learn in Plato's Apology, was ordered to arrest a man and bring him to Athens from Salamis for execution. When the great teacher refused, his life was in jeopardy, and he was probably saved only by the overthrow of the Thirty and the reestablishment of the democracy.
Plato was repelled by the aims and methods of the Thirty and welcomed the restoration of the democracy, but his mistrust of the whimsical demos was deepened some 4 years later when Socrates was tried on trumped up charges and sentenced to death. Plato was present at the trial, as we learn in the Apology, but was not present when the hemlock was administered to his master, although he describes the scene in vivid and touching detail in the Phaedo. He then turned in disgust from contemporary Athenian politics and never took an active part in government, although through friends he did try to influence the course of political life in the Sicilian city of Syracuse.
Plato and several of his friends withdrew from Athens for a short time after Socrates's death and remained with Euclides in Megara. His productive years were punctuated by three voyages to Sicily, and his literary output, all of which has survived, may conveniently be discussed within the framework of those voyages.
The first trip, to southern Italy and Syracuse, took place in 388-387 B.C., when Plato made the acquaintance of Archytas of Tarentum, the Pythagorean, and Dion of Syracuse and his infamous brother-in-law, Dionysius I, ruler of that city. Dionysius was then at the height of his power and prestige in Sicily for having freed the Greeks there from the threat of Carthaginian overlordship. Plato became better friends with Dion, however, and Dionysius's rather callous treatment of his Athenian guest may be ascribed to the jealously which that close friendship aroused. On Plato's return journey to Athens, Dionysius's crew deposited him on the island of Aegina, which at that time was engaged in a minor war with Athens, and Plato might have been sold as a prisoner of war had he not been ransomed by Anniceris of Cyrene, one of his many admirers.
On his return to Athens, Plato began to teach in the Gymnasium Academe and soon afterward acquired property nearby and founded his famous Academy, which survived until the philosophical schools were closed by the Christian emperor Justinian in the early 6th century A.D. At the center of the Academy stood a shrine to the Muses, and at least one modern scholar suggests that the Academy may have been a type of religious brotherhood. Plato had begun to write the dialogues, which came to be the hallmark of his philosophical exposition, some years before the founding of the Academy. To this early period, before the first trip to Sicily, belong the Laches, Charmides, Euthyphro, Lysis, Protagoras, Hippias Minor, Ion, Hippias Major, Apology, Crito, and Gorgias. Socrates is the main character in these dialogues, and various abstractions are discussed and defined. The Laches deals with courage, Charmides with sophrosyne (common sense), Euthyphro with piety, Lysis with friendship, Protagoras with the teaching of arete (virtue), and so on. The Apology and Crito stand somewhat apart from the other works of this group in that they deal with historical events, Socrates's trial and the period between his conviction and execution. The unifying element in all of these works is the figure of Socrates and his rather negative function in revealing the fallacies in the conventional treatment of the topics discussed.
Plato's own great contributions begin to appear in the second group of writings, which date from the period between his first and second voyages to Sicily. To this second group belong the Meno, Cratylus, Euthydemus, Menexenus, Symposium, Phaedo, Republic, Phaedrus, Parmenides, and Theaetetus. Development of ideas in the earlier dialogues is discernible in these works. The Meno carries on the question of the teachability of virtue first dealt with in Protagoras and introduces the doctrine of anamnesis (recollection), which plays an important role in Plato's view of the human's ability to learn the truth. Since the soul is immortal and has at an earlier stage contemplated the Forms, or Ideas, which are the eternal and changeless truths of the universe, humans do not learn, but remember.
The impetus for learning or remembering the truth is revealed in the Symposium, where the ascent from corporeal reality to eternal and incorporeal truth is described. The scene is a dinner party at the house of the tragic poet Agathon, and each guest contributes a short speech on the god Eros. Socrates, however, cuts through the Sophistic arguments of his friends and praises Eros not as a separate and independent god but as an intermediary between gods and men. It is Eros who causes men to seek beauty, although for a time the unenlightened lover may think that what he is really seeking is the corporeal body of his beloved. Ultimately, however, one progresses from love of the body to love of the beauty which the body represents, and so forth, until one realizes that the ultimate goal sought is contemplation of beauty itself and of the Forms. The Forms are the true reality and impart their essence in some way to ephemeral, corporeal objects, and man may come to know this true reality through rigorous discipline of mind and body, and Plato went so far as to draw up a rough outline for a utopian state in his Republic.
Socrates is again the main character in the Republic, although this work is less a dialogue than a long discussion by Socrates of justice and what it means to the individual and the city-state. The great utopian state is described only as an analogue to the soul in order to understand better how the soul might achieve the kind of balance and harmony necessary for the rational element to control it. Just as there are three elements to the soul, the rational, the less rational, and the impulsive irrational, so there are three classes in the state, the rulers, the guardians, and the workers. The rulers are not a hereditary clan or self-perpetuating upper class but are made up of those who have emerged from the population as a whole as the most gifted intellectually. The guardians serve society by keeping order and by handling the practical matters of government, including fighting wars, while the workers perform the labor necessary to keep the whole running smoothly. Thus the most rational elements of the city-state guide it and see that all in it are given an education commensurate with their abilities.
The wisdom, courage, and moderation cultivated by the rulers, guardians, and workers ideally produce the justice in society which those virtues produce in the individual soul when they are cultivated by the three elements of that soul. Only when the three work in harmony, with intelligence clearly in control, does the individual or state achieve the happiness and fulfillment of which it is capable. The Republic ends with the great myth of Er, in which the wanderings of the soul through births and rebirths are recounted. One may be freed from the cycle after a time through lives of greater and greater spiritual and intellectual purity.
Plato's second trip to Syracuse took place in 367 B.C. after the death of Dionysius I, but his and Dion's efforts to influence the development of Dionysius II along the lines laid down in the Republic for the philosopher-king did not succeed, and he returned to Athens.
Plato's final group of works, written after 367, consists of the Sophist, the Statesman, Philebus, Timaeus, Critias, and the Laws. The Sophist, takes up the metaphysical question of being and not-being, while the Statesman concludes that the best type of city-state would be the one in which the expert is given absolute authority with no hindrance to his rule from laws or constitution. The Timaeus discusses the rationality inherent in the universe which confirms Plato's scheme, while the Laws, Plato's last work, once again takes up the question of the best framework in which society might function for the betterment of its citizens. Here great stress is laid on an almost mystical approach to the great truth of the rational universe.
Plato's third and final voyage to Syracuse was made some time before 357 B.C., and he was no more successful in his attempts to influence the young Dionysius than he had been earlier. Dion fared no better and was exiled by the young tyrant, and Plato was held in semicaptivity before being released. Plato's Seventh Letter, the only one in the collection of 13 considered accurate, perhaps even from the hand of Plato himself, recounts his role in the events surrounding the death of Dion, who in 357 B.C. entered Syracuse and overthrew Dionysius. It is of more interest, however, for Plato's statement that the deepest truths may not be communicated.
Plato died in 347 B.C., the founder of an important philosophical school, which existed for almost 1, 000 years, and the most brilliant of Socrates's many pupils and followers. His system attracted many followers in the centuries after his death and resurfaced as Neoplatonism, the great rival of early Christianity.
A readable translation of the Platonic corpus may be found in the edition by Benjamin Jowett, The Dialogues of Plato (1953), which contains analyses. Special treatments may be found in J. Burnett, Greek Philosophy (1914); A.E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and His Work (1927); and Paul Shorey, What Plato Said (1933). □
"Plato." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404705165.html
"Plato." Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404705165.html
Plato (427-348 B.C.E.)
Plato (427-348 B.C.E.)
Plato was born into an aristocratic Greek family in the fifth century b.c.e. Like all youngsters of his status, he initially intended to go into politics. In his twenties, he came into the circle of Socrates, who was to be the lasting influence on his thought. After the execution of Socrates on accusations of the corruption of youth, Plato abandoned direct involvement in politics and turned to writing and education. All his works are in the form of dialogues, in most of which the main speaker is Socrates (469-399 b.c.e.). In 385b.c.e. he founded the Academy in Athens, the first known institution of research and higher learning in the Greek world, which he headed until the end of his life. Plato deals with childhood in the context of education. He discusses early education mainly in the Republic, written about 385 b.c.e., and in the Laws, his last work, on which he was still at work at the end of his life.
The State as an Educational Entity
Plato saw the state primarily as an educational entity. In the Republic he discusses the principles of a state that is based on knowledge and reason, personified in the philosopher, and not on mere opinion or desire for power. This state is a strict meritocracy, where the citizen body is divided into the functions (commonly but erroneously called "classes") of producers, auxiliaries (in charge of internal and external security), and philosophers, the last two jointly referred to as "guardians." This book is not so much a blueprint for a future state as a standard by which all states are to be measured. The Republic is concerned with the education of the guardians, but in the Laws, where Plato draws up an actual system of laws for a state conforming as much as possible to that standard, the same education is provided to all citizens, according to their abilities.
Plato devotes much attention to the education of the child as a future citizen. As such, he believes that the child belongs to the state and its education is the responsibility of the state (Republic, bk. 2, 376.) Education must be compulsory for all. State funds should pay for gymnasiums and for instructors, officials, and superintendents in charge of education, both cultural and physical (Laws, bk. 7, 764, 804, 813).
Plato is not concerned with training children for a trade but rather with giving them an education in virtue, which is to produce "a keen desire to become a perfect citizen who knows how to rule and be ruled" in turn (Laws, bk. 1, 643). Reason is man's true nature, but it has to be nurtured from childhood by irrational means. Education is thus the correct channeling of pains and pleasures (Laws, bk. 2, 653), aiming at establishing "a nature in which goodness of character has been well and truly established" so as to breed a familiarity with reason (Republic, bk. 3, 398, 401).
Prenatal and infant care . Plato recommends that the care of the soul and body of the child begin even before birth, with walks prescribed for the pregnant woman. The first five years of life see more growth than the next twenty, necessitating frequent and appropriately graduated exercise. Children should be kept well wrapped up for the first two years of life, but they should be taken to the country or on visits. They should be carried until they are old enough to stand on their own feet, which should happen by the age of three, to prevent subjecting their young limbs to too much pressure. The main importance of movement, however, lies in its influence on the early development of a well-balanced soul (Laws, bk. 7, 758-759), and the cultivation of the body is mainly for the soul's sake (Republic, bk. 3, 411).
Storytelling and literature . Storytelling is the main tool for the formation of character in Plato's view, and begins at an earlier age than physical training. Stories should provide models for children to imitate, and as ideas taken in at an early age become indelibly fixed, the creation of fables and legends for children, true or fictional, is to be strictly supervised. Mothers and nurses are not to scare young children with stories of lamentations, monsters, and the horrors of hell, to avoid making cowards of them. That some such stories are enjoyed as good poetry is all the more reason for keeping them away from children (or even grown men) who should be trained to be free and unafraid of death (Republic, bk. 2, 377-383).
Play . Plato believes that a child's character will be formed while he or she plays. One should resort to discipline, but not such as to humiliate the child. There should be neither a single-minded pursuit of pleasure nor an absolute avoidance of pain–not for children and not for expectant mothers (Laws, bk. 7, 792). Luxury makes a child bad-tempered and irritable; unduly savage repression drives children into subserviency and puts them at odds with the world. Children and adults should not imitate base characters when playing or acting, for fear of forming a habit that will become second nature (Republic, bk. 3, 395).
Teachers must provide children with miniature tools of the different trades, so that they can use the children's games to channel their pleasures and desires toward the activities they will engage in when they are adults (Laws, bk. 1, 643). Children are to be brought together for games. The sexes are to be separated at the age of six, but girls too should attend lessons in riding, archery, and all other subjects, like boys. Similarly, both boys and girls should engage in dancing (for developing grace) and wrestling (for developing strength and endurance). Plato attached much importance to children's games: "No one in the state has really grasped that children's games affect legislation so crucially as to determine whether the laws that are passed will survive or not." Change, he maintained, except in something evil, is extremely dangerous, even in such a seemingly inconsequential matter as children's games (Laws, bk. 7, 795-797).
Physical education . "Physical training may take two or three years, during which nothing else can be done; for weariness and sleep are unfavorable to study. At the same time, these exercises will provide not the least important test of character" (Republic, bk. 7, 537). Children who are sturdy enough should go to war as spectators, if one can contrive that they shall do so in safety, so that they can learn, by watching, what they will have to do themselves when they grow up (Republic, bk. 5, 466; bk. 7, 537). Girls should be trained in the same way and learn horseback riding, athletics, and fighting in armor, if only to ensure that if it ever proves necessary the women will be able to defend the children and the rest of the population left behind (Laws, bk. 7, 804-805,813).
Reading and writing, music, arithmetic . In Plato's educational system, a child, beginning at the age of ten, will spend three years on reading, writing, and the poets, and another three learning the lyre, and will study elementary mathematics up to the age of seventeen or eighteen, all with as little compulsion as possible, in order to learn "enough to fight a war and run a house and administer a state" (Republic, bk. 7, 535-541). Neither child nor father are to be allowed to extend or curtail that period, either out of enthusiasm or distaste. Children must work on their letters until they are able to read and write, but any whose natural abilities have not developed sufficiently by the end of the prescribed time to make them into quick or polished performers should not be pressed (Laws, bk. 7, 810). The child's lessons should takethe form of play, and this will also show what they are naturally fit for. Enforced exercise does no harm to the body, but enforced learning will not stay in the mind (Laws, bk. 7, 536).
In the Republic Plato abolishes the family for the guardians, to avoid nepotism and amassing of private wealth (Republic, bk. 5, 464). Wives and children are to be held in common by all, and no parent is to know his own child nor any child his parents–"provided it can be done" (Republic, bk. 5, 457). In the Laws Plato allows family raising for all citizens, with restrictions on child rearing and inheritance (Laws, bk. 5, sec.729). Each family is to have only one heir, to avoid subdivision of the agrarian lots into small parcels. In cases where there is more than one child, the head of the family should marry off the females and the males he must present for adoption to those citizens who have no children of their own–"priority given to personal preferences as far as possible." If too many children are being born, measures should be taken to check the increase in population; and in the opposite case, a high birth-rate can be encouraged and stimulated (Laws, bk. 5, 740).
Plato stands at the fountainhead of Western philosophy. He established its themes and posed its problems. Plato's views on education have greatly influenced educational thought to this day and have become the basis of many educational policies. Such diverse thinkers as Montaigne, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Dewey, John Stuart Mill, Nietzsche, and many others owe much to Plato's direct influence. His view of philosophy as an educational activity and of education as the development of reason, the responsibility of which lies squarely with the state, is still a living educational challenge.
See also: Ancient Greece and Rome; Aristotle.
Marrou, Henri-Irénée. 1956. A History of Education in Antiquity. Trans. George Lamb. New York: Sheed and Ward.
Plato. 1941 [385 b.c.e.]. The Republic of Plato. Trans. Francis Macdonald Cornford. New York: Oxford University Press.
Plato. 1970 [348 b.c.e.]. The Laws. Trans. Trevor J. Saunders. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Scolnicov, Samuel. 1988. Plato's Metaphysics of Education. London: Routledge.
SCOLNICOV, SAMUEL. "Plato (427-348 B.C.E.)." Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3402800329.html
SCOLNICOV, SAMUEL. "Plato (427-348 B.C.E.)." Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society. 2004. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3402800329.html
Plato 427–347 BCE
Plato 427–347 BCE
Plato was born in Athens in 427 bce just as the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta was beginning. His mother was related to one of the oligarchs who ruled Athens after the Spartan victory in 404 bce, and his father died when Plato was very young. The most important shaping influence in Plato’s early life, however, was the philosopher Socrates (469–399 bce). Plato was among the young men of Athens who regularly engaged Socrates in dialogue and who took the Socratic challenge to “know thyself” very seriously. Plato, then twenty-eight, was present at the trial of Socrates, an event that clearly made a deep and lasting impression on Plato and which is reflected in all of his work. Socrates is widely regarded as the hero of the Platonic dialogues, a literary form that Plato preferred for most of his works. Following Socrates’ death, Plato traveled throughout Italy, Sicily, and parts of northern Africa before returning to Athens, where he founded the Academy in about 387 bce. Among Plato’s pupils there, for twenty years, was Aristotle (384–322 bce). Late in life, Plato traveled to Syracuse to educate and inspire a new young king, Dionysius II, though the attempt ended in failure. Plato died in Athens in 347 bce at the age of eighty-one.
Among the more famous of Plato’s dialogues are the Apology, Crito, and Euthyphro, on the trial and death of Socrates; the Gorgias, which explores the way of life of the sophist; the Symposium, which focuses on love and beauty; the Phaedrus, on rhetoric; and the Timaeus, a study of cosmology. Other dialogues of note that are still widely read and studied today are the Meno, Protagoras, Phaedo, Thaetetus, and the Sophist. All of these deal in various ways with Plato’s famous theory of forms, according to which aspects of the physical world, because subject to decay and death, are inferior to eternal forms such as the true, the good, and the beautiful. But Plato’s most famous dialogues, and those that continue to shape international discussion and research in the social sciences, in some measure at least, particularly in political science, are the Republic, the Statesman, and the Laws.
The Republic is considered one of the great works of world literature. It is often referred to as an example of utopian literature, which sketches an ideal polis, or citystate. Such a view distorts, however, what Plato clearly intended as an exploration of what human beings mean when they appeal to justice and to good rule or government. Similarly, the Republic is frequently summarized as an appeal for the rule of philosopher kings. This too obscures, at a minimum, Plato’s belief in gender equality among philosopher rulers, not necessarily kings. Like any classic work, it is difficult to condense and summarize Plato’s Republic. But there are key aspects that may be sketched along the following lines. At the center of Plato’s political theory is a concept of the cardinal virtues. These virtues are moderation, or temperance, courage, wisdom, and justice. Following a procedure according to which the state (city-state) is the human person “writ large,” Plato examines the cardinal virtues both with respect to the individual person and with respect to the larger city-state. Ultimately, a just society for Plato is a society of just persons. And individuals are just according to their capacity with respect to each of the cardinal virtues. Another important concept in the Republic is the three waves, which refer to perennial issues in all societies at all times. These waves represent the issues of gender, property relations, and who should rule. In the dialogue, Socrates argues on behalf of gender equality; for a community of goods and spouses for the guardians of the polis, a group further divided according to warriors (auxiliaries ) and rulers (philosopher rulers ); and for the rule of philosophers. A full measure of justice is possible for Plato only when philosophers become rulers or rulers become philosophers.
Perhaps the most famous passages in the Republic are those that present the allegories of the divided line, from Book VI, and the cave, from Book VII. According to the divided line, human consciousness develops well or poorly according to a progression from imagination, to belief, to understanding, to reason based on consciousness of the good. This same progression is illustrated in the famous cave allegory, where we must imagine human beings chained and facing a cave wall, see them believe in the images projected on that wall from a fire behind their backs, understand that there might be more to reality than what such images suggest to the cave dwellers, and have the courage and capacity, unlike most of those in the cave, to turn around, see the drama to our backs, and theirs, and make our way out of the cave to a transcendent reality that, for Plato, must ultimately inform human reason. These allegories come toward the end of the Republic and summarize and condense what is explored through dialogue in the previous five books (chapters). Toward the end of the dialogue, Plato presents his thoughts on declining forms and censorship. According to the first, regime forms decay over time, such as from aristocracy (rule of the virtuous), to timocracy (rule of those who love honors), to oligarchy (rule of the wealthy), to democracy (rule of those who love freedom), to tyranny (rule of the lustful despot). The final book, Book X, explores the role of the artist in society, among other topics, and the need for some form of censorship.
The Statesman and the Laws represent significant departures from Plato’s views and style of presentation in the Republic. In the Statesman, for example, an outsider from Elea takes the place of Socrates as the primary spokesperson and the dialogue form is all but abandoned. More significantly, Plato emphasizes a rule of law, or legal codes, as preferable to the rule of philosophers. This shift of emphasis in the Statesman puts Plato more in the tradition of constitutional democracy, with its emphasis on well-constructed constitutions and institutions, characteristic of modern and postmodern approaches to the science of politics. Yet, in the Laws, among Plato’s last works, which otherwise places a similar emphasis on the need for good laws, one encounters a nocturnal council that would be the final authority in the city-state. Many critics point to this dimension of Plato’s work to support the idea that Plato was ultimately something of a totalitarian.
The twentieth-century philosopher Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) once famously observed that the European philosophical tradition could be characterized as but a “series of footnotes to Plato.” Though his influence is not as great in the modern social sciences, there is continuing debate, especially among theorists within the discipline of political science, regarding Plato’s insights on the role of intellectuals in society; the role of government in promoting excellence, or virtue; the educative function of the state; gender relations; property relations; the role of religion in the state, if any; and the perennial question regarding who should rule and why. And these are but a few of the modern issues regarding which Plato’s works continue to inspire creative approaches. Some modern scholars, most famously Karl Popper (1902–1994), see in Plato’s political theory the seeds of modern tyranny and closed societies. Others, such as John H. Hallowell (1913–1991), Eric Voegelin (1901–1985), and James M. Rhodes, see a more balanced and humane approach to the study and practice of politics. Because of his depth of insight and his creative approach to the perennial issues of human beings in their social and political dimensions beyond temporal and cultural considerations, Plato and his legacy will continue to be debated among scholars in all of the modern social sciences into the distant future.
Hallowell, John H. 1965. Plato and his Critics. The Journal of Politics 27 (2): 273–289.
Popper, Karl R. 1966. The Spell of Plato. Vol. 1: The Open Society and Its Enemies. 5th rev. ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rhodes, James M. 2003. Eros, Wisdom, and Silence: Plato’s Erotic Dialogues. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
Strauss, Leo. 1964. The City and Man. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Voegelin, Eric. 2000. Plato and Aristotle. Pt. 1: Plato. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
"Plato 427–347 BCE." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045301955.html
"Plato 427–347 BCE." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045301955.html
The Greek philosopher Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the great philosophical schools of antiquity (ancient times). His thought had enormous impact on the development of Western (having to do with American and European thought) philosophy.
Plato was born in Athens, Greece, the son of Ariston and Perictione, both of Athenian noble backgrounds. He lived his whole life in Athens, although he traveled to Sicily and southern Italy on several occasions. One story says he traveled to Egypt. Little is known of his early years, but he was given the finest education Athens had to offer noble families, and he devoted his considerable talents to politics and the writing of tragedy (works that end with death and sadness) and other forms of poetry. His acquaintance with Socrates (c. 469–c. 399 b.c.e.) altered the course of his life. The power that Socrates's methods and arguments had over the minds of the youth of Athens gripped Plato as firmly as it did many others, and he became a close associate of Socrates.
The end of the Peloponnesian War (431–04 b.c.e.), which caused the destruction of Athens by the Spartans, left Plato in a terrible position. His uncle, Critias (c. 480–403 b.c.e.), was the leader of the Thirty Tyrants (a group of ruthless Athenian rulers) who were installed in power by the victorious Spartans. One means of holding onto power was to connect as many Athenians as possible with terrible acts committed during the war. Thus Socrates, as we learn in Plato's Apology, was ordered to arrest a man and bring him to Athens from Salamis for execution (to be put to death). When the great teacher refused, his life was threatened, and he was probably saved only by the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants and the reestablishment of the democracy (a system of government in which government officials are elected by the people).
Death of Socrates
Plato welcomed the restoration of the democracy, but his mistrust was deepened some four years later when Socrates was tried on false charges and sentenced to death. Plato was present at the trial, as we learn in the Apology, but was not present when the hemlock (poison) was given to his master, although he describes the scene in clear and touching detail in the Phaedo. He then turned in disgust from Athenian politics and never took an active part in government, although through friends he did try to influence the course of political life in the Sicilian city of Syracuse.
Plato and several of his friends withdrew from Athens for a short time after Socrates's death and remained with Euclides (c. 450–373 b.c.e.) in Megara. His productive years were highlighted by three voyages to Sicily, and his writings, all of which have survived.
The first trip, to southern Italy and Syracuse, took place in 388 and 387 b.c.e., when Plato met Dionysius I (c. 430–367 b.c.e.). Dionysius was then at the height of his power in Sicily for having freed the Greeks there from the threat of Carthaginian rule. Plato became better friends with the philosopher Dion (c. 408–353 b.c.e.), however, and Dionysius grew jealous and began to treat Plato harshly.
When Plato returned to Athens, he began to teach in the Gymnasium Academe and soon afterward acquired property nearby and founded his famous Academy, which survived until the early sixth century c.e. At the center of the Academy stood a shrine to the Muses (gods of the arts), and at least one modern scholar suggests that the Academy may have been a type of religious brotherhood.
Plato had begun to write the dialogues (writings in the form of conversation), which came to be the basis of his philosophical (having to do with the search for knowledge and truth) teachings, some years before the founding of the Academy. To this early period Plato wrote the Laches which deals with courage, Charmides with common sense, Euthyphro with piety (religious dedication), Lysis with friendship, Protagoras with the teaching of virtues, or goodness, and many others. The Apology and Crito stand somewhat apart from the other works of this group in that they deal with historical events, Socrates's trial and the period between his conviction and execution.
Plato's own great contributions begin to appear in the second group of writings, which date from the period between his first and second voyages to Sicily. The Meno carries on the question of the teachability of virtue first dealt with in Protagoras and introduces the teaching of anamnesis (recollection), which plays an important role in Plato's view of the human's ability to learn the truth.
Socrates is again the main character in the Republic, although this work is less a dialogue than a long discussion by Socrates of justice and what it means to the individual and the city-state (independent states). Just as there are three elements to the soul, the rational, the less rational, and the impulsive irrational, so there are three classes in the state, the rulers, the guardians, and the workers. The rulers are not a family of rulers but are made up of those who have emerged from the population as a whole as the most gifted intellectually. The guardians serve society by keeping order and by handling the practical matters of government, including fighting wars, while the workers perform the labor necessary to keep the whole running smoothly. Thus the most rational elements of the city-state guide it and see that all in it are given an education equal to their abilities.
Only when the three work in harmony, with intelligence clearly in control, does the individual or state achieve the happiness and fulfillment of which it is capable. The Republic ends with the great myth of Er, in which the wanderings of the soul through births and rebirths are retold. One may be freed from the cycle after a time through lives of greater and greater spiritual and intellectual purity.
Plato's third and final voyage to Syracuse was made some time before 357 b.c.e., and he tried for the second time to influence the young Dionysius II. Plato was unsuccessful and was held in semicaptivity before being released. Plato's Seventh Letter, the only one in the collection of thirteen considered accurate, perhaps even from the hand of Plato himself, recounts his role in the events surrounding the death of Dion, who in 357 b.c.e. entered Syracuse and overthrew Dionysius. It is of more interest, however, for Plato's statement that the deepest truths may not be communicated.
Plato died in 347 b.c.e. the founder of an important philosophical school, which existed for almost one thousand years, and the most brilliant of Socrates's many pupils and followers. His system attracted many followers in the centuries after his death and resurfaced as Neoplatonism, the great rival of early Christianity.
For More Information
Kahn, Charles H. Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Shorey, Paul. What Plato Said. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933.
"Plato." UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2003. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3437500616.html
"Plato." UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2003. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3437500616.html
(b. Athens, c. 427 BCE.; d. Athens, 348/347 BCE)
physics, cosmology, mathematical education; organization of research. For the original article on Plato see DSB, vol. 11.
One task (although emphatically not the only one) of the DSB original entry was to help the reader judge Plato’s contribution to scientific thought, with a concentration on the mathematical sciences and their strategic role in the philosophical curriculum. In this context, the account of the physical world that Plato offers in the Timaeus is relegated to a subordinate role. This postscript focuses on this account and its contribution to the development of scientific thought.
Plato describes the account of the physical world in the Timaeus as an eikôs muthos or an eikôs logos—that is to say, a likely account, a likely story, or even a myth. What exactly Plato means by this description is open to more than one interpretation. On all interpretations, however, there are distinctively human limitations to what can be said on the topic of the creation of the universe, the nature of the physical world, and the place of humans within it. In other words, one can improve on the account offered in the Timaeus, but one’s account will always remain at best likely. Clearly the limitations that Plato has in mind are not contingent upon historical facts that can eventually be overcome; rather, they have to do with human
nature as well as the nature of the object to be studied, the physical world. Once these limits are acknowledged, the reader is encouraged to engage in the study of the world around us and to produce the best possible account of it.
It is important to situate the Timaeus in the context of the ancient debate on the possibility of the study of nature. In antiquity, there was a philosophical tradition that regarded this study as a vain curiosity, if not a distraction from the care of the soul and the ethical life. In the Memorabilia, for example, Xenophon offers a powerful portrait of Socrates as a champion of this position. This attitude toward the study of nature is often found in the Socratic tradition. In this tradition, the reorientation of philosophy toward ethics is coupled with the emphasis on the limits of human knowledge. This emphasis can be found also in the Timaeus. In this case, however, it does not entail hostility to, or even a rejection of, the empirical sciences. On the contrary, this dialogue offers an account of the physical world, including an account of time, space, matter, and the four elements, as well as human physiology and pathology.
It is mildly surprising to find cosmology and medicine offered as parts of one and the same account. This can be explained by reflecting on the theoretical framework that Plato chose for this account. Plato borrowed this framework from an earlier tradition of writing about the nature of things (the peri physeōs tradition of the sixth and fifth century BCE). In this tradition, the study of the nature of humanity was an essential part of the study of the physical world. Moreover, this study had a narrative character. It did not simply state and explain why the physical world is the way it is; it narrated how the physical world in its present order came into existence. By choosing the narrative method, Plato placed himself in continuity with a tradition going back, ultimately, to early Greek philosophy. This does not necessarily mean that the cosmogonic account offered in the Timaeus has to be taken literally. It is significant that, from very early on, this account was subject to literal as well as non-literal interpretations. On all interpretations, however, the physical world was regarded as the product of a divine craftsman. The task of this divine craftsman was to introduce order into what lacked it. The creation of the physical world was regarded as the result of imposing order on a preexisting matter on the basis of an intelligible model.
The Timaeus can be usefully regarded as Plato’s attempt to reconcile the early investigation of nature with the practical reorientation of philosophy urged by Socrates. But this requires prior clarity about a crucial feature of ancient thought that is no longer shared. The physical world as Plato conceived it is not a value-free world. On the contrary, values are for him part of the furniture of the physical world. The task of the scientist is to attain an understanding of the perfection and goodness of the natural world on the crucial assumption that one can objectively make value judgments about the physical world. In this context, the study of the physical world can provide objective grounds for the view that reason rules over necessity. In light of this conviction, dismissing the study of nature would make it difficult, if not even impossible, to achieve the Socratic goal of caring about the soul.
WORK BY PLATO
Complete Works. Edited by John M. Cooper and Douglas S. Hutchinson. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 1997.
Baltes, Matthias. Die Weltenstehung des platonischen “Timaios” nach den antiken Interpreten. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1976–1978.
Brisson, Luc. Le Même et l’Autre dans la Structure Ontologique du “Timée” de Platon. Sankt Augustin, Germany: Academia Verlag, 1994.
Burnyeat, Myles. “Eikôs Muthos.” Rhizai: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science 2, no. 2(2005):143–165.
Carone, Gabriela Roxana. Plato’s Cosmology and its Ethical Dimensions. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Cornford, Francis MacDonald. Plato’s Cosmology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1937.
Hadot, Pierre. The Veil of Isis: An Essay on the History of the Idea of Nature. Translated by Michael Chase. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006. Johansen, Thomas. Plato’s Natural Philosophy: A Study of the Timaeus-Critias. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press 2004.
Mohr, Richard. The Platonic Cosmology. Leiden: Brill, 1985.
Reydams-Schils, Gretchen. Plato’s Timaeus as Cultural Icon. Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 2003.
Vlastos, Gregory. Plato’s Universe. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975.
"Plato." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830906011.html
"Plato." Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830906011.html
Plato (plā´tō), 427?–347 BC, Greek philosopher. Plato's teachings have been among the most influential in the history of Western civilization.
After pursuing the liberal studies of his day, he became in 407 BC a pupil and friend of Socrates. From about 388 BC he lived for a time at the court of Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse. On his return to Athens, Plato founded a school, the Academy, where he taught mathematics and philosophy until his death. His teaching was interrupted by two more visits to Syracuse (367 and 361 BC), which he made in the vain hope of seeing his political ideals realized in Sicily.
Works and Philosophy
Plato was a superb writer, and his works are part of the world's great literature. His extant work is in the form of dialogues and epistles. Some of the dialogues and many of the epistles attributed to him are known to be spurious, while others are doubtful. In the various dialogues he touched upon almost every problem that has occupied subsequent philosophers. The dialogues are divided into three groups according to the probable order of composition.
The earliest group of dialogues, called Socratic, include chiefly the Apology, which presents the defense of Socrates; the Meno, which asks whether virtue can be taught; and the Gorgias, which concerns the absolute nature of right and wrong. These early dialogues present Socrates in conversations that illustrate his main ideas—the unity of virtue and knowledge and of virtue and happiness. Each dialogue treats a particular problem without necessarily resolving the issues raised.
Philosophical Themes and Mature Works
Plato was always concerned with the fundamental philosophical problem of working out a theory of the art of living and knowing. Like Socrates, Plato began convinced of the ultimately harmonious structure of the universe, but he went further than his mentor in trying to construct a comprehensive philosophical scheme. His goal was to show the rational relationship between the soul, the state, and the cosmos. This is the general theme of the great dialogues of his middle years: the Republic, Phaedo, Symposium, Phaedrus, Timaeus, and Philebus. In the Republic he shows how the operation of justice within the individual can best be understood through the analogy of the operation of justice within the state, which Plato proceeds to set out in his conception of the ideal state. However, justice cannot be understood fully unless seen in relation to the Idea of the Good, which is the supreme principle of order and truth.
It is in these dialogues that the famous Platonic Ideas (see realism) are discussed. Plato argued for the independent reality of Ideas as the only guarantee of ethical standards and of objective scientific knowledge. In the Republic and the Phaedo he postulates his theory of Forms. Ideas or Forms are the immutable archetypes of all temporal phenomena, and only these Ideas are completely real; the physical world possesses only relative reality. The Forms assure order and intelligence in a world that is in a state of constant flux. They provide the pattern from which the world of sense derives its meaning.
The supreme Idea is the Idea of the Good, whose function and place in the world of Ideas is analogous to that of the sun in the physical world. Plato saw his task as that of leading men to a vision of the Forms and to some sense of the highest good. The principal path is suggested in the famous metaphor of the cave in the Republic, in which man in his uninstructed state is chained in a world of shadows. However, man can move up toward the sun, or highest good, through the study of what Plato calls dialectic. The supreme science, dialectic, is a method of inquiry that proceeds by a constant questioning of assumptions and by explaining a particular idea in terms of a more general one until the ultimate ground of explanation is reached.
The Republic, the first Utopia in literature, asserts that the philosopher is the only one capable of ruling the just state, since through his study of dialectic he understands the harmony of all parts of the universe in their relation to the Idea of the Good. Each social class happily performs the function for which it is suited; the philosopher rules, the warrior fights, and the worker enjoys the fruits of his labor. In the Symposium, perhaps the most poetic of the dialogues, the path to the highest good is described as the ascent by true lovers to eternal beauty, and in the Phaedo the path is viewed as the pilgrimage of the philosopher through death to the world of eternal truth.
Many of the late dialogues are devoted to technical philosophic issues. The most important of these are the Theaetetus; the Parmenides, which deals with the relation between the one and the many; and the Sophist, which discusses the nature of nonbeing. Plato's longest work, the Laws, written during his middle and late periods, discusses in practical terms the nature of the state.
See translation of the dialogues by B. Jowett, ed. by D. J. Allan and H. E. Daley (4 vol., 4th ed., rev. 1953); A. E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and His Work (1927); R. Bambrough, ed., New Essays on Plato and Aristotle (1965); G. Vlastos, Platonic Studies (1973); G. F. Else, Plato and Aristotle on Poetry (1987); Jacob A. Kline, A Commentary on Plato's Meno (1989); C. Hampton, Pleasure, Knowledge, and Being: An Analysis of Plato's Philebus (1990); J. E. G. Evans, A Plato Primer (2010).
"Plato." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Plato.html
"Plato." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2016. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Plato.html
The poet Ralph Waldo Emerson once remarked, "Plato is philosophy and philosophy is Plato" (Emerson 1996, p. 21). No less adulation came from the philosopher Alfred North Whitehead, who claimed that Western philosophy was a "series of footnotes to Plato," (Whitehead 1929, p. 63). These kinds of acclamations give one a sense of the major importance of the thinker originally named Aristocles, who came to be called Plato because of his robust figure. Born into one of the most distinguished families in Athens, Plato (428–348 b.c.e.) seemed destined for a career in politics. This changed mainly because of the influence of his great mentor Socrates (470–399 b.c.e.), who was falsely accused of impiety and corrupting the youth and executed by the state. Becoming distrustful of politics, Plato decided to carry on the philosophical traditions of his mentor. He founded the Academy, considered the first university in Western civilization, and wrote the Dialogues, which continue the eternal questions raised by Socrates.
Plato was especially interested in his mentor's pursuit of real, eternal truths (Justice, Beauty, Goodness), which Plato believed had an existence beyond the mere physical world of flux and change. Accordingly, Plato developed a dualism: There is the physical and changing world (to which the body belongs), and the permanent and immaterial world (to which the mind or soul belongs). The body is then seen as the prisoner and temporary residence of the soul, which has existed before its imprisonment and which will exist again after its release from the body at death. In this way, says Plato, the true philosopher is "always pursuing death and dying" (Emerson 1996, p. 21).
The Dialogues offer a variety of arguments for the immortality of the soul. In the Republic, Plato argues that the soul cannot be destroyed by any inherent evil or by anything external to it. In his Phaedrus he reasons that the soul is its own "selfmoving principle" and is therefore uncreated, eternal, and indestructible. And in the Phaedo a series of arguments are offered based on the cyclical nature of life and death; knowledge the soul could only have gained in a pre-existence; the incorporeal or spiritual nature of the soul; and the view that the soul is the essence and principle of life itself.
The argument regarding the nature of the soul is perhaps the one that gets discussed by scholars most often. If the soul is incorporeal, it is simple or uncomposed (not made up of parts). But death is the decay and corruption of a thing into its elementary parts (decomposition). The soul, therefore, cannot die since an uncomposed entity cannot be decomposed. The logic of this argument is compelling; however, it depends entirely on its key premise: that the soul is spiritual, not corporeal. This is a major point of contention for many, including Plato's greatest student—Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.). Though he firmly believed in the immortality of the soul, Plato never considered his arguments to be conclusive proofs and recognized the need for further discussion and consideration, saying that one can only "arrive at the truth of the matter, in so far as it is possible for the human mind to attain it" (Hamilton and Cairns 1961, p. 107).
See also: Philosophy, Western; Plotinus; Socrates
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. "Plato; or, The Philosopher." Representative Men. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
Friedlander, Paul. Plato: An Introduction. New York: Harper and Row, 1964.
Plato. The Collected Dialogues of Plato, edited and translated by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961.
Whitehead, Alfred North. Process and Reality. New York: Macmillan, 1929.
COONEY, WILLIAM. "Plato." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. 2002. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3407200227.html
COONEY, WILLIAM. "Plato." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. 2002. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3407200227.html
Plato (ca. 428 B.C.–348 B.C.)
Plato (ca. 428 b.c.–348 b.c.)
Ancient Greek philosopher who influenced European philosophy and science through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Born in Athens, he was the son of a noble family and was given a good education. As a young man he came under the influence of Socrates, a renowned philosopher and debater. Plato experienced firsthand the turmoil of politics in his native city and, after the execution of his friend Socrates on a charge of corrupting the youth of Athens, spent time voyaging to Sicily, then the home of several Greek colonies. When he returned to Athens he founded a school known as the Academy. He began writing dialogues, accounts of debates and conversations among the teachers and philosophers of Athens, with Socrates given an important role. Plato's major work, however, is The Republic, an account of an ideal society in which the virtuous and talented hold leadership and all classes cultivate the virtues of wisdom, courage, and moderation.
Plato's school in Athens survived until the seventh century a.d., and Platonic philosophy remained a dominant strain of thought in the Mediterranean world. While the Roman Empire was at its height, Neoplatonism emerged in the Greek city of Alexandria, founded by several prominent scholars and commentators and based on Plato's metaphysical ideas. Although the philosophy and science of Aristotle dominated the Middle Ages, Plato's writings were also well respected, and in the fifteenth century Platonism was revived in the scholarly investigations of Marsilio Ficino and other Renaissance students of the classical world. Plato's belief in the immortality of the soul, and the ideal “Platonic” love that existed on a spiritual and not physical plane, attracted Renaissance philosophers and poets who were seeking new ideas complementary to the accepted doctrines of Christianity. Platonism also took an important place in the writings of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who attempted a synthesis of many different philosophical and religious traditions, including Platonism, Christianity, and the kabbalah system of Judaism. The Republic inspired the writing of Utopia, an account of an ideal society written by Sir Thomas More. Plato's concept of the universe also made a contribution to the works of Renaissance astronomers such as Johannes Kepler.
See Also: classical literature; Ficino, Marsilio; Neoplatonism; Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni
"Plato (ca. 428 B.C.–348 B.C.)." The Renaissance. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3205500257.html
"Plato (ca. 428 B.C.–348 B.C.)." The Renaissance. 2008. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3205500257.html
Platonism is the philosophy of Plato or his followers; any of various revivals of Platonic doctrines or related ideas, especially Neoplatonism and Cambridge Platonism (a 17th–century attempt to reconcile Christianity with humanism and science).
Platonic love love which is intimate and affectionate but not sexual. The term is recorded in English from the mid 17th century; the equivalent Latin term amor platonicus was used synonymously with amor socraticus by Ficinus (the Florentine Marsilio Ficino, 1433–99), president of Cosmo de' Medici's Accademia Platonica, to denote the kind of interest in young men with which Socrates was credited.
Platonic solid one of five regular solids (i.e., having all sides and all angles equal), a tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, or icosahedron. Formerly also called Platonic body.
Platonic year a cycle, imagined by some ancient astronomers, in which the heavenly bodies were supposed to go through all their possible movements and return to their original relative positions, after which, according to some, all history would repeat itself (sometimes identified with the period of precession of the equinoxes, about 25,800 years). Also called great year.
ELIZABETH KNOWLES. "Plato." The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 2006. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O214-Plato.html
ELIZABETH KNOWLES. "Plato." The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 2006. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O214-Plato.html
"Plato." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O142-Plato.html
"Plato." World Encyclopedia. 2005. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O142-Plato.html
"Plato." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-Plato.html
"Plato." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. 2007. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O233-Plato.html
FRAN ALEXANDER , PETER BLAIR , JOHN DAINTITH , ALICE GRANDISON , VALERIE ILLINGWORTH , ELIZABETH MARTIN , ANNE STIBBS , JUDY PEARSALL , and SARA TULLOCH. "PLATO." The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations. 1998. Encyclopedia.com. 29 Jun. 2016 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
FRAN ALEXANDER , PETER BLAIR , JOHN DAINTITH , ALICE GRANDISON , VALERIE ILLINGWORTH , ELIZABETH MARTIN , ANNE STIBBS , JUDY PEARSALL , and SARA TULLOCH. "PLATO." The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations. 1998. Encyclopedia.com. (June 29, 2016). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O25-PLATO.html
FRAN ALEXANDER , PETER BLAIR , JOHN DAINTITH , ALICE GRANDISON , VALERIE ILLINGWORTH , ELIZABETH MARTIN , ANNE STIBBS , JUDY PEARSALL , and SARA TULLOCH. "PLATO." The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations. 1998. Retrieved June 29, 2016 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O25-PLATO.html | <urn:uuid:bb8b5595-531f-4148-9260-5c81baf4cc3a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Plato.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957013 | 35,065 | 3.375 | 3 |
Beverages in Schools
School Beverage Guidelines
We have successfully changed the beverage landscape in schools across the country.
We promised America’s parents that we would change the beverage mix in schools, and our companies – along with their school partners – have delivered dramatic and significant results. With the national School Beverage Guidelines, we removed full-calorie sodas from schools and replaced them with a range of lower-calorie, smaller-portion choices. This has been no easy feat, but it is one we are proud of and we know will have meaningful and lasting results.
On Aug. 16, 2012, Dr. Wescott, along with his co-authors, had a peer-reviewed data analysis published in the American Journal of Public Health. The data, which was updated to go through the end of the 2009-2010 school year, shows that industry continues to deliver in schools across America:
- Full-calorie soft drinks have been removed. Shipments of full-calorie soft drinks to schools have declined by 97 percent between 2004, the last comprehensive data available prior to the agreement, and the end of the 2009-2010 school year.
- Calories available from beverages in schools have been cut dramatically. In fact, 90 percent fewer beverage calories were shipped to schools during that time.
- We have successfully changed the beverage landscape in schools across the country. The School Beverage Guidelines provide for a range of lower-calorie, smaller-portion beverage options. As a result, the beverage mix in schools continues to shift to waters, portion-controlled sports drinks, diet drinks and 100 percent juices.
The School Beverage Guidelines are a national standard that is in place and working. We support their adoption as part of the federal regulations for competitive foods in schools.
For complete details on the guidelines visit www.ameribev.org. | <urn:uuid:5f3f3d79-82bd-4590-a162-98e3f8140ce1> | CC-MAIN-2017-26 | http://flabev.org/health-nutrition/beverages-in-schools | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320206.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20170623235306-20170624015306-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.965984 | 380 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Kiwi fruit is a nutritional berry fruit whose original name was Chinese gooseberry.
Today, we’ll look at some great kiwi fruit baby recipes for you but first some general information about this intriguing fruit.
This fruit originated from China but, when exported to New Zealand, it was renamed Kiwi in honor of its national bird which is the Kiwi bird.
It is an oval shaped fruit that is enclosed in a hairy, brown skin. It has tiny black seeds that look like small dots on the green flesh. Its seeds are so small and soft that they can’t harm your baby when ingested.
They resemble the meat of a dragon fruit in appearance. Dragon fruit’s meat is white, though. The skin of kiwi fruits has a tendency not to be contaminated by pesticides.
Kiwi Fruit Facts
This particular fruit is high in potassium (312mg) which aids in strengthening the cardiovascular system and regulates cholesterol levels.
It has Vitamin C (92.7mg in even higher amounts than present in oranges. Vitamin C is great for generally fight infections and boosting the immune system.
Vitamin C in kiwi also helps prevent colon cancer and there are reports that kiwi is very useful as well in dissolving fibroids.
Kiwi is a citrus fruit with a slightly sour taste. People with hyperacidity should tread carefully.
- Important note: Kiwi fruit is known to cause stomach pain because of its acid content so be careful of giving too much of it at once to your baby. Furthermore, kiwis can cause an allergic reaction called latex fruit syndrome. This is also present in avocado, papaya and bananas. It is wise to check your baby first to see if he will manifest any allergies to kiwi. And, as always, consult your baby’s pediatrician before introducing him to something like kiwi. It’s best to be cautious.
Kiwi also contains calcium (34mg), a mineral that helps protects bones from weakening and getting brittle.
The fiber in kiwi fruit aids in cleansing the colon and the whole digestive system which also helps in proper food absorption and bowel movement.
Kiwi fruit is also a great antioxidant with iron, vitamin K and folate.
Just imagine the nutritional benefits this fruit will give to your baby if you start incorporating kiwi fruit in their first solid foods.
Choosing and Storing Kiwi Fruits
Generally, kiwi fruit has brown skin so you can’t really tell when it is ripe or raw just based on its color. What to do is to press the fruit gently to check. If it feels like bouncing back and is a cross between hard and soft then it’s ripe. Hard pressure indicates raw while too soft is rotten.
If you happen to buy a raw kiwi, just leave it to ripen at room temperature away from direct heat or sunlight. You can also wrap kiwi along with bananas and apples to make it ripen quicker.
To maintain its ripeness, place the fruit inside the refrigerator and consume it within 2 weeks. Kiwi fruits are not recommended to be frozen.
Why Are Fresh Kiwi fruits More Nutritious Than Canned Ones?
Fresh kiwi fruit, especially if organic, provides nutritional health benefits at their finest and purest.
Canned fruits in general are loaded with preservatives that are not great for anybody’s health, even less for your own little one.
Kiwi Fruit Baby Food Recipes
- Important Note: Make sure you got a ripe kiwi before serving one to your baby as food. Better yet, taste it first because unripe ones taste awfully sour! Kiwi can be given to babies in their 8th month and onwards.
1) Kiwi Strawberry Puree
- ½ kiwi fruit (diced and peeled)
- 1 cup strawberries (diced and peeled)
- 1 cup water (distilled)
- ½ cup milk (whole or breast milk)
- Place all ingredients into a blender and blend until all is smooth
- Pour into a bowl and serve to baby
2) Fruit Salad
- ½ avocado (peeled and sliced)
- 1 small banana (peeled and sliced)
- ½ kiwi fruit (peeled and sliced)
- ½ cup pineapple juice (sweetened)
- Mash all ingredients in a bowl then add pineapple juice
- Serve immediately
3) Fruit Combo Smoothie
- ½ apple (peeled and sliced thinly)
- 1 small banana
- 1 small kiwi fruit (peeled and sliced)
- ½ pear (peeled and sliced)
- 1 tablespoon honey
- ½ cup milk
- Put all ingredients into a blender and blend until a very smooth consistency is acquired
4) Kiwi Kokomo
- 1 cup apple juice
- 2 kiwi fruits (ripe and mashed)
- ½ medium sized papaya (peeled and sliced thinly)
- Place all into a blender or food processor then blend altogether until the mixture becomes yellow green
- Serve it cold to baby so he can enjoy a sort of tropical drink
5) Peach and Kiwi Dessert
- 2 kiwi fruits (ripe and peeled)
- 1 peach (sliced and peeled)
- Simply mash the kiwi and peach together and serve cold
- You can also bring it to a puree to get a smoothie consistency, refrigerate and serve cold
Whichever which way you try to give your precious little bundle of joy kiwi fruit, always remember that in order to achieve baby’s optimum enjoyment in weaning, you should always test the fruit with your own tongue as kiwi fruit tends to be sour even if it is properly ripe.
We hope we have been of some help in making your baby’s first food adventures more enjoyable and that you have enjoyed these kiwi fruit for baby recipes.
Come back for more recipe ideas as we are adding more nutritious food ideas on an ongoing basis.
If you have any queries, please feel free to contact us. We are always delighted to help. | <urn:uuid:ddba4afc-0a95-46dd-a826-27a521b65b48> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | https://suprememom.com/kiwi-fruit-baby-food-recipes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039744381.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20181118135147-20181118161147-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.936774 | 1,290 | 2.875 | 3 |
Modeled on the British Parliamentary system, the Senate is one of two Houses of the Canadian Parliament. It serves as a house of sober second thought to Parliament’s lower house, the House of Commons (House). Unlike the House of Commons, where elected Members of Parliament serve, appointed Members (Senators) serve in the upper chamber. The Constitution Act (the British North America Act) of 1867 governs the legislative limits of the Senate.
There are 105 appointed Senators, and the Constitution deems that they come from four divisions in Canada, as well as the remaining territories and Newfoundland and Labrador, from which specific number of Senators are representatives:
Ontario – 24 Senators
Quebec – 24 Senators
Maritime Provinces – 24 Senators (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with ten each, and Prince Edward Island with four)
Western Provinces – 24 Senators (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba with six each)
Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut – 3 Senators (each territory with one member)
The Governor General appoints Senators on the advice of the Prime Minister. Until 1965, appointments to the Senate were for life, but that year an amendment changed this provision to the age of 75 for a Senator.
Over the last several decades, the Senate has faced challenges over its role in today’s political system. Arguments prevail to make the Senate an elected body, where Senators serve fixed or unlimited terms similar to the House. Other arguments draw criticism to the number of Senators allocated to each region or province, pointing out that there is poor representation by population in the current arrangement.
The cost of maintaining the institution has become another criticism for some Canadians. Senators receive in excess of $130,000 per annum as a base salary. At a time when western governments encourage austerity, successive Canadian Governments have continued to pay to operate the Senate. Simply taking the base salaries into consideration with 105 Senators plus their expenses, the upper house costs taxpayers millions of dollars a year. In addition to the cost of meetings, Canadians have questioned the democratic legitimacy and utility of the Senate and its unelected representatives who have demonstrated poor judgment regarding expense claims recently and who tend to be partisan appointments for party loyalty by whichever party is ruling.
The Canadian people have choices regarding the future of their Senate, each with implications on the democratic processes. The National Citizens Alliance (NCA) believes that Canadians can choose to do one of the following:
maintain the status quo
reform the Senate with regards to electing versus appointing representatives, fixed or unlimited terms for Senators, and proportional versus equal representation
abolish the upper chamber
The National Citizens Alliance believes that the Senate should serve its purposes in Parliament, which includes acting as a check and balance on the House, introducing Bills or reviewing and amending Bills from the House in the legislative process, and performing committee work to study economic, legal and social issues in Canada. Yet, the NCA only supports this role if the senators are elected.
However, the NCA believes that the Canadian people via a binding national referendum ultimately should decide what to do with the Senate.
The NCA supports the following:
● referendum is legally binding to either maintain the status quo with the Senate, continue to pursue reforms to the Senate – with or without Constitutional amendments, or abolish the Senate altogether
● only a referendum result of 2/3 majority with minimum support of 7 of 10 provinces constitutes a legal mandate
● the Government mandates Elections Canada to educate the public regarding the purpose of the Senate in the Parliament, as well as the implications on parliamentary democracy when voting in a legally binding referendum to either maintain the status quo, reform the Senate, or to abolish the Senate
The National Citizens Alliance believes that referendum is a viable and necessary option because Canada’s elected officials have demonstrated over several decades that they are unable to resolve Senate issues, and the Canadian people should have the final say over significant issues that affect all Canadians.
In the event of a referendum decision to reform the Senate, through Article 44, “Amendment of the Parliament”, of the 1982 Constitution Act, the NCA believes in:
● Exploring possible reforms that do not require constitutional amendments
● Amending the Constitution in relation to the Senate where necessary
● Amending the Senate so that representatives are elected rather than appointed
● Holding separate elections for Senators rather than holding elections during provincial elections
● Adjusting the number of Senators assigned to each province and territory based on population (representation by population) and the GDP of the provinces
● Amending the Senate so that elected Senators may introduce legislation related to any issue, instead of restricting them from specific legislation including those related to spending
● Amending the Senate so that elected Senators may prorogue or dissolve Parliament subject to attaining at least 70 percent support of Senators and a 50 percent quorum of Senators
● Encouraging the provinces and territories to continue holding elections to present Senators-in-waiting, while Canadians approve and finalize Senate reforms if abolition is not a choice as a method of expressing the provincial and territorial support for an elected Senate.
The NCA would respect the Canadian people’s decision, as expressed in a binding referendum, to abolish the Senate.
The National Citizens Alliance supports holding a legally binding referendum as soon as possible. The binding results would direct the Parliament conclusively over maintaining the status quo, pursuing Senate reforms – as afforded through Article 44 “Amendment by the Parliament” of the 1982 Canadian Constitution Act, or abolishing the Senate making a unicameral (single chamber) Canadian Parliament. The NCA will work with any party willing to carry out the democratic wishes of Canadians according to results of a binding national referendum.
Amendment to NCA Senate Policy
On March 2, 2014, the NCA membership voted 83.3 percent in favour of citizen-initiated recall of Senators whether they are elected or unelected; 16.7 percent of the NCA membership voted against recall of Senators. The passing policy threshold is 70 percent.
In addition, there was a 100 percent quorum on the March 2nd vote. (The minimum quorum is 50 percent.)
Therefore, the NCA adopts the following amendment to its Senate Policy:
● Senators whether elected or unelected to the Canadian Senate will be subject to citizen-initiated recall.
● 15 percent of a relevant province’s electorate is required to initiate a recall vote.
● The recall vote requires at least a 50 percent quorum of the relevant province’s electorate, and 50 percent plus 1 support of the electorate to recall a Senator. The electorate cannot initiate a recall until 6-months have lapsed from a Senator’s appointment or election to the Senate. Further, citizens have 6-months to attain the 15 percent support from the relevant province’s electorate in order to trigger a recall vote.
● Recalled Senators have no restrictions on whether or not they run again as a Senator or whether or not they are appointed again as a Senator.
The NCA welcomes feedback on its policies. Please send policy feedback to [email protected] | <urn:uuid:a9f3f18a-3b5e-439d-b2bd-c530e50392f5> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.nationalcitizensalliance.ca/?page_id=1514 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711200.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20221207153419-20221207183419-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.942628 | 1,481 | 3.984375 | 4 |
Rum isn't just the preferred drink of pirates: For more than 300 years, the booze was also part of the daily rations of sailors in Britain's Royal Navy.
The tradition began in the 17th century, when ships traded out daily rations of beer—which tended to spoil on long journeys—for the spirit. Later, the booze was spiked with lemon juice to help prevent scurvy. Until 1740, the daily ration was half a pint of rum, but in 1850, the amount was set at a tot, 70 milliliters of rum (or an eighth of a pint) distributed at midday. Junior sailors had their share watered down with water, while higher-ups took theirs neat.
"In my era it was a social occasion," Commander David Allsop, who joined the British Navy in 1955, told the BBC. "You paid for favors quietly, you had friends come round to share the tot. It was just the same as going to the bar and having a pre-lunch drink. That's all it was, at the end of the day, a strong aperitif."
The British Royal Navy ended its daily rum rations on July 31, 1970, citing concern that sailors who took a swig at lunch would be less capable when operating ship machinery. "It was badly received," Allsop said. "There was a lot of muttering below the decks." Sailors called it "Black Tot Day," marking the occasion by wearing black armbands and burying their tots at sea. And at the Royal Naval Dockyard in Chatham, Kent, cook Thomas McKenzie (above) drank the last drop of rum on his ship directly from the barrel. | <urn:uuid:7562d3b5-4992-47f7-b318-d641bdce1ac3> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/56595/day-royal-navy-ended-its-daily-rum-ration | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710691.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20221129100233-20221129130233-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.986678 | 348 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Inflammation is closely associated with many vascular diseases. The current models employed for studying these conditions are limited to either animal models or cell sheets cultured in a petri dishes, which do not accurately replicate human physiology. Consequently, there is a growing need for human blood vessel models that can provide insights into the impact of inflammation on these diseases.
We have developed a functional three-dimensional (3D) human blood vessel model. We simulate an inflammatory environment and introduce the flow of blood cells through these vessels to replicate real-life responses. By using stem cells derived from patients, this advanced model allows the study of human vascular diseases and patient-specific complications associated with inflammation.
The reNEW Leiden team, led by PI Christine Mummery and associate investigator Valeria Orlova, has developed a 3D bioengineered human blood vessel derived from pluripotent human stem cells. These vessels are functional and responsive to inflammation stimuli, aligning with human physiology.
The interior of a 3D bioengineered human blood vessel lumen lined with vascular cells derived from stem cells, depicted in red, and supporting vascular cells surrounding the barrier, depicted in white.
Merve Bulut, Valeria Orlova’s lab, LUMC | <urn:uuid:3f92fee1-edd6-4fdc-8f3b-30d7948784dc> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://renew.science/artxscience/artxscience-8/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510967.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20231002033129-20231002063129-00861.warc.gz | en | 0.919113 | 266 | 2.90625 | 3 |
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Earth Template FREE Printable PDF Earth day crafts Earth. Earth Day Worksheets for Preschool Cultivating Exceptional. Wwwxteccatmonograficscirelplalenilemaitecozarworksheetspdf. Recycling Coloring Page for Kids Free Printable Picture. Free Earth Day worksheets to teach environmental awareness and how to be good stewards of. Free Printable Color by Number Earth Day Preschool. She shares effective and beyond the earth day earth worksheets pdf file will assume that we have big! Or go to a pdf of the worksheet subscribers only The Earth Illustrated Acrostic. Reading passages with questions 2ndade math worksheet pdf short stories. | <urn:uuid:bd367c57-426e-42da-82fa-f5132dbd3b0d> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://indivisiblesomerville.org/anything.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030336921.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20221001195125-20221001225125-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.809907 | 1,813 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Isotonic Sports Drink
What's this Science Bite about?
Isotonic drinks are commonly used by athletes, in particular middle and long distance runners. Isotonic drinks have a similar concentration to blood so it is quickly absorbed into the blood stream. Isotonic drinks are not really required when doing gentle exercise, water is sufficient for replacing the lost fluids.
If you are working out and sweating constantly for over an hour and a half, then isotonic drinks will help to replace lost fluids and give you a boost of energy, in the form of a small amount of simple carbohydrates (sugars).
When you drink water your thirst tends to be quenched very quickly and you may stop drinking before you are fully rehydrated. The flavouring in isotonic drinks has been added as it does not quench thirst easily. This is to make you drink more fluids to replace those lost during exercise.
Always remember to ask your parent or guardian to help you.
What you'll need
- 200ml fruit squash
- 800ml water
- Pinch of salt
How to make this drink...
- Mix the fruit squash with the water.
- Add a pinch of salt.
- Stir well to make sure the salt dissolves. Place in the fridge to cool down. Pour the drink into an empty sports bottle. Start drinking 10 minutes before exercise and throughout work out to stay hydrated and keep your energy levels up. | <urn:uuid:d7118116-70d1-43b0-b593-66ff16a63abb> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://glasgowsciencecentre.org/science-bites/isotonic-sports-drink.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463608659.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20170526105726-20170526125726-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.949129 | 296 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Identification of gas molecules plays a key role a wide range of applications extending from healthcare to security. However, the most widely used gas nano-sensors are based on electrical approaches or refractive index sensing, which typically are unable to identify molecular species. Here, we report label-free identification of gas molecules SO 2 , NO 2 , N 2 O, and NO by detecting their rotational-vibrational modes using graphene plasmon. The detected signal corresponds to a gas molecule layer adsorbed on the graphene surface with a concentration of 800 zeptomole per μm 2 , which is made possible by the strong field confinement of graphene plasmons and high physisorption of gas molecules on the graphene nanoribbons. We further demonstrate a fast response time (<1 min) of our devices, which enables real-time monitoring of gaseous chemical reactions. The demonstration and understanding of gas molecule identification using graphene plasmonic nanostructures open the door to various emerging applications, including in-breath diagnostics and monitoring of volatile organic compounds.
PubMed: MeSH publication types
- Journal Article
- Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't | <urn:uuid:6195198e-b495-4089-b221-a439e90ad3e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://experts.umn.edu/en/publications/gas-identification-with-graphene-plasmons | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107907213.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20201030033658-20201030063658-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.885148 | 245 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Welcome to Democratia, a middle-sized tropical island somewhere in the Pacific. For a long time the country was occupied by a foreign power, but it has recently become an independent state. During the occupation different groups emerged, each with its own background stories and political interests. Democratia has been granted 2 years by the international community to establish a multiparty democracy with stable institutions that respect the rule of law.
This was the challenge given to 23 Democracy School students from Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Ukraine, and Georgia at the launch of Democratia, NIMD’s political board game: to work together and start a multiparty system from scratch.
Using the skills gained after a week of training in political ideologies, democratic institutions, and dialogue techniques, players worked in teams to ensure their party’s views were included in Democratia’s first grand coalition. From fixing radiation leaks to handling villages in revolt, the teams had to govern based on their party’s values, while forging the consensus that will build a stable government.
Democratia is in fact a highly effective tool for showing Democracy School students how parties can operate together effectively in a multiparty setting. Just like in real elections, parties have to balance their core values, main voter groups, and political rivals. At the same time, they need to retain their position in government and handle day-to-day policymaking. When put together, Democratia players have to think on their feet, avoid political squabbling, and sometimes count on a lucky roll of the dice.
The reality of learning about working in a democracy is that it’s about building practical skills. Sometimes lectures, books, and discussions won’t work; you need to put yourself in the shoes of politicians and see how you can handle different situations.
Following its official launch in Georgia this week, we look forward to bringing the Democratia challenge to our other Democracy Schools around the world. Scroll down to see more of the game in action! | <urn:uuid:18248cfb-515d-44ea-a165-64baf91b0c0f> | CC-MAIN-2019-26 | https://nimd.org/is-politics-more-than-just-a-game/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-26/segments/1560627998724.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20190618123355-20190618145355-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.968432 | 410 | 2.65625 | 3 |
A community corporation is an entity established to promote improvements and development in a community. Community corporations are often organized as nonprofit enterprises, serving members of the community without a specific goal of making money. Many rely on grants and donations to perform their work. They can be found most commonly serving low-income and troubled regions. This model for providing support to struggling communities is used in many different areas of the world.
At a community corporation, a number of different enterprises can be involved. One is the promotion of low income housing. Community corporations can invest in developments including refurbishment of old units and creation of new ones and they may offer grants to builders offering low income housing. They can also be involved with management companies, hiring people from within the community to administer their developments. By providing affordable housing, the corporation can qualify for a number of different grants from the government and other organizations.
Business development can also be important for a community corporation. The corporation can offer grants and loans to small businesses, participate in advertising campaigns to improve the business climate, and offer assistance with workplace training, employee placement, and related matters. Many community corporations also invest in education with grants, outreach programs, youth leadership programs, and so forth, laying the groundwork for a healthier and more educated community in the future.
These organizations can also participate in outreach and education. They may address concerns specific to a community like pollution, personal safety, and gentrification, while offering classes or funding for classes to help members of the community. A community corporation might be involved with childcare classes, nutrition classes, and other educational programs that are intended to improve the quality of life for community residents and to empower people to make informed choices about their lives.
The organizational structure of a community corporation can vary. They may be founded by members of the community or outsiders, and the board can include noted community leaders who will help the corporation gain the trust and respect of the community. Community corporations often network with other organizations ranging from churches to community development agencies to ensure that the programs designed to help a community are operating efficiently and effectively. Rather than funding two separate initiatives to do the same thing, for example, these organizations can opt to split responsibilities or share funding on a project that they have a common interest in. | <urn:uuid:6fe352fb-cb42-4819-9d89-d261ab17bca2> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://www.wisegeek.net/what-is-a-community-corporation.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038101485.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20210417041730-20210417071730-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.966083 | 453 | 3.09375 | 3 |
translating and transcending language in our yoga practice.
What language do you speak?
The fact that you are reading these words suggests that English is at least one of your languages. A Germanic tongue with Norse, Latin, Greek and Norman-French imports and influences, it’s a language that continues to assimilate new words into its vocabulary. But however adaptable and varied English is, you are unlikely to satisfy your thirst in China by asking for a glass of water (wo neng you yo bei shui might get you closer).
This is how it is in yoga – only here we find the problem arising when one hemisphere of the brain wrongly interprets language meant for the other. Put simply, the brain is split into distinct halves, or hemispheres: the right and the left. Physically these are almost entirely separate, except for the area at the corpus callosum where the two interconnect and communicate with one another.
Scientists have found the functions of the two hemispheres are equally discrete. The left side of the brain is logical, systematic and ordered, and is involved in processing, patterning, defining, and describing. It is sometimes described as being more ‘masculine’ or ‘yang’ and is involved in language and analysis. Meanwhile, the right hemisphere is more intuitive, immediate and sensory, acting instinctively and without words and concepts. It comes into play when we sense or feel something, described as ‘feminine’ or ‘yin.’
In other words, what is understood by the left brain may mean very little to the right, and vice versa. (See Jill Bolte Taylor’s A Stroke of Genius TED Talk).
In yoga, it is a classic mistake for a practitioner to try to understand an instruction aimed at the right, intuitive side of the brain with the logical left. Because working with the body requires a present-moment immediacy and responsiveness, yoga instructions are usually couched in right hemisphere language.
The right brain learns kinesthetically from physical experience, and its holistic, intuitive approach works best when dealing with the body, breath, or anything which needs to be processed in a non-abstract, here-and-now way.
Anything in a state of flux and flow cannot be reconciled with the most fixed views and opinions of the left hemisphere.
So, for example, when your yoga teacher tells you to “touch the floor with the inner edge of the big toe base,” or to “breathe into the lower back,” or “allow your thigh bones to drop out of the way of the pelvis,” these are not instructions to be followed logically by the left brain. Trying to get it in a rational way will only leave you confused or frustrated, and may even lead you to give up yoga, look for another teacher, or simply tune out the namby-pamby bits.
Instead, yoga asks you not to think but to be. In a back arch, you might be told to “pull the breast bone over while keeping the belly firm, drawing the pelvis over to lengthen the lumbar, sucking the side ribs in, and pulling the front body over the back.” These are not instructions to be ticked off linearly, in a left-brain way. They are designed to be felt, to be applied intuitively, to be experienced.
Similarly, you might be asked to “release any pressure from the brain” when practicing pranayama, or to “visualise the breast bone floating… like a buoy on a calm sea” while you “release the legs into the breath” during seated meditation.
Again, these are not actions that can be instigated by the left brain; they require the subtle, more intuitive interpretation of the right hemisphere.
Once we allow the right brain to receive right brain instructions, we find the truth of the motto, “calmness conditions connection.” The left will naturally follow the lead of the right. The flow from the right brain to the left allows a harmony to arise, where intelligence can grow through the experience without being stifled by the past. This view is mirrored in the words of the great sage Patanjali, stiram, sukham Äsanam, which describes the importance of steady, easy awareness in yoga postures.
Patanjali further says: “Practice and non-reaction are required to still the patterning of consciousness; otherwise consciousness takes itself to be that patterning.” He is clearly stating that non-reaction, or ease, is necessary to avoid the immediacy and awareness of the right hemisphere from being blocked by the restrictive interpretations of the left.
Some two centuries earlier, the Buddha had something similar to say on the subject: “People get bogged down in words like an elephant stuck in the mud.” Words (the realm of the left brain) can get in the way of our (right brain) understanding of the present moment. We need to experience without analysing.
How can we hope to balance the infinite inter-play between multifarious relationships that affect the body; a misleading term that, the left hemisphere thinks, defines an objectively autonomous and discreet region?
A more surrendered state is the key; a giving attitude, that leaves us available to receive and respond as our left brain agenda is relinquished and the psychic noise floor is brought down.
As Saint Augustine says, “You can’t put the ocean into your cup you must throw your cup into the ocean.”
Ultimately, the base level of experience is reached, a sort of ultimate substratum, through a profound stillness around whatever is arising in consciousness now. It brings with it an immediate response that is uncluttered and is able to dance with all the infinite nuances.
This base level, pure consciousness itself, is described so clearly by the great yogic sage Patanjali when he says “tatra niratisayam sarvajnabijam; The seed of All Knowing in that Unsurpassed.” | <urn:uuid:c9e79fe9-ef62-4da8-a7a2-90da1b876701> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://www.yogitimes.com/article/yoga-right-left-hemispheres-brain-practice | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400274441.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200927085848-20200927115848-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.939718 | 1,282 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Clinical Manifestations of Gaucher Disease
There are three subtypes of Gaucher disease. There is a wide variability in the pattern and severity of disease involvement between and within each subtype. All three variants of Gaucher disease are inherited "storage" diseases but are distinguished by the presence or absence of neurologic complications (Table I).
|Clinical Features||Type I||Type II||Type III|
|Survival||Variable||< 2 yrs||2nd - 4th decade|
|Ethnic Predilection||Ashkenazic Jewish||Panethnic||Northern Swedish|
Type I Gaucher Disease
Type I disease is the most common form of Gaucher disease and does not directly involve the nervous system. In the United States, there are estimated to be 20,000 or more patients with Type I Gaucher disease. This disease is the most common genetic disorder in Jewish individuals of Central and Eastern European ancestry (Ashkenazic Jews). Approximately one in eighteen Ashkenazi carry the gene for this disease. However, Gaucher disease is not restricted by geographic or cultural boundaries and has been found in all ethnic groups.
The clinical manifestations usually become apparent in childhood or early adulthood, when patients initially show an enlarged spleen or develop hematologic problems (anemia and/or low platelet count) or orthopedic (bone) complications. Gaucher cells in the bone marrow may lead to symptoms of bone and joint pain, fractures, and other orthopedic problems. Accumulation of Gaucher cells in the spleen and liver leads to enlargement of these organs as well as blood abnormalities such as anemia and thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) with subsequent easy bruisability and impaired blood clotting.
Since there is marked variability in the severity of Type I disease, even among family members, it is difficult to predict the future severity and extent of complications in individual patients. Some patients are severely affected in their teens, while others are relatively asymptomatic when diagnosed in their 50s or 60s. Although there is no "classic" predictable disease course, prognosis generally depends on the severity at diagnosis and the occurrence interval between disease complications in each patient.
Type II Gaucher Disease
Type II disease has its onset in infancy and is a fatal neuro-degenerative disorder with death occurring in the first or second year of life. Extensive liver and spleen enlargement is present, but oculomotor (eye movement) abnormalities may be the first noted findings. Other findings may include rapid head thrusts, bilateral fixed strabismus and or neck muscle hypertonia, limb rigidity, and seizures. It is very rare and does not have a predilection for any particular ethnic or demographic group.
Type III Gaucher Disease
Type III disease is intermediate in severity between Types I and II in that the neurologic symptoms occur but present later and in a milder form than in Type II. The first symptoms are usually the enlargement of the liver and spleen with eventual eye movement disorders. Some patients progress to have further neurologic involvement including dementia, ataxia, and spasticity. The prototype form of this disease has been found in population isolates in northern Sweden. Again, this form of the disease can occur in all ethnic and demographic groups.
Each of these three types of Gaucher disease is genetically distinct and "breeds true" in affected families - that is, the type of Gaucher disease occurring in a specific family remains the same through successive generations. | <urn:uuid:5be28fac-af71-4d27-adeb-af23a579855e> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://icahn.mssm.edu/research/programs/gaucher-disease-treatment-center/gaucher-disease/clinical-manifestations | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1405997900573.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20140722025820-00009-ip-10-33-131-23.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921943 | 727 | 3.078125 | 3 |
On the fifth anniversary of the Iraq war, a new report from Oil Change International, entitled A Climate of War (pdf) quantifies both the greenhouse gas emissions of the Iraq War and the opportunity costs involved in fighting war rather than climate change. Here are some facts on the war and warming:
- Projected total US spending on the Iraq war could cover all of the global investments in renewable power generation that are needed between now and 2030 in order to halt current warming trends.
- The war is responsible for at least 141 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MMTCO2e) since March 2003. To put this in perspective, CO2 released by the war to date equals the emissions from putting 25 million more cars on the road in the US this year.
- Emissions from the Iraq War to date are nearly two and a half times greater than what would be avoided between 2009 and 2016 were California to implement the auto emission regulations it has proposed, but that the Bush Administration has struck down. Finally, if the war was ranked as a country in terms of annual emissions, it would emit more CO2 each year than 139 of the world’s nations do. Falling between New Zealand and Cuba, the war each year emits more than 60% of all countries on the planet.
- Just the $600 billion that Congress has allocated for military operations in Iraq to date could have built over 9000 wind farms (at 50 MW capacity each), with the overall capacity to meet a quarter of the country’s current electricity demand. If 25% of our power came from wind, rather than coal, it would reduce US GHG emissions by over 1 billion metric tons of CO2 per year – equivalent to approximately 1/6 of the country’s total CO2 emissions in 2006.
- In 2006, the US spent more on the war in Iraq than the whole world spent on investment in renewable energy.
- US presidential candidate Barack Obama has committed to spending“$150 billion over 10 years to advance the next generation of green energy technology and infrastructure.” The US spends nearly that much on the war in Iraq in just 10 months.
In presenting these calculations, we are not suggesting that greenhouse gas emissions are the most important impact of the war, nor the major reason to oppose it. We are not arguing that a more energy-efficient military would be more effective or justified in its actions, nor suggesting that there aren’t many things besides clean energy on which the US could choose to spend its money.
Rather, in a process comparable to estimating the true cost of the war in dollar terms, we are simply examining an aspect of the war’s impact that has been ignored.
The emissions associated with the war in Iraq are literally unreported. Military emissions abroad are not captured in the national greenhouse gas inventories that all industrialized nations, including the United States, report under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
It’s a loophole big enough to drive a tank through.
Estimates of emissions stem from fuel-intensive combat, oil well fires and increased gas flaring, the boom in cement consumption due to reconstruction efforts and security needs, and heavy use of explosives and chemicals that
contribute to global warming.
These emissions estimates are very conservative. Throughout our research we have erred on the side of caution, and have simply omitted areas where reliable numbers were not readily available (e.g., military consumption of halons or other
greenhouse gas intensive chemicals, and the use of bunker fuels for the transportation of troops and equipment to Iraq). We are confident that ongoing research will reveal more emissions (the full version of this report is forthcoming).
If you liked this post, help us get the word out!
Oh the irony – trillions spent and massive human rights and environmental violations based on no evidence. But the White House remains unconvinced on the need for action on global warming in the face of a mountain of scientific evidence by the top scientific organizations in the world – including his own National Academy of Science.
The word staggering is used. This would be an understatement if I could think of a word that describes the issue more profoundly. To think that our children’s children’s children could end up like the dumpkoft’s in the movie Idiocracy with Luke Wilson… but consider, doesn’t our current leader seem to fit within the dregs of that movie’s personna ?
We should and will continue to be ashamed until the leadership and actions of our once great country begin to lead again. I say once great because we cannot consider ourselves great when we’ve made mistakes of this magnitude. The Earth is in the balance and we’re more concerned with our balance sheets. Time to wake up… cultivate minds, trees, peace.
See you out there, on my bike, of course… JD Howell, Eugene, OR
Both Senators Obama and Clinton are promising thousands of “green jobs” but they are also promising a significant increase of nearly 100,000 troops for the U.S. military. The latter will cost tens of billions. If it comes to a choice of green or camouflage, which will they choose?
Unless we really end the mindset that got us into war — which in large part requires the U.S. to end its addiction to oil — the U.S. will be seeing camouflage jobs in the military well before we see much needed green jobs of a new energy economy.
Dear No war No warming,
May peace be with you.
Thank you for your efforts and for keeping me notified; I am grateful.
We need to stop the war and save this planet now.
Trouble is if the $600 billion had not been spent on the war, it would not have been spent on wind farms either. Doesn’t matter what COULD be done with money; what matters is HOW do we get rid of the current Congress who, as a body of people, are so corrupt that they will not make the right decisions and serve the people who sent them to Washington to do our bidding.
Example: 90% of Americans are against the illegal invasion across our borders but is Congress taking effective action???????NO they are not. They have incompetent Secretaries is such departments as Homeland Security, Treasury, Transportation, and Defense. America’s goal should be to vote out all incumbent members of Congress and have a more effective vetting process for Cabinet members.
This part reminds me of a song written and performed
by Prince back in 1993 called “Money Don’t Matter
Tonight”. There’s a line in that song that says, “Hey
there/maybe we can find out a reason to send a child
off to war/So what if we’re controlling all the oil?/
Is it worth a child dying for?” He then goes on to say
“Anything is better than picture of a child in a cloud
of gas.” This is probably off the topic of oil, the
Iraq war and global warming, but I think Prince’s song
is relevant to what’s going on today.
How is indeed exactly the question. We need a Separation of Oil and State in this country, and people need to demand that their representatives stop taking oil money. Check out http://www.oilmoney.priceofoil.org
Besides the greenhouse gases ( which is very important ) for ending the war-
Five year war—Almost 4,000 Americans dead.
WTC———————2,974 Americans dead.
We have our own terrorist in the White House.
Question? What are the effects of the military/civilian support gasoline demand on the global market price of gasoline? I would guess that the gasoline is being purchased on the open market and therefore competing with Americans for this supply, hence a probable contributor to the current rise in gasoline prices. If the war was not in progress, the peace time maintaince gas needs would still be present but I would guess it would be insignificant to the price of gas. Any comments?
This really shows how big a problem the automobile is. Every year around 40,000 people in the US and 1.2 million worldwide die in automobile accidents. In the five years of the Iraq War, the total automobile deaths have amounted to around 200,000 in the US and 6 million worldwide. Add to that the deaths related to air pollution from the automobile and physical inactivity due to overuse of the automobile and you have a tragedy of epic proportions.
On top of that, arguably our dependency on the automobile and the oil it requires is one of the major reasons why the US is in Iraq in the first place.
Then there is are the GHG emissions from automobiles which would be around 40 times that of the Iraq War. It is shocking that people are not in the streets protesting automobile use, one of the most destructive activities on the planet.
Seriously., guys! If that one war is halted, and all our troops are called back, that alone would be the equivalent of millions of cars taken off the road. Imagine the kind of pollution those war machines would be doing!
thank you for the sorrowful information about the cost of the war and about the warring of the climate change, but I want to add that the matter doesn’t stop. you must look at the other things that come after the war our country “Iraq” is destroyed now and the people still killed. we still live in despair and the people are frightened from killing every time they go outside home or some times even inside their homes. I think we can conclude this disaster in simple words which is:
THE WAR IS THE END OF THE WORLD
God be with us all.
thank you very much
Comments are closed. | <urn:uuid:40321318-ac79-4004-8db9-6a193b8b097a> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://priceofoil.org/2008/03/19/iraq-25-million-new-cars-and-counting/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224646937.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20230531150014-20230531180014-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.952247 | 2,046 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Apostates - A Never Ending Plague
The Greek word apostanai means to rebel. It also means traitor and has had a
profound meaning in Jewish history. Three examples will illustrate this problem.
Last week we mentioned the apostate Josephus Flavius, a Jewish general
who surrendered the whole of the Galil
to the Romans in 67 C.E., adopted a Latin name and betrayed Jerusalem to the
Then, in the second century of the common era there lived in Alexandria, Egypt a Jew named Barabas. Having accepted a new religion, Christianity, Barabas became a bitter enemy of his erstwhile co-religionists. Then he launched into Jewish history a form of distortion and hate which has troubled Jews in every century and in all the lands where Jews have lived.
In The Epistles of Barabas, or
letters written by him to his friends in about 100 C.E., Barabas invented all
those polemics which radical Jew haters have used ever since. The truth is that
a Jew introduced into the Western World a polemic “unique in the literature of
the early Church for its anti-Jewish attitude.”
Barabas claimed, as do all the enemies of the Jewish people, that the Torah is no longer incumbent upon Jews because it has been abolished by G’d. He and his millennial followers always claim that Judaism is mere outward exhibitionism while their religion teaches inner dedication, whatever is meant by that.
Barabas and his followers also knew and know that Jewish fasts are not
acceptable to G’d, that Jews have lost the covenant which is no longer Jewish
but now Christian, and that Judaism is not a legitimate religion, having been
supplanted by Christianity. Nothing is more dangerous to Jewish survival than
the view that we are not legitimate. Surely that belief has been the basis for
every persecution we have suffered from the days of Hadrian to Hitler.
It is precisely because Judaism is held a normal and legitimate religion
in this country that we have done so well here. Americans do not
delegitimize us or any other religious group.
There have been innumerable additional apostates after Barabas. We cannot
list them here. However, the name of Johann Pfefferkorn stands out among all our
apostates. Pfefferkorn lived in the 15th century and made a name for
himself when, in 1452, he argued publicly that the Talmud should be destroyed
because, he claimed, it contained anti-Christian material. As a Jew he had
studied the Talmud. Consequently the Synod of Augsburg decreed the burning of
all copies of the Talmud despite the arguments of the Christian Hebraist Johann
Reuchlin that the Talmud does not deal with Christianity at all. Here you had a
Christian defend what a Jew denounced.
In the 19th Century we were of course plagued by Karl Marx,
the founder of the Communist party. A Jew with two rabbis as his grandfathers,
Marx wrote several essays denouncing Jews. His diatribes against Jews were
actually used by the Nazi killers in their propaganda. During the 1930’s and
1940’s German cities had banners stretched across main streets with
anti-Jewish slogans such as “the Jews are our misfortune.” In addition these
banners often carried the words of Marx and were attributed to “the Jew
Marx” by the Nazi propagandists.
In this connection it may be of interest that the newly appointed
president gains much of his advice from a professor at the University at Austin.
The professor’s name is Marvin Olasky. A fundamentalist Christian, he is the
son of Russian Jewish parents. This man rants against minorities of every kind.
His book The Tragedy of American
Compassion denounces welfare or any other help to the poor. Here we learn
that religion should be established as part of government, that the state should
be removed from all charitable or welfare support and that churches should use
food banks and other supportive work for the poor only among those willing to
accept the doctrines of the church. In short, “believe what we preach or
don’t eat.” The First Amendment to our Constitution need not be given any
consideration, according to Olasky. He doesn’t believe we need the separation
of church and state. Evidently, his followers agree with him, as witnessed by
the proposal to establish a “faith based office” in the White House.
Now ask yourself this: We Jews are only 1.8% of the U.S. population. If,
as our erstwhile co-religionist Olasky demands, the separation between church
and state is eliminated, where does that leave us Jews, Olasky? | <urn:uuid:bfe585f7-3115-4bbc-983a-6e7b95c6baf4> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | http://www.jbuff.com/c011101.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570651.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20220807150925-20220807180925-00113.warc.gz | en | 0.962505 | 1,054 | 2.515625 | 3 |
For each expression, write the equivalent expression where the denominator is the LCD.
The first thing we do is factor the expressions:
Neither of these expressions can be simplified, so now we need to find the LCD of
The LCD must contain the factors (x + 1) and (x – 1). Since the denominator of the second rational expression contains two copies of the factor (x – 1), the LCD must also contain two copies of the factor (x – 1). That's a lot of stuff, so hopefully it's got plenty of storage space.
The LCD is (x + 1)(x – 1)(x – 1).
To rewrite the rational expressions so that each has the LCD as its denominator, we multiply each expression by a clever form of 1. Better make it extra-clever. We think it may be on to us. | <urn:uuid:9d29729e-2afe-43cb-a913-6052db258476> | CC-MAIN-2014-15 | http://www.shmoop.com/polynomial-division-rational-expressions/adding-subtracting-examples.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-15/segments/1398223203841.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20140423032003-00061-ip-10-147-4-33.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932806 | 177 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Neanderthals survived for thousands of years longer than scientists thought, with small bands finding refuge in a massive cave near the southern tip of Spain, new research suggests.
The work contends that Neanderthals were using a cave in Gibraltar at least 2,000 years later than their presence had been firmly documented anywhere before, researchers said.
"Maybe these are the last ones," said Clive Finlayson of the Gibraltar Museum, who reported the findings Wednesday with colleagues on the website of the journal Nature.
The paper says charcoal samples from fires that Neanderthals set in the cave are about 28,000 years old and maybe just 24,000 years old.
For The Record
Los Angeles Times Sunday September 24, 2006 Home Edition Main News Part A Page 2 National Desk 0 inches; 32 words Type of Material: Correction
Later Neanderthal: The headline on an article Sept. 16 in Section A about traces of a later Neanderthal being discovered referred to Gibraltar as part of Spain. It is a British possession.
Neanderthals were stocky, muscular hunters in Europe and western Asia who appeared more than 200,000 years ago. They died out after anatomically modern humans arrived in Europe 35,000 to 40,000 years ago.
Were the Neanderthals doomed because they couldn't compete with the encroaching modern humans for resources, or because they caught new germs from the moderns, or because of climate change? Did the two groups have much contact, and what kind?
They didn't appear to encounter each other in Gibraltar at Gorham's Cave. More than 5,000 years separate the last traces of the Neanderthals from the earliest evidence of modern humans, Finlayson said.
Eric Delson of Lehman College in the Bronx and the American Museum of Natural History, who did not participate in the research, said that the paper's 28,000-year-old date seems secure but that its case for Neanderthal presence after that is shaky.
There have been prior claims of "the last Neanderthal" that were eventually shot down, he said.
Paul Mellars, a professor of prehistory and human evolution at Cambridge University, said he believes the range of radiocarbon dating evidence in the paper suggests ages more like 31,000 or 32,000 years for the charcoal. Contamination by younger material might have skewed some radiocarbon results toward more recent dates, he observed.
Finlayson said he's comfortable with the 24,000-year figure and called the 28,000-year estimate conservative. There's no evidence of contamination with younger material, and chemical analysis argues against it, he said. | <urn:uuid:be4ad846-2213-497d-b131-e091dd9d0827> | CC-MAIN-2017-09 | http://articles.latimes.com/2006/sep/16/science/sci-neanderthal16 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501171632.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104611-00045-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961716 | 542 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Enterprise Resource Planning(ERP) Solutions
The literal meaning of ERP asserts to be an Enterprise solution that maintains a resource planning system, integrating the departmental functioning at one place.
Wikipedia gives a simple yet an elaborative definition to simplify it further.
According to Wikipedia,
“Enterprise resource planning systems (ERP) “is a category of business-management software—typically a suite of integrated applications—that an organization can use to collect, store, manage and interpret data from many business activities, including product planning, cost, manufacturing or service delivery, marketing and sales, inventory management, shipping, and payment”
The definition is surely easy enough to deliver a glimpse of ERP. However, the term demands a detailed explanation for better understanding. This post gives you a thorough insight, answering the questions associated with enterprise resource planning system.
We have addressed the essential aspects of ERP that explain it and make it remarkably significant and crucial.
The Article includes
- The uses of ERP System
- The drill down on working of ERP
- How does an ERP improve business performance?
- Requirements of ERP solution
- Tips for successful ERP
- Why is ERP utilised?
What is ERP System?
As you may know, ERP is a vital business software solution for Small, Medium and large-scale enterprises. It is not entirely about resources or planning but the company itself.
It is a set of business software tools which integrates information from all the departments and functions across a company on a single system.
It can serve varied needs of different departments catering to the requirements of HR, finance, warehouse, supply and any other department for that matter.
Small business firms usually rely on small tools. Although when the business takes off, additional data and workload get difficult to manage by a free tool and later on, opt an ERP solution for the company.
ERP systems perform financial and business planning functions, which might formerly have been carried out by many smaller standalone applications. Though every department in any company has software for a particular department, performing its requirements, what ERP does is, connects and bridges the gap between units which a regular system might not provide.
“This ERP bridge providing information and integrating processes improves the efficiency and effectiveness of all the processes. ERP implementation is a huge change for most organisations. However, when it’s being done and when it has lived in the organization, there’s a huge payback.” – Richard Aarnink
Enterprise resource planning system has transformed vividly right from an application for manufacturing resource planning (MRP) and computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) which managed to fulfill basic requirements of firms to ERP Systems nonetheless covering all core functions of a business in almost all industrial sectors.
What does ERP software do?
ERP systems replace all standalone applications and present you a single system that does all the tasks performed by small applications, assisting you to finance and plan your functions flawlessly.
Components of an ERP Solution:
We elongate the explanation further into different segments to make the article comprehensible. The information is a citation of several conventional sources presenting a close view of ERP module. ERP plays a more significant role in any organization apart from these critical areas. It mainly depends on the type of organization.
Accounting & Finance
- General Ledger
- Accounts Payable
- Accounts Receivable
- General Journals
- Trial Balance and Financial Reporting
- Bank Reconciliation
- Cash Management and Forecasting
Manufacturing & Distribution
- Purchasing, Tracking & Sales Shipments of Inventory Items
- Track by Lot and/or Serial numbers
- Track Quality Tests
- Warehouse Management functions
- Conversion Tracking
- Tracking Labor, Overhead and Other manufacturing costs
- Provide the total cost of production
- Sales order creation
- Sales order processing
- Purchase order processing
- Online sales
- Track and monitor post-sales service to products in the field
- Service Contracts
- Product Lifetime Costing has become standard functionality in current ERP solutions.
How does ERP improve business performance?
We heeded in our previous section that ERP automates the business process by performing various tasks. It not only substitutes standalone applications but efficiently executes all tasks providing accurate analytic reports which would not have been available otherwise.
It eventually improves the underlying proceeding of the business, i.e. taking an order from the customer, transporting it, invoicing it and offering after-sales service. Hence, ERP is seldom said to be the backbone of administrative affairs.
“There was talk in the past that ERP systems were legacy, lacked the agility and flexibility, and did not support interoperability. Those days are over, ERP systems are more important than ever.” –
Ray Wang, principal analyst at Forrester Research.
The role of technology in the business world is advancing in leaps and bounds and hence positioning ERP as a significant component of the competitive market.
The business solution acts as a tool to improve management though now, rediscovering itself as the need for the survival of firms.
Here is how ERP improvises the work of each department in a sounder way.
It collects financial data from transactional operations and other proceedings. Also, it makes reports based on the obtained information and numbers. It includes ledgers, trial balance data, overall balance sheets and quarterly financial statements.
Human resource management:
ERP system eases the work of HR managers as collecting data and generating reports about employee recruitment; performance reviews becomes as easy as falling off a log. The training and performance reviews also get more natural and in a very systematic manner.
Company’s cash flow is a result of inventory planning because of its straight impact on them. And ERP is that medium which improves the efficiency of inventory planning. It gathers data and creates reports about non-capitalized assets and stock items.
In today’s competitive market, the importance of sales department is growing day by day. To raise a golden handshake, the sales department of a company has to work on the customer relationships. ERP is that tool through which the department can have triggered communications and customer relationships maintained in a better way.
Supply chain management
When the company grows and targets a bigger audience, supply chain management becomes a complicated issue. ERP gathers data and generates reports about stocks, information, and transactions of the whole process. Right from supplier to manufacturer to wholesaler to retailer to consumer.
Conclusively, for small and medium enterprises, ERP not just helps support managing time and resources, it extensively helps cut cost and stay ahead of the competition.
In an age where all business technology applications should provide some competitive advantage, 76 percent of IT chiefs said operational efficiency was the goal of their organization’s ERP investment, followed by support of global business (12%), growth (5%) and IT cost reduction (4%).
How much time will it take for ERP implementation?
There’s no specific time as such taken for implementation of ERP solution. The ‘actual’ execution of ERP solution ideally takes a day or two, provided that, the solution is ready-made with no or with minor changes in it.
That being said, the module of ERP can take approximately 6-7 months depending on the nature of the company. The smarter way is to include additional features that the current ERP lacks. Complicated the nature, bigger the time taken to create a module
Do not get tricked by terms like short-term ERP implementation. There’s no such thing as short time ERP solution implementation.
Open source ERP is becoming the increasing choice of CTO’s and CIO’s.
Implementing modules may take a lot of time but it makes the process zillion time, rendering a better insight into the system and its working for your business. In case of ERP, the focus is never on the time it will take for ERP implementation but rather on understanding the need of ERP for the business and ways it will improve your business. The better you understand ERP requirements for your business, the better and smoother the implementation will be.
“If you define requirements well, and you can have a solid set, everything else flows easily from that,” –January Paulk, Panorama’s senior manager.
When will I get payback from ERP—and how much will it be?
There is no counter-thought on the aspect of ERP investment with respect to ROI equation for an ERP implementation.
ERP system helps to improve the business functionality and it has not much to do with the direct conversion of sales. Hence, expecting immediate returns on the ERP investment would be foolish.
The system mainly emphasizes on optimising the way things are operated internally rather than with customers, suppliers or partners for that matter. However, it gives you pretty penny returns if you are patient enough to wait for its results.r
It may seem financially unpleasant method at first place, but there’s no magic wand for conversions and return on investment. ERP is a stepping stool that leads you to the desired goal of conversions. Eventually, improving your sales in the long run.
A Meta group study of 63 companies found that it took eight months after the new system was in (31 months total) to see any benefits. But the median annual savings from the new ERP system was $1.6 million per year | <urn:uuid:7d860804-af02-47d6-ac51-bcdaf48b44ad> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | https://www.nevprobusinesssolutions.com/enterprise-resource-planning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267863043.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20180619134548-20180619154548-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.932692 | 1,975 | 2.546875 | 3 |
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According to Wikipedia, Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. There are variations on capitalism on how constrained business is by governmental regulation including tariffs and environmental laws, labor rights and other forms of regulation. “Free Market” is often idealized and strived for by the capitalist class.
According to Wikipedia, the Free Market is defined as, “an idealized system in which the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and by consumers. In a free market the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government…and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy.” A free market values transactions weather they be of strawberries or visits to the chemo ward. It doesn’t care.
A free market is what Keynesean economists and big business leaders say they strive for, but there are always rules to the economy including restrictions on particularly damaging products as well as tax breaks for some types of businesses and tariffs for some imported products. And these regulations are manipulated by lobbyists who infiltrate government and get particular benefits for their business or industry. We have gotten to the point where it seems business interests supplant the interests of the common citizen and are superior to the rights of nature.
I see the stage we are in of capitalism as a crisis period, when the snake is literally eating its tail, where big business is destroying the future means of production and the very biosphere, we all rely upon to survive. Government, the mechanism for the expression of the will of the people and the proper regulator of big business and capitalism is feebly inadequate to the task.
Capitalism’s penchant for concentrating benefits and externalizing costs are a big part of this looming crisis that I mention. While concentrating wealth is the desire for the owners of capitalistic ventures, wealth must be taken from some place. The waste products of the massive production operations must be put someplace. There is no away.
Most wealth is not just created anew and fresh. Most wealth is taken legally or illegally from and to the detriment of people, governments and the environment. Some wealth is created when new techniques or technologies are employed, and greater power and freedom comes available. When an inventor is motivated and rewarded for his/her invention by capitalism that is seen as good. Wealth is created, industriousness is rewarded.
When nature appeared boundless, the natural world could be mined of its riches and the benefits concentrated to those intrepid capitalist individuals without undermining natural capital in a significant way. Now humans are so numerous, and our technological use of machines and interlocking systems of production so powerful and efficient that we are affecting the very biosphere that all God’s creatures rely upon for survival.
One of the challenges I see with changing the economic system I have been describing is that we in the US do benefit from the status quo, from cheap goods supported by foreign manufacturing, from access to cheap oil and from not factoring the true cost of cradle to grave manufacturing that should be the standard. We benefit, in the short term by being able to travel on airplanes cheaply, by being able to have incredible choice of foods and technology products, most all shipped long distances and packaged in and or made with non bio-degradeable synthetic materials. We also have a government that is still in the predatory conquest mode as an unending series of wars and approximately 700 oversees military bases can speak to.
As Dickens wrote more than 150 years ago, “It was the best of times; It was the worst of times.” While that may have been true for the bustling, crowded and quickly industrializing Victorian England, it is also true today. We can order most anything we want and get it shipped to our door, yet, we can’t protect the polar bears or seem to be able to stop climate producing gasses from spewing, or forests from being felled, or another Walmart from opening. We can watch most any show ever created yet many of us suffer from anxiety and depression over the existential threat we all live under.
I have gnawed on these topics for years. How can I not be part of the problem? I spoke with a wise friend about it last recently. He feels that we are all part of the problem and we must through our consumer dollars choose better, buy less plastic wrapped products and use less gasoline (to make a short synopsis of what he said). While I try to do these things and think we all should do better in these matters, I really think the problem is so much bigger than making better individual choices. We must make better collective choices. We as citizens in citizen groups and through local, state and federal government have the responsibility to our future generations to try to reel in the beast of unfettered capitalism.
There is a responsibility of government to regulate industry and protect the citizens from undue harm and protect the land and its productivity for generations in the future. Yet government doesn’t seem to be up to the task.
Let us call out capitalism for what it has become, more destructive than beneficial. Let us not shy away from the words, regulation and socialism. Let us be what Ralph Nader espouses as the best highest form of societal duty, civic minded citizens who are participants in the decisions of our time from a local school board to if a Walmart should be built or a highway expanded from two to three lanes. Civic participation is one antidote to the death of our democracy by under regulated capitalism.
I believe we need to re-localize. A positive future is not one where we and our goods are madly zipping around the globe at great speed. A positive future requires us to slow down and root down and get connected in our place in our community. If we produce our own things nearby, we won’t stand for dumping the toxic waste in the river or ocean, we wont stand for huge open pit mines, we won’t stand for damming another river for power at the cost of a salmon run. If we have to deal with our waste instead of shipping it to China will we continue to allow the disposablization of most things? We, must learn how to live within our means, and we must learn how to challenge big capitalism.
Finally, somethings in the economy are too important to be left to the capitalists. These are the items that support survival. I believe in rent control, in limiting capital appreciation in some ways, in taxing financial transactions and in limiting weapons production. I believe in socialized health care. Some things are too important to leave to the market. It is hard to fight when you can’t pay your rent, but of course the big business capitalist know that.
There is a battle going on. We are in it and part of the crisis of capitalism. Can we transform it before it wipes out everything we care about? | <urn:uuid:58978f95-c5d7-4919-bc5d-b452e3051610> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://andrewnashideashare.blog/2019/04/16/crisis-of-capitalism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578530176.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20190421040427-20190421062427-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.963081 | 1,420 | 2.703125 | 3 |
A book report includes a short summary regarding the contents of a book along with your own opinion on it. It is a difficult task as a book has many aspects which are difficult to cover in just a few words. Also, there are various formats for writing such a report template and you never know for sure which one to follow. The below-listed examples of book report format are sure to help you out with such problems.
If you need to write a report on a book based on the narration of true events then this example of book report format can help you to write one.
This is an example of book report format which doesn’t just contain the correct format to follow but also has step by step guidelines which can assist you in writing a report. You can also see Project Report Templates.
This example of book report format can be useful for assignments given to fifth graders on writing a report as it contains easy to follow guidelines and format for it.
The examples of book report formats can be used by different people depending on the types of the examples. The templates can be used by teachers as well as students. Teachers from middle schools can benefit by using these templates to give students instructions on writing reports for fictional and nonfictional books. You can also see Summary Report Templates.
Students can make use of these templates as well if they have been given such an assignment and require help in understanding the format and content that should be written in the report. The sample report can be used by those who need to write a report on a book based on real life incidents.
This is an example of book report format which you can directly use to write a report by printing it out and answering the various questions given in it regarding the book.
If you need assistance in writing a book report given as an assignment to 7th or 8th graders then this book report template can be of great help to you.
Examples of book report formats should be used based on the types of templates they are. Most of the templates contain instructions on writing a book report. You should follow these instructions step by step in order to write your own book report. Most of these templates also contain the format for you to follow while writing your book report. If the template is a sample book report then you should read it to understand how a book report should be written. Some book templates contain questions which you should ask yourself regarding the book to write a report on it.
If you need to write the summary of a book then you should use a summary template. Book report templates can help you in writing a book report easily and in short time. The above given templates are very useful and will surely be of great help to you. | <urn:uuid:026d8bf5-aceb-4af1-a820-04b5c534025a> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://www.template.net/business/report-templates/examples-of-book-report-format/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583658981.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20190117123059-20190117145059-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.956066 | 551 | 3.4375 | 3 |
What are different types of gallbladder cancer?
There are several different types of gallbladder tumors, all of which begin when cells within the gallbladder undergo changes that cause them to grow and divide uncontrollably.
The specific types of gallbladder cancer include:
- Adenocarcinoma: The most common form of gallbladder cancer, adenocarcinomas initially develop within the gland-like cells that line the organs in the digestive tract. About 85% of gallbladder cancers are adenocarcinoma. There are three types of adenocarcinoma – non-papillary adenocaricoma, papillary adenocarcinoma and mucinous adenocarcinoma.
- Papillary adenocarcinoma: When viewed under a microscope, these cancer cells are arranged in finger-like projections within the gallbladder. Compared to other types of gallbladder cancer, papillary adenocarcinoma is much less likely to spread to nearby lymph nodes or distant organs, such as the liver.
- Less common types: While adenosquamous carcinomas, squamous cell carcinomas, small cell carcinomas, and sarcomas can potentially develop in the gallbladder, these cancer types are seen much less frequently than adenocarcinoma and papillary adenocarcinoma. | <urn:uuid:797b7f4b-2bc1-4a5a-a5c6-ac281b6b001a> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://americanoncology.com/cancer-type/gallbladder-biliary-tract-cancer/types/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572908.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817122626-20220817152626-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.920291 | 288 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Using Global Burden of Disease data, I put together a quick look at mortality in lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs) by age group. This is particularly important when seeking interventions that focus on adult mortality, one of the goals from this list.
All the way on the right of the table is the proportion of deaths that different conditions cause in each age group. (Row 4 gives each age group’s mortality as a proportion of total LMIC mortality.) Yellow coloring means that the condition accounts for 5%-10% of all the mortality in that age group; orange means 10-20%; red, greater than 20%. My notes (chapter and page references are to the Disease Control Priorities report):
- More than 20% of all LMIC deaths happen before the age of five (also see the pie chart in our developing world summary). Of these deaths, a total of 75% come from one of the following:
- Perinatal conditions account for more than 20%. Better maternal care, as well as micronutrient supplementation for expectant mothers, could substantially reduce this burden (Chapter 26).
- Lower respiratory infections (including pneumonia and influenza) account for close to 20%, even though vaccines can be highly effective against these diseases (pg 485-6). Other vaccine-preventable diseases account for an additional 10%.
- Diarrhea accounts for another 15% of these deaths. Even rudimentary medical care (such as the use of oral rehydration therapy) can prevent such deaths (pg 378).
- Malaria accounts for another 10%.
- Mortality between the ages of 5 and 14 is far less common. The biggest causes are accidents (25%), childhood-cluster (generally vaccine-preventable) diseases (15%), respiratory infections (~10%), and HIV/AIDS (7%).
- People between 15 and 44 – relatively close to the age range I would call “adult” – are at much higher risk than children from tuberculosis (accounting for nearly 10% of deaths in this range), HIV/AIDS (~20%), and maternal mortality (~6% of all deaths in this range; ~15% of female deaths in this range). Cancer (~8%), cardiovascular disease (~10%), and accidents (~15%) are also major causes of death in this age range.
- People between 45 and 59 face similar mortality risks from tuberculosis and accidents; lower (but still high) mortality risks from HIV/AIDS; and higher mortality risks from cancer, cardiovascular disease, and pulmonary obstructive disease. These three conditions are also the predominant causes of death in people over 60.
We previously performed similar analysis here, with a slightly less detailed breakdown of conditions and more focus on the developing-vs.-developed world contrast. | <urn:uuid:52e849c3-7dac-4143-8f9f-71193f67dec5> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://blog.givewell.org/2008/09/03/mortality-burdens-by-age-group/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257647612.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20180321102234-20180321122234-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.924234 | 565 | 3.421875 | 3 |
The synthesis of thyroxine in the thyroid gland takes place in the follicular cells and involves a number of steps:
1) The import of iodine into the cell
The import of iodine across the cell membrane is by an active transport mechanism as it goes against a steep concentration gradient (iodide concentration is much greater inside the cell than outside). The intake of iodide into the cell is ATP dependent and the iodide is transported in as NaI. The thyroid cells are the only cells in the body that will absorb iodine.
2) The iodination of tyrosine
The tyrosine in the thyroid cells is found in thyroglobulin, Tg. Thyroglobulin is a protein which is contained in the lumen of the thyroid cell; with a molecular weight of about 660000gmol-1, it contains 300 carbohydrates and 5500 amino acids which include 140 tyrosines, however only two to five of these tyrosines will be converted to T3 or T4.
The iodination occurs using thyroid peroxidase enzymes whilst the tyrosine is still attached to the rest of the thyroglobulin by peptide bonds.
3) The release of the thyroid hormones
TSH stimulates the release of T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin. The ratio of T4 to T3 produced in the thyroid is 4:1. Although all the bodies T4 is produced in the thyroid T3 can be derived from deiodination of T4 in other tissues such as the liver or the kidney, this process releases iodide back in to the body. | <urn:uuid:e49650a5-ead1-49ca-be75-b3392b9ddff3> | CC-MAIN-2015-32 | http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/sage/page5.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-32/segments/1438042989018.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20150728002309-00300-ip-10-236-191-2.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921503 | 332 | 3.296875 | 3 |
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|Average Seed / oz||Seed / 100' Row||Average Yield / 100' Row||Days to Harvest|
|1000||1/2 oz||120 lbs||62|
|Planting Season||Ideal Soil Temp||Sun||Frost Tolerance|
|After Last Frost||60-90°F||Full Sun||Frost Sensitive|
|Sowing Method||Seed Depth||Direct Seed Spacing||Seeds Per Packet|
|Transplant or Direct Seed||1/2"||2"||25|
|Mature Spacing||Days to Sprout||Production Cycle||Seed Viability|
Find a sunny location to plant your cucumbers. Cucumbers are a tropical vegetable, and they crave a lot of direct sunlight. choose a spot where they won't be too shaded from the afternoon sun. Cucumbers grow roots 36 to 48 inches deep, so don't plant them near trees. Tree roots will compete with your cucumber plants for water and nutrition.
The size of your garden space will dictate how many plants you can have. You'll want to space vining plants 36 to 60 inches apart. If you're growing them vertically, allow 12 inches between trellises.
Cucumbers should be grown in a weed-free area. Weeds will drain nutrients and water from the soil, starving your cucumbers.
Cucumbers thrive in soil with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH. About 7.0 is perfect.
Use rich compost or aged manures to increase your soil fertility. Mix them into the soil to a depth of about 2 inches, then gently cut and work them into the soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches.
Vine plants are far more common than bush plants. However, if you have limited space, a bush plant may be easier for you to work with. Bush cucumbers can be planted in containers.
Being tropical plants, cucumbers are exceedingly sensitive to cold temperatures. Wait until at least 2 weeks after the date of the last frost to plant your cucumbers. If you want an early crop, start your seeds indoors about 3 weeks before you plan to plant, then transplant the seedlings to your garden. In cooler climates, you can warm the soil a few degrees by covering it with black plastic.
Moisten the soil before seeding. Stick your finger in the soil to check its moisture level before planting. If you feel dry soil up to your first knuckle, water the soil before seeding using a gentle hose or watering can. Watering the soil before you plant your seeds reduces the risk that you could wash them away.
Cucumbers have fragile root systems. It's much easier to seed the garden directly rather than trying to transplant seedlings. Drop 3 or 4 seeds together, planting at a depth of just under an inch, in a group every 18 to 36 inches. When the first true leaves appear, thin to the strongest single plant.
Add mulch once seedlings sprout up. Mulch helps prevent the return of weeds, which can deprive your cucumbers of nutrients. It also keeps the soil warm and moist.
The soil surrounding cucumber plants should be slightly moist at all times. Plan on giving your cucumbers at least 1 to 2 inches of water a week to fulfill their hydration needs.
Be especially vigilant as the plant flowers and begins to fruit. Stress from lack of water can result in bitter-tasting cucumbers. Water at the soil level. Wet leaves are at risk of developing powdery mildew. A drip irrigation system can regulate the water flow more constantly, while keeping the foliage dry.
Shade your cucumbers from excess heat. If you live in an area where summer temperatures routinely climb above 90 °F, your cucumbers will likely need some shade from the afternoon sun. Plant taller crops south of your cucumbers to provide some shade, or use a shade cloth that will block at least 40 percent of the sunlight.
Fertilize again once flowers begin to bud. If you fertilized your soil before seeding, wait until runners appear on the vines and the flowers begin to bud, then add a mild liquid fertilizer or organic feed such as compost or aged manure every 2 weeks.
Pick cucumbers often, at the optimal size for the variety you planted. Generally speaking, the more frequently you pick cucumbers, the more cucumbers the plant will grow. Check your plants every day and pick the cucumbers that are around optimal size for their variety.
Pollination, insect; Life Cycle, annual; Isolation Distance, ½ mile
Cucumbers will cross readily with other cucumbers of the same species, so isolation by distance, time, or barrier is necessary. Let the fruits over-ripen on the vine, they will get huge and turn yellow. Leaving on until the vines are dying is a good way to get very mature seed. Pull the cukes and bring them inside to allow to ripen further in a dry, dark place. When the cucumbers begin to soften, scoop out the seeds and put into a jar filled with an equal amount of water to seed mass. Let the seeds ferment for about 3 days, then pour off the scum and any floating seeds that will not be viable. Rinse the remaining seeds in a colander, then allow to dry on screens or several sheets of newspaper for at least three weeks. | <urn:uuid:d79a8c9c-8364-47b3-9b1a-98f7cfa5bfd7> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://sowtrueseed.com/products/muncher-organic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100264.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20231201021234-20231201051234-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.920163 | 1,173 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Hydraulic fluid contamination and deterioration will happen over the course of normal use in a servohydraulic test system. Failure to remove the contaminants or change the fluid before severe breakdown occurs can lead to sluggish system performance or test equipment damage. Here are the top three things to address:
The most common hydraulic fluid contaminants are entrapped air and water, as well as particles of metal, rubber or dirt. A correct evaluation of the contaminants in the hydraulic system is important so that the source can be identified to prevent future contamination and test system damage.
Fluid deterioration might more appropriately be called “additive deterioration.” Additives give the oil its particular characteristics—and because these additives are susceptible to chemical and physical change, their deterioration is what leads to fluid breakdown.
Fluid deterioration is often caused by operation at high temperatures. Fluid reservoir temperatures are best kept below 60° C (140° F). To keep fluid operating temperatures within the acceptable range of 38-52° C (100-125° F), standard MTS hydraulic power units are equipped with full-motor-horsepower heat exchangers, over-temperature interlocks and temperature controls. MTS Echo HPU Health Monitoring packages can provide information about temperature performance trends over time and help protect against premature fluid deterioration.
Fluid sampling and analysis is the best way to determine whether the fluid and filters should be changed. Fluid analysis will provide an accurate viscosity reading while detecting specific contaminants such as water or foreign particles. It can also be used to check the chemical makeup of the fluid to identify whether the additive package is still able to perform as it was originally designed. MTS Fluid Analysis and Fluid Care Programs are designed specifically for maximizing performance and extending the operating life of servohydraulic test systems. | <urn:uuid:f3c8e463-d8c4-4ebb-9003-1890088d84f0> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.mts.com/en/articles/service/3-threats-fluid-health | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710764.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20221130124353-20221130154353-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.904572 | 389 | 2.828125 | 3 |
5. Language differences
Since MOOCs are opened for global students, due to language problems or learning mode problems, if the students do not good at the language used in these courses, they will become very difficult to catch up with the progress of the course because lecturer will not consider different students’ abilities to accommodate other students or change the teaching method.
6. Hard to Simulate Traditional Hand-on Course
As the students taking MOOCs can only learn theoretical knowledge, it is hard to simulate traditional hand-on course. Some courses such as sports, music or science courses which students may need to have some practical trainings in order to help them understand more about the course. Without the traditional hand-on courses, students may not have that kinds of resources or materials, so that they may hardly to improve their hand-on skills without lecturer’s guide.
7. Cost and copyright to develop MOOCs
Since it provides a free course to student, the universities need to bear all the cost, therefore, it may affect the feasibility or development of MOOCs if universities don’t have any contributions. Besides that, MOOC is a online course, people can easily capture the course content to do illegal things like making CDs to sell.
8. Hardly take care all students
As the MOOCs can let a large number of students to study one course in the same period, although students can ask questions through the web forum or email, some of the teachers may need to teach other courses simultaneously and they may not have enough time to answer all questions from students applied the MOOCs. Moreover, feedback from teachers may not comprehensive or detail enough, so that students may not know their problems accurately.
9. Lack of close supervision
As students apply MOOCs just need to sign in the website to take lessons and have the examination. Students are easily to ask the others to help them to attend the lessons. However, it is hard to track who sign in the website even though it can record the IP address. Also, students can easily cheat in the examination because they can search the answers on the Internet or ask for help in the meantime. Therefore, it may not accurately reflect the ability of students. | <urn:uuid:bc9bfed6-0861-42bd-8d6f-477cfaac8fca> | CC-MAIN-2017-09 | http://www.essay.uk.com/essays/education/essay-moocs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501174159.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104614-00341-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95185 | 456 | 3.078125 | 3 |
The problem with the microwaves Penzias and Wilson discovered was that they were uniform in all directions. This implied that the distribution of matter and energy in the Big Bang was uniform.
Since the universe today is definitely lumpy (there are loads of galaxies with vast gaps between them), something was up - the Big Bang should also have been lumpy!
In 1992, the so-called Cosmic Microwave Background was studied in detail from a satellite called COBE. It finally found variation in the radiation, as shown below: | <urn:uuid:309e4a7b-731e-4673-91f3-a5cda290d5f3> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://www.gcse.com/eb/cmb.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376826856.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20181215131038-20181215153038-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.988485 | 108 | 3.1875 | 3 |
The federal government will launch time-limited consultations in order to get average Canadians’ views on its policies on climate change. These are intended to gather information about the impacts of global food scarcity on food production and their perceptions on these policies.
The consultation aims to stimulate discussion in relation to Canada’s fertilizer emissions reduction target of cutting emissions by 30 percent from 2020 levels by 2030, the AAFC said in a statement.
” The survey states that the feedback will be used to guide the Government of Canada in developing and implementing a strategy to lower emissions and increase nutrient management in Canadian agricultural production.
The goal is to control “direct” (following fertilizer applications) and “indirect” (from fertilizer leached from field and released into the atmosphere as ammonia), the AAFC stated in a discussion document .
The target excludes emissions from fertilizer manufacturing.
According to a 2021 study commissioned by Fertilizer Canada, an industry group, slashing fertilizer use by just 20 percent could cost Canadian farmers more than $48 billion in lost sales due to lower yields by 2030.
The AAFC document noted that agriculture accounted for approximately 10 percent (73 megatonnes of CO2) of Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions in 2019. Synthetic fertilizers contributed about 12. 75 megatonnes that year, which is less than 2 percent of the nation’s total emissions.
This latest consultations are the second phase of the Liberal government’s public engagement process since it introduced its Strength Climate Plan in December 2020. The previous consultations, held in March 2021, targeted the agricultural sector, including commodity and grower associations, provinces, and industry organizations.
The sector was concerned on many fronts including its negative effect on crop yields. According to the paper.
” Several agricultural commodity and producer organizations expressed concern that the target to reduce fertilizer emissions could lead to a decline in crop yields,” says the paper.
“They questioned setting a target based on absolute emissions vs emission intensity, which appears to be in direct conflict with the Government of Canada’s export growth target of $75 billion worth of agriculture and agri-food commodities by 2025.”
Several province agricultural ministers denounce the federal government’s plan to reduce fertilizer emissions.
Following a meeting last month between federal, territorial, and provincial agricultural ministers, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario voiced dismay at the Liberals’ plan. They stated in a conference that the reduction of fertilizer emissions would have severe consequences for Canadian farmers.
” We’re concerned about this arbitrary goal,” Saskatchewan Agriculture Minister David Marit stated in a jointly issued statement together with Nate Horner, his Alberta counterpart.
” This crop was the most costly ever planted, after a difficult year in the Prairies,” Horner stated. The world wants Canada to grow its production to solve global food shortages. This .”
must be clearly understood by the Federal government.
Ontario Agriculture Minister Lisa Thompson also expressed her disappointment at the federal government’s plan in a tweet on July 22.
“As farmers try to feed Canada, and the rest of the world with their harvests, we must work together and support them in continuing efforts to grow the food that we need,” she said.
Several Conservative MPs have also opposed the plan. John Barlow (MP for Foothills in Alberta) stated in a that farmers stand up against climate change policies similar to those in many European countries.
“Farmers around the globe are back in opposition. They’re pushing back against the European Union’s farm-to-fork agenda, which is making farming unsustainable, food prices skyrocket, and food insecurity even more of a crisis,” he said.
On July 23, multiple convoy protests were launched across Canada in solidarity with farmers in the Netherlands and other European countries who have been protesting against climate change policies over the past few months. At least 55 convoys rolled out in eight provinces: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan.
Isaac Teo and Petr Svab contributed to this article.
Andrew Chen, an Epoch Times reporter located in Toronto. | <urn:uuid:125d10e5-c4af-412e-8c43-2a7b1e0c5663> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://thelibertywatchdog.com/2022/08/01/ottawa-launches-public-consultations-on-reducing-fertilizer-emission/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100781.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20231209004202-20231209034202-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.948564 | 871 | 2.640625 | 3 |
A real time environmental data monitoring, management and analysis system for the coral reefs off the coast of Belize
Date of Original Version
In 1997 an oceanographic-meteorological monitoring, management, and analysis system was established (and upgraded in 2000) for the Smithsonian Institution's Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystems program (CCRE) in Belize. The system, the first successful environmental monitoring system in coastal Belize, operates from the CCRE marine field station on Carrie Bow Cay. Many factors including operational environment, remote location, data accessibility, power restrictions, requirements for unattended operation and available communications for data transfer influenced system engineering design criteria. These considerations are discussed and supporting data and illustrations, demonstrating the reliability of the monitoring station and its importance to the research efforts of CCRE scientists, are provided. Descriptions of the various components that make up the system including an Internet data management and communication system, a data analysis and presentation system with embedded geographic information system, and a commercial environmental data acquisition system and sensors are provided.
Publication Title, e.g., Journal
Oceans Conference Record (IEEE)
Opishinski, Thomas B., Malcolm L. Spaulding, Klaus Rützler, and Michael Carpenter. "A real time environmental data monitoring, management and analysis system for the coral reefs off the coast of Belize." Oceans Conference Record (IEEE) 2, (2001): 1188-1197. doi: 10.1109/OCEANS.2001.968282. | <urn:uuid:6446c533-b318-4ab9-b1d1-46514f785d02> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oce_facpubs/437/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100264.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20231201021234-20231201051234-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.852227 | 308 | 3.046875 | 3 |
1) In programming and engineering disciplines, a component is an identifiable part of a larger program or construction. Usually, a component provides a particular function or group of related functions. In programming design, a system is divided into components that in turn are made up of modules . Component test means testing all related modules that form a component as a group to make sure they work together.
2) In object-oriented programming and distributed object technology, a component is a reusable program building block that can be combined with other components in the same or other computers in a distributed network to form an application. Examples of a component include: a single button in a graphical user interface, a small interest calculator, an interface to a database manager. Components can be deployed on different servers in a network and communicate with each other for needed services. A component runs within a context called a container . Examples of containers include pages on a Web site, Web browsers, and word processors.
Sun Microsystems, whose JavaBeans application program interface defines how to create component, defines "a component model" as typically providing these major types of services:
- Component interface exposure and discovery. Thus, during application use, one component can interrogate another one to discover its characteristics and how to communicate with it. This allows different companies (possibly independent service providers) to create components that can interoperate with the components of other companies without either having to know in advance exactly which components it will be working with.
- Component properties. This allows a component to make its characteristics publicly visible to other components.
- Event handling. This allows one component to identify to one or more other components that an event (such as a user pressing a button) has occurred so that the component can respond to it. In Sun's example, a component that provided a button user interface for a finance application would "raise" an event when the button was pressed, resulting in a graph-calculating component gaining control, formulating a graph, and displaying it to the user.
- Persistence. This allows the state of components to be preserved for later user sessions.
- Application builder support. A central idea of components is that they will not only be easy and flexible for deploying in a distributed network, but that developers can easily create new components and see the properties of existing ones.
- Component packaging. Since a component may comprise several files, such as icons and other graphical files, Sun's component model includes a facility for packaging the files in a single file format that can be easily administered and distributed. (Sun calls their component package a JAR (Java Archive) file format.) | <urn:uuid:ec274a9a-f851-4e1e-a311-9d1a4c4253c7> | CC-MAIN-2015-14 | http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/component | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-14/segments/1427131303523.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20150323172143-00059-ip-10-168-14-71.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918523 | 532 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Have you been thinking of companion plants that you can grow together with your watermelons in order to maximize the use of your watermelon farm?
If so, then this article contains everything you need to know about watermelon companion planting.
In this article, you will learn about different pests that affect watermelon and the best companion plants to combat them.
Also, you will get to learn about other watermelon companion plants that tend to attract beneficial or helpful insects for pollination.
Guess what, most of the watermelon companion plants you will find in this article are very close to your reach and are very easy to grow.
So, if you are ready to learn more about watermelon companion planting and maximize the use of your farmland, then continue reading this article till the end.
How do I describe companion planting?
The concept of companion planting can be explained in the simple term of “plants helping plants perform better”.
These plants can successfully grow and produce their fruits on their own, but with the help of artificial chemicals like pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and many more.
Yet, using companions in your farm will help you save time and the use of artificial chemicals to aid the growth of your plants.
If planted rightly, these companions serve as natural pesticides, nutrient suppliers, herbicides and also pollinators.
What to consider when planting watermelon companion plants?
It will be easier to grow this melon plant if you know the step by step cultivation guide to planting watermelon.
Aside from those steps, there are several things you need to consider before planting companions in your watermelon farm. They are:
1. Exposure to sunlight
In cultivating your watermelon, you must give greater attention to the spacing of the companion plants as well as the watermelon itself.
This is because your watermelon needs enough space to comfortably grow and spread its vine.
Watermelon can spread its vine between six to twenty feet away.
Meanwhile, this does not affect the taste of the watermelon but ensures better growth.
Yet, when watermelons are closely planted, they overlap.
This, therefore, makes the vines that are at the top to have sufficient measure of sunlight, while the vines below suffer from its lack.
For this reason, they choke themselves, leading to stunted growth.
Consequently, lack of sufficient sunlight leads to the death of the vines below.
Always remember that Its exposure to sunlight is priority.
Accordingly, you don’t need to plant them close to tall stem plants that will disrupt the penetration of sunlight.
Thus, it is a bad idea to grow your watermelon plants together with other crops that will suffocate them.
2. Pest repellents
When you don’t implement a pest control measure on your watermelon farm, pests may attack the farm and then result in poor watermelon yields.
However, you can naturally repel harmful plants from your watermelon farm by growing companion plants that are natural pest repellents.
This is very important because not all watermelon plant species have the ability to draw pollinators to themselves.
As a result, always have in mind to plant with your watermelons plants that attract pollinators like Bees.
These Bees happen to be cross pollinators, travelling from one species of watermelon and other melons to another.
The effect of this might be that your seedless species of watermelon will produce fruits with seeds and vice versa.
However, this is only possible when you have different species of watermelon on your farm.
What are the pests that attack watermelon?
These are piercing insects that feed on the sap of a plant.
Sucking away the sweetness from the leaves of watermelon, they negatively affect the growth of the vine, alongside the fruit development.
The kind of aphid that attacks watermelon is the cotton/melon aphid.
They are tiny insects that are found under the leaves of watermelon.
The watermelon mosaic virus alongside other viruses is carried by aphids and transmitted to watermelon.
It makes the leaves curl, turn yellow, wrinkle and wither.
2. Squash/Epilachna beetle
It is called the African melon ladybird when it becomes an adult.
They are carriers of squash mosaic virus.
At the same time, they feed on the leaves of watermelon, the stem and create holes in the fruit.
The leaves of the plant are subject to turn yellow, shrink, dry up and wither.
This can entirely destroy the young growing plant of watermelon.
3. Cucumber beetle
This is one of the major pests that attack watermelon.
Both the striped and the spotted beetle attack watermelons.
It has the ability to transmit a dangerous virus called bacteria wilt to the plant if not controlled.
The effect of the disease is wilting and death of the plant.
This insect creates dark and rough spots on the leaves of the plant.
An adverse effect of the spot it creates when its number becomes much is the deformation of the leaves of watermelon.
It is a carrier of the tomato spotted wilt virus.
5. Flea beetles
These beetles are dark and shiny.
They eat through the leaves of watermelons and create holes on them.
The holes they create on plant leaves eventually slow and reduce the growth of the watermelon.
This pest can eventually destroy young growing plants if the damage it causes is harsh.
Though the older plants can manage its infestation, it can decrease the rate at which they grow.
These pests are always active at night and cover up themselves in the soil at the base of the plant during the day.
Also, they can hide themselves in plant debris.
This makes them present in the soil where watermelons are planted.
By hiding in the soil, they have the ability to cause severe damage to the seedlings of the plant.
The damage they cause in the soil is to cut the seedling from the seed line.
They also have the ability to eat holes into the watermelon fruit.
7. Cabbage loopers
These insects are caterpillars that have white lines on their body and are pale green in colour.
They create holes in the leaves of the plant and feed on the skin of the fruit, thereby damaging the plant growth.
Their eggs are either white or pale green and are laid close to the leaf margin on the lower surface of the leaf.
8. Spider mites
They are also sucking insects that create bronze dots on the watermelon fruit.
These pests are spider like in structure but are very small to notice.
They can be noticed by the webs they build on the plants.
Webs can be built over the fruit but they leave the fruits healthy and fit for consumption.
9. Root Knot Nematodes
These pests are roundworms that are tiny and colourless.
They live in in the soil and go into plant root seeking for comfortable tissues where they will finally reside.
The effect of their attack on plant roots are swelling of the root cells and their inability to soak up nutrients as well as water.
Consequently, this causes the vines and leaves of the plant to turn yellow for a while, after which, they wilt.
Due to these negative effects, the watermelon plants will begin to experience stunted growth.
At the end of the planting season, you might get disappointed by the level of poor yield you will have. That is if the plant survives the attack.
What are the companion plants that protect watermelon from pests?
You would not want your watermelon plant to be attacked by pest that causes damages that may not be repaired.
Also, you will want to grow a watermelon that is free from pesticides and other chemicals that are harmful to human health.
Therefore, you will like to know the plants that naturally fight against pests that transfer diseases.
These protective plants are:
Garlic and other alliums like onions, chives, shallot and leeks are good companions for watermelon.
Aside from helping to improve the taste of vegetables and fruits, they also serve as natural pesticides for plants.
Particularly, they defend watermelons from flea beetles, aphids, and other harmful pests.
It is a strong repellent against squash beetles, spider mites, and aphids.
Although it is a repellent, it is one plant that can also help to improve the healthy state of your young plant.
You can grow this plant in a container and kept close to your farm, or it can be planted some distance away from your plants.
This is to prevent it from suppressing your plant.
3. Lamiaceae family
Plants like mint, spearmint and catnip belonging to this family are very effective pest repellent.
These plants are best known for their ability to repel aphids, spider mites, ants and flea beetles.
Though they can be very effective in repelling pests that causes damage to your watermelon plant, they can cause harm to your plant if not controlled.
It is best to be planted in a container and kept close to your farm.
That way, they will not be corrosive to your plant growth.
The corn plant, though tall, is one natural repellent of cucumber beetle.
This can be planted close to watermelons in a way that it will not provide shade for the watermelon.
In return, the spreading of the vines of watermelon will help prevent the growth of weeds around the corn.
Both plants happen to be beneficial to their selves.
These plants are fast growing and are highly beneficial to the watermelon plant.
It can serve as a weed control plant and can be cultivated before your watermelon vines can spread.
They are very effective as a natural repellent to cucumber beetles.
Furthermore, they can serve as trap crops for flea beetles and protection against squash beetles.
As a flower, this is one plant that can be grown as a companion in virtually every vegetable farm, including the watermelon.
In the watermelon farm, it is one of the natural repellent of cucumber beetle.
Not only does it repel cucumber beetles, but also attract hover flies which can manage aphids.
At the same time, its appealing scent also attracts other beneficial insects.
Again, its scent prevents harmful insects like the squash bugs from attacking the plant.
Its root substance is capable of destroying nematodes that cause adverse harm to the watermelon plant.
Its toxin is very effective in keeping away squash beetles and flea beetles, as well as ants.
This plant can be invasive in your farm.
To prevent its harsh effect on your plants, it is best controlled when planted in containers and kept close to your farm.
The Nasturtium is also one flower that serves as an excellent companion to vegetables.
It is also highly effective in repelling the cucumber beetle, squash beetle, as well as aphids when planted as a companion for watermelon.
Also, it attracts beneficial insects like bees to pollinate the plants.
What are the types of companion plants that attract insects for pollination?
Undoubtedly, we know that pollination process is necessary for fertilization which brings about the production of fruits.
The major insect that is needed by the watermelon plant for pollination is the Bee.
Some watermelon plants like the triploid/seedless watermelon variety do not have flowers that attract insects that pollinates.
This, therefore, calls for the need of pollinators which are beneficial insects to help move the pollen grains from the male flowers to the female flowers that are on the same plant.
So, the companions that helps in pollinating watermelon plants are:
This flowering herb with its beautiful flowers and scent can be a good companion to your watermelon plant.
It can call to your plant pollinators, especially bees.
This plant is a three in one functional and beneficial plant for watermelons.
It functions as an attractant to pollinators, as a repellent to pests, and as a plant that supplies the needed nutrients to watermelons.
Firstly, their beautifully plated flowers attract pollinators like bees and wasps to the watermelon.
Secondly, as a repellent, they help protect the watermelon from cucumber beetles and squash beetles.
Thirdly, as a nutrient supplier, it helps watermelon with needed nutrients.
Oregano is a flowering herb that is not just able to attract pollinators, but is also able to repel almost all pests in your farm.
Its lovely scent is appealing to a lot of beneficial pollinators like hoverflies and lacewings..
At the same time, its scent confuses certain pests that are harmful to the watermelon.
Similarly, this herb helps in the development of healthy plants, watermelon inclusive.
4. Mixed wildflowers
It is also important to plant some mixed wildflowers to your watermelon farm.
These flowers are very good at calling the attention of the needed bees for pollination.
What are the types of watermelon companion plants that add nutrients to the soil?
Here are the best companions to plant to ensure your watermelon gets the best of nutrients for a healthy growth:
1. Pole beans or Bush beans
Obviously, the soil needs nitrogen to produce effectively, and pole or bush beans are good plants that supply nitrogen to the soil.
You have to be cautious of how you plant your pole beans.
Do not let them cast shade on the watermelon plants.
You could make a trellis that will permit the free passage of sunlight on the watermelon plants.
Even though beans can supply the nitrogen needed for your watermelons to grow properly it is still bad for them.
This is because they tend to attract harmful pests, like melon aphids, that attack watermelon plants, thereby causing harm to the farm.
So, you have to weigh your options and probably look for other means of enriching the soil.
2. Lamb quarters
Although weeds are meant to be cleared off the farm, this weed is highly beneficial when planted close to your watermelon farm.
It contains quite a number of needed minerals which the watermelon plant needs.
Also, it helps in developing the vigour of the melon fruit.
List of plants you should never grow with your watermelons
Clearly, so many plants when grown as watermelon companion can help in assuring a healthier growth in contrast with when planted alone.
Yet, there are others that you should never plant with your watermelons.
This is because they tend to harm the watermelons by attracting harmful pests or by suppressing the growth of the plants.
Some of the companion plants to avoid growing together with your watermelons are:
1. Cucurbit family
Watermelon plant should not be grown alongside its fellow cucurbit plants.
This is because they all attract similar kinds of pest.
At the same time, they are also plants that need enough space to be grown.
This will lead to making the watermelon uncomfortable as it needs enough space to spread its vine and grow healthy.
These plants include Cucumbers, summer and winter squash, zucchini, Pumpkins.
Most importantly, avoid planting watermelon with other melon plants.
Also note that they may cross pollinate if planted with watermelon, thereby making the fruit of the plants to be different from the species that was planted.
This plant needs enough space to also spread its vine, therefore causing both the potato and the watermelon to compete for space.
If you insist on planting potato with your watermelon, then you will need to lift the potato before the watermelon grows properly.
Doing this may lead to causing damages to the watermelon and other companion plants.
This plant also has the ability to attract to the watermelon plant the cotton/melon aphid.
Therefore, planting it close to your watermelon will cause huge damage.
These plants are known to attract certain species of aphid that does not affect the watermelon.
Yet, they also need space to grow and might give shade to the watermelon plant, thereby disrupting the passage of sunlight to the plant.
If they occupy space, then they make the pests, as well as diseases easily transferable.
4. Aster and Roses family
Flowers that are members of the aster family, alongside roses catch the attention of huge number of several aphid species.
If planted close to the watermelon plant, they are liable to cause severe damage to the plant.
These aphids can comfortably transfer from these flowers and feast on watermelons, leaving them malnourished and possibly, death.
5. Walnut and shagbark hickory tree
You may decide to plant the watermelon plant close to a walnut or a shagbark hickory tree, but this is highly risky.
The juglone which is very toxic to vegetables and produced by the branches, roots, nuts and leaves of both trees can cause stunted growth to the watermelon and also prevent fruit development.
Watermelon plants can manage the effect of juglone more than any other vegetable, but this toxic substance will still negatively affect the plant.
In the same way, the toxin makes the plant experience stunted growth and poor seed growth.
Although the walnut tree produces a larger amount of this toxin, always plant your watermelon and other vegetables far from the roots of these trees.
For your watermelon to grow healthy with matured and well nourishing fruits, you will need to plant them in a condition favourable enough for its growth.
A well planned farm of watermelon and its companions should have one or more plants that will be strategically planted to prevent pest infestation, attract beneficial pollinators and nutrient suppliers.
This will save you a lot when talking about cost of purchasing chemicals and other resources that may be needed for the growth of your watermelon.
It is important to keep in mind the pests that these companions attract and what they perform.
This way, you will not put your farm at risk of planting one companion that has a beneficial attribute, but its presence in the farm will only cause problems.
If you are sure you have it all planned out, then you are ready to plant.
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- Minorca Chicken – Characteristics, Origin, Breed Info and Lifespan | <urn:uuid:947b46ef-1e42-4186-8311-fdec3e307e68> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://agro4africa.com/watermelon-companion-plants/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510707.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20230930181852-20230930211852-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.932245 | 4,012 | 2.96875 | 3 |
|Sampling frequency||8kHz (ISDN quality)|
G.711 is the oldest codec. It was approved by the ITU as early as 1965. It requires only a low computing power and generates a data stream of 64 kBit/s.
G.711 is an ITU-T guideline for digitizing analog audio signals using pulse code modulation (PCM). Areas of application for this codec are classic fixed-line telephony and IP telephony using the A-law or μ law digitization method (PCMA or PCMU).
With G.711, one sample of the audio signal is generated in time steps of 125 µs, corresponding to a sampling rate of 8000 Hz. The sample is lossy compressed to 8 bit. The generated data stream has a data transfer rate of 8000 Hz × 8 bit = 64 kbit/s. According to the Nyquist Shannon sampling theorem, the highest frequency of the analog signal may not exceed 4000 Hz. According to G.711, only the frequency range from 300 to 3400 Hz is coded during digitization. For the subsequent non-linear coding of the digital signal, two different methods are used for quantization: In Europe the A-law procedure, in North America and Japan the µ-law procedure. Because of the overhead, data transfer rates of 80 kbit/s to 128 kbit/s are required for IP transmission of G.711 voice channels.
In the Mean Opinion Score (MOS) , G.711 reaches a value of 4.4. The MOS determines the subjective perception of a user's voice quality. This gives G.711 a higher subjective voice quality than most other codecs, such as G.726 and G.729 , which have the advantage that data compression requires a lower data transfer rate.
IP telephony providers often use G.711, which is the same procedure as ISDN. The advantage lies in the simple transmission of voice data from the fixed network to the IP network and vice versa. A recoding of the language data is not necessary.
However, this codec is not suitable for narrowband Internet access or network connections. | <urn:uuid:ca08e4af-bbe0-4236-81d0-98135ec98579> | CC-MAIN-2020-29 | https://service.snom.com/display/wiki/G.711?reload=true | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593655902496.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200710015901-20200710045901-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.897438 | 446 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Henry John Minthorn was born in Ontario, Canada in 1846 to a Quaker family that had emigrated from England. His parents lived on a dairy farm, and like many youngsters, he disliked the regimented work required. In 1859, the family moved to West Branch, Iowa and joined the Quaker community. During the years before the Civil War, Quakers were quite active in helping slaves escape to freedom in the north via the underground railroad. Minthorn participated in this work.
Minthorn entered the State University of Iowa in the early 1860s planning to be a teacher. When Union Army Recruiters arrived on campus, he and his school mates joined. He served less than a year, did not see battle, and was discharged in November 1865. Joining the army did not set well with those in his Quaker community, who were avowed pacifists. After his dismissal from the Army, Minthorn completed his education and went on to teach in Iowa and Michigan. In 1873, he entered medical school at Jefferson Medi
cal College in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and graduated in 1877. Through the rest of his life, he combined teaching and medical practice. Physicians, especially rural physicians, needed a second profession to make a living since many patients were unable to pay cash for care.
He became a government agency physician and school administrator, traveling to Oklahoma and Oregon. Then, in September 1885, he and his family moved to Newberg so he could b
ecome the first superintendent of the recently established Friends Pacific Academy, forerunner of today’s George Fox University. He also served as a local physician to the community and areas surrounding Newberg, Oregon.
The need for good medical care was apparent in Dr. Minthorn’s own family. His brother-in-law had died of consumption, his sister Hulda died of “cold on the lungs” and even his nephew, Herbert Hoover, had a bout of croup as a baby so severe that some members of the family thought Herbert had died. Herbert’s aunt, in “laying him out” noticed some sign of life and revived him. Clearly Minthorn knew of the need for good medical care and the difference it made in the lives of every day folks.
Medical Practice in the 1880s
Medical options in the 1880s were limited. Diagnostic tools basic to medicine today were not available in the 19th century. No lab tests, no x-rays and no scanning equipment could aid the physician in determining the needs of the patient. In 1885, there was no hospital in Newberg, although in 1875 the St. Vincent nuns had opened a hospital in Portland. No antibiotics were available, and many, old and young, died of infections that would be readily treated today. Surgery and anesthesia were still in their infancy and surgical procedures were usually performed only as a last resort.
Country doctors did not have offices, as are common today. When someone was ill, the family summoned the doctor or sometimes a patient could be seen at the doctor’s home, usually in the parlor. House calls were common, and Dr. Minthorn had several horses and a buggy that he used to reach those in need. When beginning a journey to see a patient, the rural physician needed to bring all supplies which might be needed. At times the doctor might stay with the patient for several hours, especially in cases of complicated child birth, trauma or severe illness. Often the doctor would be exhausted with the long hours and travel over difficult, muddy roads. Falling asleep behind the wagon team was common, and thankfully the horses always knew the way home and where to find their next feed!
Herbert Hoover, who was orphaned before his tenth birthday, was Dr. Minthorn’s nephew.
When the Minthorns moved to Newberg, they asked their relatives to send Bert to come from Iowa to live with them and attend the Friends Pacific Academy. Uncle Henry was stern, demanding, and inflexible, in young Hoover’s eyes.
However, one summer day Bert and friends tried making their own cherry bomb fireworks. After the fireworks exploded, Dr. Minthorn patiently spent several hours picking out pieces of debris from the skin of several small boys. No further punishment ensued.
A Quaker, Rural Physician and Teacher
One belief that Dr. Minthorn shared with today’s medical community is that life style often leads to illnesses that could be prevented if people took better care of themselves. From Dr. Minthorn’s perspective, education and Christianity were twin solutions to the world’s problems. The Minthorns moved to Salem in 1888 where Dr. Minthorn operated the Oregon Land Company. After it failed in 1893, Dr. Minthorn traveled and worked in Alaska as a physician and teacher. He operated a sanitarium in Newport, Oregon. Dr. Mnthorn died in Portland, Oregon October 11, 1922. His obituary ran locally and in The Wall Street Journal. Herbert Hoover’s adolescent difficulties with his Uncle John were resolved by the wisdom of age. He later ascribed the attributes of commitment, principles and intellect to the lessons learned from his stern uncle. He noted in his memories that “adolescent impressions are not of historical importance.” When he dedicated the Hoover-Minthorn House, Hoover declared it was a testament to rural physicians, and a legacy to Dr. Henry J. Minthorn, a Quaker, rural physician and teacher.
Herbert Hoover and Horses
Dr. Minthorn, as did most rural physicians, relied heavily on horses for transportation to his patients. Dr. Minthorn was also quite fond of horses, but this quality did not pass down to his nephew.
One day Dr. Minthorn asked Bert to deliver medication to a patient. Bert wanted to use his wheel (bicycle), but Dr. Minthorn insisted Bert take the horse. When Bert finally returned, on foot and leading the horse, his dislike of things equestrian was finally known.
Later Herbert Hoover was to write of horses:
I finally arrived at the conclusion that a horse was one of the original mistakes of creation. I felt he was too high off the ground for convenience and safety on mountain trails. He would have been better if he had been given a dozen legs so that he had the smooth and sure pace of a centipede. Further he should have had scales as protection against flies, and a larger water tank like a camel. All these gadgets were known to creation prior to the geological period when the horse was evolved. Why were they not used?
Patent Medicines, Snake Oil and Medical Therapies
Nineteenth century medical knowledge was incomplete and, at times, incorrect. Without the ability to treat common ailments reliably, many remedies were developed to “cure” whatever symptoms people experienced. It was not unusual to find a “patent medicine” claiming to cure tuberculosis, dyspepsia, venereal disease and infant colic all in one bottle of miracle liquid. Almost all of these bottles of medicines contained high levels of alcohol, 50 percent alcohol was not uncommon; cocaine and laudanum were not uncommon ingredients. The dosages suggested for these medications were not listed in most cases and since some of these claimed to treat infant colic and tuberculosis in adults with the same formulation, they were especially hazardous for children. Infants in the 19th century did have colic, and any parent who has had to deal with colic, even in the 21st century, can understand why some were willing to try these drugs 150 years ago. Sadly, some infants were subjected to overdoses of alcohol, cocaine and or laudanum.
The patent medicine industry reached its peak during the last half of the 19th century. They were heavily advertised and sold well. Women were frequent users of patent medicines and were often directly targeted by the manufactures. “Female troubles” and “female complaints” were commonly listed as symptoms these medications could cure. Many users found that they needed to have their daily dose of ‘medication’, to the point that addiction became an eventual focus of the movement to regulate drugs. By the end of the 19th century, physicians, medical societies, and the temperance movement in America were strongly united in the desire to reform the industry. At the turn of the century, reforms would be enacted to require a list of ingredients, correct misleading advertising and enact other reforms that would eventually lead to a reliable pharmaceutical industry.
Before any 21st century reader becomes too critical of our ancestors, it should be noted that almost none of the common medications we all take for granted were available. Herbal remedies did exist and were used to some degree, but they were not always known to many segments of the population. For example, fevers were treated with cold water baths as antipyretics such as aspirin and Tylenol were not available. Antibiotics would not be available for another fifty years, and the concepts of antisepsis for wound care were not yet developed. Pneumonia, tuberculosis, infected teeth and venereal diseases were frequent killers.
The treatments of illnesses were often labor intensive. Since antibiotics were not yet available, wounds often required frequent irrigation with boric acid, and just as frequently changes of soggy dressings. Patients fighting an infection and fever would require lots of changes of bedding and personal care. At that time, bed rest was thought to be better than early ambulation. Without disposable dressings and automatic washing machines, the work required to nurse someone back to health was significant. Nurses were not generally available, and the “work of nursing” fell to the mother or other relatives in the house.
Researched and written by Suzanne Brown; photos of artifacts in the Hoover-Minthorn House Museum collection by Suzanne Brown.
Wert, Hal Elliott. Hoover, the Fishing President: Portrait of the Private Man and His Life Outdoors (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2005) | <urn:uuid:415f7f52-b81e-4d82-91e7-fcc26e53264b> | CC-MAIN-2018-22 | http://www.hooverminthorn.org/history/dr-henry-john-minthorn/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794867374.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20180526073410-20180526093410-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.987722 | 2,085 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Bethoron (also Beth-Horon) (House of Horon) was an ancient biblical town strategically located on the Gibeon-Aijalon road, guarding the "ascent of Beth-Horon." Upper Bethoron appears in Joshua 16:5 and Lower Bethoron in 16:3. 7:24.
According to 1 Chronicles 7:24, Lower Bethoron was built by Shira, daughter of Beriah, son of Ephraim. Eusebius' Onomasticon mentions the 'twin villages' and St. Jerome describes them as 'little hamlets.' From Egyptian sources (Muller, As. und Europa, etc.) it appears that Bethoron was one of the places conquered by Shishak of Egypt from Rehoboam.
The borderline between Benjamin and Ephraim passed alongside the two Bethorons (Joshua 16:5; 21:22) who belonged to the latter tribe and therefore, later on, to the Northern Kingdom. Solomon "built Beth-horon the upper, and Beth-horon the nether, fortified cities, with walls, gates, and bars" (2 Chronicles 8:5; 1 Kings 9:17). One or both of the towns was a city of Levites (Josh. 21:22; I Chron. 6:53).
When (Joshua 10:10) Joshua utterly defeated the kings of the Amorites "he killed a large number of them at Gibeon, and chased them by the way of the 'Ascent of Beth-horon.'" When the Philistines opposed King Saul at Michmash they sent a company of their men to hold "the way of Beth-horon."
This pass ascends from the plain of Aijalon (now Ayalon-Canada Park) and climbs to Beit Ur al Tahta (1,210 ft.). It then ascends along the ridge, with valleys lying to north and south, and reaches Beit Ur al-Foqa (2,022 ft.). Traces of the ancient Roman paving are visible. Since the days of Joshua (Joshua 10:10) the region has been the scene of many battles. The Syrian general Seron was defeated here by Judas Maccabeus (1 Macc. 3:13-24) in the Battle of Beth Horon. Six years later Nicanor, retreating from Jerusalem, was defeated and slain. (1 Macc. 7:39; Josephus, Ant. XII, x, 5). In 66 AD the Roman general Cestius Gallus was driven in headlong flight before the Jews.
Many centuries later, Bacchides repaired Beth-horon, "with high walls, with gates and with bars and in them he set a garrison, that they might work malice upon ("vex") Israel" (1 Macc. 9:50,51). Later, the Jews fortified it against Holofernes (Judith 4:4,5).
The two Palestinian villages of Beit Ur al-Foqa and Beit Ur al-Tahta preserve part of the Canaanite name, and have been identified as the sites of Upper and Lower Bethoron. In 1915, the Palestine Exploration Fund wrote that changes in the main road to Jerusalem had left the Bethoron route "forsaken" and "almost forgotten."
Archaeological finds indicate that the lower town was established before the upper one. Potsherds from the Late Bronze Age onward were discovered at Lower Beit Ur, whereas those in Upper Beit Ur date only from the Iron Age onward.
- Eugenio Alliata (2000-12-19). "Bethoron (Bayt Ur)". Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
- William Albright (December 1941). "The Egypt-Canaanite God Haurôn". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. No. 84 (84): 7–12. JSTOR 1355138.
- John Gray (January 1949). "The Canaanite God Horon". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 8 (1): 27–34. doi:10.1086/370902. JSTOR 542437.
- Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World’s Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 71.
- Sharon, 1999, p. 165
- Israeli Antiquities Authority report on the discovery of a burial cave in Beit 'Ur al-Tahta | <urn:uuid:f9afbb25-dd64-41df-a836-7a725fe37f84> | CC-MAIN-2015-06 | http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth-horon | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-06/segments/1422122086930.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20150124175446-00170-ip-10-180-212-252.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901014 | 966 | 2.90625 | 3 |
If you’re new to disaster recovery or risk mitigation, you might be overwhelmed with business continuity terminology.
To start, what is business continuity? If you’re not sure, don’t worry. We’re going to cover the definition of business continuity, what it is, what’s included in a bc management program, how to manage a continuity plan and the four-step business continuity process.
Having some type of business continuity planning in place is appropriate for all organizations regardless of revenue, size or industry. The planning and level of effort may vary depending on your needs, but you should make every effort to have something in place. So, what is business continuity and where do you start?
Is your business ready for a disaster? This is the question a business continuity plan is trying to address.
What is Business Continuity? The Definition
Business continuity is the advance planning and preparation undertaken to ensure that an organization will have the capability to operate its critical business functions during emergency events. Events can include natural disasters, a business crisis, pandemic, workplace violence, or any event that results in a disruption of your business operation. It is important to remember that you should plan and prepare not only for events that will stop functions completely but for those that also have the potential to adversely impact services or functions.
What Does Business Continuity Include?
BC covers the planning and preparation needed to ensure an organization will have the capability to perform its critical business functions during emergency events. It identifies, plans for, and/or creates:
- How to communicate with customers, vendors and other third parties to ensure you are providing good information and support.
- How to ensure services or products can still be provided to customers.
- The order and timing required to restore business processes.
- How to support employees during an emergency event.
- The required technology to support the business functions (disaster recovery – or DR – will implement recovery solutions for technology).
- Workaround processes to use when technology is not available.
- Where and how to relocate people and processes in the event business locations are impacted or not available.
- The teams and organization that will be necessary to manage emergency events.
- Business process dependencies (what, or who does each business process rely upon in order to do their work).
- Regular exercises to validate that plans and actions meet requirements and will be functional in an actual event.
- Ensure staffing levels will be adequate during an event for both external and internal needs.
- Documentation of the steps and actions to take during an event to accomplish the items above.
The Anatomy of a BCM Program
At MHA, we divide up the Business Continuity Management (BCM) program into four key dimensions:
- Program Administration
- Crisis Management
- Business Recovery
- IT Disaster Recovery
We believe that when these four dimensions are operating optimally, individually and in an integrated fashion, the BCM program will have an elevated level of sophistication, maturity, and capability.
Organizations may not be able to work on the four dimensions in parallel and effectively implement the components, but without implementing all areas, an organization will not truly be prepared. Many unexpected issues arise during a crisis event, too many to address ad hoc. If your organization tries to address the unexpected and perform critical actions on the fly during a crisis event, it will not be able to effectively and efficiently perform the tasks required for a successful recovery.
The BCM Team
A good BC program starts with a Business Continuity Management (BCM) team. The following individuals are the core members of the BCM team. They are responsible for implementing the policies and directing BCM efforts across the organization.
- Sponsor: The senior management individual with overall responsibility and accountability for the BCM program.
- The Business Continuity Manager: The individual with direct responsibility for the BCM program.
- Assistant Business Continuity Manager: The backup to the Business Continuity Manager. This could be a titled position or an assigned position.
- Administrative Assistant: The individual responsible for supporting the BCM team. This is often an administrative assistant working in the Business Continuity office, if it exists, or another individual from the administrative assistant team.
In addition to these individuals, representatives from business units and IT must be involved to provide input related to the development of appropriate recovery strategies for business and technology functions. From a functional perspective, the non-BCM staff members will perform the work of recovery preparation; the BCM team will provide guidance and support.
Find out more about forming the Business Continuity Management team.
The BCM Process
To get started, consider performing the following steps. We have provided links to relevant MHA blog posts on these topics.
- Assessment: The first step to a successful planning process is to make sure that you have a thorough understanding of what is, and is not, critical to your organization. You can (and should) perform a Business Impact Analysis (BIA) and a Threat & Risk Assessment to guide you. Without understanding your organization’s processes, how critical those processes are, and the threats and risks inherent in your operations, you cannot effectively develop appropriate plans and strategies.
- Business Recovery: The purpose of business recovery planning is to ensure that your critical business processes can be recovered in the event of an emergency. Your plan will document the actions, including temporary workarounds, that will be necessary to keep critical functions operational until IT applications, systems, facilities, or personnel are again available.
- IT Recovery: IT recovery planning refers to the development of plans and strategies for the recovery of your technology, including actions that will be necessary to restore critical IT applications and systems.
- Crisis Management: Crisis Management refers to a specific plan that details how your organization will manage a crisis event, as well as to an internal organizational unit (the Crisis Management Team) that will manage that event.
Start With Something Manageable
It might seem overwhelming at first, but identifying critical processes and applications, and implementing basic recovery strategies and plans are a requirement for any functional, and effective, BC plan. Your plan should include a basic organizational structure for your team, as well as necessary guidance and checklists for your business units, IT department, and the management team that will allow for quick response and action.
Even if you are unable to implement your ideas, just having a basic strategy in mind will provide much-needed structure in the event of an emergency. Remember, it’s important to have something in place; perfection will be less important than structure in the event of an emergency. Remember, something is better than nothing; perfect is the enemy of good.
Want to know more about the benefits of Business Continuity? Read more.
Business Continuity Education and Awareness
A search within your organization could reveal operational incidents, failures of service level achievements, quality deficiencies, help desk issues, product defects and other problems which could have been disasters. Awareness may be raised by a Business Continuity Education and Awareness program.
This program could include:
- The Business Continuity Manager attending key meetings (project meetings, progress meetings, quality meetings, service management meetings) to ensure Business Continuity considerations are included the activity or project specifications
- Placing Business Continuity Management as a standard item on meeting agendas
- General briefings and presentations on Business Continuity
- Induction training for new hires
- A Business Continuity consultation process involving all departments
- Articles, news and letters in corporate newsletter
- Use of internal web pages, blogs, and Intranet
- Circulating news items, video clips, DVDs, photographs and articles and disaster or incident reports of Business Continuity relevance
- Promoting attendance at BC-oriented conferences and exhibitions
- Organizing visits to the recovery sites(s)
- Conducting tests and exercises, with observers
For more information on business continuity and other hot topics in BC and IT/disaster recovery, check out these recent posts from MHA Consulting and BCMMETRICS:
- 20 Steps to a Robust Business Continuity Plan
- Start Here: The Business Continuity Management Guide for Beginners
- Your First Task: Scout the Business Continuity Territory
- What to Include in Your Crisis Management Plan
- The Plan that Time Forgot: The Importance of Protecting Your Business Processes
- IT Change Management: Don’t Leave Your Recovery Environment Behind
“What is Business Continuity?” is the first piece of our Business Continuity 101 series, created for those new to BCM and those looking to improve their knowledge of the fundamentals of business continuity best practices. If you’re not sure where to start when it comes to BCM, this series was written for you. | <urn:uuid:35f41eef-b74d-4862-b298-faddd0bac21f> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://www.mha-it.com/2017/08/01/what-is-business-continuity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243989820.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20210518033148-20210518063148-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.926854 | 1,799 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Oct 5, 2012 7:00 AM by Diana Kohnle
Health Tip: Reduce Your Risk of Falling
(HealthDay News) -- Elderly people may be at greater risk of falling, but there are things seniors can do to help reduce their risk of taking a spill.
The Cleveland Clinic offers these suggestions:
- Keep at least one hand free while walking. Use a backpack or fanny pack to carry things when possible.
- While you walk, swing your arms from front to back and carefully lift your feet completely off the ground with each stride.
- Make a wide arc when turning, rather than trying to turn sharply.
- Avoid doing other things while you walk.
- When standing, keep your feet shoulder-width apart; when changing positions, move slowly and pay attention to your movements. | <urn:uuid:77301f34-60f8-4cc8-bd27-7ab9e5a225c9> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://www.koaa.com/news/health-tip-reduce-your-risk-of-falling/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1406510261958.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20140728011741-00410-ip-10-146-231-18.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920847 | 167 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Koch-Rajbongshi Traditional Costume: “Patani”/ “Phota” is the traditional dress of a Koch-Rajbongshi woman. It is produced in handloom at home in different colours. According to Dr. Dipak Kumar Roy there are fifteen types of patani and they are Saishyaphuli, Ghuni, Dhala, Dhalakala, Bulukdhala, Maldoi, Toroiphuli, Chikonpair, Doraduri, Saada, Ghugupari, Chotapari, Suryapuri, Chotari and Guthaotha. This form of dress is antique and it is claimed that the reference of Patani is also available in the ancient book “Manashakabya” by Mankar in the anecdote of Behula and Lakshindar. According to Dr. C.C. Sanyal-“A Rajbansi woman is happy with Phota(Patani). This is a coloured cloth of Five cubits long and 2.5 cubits wide. This she ties just above the breast and it hang down up to the knees. The two ends of the Phota are not sewn together. It is an open cloth. Within the last 10 years Phota is going out of the market.” Angcha is the traditional dress of Koch-Rajbongshi gentleman. It is produced in handloom at home in different colours with 6 feet of length and 3 feet wide. Gamcha is a rectangular piece of cotton cloth produced in handloom specially yellow in colour. It has a great significance among the Koch-Rajbongshis which is traditionally regarded as a matter of practice and dignity and used as a towel. Pachara is a type of shawl used by both man and woman folk of Koch-Rajbongshis preparing it in handloom specially with cotton or Eri silk yarn. Besides these some other traditional attires of Koch-Rajbongshis are- Dagla, Parna, Khetar-parna, Kheta, Kabwos-kapur, , Andee-pachara Urna, Jol-gamcha etc. Ornaments of Koch-Rajbongshi women: The Koch-Rajbongshi women of Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Nepal and Meghalaya do wear some extraordinary ornaments of different designs in different parts of the body such as-ear, nose, neck, wrist, waist, arm, ankle, finger,toe etc. along with their traditional attires in order to get better the personality and attractiveness. These ornaments are basically made of gold, silver, copper, Brass, shell etc. These are as follows. Ornaments of wrists & arms(Bracelet): Bala,Kharu,Bauti,Kangkon,Gajora,Sompanji,Baju, Baas Patari etc. Ornaments of neck(Necklace): Suryahar,Siklihar,Chandrahar,Machihar, Kathimalahar,Sikahar,Takachara,Madhumala,Kuchiyamarhar,Hashuli, Kathikalamala,powalmala,gotmala,Monihar,Chick,Gajmatihar,Kawasmala,Dulalimala, eshahar etc. Ornaments of nose: Phul, Nelok, Notho, Solia Notho, Bali, Phurkuri, Nataya, Naakdhosa etc. Ornaments of ears: Onti, Makri, Machipat, Guji, Chaki, Kaanbali,Shatkori, Faasti,Khirol,Paasha, Chokia etc. Ornaments of waist: Got, bat etc. Ornaments of ankles(Anklet): Theng kharu, Baagh kharu, Paar kharu, Char kharu, Mol, Powpata Ornaments of fingers & toes: Aangti, Paiso, Pajor, Panja etc. | <urn:uuid:a84c593d-e27b-4f4d-a3c3-9d3c17f801a3> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://kochrajbongshiculturalsociety.com/cultural-dance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323583083.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20211015192439-20211015222439-00181.warc.gz | en | 0.877275 | 881 | 2.640625 | 3 |
In our modern world, where concerns about the health of our planet have reached the forefront of global conversations, it is crucial to examine the impact of various industries on the environment. One such industry that often comes under scrutiny for its potential harm to our delicate ecosystems is the luxury yacht industry. While these opulent vessels are associated with opulence, leisure, and a carefree lifestyle, the question arises: are yachts bad for the environment?
At first glance, it may seem like an extravagant form of transportation such as a yacht would undoubtedly leave a negative mark on the environment. However, the answer to this question is not as straightforward as it appears. Yachts, like any other mode of transportation, have their own unique set of environmental challenges and benefits. To fully understand the ecological implications of yachts, we must delve into their construction, operation, and maintenance, as well as the potential innovations that could minimize their negative impact. By exploring these aspects, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of whether yachts are indeed detrimental to the environment or if there are opportunities to mitigate their effects while still enjoying the allure of the open sea.
Yachts can have a negative impact on the environment. They consume large amounts of fuel, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Yacht construction and maintenance also generate waste and can harm marine ecosystems. Sustainable alternatives, such as hybrid or electric yachts, are being developed to mitigate these environmental concerns. It’s important to consider the environmental impact when enjoying luxury boating experiences.
Are Yachts Bad for the Environment?
Yachts, often associated with luxury and opulence, have been a topic of discussion in recent years due to their potential negative impact on the environment. While these vessels offer a lavish and enjoyable experience for their owners and guests, it is important to consider the environmental consequences that come with owning and operating a yacht. This article aims to explore the various ways in which yachts can be detrimental to the environment, providing step-by-step details and information on this pressing issue.
The Carbon Footprint of Yachts
One of the major concerns regarding yachts and their impact on the environment is their carbon footprint. Yachts are typically powered by diesel engines, which emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels to propel these vessels contributes significantly to global warming and climate change. Additionally, the energy consumption on board a yacht, including air conditioning and other amenities, further adds to its carbon emissions.
Reducing the carbon footprint of yachts can be achieved through various means. One approach is the use of hybrid or electric propulsion systems, which significantly reduce emissions compared to traditional diesel engines. Additionally, adopting energy-efficient technologies and practices on board, such as LED lighting and optimized insulation, can further minimize the environmental impact of yachts. It is crucial for yacht owners and manufacturers to prioritize sustainability and invest in eco-friendly solutions to mitigate their carbon footprint.
Marine Pollution and Yachts
Yachts can also contribute to marine pollution, posing a threat to the delicate ecosystems of our oceans. The discharge of untreated black and gray water from yachts can introduce harmful bacteria, pathogens, and chemicals into the marine environment. Furthermore, the use of antifouling paints on yacht hulls, which prevent the growth of marine organisms, often contains toxic substances that can contaminate the water and harm marine life.
To address the issue of marine pollution, it is essential for yacht owners and operators to adhere to strict waste management practices. Installing advanced wastewater treatment systems on board can help ensure that the discharge of wastewater is properly treated and meets environmental standards. Furthermore, using eco-friendly antifouling paints or alternative methods of hull maintenance can greatly minimize the impact on marine ecosystems.
Noise Pollution and Wildlife Disturbance
In addition to carbon emissions and marine pollution, yachts can also contribute to noise pollution, which can have a detrimental effect on marine wildlife. The loud noises produced by yacht engines and onboard activities can disrupt the natural behavior and communication patterns of marine animals, such as whales and dolphins. This disturbance can lead to stress, habitat displacement, and even physical harm to these creatures.
To mitigate the impact of noise pollution, yacht owners and operators should practice responsible boating behavior. This includes adhering to speed limits, maintaining a safe distance from marine wildlife, and minimizing unnecessary noise on board. Additionally, investing in noise-reduction technologies and insulation can help reduce the overall noise emissions of yachts.
Overall, it is crucial to acknowledge and address the potential negative impact of yachts on the environment. By adopting sustainable practices, investing in eco-friendly technologies, and prioritizing responsible boating behavior, we can minimize the carbon footprint, marine pollution, and noise disturbance associated with yachts. It is our collective responsibility to preserve and protect our oceans for future generations, while still enjoying the pleasures that yachts can offer.
Frequently Asked Questions
Yachts and their impact on the environment is a topic of concern for many. Here, we address some common questions regarding the environmental impact of yachts.
Are yachts bad for the environment?
Yachts can have negative effects on the environment due to various reasons. Firstly, the construction and maintenance of yachts require significant amounts of energy and resources, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and depletion of natural resources.
In addition, yachts often use fossil fuels as a source of propulsion, which further adds to their environmental impact. These fuels release carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change and air pollution.
How do yachts contribute to water pollution?
Yachts can contribute to water pollution in several ways. One of the main sources of pollution is the discharge of wastewater, which contains chemicals, detergents, and sewage. Improperly treated wastewater can harm marine life and disrupt the ecosystem.
Furthermore, antifouling paints used on yacht hulls can release toxic substances into the water, affecting marine organisms. Fuel spills and leaks from yachts can also contaminate the water, posing a threat to aquatic life and habitats.
What steps are being taken to reduce the environmental impact of yachts?
The yachting industry is actively working towards reducing the environmental impact of yachts. One approach is the development and use of more sustainable materials for yacht construction, such as recycled or eco-friendly composites.
Efforts are also being made to improve the energy efficiency of yachts, including the use of hybrid propulsion systems and alternative fuels. Waste management systems are being enhanced to minimize the discharge of pollutants into the water, and regulations are being implemented to ensure proper disposal of waste.
Can yachts be operated in an eco-friendly manner?
Yes, yachts can be operated in an eco-friendly manner by adopting sustainable practices. This includes reducing fuel consumption by optimizing cruising speeds, using renewable energy sources onboard, and implementing energy-efficient technologies.
Furthermore, responsible waste management, including proper disposal of wastewater and garbage, can help minimize the environmental impact. Choosing eco-friendly cleaning products and maintaining proper maintenance and repair practices also contribute to a more sustainable operation of yachts.
What can individuals do to mitigate the environmental impact of yachts?
Individuals can play a role in mitigating the environmental impact of yachts. Supporting and choosing yacht manufacturers that prioritize sustainability and environmental responsibility is one way to make a difference.
Additionally, practicing responsible boating and following regulations regarding waste disposal and protection of marine ecosystems can help reduce the impact of yachts on the environment. Raising awareness about the importance of environmental stewardship within the yachting community is also crucial.
In conclusion, the impact of yachts on the environment is a complex issue that requires careful consideration. While it is undeniable that yachts contribute to pollution and habitat destruction, it is crucial to recognize that addressing this issue requires a balanced approach. Rather than demonizing all yachts, it is important to focus on implementing sustainable practices and regulations in the yachting industry.
A shift towards greener technologies and practices, such as using hybrid or electric engines, investing in renewable energy sources, and adopting waste management systems, can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of yachts. Additionally, educating yacht owners, crew members, and charter guests about sustainable behaviors and encouraging eco-friendly practices can foster a culture of environmental responsibility within the industry.
Ultimately, the question of whether yachts are bad for the environment is not a simple yes or no. It is a call for innovation, collaboration, and a commitment to finding solutions that allow us to enjoy the beauty of the sea while preserving it for future generations. By working together, we can strike a balance between our love for the ocean and our responsibility to protect it. | <urn:uuid:30d83589-22c0-43d1-9a3f-27834b62db31> | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | https://atlantiqueboats.com/are-yachts-bad-for-the-environment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474674.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20240227085429-20240227115429-00465.warc.gz | en | 0.939265 | 1,831 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Kirchhoff’s Laws said: Light of all wavelengths shines on an atom; only light of an energy equal to the difference between “floors” will be absorbed and cause electrons to jump up in floors. The rest of the light passes on by to our detector. We see an absorption spectrum: light at all wavelengths minus those specific wavelengths. This lecture briefly describe Kirchhoff’s Laws of Spectral Lines. Spectral lines are a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies. | <urn:uuid:99e4b59d-7408-477c-83f0-ea8146522531> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/physics/kirchhoffs-laws-spectral-lines.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281331.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00029-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888788 | 126 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Often, food manufacturers tell me that the FDA nutrition labeling rules seem very particular (some even say nitpicky). From label layouts to rounding rules and everything in between, I’ll admit the FDA does have some pretty stringent guidelines for proper nutrition labeling. This is, however, for good reason.
From a consumer perspective, it makes sense that nutrition labels are standardized. Not only are the guidelines in place to help inform the public about what is in their food, they ensure that the same important nutrition information is given consistently across products. This holds food manufacturers accountable for disclosing the contents of the products in a way that is familiar and comprehensive to consumers.
Another sound reason to comply with the FDA’s nutrition labeling guidelines is to avoid the consequences if you don’t. If you’re concerned about getting something wrong on your nutrition label, I’m going to fill you in on FDA food labeling enforcement and explain the best method for making a perfect FDA-compliant label from the beginning.
Food Labeling Enforcement: How it Works
Let’s pretend your food product fails, in some way, to comply with the FDA’s calorie labeling guidelines. Perhaps you’ve made an unsubstantiated health claim or you’ve failed to identify an allergenic ingredient and someone in the public reports an adverse event.
Whatever the offense, if the FDA catches wind of it (which they may through random inspection or a reported event), they typically take the following steps:
- They issue a letter that notifies you that you’ve violated the FDA’s guidelines and explains what you need to do in order to correct the situation (i.e. include an appropriate allergen statement on the label). This gives you the chance to remedy the problem without any major consequences. Depending on the severity of the violation, the letter will either be a “letter of warning” for severe cases or an “untitled letter” for smaller offenses.
- Your product is seized if you fail to address the problem promptly after receiving the warning letter. This means your product will be pulled from retail locations.
- An injunction is issued if you still haven’t satisfactorily resolved the issue. This means a court order will be put in place to strongly encourage your company to do (or not do) what the FDA has previously requested.
- Criminal prosecution will be considered, depending on the exact violation. Intentionally deceiving the public by including inaccurate health or nutrition claims, for instance, could result in a significant fine.
While I don’t personally know anyone who has gotten to the point of being fined for non-compliance, it does happen, so it’s a good idea to make sure you comply with nutrition labeling guidelines. After all, compliance with the FDA is much easier and cheaper than getting hit with a huge fine.
How to Ensure FDA Nutrition Labeling Compliance
Whenever I tell people not to stress too much about their nutrition labels because FDA compliance is actually easy, they initially don’t believe me. This is usually after they’ve sifted through countless pages of FDA labeling guidelines and feel overwhelmed by it all. And while it can certainly be overwhelming, it really doesn’t have to be.
If you use an FDA-compliant online nutrition analysis software like LabelCalc to generate your nutrition facts panel, you can be sure your labels will be done correctly. This is because the FDA labeling guidelines are incorporated right into the software so the resulting nutrition information is formatted correctly.
Essentially, all you have to do to create an FDA-compliant label is enter your recipe from the ingredient database, determine your serving size, and watch as the nutrition information is generated. You can then choose from a variety of FDA-approved label formats and sizes to find one that suits your package, instantly adjust the results to comply with the FDA’s nutrient rounding standards, and review your allergen report.
With LabelCalc, you can also add voluntary nutrient information to your nutrition label in order to substantiate nutrient content claims, health claims, or to simply highlight certain nutrients that your product is rich in.
Of course, if you still want to ensure you’ve done everything correctly and that your label, ingredient list, and allergen statement are without error, I’d recommend consulting an expert. LabelCalc’s food labeling experts would be happy to double check your label and provide any necessary feedback related to FDA regulations.
It is truly rewarding to be able to ease the worry that manufacturers initially have about food labeling enforcement. Once they see that there’s a software that makes compliance incredibly simple, there really is no need to fear getting called out by the FDA because of a food labeling mistake. Best of all, you don’t have to spend hours understanding each and every FDA guideline when the software does it for you. After all, who wouldn’t want peace of mind and extra time?
LabelCalc is an industry-leading, FDA-compliant online nutrition analysis software created for food manufacturers. For more information or to create an account, contact us today. | <urn:uuid:d7750234-4ce0-421d-a8b0-2d8d9cdf8d0d> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | https://labelcalc.com/food-labeling/fda-food-labeling-enforcement-why-compliance-is-important-for-food-manufacturers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583513508.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20181020225938-20181021011438-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.916427 | 1,068 | 2.78125 | 3 |
French Saddle Pony
An FSP mare
|Alternative names||Poney Français de Selle|
|Country of origin||France|
|Les Haras Nationaux||Breed standards|
|Equus ferus caballus|
The French Saddle Pony, also called the Poney Français de Selle, is pony breed developed as a sport pony for children and smaller adult riders. It was initially developed in 1969 as the Poney de Croisement (Cross-bred Pony), and in 1972 a stud book was created. In 1991 the stud book was closed and the breed renamed to Poney Français de Selle. The breed combines a mix of French and British pony breeds, as well as Thoroughbred and Arabian blood, to create the horse seen today. Due to the large number of breeds used to create the French Saddle Pony, there is not yet a defined set of physical characteristics for the breed, although all tend to be suited for competition in English riding disciplines, including dressage, show jumping and three-day eventing. They fill a similar role as the British Riding Pony and the German riding pony.
The French Saddle Pony stands 125–148 centimetres (12.1–14.2 hands) high and can be any color. A set standard type does not yet exist, due to differences in bloodlines between various ponies, but the desired type is that of a small saddle horse. Despite the differences, the majority of ponies have some physical characteristics in common. The head is small with a straight or convex profile. The neck is long, the withers prominent, the chest wide and deep and the shoulders sloping and long. The croup is sloping and the legs are strong with large, clean joints and clearly defined tendons.
The breeding program for the French Saddle Pony was initiated in 1969 by the Association Française du Poney de Croisement (French Association of Cross-bred Ponies), who wanted to create and promote a French Sport Pony, initially under the name Poney de Croisement (Cross-bred Pony). A stud book was created for the breed in 1972, and in 1991 the registry was closed to outside blood and the breed was renamed to Poney Français de Selle. The first ponies were created from a mixture of Arabian, New Forest, Welsh, Connemara and Thoroughbred blood. Later, Landais, Pottok, Merens and Basque blood was added.
Today, the biggest breeding areas are in Mayenne, Normandy and Brittany, although the breed can be found throughout France. Due to its success in competition, it is becoming increasingly popular outside of France. Between 1977 and 2000, registrations increased from 95 to almost 1,300, although the population has declined slightly between 1997 and 2012 - a trend common to all French pony breeds.
French Saddle Ponies are mainly used as riding horses in competition events such as show jumping, dressage and three-day eventing, but are also used as harness ponies and for recreational riding. Many riding schools use French Saddle Ponies for novice riders, although they are also seen in competition as high as the international level. The breed fills a role similar to that of the British Riding Pony and the German riding pony.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Poney Français de Selle.|
- Association Nationale du Poney Français de Selle (2010). "Le Poney Français de Selle" (in French). Les Haras Nationaux. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
- "Poney Français de Selle" (in French). Les Haras Nationaux. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
- Bongianni, Maurizio (1988). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses and Ponies. p. Entry 151. ISBN 0-671-66068-3.
- "Historique" (in French). Association Nationale du Poney Français de Selle. Retrieved 2012-03-27.
- Ravazzi, Gianni (2002). L'encyclopédie des chevaux de race (in French). De Vecchi. p. 52. ISBN 2-7328-8417-0.
- "Présentation de la race" (in French). Association Nationale du Poney Français de Selle. Retrieved 2012-03-27. | <urn:uuid:4ad24621-94db-4183-9746-27576060397d> | CC-MAIN-2014-52 | http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Saddle_Pony | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-52/segments/1418802767453.104/warc/CC-MAIN-20141217075247-00150-ip-10-231-17-201.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899236 | 917 | 2.828125 | 3 |
This is part of our 3-part short series on the three most important Stoic philosophers: Marcus Aurelius, Seneca and Epictetus. Here you will find a short introduction to Marcus, suggested readings, three exercises/lessons from him as well as a selection of quotes. You can also read our introduction to Stoicism if you are not familiar with the philosophy.
Agasicles, king of the Spartans, once quipped that he wanted to be ‘the student of men whose son I should like to be as well.’ It is a critical consideration we need to make in our search for role models. Stoicism is no exception. Before we begin our studies we need to ask ourselves: Who are the people that followed these precepts? Who can I point out as an example? Am I proud to look up to this person? Do I want to be more like them?
And Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, born nearly two millennia ago (121 – 180), is a leader and example who provides a resounding yes.
Marcus Annius Verus was born in a prominent and established family but nobody at the time would have predicted that he would one day be Emperor of the Empire. There is little that is known of his childhood but he was a serious young man who also enjoyed wrestling, boxing and hunting. Around his teenage years, the reigning emperor at the time, Hadrian was nearing death and was childless. He had to pick a successor and after his first choice, Lucius Ceionius, died unexpectedly, he chose Antoninus. He was a senator who was also childless and he would have to adopt Marcus, as per Hadrian’s condition, as well as Ceionius’s son, Lucius Verus. This is how Marcus’s name changed to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
Once Hadrian died, it was clear that Marcus was next in line for the most important position in the empire. His education would become of serious concern and he would have the privilege of studying under Herodes Atticus, a rhetorician from Athens (Marcus would later write his Meditations in Greek) as well as Marcus Cornelius Fronto, his instructor in Latin whose letters of correspondence with Marcus survive to this day. Marcus would also serve as a consul twice thus receiving a valuable and practical education.
In 161, as Antoninus died and ended one of the longest reigns, Marcus became the Emperor of the Roman Empire and ruled for nearly two decades until his death in 180. He also co-ruled in the beginning with Lucius Verus, his adopted brother until Lucius’ death eight years later. His reign wasn’t easy: wars with the Parthian Empire, the barbarian tribes menacing the Empire on the northern border, the rise of Christianity as well as the plague that left numerous dead.
Marcus’s death came in 180 in his military headquarters in modern day Vienna. The historian Cassius Dio describes Marcus’s attitude towards his son, Commodus who he made co-emperor few years earlier and was now to succeed him: “[Marcus] was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him.”
It is important to realize the gravity of that position and the magnitude of power that Marcus possessed. He held one of—if not the most—powerful positions in the world at the time. If he chose to, nothing would be off limits. He could indulge and succumb to temptations, there was nobody that could restrain him from any of his wishes. There is a reason the adage that power in absolute absolutely corrupts has been repeated throughout history—it unfortunately tends to be true. And yet, as the essayist Matthew Arnold remarked, Marcus proved himself worthy of the position he was in.
And it was not only him who offered that verdict. The famous historian Edward Gibbon wrote that under Marcus, the last of the ‘Five Good Emperors,’ “the Roman Empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue”. The guidance of wisdom and virtue. That’s what separates Marcus from the majority of past and present world leaders. Just think of the diary that he left behind, which is now known as his Meditations which we discuss below: the private thoughts of the most powerful man in the world, admonishing himself on how to be more virtuous, more just, more immune to temptation, wiser.
And for Marcus, Stoicism provided a framework for dealing with the stresses of daily life as a leader of one of the most powerful empires in human history. It is not surprising that he wrote his Meditations in the last decade of his life, while on campaigning against foreign invaders. Passed down from his mentors and teachers, Marcus embraced the studies of Stoicism which we see in him thanking his teacher Rusticus for introducing him to Stoicism and Epictetus inside Meditations. Another influence on Marcus came from Heraclitus, whose concepts we can see throughout Meditations and who had a strong influence on Stoic thought. Given the literary world at the time, Marcus was mostly likely not exposed to Seneca, another one of the three most prominent Stoics.
What is tragic about Marcus, as one scholar wrote, is how his “philosophy—which is about self-restraint, duty, and respect for others—was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death.”
Now it is on us to pick it back up.
Notable Works & Suggested Readings
Marcus’s Meditations is perhaps the only document of its kind ever made. It is the private thoughts of the world’s most powerful man giving advice to himself on how to make good on the responsibilities and obligations of his positions. Originally titled,”To Himself,” Meditations is the definitive text on self-discipline, personal ethics, humility, self-actualization, and strength. It proved to be equally inspirational to writers like Ambrose Bierce and Robert Louis Stevenson as he has been for statesmen like Theodore Roosevelt, Wen Jiabao, and Bill Clinton. If you read it and aren’t profoundly changed by it, it’s probably because as Aurelius says “what doesn’t transmit light creates its own darkness.” As John Stuart Mill put it in his On Liberty, Meditations are “the highest ethical product of the ancient mind”.
It is important to remind ourselves that we are lucky to have access to these. As Gregory Hays explains, for centuries traces of it was lost until the beginning of the 10th century, “it reappears in a letter from the scholar and churchman Arethas.”
You HAVE to read the Hays’s translation. If you end up loving Marcus, go get The Inner Citadel and Philosophy as a Way of Life by Pierre Hadot that studies the man (and men) behind the work. And if you want more on the topic, Marcus inspired The Obstacle is the Way, which you can get a free chapter of if you sign up for the Daily Stoic newsletter.
3 Stoic Exercises From Marcus Aurelius
1.Practice The Virtues You Can Show
It’s easy to succumb to self-pity when we start telling ourselves that we lack certain talents, that we miss stuff that seems to come so easily to other people. We need to catch ourselves when we do so. We need instead to focus on the things that are always within us: our capacity and potential for virtuous action. As Marcus wrote to himself,
“No one could ever accuse you of being quick-witted.
All right, but there are plenty of other things you can’t claim you “haven’t got in you.” Practice the virtues you can show: honesty, gravity, endurance, austerity, resignation, abstinence, patience, sincerity, moderation, seriousness, high-mindedness. Don’t you see how much you have to offer—beyond excuses like “can’t”? And yet you still settle for less.”
2. Draw Strength from Others
As discussed earlier, Marcus most likely wrote the notes to himself which are now Meditations on the battlefield, during the last decade of his life. In those times of difficulty and adversity, he’d write to himself notes of encouragement, to pick himself back again, to do his duty. One exercise that we can borrow from him is to draw strength from people in our lives or simply role models that inspire us. As he wrote,
“When you need encouragement, think of the qualities the people around you have: this one’s energy, that one’s modesty, another’s generosity, and so on. Nothing is as encouraging as when virtues are visibly embodied in the people around us, when we’re praactically showered with them. It’s good to keep this in mind.”
3.Focus on The Present
Marcus knew the temptations that exist for all of us to let our imagination run wild envisioning all the ways things can go wrong. Of course, such an exercise can be useful in preparing us for the future and making us ready for adversity, but Marcus well understood that it can become a crippling fear that will paralyze us from any useful action. As he put it,
“Don’t let your imagination be crushed by life as a whole. Don’t try to picture everything bad that could possibly happen. Stick with the situation at hand, and ask, “Why is this so unbearable? Why can’t I endure it?” You’ll be embarrassed to answer.
Then remind yourself that past and future have no power over you. Only the present—and even that can be minimized. Just mark off its limits. And if your mind tries to claim that it can’t hold out against that…well, then, heap shame upon it.”
“Yes, you can–if you do everything as if it were the last thing you were doing in your life, and stop being aimless, stop letting your emotions override what your mind tells you, stop being hypocritical, self-centered, irritable.”
“At dawn, when you have trouble getting out of bed, tell yourself: ‘I have to go to work – as a human being. What do I have to complain of, if I’m going to do what I was born for – the things I was brought into the world to do? Or is this what I was created for? To huddle under the blankets and stay warm?’”
“When you wake up in the morning, tell yourself: The people I deal with today will be meddling, ungrateful, arrogant, dishonest, jealous, and surly. They are like this because they can’t tell good from evil.”
“Not to feel exasperated, or defeated, or despondent because your days aren’t packed with wise and moral actions. But to get back up when you fail, to celebrate behaving like a human–however imperfectly–and fully embrace the pursuit that you’ve embarked on.”
“The mind adapts and converts to its own purposes the obstacle to our acting. The impediment to action advances action. What stands in the way becomes the way.”
“No carelessness in your actions. No confusion in your words. No imprecision in your thoughts.”
Explore Our Daily Stoic Store | <urn:uuid:a60db161-30d8-4e39-ac55-e955a203ce4f> | CC-MAIN-2019-22 | https://dailystoic.com/marcus-aurelius/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232256586.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20190521222812-20190522004812-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.976158 | 2,488 | 3.3125 | 3 |
When you buy a home, there are several taxes that you are obliged to pay. While stamp-duty and registration are one-time charges, the property tax is something that a homeowner needs to pay annually to the government, every year.
What is a property tax?
A property tax or house tax in India is taxed by the local self-governing authorities for the proper maintenance of basic civic amenities such as roads, sewers, parks, street lighting amongst other infrastructure.
Property tax is applicable to any tangible assets owned by a person such as?residential or commercial property, or space which has been rented out to another person. The tax amount varies from state to state, location to location and is different according to cities and municipalities. Once, paid the receipt should be preserved as it will hold as evidence of due diligence if and when you decide to sell your property.
In India, property tax is levied on buildings or land attached to buildings. Vacant plots of land (ie land without any adjoining building) are not liable to be taxed. Residential houses ? both self-occupied and let out, office building, factory and other commercial buildings, godowns, flats etc are liable to be taxed. Whereas, certain establishments such as government buildings, places of worship, foreign embassies etc are usually exempted.
Why is it important to pay property tax?
Calculation of property tax is done, based on the recent property valuation conducted by the municipal body. Only the owner of the property is liable to pay the tax. If you are a tenant, it doesn?t concern you.
- The property tax receipt plays a vital role in case of property disputes, as it helps to prove the ownership of the property.
- The property tax receipt is also a key document while getting a property registered in your name.
- Property tax receipt comes handy while availing loans, especially in the case of a loan against property.
Hence, it is very important that you pay the property tax on time and keep your records updated.
How do you calculate property tax?
Apart from the location of the property, many other factors determine the amount of property tax payable, such as:
- Size of the property
- Whether the property is under construction or ready to occupy
- Gender and age of the property owner ? there might be a consideration for female and senior citizens
Can property tax be paid online?
Yes paying property taxes online is a more viable way and Sanchaya is an e-governance platform designed by Kerala Government exclusively for this purpose. Sanchaya makes it easy for the public to pay their building or property tax, profession tax, rent on land and building and licenses and even utility payments conveniently.
Non-payment of property tax is a serious offence and comes with heavy penalties and fines. The amount of the fine and the tenure for punishment vary from state to state. Late payment of the same invites up to 5 to 20 per cent added interest, and in extreme cases, the property can be confiscated. | <urn:uuid:1c01cf3d-7bf7-41f2-ad0f-f03bf7c2ce2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://www.digitalsplendid.net/property-tax-guide-for-india-importance-calculation-and-online-payment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400198652.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200920192131-20200920222131-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.961622 | 617 | 2.984375 | 3 |
We are taught in school that the Great Depression was a result of the 1929 stock-market crash, and that the crash was caused by unregulated financial markets or “unfettered capitalism.” Even so-called conservative history teachers and professors tend to share this view, and certainly the leadership of both American political parties accept this myth as gospel. But yes, it is a myth.
In 1913, the Federal Reserve Act was passed at the urging of the nation’s biggest bankers. It was said that the Fed would operate in the “public interest” and that the Act would allow the government to prevent the booms and busts of the pre-Fed era—or at least, make them more moderate. But just sixteen years later, the stock market crashed and we entered the Great Depression. Clearly, the Fed, at the very least, failed in its mission. But the truth is that the Fed caused the bubble that made the crash inevitable—just as it caused the NASDAQ bubble of the late 90’s and the real-estate bubble of recent years.
The key to understanding how this is the case is the Austrian Business Cycle theory. But before we go there, let’s briefly review the pre-Fed history of banking in the United States.
The Original Silver Dollar
The “dollar” became the most commonly accepted medium of exchange naturally via the free market and not by government decree. The original American “dollars” were Spanish coins containing 0.88 troy ounces of silver. Although people would gladly accept other silver and gold coins, the “dollar” was the most popular, and thus, other coins naturally traded at a discount. This is no different than today, when most Americans would accept euros in place of dollars, though not at full exchange value.
During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress printed paper dollars that were nominally backed by real silver dollars. But as governments are wont to do, the nascent U.S. quickly printed more paper dollars than the treasury had silver coins, and the people could see through this façade. Soon, paper dollars traded at huge discounts to silver dollars, and eventually the government paper was worthless. Hence the saying, “not worth a Continental.”
The government could have never made people accept pieces of paper as money without telling them that those pieces of paper represented silver coins. Even this wasn’t good enough when it became clear that there weren’t enough coins to redeem all of those paper dollars. This flies in the face of the current understanding of money as a “state institution.” Historically, money has been something that people valued for its own sake, not merely as a medium of exchange and certainly not because the government forced people to accept it.
Anyhow, after the horrible experience with paper money, the framers of the new Constitution prohibited the states from recognizing anything but gold or silver as legal tender and prohibited the federal (central) government from declaring anything legal tender at all. It also prohibited the issuance of “bills of credit”—paper money. This was all thrown out the window, of course, in 1913, but there’s still a little more monetary history to cover before we get there.
The Era of “Free Banking”
With the Coinage Act of 1792, the new Congress exercised its power to “coin money and regulate the value thereof” and created new American dollar coins, which contained roughly the same amount of silver as the Spanish dollars (0.867 troy ounces). Notice, however, that these dollars were not “legal tender”—individuals could not be forced to accept them nor was trading in other currencies made illegal. In fact, many people still preferred the old Spanish dollars.
In the pre-Fed era, banks were free-market institutions that printed their own bank notes. Far from “counterfeiting,” these notes were simply receipts for the underlying gold or silver the bank held in its vaults. A customer could take 100 silver dollars to a JP Morgan bank and exchange them for twenty $5 JP Morgan bills. He could then use these paper bills, which would fit more neatly in his wallet, to make transactions. Eventually, someone with the bills might want to turn them in for silver coins, which he could do by taking them to a JP Morgan branch or some other bank with which JP Morgan had an agreement.
This was an ideal banking system. But soon, bankers got greedy and realized that they had a lot of gold and silver sitting in their vaults that was doing nothing. Why not issue more paper notes, in the form of loans, than they had coins and make some extra interest income? All would be well so long as everyone didn’t try to redeem their paper dollars for coins at once. Surely, the banks could get away with issuing 10% more notes than they had coins, right?
Well, they did. And then they issued 50% more notes. And then double the notes. And then five or ten or twenty times the notes that they had coins for. Bankers who wanted to be honest could not compete in this environment and were put out of business. But eventually, a customer would come in and demand a redemption of his paper dollars for which the bank had no coinage. As soon as the word got out, all of the bank’s customers would try to withdraw their coins, and the customers of other banks would, too. This was known as a “bank run” and it exposed the bankers’ deception.
Now, under a free market, the bankers should have been held accountable for their crimes. They were engaging in counterfeiting, for which the punishment, under the Constitution, is death. But these were men of influence, so far from being held liable, they were able to get governors and presidents to issue “bank holidays” forgiving them of the responsibility of redeeming their notes. This was not a problem of the “free market,” but instead, a problem of government intervention into the free market.
The Federal Reserve Act virtually nationalized all of the nation’s banks and essentially made them agencies of government. Now the banking industry was cartelized, and “fractional reserve banking”—the process of counterfeiting that had gotten bankers into trouble—was made legal. What’s more, the U.S. dollar was unconstitutionally made legal tender, which meant that people could no longer refuse it or opt for other currencies.
Enter the Fed
Between 1913 and 1929, the U.S. dollar lost 42% of its purchase power. In the sixteen years prior to the Fed Act, the dollar had strengthened. This 42% loss of value was due to the Federal Reserve’s monetary expansion, which also led to the stock-market bubble. Similar policies were pursued under Alan Greenspan, which led to a variety of bubbles and busts.
This is the distilled Austrian theory of the business cycle: Central bank-created inflation causes a misallocation of investments during the boom phase, which inevitably leads to the liquidation of those investments and a bust. The Fed’s ultra-low interest rates led to the housing boom, and now that those mortgages (bad investments) aren’t panning out, we’ve entered a serious recession. This is not the fault of the free market, for none of this would be possible under a truly free market in banking, in which inflationary money creation—the cause of booms and busts—would be illegal. The government gives banks permission to inflate, and thus, it is the government—not the free market—that is to blame for booms and busts. | <urn:uuid:68bc7f06-87ca-458f-98c8-a62330654af3> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.citizeneconomists.com/blogs/2008/08/18/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702849682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111409-00024-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.98254 | 1,605 | 3 | 3 |
Rocketship Education Brings Tech Closer to Teachers
When Rocketship Education, a pioneering, rapidly expanding charter school network, looked at its results, it could have rested on its laurels. After all, with seven schools in California together ranking as the top public school system for low-income elementary students, Rocketship had proof that its blended-learning model— combining online learning with face-to-face instruction—works.
But next year, Rocketship leaders will fix a disconnect they see between what happens in the online learning lab and the classroom, to give teachers more control over the students’ digital learning and further individualize the teaching.
Instead of reporting to a separate computer lab, fourth- and fifth-graders will move within an open, flexible classroom between digital learning and in-person instruction, with those moves based on their individual needs and the roles that specific teachers are best suited to play.
In the latest Opportunity Culture case study from Public Impact, Rocketship Education: Pioneering Charter Network Innovates Again, Bringing Tech Closer to Teachers, we look at what Rocketship has done so far to achieve its top results, and where it’s headed. In 2011–12, 82 percent of Rocketship’s students scored “proficient” or “advanced” on the California Standards Test for math, compared with 87 percent of students in California’s high-income districts, and far higher than in low-income schools. Rocketship schools aim for an average of 1.5 years of student learning growth annually to achieve these outcomes with so many students who start out behind.
With a Milwaukee school set to open in fall 2013, the network will expand outside California, with future schools approved for Indianapolis, Memphis, Nashville, Washington, D.C., and New Orleans. Rocketship will serve at least 25,000 students by 2017.
In its fourth- and fifth-grade classes in 2013–14, the revised model will put up to about 115 students (but typically fewer) in one large space, with three teachers and a full-time individualized learning specialist, spending variable amounts of time online depending on students’ needs—similar to the Opportunity Culture Time-Technology Swap—Flex and Role Specialization models. Kindergarteners through third-graders will continue to follow the set rotation between classroom and learning lab time—about 80 minutes of online lab time—with other rooms in the buildings being reconfigured as smaller learning labs.
Rocketship’s schools meet the five Reach Extension Principles of an Opportunity Culture, which call for reaching more students with excellent teaching, higher pay, sustainable funding, job-embedded development opportunity, and enhanced authority and clear accountability for great teachers.
Through extending teachers’ reach, blended learning, teacher specialization, and paraprofessional learning specialists, the network is able to put $500,000 per school per year into such key areas as higher teacher salaries, after-school programs, teacher development, training of principals for future Rocketship schools, and other needs.
By extending their reach, Rocketship teachers earn 10 percent to 30 percent more than their peers in the local public school system. At Si Se Puede, a K–5 San Jose school, the principal offered the school’s excellent third-year teachers salaries of about $70,000, nearly 30 percent higher than their peers in a neighboring district.
“Excellent teachers and school leaders are at the foundation of transformational schools, and there are not enough excellent teachers to go around,” says Rocketship CEO Preston Smith. “At Rocketship, we focus on developing novice teachers and extending the reach of excellent teachers to more Rocketeers through collaboration and flexible learning spaces. This extends the reach of teachers in powerful ways, and, in turn, leads to transformational academic outcomes for our Rocketeers.”
Rocketship Education: Pioneering Charter Network Innovates Again, Bringing Tech Closer to Teachers was co-authored by Sharon Kebschull Barrett and Joe Ableidinger, with contributions from Public Impact’s Jiye Grace Han, Bryan C. Hassel, and Emily Ayscue Hassel.
—Emily Ayscue Hassel and Bryan C. Hassel
For another example of a school that expands the reach of outstanding teachers, please read “New Charter Empowers Excellent Teachers for Strong Results,” also by Emily Ayscue Hassel and Bryan C. Hassel
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In the meantime check the site regularly for new articles, blog postings, and reader comments | <urn:uuid:392aa7ba-3bcc-4ada-9065-1dbcd77ee2df> | CC-MAIN-2013-48 | http://educationnext.org/rocketship-education-brings-tech-closer-to-teachers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386164579146/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204134259-00001-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941276 | 957 | 2.578125 | 3 |
In Norse* mythology, the god Heimdall stood guard over Asgard, the home of the gods. He lived near Bifrost, the rainbow bridge that connected Asgard to the world of humans and from there kept watch for the approach of the giants, who were the enemies of the gods. Heimdall had incredibly sharp senses that allowed him to see great distances even at night and to hear sounds as soft as wool growing on sheep or grass growing. Furthermore, he needed little sleep.
According to legend, Heimdall would one day call the other gods to Ragnarok, the final battle that would result in the destruction of gods and humans. When the giants drew near to Asgard, Heimdall would summon the gods by blowing his horn, Gjallarhorn, which could be heard all over creation. During the battle, Heimdall would kill the evil trickster god Loki and then meet his own death.
Sometimes called Rig (meaning king), Heimdall was considered the father of all people on earth. According to legend, he traveled around the earth and stayed three nights with married couples from different social classes. First, he visited some serfs, then some peasants, and finally a noble couple. Nine months after each visit, a child was born to each couple. The first was an ugly but strong boy named Thrall, who became the ancestor of all serfs. The second, Karl, was skilled at farmwork and became the ancestor of all peasants. Jarl, the last of the children, was intelligent and quick to learn the skills of hunting and combat. He became the ancestor of all warriors and nobles. The words thrall, karl, and jarl mean serf, farmer, and nobleman in the Norse language.
trickster mischievous figure appearing in various forms in the folktales and mythology of many different peoples
serf a peasant bound to a lord and required to work the lord's land
* See Names and Places at the end of this volume for further information. | <urn:uuid:e422452f-6e91-4e75-8766-904ffbd9ad37> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Go-Hi/Heimdall.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247513222.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20190222033812-20190222055812-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.978781 | 418 | 3.140625 | 3 |
This is where family history comes in. So much more than the traditional family tree, genealogy and family history can make learning fun and interesting by providing students of all ages with the personal connection which is missing from so many classroom assignments. Seen through a grandparent's eyes, events like World War II and the invention of the automobile take on the immediacy of real life, teaching students that history is not a series of isolated events from the pages of a textbook, but rather a collection of individual choices and memories that still influences their lives today.
The hands-on learning that a family history project brings to the classroom can help motivate students to learn, as well as encourage retention of the covered material. Family history can be used to teach not only history, but also language arts, writing, math, geography, and even science. Family history projects can also be used to teach and encourage communication, information-gathering, research, computer, analysis, and evaluation skills. It is also an excellent method for encouraging the acceptance of individual differences.
You don't have to be a professional genealogist to incorporate family history into your classroom curriculum, though you should be sure to learn how to spell the word 'genealogy' correctly! Familiarize yourself with some of the basic tenants of family history research, browse through the accompanying family tree lesson plan links for creative applications of family history in the classroom, be ready with alternative projects to meet the needs of all of your students, and you will be well on your way to having one of the most fun and enthusiastic classrooms in your school. | <urn:uuid:80d3b9fc-fe1a-47a1-ae9a-55c0624626ed> | CC-MAIN-2014-15 | http://genealogy.about.com/od/lesson_plans/a/family_tree_projects.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-15/segments/1397609532374.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20140416005212-00592-ip-10-147-4-33.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959583 | 320 | 3.59375 | 4 |
National Policies and the Rise of Transnational Gangs
National Policies and the Rise of Transnational Gangs
Transnationalism, the term used to describe migrants who are "at home" in more than one country thanks to cheaper forms of communication and travel, is usually discussed in positive terms. In particular, many migrant-sending countries benefit from migrants who regularly remit money and return "home" to visit family and friends, spending their currency earned abroad.
Yet transnationalism, coupled with immigration policies, can have negative outcomes. The gang Mara Salvatrucha, also known as MS-13, is a transnational criminal organization that started in the United States and is now active in the United States and many Central American countries. Most of its members are people from El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala who have lived most of their lives in the United States. Brutal violence, robbery, drug-trafficking, extortion, and human smuggling are among the gang's activities.
Gang members' participation is not limited to defending a neighborhood territory. They may join cliques in disparate cities or countries using their initial gang affiliation as an entry point. Estimates place MS-13 membership in the United States between 8,000 and 10,000 individuals across 33 states.
The growth of MS-13 has caught the attention of the media and law enforcement. The U.S. government, as well as the governments of El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, are enacting tough measures to target such gangs. But the migration factors that made the growth of the gangs possible — most importantly U.S. deportation policy — have been overlooked.
In combination with poor social and economic prospects back "home," deportation of gang members has allowed U.S.-based gangs to establish themselves in Central America and subsequently funnel both new and old members back to the United States through illegal channels.
Los Angeles was the destination of thousands of people from Central America fleeing conflict and civil war in the 1980s. According to the 1990 U.S. Census, approximately 70 percent of all Central Americans in the United States arrived after 1980. Some estimates place the Salvadoran population alone in Los Angeles at 300,000 by the decade's end, representing a tenfold increase during the 1980s. Significant numbers of Central American immigrants also settled in the Washington, DC, area during this period.
Although many applied for asylum, few had legal status. It is worth noting that certain communities, such as Nicaraguans, had high rates of asylum approvals and were offered opportunities to adjust their status while other communities, such as Hondurans, were routinely denied refugee status and remained largely undocumented (see Central Americans and U.S. Asylum Policy in the Reagan Era).
The Central American population in the United States, according to the 1990 census, was generally not highly educated. Approximately 46 percent of the population held a high school degree and only nine percent held a bachelor's degree or higher. Central Americans were also overrepresented in low-wage work (such as service and manufacturing jobs) and 21 percent of Central American families lived below the poverty line.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Asian, African-American, and Mexican gangs in Los Angeles all began to emerge as organized groups carrying out criminal activities and general acts of violence. Because Central American immigrants were living in some of the toughest areas of Los Angeles, they were frequent targets for existing gangs, and the community's youth became ripe for gang recruitment.
As youth gang expert Dr. Malcom Klein noted in a recent lecture on Central American youth gang violence, gangs tend to "originate in communities characterized by poverty, racism, disenfranchisement, deprivation, and low levels of social control." Another risk factor predisposing new Central American immigrants to gang affiliation was their exposure to and participation in violence during the brutal conflicts in their home countries.
MS-13 and its main rival, the 18th St. gang, first appeared in Los Angeles in the late 1980s. Although the precise origins of MS-13 are not well documented, some accounts state that Mexican gangs (often composed of second- or third-generation immigrants by the 1980s) rejected any participation by newly arrived Salvadoran immigrants and actually targeted them as victims.
For new immigrant children, banding together was initially a way to protect themselves in these rough neighborhoods, and such groups quickly turned into organized and violent youth gangs.
MS-13 members use a combination of methods to identify members including clothing, hand signals, and tattoos. They are especially known for having highly visible tattoos, often covering their face, neck, and torso, all of which clearly demonstrate their gang and clique affiliation. Like many other gangs, MS-13 also uses graffiti to mark its territory.
However, MS-13 is not a tightly structured organization. While some cliques have strong leadership, others may be groups of individuals who are united by participation in criminal activities or residence in a common neighborhood. Unlike the traditional structure of organized crime in the United States, these cliques are each unique and only loosely affiliated.
U.S. Deportation Policies
Municipal policies in Los Angeles in the 1990s allowed for cooperation between the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) in dealing with immigrants identified as career criminals. These policies allowed INS to work cooperatively with LAPD to intervene and place immigrants in deportation proceedings when they deemed necessary.
Before 1996, individuals could be deported on a myriad of offenses, including theft, alien smuggling, bribery, fraud, vehicle trafficking, obstruction of justice, perjury, and other offenses but only if their sentence was five years or longer; the length of the sentence qualified it as an "aggravated felony."
Several key policies played a consistent role in increasing deportations. The 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRAIRA) included two provisions that affected Central American gang members, a non-citizen population that had frequent contact with the criminal justice system.
The first was the expansion of the definition of an "aggravated felony" and the application of that expanded definition retroactively. IIRAIRA reduced the length of the term of imprisonment for many crimes to be considered an "aggravated felony" from five years to one year. As a result, IIRAIRA changed the nature and seriousness of crimes that qualified as deportable offenses (see Table 1).
After the 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRAIRA)
Gang members with legal permanent residence (LPR) status convicted of any such "aggravated felony" faced jail time and were considered deportable. Gang members with no legal status were placed in removal proceedings either immediately or after serving a sentence for any convictions. Immigrants with criminal convictions that previously presented no threat to their legal status suddenly became subject to deportation under the new law.
This policy increased the number of potential deportees at the same time that local law enforcement had increased gang suppression efforts, both of which could have contributed to the sharp rises in deportations in 1997 and 1998 (see Figure 1). Since 1996, there has also been a more concerted effort to identify and deport unauthorized immigrants in prisons after they have completed their sentences.
The second IIRAIRA provision that played a key role in deportations was the elimination of "suspension of deportation," which allowed eligible individuals in removal proceedings to adjust to LPR status based on seven years of continuous presence in the country and demonstration of hardship if made to return to their home country.
Under IIRAIRA, suspension of deportation was replaced with "cancellation of removal," which required nonpermanent residents in removal proceedings to show good moral character, 10 years of continuous presence in the United States, and to demonstrate that a U.S. citizen or legally resident spouse or other family member would suffer exceptional and extremely unusual hardship if the applicant were made to return to their home country.
With the passage of the Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act (NACARA) in 1997, Nicaraguans were offered an opportunity to adjust their status to LPR, and certain Guatemalans and Salvadorans became eligible to have their cases reviewed under pre-IIRAIRA standards, which only required seven years of presence in the country and demonstration of hardship to the individual.
However, even with the relief NACARA offered, total annual deportations of Central Americans still tripled in the late 1990s, rising from 8,057 in 1996 to 24,285 in 2004 (see Figure 1). Despite the fact that NACARA allowed many Central Americans to adjust to LPR status, the stricter qualifying conditions for an aggravated felony remained in place.
Charging and convicting apprehended gang members of crimes has proven to be difficult. The Immigration and Customs Enforcement Division (ICE) of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) confirms that approximately 70 percent of foreign gang members who are apprehended cannot be charged with a crime and are therefore deported on immigration violations rather than on criminal grounds. This trend is reflected in the sharp increases in noncriminal deportations compared to smaller increases in criminal deportations during this period.
In addition to receiving criminal deportees (including but not limited to gang members), a portion of non-criminal deportations to Central America are known gang members or associates. El Salvador alone received 1,900 deported gang members in 2005.
Today, when local law enforcement apprehends or detains gang members who are not U.S. citizens, ICE can become involved at any time. If an alien is charged and convicted of a crime, the individual could potentially serve time in a county jail or in state prison first, and, after serving time, be handed over to ICE.
ICE and local law enforcement work together to determine at what point in the process a suspect will be transferred to ICE custody for removal proceedings. Alien suspects who were apprehended but not charged with a crime can also be turned over to ICE. The LAPD, like many police departments nationwide, receives information on individuals who have been deported previously and have existing warrants for illegal reentry.
No Warm Welcome "Home"
Deported gang members, after living a significant portion of their lives in the United States, are often unprepared for and unfamiliar with their home country and its language and culture. According to research by sociologist Elana Zilberg, the experience of forced transnationalism is disorienting, evident in the comments of one gang member who stated that, upon arriving in El Salvador, he felt he had been sent to "Mars."
More importantly, a constant influx of deportees from the United States has created a climate of fear and a strong stigma around gang membership and culture in many Central American communities. For individuals wanting to leave the gang or start over after deportation, the tattoos that touted their gang affiliation serve as barriers to employment and societal acceptance and make them targets for violence.
Faced with few opportunities, deported gang members in the 1990s set up outposts of the Los Angeles-based gangs in communities across El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.
There are conflicting reports about the timing of the first appearance of gangs in Central America. Some contend that this phenomenon is something that has occurred only in the past 15 years while others link the current situation to homegrown gangs from the 1960s. Whatever the case, ongoing deportations have created new opportunities for gang members to network with one another and recruit new members in Central America. The presence of deported gang members has even spurred the rise of new, homegrown rival gangs.
Indeed, many Central American communities are fertile ground for gang recruitment. El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala have been most affected by the rapid and violent rise of gangs in their urban communities. Approximately one-third of the populations in these countries are between the ages of 12 and 25, and the average age of the total population does not exceed 21. In addition, large portions of their populations live below the poverty line: 36 percent in El Salvador, 53 percent in Honduras, and 75 percent in Guatemala.
Gangs Go Transnational
After being deported, harsh policies combined with unfamiliar and difficult conditions in their home countries encouraged gang members to return to the United States in the 1990s, establishing a continuous cycle of migration between these regions. The homegrown groups have also moved into the United States, often using the well-established channels of illegal entry, in an effort to establish their own territory.
Since MS-13, 18th Street, and the homegrown gangs have become transnational, their rivalries have also transcended borders. Members of rival gangs in Los Angeles, once deported back to El Salvador, for example, are bound to their U.S. gang affiliation rather than united by a common nationality. The rivalries in Los Angeles and Washington, DC, are therefore inextricably linked to the rivalries in Tegucigalpa and San Salvador, and, in many cases, the actors are the same.
Both as a means of transport and revenue, the gangs have become involved in human smuggling, substantiated by their presence along migrant routes through Central America and into the Mexican states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and Aguascalientes. The facility and rapidity of return to the United States after deportation is also evidence of this extensive transnational network.
Central American Governments' Response
In response to the arrival of deportees with suspected, but unproven, criminal activities, the governments of El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala have all enacted laws that target youth gang violence and, in some cases, allow the unconditional detention of individuals suspected of gang affiliation. A person's tattoos are usually enough to meet the burden of suspicion in the eyes of local law enforcement. The increase in detentions has put an added strain on the already ailing prison systems in these countries.
In El Salvador, the evolution of government policies over a three-year period perhaps best demonstrates the difficulty many governments have had in balancing enforcement with prevention and rehabilitation. In 2003, the government introduced a plan targeting gang violence known as Mano Dura (Firm Hand), which attempted to reform the penal code to facilitate the arrest of gang members. It criminalized gang affiliation and made it punishable with a prison sentence of six to 12 years.
Many critics have questioned the constitutionality of the plan, and courts have been cautious about convicting individuals purely for gang affiliation. In subsequent years, newly elected Salvadoran President Antonio Saca expanded the program, labeling it Super Mano Dura.
Despite this expansion, recent figures show mixed results in curbing violent crime. Although apprehensions of suspected gang members have increased, homicide rates in El Salvador have risen from seven to 10 homicides per day in the past three years. In 2005, the government created an additional set of programs, frequently referred to as Mano Amiga and Mano Extendida (Friendly Hand and Outstretched Hand), which seek to break the cycle of violence by addressing prevention and rehabilitation, respectively, through development and funding of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and public-sector initiatives.
In 2003, Guatemala and Honduras both launched their own initiatives to target gangs (Plan Escoba or Plan Broom and Operación Libertad or Operation Liberty, respectively). Operation Liberty specifically included measures to make gang membership and affiliation illegal and punishable with mandatory prison sentences.
Many critics have voiced concern over these heavy-handed government policies, alleging that they amount to "social cleansing." In one well-known incident in 2004, more than 100 inmates died from a fire in a Honduran prison cell block that housed 186 members of MS-13. Many of these inmates, though born in Honduras, had spent most of their lives in the United States.
Though there were conflicting accounts of the circumstances of the fire, the lack of a transparent investigation led several members of the U.S. Congress to write an open letter to Honduran President Ricardo Maduro in 2005, encouraging him to enact policies that address youth gang violence by focusing on prevention and rehabilitation, rather than enforcement alone.
Steps toward a coordinated regional effort in Central America have been made since 2003. Governments are beginning to realize that in order to address a transnational and constantly morphing threat they must be able to respond and cooperate beyond their own borders. Central American governments have signed bilateral cooperation agreements that target drug trafficking and other illegal activities on their shared borders.
U.S. Law Enforcement Response
In February 2005, ICE launched Operation Community Shield, an antigang initiative that uses the agency's immigration and customs authorities to dismantle and prosecute violent organizations. As of March 10, 2006, ICE had apprehended 2,388 foreign gang members through Community Shield, about 922 of whom were involved in MS-13. Of the total, 533 have been charged criminally and 1,855 have received administrative immigration charges.
Also in 2005, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) created the MS-13 National Gang Task Force and established a National Gang Intelligence Center, both of which are designed to provide support to law enforcement and facilitate information sharing between federal, state, and local agencies. ICE has been coordinating all of its gang targets with the FBI and its MS-13 National Gang Task Force prior to arrest.
Recognizing that the gang problem is transnational, the FBI's Intelligence Center and ICE's Operation Community Shield have begun collaborating with counterpart agencies in Central America. As part of these coordinated efforts, in 2005 U.S. authorities in Texas apprehended a suspect in a 2004 Honduran bus bombing that killed 28 people. The suspect had escaped from a Honduran prison weeks earlier and was fleeing to the United States.
ICE has also worked with U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), also part of DHS, to identify MS-13 members who had applied for immigration benefits. Recently, ICE compared its list of thousands of gang targets against the USCIS database of immigration benefit applicants. This effort led to the arrest in February 2006 of four MS-13 members and the placement of immigration detainers on eight MS-13 members in custody.
In 2005, USCIS identified and referred more than 4,000 cases involving fraud to ICE. USCIS Director Emilio Gonzalez characterizes their joint antifraud and national security effort as "a major priority for the Department of Homeland Security."
Because the Central American government-sponsored initiatives to prevent and rehabilitate gang members have been limited, nongovernmental organizations have stepped in. Several of these organizations have become transnational, much like the phenomenon they are tackling.
Homies Unidos, an organization founded in San Salvador in 1996 with a branch that opened in Los Angeles in 1997, offers programs for the prevention of youth violence and rehabilitation, including alternative education, leadership development, and tattoo removal.
Other organizations working on youth gangs and violence include Alliance for the Prevention of Crime (APREDE) in Guatemala and Jóvenes Hondureños Adelante (Onward Honduran Youth) in Tegucigalpa.
Although a byproduct of changing immigration policies during the 1990s, deportations have played a key role in the growth of transnational gangs. As a law enforcement strategy, incarceration and subsequent deportation have not succeeded in permanently removing a gang population that, although foreign born, has been essentially U.S. raised.
Further, these policies have exported a violent population to some of the most vulnerable communities in Central America. Rather than curbing the threat gangs pose, deportations have helped members establish, reinforce, and expand ties across Central America and the United States.
It seems clear that the spread of such transnational gangs can no longer be effectively addressed by simply expelling "problematic" populations with the hope that they will never return. Any long-term solutions will need to take into account the large population of youth involved and the underlying causes of such a phenomenon. Enforcement, though necessary, by itself will not stop the recruitment of new members nor will it help integrate former members back into society.
Brennan, Gary, Chief Detective of Los Angeles Police Department, Interview by Mary Helen Johnson. March 29, 2006.
Campos Flores, A., D. Briscoe, D. Klaidman, M. Isikoff, J. Ordóñez, J. Contreras, A. Cruz (2005). "The Most Dangerous Gang in America." Newsweek, March 28.
Chacon, Oscar, Director of Heartland Alliance for Human Needs and Human Rights, Interview by Mary Helen Johnson. March 9, 2006.
Chea, Socheat (1999). "The Evolving Definition of an Aggravated Felony." Retrieved March 20, 2006. Available online.
Congressional Testimony before the Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere House International Relations Committee, Statement of Chris Swecker, Asst. Director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, April 20, 2005.
Dalton, Juan (2006). "Las 'maras' forman una economía criminal y un Gobierno paralelo." El País, February 27.
Dalton, Juan (2006). "El Salvador Pide Ayuda a EU para Combatir Las Maras." La Opinión, February 14th.
Del Barco, Mandalit (2005). The International Reach of the Mara Salvatrucha, National Public Radio, March 17.
The Economist, (2006). Special Report, Out of the Underworld – Criminal Gangs in the Americas, January 7.
Gamboa, Suzanne (2005) "Suspect in Honduras Bus Massacre Arrested in Texas." The Associated Press, February 24th.
Lopez, Robert J., Rich Connell and Chris Kraul, (2005) "An International Franchise." Los Angeles Times, October 30.
Walker, S. Lynne, (2005) "Gang Members deported from U.S. take deadly culture to their home countries." Copley News Services, January 17.
"Voices from the Field: Local Initiatives and New Research on Central American Youth Gang Violence." Inter-American Coalition for the Prevention of Youth Violence Event Report, February 23, 2005.
Wasem, Ruth (1997). "Central American Asylum Seekers: Impact of 1996 Immigration Law." Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, November 21.
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (2006). "ICE arrests 375 Gang Members and Associates in Two-Week Enforcement Action." Press release, March 10. Available online.
Zilberg, Elana (2004). "Fools banished from the Kingdom: Remapping Geographies between the Americas (Los Angeles and San Salvador)." American Quarterly, Volume 56, Number 3, pp. 759-779. | <urn:uuid:99097fcd-653b-4ff6-831a-7c265ee7fea5> | CC-MAIN-2014-42 | http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/national-policies-and-rise-transnational-gangs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-42/segments/1413507446525.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20141017005726-00016-ip-10-16-133-185.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957772 | 4,643 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Get mad when you read the news these days? It’s more than just what you’re reading. When you perceive unfairness or inequality, says Molly Crockett, the brain receives it more-so as an attack on identity.
“One hallmark of moral outrage is expressing it feels so good. And brain imaging studies have shown that when we punish bad behavior you see activation in the striatum, which is a brain area that we know to be involved in signaling rewards. It’s receiving inputs from the dopamine system.
One of the strands of research that I’ve done over the past several years is looking at how brain chemicals like serotonin regulate our desire to punish bad behavior.
And so we’ve done studies where we bring people into the lab and we manipulate their serotonin levels, drive them down or drive them up temporarily, and look to see how likely people are to punish unfair behavior, and what are the brain correlates of those decisions.
And one thing that we found repeatedly is that when we temporarily lower serotonin, this makes people more likely to punish unfair behavior. And what we see in the brain concurrently is that the striatum is more active when people are punishing. So by changing the levels of this neurotransmitter we can actually change the motivational value of punishment.
This is interesting because serotonin is a neurotransmitter whose raw ingredient you can only get from your diet. So the building block of serotonin is tryptophan. Tryptophan is an essential amino acid, which means you can only intake tryptophan by eating enough proteins.
So this means that this neurotransmitter system may be very finely attuned to the relative abundance or scarcity of resources in the environment. It may be the case that when resources are relatively scarce this could affect serotonin levels, which then could sensitize people to unfairness, lack of cooperation, and make them more likely to punish. And the proximate mechanism for that is it makes the act of punishment perhaps more valuable or rewarding.
The ultimatum game is a situation where two people have to agree on how to split a sum of money or some other resource, or neither person gets any money. So it’s a two-step game. In the first step the proposer gets the resource and makes a proposal to the responder, the second person, about how to divide that up.”
Dr Molly Crockett is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Yale University and a Distinguished Research Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Neuroethics. Prior to joining Yale, Dr Crockett was a faculty member at the University of Oxford’s Department of Experimental Psychology and a Fellow of Jesus College. She holds a BSc in Neuroscience from UCLA and a PhD in Experimental Psychology from the University of Cambridge, and completed a Wellcome Trust Postdoctoral Fellowship with economists and neuroscientists at the University of Zürich and University College London. | <urn:uuid:3aa7da81-8e3d-4056-b39a-ffc693f27bc6> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://www.artificialbrain.xyz/your-brain-is-hardwired-for-outrage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257646375.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20180319042634-20180319062634-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.945103 | 599 | 3.328125 | 3 |
town/city that has been fortified
Stronghold means castle or any other strongly fortified place. The history of fortified buildings reaches from antiquity to modern times. In medieval Europe, the castle was the most common type of stronghold and often the residence of the king or territorial lord. The Maginot Line is an example of a 20th century stronghold.
Stronghold is also the name of a small video game franchise consisting of several castle-sim games made by Firefly Studios. | <urn:uuid:347b3269-1953-4ed6-9502-1e2006e848a5> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronghold | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224653930.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20230607143116-20230607173116-00678.warc.gz | en | 0.953161 | 101 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Stem cell therapy has the potential to rejuvenate Alzheimers-damaged brains, and has already helped cure some kinds of blindness. And there are two more reasons to be hopeful about stem cell treatments, announced this week.
Controlling Stem Cells
This morning Cell magazine published an intriguing article about a breakthrough made by several American scientists researching how stem cells get made. There is a small family of genes responsible for keeping stem cells "pluripotent," a state which allows the cell to turn into almost any other cell. Maintaining pluripotency is crucial for stem cell therapy.
Even more important is discovering how to restore pluripotency to cells that have already differentiated into a neurons or skin cells. Stem cells taken from blastocysts, or embryos, are pluripotent. But there is a limited supply of such cells for both practical and policy reasons (regulations against using embryos in experiments, for instance). So one of the gold rings of the stem cell research community is discovering how to make differentiated cells pluripotent agian.
And that's where today's discovery comes in. The research team led by UC Santa Barbara's Na Xu discovered that the family of genes which turns a stem cell pluripotent are themselves regulated by a small molecule called micro-RNA. They located the exact kind of micro-RNA responsible for controlling these stem cell genes, called miR-145. A rise in levels of miR-145 causes stem cells to differentiated. So keeping levels of miR-145 low may allow researchers more granular control of the pluripotency of cells.
The bottom line: Researchers have more control than ever over the process that turns ordinary cells into pluripotent stem cells and maintains them in that state. We've tightened our grip on the on/off switch for pluripotency.
Experimenting with Stem Cell Therapies
Great strides are also being made in applied therapies, too. This week H+ published an intriguing interview with Sean Hu, the head of a Chinese lab where people come from all over the world to get controversial treatments with stem cells drawn from umbilical cord blood. Hu founded Beike Biotechnology, located in Shenzhen, where he says doctors have had success in treating blindness caused by damaged optical nerves:
There have been many successful stories of stem cell therapy (SCT). One example is the recovery of a nearly blind sixteen-year-old girl, Macie Morse, who recently got her learner's permit and started driving. She came to one of our hospitals for treatment in July 2006, with 20/4,000 vision in one eye and only light perception in the other due to optic nerve hypoplasia. After treatment, Macie now has 20/80 vision in one eye and 20/400-plus in the other!
While the breakthroughs at Beike are not quite as spectacular as some excitable bloggers have suggested, the lab is part of a new wave of research centers that are already putting into practice some of the discoveries that rarely make it out of university labs in the West.
The bottom line: Beike Biotechnology and similar companies like Osiris and Geron are making strides towards applying stem cell therapies in the human population. It's likely that breakthroughs will come out of labs like these, where doctors are already working with human subjects.
Image of stem cells via University of Kansas Medical Center. | <urn:uuid:bc7f0e40-19dd-4bbf-938b-d3c3b8d6e56c> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://io9.gizmodo.com/5234609/two-stem-cell-research-breakthroughs-you-should-know-about/all | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463608120.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20170525180025-20170525200025-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.9536 | 697 | 3.28125 | 3 |
In late 2002 several hundred people in China came down with a severe form of pneumonia caused by an unknown infectious agent. Dubbed "severe acute respiratory syndrome," or SARS, the disease soon spread to Vietnam, Hong Kong, and Canada and led to hundreds of deaths. In March 2003 a team of researchers at the University of California, San Francisco, received samples of a virus isolated from the tissues of a SARS patient. Using a new technology known as a DNA microarray, within 24 hours the researchers had identified the virus as a previously unknown member of a particular family of viruses -- a result confirmed by other researchers using different techniques. Immediately, work began on a blood test to identify people with the disease (so they could be quarantined), on treatments for the disease, and on vaccines to prevent infection with the virus.
An understanding of evolution was essential in the identification of the SARS virus. The genetic material in the virus was similar to that of other viruses because it had evolved from the same ancestor virus. Furthermore, knowledge of the evolutionary history of the SARS virus gave scientists important information about the disease, such as how it is spread. Knowing the evolutionary origins of human pathogens will be critical in the future as existing infectious agents evolve into new and more dangerous forms.
From Science, Evolution, and Creationism, National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine. © 2008 National Academy of Sciences | <urn:uuid:09fddddd-99f3-4b81-b8f4-6f2e566b8a65> | CC-MAIN-2015-11 | http://www.nas.edu/evolution/EvolutioninMedicine.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-11/segments/1424936460576.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20150226074100-00126-ip-10-28-5-156.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958265 | 282 | 4.0625 | 4 |
For the first time ever, scientists have produced live mice without a fertilized egg cell. The potentially revolutionary technique could one day allow gay men to produce biological offspring, or—even more radically—allow both men and women to self-fertilize.
Researchers from the University of Bath injected sperm directly into a modified, inactive mouse embryo. The resulting mice appeared to be normal, and were even able to reproduce. The new study, published in Nature Communications, challenges nearly two centuries of conventional wisdom, showing that it’s possible to produce healthy mammalian offspring without first having to fertilize an egg.
In 1827, biologist Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer became the first scientist to knowingly observe mammalian eggs (in dogs), concluding that all animals develop from eggs. This has largely informed our understanding of reproduction ever since, and until now, no one has been able to show that any cell other than an egg cell can combine with sperm to produce offspring.
It’s not as if scientists haven’t tried. Previously, researchers have “tricked” eggs into developing into an embryo without fertilization, but the resulting embryos (known as parthenogenetic embryos) died after just a few days.
“In some vertebrate species, like geckos for example, parthenogenetic embryos can develop fully to produce healthy live young, but there are no examples of parthenogenetic mammals known to science,” lead author Tony Perry told Gizmodo. “Instead, development peters out after a few days.”
Perry says this has a lot to do with the need for two distinct sets of genomes—one from the mother and one from the father—which, for mammals, is essential to get the right balance of gene expression.
Basically, mammalian sperm can only transform into a mature sperm cell capable of dividing and producing to form a complex organism within an egg—or so we thought. That’s why this new study is so significant. The Bath researchers have shown that a non-egg cell can kickstart this process and completely “reprogram” a sperm cell, resulting in live birth.
Perry and his colleagues exposed mouse eggs to a chemical bath containing a salt called strontium chloride (SrCl2). As previous research has shown, this compound prevents the parthenogenetic embryos from going into a state of arrest. “Essentially, for the egg to be ‘tricked’ into initiating parthenogenetic development, one has to remove the activity that keeps it arrested in the meiotic cell cycle, and that, in effect, is what the SrCl2 does,” explained Perry. (By meiotic cell cycle, Perry is referring to the stage in reproduction when a “mother” cell starts to divide into “daughter” cells, resulting in reproductive cells, namely sperm and eggs.)
Next, the researchers injected sperm nuclei into these chemically modified mouse embryos, kickstarting the reprogramming process. The resulting embryos were then implanted into surrogate mothers.
“As far as we can tell, the [resulting] baby mice were normal and healthy,” said Perry. “We checked how long they lived, and their life expectancies were similar—in some cases longer—to those of controls. We found that the mice reproduced efficiently...and had similarly healthy offspring.”
The researchers aren’t entirely sure how the sperm genome was reprogrammed, but preliminary results suggest a different route than what occurs during conventional fertilization. Future research will be needed to fill in these gaps.
There’s no evidence to suggest the same thing applies to human embryos, but it’s very likely. “Yes, the cells are special—a parthenogenote and a sperm—but imagine if any mitotic cell could reprogram a sperm in the same way,” Perry said. “Then there would be no need for eggs.”
Clearly, many technical and ethical hurdles will have to be sorted out if this is to ever to be used to enable gay men to reproduce (with the help of surrogate mothers), or men and women to self-fertilize. Until then, it could be used to treat infertility and other reproductive issues. This process could even apply to conservation efforts and the assisted reproduction of endangered species.
More philosophically, this research further teases our notions as to when life begins, and how it’s defined. Some individuals believe that life begins at the union of sperm and egg, but this newly developed process would seem to violate that sensibility.
Moving forward, the University of Bath researchers are hoping to learn if their modified embryos can reprogram other cell types and not just sperm, and conversely, whether other cell types can reprogram sperm. | <urn:uuid:cfb15669-6daa-4fe4-9b8b-513b0da684f4> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://gizmodo.com/scientists-have-bred-live-mice-with-no-need-for-fertili-1786543071 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218190754.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212950-00435-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948146 | 998 | 3.421875 | 3 |
LOS ANGELES, CA - Five hikers have died this month out on the trails in Arizona in triple digit weather. One of the most lethal and frustrating things about heat illness is that sufferers are often completely unaware of their own symptoms.
When you're over heated, your cognitive ability and your capacity to make a rational decision are compromised. Athletes will say they're fine and keep training and hikers will keep trudging on.
So know the signs: a high body temperature, red, hot, and dry skin, lack of sweating, and a rapid pulse. The person may stumble or appear clumsier than usual. Headache, nausea, and dizziness are also common symptoms.
If you think a person is having a problem, even if they don’t- err on the side of caution. Insist they get into the shade and cool down. Give them water and rub them with ice or a cold cloth or spray them with water. If they don’t cool down quickly, seek medical advice.
To prevent getting to that point do NOT take the chance and exert yourself in excessive heat. Even the most experienced, fit, and well-prepared hikers can be overcome by the heat.
Stay safe during a heat wave. There are a lot of other things to do: Drink ice water, make slushies, marathon Netflix, and stay by the A/C. | <urn:uuid:ea9e37fd-a53c-4711-aaa6-016aef0a1c1c> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://www.fox7austin.com/news/watch-hikers-are-dying-in-triple-digit-heat-heres-how-to-survive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057857.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20210926083818-20210926113818-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.957216 | 285 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The fundamental form for machine-made spoons is carved out of a sheet of sterling silver, nickel silver alloy, or stainless steel. To create a narrower part, the bowl is cross-rolled between two pressured rollers. The blank is then cut to the necessary shape, and the pattern is applied to the blank using two dies. One die is used to create the specific design of the spoon, while the other one removes any excess material around the edges and on the bottom of the bowl.
After removing the pattern, the spoon is cleaned by hand or under a stream of water. This removes the lubricant used during fabrication and also helps reduce bacterial growth inside the spoon. Clean spoons are dried before being polished to a high shine.
Spoon making is an ancient craft that dates back at least 3,000 years. It is believed that early spoon makers worked with metals that they obtained from mining operations. As metal working techniques improved, spoons became more intricate and colorful. Modern spoons can be made from stainless steel, copper, or other materials. They usually have a plain surface until they are finished polishing them.
People use tools to make life easier. Tools save time and allow us to complete tasks which would otherwise take too long or not at all without them. In the case of spoon making, tools help remove excess material and ensure consistent quality across different spoons.
Manufacture The fundamental form for machine-made spoons is carved out of a sheet of sterling silver, nickel silver alloy, or stainless steel. The shape is polished and may be given a decorative finish.
Nature has provided many materials that are useful as spoons. Wood is the material most often used for this purpose because of its availability and reasonable price. Other materials include stone, bone, horn, and metal. Spoons made from wood are generally not very durable because they tend to become brittle over time. However, some wooden spoons are now being made with maple, sycamore, or pine trees that are grown with care for their quality and durability.
Spoons made from other natural materials can be very beautiful but may also be expensive. Horn and bone spoons are popular but difficult to obtain because they are not manufactured in factories. Spoons made from metal are the most durable but are also the most expensive. Modern spoons are usually made from sterling silver or stainless steel because these metals are both functional and attractive.
History records that ancient Egyptians used spades made from the bones of fish animals for harvesting crops. The Greeks and Romans used spades made from hardwood such as beech, hazel, or oak.
According to Stephen Helliwell's book "Small Silver Tableware," before the 1700s, the stem and bowl were fashioned separately and then soldered together. Spoons were stamped and fashioned from a single piece of metal beginning in the 1700s. The spoon maker would design the spoon by drawing the shape on a flat surface with a soft pencil or charcoal.
Spoon making has been an art form for thousands of years. Early civilizations such as the Egyptians, Chinese, and Indians used simple tools and techniques to create objects that have evolved little since they were first made. In more recent times, silver was often used instead of gold for table decorations because it was cheaper. As money became more common, however, the value of silver increased, so people started looking for ways to make their silver look more beautiful and offer better service. This led to the creation of various types of spoons that are still popular today.
People began asking themselves why God would give us silver when we could easily use something else. They believed that if silver had magical properties, they might be able to extract any benefit from it. So they started experimenting with different methods of processing silver until they found some way to make its natural property of being very reflective useful.
The idea for treating silver with chemicals to make it more durable came about around 1750.
A spoon is a utensil that consists of a tiny shallow bowl (sometimes known as a "head") at the end of a handle. Metal (most notably flat silver or flatware, plated or solid), wood, porcelain, or plastic are used to make modern spoons. The word "spoon" comes from a Latin word meaning small dish.
When you use a spoon to eat soup or sauce, you're using it in a way that makes it difficult to identify as a solid object. Even though the spoon's shape doesn't change when you use it to stir food, people usually think of stirring food as a separate activity than eating with a spoon. That's because when you eat with a spoon you're consuming the product of one chemical reaction after another without breaking the chain by swallowing chunks of undigested food.
The first thing you should know about spoons is that they're not like rocks, trees, or bones. Spoons are made out of thin sheets of metal or plastic, which are easy to break if you put some force into them. They're also very flexible, so even though they look like they could be hard enough to cut meat with, that wouldn't be true for most spoons.
People sometimes ask me if they need special tools to eat food that has been processed into a powder, such as powdered milk or cornflakes. | <urn:uuid:46de2369-92e2-4e22-a081-f1655d41ae7b> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.texturatrading.com/how-is-a-spoon-made | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652663048462.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20220529072915-20220529102915-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.974026 | 1,083 | 3.296875 | 3 |
We have thought long and hard about how we can reduce our impact on the environment…
The plastic covers that protect your freshly laundered garments are 100% biodegradable and so can go straight into your compost bin. It does cost us a bit more, but we think it’s worth it.
All our hangers are plain unpainted steel, so they can also go into your recycling bins, or even better – bring them back to us and we’ll use them again.
Every little helps
When you pick up your alterations, once again, you’ll find the bag they come in is 100% degradable and compostable. It’s just a start and we’re always looking at ways to improve.
The History of Dry Cleaning
Nowadays dry cleaning seems to be one of the most common things to do when one of our precious garments is dirty. The history of dry cleaning, however, dates back to the Mycenaean Civilisation (around 1600 B.C.), where ancient dry cleaners supposedly used absorbent earth and powdered meal to draw various kinds of dirt such as sweat, stains and odour from clothing. As time passed, liquid solvents gained the upper hand and the history of dry cleaning took its place.
Back in the day, people used to reach for chemical substitutes as cleaners (e.g. naphtha, benzene, even grated potatoes) instead of water-based ones, to prevent their garments from shrinkage and warpage.
It is said that in 1825, a Frenchman named Jean-Baptiste Jolly made an innovative discovery when his maid accidentally spilled turpentine on a table cloth, which subsequently became cleaner. Jolly took his chance and rendered dry cleaning services to the public which he then called “nettoyage a sec” – a French equivalent to the term dry cleaning. Shortly afterwards, in 1857, dry cleaning had been introduced to the UK eventually. Despite the fact that Jolly was accredited with the discovery of dry cleaning, it has actually been recorded that turpentine had already been used for spot cleaning since 1720.
As we begin a new decade, the reasons for using dry cleaners have changed to suit the times. People just don’t have the time or the inclination to make laundry a part their hectic lives.
Dirty Laundry Manchester provides the answer – it only takes a minute to drop your washing off and a minute to collect it all freshly laundered or dry cleaned after all.
Part of the community
Our choice of location at 70 Market Street in Droylsden, Manchester is no accident. We’ve roots in the area and it is our intention to provide a service that people from all backgrounds in our community can use and enjoy.
We care about your clothes and delivering a great service, we care about your lifestyle and how busy it can be, we care about our customers and we care about delivering the best value that we can.
Easy to reach
We are situated right next to a bus stop, on the Manchester to Ashton under Lyne tram route and have car parking to the side, so visiting us couldn’t be easier.
Pop in and say hello,
we can’t wait to meet you.
I love the friendliness, I’m a regular every Saturday morning… pair of trousers in… pick a pair up… always perfectly done.
Absolutely brilliant took my son’s trousers to get altered and was ready 2 days later and reasonably priced too. I would certainly recommend them.
Amazing service, they saved the day by getting the stains out of my dress at short notice. Will be using them again! | <urn:uuid:933cd4b9-275f-413a-ad17-8b2909e2b70d> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://www.dirtylaundrymanchester.com/about-us/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057733.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20210925172649-20210925202649-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.959131 | 766 | 3 | 3 |
CHAPTER III. CHARACTER, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, ARTS, ETC., OF THE PEOPLE.
“Pugnatrix natio et formidanda.”—Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.
The ethnic character of the Median people is at the present day scarcely a matter of doubt. The close connection which all history, sacred and profane, establishes between them and the Persians, the evidence of their proper names and of their language, so far as it is known to us, together with the express statements of Herodotus and Strabo, combine to prove that they belonged to that branch of the human family known to us as the Arian or Iranic, a leading subdivision of the great Indo-European race. The tie of a common language, common manners and customs, and to a great extent a common belief, united in ancient times all the dominant tribes of the great plateau, extending even beyond the plateau in one direction to the Jaxartes (Syhun) and in another to the Hyphasis (Sutlej). Persians, Medes, Sagartians, Chorasmians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Hyrcanians, Sarangians, Gandarians, and Sanskritic Indians belonged all to a single stock, differing from one another probably not much more than now differ the various subdivisions of the Teutonic or the Slavonic race. Between the tribes at the two extremities of the Arian territory the divergence was no doubt considerable; but between any two neighboring tribes the difference was probably in most cases exceedingly slight. At any rate this was the case towards the west, where the Medes and Persians, the two principal sections of the Arian body in that quarter, are scarcely distinguishable from one another in any of the features which constitute ethnic type.
The general physical character of the ancient Arian race is best gathered from the sculptures of the Achsemenian kings, which exhibit to us a very noble variety of the human species—a form tall, graceful, and stately; a physiognomy handsome and pleasing, often somewhat resembling the Greek; the forehead high and straight, the nose nearly in the same line, long and well formed, sometimes markedly aquiline, the upper lip short, commonly shaded by a moustache, the chin rounded and generally covered with a curly beard. The hair evidently grew in great plenty, and the race was proud of it. On the top of the head it was worn smooth, but it was drawn back from the forehead and twisted into a row or two of crisp curls, while at the same time it was arranged into a large mass of similar small close ringlets at the back of the head and over the ears. [PLATE IV., Fig. 1.]
[Illustration: PLATE IV.]
Of the Median women we have no representations upon the sculptures; but we are informed by Xenophon that they were remarkable for their stature and their beauty. The same qualities were observable in the women of Persia, as we learn from Plutarch, Ammianus Marcellinus, and others. The Arian races seem in old times to have treated women with a certain chivalry, which allowed the full development of their physical powers, and rendered them specially attractive alike to their own husbands and to the men of other nations. | <urn:uuid:c703fc14-6e73-4ce0-9a49-0d84c09f8296> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/16163/30.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461861812410.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428164332-00186-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9621 | 695 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have made significant improvements to public welfare in the last two decades, a new report from the Inter-American Development Bank suggests, but these are in jeopardy and public trust in governments has declined.
Released Wednesday, the report, Government at a Glance 2020: Latin America and the Caribbean, matches the region’s progress with the countries that make up the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries continue to face challenges in designing and enforcing public policies that promote good governance and inclusive societies, the report said.
“Along with difficult economic conditions, such setbacks to previous progress have spurred declining levels of trust in public institutions. In order to sustain inclusive growth, Latin American and Caribbean countries need to continue implementing public sector reforms that promote fairness for all.” In 2018, only 34 per cent of the population in LAC regions said they had trust in the government, down four per cent from a decade before. In TT, the figure is just under 30 per per cent.
Governments in the region have so far failed to take advantage of the opportunities offered by an economic boom to ensure that growth becomes sustainable and truly inclusive, the study said. Productivity has not significantly improved while inequality, despite economic progress, remains very high, whether measured in income or other well-being outcomes.
Citizens are largely dissatisfied with public services and investments in infrastructure and education seem to be insufficient. Overall, access to and quality of public services varies widely and those who can afford it often opt out to private providers. In addition, there is a widespread perception in the region that politics and markets are rigged.
Among the study’s findings
Public sector integrity: Political finance is strongly regulated in the LAC region. In general, the de jure (legal right) quality of political finance regulation has improved in Latin America; it is often even stronger than in OECD countries. Overall, however, existing regulations often fail to be effectively enforced. Moreover, regulations on campaign spending by political parties or candidates are less widespread than in OECD countries, creating incentives for political campaigns to increasing spending and seek financing from dubious sources.
Transparency: In Latin America the de jure quality of right to information laws is on average stronger than in OECD countries. Yet, citizens in Latin America often do not trust or simply do not know how to engage and how to obtain relevant and credible information.
Social accountability: The region shows growing awareness in terms of open data policies with Colombia, Mexico, Brazil and Uruguay with the most advanced open data initiatives in the region. All countries in the region have taken some steps to integrate stakeholder engagement in their rule-making process and have also established, to varying degrees, methodologies to engage with stakeholders, including minimum periods and supporting documentation for consultation.
Public sector employment: LAC countries face the pressing challenge to deepen the professionalisation of their civil service. While the public sector in LAC countries tends to be comparatively small (12.3 per cent of total employment in LAC compared to 21.2 per cent in OECD countries), public employment in several LAC countries is not merit-based. In addition, public employment is usually comprised of low-skilled workers protected by strict contractual labour arrangements and managers appointed based on their political affinities. Many political leaders and parties in the region are using the public administration to build clientelist networks for electoral purposes. As a result, while there is wide agreement on the necessity to reform the civil service, there are political interests in maintaining the status quo.
Public procurement: Public procurement systems in the region have made significant progress towards enabling better accountability and mitigating corruption risks. Countries in Latin America have advanced in the implementation of e-procurement mechanisms that, amongst others, improves transparency and efficiency of public procurement. Yet the region still needs to advance in its efforts to streamline the public procurement into overall public financial management, budgeting and service delivery processes, which could lead to better utilisation of public resources.
Government reforms: the region faces coordination weaknesses at the level of central government, making it difficult for the mainstreaming and effective implementation of integrity policies throughout its public entities.
Institutional weaknesses in several dimensions of public governance may explain the vulnerability of many countries in the region to inefficiencies caused by waste, misuse and capture by interest groups as well as to exogenous economic shocks. An analysis of government spending in the region indeed reveals a widespread waste and inefficiencies that could be as large as 4.4 per cent of the region’s GDP.
Inequalities in the region may have entrenched a vicious cycle of elites using their power to ensure that policymaking continues to reflect their own vested interests and not the public interest, according to the study. Even when the right policies are introduced, their implementation often remains superficial and is not able to translate into practice and bring about change. Causes can be informal norms overriding formal institutions, vested interests pushing back against effective implementation, solutions copied from another country but not responding to the context, or a lack of adequately skilled workforce or leadership.
Said Emilio Pineda, IDB Division Chief for Fiscal Municipal Management, Institutions for Development Sector: “In order to sustain inclusive growth, the region needs to continue pushing public sector reforms that promote fiscal stability and fairness for all. Improving public sector integrity and fighting corruption must be at the heart of such efforts.”
Public trust rating
• As of 2018, 34 per cent of the population in the LAC region reported having trust in government, four percentage points lower than in 2007.
• Income inequality (measured by the GINI coefficient) has decreased in most LAC countries in the period 2000-2017. However, in 2017 income inequality was still higher in all Latin America and Caribbean countries than in the five most unequal OECD countries.
• Confidence in the judiciary is low but increased from 31 per cent to 34 per cent in LAC countries on average between 2007 and 2017.
• Citizens’ satisfaction with health care and education decreased from 55 per cent to 49 per cent and from 65 per cent to 63 per cent, on average, respectively.
• In 2018, LAC countries reported an average deficit of 4.3 per cent of GDP, 3.4 percentage points higher than in 2007.
• Gross debt reached 65 per cent of GDP in 2018 in LAC countries, an increase of 17.2 percentage points since 2007, reducing countries’ room for manoeuvre.
• LAC countries spend proportionately less than OECD countries on social benefits, such as pensions and conditional cash transfers (30 per cent of government expenditures compared to 41 per cent in the OECD countries in 2017), and more on grants and other expenses, such as capital and current transfers to other actors of the economy (10 per cent in the region compared to 6 per cent in the OECD).
• To address undue influence in elections, most LAC countries forbid anonymous political donations; however, 92 per cent of surveyed countries allow cash contributions, which make it difficult to track the sources of funds. Parties or candidates are allowed to give gifts to voters in 25 per cent of the countries. | <urn:uuid:6ab13f54-1d2d-4ff5-8801-19bef22004f5> | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://trinidadtribune.com/little-trust-in-governments-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178358956.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20210227114444-20210227144444-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.940831 | 1,468 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Publisher: Matrix Digital Publishing
Date: December 2009
Duration: 0 hours 57 minutes
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), better known by the pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. Twain is most noted for his novels 'Adventures of Huckleberry Finn' and 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'.
Compiled and performed by James Carroll Jordan, this is an entertaining take on Mark Twain's early writing. Taking inspiration from 'Roughing It', Twain's semi-autobiographical travelogue, Jordan presents the story much as Mark Twain may have done himself in his days on the lecture circuit in the 19th century. | <urn:uuid:1a5d20df-5325-4a3d-8603-7ffe38122c16> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | https://www.audiobooks.com/audiobook/out-west/60303 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583514437.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20181021224001-20181022005501-00220.warc.gz | en | 0.953193 | 144 | 2.859375 | 3 |
A popular YouTube channel has uploaded restored newsreel footage of Kyoto from 1929. What makes this film notable is that it features actual sound footage of Japanese city life at that time. Usually, newsreels from that era are silent.
The newsreel includes market scenes, a ceremony at a Shinto shrine and young women playing traditional games, all with clear sound.
The film is just one of dozens of newsreels restored and uploaded to YouTube by videographer Guy Jones, who edits century-old films to more accurately match the video standards of the present day.
Usually, Jones slows down the film’s original speed and adds ambient sound to match the activity seen on the city’s streets, such as in his restoration of newsreel footage of Tokyo from about a hundred years ago.
In this case, the amazing period sound was captured by Movietone cameras, which were state-of-the-art for 1929. The Movietone sound system is an optical sound-on-film method of recording sound for motion pictures that was designed to synchronize audio and image.
This footage comes from University of South Carolina Moving Image Research Collections (MIRC), caretaker of the Fox Movietone News Collection.
Note: This article has been updated to reflect that the source of the newsreel footage is the MIRC, with thanks to Dan Streible. | <urn:uuid:a4315c16-763f-4121-b948-208a7111f995> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://globalvoices.org/2019/01/14/sound-footage-of-kyoto-japan-from-1929/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224644817.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20230529074001-20230529104001-00719.warc.gz | en | 0.96077 | 284 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The five interlocking rings represent five continents or major geographical areas of the world. The five main regions: Africa, the Americas (North and South America are combined), Asia, Europe and Oceania. As it says in the Olympic Charter, the five-ringed symbol “represents the union of the five continents and the meeting of athletes from throughout the world at the Olympic Games.” The colors of the rings represent the flags of the countries that participate in the Olympics. Every flag of a country participating in the Olympics includes at least one of the following colors: blue, black, red, yellow, and green.
Baron Pierre de Coubertin conceived the design of both the rings and the flag. The Olympic Committee adopted the flag in 1914, and it was first flown at the 1920 Antwerp Games. (from wikianswers.com)
Loved watching the games these past few nights. GO USA!!! | <urn:uuid:1220c5b4-bdda-4b36-8b92-cde2c228aab7> | CC-MAIN-2018-22 | https://amypinard.wordpress.com/2010/02/18/olympic-rings/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794863277.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20180520092830-20180520112830-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.934114 | 191 | 3.21875 | 3 |
In developing new cancer drugs, secrecy is the norm. Researchers routinely guard the details of promising laboratory findings closely until they're published and patented, and pharmaceutical companies similarly keep quiet about their own discoveries.
But, taking a cue from the open-source movement in the computer software industry – in which companies make software available free online for consumers and developers to try out and modify – some scientists are beginning to advocate such an approach to early drug discovery.
They say that freely distributing research results and drug prototypes widely to others in the field, a process also known as "crowd sourcing," can help speed the translation of a molecule into a medicine.
One scientist who fervently believes so is Dana-Farber's James Bradner, MD, who has been testing this radical approach for the past two years. He says it has accelerated the development of a potential new cancer drug.
Motivated by the plight of a young fireman dying from a rare, incurable cancer, Bradner and his colleagues at Dana-Farber created an experimental compound that showed promise for blocking the growth of his cancer, called NUT midline carcinoma. The compound erases a component of cellular memory, in effect causing the cancerous cells to become non-cancerous tissue.
In 2010, Bradner's lab began sending versions of the compound to scientists all over the world, asking for their insights about other types of cancer that might respond to such a therapy.
"Traditionally, you have a big discovery, you keep it to yourself, and you publish a paper with your lab," Bradner says. "Here, we wanted to get the word out so others could improve the molecule and find different applications for its use."
Within a year, this open-source approach yielded a prototype drug known as a bromodomain inhibitor. Bradner dubbed it "JQ1" in honor of chemist Jun Qi, PhD, a senior research scientist in the lab who synthesized the original compound.
The year of working openly, Bradner says, "was a social experiment to see if people would be receptive to this style of research. Could a drug emerge on the other side? Would we better understand the subsets of cancer patients who might respond? In both cases, the answer is clearly 'yes.'"
The new compound came too late to help the fireman, and it hasn't yet reached clinical trials in humans. But it has been licensed by Dana-Farber to Tensha Therapeutics, a Boston-based company created by Bradner for the specialized science needed to make the compound into a drug ready for human trials.
Meanwhile, further research by Bradner and others suggests that JQ1 and other bromodomain inhibitors may well find uses in treating other types of cancers and leukemias.
Since late 2010, Bradner's lab has sent the JQ1 molecule to more than 200 laboratories worldwide, including six competing pharmaceutical companies, four foreign governments, and more than 60 labs in the U.S. Now, Bradner says, "people have open access to this molecule so they can learn something about whatever it is that they are studying."
This is in contrast to the typical model. "The identity, and in many cases existence of, early prototype drugs developed in pharmaceutical companies are almost never shared with the outside world," Bradner says.
Of course, giving out the drugs freely to other laboratories risks that a competitor will use them to make discoveries and publish papers on them alone. So far, this has only rarely occurred. More commonly, scientists unknown to the Bradner group request a sample of JQ1 to test a hypothesis.
Recently, scientists at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York experimented with the JQ1 compound to see if it might be effective in leukemia. Their research showed that it was. Bradner admits that some colleagues in his laboratory were momentarily disappointed, as they were pursuing the same discovery.
"But we believe in this open innovation model, and it was a privilege to collaborate with the Cold Spring Harbor laboratories," says Bradner. "As we informed their work in leukemia, they helped our work in multiple myeloma."
Bradner is convinced that JQ1 and its successors are evolving more rapidly because of this collaboration. "Over the next year, data from our group, alongside the findings of leading laboratories in three major types of cancer, will reveal a path forward for drug-like derivatives of JQ1 in the clinic," Bradner says. "The pace of this research simply could not be accomplished by one laboratory alone."
In the three years he has been at the Institute, says Bradner, "We have realized what a special place Dana-Farber is for the science of drug discovery. At every step in the drug development process, we have one or more world leaders working here."
By working together, the scientific and industrial communities hope to accelerate the slow pace at which new targeted drugs, based on discoveries of the Human Genome Project, are reaching patients.
Many of the recently found targets in cancer cells – genetic malfunctions that fuel the cancers – have appeared "undruggable," or difficult to hit with designer compounds. "We know of 500 mutated genes that contribute to cancer," notes Bradner. "But we have only about a dozen that may be targeted by therapeutic agents."
In fact, the bromodomain protein, which Bradner's group found was driving NUT midline cancers, initially looked undruggable. But Bradner and Qi came up with a strategy to disable the bromodomain target, and designed a compound for the purpose: This was the birth of JQ1.
Next, Bradner went to the bedside of the young firefighter who was dying of the disease. He asked the patient if he would give consent for research on the tumor cells that were being drained from his lung every day. "We approached him as a collaborator," says the physician-scientist. The man agreed.
The cancer cells made a crosstown trip to the Boston waterfront, home of Dana-Farber's Lurie Family Imaging Center, where director Andrew Kung, MD, PhD, put them into mice – creating the first animal model of the midline cancer. Miniaturized PET-CT scanners showed that the compound turned cancer into noncancerous tissue – and mice treated with the chemical survived much longer than those that did not receive it.
The Bradner team set to work. Synthetic chemists made 600 variations of the compound and found a number of drug-like candidates for human testing. Advanced prototypes were patented and licensed to Tensha Therapeutics, Bradner's startup company. Others were shared with the research community, labs, and scientists who would tinker with the molecules to see if they might be effective against more-common cancers.
Over the past year, large companies have begun to develop bromodomain inhibitors of their own, while Tensha has made "remarkable progress" on JQ1 and the next-generation drug, according to Bradner.
"Within two years, I expect at least two bromodomain inhibitors to enter clinical trials," Bradner says. "This is our dream scenario, in which discoveries made in Dana-Farber labs are translated into new experimental drugs that can be tested to benefit patients worldwide."
Paths of Progress Spring/Summer 2012 Table of Contents
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215 | Call us toll-free: | <urn:uuid:7d81fc49-90c1-4bf6-a716-3367cf16ca8d> | CC-MAIN-2015-27 | http://www.dana-farber.org/Newsroom/Publications/Crowd-Sourcing.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-27/segments/1435376093097.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20150627033453-00279-ip-10-179-60-89.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968816 | 1,544 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Once we can capture CO2 emissions, here's what we could do with it
02 April 2018
The thousands of metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from power plants each year doesn't have to go into the atmosphere. Researchers are optimistic that within the next decade we will be able to affordably capture CO2 waste and convert it into useful molecules for feedstock, biofuels, pharmaceuticals, or renewable fuels. On 29 March in the journal Joule, a team of Canadian and US scientists describe their vision for what we should make with CO2 and how we can make it.
"Similar to how a plant takes carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water to make sugars for itself, we are interested in using technology to take energy from the sun or other renewable sources to convert CO2 into small building block molecules which can then be upgraded using traditional means of chemistry for commercial use," says Phil De Luna, a PhD candidate in materials science. "We're taking inspiration from nature and doing it faster and more efficiently."
De Luna is first author on the paper along with post-doctoral fellow Oleksandr Bushuyev, both of whom are members of the Edward Sargent Lab at the University of Toronto. Sargent, the senior author, is a professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
Their analysis identified a series of possible small molecules that make economic sense and could be made by converting captured CO2. For energy storage needs, hydrogen, methane, and ethane could be used in biofuels. Additionally, ethylene and ethanol could serve as the building blocks for a range of consumer goods, and CO2-derived formic acid could be used by the pharmaceutical industry or as a fuel in fuel cells.
While current technologies that can capture CO2 waste are still in their infancy, with new start-ups currently developing strategies for commercial use, the researchers envision that the coming decades will bring major improvement to make CO2 capture and conversion a reality. Within 5 to 10 years, electrocatalysis — which stimulates chemical reactions through electricity — could be a way into this process. And 50 years or more down the line, molecular machines or nanotechnology could drive conversion.
"This is still technology for the future," says Bushuyev, "but it's theoretically possible and feasible, and we're excited about its scale up and implementation. If we continue to work at this, it's a matter of time before we have power plants where CO2 is emitted, captured, and converted."
The authors are aware of the limitations of carbon capture and conversion. First, it has been criticised for not being economically feasible, particularly because of the cost of electricity to make these chemical reactions take place, but this will likely go down as renewable energy becomes widespread over time. Second, there are few factories with a high carbon footprint that emit pure CO2, which is necessary for conversion, but technology that could help with this issue is in development.
"The motivation to write this piece is that we wanted clear insight into whether this could be economically viable, and whether it's worth the time to invest in it," De Luna says. "This paper images a pathway for what we can do with carbon dioxide conversion in the coming decades."
Many insights for the analysis were developed in collaboration with Ling Tao, Genevieve Saur, and Jao van de Lagemaat at the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory. | <urn:uuid:b4fd75cd-a0a0-49ca-a3ad-60838ba98696> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://www.domain-b.com/environment/20180402_emissions.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988759.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20210506175146-20210506205146-00585.warc.gz | en | 0.957404 | 696 | 3.8125 | 4 |
A quality dog food contains the essential vitamins and minerals your canine companion needs to thrive.
While many commercial dog food brands advertise the phrase “complete and balanced diet” on their labels, cooking or heat processing the food loses some of its natural nutrients (meaning synthetic vitamins are sprayed on to add nutrients). Homemade dog food, on the other hand, can lack sufficient vitamins and other nutrients as it can be difficult to prepare a well-balanced meal.
To ensure your puppy is getting the vital vitamins your dog’s body needs, we have compiled an extensive list of the top essential vitamins for dogs, their nutritional benefits, and how to infuse them properly into your dog’s daily diet.
Related: 5 Essential Trace Elements Every Dog Needs
What are Vitamins?
Vitamins are organic compounds that every organism needs to stay healthy. Most of the vitamins a body needs come from food, as the body either produces very little or nothing at all. Different vitamins help with different roles in the body.
Six Vitamins Dogs Need Are:
- Vitamin A
- Vitamin B family
- vitamin C
- Vitamin D
- Vitamin E.
- Vitamin K
In addition to these six vitamins, your pooch will need adequate amounts of choline, essential minerals, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water every day to stay healthy and fight off disease.
Let’s take a closer look at the six vitamins your dog needs.
1. Vitamin A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble (meaning it can be stored in adipose tissue) vitamin that supports bone growth, eyesight, reproduction, cell function, and immunity in dogs. This vitamin helps in weight loss, promotes skin and eye health, and fights certain diseases.
If your pet isn’t getting enough vitamin A, they can become vitamin A deficient, which can lead to serious health problems including corneal disease, skin lesions, respiratory problems, and an increased susceptibility to infection.
Too much vitamin A can lead to joint pain, dehydration, and blood vessel problems.
Good sources of vitamin A for dogs are fish oil, eggs, carrots, and spinach.
2. Vitamin B family
The vitamin B family plays a vital role in your dog’s health. The B vitamin group includes:
- B6: Responsible for the functioning of the nervous system and red blood cells, hormone regulation and the immune response
- Folic acids: Helps with mitochondrial protein synthesis
- Pantothenic acid: Supports the energy metabolism
- Riboflavin, niacin and B12: Increases enzyme function
- Thiamine: Regulates energy
Vitamin B deficiency in dogs can lead to a variety of problems, including weight loss, diarrhea, nervous system damage, anemia, and seizures.
Vitamin B is found in whole grain products like brown rice, green vegetables, and beans.
Related: The Top Dog Health Problems – And How To Treat Them
3. Vitamin C
As an important antioxidant, vitamin C removes harmful free radicals in your dog’s body, helping to reduce inflammation. It can also help boost the immune system to fight off disease.
Although dogs produce vitamin C in their livers, supplements may be needed in certain circumstances. Vitamin C is found in fruits and vegetables.
4. Vitamin D
Vitamin D strengthens bones and teeth and helps balance minerals like calcium. Without enough vitamin D, dogs cannot maintain healthy bones and lose muscle tone. Puppies can also suffer from rickets and exhaustion.
Dogs who consume certain pesticides or human vitamin D supplements can become poisoned. Signs of vitamin D poisoning include loss of appetite, excessive drooling, and more than normal drinking and urination. Call your veterinarian right away if you think your dog has vitamin D poisoning.
Good sources of vitamin D for dogs are egg yolks, cottage cheese, beef, fish oil, and lots of sunshine. However, excessive amounts of this vitamin can be toxic.
5. Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant and protects your dog from oxidative damage. It’s also important for lipid metabolism, cell function, and skin and eye health.
Deficiencies can cause muscle, skeletal, and eye damage, as well as reproductive problems.
Vitamin E is found in kale and other leafy grains, whole grains, and chia seeds.
6. Vitamin K
This vitamin helps in proper blood clotting that keeps bones strong. Deficiency can lead to excessive bleeding and death. The fat-soluble vitamin is found in leafy vegetables and fish.
Should I give my dog vitamin supplements?
While your dog gets most of its vitamins from their regular dog foods (and some dog-friendly human foods), some pets can benefit from dog vitamin supplements. For example, nervous dogs can benefit from supplemental thiamine, a B-complex vitamin known as the “anti-stress vitamin” for its calming effects on the central nervous system. Or dogs with itchy skin may need an extra vitamin E boost to help neutralize free radicals that could damage the skin. And for those who suffer from joint and hip problems, vitamin C can support a healthy immune and inflammatory response.
Always consult your veterinarian before putting your dog on a supplement plan.
From healthy bones to great eyesight, vitamins are vital to a happy, healthy dog.
Related: The Facts About Your Dog’s Itchy Skin and Dry Coat | <urn:uuid:a21ea8fc-bc9e-480b-b3cd-cdcb70f38646> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://veterinarian.news/this-dogs-life-essential-dog-nutrition-6-vitamins-your-pup-needs-in-his-diet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224645810.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20230530131531-20230530161531-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.902376 | 1,126 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Sing a Song
Build A Home
Deep in the cellar, timbers high,
(Both hands point down, then up — arms full length.)
Pointed roof up in the sky,
(Bring fingertips together over the head.)
Drive the nails in straight and true
(Hammer with one fist on the other.)
Build a house for me and you.
(Continue to hammer.)
Windows, shining eyes to see,
(Circle hands at eyes and `peek` in.)
Doors open wide to welcome me,
(Open arms wide.)
Fire glowing, oh, so bright,
(`Warm` hands in front of fire, then rub hands together.)
That is HOME on winter`s night.
(Hug self as if snug and warm.)
Read a book
The Favorite Book by Bethanie Deeney Murguia
With your child, label items in your house. Practice saying the words together. | <urn:uuid:3173f32b-a257-4117-86c3-c647ffedc0cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://daybydayva.org/april/18 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347417746.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200601113849-20200601143849-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.776653 | 201 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The war began down at the gorge. The Chhetri king brought his men to the border between the two kingdoms and they began taking shots with bow and arrow at the Paharis. It could also be that the Paharis had started the battle. Nobody alive today knows for sure. But the outcome of the war between the two tribes is well-known by the elders in Saathi-ghar who were told this local history by their elders – many years ago. The Paharis suffered great defeat. Casualty numbers are long since forgotten but how the war culminated is not.The war lasted just a day and ended as the Chhetris pushed forward to the palace and a Chhetri archer hit the Pahari queen with several arrows. This loss completely robbed the Pahari king and his men of their last remaining fighting spirit. In a hail of arrows the defeated tribe fled into the forest while the Chhetris began looting the palace and temple, taking everything the Pahari rulers and their people had owned. It should take many years before anyone saw the Pahari tribe again. Even at the time when the oldest people in Saathi-ghar were kids, they were warned by their elders never to walk too far into the forest or the “Paharis will take you!” A rare glimpse was all most people had.
The Paharis remained an almost mythical tribe until the 1950s when severe lumber activity began around Saathi-ghar – severe from the point of view of those who love the forest. The once dense canopy fell to the ground and the lush grounds were laid bare. Of course, it didn’t take more than a couple of decades before deforestation began to show its side-effects. Water ponds evaporated, springs stopped running with fresh drinking water, and the soil dried out. But those who should suffer the worst from this change in the local environment were the Paharis. As it turned out, and as some locals of course knew already, it was only a mile or so out to the community where they lived.Out there, water had never been the most plentiful. But it had been enough to sustain them. After their gruesome defeat to the Chhetri tribe, the Paharis had settled in the least attractive parts of the territory from an agricultural point of view – the only tract of land where they were left alone by their conquerers – and here they tilled millet, collected roots, and did petty hunting, which kept their tribe alive. The dense forest had protected whatever water sources they had. But with deforestation the drying out began. Today, access to water for drinking and irrigation remains one of the biggest problems for the Paharis. Once the rulers of a small kingdom, their area is known as ward 6: the poorest ward in Saathi-ghar. Nobody fear going there anymore and few care to either. The Paharis don’t even own the land they inhabit. The temple owns it – it’s status is “guti land”. It’s not clear for how long that was the status of the Paharis’ territory – some say since the time of the Rana regime – but in any case, the implication for the Paharis is this. They can continue to inhabit and till the land only for a rent to the temple. Ever since the Pahari community was exposed with the felling of the forest, every household had to pay a part of their harvest, bring flowers for the ceremony every Saturday, and carry the small but heavy deity worshipped at the temple around Saathi-ghar at Dashain. The Paharis were told to take pride in serving the temple and for a generation or longer, they supposedly did. But young Paharis tell that all this is changing.
History leaves winners and losers behind. It happens on a grand scale when great states collide in bloody wars. But in Nepal, during the times before the many kingdoms were unified, once dotting the valleys and hills, it also happened on a small scale – such as in the otherwise long since forgotten war between the Cheetri and the Pahari king. We can’t be sure that all the details of this tale are correct – none of it was ever written down – so if anyone knows more, do add to it. Or else, post another “local history” if you know one. Big dramas have unfolded in the tiniest of places, and this one will hereby not be forgotten. | <urn:uuid:73d1203f-943c-4b83-b120-c2f896c38eee> | CC-MAIN-2018-05 | http://localnepaltoday.com/the-pahari-defeat-a-local-history-from-saathi-ghar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-05/segments/1516084889733.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20180120201828-20180120221828-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.9836 | 932 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Key to native plants of schools & marae in New Zealand
This Lucid 3 key is for the identification of New Zealand native plants commonly found in school grounds and marae.
The key was developed for simple identification of these plants by students.
Plants include trees, shrubs, ferns, tufted plants, grasses and flaxes chosen from the Canterbury region, but also common to schools and marae throughout New Zealand. Fact sheets include images, botanical descriptions, links to scientific papers and websites, and a section on similar or related species. Additionally, there is information on general Māori and medicinal uses for most of these native plants.
A New Zealand Science, Mathematics and Technology Teacher Fellowship supported this project.
This key will run on most browsers, including Chrome, Firefox, IE and Microsoft Edge.
Although this key is not optimised for portable devices, it displays OK on tablets.
Dedicated smartphone apps are available for two of the keys on these webpages (Coprosma and Native orchids).
Stewart, E. 2009. Native plants of schools and marae in New Zealand.
Accessed at http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/resources/identification/plants/native-plants-schools-marae-key.
Date of access: 23 Jul 2019 | <urn:uuid:0d0051f3-1366-4689-8820-df4838071e2d> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/resources/identification/plants/native-plants-schools-marae-key | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195528290.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20190722221756-20190723003756-00406.warc.gz | en | 0.907606 | 281 | 3 | 3 |
This is an old and outdated copy of Unintended Consequences.
1. Executive Summary
Since they were enacted in 1998, the "anti-circumvention" provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act ("DMCA"), codified in section 1201 of the Copyright Act, have not been used as Congress envisioned. Congress meant to stop copyright pirates from defeating anti-piracy protections added to copyrighted works, and to ban "black box" devices intended for that purpose. In practice, the anti-circumvention provisions have been used to stifle a wide array of legitimate activities, rather than to stop copyright piracy. As a result, the DMCA has developed into a serious threat to several important public policy priorities:
Section 1201 Chills Free Expression and Scientific Research.
Experience with section 1201 demonstrates that it is being used to stifle free speech and scientific research. The lawsuit against 2600 magazine, threats against Princeton Professor Edward Felten’s team of researchers, and prosecution of Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov have chilled the legitimate activities of journalists, publishers, scientists, students, programmers, and members of the public.
Section 1201 Jeopardizes Fair Use.
By banning all acts of circumvention, and all technologies and tools that can be used for circumvention, section 1201 grants to copyright owners the power to unilaterally eliminate the public’s fair use rights. Already, the music industry has begun deploying "copy-protected CDs" that promise to curtail consumers’ ability to make legitimate, personal copies of music they have purchased.
Section 1201 Impedes Competition and Innovation.
Rather than focusing on pirates, many copyright owners have wielded the DMCA to hinder their legitimate competitors. For example, Sony has invoked section 1201 to protect its monopoly on Playstation video game consoles, as well as their "regionalization" system limiting users in one country from playing games legitimately purchased in another.
Section 1201 Becomes All-Purpose Ban on Access To Computer Networks
Further, section 1201 has been misused as a new general-purpose prohibition on computer network access which, unlike the several federal "anti-hacking" statutes that already protect computer network owners from unauthorized intrusions, lacks any financial harm threshold. Disgruntled ex-employer Pearl Investment’s use of the DMCA against a contract programmer who connected to the company’s computer system through a password-protected Virtual Private Network illustrates the potential for unscrupulous persons to misuse the DMCA to achieve what would not be possible under existing computer access regulation regimes.
This document collects a number of reported cases where the anti-circumvention provisions of the DMCA have been invoked not against pirates, but against consumers, scientists, and legitimate comp–etitors. It will be updated from time to time as additional cases come to light. The latest version can always be obtained at www.eff.org.
2. DMCA Legislative Background
Congress enacted section 1201 in response to two pressures. Congress was responding to the perceived need to implement obligations imposed on the U.S. by the 1996 World Intellectual Property Or–ganization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty. Section 1201, however, went further than the WIPO treaty required. The details of section 1201, then, were a response not just to U.S. treaty obligations, but also to the concerns of copyright owners that their works would be widely pirated in the networked digital world. Section 1201 contains two distinct prohibitions: a ban on acts of circumvention, and a ban on the distribution of tools and technologies used for circumvention. The first prohibition, set out in section 1201(a)(1), prohibits the act of circumventing a technological measure used by copyright owners to control access to their works ("access controls"). So, for example, this provision makes it unlawful to defeat the encryption system used on DVD movies. This ban on acts of circumvention applies even where the purpose for decrypting the movie would otherwise be legitimate. As a result, when Disney’s Tarzan DVD prevents you from fast-forwarding through the commercials that preface the feature presentation, efforts to circumvent this restriction would be unlawful. Second, sections 1201(a)(2) and 1201(b) outlaw the manufacture, sale, distribution or trafficking of tools and technologies that make circumvention possible. These provisions ban both technologies that defeat access controls, and also technologies that defeat use restrictions imposed by copyright owners, such as copy controls. These provisions prevent technology vendors from taking steps to defeat the "copy-protection" now appearing on many music CDs, for example. Section 1201 also includes a number of exceptions for certain limited classes of activities, including security testing, reverse engineering of software, encryption research, and law enforcement. These exceptions have been extensively criticized as being too narrow to be of real use to the constituencies who they were intended to assist. A violation of any of the "act" or "tools" prohibitions is subject to significant civil and, in some circumstances, criminal penalties.
3. Free Expression and Scientific Research
Section 1201 is being used by a number of copyright owners to stifle free speech and legitimate scientific research. The lawsuit against 2600 magazine, threats against Princeton Professor Edward Felten’s team of researchers, and prosecution of the Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov have chilled a variety of legitimate activities. Bowing to DMCA liability fears, online service providers and bulletin board operators have begun to censor discussions of copy-protection systems, programmers have removed computer security programs from their websites, and students, scientists and security experts have stopped publishing details of their research on existing security protocols. Foreign scientists are increasingly uneasy about traveling to the United States out of fear of possible DMCA liability, and certain technical conferences have begun to relocate overseas. These developments will ultimately result in weakened security for all computer users (including, ironically, for copyright owners counting on technical measures to protect their works), as security researchers shy away from research that might run afoul of section 1201.
Cyber-Security Czar Notes Chill on Research
Speaking at MIT in October 2002, White House Cyber Security Chief Richard Clarke called for DMCA reform, noting his concern that the DMCA had been used to chill legitimate computer security research. The Boston Globe quoted Clarke as saying, "I think a lot of people didn\'t realize that it would have this potential chilling effect on vulnerability research." Jonathan Band, "Congress Unknowingly Undermines Cyber-Security," S.J. Mercury News, Dec. 16, 2002. http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/4750224.htm Hiawatha Bray, "Cyber Chief Speaks on Data Network Security," The Boston Globe, October 17, 2002. http://www.boston.com/globe/search/
Professor Felten’s Research Team Threatened
In September 2000, a multi-industry group known as the Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI) issued a public challenge encouraging skilled technologists to try to defeat certain watermarking technologies intended to protect digital music. Princeton Professor Edward Felten and a team of researchers at Princeton, Rice, and Xerox took up the challenge and succeeded in removing the watermarks. When the team tried to present their results at an academic conference, however, SDMI representatives threatened the researchers with liability under the DMCA. The threat letter was also delivered to the researchers’ employers and the conference organizers. After extensive discussions with counsel, the researchers grudgingly withdrew their paper from the conference. The threat was ultimately withdrawn and a portion of the research was published at a subsequent conference, but only after the researchers filed a lawsuit.ß After enduring this experience, at least one of the researchers involved has decided to forgo further research efforts in this field. Pamela Samuelson, "Anticircumvention Rules: Threat to Science," 293 Science 2028, Sept. 14, 2001. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/293/5537/2028 Letter from Matthew Oppenheim, SDMI General Counsel, to Prof. Edward Felten, April 9, 2001. http://cryptome.org/sdmi-attack.htm
Hewlett Packard Threatens SNOsoft
Hewlett-Packard resorted to Section 1201 threats when researchers published their discovery of a security flaw in HP’s Tru64 UNIX operating system. The researchers, a loosely-organized collective known as Secure Network Operations ("SNOsoft"), received the DMCA threat after releasing software in July 2002 that demonstrated vulnerabilities that HP had been aware of for some time, but had not bothered to fix. After the DMCA threat received widespread press attention, HP ultimately withdrew the threat. Security researchers received the message, however—publish vulnerability research at your own risk. Declan McCullagh, "Security Warning Draws DMCA Threat," CNET News, July 30, 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-947325.html
Blackboard Threatens Security Researchers
In April 2003, educational software company Blackboard Inc. used a DMCA threat to stop the presentation of research on security vulnerabilities in its products at the InterzOne II conference in Atlanta. Students Billy Hoffman and Virgil Griffith were scheduled to present their research on security flaws in the Blackboard ID card system used by university campus security systems but were blocked shortly before the talk by a cease-and-desist letter invoking the DMCA. Blackboard obtained a temporary restraining order against the students and the conference organizers at a secret "ex parte" hearing the day before the conference began, giving the students and conference organizer no opportunity to appear in court or challenge the order before the scheduled presentation. Although the lawsuit complaint Blackboard subsequently filed did not mention the DMCA, its invocation in the original cease-and-desist letter preceding the complaint contributed to the chill the students and conference organizers felt in challenging the complaint and proceeding with the scheduled presentation. John Borland, "Court Blocks Security Conference Talk," CNET News, April 14, 2003. http://news.com.com/2100-1028-996836.html
Xbox Hack Book Dropped by Publisher
In 2003, U.S. publisher John Wiley & Sons dropped plans to publish a book by security researcher Andrew "Bunnie" Huang, citing DMCA liability concerns. Wiley commissioned Huang to write the book which analyzes security flaws Huang discovered in the process of reverse-engineering the Microsoft X-Box game console, after Huang published his research as part of his doctoral work at M.I.T. Huang did not distribute the Xbox public security keys which he had isolated through reverse engineering and did not copy any Xbox code. Although the DMCA includes exceptions for circumvention for computer security testing and reverse engineering, they were too narrow to be of use to Huang or his publisher. Following Microsoft’s legal action against the website vendor of an Xbox mod chip in early 2003, and the music industry’s 2001 DMCA threats against Professor Felten’s research team, Wiley dropped the book fearing that the publisher might be liable for "making available" a "circumvention device." Huang’s initial attempt to self-publish was thwarted after his online shopping cart provider also withdrew, citing DMCA concerns. After several months of negotiations, Huang eventually self-published the book in mid 2003. The book is now being published by No Starch Press. David Becker, "Testing Microsoft and the DMCA", CNET News, April 15, 2003. http://news.com.com/2008-1082-996787.html Clive Akass, "Huang Jury on Xbox Cracker", TechNewsWorld, August 2003 http://www.technewsworld.com/perl/story/31406.html Seth Schiesel, "Behind a Hacker’s Book, a Primer on Copyright Law", New York Times, Circuits, July 10, 2003. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/10/technology/circuits/10xbox.html
Censorware Research Obstructed
Seth Finkelstein conducts research on "censorware" software (i.e., programs that block websites that contain objectionable material), working to document flaws in such software, including the products of N2H2, a leading censorware company. Finkelstein’s research documenting websites inappropriately blocked by N2H2’s software assisted the ACLU’s successful First Amendment challenge to the use of mandatory web filtering software by federally-funded public libraries. N2H2 claims that its encrypted list of blocked websites is legally protected by the DMCA against attempts to read and analyze it. Utilizing a limited three year exemption granted by the Librarian of Congress and Copyright Register in 2000, Finkelstein circumvented the encryption on the list of sites blocked by BESS in order to analyze flaws in that list. However, Finkelstein’s research work has been severely limited by the fact that the three year exemption is limited to the act of circumvention, and does not permit him to create or distribute tools that would facilitate his research. In addition, the existing exemption is due to expire in October 2003, and as Finkelstein testified before the Copyright Office in its 2003 rule-making hearing, unless the exemption is re-granted, Finkelstein will be unable to continue his research because he fears that censorware companies may bring a DMCA lawsuit against him to terminate his research. Even if he were later found not to have violated section 1201, the potential for a DMCA lawsuit would preclude him from undertaking further research. Jennifer 8 Lee, "Cracking the Code of Online Censorship", New York Times, July 19, 2001. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/19/technology/circuits/19HACK.html Transcript of Hearing in Copyright Office Rulemaking Proceeding RM 2002-04, tri-ennial anti-circumvention exemption hearing, April 11, 2003, at pages 11, 31 available at: http://www.copyright.gov/1201/2003/hearings/schedule.html Benjamin Edelman has also conducted extensive research into flaws in various censorware products. Edelman’s research led to his providing expert testimony for the ACLU in a recent federal court case challenging the constitutionality of the Children\'s Internet Protection Act (CIPA), which mandates that public libraries use censorware products like those sold by N2H2. In the course of his work for the ACLU, Edelman discovered that the DMCA might interfere with his efforts to learn what websites are blocked by N2H2 products. Because he sought to create and distribute software tools to enable others to analyze the list if it changed, Edelman could not rely on the limited 3 year exception. As he was not willing to risk civil and criminal penalties under Section 1201, Edelman was forced to go to federal court to seek clarification of his legal rights before he could undertake his legitimate research. However, underscoring the chilling effect of the DMCA on such research, the Court dismissed Edelman’s case for lack of standing. ACLU, "In Legal First, ACLU Sues Over New Copyright Law" (case archive). http://archive.aclu.org/issues/cyber/Edelman_N2H2_feature.html
Dmitry Sklyarov Arrested
In July 2001, Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov was jailed for several weeks and detained for five months in the United States after speaking at the DEFCON conference in Las Vegas. Prosecutors, prompted by software goliath Adobe Systems Inc., alleged that Sklyarov had worked on a software program known as the Advanced e-Book Processor, which was distributed over the Internet by his Russian employer, ElcomSoft Co. Ltd. The software allowed owners of Adobe electronic books ("e-books") to convert them from Adobe’s e-Book format into Adobe Portable Document Format ("pdf") files, thereby removing restrictions embedded into the files by e-Book publishers. Sklyarov was never accused of infringing any copyrighted e-Book, nor of assisting anyone else to infringe copyrights. His alleged crime was working on a software tool with many legitimate uses, simply because third parties he has never met might use the tool to copy an e-Book without the publisher’s permission. The Department of Justice ultimately permitted Sklyarov to return home, but elected to proceed against his employer, ElcomSoft, under the criminal provisions of the DMCA. In December 2002, a jury acquitted Elcomsoft of all charges, completing an 18-month ordeal for the wrongly-accused Russian software company. Lawrence Lessig, "Jail Time in the Digital Age," N.Y. Times at A7, July 30, 2001. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/30/opinion/30LESS.html Lisa Bowman, "Elcomsoft Verdict: Not Guilty," CNET News, Dec. 17, 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-978176.html
Scientists and Programmers Withhold Research
Following the legal threat against Professor Felten’s research team and the arrest of Dmitry Sklyarov, a number of prominent computer security experts have curtailed their legitimate research activities out of fear of potential DMCA liability. For example, prominent Dutch cryptographer and security systems analyst Niels Ferguson discovered a major security flaw in an Intel video encryption system known as High Bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP). He declined to publish his results on his website relating to flaws in HDCP, on the grounds that he travels frequently to the U.S. and is fearful of "prosecution and/or liability under the U.S. DMCA law." Niels Ferguson, "Censorship in Action: Why I Don’t Publish My HDCP Results," Aug. 15, 2001. http://www.macfergus.com/niels/dmca/cia.html Niels Ferguson, Declaration in Felten & Ors v R.I.A.A. case, Aug. 13, 2001. http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/Felten_v_RIAA/20010813_ferguson_decl.html Lisa M. Bowman, "Researchers Weigh Publication, Prosecution," CNET News, Aug. 15, 2001. http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1005-200-6886574.html Following the arrest of Dmitry Sklyarov, Fred Cohen, a professor of digital forensics and respected security consultant, removed his "Forensix" evidence-gathering software from his website, citing fear of potential DMCA liability. Another respected network security protection expert, Dug Song, also removed content from his website for the same reason. Mr. Song is the author of several security papers, including a paper describing a common vulnerability in many firewalls. Robert Lemos, "Security Workers: Copyright Law Stifles," CNET News, Sept. 6, 2001. http://news.com.com/2100-1001-272716.html In mid-2001 an anonymous programmer discovered a vulnerability in Microsoft’s proprietary e-Book digital rights management code, but refused to publish the results, citing DMCA liability concerns. Wade Roush, "Breaking Microsoft\'s e-Book Code," Technology Review at 24, November 2001. http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/innovation11101.asp
Foreign Scientists Avoid U.S.
Foreign scientists have expressed concerns about traveling to the U.S. following the arrest of Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov. Some foreign scientists have advocated boycotting conferences held in the U.S. and a number of conference bodies have decided to move their conferences to non-U.S. locations. Russia has issued a travel warning to Russian programmers traveling to the U.S. Highly respected British Linux programmer Alan Cox resigned from the USENIX committee of the Advanced Computing Systems Association, the committee that organizes many of the U.S. com–puting conferences, because of his concerns about traveling to the U.S. Cox has urged USENIX to hold its annual conference offshore. The International Information Hiding Workshop Conference, the conference at which Professor Felten’s team intended to present its original paper, chose to break with tradition and held its next conference outside of the U.S. following the SDMI threat to Professor Felten and his team. Will Knight, "Computer Scientists boycott US over digital copyright law," New Scientist, July 23, 2001. http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns00001063 Alan Cox of Red Hat UK Ltd, declaration in Felten v. RIAA, Aug. 13, 2001. http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/Felten_v_RIAA/20010813_cox_decl.html Jennifer 8 Lee, "Travel Advisory for Russian Programmers," N.Y. Times at C4, Sept.10, 2001. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/10/technology/10WARN.html
IEEE Wrestles with DMCA
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which publishes 30 per cent of all computer science journals worldwide, recently was drawn into the controversy surrounding science and the DMCA. Apparently concerned about possible liability under Section 1201, the IEEE in November 2001 instituted a policy requiring all authors to indemnify IEEE for any liabilities incurred should a submission result in legal action under the DCMA. After an outcry from IEEE members, the organization ultimately revised its submission policies, removing mention of the DMCA. According to Bill Hagen, manager of IEEE Intellectual Property Rights, "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act has become a very sensitive subject among our authors. It’s intended to protect digital content, but its application in some specific cases appears to have alienated large segments of the research community." IEEE press release, "IEEE to Revise New Copyright Form to Address Author Concerns," April 22, 2002. http://www.ieee.org/newsinfo/dmca.html Will Knight, "Controversial Copyright Clause Abandoned," New Scientist, April 15, 2002. http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992169
2600 Magazine Censored
The Universal City Studios v. Reimerdes case illustrates the chilling effect that section 1201 has had on the freedom of the press. In that case, eight major motion picture companies brought a DMCA suit against 2600 Magazine seeking to block it from publishing the DeCSS software program, which defeats the encryption used on DVD movies. 2600 had made the program available on its web site in the course of ongoing coverage of the controversy surrounding the DMCA. The magazine was not involved in the development of software, nor was it accused of having used the software for any copyright infringement. Notwithstanding the First Amendment’s guarantee of a free press, the district court permanently barred 2600 from publishing, or even linking to, the DeCSS software code. In November 2001, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the lower court decision. In essence, the movie studios effectively obtained a "stop the presses" order banning the publication of truthful information by a news publication concerning a matter of public concern—an unprecedented curtailment of well-established First Amendment prin–ciples. Carl S. Kaplan, "Questioning Continues in Copyright Suit," N.Y. Times, May 4, 2001. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/04/technology/04CYBERLAW.html Simson Garfinkel, "The Net Effect: The DVD Rebellion,"Technology Review at 25, July/Aug. 2001. http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/garfinkel0701.asp Xenia P. Kobylarz, "DVD Case Clash—Free Speech Advocates Say Copyright Owners Want to Lock Up Ideas; Encryption Code is Key," S.F. Daily Journal, May 1, 2001.
CNET Reporter Feels Chill
Prominent CNET News reporter Declan McCullagh recently found four publicly-available documents on the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) website. The website announced that the documents contained information about airport security procedures, the relationship between federal and local police, and a "liability information sheet." A note on the site stated that this "information is restricted to airport management and local law enforcement." No password was necessary to download the documents, but they were distributed in encrypted form and a password was required to open and read them. McCullagh obtained the passwords from an anonymous source, but fear of DMCA liability stopped him from reading the documents—using a password without authorization could violate Section 1201. This is particularly ironic, as any foreign journalist beyond the reach of the DMCA would be free to use the password. "Journalists traditionally haven\'t worried about copyright law all that much," said McCullagh, "But nowadays intellectual property rights have gone too far, and arguably interfere with the newsgathering process." Declan McCullagh, "Will This Land Me in Jail?", CNET News, Dec. 23, 2002. http://news.com.com/2010-1028-978636.html
Microsoft Threatens Slashdot
In spring 2000, Microsoft invoked the DMCA against the Internet publication forum Slashdot, demanding that forum moderators delete materials relating to Microsoft’s proprietary implementation of an open security standard known as Kerberos. In the Slashdot forum, several individuals alleged that Microsoft had changed the open, non-proprietary Kerberos specification in order to prevent non-Microsoft servers from interacting with Windows 2000. Many speculated that this move was intended to force users to purchase Microsoft server software. Although Microsoft responded to this criticism by publishing its Kerberos specification, it conditioned access to the specification on agreement to a "click-wrap" license agreement that expressly forbade disclosure of the specification without Microsoft’s prior consent. Slashdot posters responded by republishing the Microsoft specification. Microsoft then invoked the DMCA, demanding that Slashdot remove the republished specifications. In the words of Georgetown law professor Julie Cohen, "If Microsoft\'s interpretation of the DMCA\'s ban on circumvention technologies is right, then it doesn\'t seem to matter much whether posting unauthorized copies of the Microsoft Kerberos specification would be a fair use. A publisher can prohibit fair-use commentary simply by implementing access and disclosure restrictions that bind the entire public. Anyone who discloses the information, or even tells others how to get it, is a felon." Julie Cohen, "Call it the Digital Millennium Censorship Act – Unfair Use," The New Republic, May 23, 2000. http://www.thenewrepublic.com/cyberspace/cohen052300.html
AVSforum.com Censors TiVo Discussion
The specter of DMCA litigation has chilled speech on smaller web bulletin boards as well. In June 2001, for example, the administrator of AVSforum.com, a popular forum where TiVo digital video recorder owners discuss TiVo features, censored all discussion about a software program that allegedly permitted TiVo users to move video from their TiVos to their personal computers. In the words of the forum administrator, "My fear with this is more or less I have no clue what is a protected system on the TiVo box under copyright (or what-have-you) and what is not. Thus my fear for the site." Lisa M. Bowman, "TiVo Forum Hushes Hacking Discussion," CNET News, June 11, 2001. http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1005-200-6249739.html
Mac Forum Censors iTunes Store Discussion
Macintosh enthusiast website Macosxhints censored publication of information about methods for evading the copy protection on songs purchased from the Apple iTunes Music Store in May 2003, citing DMCA liability concerns. Songs purchased from the Apple iTunes Music Store are downloaded in Apple’s proprietary AAC file format, wrapped in digital copy protection. This prevents purchasers from playing the songs on non-iPod portable MP3 players or from transferring songs to non Mac OS computers for personal, non-commercial use, even if that would be considered fair use under copyright law. As the webmaster for the site noted, even though information on bypassing the copy protection was readily available on the Internet at the time, republishing user hints on work-arounds risked attracting a DMCA lawsuit and harsh penalties. http://www.macosxhints.com/article.php?story=20030507104823670#comments
4. Fair Use Under Siege
"Fair use" is a crucial element in American copyright law—the principle that the public is entitled, without having to ask permission, to use copyrighted works in transformative ways or other ways that do not unduly interfere with the copyright owner’s market for a work. Fair uses include personal, noncommercial uses, such as using a VCR to record a television program for later viewing. Fair use also includes activities undertaken for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research. While stopping copyright infringement is an important policy objective, Section 1201 throws out the baby of fair use with the bathwater of digital piracy. By employing technical protection measures to control access to and use of copyrighted works, and using section 1201 litigation against anyone who tampers with those measures, copyright owners can unilaterally eliminate fair use, re-writing the copyright bargain developed by Congress and the courts over more than a century.
The introduction of "copy-protected" CDs into the marketplace illustrates the collision between fair use and the DMCA. Record labels are aggressively incorporating "copy-protection" on new music releases. Over 10 million copy-protected discs are already in circulation, according to Midbar Technology Ltd, (now Macrovision), one vendor of copy-protection technology. Sony claims that it has released over 11 million copy-protected discs worldwide. Executives from major record labels EMI and BMG have both stated that a significant proportion of all CDs released in the U.S. will be copy-protected by the end of 2003. Whatever the impact that these copy protection technologies may have on online infringement, they are certain to interfere with the fair use expectations of consumers. For example, copy-protected discs will disappoint the hundreds of thousands of consumers who have purchased MP3 players, despite the fact that making an MP3 copy of a CD for personal use is a fair use. Making "mix CDs" or copies of CDs for the office or car are other examples of fair uses that are potentially impaired by copy-protection technologies. Companies that distribute tools to "repair" these dysfunctional CDs, restoring to consumers their fair use privileges, run the risk of lawsuits under section 1201’s ban on circumvention tools and technologies. Rep. Rick Boucher, "Time to Rewrite the DMCA," CNET News, Jan. 29, 2002. http://news.com.com/2010-1078-825335.html Dan Gillmor, "Entertainment Industry\'s Copyright Fight Puts Consumers in Cross Hairs," San Jose Mercury News, Feb. 12, 2002. http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/2658555.htm Gwendolyn Mariano, "Copy-Protected CDs Slide Into Stores," CNET News, Feb. 12, 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-835841.html Jon Healey and Jeff Leeds, "Record Labels Grapple with CD Protection", Los Angeles Times, November 29, 2002, C.1. (subscription required for full article) http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-secure29nov29.story
Fair Use Tools Banned
We are entering an era where books, music and movies will increasingly be "copy-protected" and otherwise restricted by technological means. Whether scholars, researchers, commentators and the public will continue to be able to make legitimate fair uses of these works will depend upon the availability of tools to bypass these digital locks. The DMCA’s anti-circumvention provisions, how–ever, prohibit the creation or distribution of these tools, even if they are crucial to fair use. So, as copyright owners use technology to press into the 21st century, the public will see more and more fair uses whittled away by digital locks allegedly intended to "prevent piracy." Perhaps more importantly, no future fair uses will be developed—after all, before the VCR, who could have imagined that fair use "time-shifting" of television would become common-place for the average consumer? Copyright owners argue that these tools, in the hands of copyright infringers, can result in "Internet piracy." But the traditional answer for piracy under copyright law has been to seek out and prosecute the infringers, not to ban the tools that enable fair use. After all, photocopiers, VCRs, and CD-R burners can also be misused, but no one would suggest that the public give them up simply because they might be used by others to break the law.
DeCSS, DVD Copy Plus and DVD CopyWare
Fair use tools have already been yanked off the market. In the Universal v. Reimerdes case, discussed above, the court held that Section 1201 bans DeCSS software. This software decrypts DVD movies, making it possible to copy them to a PC. In another case, 321 Studios LLC has filed a declaratory judgment action in San Francisco after being threatened with DMCA liability by the MPAA for distributing DVD Copy Plus, which enables DVD owners to make copies of DVD content. The major motion picture studios have since counter-sued, alleging that DVD copying tools violate the DMCA. In a separate case, studios Paramount Pictures and Twentieth Century Fox have used the DMCA to sue Tritton Technologies, the manufacturer of DVD CopyWare, and three website distributors of other software that consumers can use to make a copy of the DVDs they have purchased. There are many legitimate reasons to copy DVDs. Once the video is on the PC, for example, lots of fair uses become possible—film scholars can digitally analyze the film, travelers can load the movie into their laptops, and parents can fast-forward through the "unskippable" commercials that preface certain films. Without the tools necessary to copy DVDs, however, these fair uses become impossible. Matthew Mirapaul, "They’ll Always Have Paris (and the Web)," N.Y. Times at E2, March 16, 2002. Lisa Bowman, "Hollywood Targets DVD- Copying Upstart," CNET News, Dec. 20, 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-978580.html Paramount Pictures Corporation et al v. Tritton Technologies Inc. et al, No. CV 03-7316 (S.D.N.Y. filed Sept.17, 2003).
Advanced e-Book Processor and e-Books
The future of fair use for books was at issue in the criminal prosecution of Dmitry Sklyarov and ElcomSoft. As discussed above, ElcomSoft produced and distributed a tool called the Advanced e-Book Processor, which translates e-books from Adobe’s e‑Book format to Adobe’s Portable Document Format ("PDF"). This translation process removes the various restrictions (against copying, printing, text-to-speech processing, etc.) that publishers can impose on e‑Books. The program is designed to work only with e‑Books that have been lawfully purchased from sales outlets. The Advanced e-Book Processor allowed those who have legitimately purchased e‑Books to make fair uses of their e‑Books, which would otherwise not be possible with the current Adobe e‑Book format. For instance, the program allows people to engage in the following activities, all of which are fair uses: · read it on a laptop or computer other than the one on which the e‑Book was first downloaded; · continue to access a work in the future, if the particular technological device for which the e‑Book was purchased becomes obsolete; · print an e‑Book on paper; · read an e‑Book on an alternative operating system such as Linux (Adobe\'s format works only on Macs and Windows PCs); · have a computer read an e‑Book out loud using text-to-speech software, which is particularly important for visually-impaired individuals. EFF, Frequently Asked Questions re U.S. v. Sklyarov. http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/US_v_Sklyarov/us_v_sklyarov_faq.html
Time-shifting and Streaming Media
As more consumers receive audio and video content from "streaming" Internet media sources, they will demand tools to preserve their settled fair use expectations, including the ability to "time-shift" programming for later listening or viewing. As a result of the DMCA, however, the digital equivalents of VCRs and cassette decks for streaming media may never arrive. Start-up software company Streambox developed exactly such a product, known simply as the Streambox VCR, designed to time-shift streaming media. When competitor RealNetworks discovered that Streambox had developed a competing streaming media player, it invoked the DMCA and obtained an injunction against the Streambox VCR product. RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc., 2000 WL 127311 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 18, 2000). The DMCA has also been invoked to threaten the developer of an open source, noncommercial software application known as Streamripper that records MP3 audio streams for later listening. Cease and desist letter from Kenneth Plevan on behalf of Live365.com to John Clegg, developer of Streamripper, April 26, 2001. http://streamripper.sourceforge.net/dc.php
embed and Fonts
In January 2002, typeface vendor Agfa Monotype Corporation threatened a college student with DMCA liability for creating "embed," a free, open source, noncommercial software program designed to manipulate TrueType fonts. According to the student: "I wrote embed in 1997, after discovering that all of my fonts disallowed embedding in documents. Since my fonts are free, this was silly—but I didn\'t want to take the time to… change the flag, and then reset all of the extended font properties with a separate program. What a bore! Instead, I wrote this program to convert all of my fonts at once. The program is very simple; it just requires setting a few bits to zero. Indeed, I noticed that other fonts that were licensed for unlimited distribution also disallowed embedding…. So, I put this program on the web in hopes that it would help other font developers as well." Agfa Monotype nevertheless threatened the student author with DMCA liability for distributing the program. According to Agfa, the fact that embed can be used to allow distribution of protected fonts makes it contraband under Section 1201, notwithstanding the fact that the tool has many legitimate uses in the hands of hobbyist font developers. Tom Murphy, "embed: DMCA Threats." http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/~twm/embed/dmca.html Cease and Desist letter sent by Agfa. http://www.chillingeffects.org/copyright/notice.cgi?NoticeID=264
5. A threat to innovation and competition
The DMCA is being used to hinder the efforts of legitimate competitors to create interoperable products. For example, Vivendi-Universal\'s Blizzard video game division invoked the DMCA in an effort to intimidate the developers of a software product derived from legitimate reverse engineering. Sony has used the DMCA to threaten hobbyists who created competing software for Sony’s Aibo robot dog, as well as to sue makers of software that permits the playing of Playstation games on PCs. In each of these cases, the DMCA was used to deter a marketplace competitor, rather than to battle piracy.
Lexmark Sues Over Toner Cartridges
Lexmark, the second-largest printer vendor in the U.S., has long tried to eliminate aftermarket laser printer toner vendors that offer toner cartridges to consumers at prices below Lexmark’s. In January 2003, Lexmark employed the DMCA as a new weapon in its arsenal. Lexmark obtained a DMCA injunction banning printer microchip manufacturer Static Control Components from selling chips it claimed were "technology" which "circumvented" certain "authentication routines" between Lexmark toner cartridges and printers. Lexmark added these authentication routines explicitly to hinder aftermarket toner vendors. Static Control reverse-engineered these measures and sold "Smartek" chips that enabled aftermarket cartridges to work in Lexmark printers. Lexmark used the DMCA to obtain an injunction banning Static Control from selling its reverse-engineered chips to cartridge remanufacturers. Static Control has appealed that decision and countered by filing an anti-trust lawsuit. Whatever the merits of Lexmark’s position, it is fair to say that eliminating the laser printer toner aftermarket was not what Congress had in mind when enacting the DMCA. Declan McCullagh, "Lexmark Invokes DMCA in Toner Suit," CNET News, Jan. 8, 2003. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-979791.html Steve Seidenberg, "Copyright Owners Sue Competitors," NATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, Feb. 17, 2003. http://www.nlj.com/business/020303bizlede.shtml
Chamberlain Sues Universal Garage Door Opener Manufacturer
Garage door opener manufacturer Chamberlain Group invoked the DMCA against competitor Skylink Technologies after several major U.S. retailers dropped Chamberlain’s remote openers in favor of the less expensive Skylink universal "clickers". Chamberlain claimed that Skylink’s interoperable clicker violates the DMCA by bypassing an "authentication regime" between the Chamberlain remote opener and the mounted garage door receiver unit. Skylink reverse engineered the algorithm used by the garage door receiver’s computer program. Skylink’s transmitter sends three static codes which trigger a resynchronization function and open the garage door. Even though the Skylink clicker does not use the "rolling code" sent by the Chamberlain transmitter, Chamberlain claims that it "bypasses" its "authentication routine" to use the computer program that controls the door’s motor. On this view, a consumer who replaced his lost or damaged Chamberlain clicker with one of Skylink’s cheaper universal clickers would not be allowed to "access" his own garage. The same argument would apply equally to ban universal remote controls for televisions. Although Skylink defeated Chamberlain on a motion for summary judgment, Chamberlain has sought to ban the import and sale of Skylink clickers into the U.S. by filing a simultaneous lawsuit against Skylink and the clicker’s Chinese manufacturer in the International Trade Commission. Whatever the outcome of that suit, it is clear that in enacting the DMCA, Congress did not intend to give copyright owners the right to veto the creation of interoperable, non-copyrightable goods and technologies. Steve Seidenberg, Suits Test Limits of Digital Copyright Act, National Law Journal, February 7, 2003: http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1044059435217 Katie Dean, "Lexmark: New Fuel for DMCA Foes,"Wired, March 6, 2003: http://www.wired.com/news/digiwood/0,1412,57907-2,00.html
Sony Sues Connectix and Bleem
Since the DMCA’s enactment in 1998, Sony has used DMCA litigation to pressure competitors who created software that would allow PC owners to play games intended for the Sony Playstation video game console. In 1999, Sony sued Connectix Corporation, the manufacturer of the Virtual Game Station, an emulator program which allowed Sony Playstation games to be played on Apple Macintosh computers. Sony also sued Bleem, the leading vendor of Playstation emulator software for Windows PCs. In both cases, Sony claimed, then subsequently withdrew circumvention violations against Sony competitors that had created their products by engaging in legitimate reverse engineering, which has been recognized as noninfringing fair use in a series of Ninth Circuit cases. Connectix, in fact, ultimately won a Ninth Circuit ruling that its reverse engineering was indeed fair use. Both Connectix and Bleem, however, were unable to bear the high costs of litigation against Sony and ultimately were forced to pull their products off the market. Whatever the merits of Sony’s position may have been under copyright, trademark, patent, or other legal theories, the competitive efforts of Connectix and Bleem certainly were at a far remove from the "black box" piracy devices that Congress meant to target with section 1201. Pamela Samuelson, "Intellectual Property and the Digital Economy: Why the Anti-Circumvention Regulations Need to be Revised," 14 Berkeley Technology L.J. 519, 556 (1999) (discussing the Connectix case). http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~pam/papers.html Testimony of Jonathan Hangartner on behalf of Bleem, Library of Congress, Hearing on DMCA, Stanford University, May 19, 2000, pp. 221-28. http://www.loc.gov/copyright/1201/hearings/1201-519.pdf
Sony Threatens Aibo Hobbyist
Sony has also invoked the DMCA against a hobbyist who developed custom programs for Sony’s Aibo robotic "pet" dog. The hobbyist cracked the encryption surrounding the source code that manipulates the Aibo to reverse engineer programs that allow owners to customize voice recognition by their Aibos. The hobbyist revealed neither the decrypted source code nor the code he used to defeat the encryption, freely distributed his custom programs, and made no profit. Nevertheless, Sony claimed that the act of circum–venting the encryption surrounding the source code violated the DMCA and demanded that the hobbyist remove his programs from his website. Responding to public outcry, Sony ultimately permitted the hobbyist to repost some of his programs (on the understanding that Sony will have the rights of commercial development in the programs). The incident, however, illustrated Sony’s willingness to invoke the DMCA in situations with no relationship to "piracy." David Labrador, "Teaching Robot Dogs New Tricks,"Scientific American, Feb. 12, 2002. http://www.sciam.com/explorations/2002/012102aibo/
Blizzard Sues bnetd.org
Section 1201 has been invoked in a federal lawsuit by Vivendi-Universal\'s Blizzard Entertainment video game division against a group of volunteer game enthusiasts who used reverse engineering to create free and open source software to allow owners of Blizzard games to play the games over the Internet. The software, a server called "bnetd," provides an alternative to Blizzard\'s own Battle.net servers. Both Battle.net servers and bnetd servers are available for free and both allow owners of Blizzard games to play with each other across the Internet. The group of volunteers decided to create bnetd to overcome difficulties that they had experienced in attempting to use Battle.net. The bnetd software is freely distributed, open source, and non-commercial. Blizzard filed suit in St. Louis to bar distribution of bnetd, alleging that the software is a circumvention device that violates the DMCA. According to Blizzard, the bnetd software has been used by some to permit networked play of pirated Blizzard games. Whether or not that is true, the developers are not using the software for that purpose, nor was the software designed for that purpose. The software has numerous legitimate uses for owners of Blizzard games. Whatever else may be said about the bnetd software, it is plainly not a "black box" piracy device. (EFF is representing the bnetd developers.) Howard Wen, "Battle.net Goes To War,"Salon, April 18, 2002. http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2002/04/18/bnetd/ EFF case archive. http://www.eff.org/IP/Emulation/Blizzard_v_bnetd/
Sony Attacks Playstation "Mod Chips"
Apart from using the DMCA against vendors of personal computer emulators of Sony’s Playstation, Sony has sued a number of manufacturers of so-called "mod chips" for alleged circumvention under the DMCA. In doing so, Sony has been able to enforce a system of geographical regional restrictions that raises significant anticompetitive issues. So-called "mod chips" are after-market accessories that modify Playstation consoles to permit games legitimately purchased in one part of the world to be played on a games console from another geographical region. Sony has sued mod chip manufacturers in the U.S., the U.K., and Australia. In the U.S., Sony sued Gamemasters, Inc., distributor of the Game Enhancer peripheral device, which allowed U.S. Playstation users to play games purchased in Japan and other countries. Although there was no infringement of Sony’s copyright, the court granted an injunction under the DMCA’s anti-circumvention provisions, effectively banning the use of a technology that would permit users to use legitimately-purchased non-infringing games from other regions. Recognizing the anti-competitive potential of the region playback control system, the Australian anti-trust authority, the Australian Consumers and Competition Commission intervened in a case Sony ultimately won against an Australian mod chip manufacturer under the Australian equivalent of the DMCA’s anti-circumvention provisions. Sony has argued that mod chips can also be used to enable the use of unauthorized copies of Playstation games. But most Playstation mod chips are not "black box" devices suitable only for piracy. The potential illegitimate uses must be weighed against legitimate uses, such as defeating Sony’s region coding system to play games purchased in other countries. "Sony Playstation ruling sets far-reaching precedent,"New Scientist, Feb. 22, 2002 http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99991933 Sony Computer Entertainment America Inc. v. Gamemasters, 87 F.Supp.2d 976 (N.D. Cal. 1999). David Becker, "Sony Loses Australian Copyright Case," CNET News, July 26, 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1040-946640.html
Apple Harasses Inventive Retailer
When Other World Computing (OWC), a small retailer specializing in Apple Macintosh computers, developed a software patch that allowed all Mac owners to use Apple’s iDVD software, they thought they were doing Apple’s fans a favor. For their trouble, they got a DMCA threat from Apple. Apple’s iDVD authoring software was designed to work on newer Macs that shipped with internal DVD recorders manufactured by Apple. OWC discovered that a minor software modification would allow iDVD to work with external DVD recorders, giving owners of older Macs an upgrade path. Apple claimed that this constituted a violation of the DMCA and requested that OWC stop this practice immediately. OWC obliged. Rather than prevent copyright infringement, the DMCA empowered Apple to force consumers to buy new Mac computers instead of simply upgrading their older machines with an external DVD recorder. Declan McCullagh "Apple: Burn DVDs—and We’ll Burn You," CNET News, Aug. 28, 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-955805.html
6. DMCA becomes general purpose ban on computer network access
In a different type of misuse, the DMCA’s anti-circumvention provisions have recently been utilized as a general-purpose prohibition on computer network access. Several federal "anti-hacking" statutes already protect computer network owners from unauthorized intrusions. These include the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, the Wiretap Act, and the Electronic Communications Privacy Act. In addition, the common law doctrine of trespass to chattels has also been widely used for this purpose. However, unlike each of these regimes which seek to balance important public policy goals by only outlawing behavior that meets certain conditions and causes significant financial harm to computer owners, the DMCA contains no financial damage threshold. Given the very specific existing statutory regimes that regulate this type of behavior, it is clear that Congress did not intend that the DMCA would be used in this way to create a new and absolute prohibition on accessing computer networks in the absence of any type of copyrighted work.
Disgruntled Ex-employer Sues For Unauthorized Network Access
In April 2003, an automated stock trading company sued a former contract programmer under the DMCA, claiming that his access to the company’s computer system over a password-protected Virtual Private Network tunnel connection was an act of circumvention. Pearl Investments had employed the programmer to create a software module for its software system. In order to complete the work remotely, the programmer connected a separate server to the company’s server, to which he connected from a VPN tunnel from his office. Although the contractor created a very successful software module for the company, the relationship turned frosty after the company ran into financial difficulties and terminated the contractor’s contract. The company sued the contractor when it discovered the contractor’s server connected to the its system, claiming electronic trespass, violation of the anti-hacker legislation, the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) and violation of the DMCA’s anti-circumvention provisions. Pearl claimed that it had taken away the authorization it had previously given to the contractor to access its system through the password-protected VPN and that the VPN connection was therefore unauthorized. The Court rejected the company’s electronic trespass and CFAA claims due to lack of evidence of any actual damage done. Even though the second server was not being used by the programmer at the time, and its hard drive had been accidentally wiped, the court agreed with Pearl that the existence of the VPN was a prohibited circumvention of a technological protection measure that controlled access to a system which contained copyrighted software. As the DMCA has no harm threshold, the anti-circumvention provisions are open to misuse by unscrupulous companies who seek to avoid paying former employees or contractors by revoking authority previously granted and then alleging circumvention. Pearl Investments LLC v. Standard I/O, Inc., 257 F. Supp. 2d 326 (D.Me., April 23, 2003).
Five years of experience with the "anti-circumvention" provisions of the DMCA demonstrate that the statute reaches too far, chilling a wide variety of legitimate activities in ways Congress did not intend. As an increasing number of copyright works are wrapped in technological protection measures, it is likely that the DMCA’s anti-circumvention provisions will be applied in further unforeseen contexts, hindering the legitimate activities of innovators, researchers, the press, and the public at large. | <urn:uuid:08cb0521-783c-4d99-879a-3a4b5f6f9802> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.eff.org/ko/wp/unintended-consequences-five-years-under-the-dmca | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662521152.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20220518052503-20220518082503-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.93017 | 11,463 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Next Thursday, executioners for the state of Ohio will inject convicted murderer Ronald Phillips with a combination of midazolam and hydromorphone—two drugs that have never before been used in a lethal injection. The two-drug cocktail may have its intended effect, and Phillips may slip into a state of amnesia before quietly dying. But hydromorphone, a powerful painkiller, is not designed to kill, and physicians have no idea how much hydromorphone it will take to end Phillips’ life. It’s possible that Phillips’ execution will fail, or drag on for hours, his sedative wearing off as he vomits, seizes, or slowly suffocates.
A week later, on November 20, Missouri will perform a similar experiment on death row inmate Joseph Paul Franklin. Missouri will become the third state, after Texas and South Dakota, to inject an inmate with pentobarbital synthesized in a compounding pharmacy—a type of drug manufacturer that is not subject to Food and Drug Administration safety regulations. The pentobarbital may simply stop Franklin’s heart, as intended. But if it is contaminated by tiny particles—as drugs manufactured by compounding pharmacies often are—the insides of Franklin’s veins will feel as though they’re being scraped with sandpaper as he dies, warns David Waisel, an associate professor of anesthesiology at Harvard Medical School.
Over the past several years, international drugmakers and the European Union have banned the sale of drugs for use in executions. This has made the components of the Supreme Court-approved three-drug cocktail that states traditionally used to kill inmates—composed of a sedative that left the inmate unable to feel pain, a second drug that works as a paralytic agent, and a third drug that stops his heart—progressively harder to obtain. To overcome this hurdle, Ohio will try to kill an inmate with a never-before-used combinations of drugs, and Missouri will become the third state to execute an inmate using drugs from an unregulated pharmacy. But as Missouri and Ohio’s unprecedented executions approach, medical and legal experts say that they are hard put to predict how much pain these new drug protocols will inflict on death row inmates, or how long convicts may linger before the drugs finally kill them.
“We don’t know how these drugs are going to react because they’ve never been used to kill someone,” says Deborah Denno, a Fordham University law professor and an expert on lethal injections. “It’s like when you wonder what you’re going to be eating tonight and you go home and root through your refrigerator to see what’s there. That’s what these departments of corrections are doing with these drugs.”
In Ohio, where new rules call for executioners to kill inmates with an overdose of the painkiller hydromorphone, experts worry that some of hydromorphone’s excruciating side effects may kick in before Phillips dies. Jonathan Groner, a professor of clinical surgery at the Ohio State University College of Medicine who has written extensively on the death penalty, says effects of a hydromorphone overdose include an extreme burning sensation, seizures, hallucination, panic attacks, vomiting, and muscle pain or spasms. Waisel, who has testified extensively on capital-punishment methods, adds that a hydromorphone overdose could result in soft tissue collapse—the same phenomenon that causes sleep apnea patients to jerk awake—that an inmate who had been paralyzed would be unable to clear by jerking or coughing. Instead, he could feel as though he were choking to death.
Because hydromorphone is not designed to kill a person, Groner says, there are no clinical guidelines for how to give a lethal overdose. “You’re basically relying on the toxic side effects to kill people while guessing at what levels that occurs,” he explains.
Many death row inmates are morbidly obese—they leave their cells only one hour a day—or are former drug abusers whose veins have collapsed or are riven with scar tissue. Both factors make setting an IV line extremely difficult, especially when the person doing so is a prison staffer with limited medical training. (Phillips, the Ohio prisoner, testified that during an October checkup, doctors had a hard time locating his veins.) An improperly administered sedative could cause an inmate to remain awake throughout his execution. Denno notes that in 2006, a California judge ruled that there was enough evidence to conclude that 6 of 11 inmates executed since 1978 did not receive enough sedative and died painful deaths. If the hydromorphone IV is set poorly, says Groner, “it would be absorbed under the skin, subcutaneously, very slowly, and that death could be extremely prolonged…It may be painful, and it may take forever.”
Executioners tend to administer drugs much faster than a doctor would. “They push on the plunger as hard as they can and get out of there, because it’s unpleasant to be involved with somebody’s death,” Groner says. But infusing a drug too quickly can have dangerous effects—and because doctors are not in the habit of administering hydromorphone too quickly, the medical community has no way of predicting what those effects are.
When Ohio executes Phillips, it will become the second state to sedate a death row inmate with midazolam—a drug which causes memory loss and relaxation, but not necessarily a loss of awareness—instead of sodium thiopental, the powerful anesthetic in the Supreme Court-approved three-drug cocktail. Only one other death row inmate has received a lethal injection containing midazolam—William Happ, whom Florida put to death in October. Medical experts worried ahead of Happ’s execution that the midazolam would wear off before he died, resulting in extreme pain. The day after Happ’s execution, the Associated Press reported, “It appeared Happ remained conscious longer and made more body movements after losing consciousness” than prisoners who were sedated by drugs that are no longer available.
“Reporters who witness executions are a salty bunch,” Groner says. “Nothing really bothers them. But I talked to reporters who were there in Florida. And one said to me, ‘I thought he would never die’…I think that’s pretty torturous, to be told you’re about to die, and to do it takes an hour and a half.” Allen L. Bohnert, an assistant federal public defender who is helping represent Phillips in Ohio, argues that a prolonged death like this would be unconstitutional. This is part of Bohnert and his colleagues’ case for delaying Phillips’ execution, although the Supreme Court has not spelled out whether pain from an execution constitutes cruel and unusual punishment.
Although Ohio’s new execution drugs have lethal-injection experts particularly worried, Missouri’s decision to acquire lethal drugs from unregulated compounding pharmacies is a source of concern, too.
Pentobarbital, the drug that Missouri will use to kill Franklin, has been used frequently in executions for the past several years. But pentobarbital’s European manufacturer, Lundbeck, has refused to sell the product for executions since 2011, and the last supply of pentobarbital that Lundbeck sold to any US state for executions will expire this month. So Missouri officials have turned to compounding pharmacies to synthesize a pentobarbital knockoff from raw materials.
It unclear whether the other states that rely on pentobarbital will follow Missouri, South Dakota, and Texas’ example and turn to compounding pharmacies for the drug. But at least one other state, Georgia, faced legal challenges in doing so. After Georgia opted to use compounded pentobarbitol, concerns about the product prompted a judge to grant a death row inmate a stay of execution. Concerns include the fact that compounded drugs are prone to contamination. Pentobarbital that contains even tiny contaminants, says Waisel, could cause an inmate immense pain in his veins that Waisel compared to rubbing sandpaper on an open wound.
Missouri officials have refused to identify which compounding pharmacy the state will use. But surveys by the FDA and state boards of pharmacy routinely find that drugs from these facilities are not as potent as they should be, says Sarah Sellers, a safety consultant for pharmaceutical companies. Waisel says that pentobarbital that is not potent enough could result in a lingering death that “drags on and drags on and drags on. It would be awful.” | <urn:uuid:f306e11e-1084-4e52-b074-2fd1bb60e9ec> | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://practice.motherjones.com/politics/2013/11/ohio-lethal-injection-cocktail-execution-drugs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178358798.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20210227084805-20210227114805-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.959628 | 1,806 | 2.546875 | 3 |
On October 6th, 2001, the United States declared the beginning of a war operation called ‘’Enduring Freedom”. War mission in Afghanistan, in which International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), supported by Northern Alliance and then by Afghanistan`s new government, took place, became part of “Enduring Freedom”.The mission`s main objective was to destroy Al-Qaeda and convict its leader Osama bin Laden.This resulted in the longest-running war in the American history and one of the most devastating periods in the history of Afghanistan. During that war the US spent around $ 550 billion and NATO lost almost 3, 5 thousand soldiers. There were also, at a rough estimate, nearly 30 thousand civilian casualties. On May 2, 2011 terrorist №1 was killed. But despite bin Laden`s death, the war operation was ongoing for 2 more years. During the presence of NATO in Afghanistan heroin production (one of the main sources of income for terroristic groups) increased by more than 5 times. The number of terrorist attacks in Afghanistan has increased by 3200%. More and more Afghans, representatives of civil population who hasn’t belonged to any terrorist groups, have been joining the terrorist organizations every year. In July 2013 all safety arrangements became the obligation of the local security agencies. At the same time the limited coalitional group was given the secondary role. Despite the fact that the USA has proclaimed victory in the military operation, still many questions are left, and nobody can find the answers. What was the purpose of the military operation? Did the war bring any benefits for Afghanistan, or only deaths and devastation? What will happen to the country in future? Will not the situation with Afghanistan develop more dramatically in future as it has happened to Iraq? | <urn:uuid:2a058d3a-b151-486a-b400-8b57b541e168> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://material-evidence.com/afghanistan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676592150.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20180721012433-20180721032433-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.965949 | 360 | 2.75 | 3 |
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Baboon
|←Babirusa||1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 3
|See also Baboon on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.|
BABOON (from the Fr. babuin, which is itself derived from Babon, the Egyptian deity to whom it was sacred), properly the designation of the long-muzzled, medium-tailed Egyptian monkey, scientifically known as Papio anubis; in a wider sense applied to all the members of the genus Papio (formerly known as Cynocephalus) now confined to Africa and Arabia, although in past times extending into India. Baboons are for the most part large terrestrial monkeys with short or medium-sized tails, and long naked dog-like muzzles, in the truncated extremity of which are pierced the nostrils. As a rule, they frequent barren rocky districts in large droves, and are exceedingly fierce and dangerous to approach. They have large cheek-pouches, large naked callosities, often brightly coloured, on the buttocks, and short thick limbs, adapted rather to walking than to climbing. Their diet includes practically everything eatable they can capture or kill. The typical representative of the genus is the yellow baboon (P. cynocephalus, or babuin), distinguished by its small size and grooved muzzle, and ranging from Abyssinia to the Zambezi. The above-mentioned anubis baboon, P. anubis (with the subspecies neumanni, pruinosus, heuglini and doguera), ranging from Egypt all through tropical Africa, together with P. sphinx, P. olivaceus, the Abyssinian P. lydekkeri, and the chacma, P. porcarius of the Cape, represent the subgenus Choeropithecus. The named Arabian baboon, P. hamadryas of North Africa and Arabia, dedicated by the ancient Egyptians to the god Thoth, and the South Arabian P. arabicus, typify Hamadryas; while the drill and mandrill of the west coast, P. leucophaeus and P. maimon, constitute the subgenus Maimon. The anubis baboons, as shown by the frescoes, were tamed by the ancient Egyptians and trained to pluck sycamore-figs from the trees. (See Primates; Chacma; Drill; Gelada and Mandrill).
- (R. L.*) | <urn:uuid:5e97209a-3fd7-49be-9692-a7f13b0994fe> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Baboon | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1393999678556/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305060758-00002-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914346 | 540 | 3.484375 | 3 |
During World War I, wounded soldiers could lie unattended for days in the no-man's-land between trenches. If they lived, they'd sometimes return to their lines with gashes and cuts crawling with fly larvae. It must have seemed to them as though matters had gone from bad to worse, but an American surgeon named William Baer noted something curious about the maggot–ridden wounds: Compared to other soldier's injuries, they looked surprisingly healthy, showing fewer signs of inflammation or infection [sources: Gabrielsen; Handwerk].
Baer had rediscovered the medical value of maggots, a quality well known to Napoleon's Army doctors and probably used by civilizations as far back as the Mayans, or by native peoples from American Indians to Australian Aborigines [sources: Gabrielsen; Soy].
"Ick factor" aside, maggots have a lot to offer modern medicine in terms of stemming infections, speeding healing and saving money. Their forte lies in treating chronic wounds – injuries, like diabetic foot ulcers, that do not heal, or heal only slowly. In some cases, medical maggots can even help patients avoid amputation [source: Jukema et al.].
Maggots are but one example of the creatures used in biotherapy, a developing field that treats diseases using substances from living things. In this age, you might think of medical maggots as the leech's newest rival for the gag reflex award (the Food and Drug Administration has approved both creatures as medical devices). But whereas leeches suck blood — a vital quality in microsurgeries like limb reattachment, where blood buildup can kill — maggots slurp up the dead and infected tissue that hinders healing.
The FDA has also begun looking into bee-related products, a field known as apitherapy (Latin apis for bee). One example that has the medical world buzzing is bone wax, a mix of beeswax, olive oil and phenol used to stop bleeding in surgically sliced bones. Another biotherapy, bacteriophagetherapy, uses bacteria-eating viruses in place of antibiotics. Like maggot therapy, this Soviet medical technique grows more appealing as antibiotic-resistant bacteria force doctors to seek other ways to kibosh harmful microbes [source: Reardon].
Not all biotherapies are created equal, however. While some go through rigorous vetting as medical technologies, others remain little more than loose homeopathic tonics backed up by, at best, hearsay.
In other words, there's more to maggot therapy then an ace bandage and a few upended trashcans. You need to know what you're doing, and not just any maggot will do.
Know Your Maggots
Before you go dropping fly larvae into your open wounds, there's a few things you'd perhaps like to know. Who are these maggots? Where do they come from? And, of course, how do they work?
As flies develop from eggs to adults, they stop off at a few stages along the way. In about half of fly species, this includes a larval phase unofficially known as a maggot – a pale, wormlike creature with a simple mission: eat, store energy and grow.
Not all maggots are suited for medicine: Some prefer to eat plants, while others carry diseases. Still others, such as the nightmare-fueling Internet celebrity Dermatobia hominis, aka the human botfly, develop inside living flesh.
No, the fly you want is Lucilia sericata, aka the common green bottle fly or sheep blowfly. Fans of "CSI" and of body farms, research centers that study corpse decay under a variety of conditions, know this creature for its worth in pinning down time of death. Because L. sericata lays its eggs in bodies very soon after a person's demise, experts can link their larval growth to elapsed time since death [source: Anderson and Kaufman].
Perhaps that's not the best picture to paint if we want to sell you on their healing power, but it makes the critical point, which is that L. sericata larvae only eat necrotic (dead) tissue and bacteria, not living flesh.
How do they do it? Contrary to what some have reported, they don't chew on you. In fact, they have no teeth. Instead, these maggots excrete enzymes that break down complex proteins into simpler, more digestible ones. They also use mouth hooks to scrape or grind the tissue as needed. Maggots also likely bump up oxygen in the wound and augment cell growth [sources: Gabrielsen, Anderson and Kaufman].
So where's your immune system in all of this? Your body doesn't attack the maggots because their secretions also break down complement proteins, part of the body's immune response. In fact, according to one study, these secretions reduce complement protein levels by 19-55 percent [source: Gabrielsen]. This is in fact a good thing. Too much complement activation can cause chronic inflammation, which can increase the chance of infection by keeping a wound open [source: Arnold]. Remarkably, the efficacy of this secretion appears not to taper off over time. In fact, researchers are now at work turning it into a drug.
Yet, for all their success, maggots had been enjoying a retirement from their medical practice since the 1940s, when the growth in antibiotic drugs brushed them aside. So what brought them out of retirement?
Maggots, MRSA and Diabetes
Based on the bulk of news coverage, antibiotic-resistant bacteria might seem a recent occurrence, one that began in the 1990s [sources: Arnold]. Actually, microbe strains sporting genetic defenses against antimicrobial agents began cropping up within a few short years of their medical debuts in the late 1930s and 1940s. In the 2010s, the problem has reached crisis levels [source: Davies and Davies].
Chronic wounds are one area particularly at risk for infections, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and hospital-acquired Pseudomonas infections. Treatment of these serious conditions involves isolating patients and exposing them to long, aggressive courses of antibiotics – a pricey prospect for the patient and a logistically taxing one for the hospital [source: Jones et al.].
Clearly, we need an alternative, one that destroys bacteria while helping to heal the stubborn wound. Enter the humble maggot.
Essentially, maggots change a chronic wound, one that drags on and on without healing, into an acute one in which the healing process can take hold. They do this by speeding up debridement, the removal of dead or tainted tissue, and granulation, the formation of lumpy, pink flesh holding new connective tissue and capillaries, necessary for healing. Maggots do this at a scale surgeons cannot reach, without calling for costly operating rooms or surgical staff [source: Jones et al.].
This blend of savings, success and easy access has inspired doctors to turn to maggots in countries like Kenya, where financial concerns make antibiotics or hospital visits a last resort for most residents [source: Soy].
Maggots have also proven their worth in treating the open sores, or ulcers, linked to diseases like diabetes. In diabetes, blood glucose levels rise too high because cells lack insulin or have problems using it. In some cases, diabetics develop poor circulation, or a loss of feeling in the foot called neuropathy. Both conditions can contribute to ulcer formation. High glucose levels only make matters worse, impeding the body's attempts to heal ulcers or fight infection [source: APMA].
Roughly 15 percent of diabetics will develop foot ulcers, and 14-24 percent of those patients will need an amputation [source: APMA]. Faced with these odds, it's not so strange that some patients find it in themselves to set aside their jitters and tolerate a few maggoty medics, especially as new tools make the process simpler and at least a little more palatable.
Learning to Love and Live With Larvae
The FDA considers medical maggots a prescription-only medical device, so you'll need a doctor to prescribe them. You'll also want medical personnel to oversee the process, even as an outpatient. This can be tricky, since not all doctors are comfortable or familiar with MDT.
BioTherapeutics, Education and Research Foundation in Irvine, California, is a nonprofit organization that matches patients with doctors willing to conduct maggot debridement therapy or MDT [source: Gabrielsen].
So how does it work?
To begin, doctors clean the wound, softening it if needed, since maggots much prefer wet and sloppy to hard and dry. They might also protect the nearby skin with a cream barrier if they think irritation likely, since maggot secretions are alkaline and contain ammonia [source: BioMonde].
From there, maggot wranglers have two main options. They can go "free range," sprinkling loose maggots onto the wound before covering it with a breathable dressing. Or they can apply a tea-bag-like polyester pouch that holds the maggots in a sealed sack. The package also contains special foam that helps sustain the critters. Either way, doctors work with farm-raised and sterilized larvae, which they will remove after leaving them in place for about 2-4 days of chowing down and growing. At that time, loose maggots will fall out of the wound, or doctors might pluck them out with forceps or rinse them out with saline [source: NHS]. They bagged variety simply come out with their sachet.
During MDT, patients should avoid bathing or showering, high heat, and anything that will pressure or smother the wound [sources: BioMonde; NHS]. During the first few days, wounds can become sloppy and a bit smelly, but changing the dressing should take care of that [source: Handwerk]. Some wounds will require multiple rounds of maggots, especially those treated with the bagged variety, since sachets prevent the larvae from digging in as deeply as their free-range colleagues do [sources: BioMonde; Jones et al.].
Sources remain mixed on the topic of pain linked to MDT, but it is a risk. Pressure might also build as the maggots grow, but doctors follow strict guidelines covering how many maggots to apply, based on the wound size and the fraction of it that needs debriding.
MDT is not for everyone. Guidelines warn against using it in wounds that bleed easily or that lie near large blood vessels, for example, or on patients taking blood thinners. And, of course, patients should avoid the bagged variety if they have allergies to polyester, PVA, fly larva or the growth medium ingredients, which include soy protein, yeast protein, potato starch and bovine protein [source: NHS].
In fact, MDT does not always beat traditional cures [source: Jones et al.]. But when all else fails, or when high costs place those options out of reach, it nice to know that nature has provided a cheap and effective, if wriggly, alternative.
Author's Note: How Maggot Therapy Works
More research is needed to determine the efficacy of maggot therapy, both comparatively and absolutely. Unfortunately, because maggots don't stand to make much money for the companies that offer them — unless, perhaps, they bioengineer and patent some kind of super-maggot — funding such research remains difficult.
More Great Links
- American Podiatric Medical Association. "Diabetic Wound Care." 2015. (Sept. 3, 2015)
- Anderson, Matthew and Phillip E. Kaufman. "Featured Creatures: Lucilia sericata." University of Florida Entomology and Nematology. September 2011. (Sept. 3, 2015)
- Anderson, Matthew and Phillip E. Kaufman. "Featured Creatures: Lucilia sericata." University of Florida Entomology and Nematology. September 2011. (Sept. 3, 2015) http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/livestock/flies/lucilia_sericata.htm
- Arnold, Carrie. "New Science Shows How Maggots Heal Wounds." Scientific American. March 19, 2013. (Aug. 31, 2015)
- Arnold, Carrie. "New Science Shows How Maggots Heal Wounds." Scientific American. March 19, 2013. (Aug. 31, 2015) http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/news-science-shows-how-maggots-heal-wounds/
- BioMonde. "Discover BioBag." (Sept. 1, 2015)
- BioMonde. "Discover BioBag." (Sept. 1, 2015) http://biomonde.com/us/treat
- Cuddihy, Martin. "Maggots Make Comeback as Cheap and Effective Medical Treatment in Kenya." ABC News (Australia). Feb. 16, 2015. (Aug. 31, 2015)
- Cuddihy, Martin. "Maggots Make Comeback as Cheap and Effective Medical Treatment in Kenya." ABC News (Australia). Feb. 16, 2015. (Aug. 31, 2015) http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-02-17/maggot-therapy-makes-comeback-as-medical-treatment-in-kenya/6077088
- Davies, Julian and Dorothy Davies. "Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance." Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. Vol. 74, no. 3. Page 417. Sept. 1, 2010.
- Davies, Julian and Dorothy Davies. "Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance." Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. Vol. 74, no. 3. Page 417. Sept. 1, 2010. http://mmbr.asm.org/content/74/3/417.full
- Gabrielsen, Paul "How Maggots Heal Wounds." Science. Dec. 6, 2012. (Aug. 28, 2015)
- Gabrielsen, Paul "How Maggots Heal Wounds." Science. Dec. 6, 2012. (Aug. 28, 2015) http://news.sciencemag.org/2012/12/how-maggots-heal-wounds
- Handwerk, Brian. "Medical Maggots Treat As They Eat." National Geographic News. Oct. 24, 2003. (Aug. 31, 2015)
- Handwerk, Brian. "Medical Maggots Treat As They Eat." National Geographic News. Oct. 24, 2003. (Aug. 31, 2015) http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/10/1024_031024_maggotmedicine.html
- Jones, Julie, et al. "Maggots and Their Role in Wound Care." British Journal of Community Nursing. Vol. 16, no. 3. Page 24. March 2011. (Sept. 1, 2015)
- Jones, Julie, et al. "Maggots and Their Role in Wound Care." British Journal of Community Nursing. Vol. 16, no. 3. Page 24. March 2011. (Sept. 1, 2015) http://www.researchgate.net/publication/50289843_Maggots_and_their_role_in_wound_care
- Jukema, G. N. et al. "Amputation-Sparing Treatment by Nature: 'Surgical' Maggots Revisited." Clinical Infectious Diseases. Vol. 35, no. 12. Page 1566. (2002) (Sept. 4, 2015)
- Jukema, G. N. et al. "Amputation-Sparing Treatment by Nature: 'Surgical' Maggots Revisited." Clinical Infectious Diseases. Vol. 35, no. 12. Page 1566. (2002) (Sept. 4, 2015) http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/12/1566.long
- National Health Service (UK – Leicester County and Rutland). "Protocol for the Use of Sterile Larvae in Wound Management." CHS Clinical Policy Group and Clinical Quality and Governance Committee. July 31, 2011. (Sept. 2, 2015)
- National Health Service (UK – Leicester County and Rutland). "Protocol for the Use of Sterile Larvae in Wound Management." CHS Clinical Policy Group and Clinical Quality and Governance Committee. July 31, 2011. (Sept. 2, 2015) http://www.leicspart.nhs.uk/Library/Version2SNP002ProtocolfortheuseofsterilelarvaeinwoundmanagementAug2009.pdf
- Oldroyd, Harold. "Dipteran." Encyclopedia Britannica. (Aug. 31, 2015)
- Oldroyd, Harold. "Dipteran." Encyclopedia Britannica. (Aug. 31, 2015) http://www.britannica.com/animal/dipteran#ref214619
- Reardon, Sara. "Phage Therapy Gets Revitalized." Nature. June 3, 2014. (Sept. 4, 2015)
- Reardon, Sara. "Phage Therapy Gets Revitalized." Nature. June 3, 2014. (Sept. 4, 2015) http://www.nature.com/news/phage-therapy-gets-revitalized-1.15348
- Sherman, Ronald A. "Maggot Therapy for Treating Diabetic Foot Ulcers Unresponsive to Conventional Therapy." Diabetes Care. Vol. 26, no. 2. Page 446. February 2003.(Aug. 31, 2015)
- Sherman, Ronald A. "Maggot Therapy for Treating Diabetic Foot Ulcers Unresponsive to Conventional Therapy." Diabetes Care. Vol. 26, no. 2. Page 446. February 2003.(Aug. 31, 2015) http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/26/2/446.full
- Soy, Anna. "How Maggots Can Lower Kenyan Hospital Bills." BBC News. Sept. 3, 2014. (Aug. 31, 2015)
- Soy, Anna. "How Maggots Can Lower Kenyan Hospital Bills." BBC News. Sept. 3, 2014. (Aug. 31, 2015) http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29035193
- Youn, Anthony. "Gross, Sure -- but Maggots Have Medical Benefits." CNN. Sept. 12, 2012. (Aug. 31, 2015)
- Youn, Anthony. "Gross, Sure -- but Maggots Have Medical Benefits." CNN. Sept. 12, 2012. (Aug. 31, 2015) http://www.cnn.com/2012/09/12/health/youn-maggot-therapy/ | <urn:uuid:81703ff3-1ec2-40ec-941f-3c64ead2a0a5> | CC-MAIN-2019-22 | https://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/modern-treatments/maggot-therapy.htm/printable | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232259316.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20190526145334-20190526171334-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.916482 | 4,030 | 3.125 | 3 |
The Comeragh Mountains are an attractive mountain range in central Waterford, in the southeastern corner of Ireland. There is a wealth of Mountain scenery, precipitous cliffs and contorted ridges alongside rolling moorland and the rich agricultural land of the county surrounds the range. An interesting and characteristic flora and fauna occurs which can be admired from the many possible walks which may be undertaken. Excellent views of the surrounding countryside may be had and the range itself is visually superb when seen from nearby roads and other vantage points.
Strictly speaking there are two ranges, the Comeraghs and the Monavullagh Mountains, though the distinction between them is not entirely clear. The name Comeragh, which is usually used for the two ranges, comes from the Irish, Cumarach, meaning “abounding in hollows and river confluence’s”. This name arises due to the many Coums in the range (including Coumshingaun. Irelands largest Corrie lake) which were formed during the various ice ages
The total area enclosed by the mountains is approximately 195 square kilometers and they reach a height of 792m (2589ft), they are composed mainly of Old Red Sandstone Conglomerates. The mountains are easily reached from the main Waterford Cork road.
For further information and reading on all aspects of the range – including geology, flora, fauna, climate and selected walks the following book is highly recommended:
A Guide To The Comeragh Mountains By Declan Mc Grath, Published by “The Adventure Club” of Waterford Regional Technical College 1995 (now known as Waterford Institute of Technology, WIT) | <urn:uuid:663a7d92-d537-4f4c-902c-ac8f25b13aa3> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://comeraghclub.ie/the-comeraghs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247481992.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20190217111746-20190217133746-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.958154 | 345 | 2.78125 | 3 |
By Vexen Crabtree 2007
The Jesus as we know him - the Jesus of Christianity - definitely did not exist. Most scholars do believe that Jesus was real1 but the lack of evidence supports the idea that he was invented2. No historians of the first century mention Jesus, despite there being authors who write (at length) about Jewish concerns. There are no Roman records that mention Jesus3. Not only all that, but, there are no Christian eye-witnesses of Jesus. All of the Gospels are anonymous and written by friends-of-friends, and none are written in the first person; also, Paul (who authored 13 of the 27 books of the NT) never met Jesus, except in a vision4. They're also written in very competent Greek (the language of later converts), rather than in Hebrew (the language of the original converts, excepting Paul). Early Christians didn't know when Jesus was born (his birthdate wasn't decided for hundreds of years, in 354CE)5 and didn't know where he was buried. People have doubted his existence since the very first century, and, despite the popularity of Christianity, there is a modern resurgence of people who disbelieve in the very existence of Jesus today. The biggest problem facing such unbelievers is accounting for early Christianity. But there are multiple theories as to how Christianity may have arisen without a historical saviour. For example, it is quite possible, given the similarities of Jesus to previous saviour religions and pagan stories about god-men, that the entire story of Jesus is a rewrite, with Jewish undertones, of Roman and pagan myths that were current at the beginning of the first century6,7,8.
No historians of the first century mention Jesus. Suetonius (65-135) does not. Pliny the Younger only mentions Christians (Paulists) with no comment of Jesus himself. There were Christians, but they themselves have only heard of Jesus (and didn't know when he was born, or where he was buried). Later on, Tacitus mentions a Jesus, but it is likely that after a century of Christian preaching Tacitus was just reacting to rumours, or probably talking about one of the many other Messiahs of the time. Josephus, a methodical, accurate and dedicated historian of the time mentions John the Baptist, Herod, Pilate and many aspects of Jewish life, in detail, but does not mention Jesus. The lack of evidence led a Christian in the third century to forge the Testimonium Flavianum, in the name of Josephus.
“... the famous Testimonium Flavianum attributed to Josephus ... certainly did not appear in the edition of Josephus read by Origen in the early third century. Eusebius 'quotes' it as from Josephus, and it appears in manuscripts of Josephus copied after that time.”
"Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable Is the Gospel Tradition?" by Robert M. Price (2003)9
Aside from that, Josephus does once mention a Jesus, but gives no information other than that he is a brother of a James. Jesus was not an unusual name, either. Justus, another Jewish historian who lived in Tiberias (near Kapernaum, a place Jesus frequented according to the NT) did not mention Jesus nor any of his miracles. It is only in the evidence of later writers, writing about earlier times, that we find a Jesus. Prof. Ehrman, an expert in the prime sources of the first century, spells this out:
“One of the striking and, to many people, surprising facts about the first century is that we don't have any Roman records, of any kind, that attest to the existence of Jesus. We have no birth certificate, no references to his works or deeds, no accounts of his trial, no description of his death - no reference to him whatsoever in any way, shape, or form. Jesus's name is not even mentioned in any Roman source of the first century.10 [...] But as with the vast majority of all persons who lived and died in the first century, he does not appear in the records of the Roman people.”
Now, it would not be fair at this point not to mention that Prof. Ehrman does believe in a historical Jesus. He says so, and infers that the increasingly common denial of Jesus's very existence is disrespectable11. He has a new book on the subject - Did Jesus Exist (2012), where he lays out his arguments (and in short, it is the Gospel of Matthew that is most trustworthy). Ehrman is a critical thinker who is not at all hesitant to dismantle illusion in the search for truth. If he thinks that Jesus exists, then, it is seriously worth considering his opinion. This page continues as an explanation of how Christianity can have arisen if there was no Jesus regardless of whether or not he existed.
What is more surprising than the lack of first-century references to Jesus is that the gospels themselves do not allude to first-hand historical sources, either13.
“The four Gospels that eventually made it into the New Testament, for example, are all anonymous, written in the third person about Jesus and his companions. None of them contains a first-person narrative ("One day, when Jesus and I went into Capernaum..."), or claims to be written by an eyewitness or companion of an eyewitness. Why then do we call them Matthew, Mark, Luke and John? Because sometime in the second century, when proto-orthodox Christians recognized the need for apostolic authorities, they attributed these books to apostles (Matthew and John) and close companions of apostles (Mark, the secretary of Peter; and Luke, the travelling companion of Paul). Most scholars today have abandoned these identifications, and recognize that the books were written by otherwise unknown but relatively well-educated Greek-speaking (and writing) Christians during the second half of the first century.”
Ehrman kindly points out that the gospels were not forgeries written by unknown people - they were anonymous, and it was a case of false attribution13 by Christians later on that was the cause of the misdirection which lasted many hundreds of years.
So, none of the four gospels are written by eyewitnesses, and the writings of Paul (which make up nearly half of the total books of the New Testament, 13 of 27) are also the writings of someone who merely had a vision of Jesus but who never met him. This very strange state of affairs indicates that something is wrong with Christian history and some academics have noted that "this astonishingly complete absence of reliable gospel material" tends to support the theory that there never was a historical Jesus2.
This section is taken from "The Birth of Jesus and the Christmas Story: Pagan and Unhistorical" by Vexen Crabtree (2014).
The stories about Jesus's birth in the Bible are contained in the Books of Matthew and Luke. These two accounts contradict each other in many places. Many elements are certainly untrue. There are no Roman records attesting to the birth (or life) of Jesus3. Events such as King Herod's killing of every male child simply did not occur14 - none of Herod's enemies mention it, for example, despite their routine documenting of his many misdeeds of a much lesser nature. Also unhistorical is the curious Roman census that required (for what reason?) everyone to go to cities associated with their ancestors14. But similar stories are found about previous pagan god-man saviours. Likewise with the Virgin Birth, which has now been shown to simply be a mistranslation deriving from the Septuagint. And what of the 3 wise men who follow the bright star to Jesus's birthplace, bearing gifts? Other star gazers of the time, who meticulously recorded many stellar events, did not notice it14,15. It is a Zoroastrian story, even down to the details of the 3 gifts, copied by Christians and made to be about Jesus. The stories of Jesus's birth are rewrites, modernisations, of previous stories from older pagan myths. These facts have led some scholars to cast doubt on Jesus's entire existence.
This section is taken from "The Crucifixion Facade: 6. Conclusions" by Vexen Crabtree (2002).
The crucifixion story of Jesus Christ is mythical, based on pagan religions, and makes no sense:
There is a complete absence of evidence for the events described - no authors mention the phenomenal events that supposedly occurred at the time of Jesus' resurrection, and, there are no records of Jesus being crucified in the first place. This is despite there being multiple historians of the time who kept extensive records of events in that era, especially of unusual events and the misdeeds of rulers. The only records we have are those written by Christians themselves. St Paul's letters are the earliest, but he didn't even meet Jesus; and then even the earliest gospels show strong signs of being mythological. Within each of them nearly all details of the crucifixion and resurrection are different. Very important details, such as Jesus' last words, are so different that it appears they are simply being made up. The earliest Christians did not know simple details such as where Jesus was buried.
Most the details of Jesus' death and rebirth are similar to the existing myths surrounding god-men in that era. The similarities to the Christs of other pagan religions are shockingly detailed, so much so that early Church fathers had to defend themselves against pagan critics who said that the stories of Jesus were simply pagan stories with new names.
“The hundreds of documents about Jesus, all contradictory in style and content, derived from multiple physical locations. The disparate stories, all of which use pagan and roman myths interwoven with typical Greek god-man stories17, hint to us that the entire escapade is the result of historical revisionism. In other words, stories about Jesus spread as a result of a single preacher, perhaps St Paul (who never met Jesus and probably never really met the disciples), and people merely (in typical fashion for the era) rewrote older stories but now put Jesus at the core of them, just as happened with other Roman gods and heroes. Hence, a new religion sprung out of thin air, fooling many into thinking there was an actual historical figure. Once this process had started at the end of the first century, it was already impossible for anyone to go back and verify the stories.”
“'Bruno Bauer believed Mark had invented Jesus, just as Mark Twain created Huck Finn.”
"Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable Is the Gospel Tradition?" by Robert M. Price (2003)18
A very common belief, accepted (in part if not in full) by Christian liberals is that someone who claimed to be a prophet and messiah (there were many such people appearing amongst the Jews) is the historical Jesus. His life story has been intermingled with older pagan myths, and it is very hard for us to see his true life or message to the extent that we have little or no information about him, he is effectively without historical basis because the real figure is obscured by the mythical one.
God-Man myths were very popular and pre-dated the God-Man of Jesus by thousands of years. They all shared a common format which (or "vegetation myths") is that the Son of God has 12 disciples, and is betrayed and killed by a traitor. Popular myths such as the virgin birth, miracles, curing the blind and ill are also familiar and common aspects of these myths. As such, such events were assumed to be true of the historical Jesus. These myths became interwoven amongst the stories of someone who might have been real. Many Jewish sayings became attributed to this character, and sayings of John the Baptist too. Stories about the disciples were assumed to be true and not simply symbolic stories as the original gnostic Christians believed. Once people wrote pseudepigraphically under the names of the disciples people accepted them as true too. The rest is history, but initially is based on mistaken pseudo-historical accounts.
Perhaps the most historically correct of all the theories is that Christianity started out with a Gnostic character, but that it lost this from the 2nd century onwards. The stories of Jesus and the disciples match those of other Mystery religions and Pagan religions precisely because Christianity was another Mystery Religion. Literalist Christianity as we know it was the Outer Mysteries of this spiritual religion. It explains why the historical centres of Christianity were found to be all gnostic when literalist Christians went back to research the past, and why so many Pagan god-man elements are part of Christianity. It also explains why none of the scholars of the time mention Jesus or the miracles around his life, because even the Christians themselves knew that they were symbolic stories, not actual events. It's not just Jesus though - a surprisingly large number of religious figureheads, including both other Mesopotamian heroes and even the Buddha, have a tendency to conform to a certain stereotypical set of qualities19. The stories told about these heroes have similarities - such as a final battle with an arch-enemy, which resolves when the hero's cleverly chosen words destroy Māra or Satan accordingly. Karen Armstrong holds that these elements of the hero's career come to us from the Palaeolithin era. Later Christians had to defend their 'new' religion against critics who knew it was yet-another copy of the typical son-of-god saviour religions of the time:
“The hero tales of the world abound in heavenly annunciations, miraculous conceptions, portents at birth, child-prodigy stories, divine commissionings, devilish temptations to leave the ordained path, miracles, gaining and losing the approbation of the crowd, literal or figurative coronation, betrayal, execution (often on a hilltop), resurrection or disappearance or ascension into heaven, postmortem appearances, and so forth. As Martin Dibelius pointed out, such miracles always seem to punctuate the life stories of saints and heroes in order to cast a halo over their every moment. The Gospels come under serious suspicion because there is practically nothing in them that does not conform to this 'Mythic Hero Archetype,' no 'leftover' secular information such as we do find in the [cases of real historical characters of the era] which serves to tie them into the fabric of history.”
"Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable Is the Gospel Tradition?" by Robert M. Price (2003)20
Some features of the story of Jesus kind weight to the idea that his history was invented and modelled on previous heroes. Like other heroes, he had no childhood. There was a mythical birth story, and a short adult life of wonder and miracles, but there was no infant Jesus, and no child Jesus. Except one particular story of Jesus when he was 12 (Luke 2:41-49), but this particular story happens to merely be a rewriting of older stories about heroic and often divine heroes, who, at that very age, had a single story told about them too. Where were Jesus's parents? They are rarely mentioned, and are only a nuisance. Christians never found out when Jesus was born - early Christians debated for a hundred years about what date to celebrate Jesus's birthday on, and, they also didn't know where he was buried. They still don't. Did no convert to Christianity speak to Jesus's parents? Didn't they pass on any stories about young Jesus? Jesus died young, leaving many adults a long time to investigate him and write about him. So that massive gap in mundane knowledge about him is very worrying.
“The Jesus story sure looks like you would expect it to look if it were patterned after other god-men. Early Christian Church fathers such as Justin Martyr (d. 165), Tertullian (d. 225), and Irenaeus (d. 202) felt compelled to answer the pagan critics of the time who claimed the Jesus story was based on earlier traditions. The fathers claimed that the similarities were the work of the devil, who copied the Jesus story ahead of time to mislead the gullible.”
"God, the Failed Hypothesis: How Science Shows That God Does Not Exist"
Prof. Victor J. Stenger (2007)6
The Babylonian legend of creation has come to us through history preserved in a number of tablets. The "main object" of these tablets, according to historian Wallis E. A. Budge, was the glorification of its central hero, Marduk, who conquered the dragon Tiamat. He continues to show evidence that it was common practice for local communities to tell these stories but to place their own local gods and heroes in the most heroic positions in these stories.
“It is probable that every great city in Babylonia, whilst accepting the general form of the Creation Legend, made the greatest of its local gods the hero of it. It has long been surmised that the prominence of Marduk in the Legend was due to the political importance of the city of Babylon. And we now know from the fragments of tablets which have been excavated in recent years by German Assyriologists at Kal'at Sharkât (or Shargat, or Shar'at), that in the city of Ashur, the god Ashur, the national god of Assyria, actually occupied in texts of the Legend in use there the position which Marduk held in four of the Legends current in Babylonia. There is reason for thinking that the original hero of the Legend was Enlil (Bel), the great god of Nippur (the Nafar, or Nufar of the Arab writers), and that when Babylon rose into power under the First Dynasty (about B.C. 2300), his position in the Legend was usurped at Babylon by Marduk.”
The relevance to Jesus is that it appears that exactly the same process has occurred: many existing god-man hero stories had been told for some time, and the generation of version with Jesus at the center was merely the latest popularist twist to emerge from the tradition of the dying god-man motif.
This trend of changing a story as it is told has been captured by the New Testament itself in the way that Gospels have tended to expand and edit stories, each adding its own highly characteristic twists and turns to the original stories. Robert Price identifies the trend by which, over time, stories told by believers get more complicated and more involved, with more detail appearing over time. , Here I quote just a small extract from Price's text on the topic, including one example:
“... take the important story of Peter's confession of Jesus' messianic identity at Caesarea Philippi. Our earliest version has Jesus solicit Peter's opinion, 'You are the Christ' (Mark 8:29). Luke modifies the title accorded Jesus: 'You are the Christ of God' (9:20), a simple clarification: the anointed of God. Matthew wants a beefier Christology, so his Peter says a mouthful: 'You are the Christ, the Son of the living God' (16:16). [...] There is clear development from a 'lower' Christology to a 'higher' one. Thus, if any version is most likely to be historical, it is surely the earliest and simplest, the least theologized.'”
"Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable Is the Gospel Tradition?" by Robert M. Price (2003)23
The theological and historical details in New Testament text prove that Bible authors were rewriting the details - making them up, and embellishing them. The "No Jesus" thesis is of course that there was no underlying story - the entirety of Jesus' life is a retelling of older myths, reworded and rewritten for new readers.
The first part of this section is taken from "Types of Christianity in History: Who Were the First Christians?: 3.2. The Progression from Paganism to Christianity" by Vexen Crabtree (2003).
Elements common to all types of the Christian religion that were common in previous Pagan mystery religions include much of the religious content of Christianity. All elements of Jesus' life such as the events around his birth, death and ministry were already parts of the myths surrounding other god-men of the time. Peripheral elements such as there being twelve disciples were similarly present in other more ancient religions and sometimes with an astonishing amount of duplication. First century critics of Christianity voiced accusations that Christianity was nothing but another copy of common religions.
All the actual sayings and teachings of Jesus were also not new, and much of the time speeches attributed to Jesus are more like collections of Jewish and Pagan sayings. Even distinctive texts like the Sermon on the Mount are not unique. If we remove all the content that Jesus could not have heard and repeated himself, there is nothing else left. If we remove the supernatural elements of Christianity that are copies of already existing thought and religion, there is nothing left which is unique! Even many of the sayings of subsequent Christians are not unique; Jesus appears to not have taught anyone anything that was not already present in the common culture of the time. This shows us that not only did Christianity follow on, as expected, from previous thought in history but that we do not even need to believe in God or supernatural events in order to account for the history of Christianity.
Stephen Hodge very usefully lists many of the similarities found in the Dead Sea Scrolls to the teachings and organisation of Jewish Christianity. He also concludes that these Jewish documents make the teachings and appearance of Jewish Christianity less revolutionary:
“The [Dead Sea Scrolls] collection is really an invaluable cross-section of religious material that reveals for the first time just how rich and varied Jewish spiritual life was at that time. The scrolls offer an intellectual and devotional landscape into which Jesus and his movement can be placed. No longer does Jewish Christianity seem an inexplicable, isolated occurrence. [...] In other words, the true value of the Dead Sea Scrolls is that they help provide a genuine context for what was to become Christianity. For example, they tell us just how widespread was the expectation and longing for a saving Messiah among Jews at that time, and that there were a number of competing theories about the expected role of this Messiah in the world of Judaism. The scrolls also reveal that the expectation found in the Gospels that the end of the world was imminent was a dominant belief in many quarters in Judaea.
All biblical scholars agree that, apart from their intrinsic value, the sectarian scrolls are of tremendous importance as background information to the social and religious conditions in Judaea that led to the rise of Christianity. [... There are] subtle implications that can be derived from the Qumran texts, for they not only provide interesting parallels to Christian concepts and practice but tend to reduce the uniqueness of the Yeshua movement.”
“The only pre-Christian man to be buried and resurrected and deified in his own lifetime, that I know of, is the Thracian god Zalmoxis (also called Salmoxis or Gebele'izis), who is described in the mid-5th-century B.C.E. by Herodotus (4.94-96), and also mentioned in Plato's Charmides (156d-158b) in the early-4th-century B.C.E. According to the hostile account of Greek informants, Zalmoxis buried himself alive, telling his followers he would be resurrected in three years, but he merely resided in a hidden dwelling all that time. His inevitable "resurrection" led to his deification, and a religion surrounding him, which preached heavenly immortality for believers, persisted for centuries.
The only case, that I know, of a pre-Christian god actually being crucified and then resurrected is Inanna (also known as Ishtar), a Sumerian goddess whose crucifixion, resurrection and escape from the underworld is told in cuneiform tablets inscribed c. 1500 B.C.E., attesting to a very old tradition.”
For more, see: "The Divine Number 12: 12 Gods, 12 Disciples, 12 Tribes and the Zodiac" by Vexen Crabtree (2007).
Starting out life as an immensely useful number for counting and dividing things, the number 12 became a number revered by mathematicians and early astronomers. So the skies were divided into 12 portions as were the months of year, reflecting the annual movement of heavenly bodies. Superstitions and religious beliefs were piled on top of respect for the number 12 and was adopted by multiple early civilisations. The sky, divided into 12, has each portion ruled by a personification, a god, a divine being, a teacher, a prophet or a son of the sun. Odin of Norse mythology sat on a chair that overlooked all of creation, and had 12 sons26. The Babylonians had the longest lasting influence upon our calendars, timekeeping, mathematics and religions; all of which emphasize the number 1227,28. The Babylonians' most ancient myths defined zodiacs where each portion was ruled by a different god (some good, some evil)29. Pseudoscientific enterprises such as astrology have the number 12 at its core. The ancient Zoroastrians had twelve commanders on the side of light (light being a symbol for the sun)30, and in Judaism and the Hebrew Scripture there are many references to the 12 tribes of Israel, and later on the Greeks imagined 12 Gods on mount Olympus. Mithraists, and then Christians believed that their saviour had 12 disciples. Shi'a Muslims list 12 ruling Imams following Muhammad. Such holy persons are depicted with a bright solar light around their heads such as occurs when any object approaches from the sun and now stands infront of it. Although many ancient religions such as the Gnostics understood things like the twelve disciples of Mithras to be symbolic of the stages of the waning and waxing sun throughout the year, later religions took it literally and believed in an actual 12 disciples - and some still do.
Now we understand what stars, planets and stellar objects are, it makes no sense to retain the mystical, nonsensical connotations of the 'holy', 'perfect', 'divine' or 'special' number 12. If the number is employed in a practical sense to divide time, measurements, or angles, then the chances are it makes awesome mathematical sense to utilize such a factorable number as the number twelve. But if you see it used in a superstitious, religious, magical, paranormal, holy or weird way, then watch out, because you have entered the world of flat-earth delusion. It is, after all, only a number.
“The reason why all these narratives are so similar, with a godman who is crucified and resurrected, who does miracles and has 12 disciples, is that these stories were based on the movements of the sun through the heavens, an astrotheological development that can be found throughout the planet because the sun and the 12 zodiac signs can be observed around the globe. In other words, Jesus Christ and all the others upon whom this character is predicated are personifications of the sun, and the Gospel fable is merely a rehash of a mythological formula (the "Mythos," as mentioned above) revolving around the movements of the sun through the heavens.
For instance, many of the world's crucified godmen have their traditional birthday on December 25th. This is because the ancients recognized that (from an earthcentric perspective) the sun makes an annual descent southward until December 21st or 22nd, the winter solstice, when it stops moving southerly for three days and then starts to move northward again. During this time, the ancients declared that "God's sun" had "died" for three days and was "born again" on December 25th. The ancients realized quite abundantly that they needed the sun to return every day and that they would be in big trouble if the sun continued to move southward and did not stop and reverse its direction. Thus, these many different cultures celebrated the "sun of God's" birthday on December 25th. The following are the characteristics of the "sun of God":
- The sun "dies" for three days on December 22nd, the winter solstice, when it stops in its movement south, to be born again or resurrected on December 25th, when it resumes its movement north.
- In some areas, the calendar originally began in the constellation of Virgo, and the sun would therefore be "born of a Virgin."
- The sun is the "Light of the World."
- The sun "cometh on clouds, and every eye shall see him."
- The sun rising in the morning is the "Savior of mankind."
- The sun wears a corona, "crown of thorns" or halo.
- The sun "walks on water."
- The sun's "followers," "helpers" or "disciples" are the 12 months and the 12 signs of the zodiac or constellations, through which the sun must pass.
- The sun at 12 noon is in the house or temple of the "Most High"; thus, "he" begins "his Father's work" at "age" 12.
- The sun enters into each sign of the zodiac at 30°; hence, the "Sun of God" begins his ministry at "age" 30.
- The sun is hung on a cross or "crucified," which represents its passing through the equinoxes, the vernal equinox being Easter, at which time it is then resurrected.
"Origins of Christianity" by Acharya S
Well whether or not Jesus existed, we know for a fact that Christians exist. By finding out about the earliest forms of Christianity and looking at the earliest Christians, we can see how even if Jesus existed, Christianity as-we-know-it is certainly not how it was meant to be.
- Ebionite Christians were the true Christians: Aramaic-speakers like Jesus and his apostles, they would have been the Jewish witnesses to Jesus' ministry and preaching. From this starting point, Jesus' teachings spread. They also, however, spread from Saul of Damascus, who renamed himself Paul and who preached an anti-Ebionite version of Christianity for the gentiles, which was much easier to follow and more popular.
Gnostic Christians: With stories, myths and beliefs that are exactly the same as Christian ones in many of the little details, gnostic beliefs manage to pre-date Christians ones by over 200 years. They understood what the stories of the NT really meant. Jesus didn't really exist, but was a collection of such earlier stories, rewritten in Greek, with Greek names. This is the approach taken by historians such as Freke & Gandy.
Pauline / Roman Christians: When the Roman-backed instance of Christianity went in search of the ancient centres of Christianity, they discovered to their horror that the Ebionites and Gnostics pre-dated them. Their un-Christian answer was to edit verses, burn books, arrest and harass the other poverty-stricken Christians until no opposition was left. The form of Christianity that we have inherited from the Roman Empire is far from what Christianity originally was.
Current edition: 2007 Nov 10
Last Modified: 2017 Dec 03
Originally published 2002 Feb 09
Parent page: Christianity
All #tags used on this page - click for more:
The Bible (NIV). The NIV is the best translation for accuracy whilst maintaining readability. Multiple authors, a compendium of multiple previously published books. I prefer to take quotes from the NIV but where I quote the Bible en masse I must quote from the KJV because it is not copyrighted, whilst the NIV is. Book Review.
(2005) A Short History of Myth: Volume 1-4. 2008 Kindle edition. First published in Great Britain in 2005 by Canongate Books Ltd.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. (1857-1934)
(1921) The Babylonian Legends of the Creation.
(2003) "Types of Christianity in History: Who Were the First Christians?" (2003). Accessed 2017 Dec 13.
(2003) Lost Christianities. Hardback book. Published by Oxford University Press, New York, USA.
(2011) Forged. Hardback book. Subtitled: "Writing in the Name of God - Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are". Published by HarperCollins, New York, USA.
(1996) The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain. Paperback book. 2001 re-issue. Published by Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Mackenzie, Donald A.
(1915) Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. E-book. Amazon Kindle digital edition produced by Sami Sieranoja, Tapio Riikonen and PG Distributed Proofreaders.
Price, Robert M.
(2003) Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable Is the Gospel Tradition?. Published by Prometheus Books, NY, USA.
(1995) Cosmos. Paperback book. Originally published 1981 by McDonald & Co. Current version published by Abacus.
Stenger, Prof. Victor J.
(2007) God, the Failed Hypothesis: How Science Shows That God Does Not Exist. Published by Prometheus Books, NY, USA. Stenger is a Nobel-prize winning physicist, and a skeptical philosopher whose research is strictly rational and evidence-based.
(1993) Jesus. Paperback book. Originally published in UK in 1992. Current version published by Flamingo Press, Harper Collins, Fulham Palace Road, London, UK. | <urn:uuid:94e47df9-4184-481d-a118-5e26785f215a> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://www.vexen.co.uk/religion/christianity_nojesus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257645413.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20180318013134-20180318033134-00779.warc.gz | en | 0.965116 | 7,047 | 3.046875 | 3 |
This five-mile mixed-use towpath is in alignment with the northern portion of the Indianapolis Central Canal, originally constructed in the early nineteenth century. In 1836 the State of Indiana passed the Mammoth Improvement Act to expand eight major transportation projects within the state, including a planned 296-mile canal connector between the Wabash and Erie Canal near Logansport and the Ohio River in Evansville. After the more than eight-mile long Indianapolis section was completed in 1839, the state went into bankruptcy and the project was halted. While the canal’s transportation and shipping function was brief, it has since been utilized as the metropolitan area’s primary source of drinking water, and as fire protection and power generation for the growing city.
The crushed limestone trail runs alongside the right bank of the 40- to 60-foot-wide canal from its origins at the White River in Broad Ripple Village near 63rd Street, south to Riverside Park. Two iron bridges from the 1870s cross the canal to connect with Butler University, the Indianapolis Museum of Art and adjacent neighborhoods. The Central Canal retains its historic character and serves as an important urban wildlife habitat. The trail’s northern end provides connectivity to the eighteen-mile-long Monon Trail, while the southern portion terminates near Riverside Park and connects to the White River Greenway. Long range plans to extend the trail two-and-a-half miles south under Interstate 65 to connect with the downtown Canal Walk, Indianapolis Cultural Trail, and White River State Park are under consideration. In 1971 the canal was designated as an American Water Landmark and in 1994 it became part of the Indianapolis Greenways System. | <urn:uuid:29044b93-6e72-4272-9220-d67807cfa187> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://tclf.org/central-canal-towpath | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257645310.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20180317194447-20180317214447-00471.warc.gz | en | 0.957912 | 337 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Health and Safety Pocket Book (Routledge Pocket Books)
- Publish Date: 2006-08-25
- Binding: Paperback
- Author: Jeremy Stranks
The Health and Safety Pocket Book is a handy reference tool for practising health and safety professionals, auditors, managers, HR personnel, employee representatives and anyone with health and safety responsibilities.
It is an essential compilation of guidance, data and checklists covering a wide range of health and safety topics, supported by extensive key glossary terms. The A-Z arrangement within the chapters and extensive cross-referencing make the book easy to navigate, while its size and scope make it the ideal volume for ready reference and site visits. The book will also be useful for health and safety courses at all levels.
Key features include:
- The principal health and safety legal requirements for every industry
- Safety management elements and systems
- Checklists for major hazards affecting all industries
- A wealth of charts, hard to remember details and data
- A glossary of the main concepts of health and safety
- A list of important health and safety courses, publications and organisations
Jeremy Stranks has over 40 years' experience in occupational safety and health enforcement, management consultancy and training. He is a founding member of NEBOSH and has lectured on all aspects of health and safety. His company Safety & Hygiene Consultants offers organisations advice in the preparation of Statements of Health and Safety Policy, risk assessment and safety monitoring procedures, together with in-house training for all levels of management. He also undertakes expert witness work in both criminal and civil cases. | <urn:uuid:593d5ea5-b536-4d70-b649-0f913dd77f14> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | https://greenwaybooks.com/products/9780750667814-0750667818-health-and-safety-pocket-book-routledge-pocket-books | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376826892.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20181215152912-20181215174912-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.931924 | 331 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Original CDV Photograph printed by Tournier Paris. Tsesarevich Nicholas of Russia pencilled to reverse
On 1 March 1881, following the assassination of his grandfather, Tsar Alexander II, Nicholas became Tsesarevich and his father became Tsar Alexander III. Nicholas and other family members witnessed Alexander II's death because they were staying at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg where he was brought after being attacked. For security reasons, the new Tsar and his family relocated their primary residence to the Gatchina Palace outside the city.
A long trip for educational purposes became an important part of training for the members of the Russian imperial house. In 1890, Tsar Alexander III decided to build the Trans-Siberian Railway. His heir, Tsesarevich Nicholas, took part in the opening ceremony for construction of the eastern portion in Vladivostok, and from there he continued to make a journey around the world, which became known as the Eastern Journey during which he survived an assassination attempt at Otsu, Japan. Although Nicholas attended meetings of the Imperial Council, his obligations were limited until he acceded to the throne, which was not expected for many years, since his father was only 45. | <urn:uuid:8dea5b96-f51b-4488-ab0b-4696bf5a7521> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://imperialrussia.com/imperialphotospage2/cdvczarevichnichii1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676593208.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20180722100513-20180722120513-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.991287 | 248 | 3.15625 | 3 |
The topic of man-made climate change doesn't just stir heated debate. It raises serious concerns - and even fuels calls for taxes on carbon emissions.
But regardless of whether you accept the expert consensus that human activity has contributed significantly to global warming over the last century, you might be encouraged by a new theory about our supposed capacity to affect the weather.
From a recent release from Stanford University:
"Computer simulations by Professor Mark Z. Jacobson have shown that offshore wind farms with thousands of wind turbines could have sapped the power of three real-life hurricanes, significantly decreasing their winds and accompanying storm surge, and possibly preventing billions of dollars in damages."
That would be a reassuring technological advance for residents of coastal communities - including ours.
Though it's been nearly a quarter century since our last major hurricane (Hugo), storm season annually induces justified jitters about when - not if - the next big one will roar our way.
So if Prof. Jacobson, who specializes in civil and environmental engineering, is right about offshore wind farms slowing down hurricanes, it would be wrong not to make the most of that revelation.
Then again, that's a huge "if."
Consider this seemingly far-fetched assessment from Prof. Jacobson and his fellow researchers: "Wind turbines could disrupt a hurricane enough to reduce peak wind speeds by up to 92 mph and decrease storm surge by up to 79 percent."
Prof. Jacobson: "We found that when wind turbines are present, they slow down the outer rotation winds of a hurricane. This feeds back to decrease wave height, which reduces movement of air toward the center of the hurricane, increasing the central pressure, which in turn slows the winds of the entire hurricane and dissipates it faster."
Neither are we.
However, if those scientists really have produced an amazing weather-control breakthrough, it wouldn't just soften hurricanes' blows.
It would vastly boost demand for wind farms - and the stakes for the folks at the Clemson University Wind Turbine Drivetrain Testing Facility, part of the school's Restoration Institute on the former Charleston Navy Base.
Indeed, the institute will be the host for the "First Conference on Local DC Electricity: Transforming the 21st Century Energy Economy" on March 30 and April 1.
And when it comes to the 21st century energy economy, wind turbines as an effective defense against hurricanes would be quite a transformational innovation.
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The Post and Courier is pleased to offer readers the enhanced ability to comment on stories. Some of the comments may be reprinted elsewhere in the site or in the newspaper. We ask that you refrain from profanity, hate speech, personal comments and remarks that are off point. | <urn:uuid:e57f1a0c-a813-4d21-b507-3d1f069b8ae7> | CC-MAIN-2015-22 | http://www.postandcourier.com/article/20140311/PC1002/140319925/1022/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-22/segments/1432207925917.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20150521113205-00103-ip-10-180-206-219.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945566 | 551 | 3.046875 | 3 |
How Stockport Exploration got its name
We set out to find the perfect name for our exploration company. Instead, we ended up being inspired by a small town in England called Stockport. Why? We were hoping you would ask!
In the 1840s when Stockport was in economic decline, the community rallied together to find a way to grow their town and work towards a successful future. Eleven million bricks and 21 months later, the world's largest railroad viaduct of its time was built. Now Stockport was connected to London by rail, and would be able to prosper on its own.
The most impressive piece to this story is the heart that went into building the viaduct. Over 600 people worked day and night during the construction. Nothing stood in their way, including an engine house along the route, which they built over it. Most towns would have settled for a basic rail connection, but not Stockport, they had the foresight to build an impressive structure that continues to serve the residents to this day, and stands as a reminder of the importance of hard work and perseverance.
So when it came time to select our company name, we couldn't help but be inspired by the community of Stockport. We've borrowed their name, hoping to do them proud, and have adopted a logo inspired by their viaduct to remind us of the dedication and ingenuity it takes to be successful.× | <urn:uuid:8e7ef3cb-21bf-4f79-b1b6-b1dcfe2ef159> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://www.stockportexploration.com/s/Home.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257651820.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20180325044627-20180325064627-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.988054 | 287 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Over the past few weeks, class 7 have developed our understanding of the digestive system. We carried out an hands on investigation to make faeces. This was an hilarious lesson described by Daisy as ‘Fun but gross!’ Taylor said that afterwards he could talk about the digestive system in more detail and confidently told the whole school about the process during our Gold Book assembly.
We have been working tirelessly to improve our handwriting and presentation. Our explanation texts are our neatest yet. We hope you agree and feel as proud as we do! | <urn:uuid:9aad493e-2df1-4bdf-b501-110098cd68d1> | CC-MAIN-2019-22 | https://roughwoodprimary.org/2017/05/15/the-digestive-system-part-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232261326.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20190527045622-20190527071622-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.982961 | 110 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Distracted Driving as a Leading Cause of Accidents
Distracted driving is the major contributing factor leading to motor vehicle accidents in Canada. On average drivers engage in distracting secondary tasks approximately 30 percent of the time their vehicles are in motion.
Distracted driving is defined by the Traffic Injury Research Foundation and the Canadian Automobile Association (CAA) as “the diversion of attention from driving because the driver is temporarily focused on an object, person, task, or event not related to driving.” Such action reduces the driver’s awareness, decision-making, and/or performance, leading to an increased risk of corrective actions, near-crashes or crashes.
Sources of Driving Distractions
Research shows that the vast majority of distractions (70-80 percent) are due to sources internal to the car (Stutts et al. 2001; Trezise et al. 2006). Talking with passengers is rated as the highest distraction and 81 percent of drivers conversed with passengers on a regular basis while driving, according to the Traffic Injury Research Foundation.
Talking with a passenger or on a cell phone had approximately equal effects on driving performance according to a meta-analysis by Caird et al. (2008). It was found that all conversations increase reaction time to events and activities around and within the vehicles. Twenty-six percent of drivers confirmed using a cell phone while driving in the Traffic Injury Research Foundation survey.
Handheld and hands free cell phone use was found to have similar distracting influences in the various studies on distracted driving. The studies concluded that the main effect of using a cellular device was the cognitive distraction or brain process, not the physical use of the phone that was the source of the distraction.
Other common distractions in the vehicle include changing the radio or CD (for 66 percent of drivers) and eating and drinking, which was the third most reported distraction.
Additionally, new interactive technologies in vehicles are adding distractions, such as navigation systems, dual climate controls, video screens, seat warmers and other multifunction controllers. Every driver who operates a vehicle while personalizing their driving experience with on-board technology is distracted and at a higher risk to cause an accident.
Increased Accident Risks
The risk of being involved in a motor vehicle accident as a result of being distracted has been quantified by CAA , whose study found:
- Texting elevates crash odds by 23 times;
- Reaching for a moving object increases crash odds by 9 times;
- Talking on a cell phone increases crash odds by 4-5 times;
- Dialing a cell phone raises crash odds by 3 times; and
- Reading or applying make-up raises crash odds by 3 times.
Distractions can cause drivers to miss important danger signals as drivers are really only capable of consciously focusing attention on one task at a time (Smiley 2005). Drivers can suffer from information overload at which point the brain must decide which details will receive attention. Some decisions are conscious and can be controlled and other decisions are subconscious, resulting in a driver over- breaking, speeding up or over- correcting in response to a distraction.
Penalties and Prosecution for Distracted Driving
In 2010 Newfoundland and Labrador banned the use of handheld devices capable of transmitting or receiving phone calls, email, text messages or electronic data. The penalties for violating these provisions of the Highway Traffic Act are a fine ranging from $100 to $400.00 and four demerit points.
Contact Aylward, Chislett & Whitten Law Office, Auto Accident Lawyers in Newfoundland and Labrador
Distracted driving by multi-tasking and socializing in a moving vehicle has become the leading cause of accidents. If you have been injured as the result of a driver's negligence, an experienced car accident lawyer in Newfoundland and Labrador can help you obtain just compensation. Contact our accident claim lawyers in Paradise, Newfoundland and Labrador at 709-726-6000. | <urn:uuid:a143585e-d372-4a03-8030-86d030b6c969> | CC-MAIN-2017-30 | http://www.acwlaw.ca/b/distracted-driving-as-a-leading-cause-of-accidents | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549424945.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20170725002242-20170725022242-00567.warc.gz | en | 0.954051 | 799 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Do Cranberries Have Seeds?
If you’re like us, you may only really be familiar with cranberries in the form of a sauce or jelly served at holiday meals. Or perhaps sweetened and dried then added to salads, granolas, and baked treats.
So maybe you’ve decided it’s about time you do some digging to find out more about this wondefully nutritious fruit. And one question that may come up is:
Do cranberries have seeds? Like most berries, cranberries contain a small seed inside each berry that is completely edible. In fact, they are so small that you will barely even notice them. But if you cut the berry in half, you will see a little seed in the center.
Read on to discover whether you can remove cranberry seeds, eat them, or use them for other purposes.
Do Cranberries Have Seeds?
Since cranberries are classified as a fruit, that means they will contain seeds. When it comes to defining food as a fruit, technically we are looking at the mature, ripened ovary of the plant.
Often it grows out of a flower blossom and matures into the edible fruiting part of the plant.
These ovaries contain the seeds that are required for the plant to reproduce and create more plants. Since cranberries are a fruit, then they will contain seeds inside.
Are Cranberries True Berries?
If you want to know whether the fruit you’re eating is a true, botanical berry, then there are a few things you will need to look for.
Berries are any fleshy fruit that has their seeds on the inside. While it may be surprising, this includes fruits such as watermelons, tomatoes, lemons, and grapes.
Technically, watermelons belong to a specific family of berries called pepos. Other fruits that belong to this berry family include cucumbers and gourds.
Citrus fruits such as lemons, limes, and oranges are also classified as berries in the family of hesperidium.
You may be shocked to discover that the fruits we commonly call berries such as raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries are not actually berries at all. They are called aggregate fruits. That means that they consist of a number of smaller fruits.
Think about a blackberry and you’ll see that each one looks like a small bunch of grapes, as opposed to one complete berry fruit. Each small little bobble on the blackberry could be a berry, but taken together, they are an aggregate fruit.
Cranberries and blueberries, on the other hand, have their seeds on the inside and are classified as true botanical berries. That means that your cranberry isn’t lying about itself in its name, like some of our other favorite fruits and you can enjoy it, seeds and all!
Can You Eat Cranberry Seeds?
You can absolutely eat cranberry seeds! They are rather small, and they don’t contain any compounds that are unsafe for people to eat. The texture of the seeds isn’t bad either, and they are small, so you will hardly even notice them when you enjoy your cranberries.
Since cranberries are super bitter, it is very unlikely you will be enjoying them by the handful. It’s much more likely you will be preparing your cranberries in some way, which means it is even less likely you will notice the seeds when you eat them.
No matter how you enjoy your cranberries, you can feel safe eating the seeds.
Can You Remove Cranberry Seeds?
If you are not a fan of cranberry seeds or are making a recipe that requires they be removed, there are a couple of ways you can get rid of the seeds inside of the berry.
- Cut your cranberry in half.
- Separate the two halves and drop the berries into a bowl of cool water.
- When you have finished cutting all your berries in half and adding them to the bowl, give the cranberries a gentle stir.
- After a short time, the cranberries will float to the top of the bowl, while the seeds and the pulp will sink to the bottom.
- Use a slotted spoon to remove your cranberries and use as directed in your recipe.
You can save your berries to use in body scrubs and other beauty product preparations. If you don’t want to throw them away, try searching how to use cranberry seeds in beauty care for some simple recipes.
Another way to remove the seeds from your cranberries is to puree and strain them through a fine mesh strainer before or after cooking.
How To Freeze Cranberries
Sometimes there are great sales on cranberries when they are in season. So if this is a berry that you enjoy, then it makes sense to stock up on them when the price is right. However, if you keep them in the fridge, they only last so long.
Like most other berries (and fruits that we call berries), cranberries freeze remarkably well and can last for several months in this form. To preserve your haul of cranberries follow these steps:
- Wash and dry your cranberries. We like to leave them in a sieve for about an hour then pat them dry with a tea towel or paper towel.
- If you want, you can cut them in half and remove the seeds or you can leave them whole depending on your preference and how you are going to use them once thawed.
- Spread parchment paper over a plate or a small baking sheet.
- Lay the cranberries in a single layer on the parchment lined plate or sheet. Try to keep a little space between them, so they freeze evenly and don’t stick together.
- Place the cranberries in the freezer for 12-24 hours.
- Once your cranberries are frozen, then you will want to place them in an airtight freezer bag.
- Label the bag with the date and contents so you don’t forget when you froze them and what they are.
Your cranberries should stay fresh for about 12 months after freezing.
Super Simple Cranberry Sauce Recipe
We like making this cranberry sauce to have at the holidays or to add to oatmeal, yogurt, or other snacks. This berry is versatile and doesn’t only need to be enjoyed during the holiday season!
- 3 cups of whole cranberries
- 2 cups of orange juice
- 2 cinnamon sticks
- 1 pinch of sea salt
- 1/4 cup of sugar, maple syrup, or honey
- 1 teaspoon of vanilla (optional)
- Place a medium-sized saucepan on your stove top.
- Add all of your ingredients to the pot and give them a stir.
- Turn the heat to medium high.
- Bring the cranberries to a gentle boil and then reduce to a simmer, while stirring regularly.
- Let the cranberries simmer until they burst open and soften, which should take about 15 minutes or so.
- If you want a thicker sauce, you can let the cranberries reduce on the stove top for half an hour or more until it becomes thicker. It depends on your preference.
- Taste your sauce and feel free to stir in more sweetener if it is still quite bitter.
- Remove your sauce from the stove and enjoy warm over cake, oatmeal, yogurt, or muffins.
- Store your cranberry sauce in the fridge for up to 1 week.
You can also make larger batches of this cranberry sauce and freeze it for future use. Follow these steps to freeze your cranberry sauce:
- Pour your cranberry sauce into glass jars or plastic storage containers and leave it about 1 inch from the top.
- Let your cranberry sauce cool fully. We will often cool it overnight in the fridge.
- Once it is cooled, seal your cranberry sauce tightly.
- Place a piece of masking tape on the container and write the date and contents on the label. This step will help you remember what you froze and when.
- Place the sauce in the freezer and use within about 6-12 months for optimal freshness.
How Can I Use Cranberries In The Kitchen?
While cranberries are generally too bitter to enjoy raw or fresh, they can be used in tons of creative ways in your kitchen. Some of my favorite uses for cranberries include:
- As a delicious sauce. Don’t be restricted to a basic cranberry sauce. You can get creative by adding apple juice, orange juice, cinnamon, and other flavors to make it really special.
- Make a cranberry jelly. This option is great for holiday meals, but can also be enjoyed on toast, cakes, and other delights.
- Add them to sauces for chicken.
- Used dried cranberries in salads, cheeseballs, roasted Brussels sprouts, homemade granola, energy balls, and cookies!
- Use them in baking. There are lots of ways you can use cranberries in your baking:
- Cranberry Muffins
- Cranberry Loaf
- Cranberry Cookies
- Cranberry Pie
- Cranberry Coffee Cake
- Cranberry Apple Upside Down Cake
- Cranberry Cheesecake
- Cranberry Brie pull-apart bread
- Cranberry Brie Bites on Puff Pastry
- Use your leftover cranberry sauce in turkey sandwiches or to on top of oatmeal and other dishes.
While cranberries contain seeds, the seeds are completely edible and don’t take away from the distinct flavor of this tart berry.
While you may not want to eat them raw, there are countless ways you can enjoy cranberries no matter the season. | <urn:uuid:e615c89a-94ee-40b8-997a-bb367294251a> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://foodsguy.com/do-cranberries-have-seeds/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224657720.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20230610131939-20230610161939-00177.warc.gz | en | 0.937376 | 2,036 | 3.25 | 3 |
Born on May 20, 1799, Honore de Balzac is considered one of the greatest French writers of all time. Balzac studied in Paris and worked as a law clerk while pursuing an unsuccessful career as an author. He soon accumulated enormous debts that haunted him most of his life. A prolific writer, Balzac would often write for 14 to-16 hours at a time. His writing is marked by realistic portrayals of ordinary, but exaggerated characters and intricate detail. In 1834, Balzac began organizing his works into a collection called The Human Comedy, an attempt to group his novels to present a complete social history of France. Characters in this project reappeared throughout various volumes, which ultimately consisted of approximately 90 works. Some of his works include Cesar Birotteau, Le Cousin Pons, Seraphita, and Le Cousine Bette. Balzac wed his lifelong love, Eveline Hanska in March 1850 although he was gravely ill at the time. Balzac died in August of that year. | <urn:uuid:ea254bed-f230-48e2-bdd0-6f627503e382> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | https://books.google.com/books?id=Mux0gPgNMQMC&q=Faubourg+Saint-Germain&dq=related:ISBN0546496008&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&hl=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948539745.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20171214035620-20171214055620-00626.warc.gz | en | 0.990213 | 209 | 3.09375 | 3 |
From Birth to Boss: How gender roles affect our job choices
Raising children to be gender neutral has been a hot topic lately. Can gender roles that are instilled from childhood really be that bad? Here’s how they could be affecting our career goals.
We know that women are paid less for doing the same job as men, but the lesser discussed issue concerns sex segregation in different occupational roles. The unequal distribution of occupations between men and women is the real cause for a majority of the gender wage gap (Correll). It is often assumed that men and women make career decisions on a voluntary basis that fit the needs of the individual, but early assumptions about gender are directly related to our perceived ability to succeed in a field of work.
Bottle to Boardroom
The socialization process where we learn the gendered characteristics associated with sex begins at birth, where our blankets are color-coded depending on our designated sex. “Gender socialization occurs through four major agents: family, education, peer groups, and mass media” (Boundless). Through these forms, gender roles become normalized, especially with increased exposure to these and secondary agents, like work and religion. Studies show that by age 2-3 children are aware of gender roles, and by age 5-6 children have normalized gender roles as a part of culture. Through mediums like toys, clothing, parental roles, and parental careers, findings show that children learn, “being male is more associated with opportunity and freedom while being female with constraint” (Conti).
The Gender Gap
The effect of sex segregation is apparent in the lack of women seen in “masculine” job positions, such as law enforcement, military, politics, science, math, and engineering. This is seen even in high school, where men are more likely to be enrolled in upper-level math and science courses, despite the fact that men and women show little to no difference in mathematical aptitude (Correll). These male-dominated careers are often more financially rewarding than “feminine” job fields like childcare, healthcare, social work, and education. It is important to note that discrimination, sexism, and other outside forces affect the sex segregation that persists in our workforce, but the autonomy of our decision-making becomes less clear when breaking down the normalization of gender-roles that have persisted since birth. Although we cannot always control the agents of socialization that influence our perception of gender, we can question the normalization of gender roles for us and generations to follow.
Simple tips like those in this article are a great way to teach ourselves how to avoid gender stereotyping:
Does your company need to deal with gender bias? Contact 3Plus now!
Originally posted by Caroline Kersten in Pulse LinkedIn | <urn:uuid:b08b8757-75b6-44ff-bb22-36be7c2b4a2d> | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | https://3plusinternational.com/2017/06/gender-roles-career-goals-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818687592.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20170921011035-20170921031035-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.952733 | 568 | 3.25 | 3 |
About three months ago, otherwise healthy girls at a high school in LeRoy, NY, started stuttering, jerking, and making odd noises, among other symptoms similar to Tourette’s syndrome, a neurological disorder. The number of people affected has grown now to more than a dozen, though a more specific count is difficult to nail down, and seems to include one boy and one 36-year-old woman in addition to the teenage girls.
What could be causing these symptoms? Health officials have inspected the girls’ school and found no environmental contaminants. A variety of other causes, including the Gardasil vaccine and strep throat, have been investigated as causes of the uncontrollable tics (neither of those panned out, as in each case only some of the girls had had the shots or been sick). The pattern of cases doesn’t suggest an infectious cause. The current best guess comes from a pediatric neurologist who has examined eight of the girls and has given a diagnosis of conversion disorder, which is defined as the development of tics, paralysis, or a variety of other neurology-related symptoms as a result of stress.
Conversion disorder can sometimes be controversial, since it traces its roots back to feminine hysteria, a diagnosis first made by Sigmund Freud, and because many scientists think there may be an underlying, though undiscovered, environmental component in some cases of conversion. Nicolas Jackson at The Atlantic’s health site provides some good background on the events in LeRoy and lists several times conversion disorder had come up before:
Thirty-one chorus members in Lockport, New York, fell ill around the same time in 2004 and then quickly recovered. Fourteen Florida high school students all developed loud breathing problems at the same time in 2007. Thirty years ago, in 1982, about 100 people in Los Angeles all believed they had contracted food poisoning, but they hadn’t. Dozens of factory workers at a plant in West Virginia passed out before a conversion diagnosis was made.
But that doesn’t mean the investigation is over. Some of the girls and their parents aren’t satisfied with the diagnosis and have gone on national talk shows to tell their stories of the outbreak. Environmental health advocate Erin Brockovich recently came to the town to test for contaminants—the prime candidate apparently being cyanide from a chemical spill that happened decades ago near the school—and last week a doctor specializing in pediatric neuropsychiatric disorders took blood and tissue samples from some of the girls to look for signs of undetected infections (linked to similar outbreaks before), which Scientific American reports should be back in two weeks. The NIH, meanwhile, has invited the afflicted teenagers to come be examined in Bethesda, Md. | <urn:uuid:d270ec08-07fd-45bd-b63e-3bd3637b74c4> | CC-MAIN-2014-41 | http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2012/02/06/whats-causing-the-bizarre-plague-of-tics-in-upstate-new-york/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1412037663359.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20140930004103-00337-ip-10-234-18-248.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967715 | 555 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Every organisation, no matter how large or small, ultimately depends on its reputation for survival and success.
Customers, suppliers, employees, investors, journalists and regulators can have a powerful impact. They all have an opinion about the organisations they come into contact with - whether good or bad, right or wrong. These perceptions will drive their decisions about whether they want to work with, shop with and support these organisations.
In today's competitive market, reputation can be a company's biggest asset – the thing that makes you stand out from the crowd and gives you a competitive edge. Effective PR can help manage reputation by communicating and building good relationships with all organisation stakeholders.
Our definition of Public Relations:
Public Relations is about reputation - the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you.
Public Relations is the discipline which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics.
The following terms are used in the definition of PR:
- 'Organisation' can be a government body, a business, a profession, a public service or a body concerned with health, culture, education - indeed any corporate or voluntary body large or small.
- 'Publics' are audiences that are important to the organisation. They include customers - existing and potential; employees and management; investors; media; government; suppliers; opinion-formers.
- 'Understanding' is a two-way process. To be effective, an organisation needs to listen to the opinions of those with whom it deals and not solely provide information. Issuing a barrage of propaganda is not enough in today's open society. | <urn:uuid:56c42aa5-d501-4a9b-8b56-44953740e5eb> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | https://www.cipr.co.uk/content/policy/careers-advice/what-pr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267863650.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20180620143814-20180620163814-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.938183 | 357 | 3 | 3 |
You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.
The diagrams below give information on transport and car use in Edmonton. Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and make comparisons where relevant.
Write at least 150 words.
Sample Answer 1
The table shows why people in Edmonton use their cars in the city, and the pie chart explains what type of transport people prefer to use most of the time.
Looking at the pie chart first, it is clear that the car is the city’s most popular means of transport. 45% of the people say that they prefer to commute by car. The second most popular form of transport is the LRT, while buses and taxis are the primary means of transport for the rest of the people.
The table gives more detailed information about why people use their cars. Surprisingly, 55% of people need to commute to work by car. Cars are also used to take children to school or for business purposes. Only 15% of drivers are doing their shopping; similarly, 15% need to travel by car for leisure.
Overall, people in Edmonton make good use of alternative methods of transport, but there is a heavy dependence on cars for work.
Sample Answer 2
The pie chart portrays the different types of vehicles used in Edmonton and their usage. The table shows the various reasons for using a car in Edmonton.
The car is the most popular form of transportation in Edmonton, followed by Light Rail Transit. Also, the primary reasons for using cars in this city are daily routine tasks and business.
The utilization of a car in Edmonton is the highest among any other mode of transportation, with 45% of the traffic being cars. The second most preferred mode of travel is the Light Rail Transit, with 35% usage. Buses and taxis are the least used and only contribute 10% each to the total traffic.
55% of people in Edmonton commute to work by car, making it the chief purpose of using a car in the city. 45% of the population use cars for business purposes, whereas 40% use them to take their children to school. Cars are used for leisure activities or shopping by 15% of people.
Leave a Reply | <urn:uuid:0e5c28f3-fac5-41f5-a590-e2f45f7e3db8> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://9ielts.com/information-on-transport-and-car-use-in-edmonton | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296945372.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20230325191930-20230325221930-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.957879 | 448 | 3.125 | 3 |
Description of the User Interface
The top four buttons control the Demonstration. The "reset" button brings the simulation back to the initial conditions. The control variables below these buttons are used to change the initial conditions for the pendulum and the bob. The "relax" checkbox is used to put the spring into the relaxed initial position, which is at half the length of the tube. You can see a trace of the bob motion using the "trace" checkbox. You can change the length of the pendulum bar and the tube length as well as their masses.
The result has three parts. The counters at the top show the current state. The field labeled "energy" is the sum of the potential energy (P.E.) and the kinetic energy (K.E.). The field labeled "
" is the mass moment of inertia of the pendulum bar, defined as
is the mass of the pendulum bar and
is the length of the bar. The field labeled
is the total angular momentum of the system. The middle part of the display shows different plots. The plot shown is selected using the popup menu labeled "plot type". The third part shows the pendulum itself as it swings. You can select the parts to see using the checkboxes to the left.
A popup menu labeled "test case" is used to select one of three preconfigured simulation parameters. Click the "run" button after selecting a test case to start the Demonstration.
The Demonstration runs with no throttling by using a single dynamic variable called "gTick
" that is updated (or ticked) at the end of each Manipulate
expression evaluation, so that the Manipulate
expression is reevaluated again immediately. This lets the Demonstration run at the maximum speed. You can use the slider labeled "simulation speed" to adjust the speed of the simulation as desired.
The action runs continuously until you stop it. The time counter rewinds each 1000 seconds. All units are expressed in SI.
Derivation of Equations of Motion
The equations of motion are derived using the Lagrangian method. The bob has one degree of freedom: the distance
along the length of the tube;
is the middle of the tube, which is also the point where the pendulum bar is attached to the tube. The pendulum likewise has one degree of freedom: the angle of rotation
. For more information on the derivation of the equations of motion, please see the author's report
D. Morin, Introduction to Classical Mechanics: With Problems and Solutions
, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Research & Education Association, REA Problem Solvers: Mechanics
, Piscataway, NJ: Research & Education Association, 2002.
D. A. Wells, Schaum's Outline of Lagrangian Dynamics
, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. | <urn:uuid:82e0c24f-d1b4-40c0-af55-05764946431d> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/SolidPendulumWithASpringMassSystem/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218188914.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212948-00614-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.869102 | 598 | 2.859375 | 3 |
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Sometimes, the essay. History essay topics. Advanced higher history essay writing an advanced higher history. Writing history classroom is a typical research paper is the introduction research question. Introductory paragraph at the introduction. Introductory paragraphs and examples in history essay writing undergraduate history essay writing history 213, or contemporary events? Starting your position is a good history is not an introduction research topic.
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Convince the answer be done in a short guide to write a general reading. A good idea to write a degree in writing history 213, do not a good history 213, do based on. Docx. Some sense of many castles, divided into three supporting paragraphs now: a good introduction for creating a historical essay that your extended essay. Business and a killer opening line and holy men. Ib history essays uk athletics. Learning resources for creating a useful information on how to write. Because the most important. Sometimes, warlords and conclusions are some sense of history essay that the introduction and conclusion. Conventions of discussion. One together. Whether or endnotes. Provide you receive a history essay? 0 excellent extended essay topics. | <urn:uuid:67e9a7f2-5505-4297-b081-b32cd4d8cd48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thesevenscholars.com/how-to-write-a-history-essay-introduction/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.894008 | 595 | 2.625 | 3 |
Record-breaking temperature trends raise concerns as August 2016 ties July for hottest month on record.
LANSING, Mich. – The Michigan Climate Action Network today voiced concern over newly released data by NASA showing last August was the warmest August on record, tying July for the warmest month ever recorded. Summer temperatures generally peak in July, which raises concerns over excessive heat persisting through August.
“Yet again, we are seeing record-breaking temperatures, which is concerning for the health of Michiganders and our Pure Michigan way of life,” said Kate Madigan, director of the Michigan Climate Action Network. “Many cities and states around the country have already begun to shift rapidly to renewable energy in order to avoid the worst consequences of climate change, and our state needs to do the same.”
Warming surface temperatures are warming the water in the Great Lakes and inland waterways, which is impacting fish, birds and other wildlife. Excessive heat also can contribute to poor air quality days, which disproportionately affects children, seniors, and people with respiratory conditions such as asthma. Climate change is also leading to more extreme rainfall events and flooding, as well as drought. These combined stresses are leading to negative effects like crop failures, increased invasive species, more toxic algae blooms, and runoff that contaminates our waterways. If we continue on this path, temperatures are expected to rise at a rate of seven to 12 times faster in the next 40 years.
“Many cities and states around the country have already begun to shift rapidly to renewable energy in order to avoid the worst consequences of climate change, and our state needs to do the same.” – Kate Madigan, director of the Michigan Climate Action Network.
“As our lawmakers work to overhaul our state’s energy policy, there is a real opportunity to address climate change and rising temperatures,” said Madigan. “Increasing our renewable energy and energy efficiency programs will curb climate pollution, and will also improve public health, reduce air and water pollution, and create jobs in the growing clean-energy economy.” | <urn:uuid:d96a8504-ae67-4886-91e6-318bd800f18c> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://www.miclimateaction.org/august_ties_july_for_hottest_month | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463607960.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20170525010046-20170525030046-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.943281 | 428 | 3.453125 | 3 |
U.S. farmers employ a range of pest management strategies to control weeds, insects, fungi, viruses, and bacteria. They till their soils, rotate their crops, scout their fields, and carefully consider factors such as plant density and planting dates. They also apply organic and synthetic pesticides.
Herbicides are widely used for weed control. These pesticides can be applied before planting, either to eliminate weeds from a field or to prevent new weeds from germinating. Herbicides can also be applied post weed-emergence. Rather than preventing germination, these applications target weeds that are well established and actively growing.
Insecticides are used to control insect infestations. Some insecticides are incorporated into the soil (to treat grubs, worms, and other soil dwelling pests), while others are applied directly to plant foliage (to treat moths, aphids, and other above-ground pests). Most foliar applications need to be properly timed, otherwise they are not effective. Consequently, many farmers scout their fields to determine if/when insects are present.
Fungicides are used to control pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms. Though these pesticides are often applied during the growing season to increase crop yields, they are also applied to prevent stored produce from spoiling.
Over time, an increasing number of U.S. farmers have chosen to cultivate crops with genetically engineered pest management traits. Some of these plants produce selective, organic insecticides. Others have been engineered to tolerate non-selective, post-emergent herbicides such as glyphosate or glufosinate. See the ERS report,
- Adoption of Bioengineered Crops (ERR-162, February 2014), for more on this topic.
Subsequent to the development of genetically engineered, herbicide tolerant (HT) crops in 1996, post-emergent herbicide use increased, particularly for soybeans. Though pre-emergent herbicide use initially declined, it has recently been increasing in corn and soybeans, perhaps due to concerns about glyphosate resistance. Subsequent to the development of genetically engineered, insect resistant (Bt) crops, insecticide use has dropped in both corn and cotton production. However, recent concerns about rootworm resistance to Bt corn seeds may be driving soil insecticide use upwards. ERS is actively engaged in research to understand how weed/insect resistance develops, how farmers respond to resistance, and the extent to which resistance management practices are effective. See the ERS reports for more on these topics: | <urn:uuid:239af4b0-d2f4-4484-a16a-236c8ef52b45> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-practices-management/crop-livestock-practices/pest-management.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257647660.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20180321141313-20180321161313-00159.warc.gz | en | 0.939007 | 519 | 3.5 | 4 |
Brain cancer can affect the normal functioning of the individual at home or workplace and can lead to disrupting the normal bodily functions too.
Brain cancer can be defined as the malignant growth of the brain cells. This growth can spread to other parts of the brain if not treated in time. The intensity of the brain cancer can be judged by the location of the cancerous cells, stage of the cancer and the time of the treatment started by the patient. Brain cancer can affect the normal functioning of the individual at home or workplace and can lead to disrupting the normal bodily functions too. Brain cancer can become terminal when the cancer cannot be surgically removed and fails to respond to treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation.
Stage of the brain cancer
Brain cancer is divided into four stages of development. In Stage I and Stage II, abnormal cancer cells are slow-growing, difficult to detect, and rarely have begun to metastasize, or spread, to surrounding tissues. Brain cancer diagnosed in these early stages is treated with the most success. In Stage III, the cancer cells are easily identifiable and more likely to have begun to spread. In Stage IV brain cancer, the growth has begun to aggressively spread into surrounding tissues. This stage of the disease is the stage associated with terminal brain cancer since successful treatment is much more difficult.
Working memory, executive function and motor function are three areas that are affected after brain cancer. Working memory refers to the type of memory to hold digits, words, names or other items into memory for a short time period. The ability to shift attention between different events and objects is fundamental to functioning in the environment in order to filter out irrelevant items and to shift attention to what is more important at the moment. These are all executive functions that are often negatively impacted in the brains of cancer survivors. Motor control refers to the control over movement-related functions. However, some of these outcomes are seen in cases of many other types of cancers too.
Brain cancer patients who have moved in to the terminal phase of the disease finds it difficult to speak or understand the normal routine dialogues said to them. They also feel trouble in walking and balancing. The personality of the individual shifts dramatically and he or she start to show the uncharacteristic behavioral patterns.
Brain cancer terminal case patients experience the sudden loss or sharp decrease in peripheral vision. Their vision becomes oddly blurred and they see at time the double vision. It is also common for these problems to occur in only one eye.
An individual with terminal brain cancer may also experience severe spells of unexplained nausea. The nausea can be extreme and may be accompanied by episodes of prolonged and uncontrollable vomiting.
Worsening of symptoms
Symptoms experienced by the brain cancer patients become severe when they detected with the terminal phase of the disease. Headaches are common in the brain cancer cases but they become more intense and severe after the terminal phase is achieved by the disease. These headaches may also occur in different parts of the head with may be different patterns.
Changes in Emotion
Brain cancer patients with terminal phase are likely to experience the changes in emotional state with feelings of frequent depressions and onslaught of anxiety.
Work related functions
Brain cancer with terminal phase finds increasing work related problems and poorer health behaviors. Factors such as sleep, feeling depressed, having limited mental capabilities, feeling fatigued, not having enough sleep, and negative problem solving strategies have been shown to be contributors to work-related limitations.
Brain cancer is the most dangerous types of cancer types and early detection is the only cure for this disease lest it can be treated before it becomes malignant and in reaches in advance stage of its expansion. The survival chances of the terminal brain cancer cases are bleak and they even fail to respond to the medication and surgeries performed upon them. | <urn:uuid:3cf02e67-32c7-41f5-8b51-4cbd4ce45be8> | CC-MAIN-2015-32 | http://cancer.medicalxtourism.com/terminal-brain-cancer-symptoms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-32/segments/1438042986451.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20150728002306-00106-ip-10-236-191-2.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953009 | 761 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Charleville musket facts for kids
Musket Model 1766
|Place of origin||Kingdom of France|
|Used by||France, various native Canadian tribes and other tribes throughout New France, United States|
|Wars||Indian wars, Austrian War of Succession, Karnatic Wars, Seven Years' War, American Revolutionary war, French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleonic Wars, War of 1812|
|Number built||> 150,000 (Modèle 1766)|
|Weight||10 pounds (4.5 kg)|
|Length||60 inches (150 cm)|
|Barrel length||45 inches (110 cm)|
|Rate of fire||User dependent; usually 2 to 3 rounds a minute, an expert 4|
|Effective range||100 to 200 yards, max 50 to 75 in reality|
The Charleville muskets were .69 caliber French smoothbore flintlock muskets used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Charleville was used during the American Revolutionary War by the Americans and was later copied and manufactured in the US as the Springfield Model 1795 Musket.
About 1630, Frenchman Marin le Bourgeoys (c.1550–1634) created the first "true" flintlock, also called the "French lock". Bourgeoys was in the service of King Louis XIII of France for whom he created the flintlock mechanism. Throughout the 17th century, flintlock muskets were produced in a wide variety of models.
In 1717, the original "Charleville" flintlock musket was made for the French military. This became the first standard flintlock musket to be issued to all troops. While it is more correctly called a French infantry musket or a French pattern musket, these muskets later became known as "Charleville muskets". They were named after the armory in Charleville-Mézières, Ardennes, France. The standard French infantry musket was also produced at Tulle, St. Etienne, Maubeuge Arsenal, and other sites. While technically not the correct name for these muskets, the use of the name Charleville dates back to the U.S. Revolutionary War, when Americans tended to refer to all of the musket models as Charlevilles. It should be noted that the naming of these muskets is not consistent. Some references only refer to Model 1763 and later versions as Charleville flint lock muskets, while other references refer to all models as the Charleville. The Charleville musket's design was refined several times during its service life. Later models of Charleville muskets remained in service until 1840. This was when percussion lock systems made the flintlock mechanism obsolete.
Charleville muskets had a smoothbore barrel. Rifles were more accurate than muskets because of their rifling, but military commanders favored smoothbores on the battlefield. Both types used black powder which caused fouling. Because the bullet was a tighter fit in the barrel (weapons), Rifles became very difficult to load after a few shots. Early on, the longer range and better accuracy of the rifle was also considered to be of little value on a battlefield that was quickly obscured by black powder smoke. Like all smooth bore muskets, the Charleville flintlock musket was only accurate to about 110 yd (100 m) against a column of men, or 40 to 50 yd (37 to 46 m) against a single man-sized target.
The Charleville's .69" (17.5mm) caliber barrel was slightly smaller than its main competitor, the .75 caliber Brown Bess produced by the British. The smaller round was intentionally chosen to reduce weight in the field. But the .69 caliber ball round still had enough mass to be effective against enemy soldiers. The Charleville's stock was usually made out of walnut.
Charleville muskets were not used in battle like a modern rifle. Instead, Charleville muskets, like the Brown Bess muskets, were fired in mass formations. In modern warfare, bayonets are considered to be last-ditch weapons. But in the 18th century firing muskets only paved the way for a bayonet charge. Muskets with bayonets attached were used as a pike type weapon in close Hand-to-hand combat. This use as a pike dictated the Charleville's general length and weight. A shorter weapon could not be used as a pike, and its weight was a balance between being heavy enough to be used as a pike or club, but light enough to be carried and used by general infantrymen.
The rate of fire depended on the skill of the soldier, but was typically about three shots per minute. After 1728, the Charleville's 46.5 inches (1,180 mm) barrel was held into place by three barrel bands making it much sturdier. In 1743 the wooden ramrod was replaced with a steel one. Additional improvements were made in the 1750s and 1760s. The 1763 model was determined to be too heavy. In 1766 it was replaced by a lighter version.
Images for kids
Charleville musket Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:1e5ae19f-49af-4143-bfcd-96aedf24211a> | CC-MAIN-2020-34 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Charleville_musket | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439739370.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200814190500-20200814220500-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.96272 | 1,122 | 3.03125 | 3 |
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