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Bugaboo took three wobbly-yet-independent steps in a row today!!!
He is twenty-two months old, and the causes of his developmental delays are still unknown. We are still waiting for answers and milestones. But today some of our waiting (and praying and working) is paying off. My heart overflows with joy and thankfulness for this event.
Then this afternoon, just following the celebrating, we received a discouraging piece of mail. The Hubs and I sat and wondered aloud, "What should we do, God?"
We have choices, neither of which are ideal. We can give up or we can stay the course and wait. Honestly, there are days when we are weary of persevering. We feel like we have already waited for so many things.
This evening I saw my toddler and thought about how hard he works. He recently got funky-looking devices put on his feet, but he didn't complain. He adjusted to his new footwear. He falls down, but he allows us to pick him. Then we make him try his skills again. Most of the other kids his age are passing him by, but he doesn't let that deter him. With help from his family and his therapists, he perseveres. From the outside it seems like a long wait for each milestone. But deep down I believe there is some divine purpose just waiting to be unveiled through my youngest son. I just haven't been shown what it is yet..
In this hard season of waiting, I will remind myself that I can't see the big picture - for my kids, for our careers, for this journey we are on. I want to give up praying, trying, waiting, but my youngest son reminded me today that this is not the time to give up.
There is always hope. Just when I needed it most, I was given another spark of hope. I will cling to that as I wait. Because the waiting is hard, and without hope, all would be lost.
side note: This post was written Wednesday evening.
Yay! How wonderful! Rejoicing with you! Love these posts. So much to be learned in the waiting and even beyond. Thanks for sharing!
Thanks! We are so excited. Every step is prayed in and worked for.
Go, go Bugaboo! This is exciting! Praying for you as you continue to wait to hear His voice in other matters as well.
Thanks for your prayers, Meg. I'm so glad we've become blog-friends. | {
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200 Australian Women
Constance Ellis
Constance Ellis (1872-1942), doctor, was born on 2 November l872 at Carlton, Melbourne, sixth child of Lydia Constance (born Phillips) and Louis Ellis, deputy sheriff, both of Jewish faith. She was educated at the Presbyterian Ladies' College and the University of Melbourne where she studied medicine, graduating in 1899. She was a member of Janet Clarke (q.v.) Hall from 1896-98. After a residentship at the (Royal) Melbourne Hospital she spent a further two years at the (Royal) Children's Hospital, and established a general and obstetric practice. In 1903 she qualified MD from the University of Melbourne. Dr Ellis joined the honorary staff of the Queen Victoria Hospital and was appointed demonstrator and lecturer in pathology at the University of Melbourne.
From the formation of a Victorian National Council of Women in 1902, Constance was an active member of its health committee. In 1910 she joined a women's group which met to discuss intellectual and cultural subjects, calling itself at her suggestion the Catalysts. She became a member of the Lyceum Club when it was formed in 1912 and later with Nell Martyn (q.v.) she founded the Business and Professional Women's Association (1925). At Queen Victoria Hospital she organised its pathology department, and was honorary pathologist from 1908-19. With Georgina Sweet (q.v.) she campaigned for sex education, giving talks and creating material to put in the hands of parents. Their approach was scientific rather than moralistic with the emphasis on psychology. They believed parents should be educated to encourage greater openness about sex and to respond frankly when children asked questions. In the 1920s Ellis became president of the Medical Women's Society and a committee member of the Australian Association for Fighting Venereal Diseases. She was also a council member of the Victorian branch of the British Medical Association.
The health and care of infants was another major interest. Dr Ellis was one of the three women who reported in 1921 to the Victorian National Council of Women on the operation of the Commonwealth maternity allowances scheme, which they found 'wasteful'. Their recommendation was for the equivalent money to be spent on centres with a maternity hospital, an ante-natal clinic, clinics for babies and children and a milk depot under district nursing staff, in one institution. She was a council member of the Victorian Baby Health Centres Association from its inception, and a long serving vice-president. Here also it was the parent (or the future parent) whom she addressed. She went often to girls' schools, spoke frequently to women's groups and was closely involved in the training of domestic science teachers through her association with the College of Domestic Economy (later the Emily McPherson College). She was a member of its council from 1911 to within a few months of her death and council president from 1932-34.
Constance Ellis never married. She was an accomplished violinist and owned a large collection of books and pictures, which she left to Janet Clarke Hall and the University Women's College. She died from Paget's disease on 10 September 1942.
Heather Radi
Constance D'Arcy
Constance Elizabeth D'Arcy (1879-1950), obstetrician and gynaecologist, was born on 1 June 1879 at Rylestone, New South Wales, fifth daughter of Br
Constance Muriel Davey
Constance Muriel Davey (1882-1963), psychologist, was born on 4 December 1882 at Nuriootpa, South Australia, daughter of Emily Mary (born Roberts)
Constance Stone
Emma Constance Stone (1856-1902), medical officer and feminist, was born on 4 December 1856 at Hobart, Tasmania, the oldest child of English parent
Eleanor Bourne
Eleanor Elizabeth Bourne (1878-1957), medical practitioner, was born at South Brisbane on 4 December 1878, eldest child of Jane Elizabeth (born Hoc
Ethel Osborne
Ethel Elizabeth Osborne (1882-1968), medical practitioner, was born on 30 January 1882, in Leeds, England, second child of Elizabeth (born Lockley)
Fanny Reading
Fanny Reading (1884-1974), medical practitioner, was born on 2 December 1884 at Karelitz near Minsk in Russia, daughter of Esther Rose and Nathan J
Gertrude Halley
Ida Gertrude Margaret Halley (1867-1939), medical officer, was born on 1 August l867 at Ballarat, Victoria, daughter of Margaret Halley (born Fletc
Helen Mayo
Helen Mary Mayo (1878-1967), doctor, was born on 1 October 1878 at West Terrace, Adelaide, eldest of seven children of Henrietta Mary (born Donalds
Ida Mann
Ida Caroline Mann (1893-1983), ophthalmologist, was born on 6 February 1893 at West Hampstead, London, second child of Ellen (born Packham) and Fre
Kate Ardill Brice
Katie Louisa Ardill Brice (1886-1955), gynaecologist, was born on 3 August 1886 at Chippendale, Sydney, only daughter of two children of Louisa (bo
Kate Campbell
Kate Isabel Campbell (1899-1986), paediatrician, was born at Hawthorn, Melbourne, only daughter and third of four children of Janet Duncan (born Mi
Phyllis Cilento
Phyllis Dorothy Cilento (1894-1987), medical practitioner, was born in Sydney on 13 March 1894, only child of Alice Lane (born Walker) and Charles
Vera Scantlebury Brown
Vera Scantlebury Brown (1889-1946), doctor, was born on 7 August 1889 to Dr G. J. | {
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Syros - my Greek Yacht Charter
Syros is a charter location in Cyclades, a yacht charter area in Greece.
The anchorages on Syros:
Limin Sirou
Ormos Varis
Ormos Kini
Ormos Galissas
Ormos Aetou
Ormos Delfino
Ormos Grammata
Ermoupolis Fishing Harbor
Island Overview
Syros is a Greek Island located in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea, and it is popularly called the jewel in the Aegean Sea. The island is just 78 nautical miles southeast of Athens. It is a magnificent Greek island with a rich blend of history with modernity. The island attracts tourists with its stunning sandy beaches, clear blue waters, and panoramic sceneries that will leave you coming for more.
Although the island is a perfect destination for a yacht charter in Greece, it is filled with thrilling and fun activities that you can try out. The island is also a great place to go for outdoor lovers as it is surrounded by fun outdoor activities to try out from strolling to cycling around the towns. After you have enjoyed a fun time at the lovely beaches, you can join fun jeep tours on the dirt roads that surround the island.
Syros, Photo by: endless_blue_from_syros (Source: Instagram)
You are going to find Ormos Finikous, a sheltered bay on the SW coast of Syros. You will find villas around the slopes of Ormos Finikous and identify the light structure on Psathonisi. It is best if you stern or bow to the S side of the outer mole at Ormos Finikos. Although there are plans to re-lay moorings, you will use your anchor. If you can find room inside the basin, you can also berth your yachts here. You can also go stern or bows to the mole or along the inner mole. The bay experiences Meltemi and it is best if you berth on the outside of the mole where the Meltemi is blowing you off the quay.
Syros is among the top tourist destinations in Greece with its panoramic sceneries. The island is a perfect summer destination as it offers mind-blowing beaches, unique culture, and mesmerizing architecture to explore. The island has a traditional Greek island feel, and it is a hotspot for locals. The island is surrounded by little boutiques and markets that sell the daily needs of the locals. If you want to experience the Greek island vibe without the crowds, Syros is the best place to go.
Syros, Photo by: chrissgreece (Source: Instagram)
Syros, Photo by: kostasboukou (Source: Instagram)
Ano Syros
Ano Syros means the Upper Syros, and it is a stunning Venetian settlement that was constructed like a fortress in the 13th century. It is now used as the Roman Catholic quarter of the island, and it features a narrow and steep alleyway. You can wander around and get lost in the alley surrounded by a colorful balcony, stunning doors, and a hidden corner with a Greek chair where you can relax.
Agios Giorgios
This is a catholic church constructed on the top of Ano Syros. It is a great place to go if you want to enjoy mind-blowing views. You can also explore the interior of the church, which is also amazing.
Archaeological Museum
This museum is among the oldest in Greece, and you will find it in a majestic town hall on Miaouli Square in Ermoupolis. It houses a lovely collection of artifacts that shows the history of the island. You should also explore the building if you are an architecture enthusiast as it features three different architectural styles.
Ano Syros, Photo by: kostasboukou (Source: Instagram)
Ermoupolis
Ermoupolis features a rich history and diverse culture, which makes it one of the top destinations to go for history lovers in Greece. The town features Renaissance architectures like the Ermoupolis' city hall. You should ensure you wander around the streets where you will discover picturesque squares and neoclassical houses that will leave you mesmerized.
The Assumption of the Virgin, Orthodox Church
This church is the second oldest church in Syros, and it was constructed close to the harbor in 1828. You will love its three-aisled Basilica, which features fascinating architecture and decoration. Once you step inside the church, you will be astonished by its interior decoration. The highlight of the church is the original icon of the Assumption that was painted in 1562 by Dominikos Theotokopoulos.
Ermoupolis, Photo by: perfect_greece (Source: Instagram)
Apollon Theater
This theater shows the strong cultural heritage of Syros in Greece. It was constructed by an Italian architect called Pietro Sambo in 1864. Its construction was inspired by La Scala di Milano and lots more. The theater hosts numerous cultural events, operas, and theatrical performances on the island. It also offers tourists the chance to take Instagram-worthy pictures.
Vaporia neighborhood
This neighborhood is dubbed the Manchester of Greece. It is surrounded by majestic villas that belong to the wealthy families of the past. You can stroll around the neighborhood and then go for a refreshing dip at the nearby beach.
Vaporia neighborhood, Photo by: zoegeorgiopoulou (Source: Instagram)
History of Syros
Syros, Photo by: glafkiroomsyros (Source: Instagram)
Syros is located in the center of Cyclades. Based on the archaeological evidence, it was inhabited during prehistoric times and later in the Cycladic period. According to history, the first settlers on the island were the Phoenicians that moved around the Cyclades. The Samians inhabited the island during the 6th century.
The Ionians built the Ancient Ermoupolis before the Persians, Romans, Franks, and Turks later settled there. During the Roman era, the island experienced significant economic development. The Venetians also played a crucial role in the cultural development of Syros as they make the island an essential trade center in the Eastern Mediterranean. The inhabitants of Syros then move the capital to the top of the hill called Ano Syros after constant pirate invasions on the island.
During the 17th century, the French conquered the island. Catholics inhabit it called the capuchins, and they founded a small monastery that is still active till now. After the Greek revolution in 1821, the island flourished greatly after emigrants from Chios, Crete, Psara, and Minor Asia settled on the island. The emigrants used the island as the center for their trading and maritime activities. During the early 20th century, the prosperous period ended because of the arrival of the German troops on the island. The local economy was destroyed because of the death of thousands of people due to famine and diseases during the period.
Yachts available in Syros
Van Peteghem-Lauriot Prevost
Refit: 2014/2019
From €4,780/week
Axopar
Jetskis: 2
AEGEAN CLIPPER
ADARA
Sunreef Yachts
Serhat Bey
oktay unlu
EFMARIA
HERMINA
Halkitis Shi
Couach
Scuba Onboard | {
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Boyanup
Town Category: Western Australia
Town in Western Australia
Boyanup is a town on the South Western Highway in the South West agricultural region, 195 km south of Perth and 18 km south-east of Bunbury, Western Australia. The town is located on the Preston River.
Boyanup is a Noongar name, said to mean "a place of quartz" as "Boya" means "rock" or "stone".
The first European in the area was Lieutenant Henry William Bunbury, who in December 1836 explored the route from Pinjarra to Busselton and thought it to be ideal for farming.[2]
In 1845 Dublin solicitor James Bessonnet took up Location 54 in the Wellington District, consisting of 385 acres through which the Preston River flowed and the new road from Bunbury to the Blackwood had just been completed. The land also had a natural spring, sometimes known as Bessonnet Springs, and a permanent billabong. Bessonnet named his farm Boyanup. Bessonnet left the colony in 1849 aboard Despatch. Location 54 proved to be "too far from anywhere to be workable and eventually the bush took it back".[3]
A road survey in 1869 shows the town name as "Boyinup". In 1894 the South Western Railway was completed from Perth through Boyanup to Bunbury. The Bunbury to Boyanup section was completed on 30 November 1887.[4] The townsite was gazetted in 1894.[5] A railway line extension between Boyanup and Bridgetown opened on 1 November 1898.[6]
The population of the town was 198 (103 males and 95 females) in 1898.[7]
The Yoganup North Mine site, located 5.1 kilometres (3 mi) north-west of the town and closed in 1997, is owned by Iluka Resources and where mineral sands were mined and separated.[8]
^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (27 June 2017). "Boyanup". 2016 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
^ Bunbury, Henry William (1930). W. St. Pierre Bunbury and W. P. Morrell (ed.). Early days in Western Australia : being the letters and journal of Lieut. H. S. Bunbury, 21st Fusiliers. London: Oxford University Press.
^ "Slab Hut, Boyanup Farm" (pdf). Register of Heritage Places - Assessment Documentation. Perth, WA: Heritage Council of WA. 17 November 2006. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
^ "The Governor at Bunbury". The West Australian. Perth, WA. 30 November 1887. p. 3. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
^ Western Australian Land Information Authority. "History of country town names – B". Retrieved 8 June 2007.
^ "Boyanup Railway Precinct". inHerit - Our Heritage Places. Perth, WA: Heritage Council of WA. 8 February 2015. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
^ "Population of Western Australia". Western Mail (Perth, WA : 1885 - 1954). Perth, WA: National Library of Australia. 22 April 1898. p. 23. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
^ "Bonzle.com - Map of Boyanup, WA". 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
Cities, towns and localities in the South West region of Western Australia
Council Seats
Bunbury (city)
Busselton (city)
Greater Bunbury
Bunbury (suburb)
Dalyellup
East Bunbury
Gelorup
Glen Iris
Mangles
Marlston Hill
South Bunbury
Stratham
Withers
Busselton suburbs
Bovell
Broadwater
Busselton (suburb)
Kealy
West Busselton
Yalyalup
Other towns,
and localities
Benger
Binningup
Brunswick Junction
Burekup
Carbunup River
Chowerup
Cookernup
Cowaramup
Cundinup
Dardanup
Dardanup West
Deanmill
Dingup
Dinninup
Donnelly River
Forrest Beach
Gnarabup
Gracetown
Greenbushes
Jardee
Karridale
Kirup
Kudardup
Kulikup
Mayanup
Metricup
Mullalyup
Myalup
Nyamup
Peppermint Grove Beach
Prevelly
Quindalup
Quinninup
Roelands
Rosa Brook
Shotts
Uduc
Wilyabrup
Wokalup
Wonnerup
Yallingup
Yalup Brook
Yarloop
Yoongarillup
Yornup
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyanup,_Western_Australia | {
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Customer Experience is at the heart of everything we do; as a job applicant you are our customer. Read about the service we will provide to you.
We make every effort to hear and respond to the needs of our staff,. This blog will give you an insight into the improvements we have made to our jobs website.
We are part of the leading group for European camping holidays. Follow this link to find out more about the group we are proud to be a part of. | {
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CPJ award goes to jailed Sri Lankan journalist
New York, August 31, 2009–The Committee to Protect Journalists announced today that it will honor imprisoned Sri Lankan journalist J.S. Tissainayagam with a 2009 International Press Freedom Award. Tissainayagam, left, sentenced today to 20 years in prison on specious charges of violating anti-terror laws, is one of five journalists who will be honored by CPJ at a ceremony in November. The full slate of awardees, selected by CPJ's Board of Directors this summer, will be formally announced in September.
A Colombo High Court sentenced Tissainayagam to 20 years of hard labor in the first conviction of a journalist under the country's harsh anti-terror laws. Tissainayagam, known as Tissa, suffers from poor health and said his confession to the charge was extracted under threat of torture, according to his lawyers.
"We are announcing this award today to highlight the depth of outrage at this unjust sentence," said CPJ Executive Director Joel Simon. "Its harshness and the retroactive nature of the charges reflect vindictiveness and intolerance. We are calling today for Tissainayagam's release–an appeal we plan to repeat at our awards ceremony, when the world's leading journalists gather to demand press freedom for all of our colleagues."
Terrorism Investigation Division officials arrested Tissainayagam, an English-language columnist for the Sri Lankan Sunday Times and editor of the news website OutreachSL, on March 7, 2008, when he visited their offices to inquire about the arrest of colleagues the previous day. He was held without charge under emergency regulations before his indictment in August 2008 for articles published nearly three years earlier in a now-defunct magazine, North Eastern Monthly.
Judge Deepali Wijesundara said articles Tissainayagam wrote for the Monthly in 2006 incited communal disharmony, an offense under the Prevention of Terrorism Act, according to international news reports. She also found him guilty of raising funds to publish the magazine, itself a violation of the anti-terror law. The Monthly folded in early 2007.
The anti-terror laws were relaxed in 2006-07, according to CPJ research. Under a cease-fire accord then in effect between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, the government pledged not to detain people under the statutes. The government re-enacted provisions of the anti-terror laws after the cease-fire dissolved in early 2008, according to international news reports. Tissainayagam will appeal the sentence, the reports said.
The two colleagues, Vettivel Jasikaran and Vadivel Valamathy, also face anti-terror charges for aiding and abetting Tissainayagam. Published reports indicate they have not gone to trial. Jasikaran, who also worked on OutreachSL, owned a printing business that helped publish the Monthly. Valamathy had no reported involvement with the magazine beside her personal relationship with her companion, Jasikaran.
"The retroactive sentencing sets a very dangerous precedent. The government has singled out articles written during the cease-fire, when terrorism laws weren't even in effect," said Simon. "It sends a very clear message to journalists who've ever criticized a government policy: Anything you've ever said could suddenly be evidence against you."
U.S. President Barack Obama highlighted Tissainayagam's case during his World Press Freedom Day address in May.
Hundreds of prominent journalists will gather in New York on November 24 to recognize Tissainayagam and the other honorees. Christiane Amanpour, CNN's chief international correspondent, will be the host; Robert Thomson, editor-in-chief of Dow Jones and managing editor of The Wall Street Journal, is chairman of the event.
A CPJ special report, "Failure to Investigate," chronicles some of the growing incidents of attacks on journalists in Sri Lanka, including circumstances surrounding the murder of outspoken editor Lasantha Wickramatunga in January 2009.
Imprisoned
International Press Freedom Awards
J.S. Tissainayagam | {
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These Places Could Reopen in Chicago's Phase 3, But Not Right Away
Chicago Mayor Lori Lightfoot announced Thursday that the city plans to move into the next phase of its reopening plan on June 3
Published May 28, 2020 • Updated on May 28, 2020 at 6:50 pm
Chicago Mayor Lori Lightfoot announced Thursday that the city plans to move into the next phase of its reopening plan on June 3.
The move, though later than the rest of Illinois, will allow a number of businesses to resume operations at limited capacity and with certain restrictions in place.
But for some businesses, the wait to reopen will continue, even with plans to allow them to reopen in phase three.
That includes:
City services won't be allowed to reopen until June 8, Lightfoot said. That includes libraries and park facilities west of Lake Shore Drive.
Lightfoot said some other industries and businesses may open later in phase three, but "we'll have to wait and see how these initial first steps go." Those mentioned include:
Summer programs & youth activities (e.g., Park District, private summer camps)
The Lakefront
Limited-capacity outdoor performances
These Are Chicago's Guidelines for Businesses to Reopen in Phase 3
coronavirus chicago May 22, 2020
These Places Will Remain Closed When Chicago Enters Phase 3 of Reopening
Industries that will be allowed to reopen on June 3 include:
Childcare centers and family childcare
Non-lakefront parks (no contact sports)
Libraries and other city services
Office-based jobs, professional services, and real estate services
Hotels / lodging
Outdoor attractions (e.g., boating – not including the Playpen, non-Lakefront golf courses)
Non-essential retail
Personal services (e.g., hair/nail salons, barbershops, tattoo parlors)
Restaurants and coffee shops (outdoor dining only)
Manufacturing, construction, and warehousing
Hospitals, dentists, community mental health centers, and Federally Qualified Health Centers
Public transit, regional transit, taxis and rideshare
Gyms (outdoor and 1:1 personal training only)
Guidelines for each industry were released earlier this week.
The capacity of those industries will be "incrementally" increased as time goes on "based on health criteria progression and adherence," Lightfoot's office said.
Schools, playgrounds, bars and lounges, and large venues like stadiums, indoor theaters, music venues and convention centers will remain closed, Lightfoot said.
Get the latest news on COVID-19 in your inbox. Click here to sign up for our daily coronavirus newsletter.
coronaviruscoronavirus illinoiscoronavirus chicagocoronavirus illinois casescoronavirus chicago cases | {
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Beyonce & JAY-Z Formally Announced "On The Run II" Tour | List Of Dates
by S. Leslie March 12, 2018
Beyonce and JAY-Z have formally announced their joint "On The Run II" Tour of Europe and North America.
The "On The Run II" stadium tour first popped up online last week but was quickly yanked perhaps because it was announced prematurely. On Monday, Beyonce formally announced the tour via her website and social media pages. The couple first embarked on their "OTR" tour in 2014 to support JAY-Z's 2013 album Magna Carta Holy Grail and Beyonce's self-titled album. Since then they have both made cameos on each other's solo tours, but this year, the Carters will be touring together.
The "OTR II" tour kicks off on June 6, at the Principality Stadium in Cardiff. The couple will then embarked on a trek across Europe covering a total of 15 shows before coming to a halt on July 17 at the Allianz Riviera in Nice France.
Beyonce and JAY-Z will then take their "On The Run II" tour on the road in the United States and Canada. The first show is set for July 25th at the FirstEnergy Stadium in Cleveland, Ohio. The North American leg will cover 21 shows before coming to an end on October 2nd, at the BC Place in Vancouver, BC. Tickets are on sale starting March 19th.
News of the tour slipped through the cracks last week when Ticketmaster suddenly started selling tickets. The tour dates also popped up on Beyonce's Facebook page but disappeared within a few hours after the news spread like wildfire. Beyonce and JAY-Z are rumored to be working on a joint album. So the announcement of this joint tour is also a sign that the project could be coming soon. She recently appeared on his 4:44 single "Family Feud" and even appeared in the music video.
You can buy tickets for "OTR II" tour on Beyonce.com and Livenation.com
On The Run II European Tour Dates:
June 06 Cardiff, UK Principality Stadium On sale March 23
June 09 Glasgow, UK Hampden Park On sale March 23
June 13 Manchester, UK Etihad Stadium On sale March 23
June 15 London, UK London Stadium On sale March 23
June 19 Amsterdam, NL Amsterdam Arena On sale March 19
June 23 Copenhagen, DK Parken Stadium On sale March 19
June 25 Stockholm, SW Friends Arena On sale March 23
June 28 Berlin, DE Olympiastadion On sale March 19
June 30 Warsaw, PL Stadion Narodowy On sale March 23
July 03 Cologne, DE RheinEnergieStadion On sale March 19
July 06 Milan, IT San Siro On sale March 19
July 08 Rome, IT Stadio Olimpico On sale March 19
July 11 Barcelona, ES Olympic Stadium On sale March 19
July 14 Paris, FR Stade de France On sale March 19
July 17 Nice, FR Allianz Riviera On sale March 19
On The Run II North America Tour Dates:
July 25 Cleveland, OH FirstEnergy Stadium On sale March 19
July 28 Washington, DC FedEx Field On sale March 19
July 30 Philadelphia, PA Lincoln Financial Field On sale March 19
Aug. 02 E. Rutherford, NJ MetLife Stadium On sale March 19
Aug. 05 Boston, MA Gillette Stadium On sale March 19
Aug. 08 Minneapolis, MN US Bank Stadium On sale March 19
Aug. 10 Chicago, IL Soldier Field On sale March 19
Aug. 13 Detroit, MI Ford Field On sale March 19
Aug. 18 Buffalo, NY New Era Field On sale March 19
Aug. 23 Nashville, TN Vanderbilt Stadium On sale March 19
Aug. 25 Atlanta, GA Mercedes Benz Stadium On sale March 19
Aug. 29 Orlando, FL Camping World Stadium On sale March 19
Aug. 31 Miami, FL Hard Rock Stadium On sale March 19
Sept. 11 Arlington, TX AT&T Stadium On sale March 19
Sept. 13 New Orleans, LA Mercedes-Benz Superdome On sale March 19
Sept. 15 Houston, TX NRG Stadium On sale March 19
Sept. 19 Phoenix, AZ University of Phoenix Stadium On sale March 19
Sept. 22 Los Angeles, CA Rose Bowl On sale March 19
Sept. 27 San Diego, CA SDCCU Stadium On sale March 19
Sept. 29 Santa Clara, CA Levi's Stadium On sale March 19
Oct. 02 Vancouver, BC BC Place On sale March 19
Beyonce, JAY-Z
More Beyonce News
Beyonce Taps Blue Ivy, Jay-Z, Kendrick Lamar For 'Lion King' Album Tracklist
Beyonce Announces 'The Lion King: The Gift' Album Coming Soon | {
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Next week, Melbourne Storm are partnering with VicHealth's TeamUp to help women get active and have fun by offering a free session to learn some rugby league skills.
Join Melbourne Storm players and Club legend Robbie Kearns for some fun and fitness while trying out your rugby league skills on Wednesday 10 June from 6pm at Gosch's Paddock, Richmond. The special one-off women's skills session will give you an introduction to rugby league while learning from the best.
No game knowledge or prior experience is required, and women of all levels of fitness are welcome! There will be free giveaways for participants on the night.
Wear your training gear and runners and bring a bottle of water to keep hydrated.
To take part in this event - download VicHealth's TeamUp app from the App Store or Google Play or use it online at www.teamup.com.au, sign up, and search for "Storm" to register.
VicHealth's TeamUp is a free smartphone app and website that helps you find social physical activities in your area. From organised activities including Zumba, netball, pilates, jogging groups and group fitness, to more recreational pursuits such as bike riding, walking, yoga and swimming, there are activities for all fitness levels and interests. TeamUp helps motivate Victorians to be active, and to stay active.
Please note this event is only open to females 18+ as an initiative to increase physical activity and involvement in sport.
This event will be moved indoors if weather does not permit. | {
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Welcome to Agape Vocational Academy (AVA)!
Criminal Background Clearance - An extensive background check will be administered to all applicants based on the Disqualifying Penal Codes Sections. If you have been convicted of any of the penal codes listed, CNA/HHA applicants will be automatically denied certification. If you have any of these exclusionary penal codes on your record, please contact us at (909) 829-2055 regarding the Expungement Program details and date. To access the list on the Disqualifying Penal Code Sections, click here.
Health Examination - Each student enrolled in the certification program will have a health examination which includes a medical history and physical examination, test for tuberculosis, unless medically contraindicated. If a positive reaction is obtained, a chest x-ray will be taken, unless medically contraindicated. A report signed by the Physician examiner will indicate that the student does not have any health condition that would create a hazard to themselves, fellow employees, or patients. You will need to go to schedule a physical with your primary physician. We will provide the form to be completed by your physician.
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Artistic rivalries are generally an overblown concept in music, something for obsessives to debate over drinks. Still, in the wake of the avalanche of acclaim received by pianist Vijay Iyer last year for his excellent trio album "Historicity," it's hard not to wonder if the similarly lauded Jason Moran is issuing a response with "Ten," a new album backed by his longtime rhythm section, the Bandwagon.
A startlingly gifted pianist with a relentless thirst for experimentation, Moran returns to a trio format after teaming with guitarist Marvin Sewell for two records, and the results are devastatingly sharp. Blasting out of a bluesy opening that briefly brushes against "Georgia on My Mind," "Blue Blocks" builds on a driving rhythm from drummer Nasheet Waits and bassist Tarus Mateen as Moran's keyboard flutters and gathers strength, finally resembling two pianos locked in a joyful duet. "Feedback Pt. 2" shows Moran's taste for sonic adventure remains intact as a Jimi Hendrix sample is twisted into a metallic whisper as the trio swirls through a ghostly, unsettling ballad.
Moran further honors his influences with a rollicking take on Jaki Byard's "To Bob Vatel of Paris" and "Play to Live," a contemplative, restless piece Moran wrote with Andrew Hill. Also offering takes on classical composers Conlon Nancarrow and Leonard Bernstein, "Ten" is an unpredictable, imaginative ride.
Of course, it's just a happy coincidence that Iyer and Moran would release such remarkable trio records in consecutive years, but imagining these two musicians pushing each other to new heights for years to come sure sounds good regardless. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Buddhism
# Buddhism
# A Short History
EDWARD CONZE
A Oneworld Book
Copyright © Muriel Conze 1980, 1982, 1993
First published by Oneworld Publications in 1993
This ebook edition published by Oneworld Publications in 2014
All rights reserved
Copyright under Berne Convention
A CIP record for this title is available
from the British Library
ISBN 978–1–85168–568–4
eISBN 978–1–78074–669–2
Cover design by Simon McFadden
Oneworld Publications
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## Contents
Introduction
**ONE** The First Five Hundred Years: 500–0 BC
**TWO** The Second Period: AD 0–500
**THREE** The Third Period: AD 500–1000
**FOUR** The Last One Thousand Years: AD 1000–1978
Bibliography
Index
## Introduction
### THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND THE EPOCHS OF BUDDHIST HISTORY
_A_. Buddhism claims that a person called "The Buddha", or "The Enlightened One", rediscovered a very ancient and longstanding, in fact an ageless, wisdom, and that he did so in Bihar in India, round about 600 or 400 BC – the exact date is unknown. His re-formulation of the perennial wisdom was designed to counteract three evils.
1. _Violence_ had to be avoided in all its forms, from the killing of humans and animals to the intellectual coercion of those who think otherwise.
2. The " _self_ ", or the fact that one holds on to oneself as an individual personality, was held to be responsible for all pain and suffering, which would in the end be finally abolished by the attainment of a state of self-extinction, technically known as "Nirvana".
3. _Death_ was an error which could be overcome by those who entered the "doors to the Deathless", "the gates of the Undying".
Apart from providing antidotes to these three ills, the Buddha formulated no definite doctrines or creeds, but put his entire trust into the results obtained by training his disciples through a threefold process of moral restraint, secluded meditation and philosophical reflection.
As to the first point, that of _violence_ – the technical term for "non-violence" is _ahimsá_ , which means the avoidance of harm to all life. In this respect Buddhism was one of the many movements which reacted against the technological tyrannies which had arisen about 3000 bc, whose technical projects and military operations had led to widespread and often senseless violence and destruction of life.
From its very beginning the growth of civilization has been accompanied by recurrent waves of disillusion with power and material wealth. About 600 BC onwards one such wave swept through the whole of Asia, through all parts of it, from China to the Greek islands on the coast of Asia Minor, mobilizing the resources of the spirit against the existing power system.
In India the reaction arose in a region devoted to rice culture, as distinct from the areas further West with their animal husbandry and cultivation of wheat. For the last two thousand years Buddhism has mainly flourished in rice-growing countries and little elsewhere. In addition, and that is much harder to explain, it has spread only into those countries which had previously had a cult of Serpents or Dragons, and never made headway in those parts of the world which view the killing of dragons as a meritorious deed or blame serpents for mankinds ills.
As to the second point, concerning the _self_ , in offering a cure for individualism Buddhism addresses itself to an individualistic city population. It arose in a part of India where, round Benares and Patna, the iron age had thrown up ambitious warrior kings, who had established large kingdoms, with big cities, widespread trade, a fairly developed money economy and a rationally organized state. These cities replaced small-scale tribal societies by large-scale conurbations, with all the evils of depersonalization, specialization and social disorganization that that entails.
Most of the Buddha's public activity took place in cities and that helps to account for the intellectual character of his teachings, the "urbanity" of his utterances and the rational quality of his ideas. The Buddha always stressed that he was a guide, not an authority, and that all propositions must be tested, including his own. Having had the advantage of a liberal education, the Buddhists react to the unproven with a benevolent scepticism and so they have been able to accommodate themselves to every kind of popular belief, not only in India, but in all countries they moved into.
As to the third point, concerning _death_ ; there is something here which we do not quite understand. The Buddha obviously shared the conviction, widely held in the early stages of mankind's history, that death is not a necessary ingredient of our human constitution, but a sign that something has gone wrong with us. It is our own fault; essentially we are immortal and can conquer death and win eternal life by religious means. The Buddha attributed death to an evil force, called _Mára_ , "the Killer", who tempts us away from our true immortal selves and diverts us from the path which could lead us back to freedom. On the principle that "it is the lesser part which dies" we are tied to Mára's realm through our cravings and through our attachment to an individual personality which is their visible embodiment. In shedding our attachments we move beyond "death's realm", "beyond the death-king's sight" and win relief from an endless series of repeated deaths, which each time rob us of the loot of a lifetime.
_B_. Buddhism has so far persisted for about 2,500 years and during that period it has undergone profound and radical changes. Its history can conveniently be divided into four periods. The first period is that of the old Buddhism, which largely coincided with what later came to be known as the "Hínayána"; the second is marked by the rise of the Maháyána; the third by that of the Tantra and Ch'an. This brings us to about AD 1000. After that Buddhism no longer renewed itself, but just persisted, and the last 1,000 years can be taken together as the fourth period.
Geographically, first period Buddhism remained almost purely Indian; during the second period it started on its conquest of Eastern Asia and was in its turn considerably influenced by non-Indian thought; during the third, creative centres of Buddhist thought were established outside India, particularly in China. Philosophically, the first period concentrated on psychological questions, the second on ontological, the third on cosmic. The first is concerned with individuals gaining control over their own minds, and psychological analysis is the method by which self-control is sought; the second turns to the nature (svabháva) of true reality and the realization in oneself of that true nature of things is held to be decisive for salvation; the third sees adjustment and harmony with the cosmos as the clue to enlightenment and uses age-old magical and occult methods to achieve it. Soteriologically, they differ in the conception of the type of man they try to produce. In the first period the ideal saint is an Arhat, or a person who has non-attachment, in whom all craving is extinct and who will no more be reborn in this world. In the second it is the Bodhisattva, a person who wishes to save all his fellow-beings and who hopes ultimately to become an omniscient Buddha. In the third it is a Siddha, a man who is so much in harmony with the cosmos that he is under no constraint whatsoever and as a free agent is able to manipulate the cosmic forces both inside and outside himself.
Other religions may perhaps have undergone changes as startling as these, but what is peculiar to Buddhism is that the innovations of each new phase were backed up by the production of a fresh canonical literature which, although clearly composed many centuries after the Buddha's death, claims to be the word of the Buddha Himself. The Scriptures of the first period were supplemented in the second by a large number of Maháyána Sútras and in the third by a truly enormous number of Tantras. All these writings are anonymous in the sense that their authors are unknown and the claim that they were all spoken by the Buddha Himself involves, as we shall see (ch. 2 sec. 1), a rather elastic conception of the Buddha.
At any given time the newer developments did not entirely supersede the older ones. The older schools coexisted with the new ones, although they were often profoundly modified by them. The old Buddhism of the first period absorbed in the second a good many of the tenets of the Maháyána and the contact between the Tantras and the Maháyána led to a synthesis which took place in the universities of Bengal and Orissa during the Pála period (see ch. 3 sec. 1). In my account I will concentrate on the creative impulses and they will be my guide.
The division of Buddhist history into periods of 500 years does not only agree with the facts, but it is mentioned in many Buddhist writings dating from the beginning of the Christian era. These five periods of 500 years are enumerated as marking the continued degeneration of the doctrine. Like everything else, the Buddhist order and doctrine is bound to decay, in each period its spirituality will be diminished, and after 2,500 years it will be near its extinction (see ch. 4 sec. 9). Whether or not observation bears out this diagnosis of a continuous decay, it had a profound influence on the mentality of the Buddhists in later ages, and we will hear of it again and again. The story of Buddhism is indeed not only a splendid, but also a melancholy one.
To the modern historian, Buddhism is a phenomenon which must exasperate him at every point and we can only say in extenuation that this religion was not founded for the benefit of historians. Not only is there an almost complete absence of hard facts about its history in India; not only is the date, authorship and geographical provenance of the overwhelming majority of the documents almost entirely unknown, but even its doctrines must strike the historian as most unsatisfactory, and elusive. Buddhists tend to cancel out each statement by a counter-statement and the truth is obtained not by choosing between the two contradictory statements, but by combining them. What then, apart from their characteristic terminology, is common to all this variety of diverse teachings, what are the common factors which allow us to call all of them "Buddhist"?
1. Among the more stable factors the _monastic organization_ is the most obvious and conspicuous. Its continuity is the basis which supports everything else (see ch. 1 sec. 2).
2. Next we have as a constant element a traditional set of _meditations_ which have moulded all generations of Buddhists and which are bound to exert a fairly uniform effect on everyone who subjects himself to their influence (see ch. 1 sec. 3).
3. Thirdly, all Buddhists have had one and the same _aim_ , which is the "extinction of self", the dying out of separate individuality, and their teachings and practices have generally tended to foster such easily recognizable spiritual _virtues_ as serenity, detachment, consideration and tenderness for others. In the Scriptures, the Dharma has been compared to a _taste._ The word of the Buddha is there defined as that which has the taste of Peace, the taste of Emancipation, the taste of Nirvana. It is, of course, a peculiarity of tastes that they are not easily described, and must elude those who refuse actually to taste them for themselves.
4. Throughout its history, Buddhism has the unity of an _organism_ , in that each new development takes place in continuity from the previous one. Nothing could look more different from a tadpole than a frog and yet they are stages of the same animal, and evolve continuously from each other. The Buddhist capacity for metamorphosis must astound those who only see the end-products separated by long intervals of time, as different as chrysalis and butterfly. In fact they are connected by many gradations, which lead from one to the other and which only close study can detect. There is in Buddhism really no innovation, but what seems so is in fact a subtle adaptation of pre-existing ideas. Great attention has always been paid to continuous doctrinal development and to the proper transmission of the teachings. These are not the anarchic philosophizings of individualists who strive for originality at all costs. Instead, we have groups of teachers, known as "sects" or "schools", and lines of masters which maintain continuity over many centuries.
## **ONE**
## The First Five Hundred Years: 500–0 BC
### THE PECULIARITIES OF THE FIRST PERIOD
The absence of hard facts is particularly marked for the first period. One, and only one, date is really certain and that is the rule of the emperor Aśoka (274–236) whose patronage transformed Buddhism from a small sect of ascetics into an all-Indian religion. Even the date of the Buddha's life is a matter of conjecture. Indian tradition often tells us that His death took place 100 years before Aśoka. Modern scholars have on the whole agreed to place His life between 563 and 483 BC. With some reluctance I have here followed their chronology.
The nature of our documents gives rise to further uncertainties. During this entire period the Scriptures were transmitted orally and they were written down only towards the end of it. Of the actual words of the Buddha nothing is left. The Buddha may have taught in Ardhamagadhi, but none of His sayings is preserved in its original form. As for the earliest Canon, even its language is still a matter of dispute. All we have are translations of what may have been the early Canon into other Indian languages, chiefly Páli and a particular form of Buddhist Sanskrit. Always without a central organization, Buddhism had divided itself at some unspecified time into a number of sects, of which usually eighteen are counted. Most of these sects had their own Canon. Nearly all of them are lost to us, either because they were never written down, or because the depredations of time have destroyed the written record. Only those are left which after the collapse of Buddhism in India about AD 1200 had by some chance got into some region outside India, like Ceylon, Nepal, or Central Asia, or which had been previously translated into Chinese or Tibetan. We therefore possess only a small portion of what actually circulated in the Buddhist community during the first period. What is more, the selection of what is preserved is due more to chance than considerations of antiquity and intrinsic merit.
And that which we have may have been composed at any time during the first 500 years. First of all it must state quite clearly that there is no objective criterion which would allow us to single out those elements in the record which go back to the Buddha Himself. Some modern European books abound in confident assertions about what the Buddha Himself has personally taught. They are all mere guesswork. The "original gospel" is beyond our ken now. The farthest we can get back in time is the period when the community split up into separate sects. What we can do is to compare the documents of the various sects, say a Theravádin _Dhammapáda_ from Ceylon with a Sarvástivádin _Udánavarga_ found in the sands of Turkestan. Where we find passages in which these two texts, the one in Pali and the other in Sanskrit, agree word by word, we can assume that they belong to a time antedating the separation of the two schools, which took place during Aśoka's rule. Where they do not agree, we may infer their post-Aśokan date in the absence of evidence to the contrary. So far no one has yet systematically undertaken such a comparison and until that is done we are unable to clearly distinguish the doctrines of the first one or two centuries, from those of post-Aśokan times. It is not even quite certain when and under what circumstances these separations of the sects took place, since all the works we have on the subject are five centuries later than the events they report and the data are everywhere distorted by sectarian bias. But whether our knowledge gets us to within one century of the neighbourhood of the Nirvana, or to within two or three centuries only, there is an initial period which is shrouded in mystery and to which we cannot penetrate.
In the next two sections I will try to explain the doctrines which marked the Buddhism of the first period as far as it can be inferred with some probability. They first concern monastic discipline, and then the basic theory of salvation and the way to it.
### THE MONASTIC DISCIPLINE
The oldest documents which we can place with some degree of certainty before Aśoka happen to deal with monastic discipline (Vinaya). From fairly early times onwards the traditions concerning the Buddha's teachings were grouped under two principal headings called respectively Dharma and Vinaya. The Vinaya proved the more stable and uniform element of the two, much less subject to disagreements and re-formulations. Discussions on the Vinaya are seldom heard of and even at later times school formations rarely implied modifications in the Vinaya, except in quite external and superficial matters, such as dress, etc. Even when with the Maháyána quite new schools arose on dogmatic grounds, they adhered for a long time as far as the Vinaya was concerned to one of the older Hínayána schools. In actual practice there has been, of course, much plain disregard of the more onerous rules in the long history of the order, but as for their formulation it seems to have reached its final form already in the fourth century BC. At that time a great work, the _Skandhaka_ , was produced, which divided and arranged the enormous material accumulated by then according to a well conceived plan. It regulates the fundamental institutions of Buddhist monastic life, the admission to the order, the confession ceremonies, the retirement during the rainy season, and it discusses clothing, food and drugs for the sick, as well as the rules to be observed in the punishment of offenders.
Older still are the approximately 250 rules of the _Prátimoksha_ , a classification of ecclesiastical offences, of which we possess about a dozen different recensions, which agree on all essentials. These rules must be recited every fortnight in front of a chapter of the monks. Among all the texts of the Scriptures there is none that has enjoyed among Buddhists an authority as uncontested, widespread and lasting as these Pratimoksha rules, and it is therefore necessary to give the reader some idea of their contents.
First of all they list four offences which deserve expulsion, i.e. sexual intercourse, theft, murder, and the false claim to either supernatural powers or high spiritual attainments. Then follow thirteen lighter offences, which deserve suspension, and of which five concern sexual misconduct, two the building of huts, and the remaining six dissensions within the Order. The recitation then continues to enumerate two sexual offences which are "punishable according to the circumstances", and after that come thirty offences which "involve forfeiture" of the right to share in garments belonging to the Order and which, in addition, make the offender liable to an unfavourable rebirth. They forbid, among other things, the handling of gold and silver as well as trading activities, or the personal appropriation of goods intended for the community. Next there are ninety offences which, unless repented and expiated, will be punished by an unfavourable rebirth. They concern such things as telling lies, belittling or slandering other monks, they regulate the relations with the laity by forbidding "to teach the Scriptures word by word to an unordained person", to tell laymen about the offences committed by monks, and so on. For the rest they concern a huge variety of misdemeanours, e.g. they forbid to destroy any kind of vegetation, to dig the earth, to drink alcoholic beverages, or to have a chair or bed made with legs higher than eight inches. The obviously very archaic document then further gives four offences requiring confession, followed by thirteen rules of decorum, and it concludes with seven rules for the settling of disputes.
The purpose of the Vinaya rules was to provide ideal conditions for meditation and renunciation. They try to enforce a complete withdrawal from social life, a separation from its interests and worries, and the rupture of all ties with family or clan. At the same time the insistence on extreme simplicity and frugality was meant to ensure independence, while the giving up of home and all property was intended to foster non-attachment. Originally, the Order seems to have been conceived as composed of wandering beggars, who ate food obtained as alms in their begging bowls, wore clothes made from rags picked up on rubbish heaps and dwelt in the forest, in caves or at the foot of trees. Only during the rainy season must they cease roaming about and stay in one and the same place. At all times a minority continued to aspire after the rigours of this primitive simplicity, but, generally speaking, with the increasing prosperity of the religion the monks settled down in monasteries which gave aloofness from social concerns without some of the inconveniences of the hand-to-mouth existence originally envisaged. The text of the Vinaya being fixed once and for all, its further history is one of constant compromises between its sacrosanct provisions on the one hand, and social realities and human fallibility on the other.
### THE BASIC DOCTRINES
So much about the practices of the monks. What then were the doctrines common to all the Buddhists of the first period, and shared not only by them but by all later Buddhists however much they might modify them by additions and reservations? They can be grouped under two main headings. They first of all propound a _theory of salvation_ , showing the need for it, its nature and the methods necessary to attain it. They secondly concern the _three_ " _Jewels_ " or "Treasures", i.e. the Buddha, the Dharma and the Samgha.
In its core, Buddhism is a _doctrine of salvation._ The need for it arises from the hopelessly unsatisfactory character of the world in which we find ourselves. Buddhists take an extremely gloomy view of the conditions in which we have the misfortune to live. It is particularly the impermanence of everything in and around us that suggests the worthlessness of our worldly aspirations which in the nature of things can never lead to any lasting achievement or abiding satisfaction. In the end death takes away everything we managed to pile up and parts us from everything we cherished. How futile is the search for security in such surroundings, for happiness with such unsuitable materials! The joys and pleasures of the children of the world are exceedingly trivial and their choices and preferences betray little wisdom. They behave rather like the small child who finds a marble of exceeding beauty with a green spot on it, is overjoyed at having found it, and who, so as to make quite sure of not losing it again, proceeds straightaway to swallow the marble, with the result that his stomach has to be pumped out. Further, who would not be frightened if he realized all the pains and terrors to which he exposes himself by having a body! Suffering without end in a futile round of rebirths after rebirths ( _samsára_ ), that is the lot of ordinary people and the revulsion from it is the spur to salvation. The Buddhist ascetics were men who in fear of birth and death had left home life to gain salvation.
If next we ask for the cause of this unsatisfactory state of affairs, we are told that it is not imposed upon us by any outside force, by some fate or malevolent deity, but that it is due to some factor in our own mental constitution. This factor is variously described as "craving", the "belief in a separate self", "ignorance" or adherence to the "perverted views". Not only the craving for sense-pleasures, for money, social position or power is apt to put us in bondage to the forces which we vainly hope to use for our own ends, but any form of desire whatsoever is condemned by Buddhists as destructive of our inward freedom and independence. From another angle we may say that the whole of our unhappiness stems from the habit of trying to appropriate some part of the universe as if it were our "own" and to say of as many things as we can that "this is mine, I am this, this is myself". It is a fundamental teaching of Buddhism that this word "self" does not correspond to a real fact, that the self is fictitious and that therefore by our self-seeking we sacrifice our true welfare to a mere fiction. Finally, Buddhism differs from Christianity in that it sees the root cause of all evil in "ignorance" and not in "sin", in an act of intellectual misapprehension and not in an act of volition and rebellion. As a working definition of ignorance we are offered the four "perverted views" ( _viparyása_ ) which make us seek for permanence in what is inherently impermanent, ease in what is inseparable from suffering, selfhood in what is not linked to any self, and delight in what is essentially repulsive and disgusting.
The situation would, of course, be entirely hopeless if this world of suffering and Samsára comprised the whole extent of reality. In fact this is not so, and beyond it there is something else, which is called Nirvana, a transcendental state which is quite beyond the ken of ordinary experience, and of which nothing can be said except that in it all ills have ceased, together with their causes and consequences. Buddhists are less intent on defining this Nirvana, than on realizing it within themselves. And they are very much averse to making positive statements about the man who has gone to Nirvana. This world is often compared to a house on fire, which everyone in his senses will try to escape from. But if the samsaric world is like a fire, then Nirvana is like the state which results from the extinction of that fire. As we read in the _Sutta Nipáta_ (1074, 1079), one of our more ancient texts:
As flame flung on by force of wind
Comes to its end, reaches what none
Can sum; the silent sage, released,
From name-and-form, goes to the goal,
Reaches the state that none can sum.
When all conditions are removed,
All ways of telling also are removed.
Since the causes of all evil lie within ourselves, we ourselves can, by our own efforts, rid ourselves of them, if we only know how to go about it. Like a good physician the Buddha has given us a profusion of remedies for the great variety of our ailments. On their lower levels the Buddhist methods of salvation are similar to those found in other religions. A man must first of all bring some _morality_ into his daily life, and he must observe the "five precepts" which forbid killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and the use of intoxicants. Next he must take care how he earns his living. Butchers, fishermen, or soldiers, for instance, break the first precept all the time, and little spirituality can be expected of them. Other occupations are less perilous to the soul, but the safest and most fruitful is that of a homeless and propertyless monk who relies on others for all his material needs.
But once the moral foundations are laid, the remainder of the Buddhist efforts consist in mental training, in _meditations_ of various kinds. Meditation is a mental training which is carried out for three distinct, but interconnected, purposes:
1. It aims at a withdrawal of attention from its normal preoccupation with constantly changing sensory stimuli and ideas centred on oneself.
2. It aims at effecting a shift of attention from the sensory world to another, subtler realm, thereby calming the turmoils of the mind. Sense-based knowledge is as inherently unsatisfactory as a sense-based life. Sensory and historical facts as such are uncertain, unfruitful, trivial, and largely a matter of indifference. Only that is worth knowing which is discovered in meditation, when the doors of the senses are closed. The truths of this holy religion must elude the average worldling with his sense-based knowledge, and his sense-bounded horizon.
3. It aims at penetrating into the suprasensory reality itself, at roaming about among the transcendental facts, and this quest leads it to Emptiness as the one ultimate reality.
In Buddhist terminology, the first preliminary step is known as "mindfulness" ( _smrti_ ), which is followed then by "ecstatic trance" ( _samádhi_ ) and "wisdom" ( _prajñá_ ). The relation of the three is indicated by the following diagram:
This is the classification of the meditations according to their purpose. From another point of view they can be classified according to their subjects or topics. A considerable number of such topics were offered to the aspirant, and his choice among them depends on his mental endowments and proclivities. So vast is the range of possibilities offered that they cannot possibly be even enumerated here. There we have relatively simple breathing exercises of the Yogic type, a survey of the "thirty-two parts of the body", the contemplation of corpses in various degrees of decomposition, an introspective awareness of our mental processes as they go along, be they feelings, thoughts, or the hindrances to concentration, or the factors which make for enlightenment. Then there is the cultivation of the social emotions, such as friendliness and compassion, the recollection of the virtues of the three Jewels, the meditation on death and the aspiration for Nirvana. A favourite subject of meditation are the twelve links of the chain of conditioned co-production ( _pratítyasamutpáda_ ), which shows how ignorance leads to the other factors of worldly existence ending in old age and death and how, conversely, the extinction of ignorance must lead to the extinction of all these factors. Other meditations again try to impress on our minds the facts of the impermanence of all conditioned things, to show up the full extent of suffering, demonstrate the inanity of the term "self", to foster insight into emptiness and to reveal the characteristic features of the path which leads to salvation. In fact, there seems to be almost no limit to the number of meditational devices which are attested for the first period of Buddhism, although it was apparently only in the second period that some systematic order was imposed upon them.
Now as to the _Three Jewels. The Buddha_ is essential to this religion as its founder who guarantees the truth and reliability of the teaching by the fact that He is "fully enlightened". He has awoken to the nature and meaning of life and has found a definite way out of it. He differs from all other people in that He has by Himself found the truth, and that He knows everything that is necessary to salvation. Whether He knew also all other things, i.e. whether he was omniscient in the full sense of the term, was a matter of dispute among the sects. There was, however, general agreement that He knew everything needful for the attainment of final peace and that therefore He could in spiritual matters act as a sure and infallible guide.
The word "Buddha" itself is, of course, not a proper name but a title, or epithet, which means the "Enlightened One". It refers to the condition of a man who was a completely unobstructed channel for the spiritual force of Dharma, or Reality. The personal name of the historical Buddha was Gautama, or Siddhártha, and after His tribe He is often called Śákyamuni, "the sage from the tribe of the Śákyas". With the historical individual the Buddhist religion is not greatly concerned. His value to the religion lay in His transmission of the spiritual teachings about Dharma. A duality of this kind is normal in authoritative Asian religious leaders. In recent years we have met it again in Mohandas Karamchand Gándhi, who at the same time was the Mahátma, the "Great-souled One", a word for the spiritual force which worked through that particular individual.
In this way the individual, called Gautama or Śákyamuni, somehow coexists with the spiritual principle of Buddhahood, which is variously called the "Tathágata", or "the Dharmabody" or "the Buddha-nature". The Buddhists have, however, always maintained that the exact relation between His individual and His spiritual sides cannot be defined. They have also consistently opposed the tendencies of the unregenerate to put their faith into a living actual person and have done everything to belittle the importance of the Buddha's actual physical existence. It is the Buddha Himself who is reported to have said to Vakkali: "What is there, Vakkali, in seeing this vile body of mine? Whoso sees the spiritual Law, or Dharma, he sees me; whoso sees me sees the spiritual Dharma. Seeing Dharma, Vakkali, he sees me; seeing me, he sees Dharma."
As the manifestation of a type, the "historical Buddha" is not an isolated phenomenon, but one of a series of Buddhas who appear in this world throughout the ages. Knowledge of the non-historical Buddhas seems to have grown as time went on. Originally there were seven, then we hear of twenty-four, and so the number steadily increased. The "seven Buddhas", i.e. Śákyamuni and His six predecessors, are frequently represented in art – in Bharhut and Sanchi by Their stúpas and Bodhi-trees, in Gandhara, Mathura and Ajanta during our second period in human form, each nearly indistinguishable from the other. It was only towards the end of the first period that interest shifted to two other non-historical Buddhas. With the development of the Bodhisattva-theory (see ch. 2 sec. 1) comes Dípankara, Śákyamuni's twenty-fourth predecessor, under whom He first resolved to become a Buddha. With the spread of pessimism about the continued vitality of Śákyamuni's message comes the cult of Maitreya, the future Buddha, under whom the Dharma will reappear with new vigour.
This period had little interest in the biography of the Buddha Śákyamuni as a person. It would be difficult to reconstruct the facts of His life from the details we have. Interest concentrated on the two periods of His life which had the greatest significance for the believer, i.e. to the period of His enlightenment which marked His victory over ignorance, and to His last days, when He attained His final Nirvana, and consummated His victory over death and the world. For the rest it appears that the greater part of what we believe to know of His life was at first a part of the Vinaya tradition, that it consisted of an account which began with His genealogy and miraculous birth, and went on beyond His final Nirvana to the legendary first Council of Rájagrha where the Canon of the Sacred Scriptures is said to have been compiled, and ended with the so-called second council of Vaiśalí where controversial points of disciplinary practice were discussed. The story of His life was at first a collection of precedents, which were invoked to justify the Vinaya rules. In addition, many stories and legends gradually grew up in connection with some holy place or shrine, to account for its sanctity. Little attempt was made to weave all these stories into one consecutive biography. At present we are not in a position to decide which ones of them are trustworthy historical information and which ones are the pious inventions of a later age. Nothing was in any case more alien to the mentality of the monks of this first period than to make such distinctions between these two orders of facts.
Our description of the Buddha would be incomplete if we failed to mention that alone among mortals of His age He had in addition to His normal physical body, as it appeared to common people, still a kind of "ethereal" body, which only the elect could see with the eye of faith and which Buddhist art tried to reproduce to the best of its abilities. The "ethereal" body is sixteen feet high, and it possesses the thirty-two "marks of the superman". For instance, the Buddhas have wheels engraved on Their feet, webs between Their fingers, a cowl on Their heads, a halo and an aureole round Their heads and bodies, a tuft of white curly hair between Their eyebrows, and so on and so on. In the form in which we have it, this tradition is obviously post-Aśokan. Parts of it may, however, go back much further, to ancient and even pre-Buddhist traditions about manly beauty, and to the age-old art of predicting a person's destiny, nature and future from such signs and prognostics.
A Buddha's body differs from that of other people not only by the possession of the thirty-two marks, but in addition it has the peculiar property that its bony parts are indestructible. At the cremation of the Buddha Śákyamuni they were not reduced to ashes, and they formed the relics which were distributed among the believers, and were preserved from generation to generation, like the Buddha's tooth now in Kandy.
_Dharma_ , the second of these Treasures, comprises all the mysteries of the Buddhist faith, and cannot easily be explained in a few words. Buddhists in Asia normally did not describe themselves as "Buddhists", but as "followers of the Dharma". This "Dharma" is the name for an impersonal spiritual force behind and in everything. Being spiritual and not of this world, it is rather elusive and not easy to define or get hold of. Judged by logical standards the word is extremely ambiguous. But since the Dharma is the subject-matter of all Buddhist teachings, it is necessary to list its main meanings, and to show their interconnection:
1. First of all it is a word for the _one ultimate reality._ One spiritual reality underlies all that we perceive in and around us. It is real as contrasted with the illusory things of the commonsense world, to it we should turn as we should turn away from them, for it alone brings true satisfaction. And it is not external to worldly things and events, but in some ways immanent to them, and the directing Law within them.
2. Secondly, by an easy transition, it means that ultimate reality as interpreted or stated in the Buddha's teaching, and in this subjective form it means " _Doctrine_ ", "Scripture", or "Truth".
3. Thirdly, Dharma, in both the first and second sense, may be reflected in our lives, may manifest itself in our actions, insofar as we act in accordance with it. The word thus assumes the meaning of " _righteousness_ " and "virtue".
4. It is in its fourth sense that the word becomes rather subtle and assumes a meaning which constitutes the specific contribution of Buddhist thought, containing at the same time within it all the tensions that have caused it to develop. Buddhist writings everywhere are replete with references to " _dharmas_ " in the plural and they become unintelligible unless the specific meaning of this term is appreciated. The word is here used in a scientific sense, which results from considering things and events in their relation to the Dharma in sense 1, i.e. from studying them as they are in their own ultimate reality. Nearly all scientific and philosophical systems agree in rejecting the appearance of the commonsense world as a false artificial construction, replacing it by an explanation of events based on intelligible entities of various kinds. The most obvious example is the atomic system. Behind the sensory appearance of the material world this system postulates another world, composed of atoms, fairly invisible and adequately grasped only by mathematical formulas. These atoms are that which is physically really there, a thorough understanding of their behaviour allows us to control the physical universe, and we can deduce from them the physical properties of things which our senses perceive. Likewise, the Buddhists assume that our commonsense view of the world is hopelessly distorted by ignorance and craving, and that neither the units into which we divide it, i.e. the "things" we believe to perceive, nor the connections we postulate between them, have much validity. What are "atoms" to the modern physicists, are the "dharmas" to the Buddhists. A systematic classification of all dharmas had to wait for the second period, just as in this matter of atoms a long time passed between their initial conception by Demokritos and their more precise study by Mendeleyev and Bohr. What we have in this period are various numerical lists of dharmas – such as the five "skandhas", i.e. form, feelings, perceptions, volitional impulses and consciousness, which were said to constitute the whole range of a human personality. Or the six external and internal sense-fields, i.e. eye, ear, nose, tongue, touch-organ and mind, as well as sight objects, sound-, smell-, taste-, touch- and mind-objects, which constitute the whole range of our possible experience. A "dharma" is an impersonal event, which belongs to no person or individual, but just goes along on its own objective way. It was regarded as a most praiseworthy achievement on the part of a Buddhist monk if he succeeded in accounting to himself for the contents of his mind with the help of these impersonal dharmas, of which tradition provided him with definite lists, without ever bringing in the nebulous and pernicious word "I". No other religion has included anything like this in the mental training of its adherents and the originality of Buddhism is to be found largely in what it has to say about these elusive dharmas.
With regard to the _Samgha_ , or "community", a visible and invisible Church are distinguished. The _visible_ community consists first of all of the monks and nuns, and then in a wider sense it also comprises the laymen and laywomen who support the monks, have taken their refuge with the three Jewels, and promise to observe the five precepts. Within this community a small elite constituted the _true Samgha._ The wearing of the yellow robe merely shows that a man had exceptionally fine opportunities for spiritual attainment, but it does not render his spiritual success absolutely certain. As for the laymen, their status in the community was a most uncertain one, and for many of the monks they seemed to carry almost no weight at all. The true Samgha, the invisible Church, consisted of the _Áryans_ , the "noble" or "holy" ones, men who were contrasted with the common worldlings, also known as the "foolish common people" (bála-prthag-janá).
The difference between these two classes of persons is fundamental to Buddhist theory. They are held to occupy two distinct planes of existence, respectively known as the "worldly" and the "supramundane".The saints alone are truly alive, while the worldlings just vegetate along in a sort of dull and aimless bewilderment. Not content with being born in the normal way, the saints have undergone a spiritual rebirth, which is technically known as "winning the Path". In other words, they have detached themselves from conditioned things to such an extent that they can now effectively turn to the Path which leads to Nirvana. The worldling's vision of Nirvana is obstructed by the things of the world which he takes far too seriously. Through prolonged meditation he can, however, reach a state where each time a worldly object rises up in front of him, he rejects it wholeheartedly as a mere hindrance, or nuisance. Once this aversion has become an ingrained habit, he can at last take Nirvana, the Unconditioned, for his object. Then "he ceases to belong to the common people", he "becomes one of the family of the Áryans". Thereafter he is less and less impelled by the motives of ordinary people, i.e. by motives which are a compound of self-interest and a misguided belief in the reality of sensory things and which contain a strong dosage of greed, hate and delusion. The contrast with the vision of Nirvana reveals the insignificance and triviality of all these worldly concerns and Nirvana itself increasingly becomes the motivating force behind whatever is done.
Four kinds of saints are normally distinguished. The lowest is called a "Streamwinner", to indicate that he has won contact with the Path which leads to the Unconditioned. The saints are characteristically distinguished by the number of times they have to return to this world after death – the first kind must come back seven times at the most, the second only once, and the fourth, the Arhat, the finest and final product of this training, need never come back at all. The true Samgha is the community of all these saints, but the Arhats are those most highly prized.
### THE SECTS AND THEIR DISPUTES
The Buddhist community did not remain united for long and soon fell apart into a number of sects. Indian Buddhist tradition generally speaks of "eighteen" such sects, but that is a mere traditional number and in fact more than thirty are known to us, at least by name. The Buddha appointed no successor and Buddhism has never known a central authority like that of the Pope or the Khalif. As different communities fixed themselves in different parts of India, local traditions developed, though in spite of all geographical and doctrinal divisions the different sects generally speaking remained in constant communion with each other. Not only did individual monks constantly travel from one centre to another, but the institution of regular pilgrimages of masses of monks and laymen to the holy places of Magadha, which were hallowed by the life of the Buddha and by the relics of His body, caused a constant intermingling of the most diverse elements. The problems which the sects discussed remained thus roughly the same for all and so were the assumptions on which the solutions were based. Through constant contact all Buddhists thus remained mutually intelligible.
The different sects tended to have their own organization and Scriptures. In many monasteries members of different sects nevertheless lived together in perfect amity; it was generally recognized that the goal may be reached by different roads and the sects showed great tolerance to each other, although occasional sharp religious invective was of course not entirely unknown. They all shared one common Dharma, although it is important to realize that the verbal formulation of this Dharma did not exist in a brief, handy and unambiguous form. It was transmitted orally, to prevent it from reaching those unfit to receive it, but there was so much of it that no one person could keep it all in mind. In consequence different parts of the Scriptures were handed to specialists who knew by heart, say, the Vinaya or the Sútras, or a part of the Sútras, or the Abhidharma, and so on. The reciters of each part of the Scriptures formed separate corporations with privileges of their own and their very existence would add to the divisions within the Order.
Nor must we forget that this Order, however much it might resent the fact, was not a self-contained entity, but had to coexist with laymen on whom it was economically dependent. There was thus a constant tension between those who regarded the Dharma as a means for the production of a small elite of Arhats living in monastic seclusion in strict observance of the Vinaya rules, and those who wished to increase the chances of salvation for the ordinary people, while combating the authority of the Arhats and working for a relaxation of the monastic precepts.
Finally we must mention philosophy as one of the most potent causes of sectarian divisions. It is not difficult to see why philosophy should have played a decisive role in the development of Buddhism. Salvation on its higher levels was made dependent on the meditational awareness of the actual facts governing our mental processes. In the course of carrying out these meditations, the monks came up against problems which everywhere form the field of philosophy, such as the nature and classification of knowledge, the problems of causality, of time and space, of the criteria of reality, of the existence or non-existence of a "self" and so on. Now it is a fact of observation that philosophy differs from all other branches of knowledge in that it allows of more than one solution to each problem. It is in the nature of things that the differences of opinion should have multiplied the more the Buddhists went into the philosophical implications of their doctrine.
It would be clearly impossible here to enumerate the literally hundreds of points of dispute among the Buddhists, or even to give an account of all the sects. It will be sufficient to say a few words about the four or five chief sects, and leave the sub-sects to look after themselves. The diagram on p. 19 shows the affiliations between the main branches of the Order.
The first schism, between _Mahásanghikas_ and _Sthaviras_ , was occasioned by the question of the status of the Arhats. A teacher by the name of Mahádeva arose, who claimed that in five points the Arhats fell short of the god-like stature which some sections of the community attributed to them. They could, among other things, have seminal emissions in their sleep, and that fact, so he argued, indicated that they are still subject to the influence of demonic deities who appear to them in their dreams. They are also still subject to doubts, ignorant of many things, and owe their salvation to the guidance of others. His thesis led to a dispute in which the majority took the side of Mahádeva, whose school in consequence called themselves the Mahásanghikas. His adversaries took the name of Sthaviras, "the Elders", claiming greater seniority and orthodoxy. The Mahásanghikas continued to exist in India until the end and important doctrinal developments took place within their midst. All these were ultimately determined by their decision to take the side of the people against the saints, thus becoming the channel through which popular aspirations entered into Buddhism.
Their most important theories concern Buddhology and philosophical theory. As for the _Buddha_ , they regarded everything personal, earthly, temporal and historical as outside the real Buddha, Who was transcendental, altogether supramundane, had no imperfections and impurities whatsoever, was omniscient, all-powerful, infinite and eternal, forever withdrawn into trance, never distracted or asleep. In this way the Buddha became an ideal object of religious faith. As for the historical Buddha, He was a magical creation of the transcendental Buddha, a fictitious creature sent by Him to appear in the world and to teach its inhabitants. While on the one side intent on glorifying the otherworldliness of the Buddha, the Mahásanghikas at the same time tried to increase the range of His usefulness to ordinary people. The Buddha has not disappeared into Nirvana, but with a compassion as unlimited as the length of His life, He will until the end of time conjure up all kinds of messengers who will help all kinds of beings in diverse ways. His influence is not confined to those few who can understand His abstruse doctrines. As a Bodhisattva, i.e. during the very long period which precedes His Buddhahood, He is even reborn in the "states of woe", becomes of His own free will an animal, a ghost or a dweller in hell and in many ways furthers the weal of those beings who live in conditions in which wisdom teaching must fall on deaf ears. Nor are Buddhas found on this earth alone, but they fill the entire universe, and exist here and there everywhere, in all the world systems.
Two of the _philosophical theories of the Mahásanghikas_ are of outstanding importance:
1. They taught that thought, in its own nature, its own being, in its substance, is perfectly pure and translucent. The impurities are accidental to it, never enter into or affect its original purity, and remain "adventitious" to it.
2. The Mahásanghikas were in the course of time led to an increasing scepticism about the value of verbalized and conceptualized knowledge. Some of them taught that all worldly things are unreal, as a result of the perverted views. Only that which transcends worldly things and can be called "emptiness", being the absence of all of them, is real. Others said that everything, both worldly and supramundane, both absolute and relative, both Samsára and Nirvana, is fictitious and unreal and that all we have got is a number of verbal expressions to which nothing real corresponds. In this way the Mahásanghikas early implanted the seeds which came to fruition in Maháyána Buddhism in the second period.
The second split, between the _Pudijalavádins_ and the _Sthaviras_ , concerned the question of pudgala, or "person". At the beginning of their history the "Personalists" were called _Vatsíputríyas_ , after their founder, whereas later on they were better known as the _Sammitíyas._ Although barely orthodox they were at times strong in numbers, as we can see from the fact that Yüan Tsang in the seventh century counted 66,000 Personalist monks, out of a total of 250,000 in the whole of India. It was a fundamental dogma of Buddhist philosophy that personality is a token of falsehood and that no idea of "self", in whichever form it might appear, ought to have a place in the conception of reality as it actually is. The Personalists challenged this position and claimed that in addition to the impersonal dharmas there is still a Person to be reckoned with. They could adduce much scriptural authority in favour of their views. They were, for instance, fond of quoting the remark: "One person, when He is born in the world, is born for the weal of the many. Who is that one person? He is the Tathágata." Their opponents had to admit these and many other passages, but they maintained that they do not mean what they say, since in them the Buddha only conformed to the linguistic usage of an ignorant world.
The Personalists on the other hand taught that the Person is a reality in the ultimate sense, which provides a common factor or link for the successive processes occurring in a self-identical individual, over many lives, up to Buddhahood. At the same time the Pudgalavádins took great care to define the relation of the Person to the skandhas in such a way as not to contradict the essential principles of the Buddha's teaching and so as to exclude the "erroneous belief in a self". "The Person is neither identical with the skandhas, nor is he in the skandhas, nor outside them", so they taught. He provides, as we would put it, a kind of "structural unity" for the psycho-physical elements. As such he is "ineffable", indefinable in every respect whatsoever. A man's true, transcendental Self is indeed so subtle that only the Buddhas can see it. The Pudgalavádins represented the reaction of commonsense against the improbabilities of the dharmas-theory in its more uncompromising forms. They provided over the centuries a constant irritant to disputants of other sects and in some ways they were the forerunners of Maháyána philosophy. There exists a close analogy between the _pudgala_ and the Suchness, or Emptiness, of the Mádhyamikas, and the "Store-consciousness" of the Yogácárins had many of the functions which the Personalists assigned to the _pudgala_.
Thirdly, the split between _Sarvástivádins_ and _Vibhajyavádins_ was occasioned by the pan-realistic ontological doctrine of Kátyáyaníputra, who taught that not only the present, but also past and future events are real. It appears that Aśoka sided with the Vibhajyavádins and that in consequence the Sarvástivádins went North and converted Kashmir, which remained their centre for more than a thousand years. When we consider the basic practice of Buddhist meditation, it is not surprising that the problem of the existence of past and future events should have seemed so important. Among the unsatisfactory features of this world the pride of place belonged to impermanence and it was the task of the Yogin to impress its full extent on his mind so as to further his distaste for worldly things. In this connection he had to take an event, or dharma, and see its "rise and fall", i.e. how it "comes, becomes, goes". Now, once a monk had got used to contrasting the past with the present and future, he might well become curious to know whether only the present really exists, or also the past and future. If only the present exists, this raises the further point of its duration, which many regarded as lasting just one single instant. In that case no thing will endure for any length of time, and one must assume that it is annihilated and re-created from instant to instant. This raises difficulties not only for the commonsense, but according to Kátyáyaníputra, also for the Buddhist doctrine of karma and retribution. For if a past action, which has ceased to exist immediately after taking place should lead to a reward or punishment many years later, then in that case something which does not exist is operative, has an effect, at a time when it does not exist. Likewise, so Kátyáyaníputra thought, the knowledge of past and future objects, as attested by memory and prediction, would be impossible, since no knowledge is possible without an actual object in front of the mind. In consequence he evolved the pan-realistic theory, which became the peculiar thesis of the Sarvástivádins. It avoided the difficulties mentioned above only to introduce many others in their stead and a vast superstructure of auxiliary hypotheses was required to make it tenable. In spite of their addiction to a rather tortuous scholasticism, the Sarvástivádins became the most significant school on the Indian subcontinent.
As the result of the emergence of an interest in philosophical questions we have the first instance of a whole class of canonical literature being created to meet a new situation. The _Abhidharma_ books were clearly composed after the third division of the schools. The contents of the seven Abhidharma books of the Sarvástivádins differ greatly from those of the seven books of the Theravádins, who are an offshoot of the Vibhajyavádins. Some sects, like the Sautrántikas, went so far as to contest the authenticity of all Abhidharma works. A great mental effort went, from about 200 BC onwards, into the production of these books, which are technical handbooks of meditation, teaching what events can be regarded as elementary, how others are composed of them, how they condition each other, etc.
Before we leave the schools, we may mention a few more points of disagreement on questions of a more general interest. The elusive concept of Nirvana came in for some discussion. If it is unconditioned, does it exist, and can it have effects? Is it the only unconditioned thing, or is space also unconditioned? Is there any difference between the Nirvana of the Buddhas and that of other people, and what is it? There was also much interest in determining the criteria of a _definite achievement_ , which cannot again be lost. There was therefore much debate on when and whether the Arhats and other saints can "fall back" and from when onwards their salvation is assured. On the subject of _death_ , always present in the minds of these ascetics, one wondered whether the hour of death is definitely fixed by karma, or whether a premature and untimely death is possible. There was also disagreement on what follows on death: five schools believed that death is instantly followed by rebirth in another organism, whereas five other schools taught that death would be followed by an "intermediary existence" of up to forty-nine days, during which in most cases the new incarnation slowly prepared itself. In the case of certain saints this interval is used for the attainment of the Nirvana which escaped them during this life.
### THE LAITY
We have now sketched the basic opinions and aims of the homeless monks who constitute the essential core of the Buddhist world. But what about those Buddhists who were not monks, what about the laity without whom the monks could not possibly carry on their meditations? What is their place in the scheme of things? What are they given to do? And what do the monks do for them?
If a layman feels tied to his home and unable to escape from it into the homeless life, it is due to his deficiency in a quality called "merit", which depends on what he has done in the past and which circumscribes his access to spiritual opportunities. A number of exceptional cases are recorded of laymen having won deathlessness without previously entering the Order. Generally speaking, however, their salvation is out of the question at present, and can be assured only on condition that by a future life they have accumulated sufficient "merit" to make the jump into the social freedom of the monastic life. The layman's one and only religious task at present can be to increase his store of merit. The Buddhist religion offers him four avenues for doing so:
1. He must observe the five precepts (see p. 8), or at least some of them. On feast days, every fortnight, he may add to them another three, i.e. he fasts, avoids worldly amusements, and uses neither unguents nor ornaments. A few observed still two more precepts, i.e. they did not sleep on a high, big bed and they accepted no gold or silver.
2. He must have devotion for the Three Treasures (see p. 10) and faith is the virtue apposite to a householder's state of life. But this faith is not an exclusive one and does not entail a rejection of his ancestral beliefs and of the Brahmanic religious usages of his social environment. The Triple Jewel is not a jealous God and is not displeased by the worship of the deities of a man's country or caste.
3. He must be generous, especially to the monks, and give as much as possible to them, not only for their upkeep, but also for religious buildings inhabited by no one. To some extent the merit produced by gifts depends on the spiritual endowments of the recipient, and therefore the sons of Śákyamuni, and in particular the Arhats, are the best possible "field for planting merit".
4. He may worship the relics of the Buddha (see p. 13). The actual attitude of the Buddhists to these teeth and bones is difficult to describe in terms readily understood in the West. It is obviously impossible for them to "pray" to the Buddha, for the reason that He is no longer there, being in Nirvana, i.e. extinct as far as this world is concerned. It is even doubtful whether the word "worship" is a very suitable one. Before the advent of modern industrialism men everywhere looked upon the world as a mysterious realm of boundless possibilities, full of invisible forces, meaningful and replete with significant hints. The posture of namaskára, in which the folded extended palms are held forth, is the customary mode of greeting in India. Bigotry, servility and superstitious idolatry do not enter into it. All these things rest very lightly on the true believer and do not constrain his inner freedom. The fervour of the faithful filled the Buddhist world with innumerable shrines (caitya) and Stúpas, which became the object of the special devotion of householders. The creation and cult of Buddha images is, however, fairly late, and unlikely to go back before the first century AD.
If a layman well observes these four duties, he will be happy in this life, and after his death he will be reborn in heaven, or in paradise. The Emperor Asoka well exemplifies the character of Buddhism as understood by the laity. Among Buddhist doctrines he regarded as the two most important ones the avoiding of doing harm to others (ahimsá) and the active benevolence towards them (maitrí). His edicts contain many moral exhortations to the practice of the simple virtues and we also hear much about the need for piety. But there is nothing in them about the deeper ideas or fundamental tenets of the faith. There is no mention of the four holy Truths, the eightfold path, the chain of causation, or even of Nirvana, or of the supernatural qualities of a Buddha.
What benefits then does the monk bestow upon the laymen? He increases both their spiritual and their material welfare. He promotes the first by sermons on those aspects of the doctrine which are intelligible and relevant to the laity, as well as by the example of a holy life which will give courage and zest to those still tied to the world and can give them a glimpse of the freedom and serenity they may achieve in a future life. In the course of time a vast literature of Birth stories (játaka), which tell of the Buddha's previous lives, animal as well as human, and of edifying tales (avadána) was composed for the benefit of the laity. These stories were listened to with avidity, but they had less authority than the more metaphysical teachings. Their message concerns chiefly the virtues of secular life. They constantly stress the doctrine of karma and rebirth and also foster a tenderness towards all that lives. In Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Nagarjunikonda and Ajanta many of the Jataka tales have been illustrated in sculpture and painting.
It was also a belief of Buddhist Asia that the material well-being of the people, their economic prosperity and their freedom from famine, epidemics and wars, was largely the work of the monks. For the welfare of a nation depends chiefly on the benevolence of occult and spiritual forces, which the monks alone can know about and which they alone can propitiate. All is well with a people which respects the monks, showing its reverence for the Buddhas by generous gifts to the monasteries and for temples and shrines, but a nation which turns its back on the religion is doomed to perish in misery. These were the beliefs which helped to maintain the monastic institutions.
The voluntary and sporadic support of a population tied to them by links as tenuous as these would, however, not have kept the Order going for long. The secret behind its social survival over the centuries lay in the ability of the Buddhists, repeated over and over again, to enlist the support of Asian rulers, who maintained the monastic institutions out of government funds. In default of this, the monks were driven to become large property owners in their own right and to dispense altogether with the capricious rewards of begging from house to house. This is also a solution, but it imperils aloofness from the things of this world and is apt to draw the monks back into the arena of social strife.
Nevertheless relations with the laity were always precarious and there at its base was the Achilles heel of the whole soaring edifice. If Buddhism departed from the tenets of the first period, it was largely the work of the laity. It was their pressure which did much to bring about the reforms of the second and third period, reforms which therefore appeared to the strict monastic party as a degeneration. The Maháyána gave much greater weight to the laymen. It could count on much popular support for its opinion that people are as important as dharmas, for its attacks on the selfishness of monks who think only of their own welfare, for its constant censure of "haughty" and "conceited" monks and for its stories of wealthy householders, such as Vimalakírti, who surpassed the oldest and most venerable monks in the splendour of their spiritual attainments. The same kind of popular pressure would induce the monks to become more manifestly useful to laymen. In the third, Tantric, period they inserted themselves into their magical beliefs and acted as astrologers, exercisers, weather makers, doctors, etc. That is why the story of Buddhism becomes unintelligible unless due weight is given to the desires of the dumb common people. The stone which the builders had rejected became the cornerstone after all.
### EXPANSION
During this period, Buddhism remained on the whole a purely Indian religion. The emperor Asoka, about 250 BC, sent some missions to the successors of Alexander the Great, i.e. to the Greek kingdoms of the diadochs in Egypt, Macedon, Cyrene and Epirus. These missions have left no trace and they may very well have been ineffective. The rather dim awareness of Buddhism which we find in Greek authors can be accounted for by later contacts which took place in connection with the trade which flourished in Roman times between India and the Mediterranean.
It was only in Ceylon that Asoka's missionary activity bore fruit. Once brought there about 240 BC by Mahinda, Asoka's son, Buddhism has existed in Ceylon for a longer stretch of time than anywhere else. From that time onwards Buddhism has been the state religion of Ceylon. Only Buddhists had a legitimate right to be kings and the island of Lanká was held to belong to the Buddha Himself. It was the king's duty to protect the Order of monks and great benefits accrued to the monasteries in the form of donations, prestige and protection from interference. The kings, although mostly laymen, were also the final judges in any dispute which might arise among the Buddhists. The monks in their turn generally helped the kings and won popular support for their wishes. This close connection of the Samgha with the state had its disadvantages. From the second century BC onwards it not only infused a spirit of nationalism into the Buddhism of Ceylon and made the monks prone to political intrigue, but it also led them to enthusiastically support the national wars of their kings. They assured king Dutta Gámaní (101–77 BC) that the killing of many thousands of enemies was of no account, because as unbelievers they were really no more than animals. They accompanied the army of the same king, "since the sight of bhikkhus is both blessing and protection for us", and the king himself had a relic of the Buddha put into his spear.
For a long time Ceylonese Buddhists continued to be in lively contact with India over the ports of Bharukaccha and Súrpáraka in the West. Gradually the whole Canon came to Ceylon and towards the end of our period, or even later, also new works composed in Páli in India by the mother-sect, such as the first part of the "Questions of King Milinda" and the "Niddesa". During the first century BC the Canon and Commentaries, so far transmitted orally, were written down at Aluvihára, "so that the Dharma might endure". War and famine had depopulated the country and the oral transmission of the Pitakas was in danger. The holy language of the Canon was Páli, whereas the Commentaries were in Sinhalese. Ceylon became the home of a school known as the Theravádins – of great interest in the history of Buddhism partly because their Canon is preserved in its entirety and partly because in their geographical isolation they remained relatively unaffected by many of the later developments. It is not, however, very clear what Continental school they were derived from. Probably they were akin to the Indian Vibhajyavádins, and an offshoot of one of their branches.
## **TWO**
## The Second Period: AD 0–500
### THE MAHAYANA IN INDIA
About the beginning of the Christian era a new trend took shape in Buddhism, known as the Maháyána, literally "the great vehicle". It was prepared by the exhaustion of the old impulse which produced fewer and fewer Arhats, by the tensions within the doctrines as they had developed by then and by the demands of the laity for more equal rights with the monks. Foreign influences also had a great deal to do with it. The Maháyána developed in North-West India and South India, the two regions where Buddhism was most exposed to non-Indian influences, to the impact of Greek art in its Hellenistic and Romanized forms and to the influence of ideas from both the Mediterranean and the Iranian world. This cross-fertilization incidentally rendered the Buddhism of the Maháyána fit for export outside India. So that it should be able to travel outside India, Buddhism had first to be somewhat modified by foreign influences, had to undergo a preliminary phase of de-Indianization. Before it could be received by alien cultures it had first to receive an impression from them. Roughly speaking only in its modified Maháyána form has it been able to live outside India. In due course the Maháyána has conquered the entire northern half of the Buddhist world, and the Buddhists of Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea and Japan are nearly all Maháyánists.
The Maháyána developed in two stages: first in an unsystematic form, which went on between 100 BC and AD 500, and then, after AD 150, in a systematized philosophical form, which led to two distinct schools, the Mádhyamikas and the Yogácárins.
We must first of all explain the main features of the _early Maháyána._ About 100 BC a number of Buddhists felt that the existing statements of the doctrine had become stale and useless. In the conviction that the Dharma requires ever new re-formulations so as to meet the needs of new ages, new populations and new social circumstances, they set out to produce a new literature. The creation of this literature is one of the most magnificent outbursts of creative energy known to human history and it was sustained for about four to five centuries. Repetition alone, they believed, cannot sustain a living religion. Unless counterbalanced by constant innovation, it will become fossilized and lose its life-giving qualities.
So far the Maháyánistic attitude seems quite logical. What is more difficult to understand is that they insisted in presenting these new writings, manifestly composed centuries after the Buddha's death, as the very words of the Buddha Himself. In order to make room for the new dispensation, they followed the Mahásanghikas in minimizing the importance of the historical Buddha Śákyamuni, whom they replaced by the Buddha who is the embodiment of Dharma ( _dharmakáya_ ). In the "Lotus of the Good Law" we are told that the Buddha, far from having reached His enlightenment at Bodhgáya, about 500 BC or whenever the date may have been, abides for aeons and aeons, from eternity to eternity, and that He preaches the Law at all times in countless places and innumerable disguises. In the "Diamond Sútra" occurs the famous verse:
Those who by my form did see me,
And those who followed me by voice,
Wrong the efforts they engaged in,
Me those people will not see!
From the Dharma-body should one see the Buddhas,
From the Dharma-bodies comes their guidance.
The conception of the Buddha as the timeless embodiment of all Truth allowed for a successive revelation of that truth by Him at different times. Not content with this, the Maháyánists tried to link their own new writings with the historical Buddha by a number of mythological fictions. They asserted that they had been preached by the Buddha in the course of His life on earth, that parallel to the Council at Rájagrha, which codified the Sútras of the Hínayána, the Maháyána Sútras had been codified by an assembly of Bodhisattvas on the mythical mountain of Vimalasvabháva; that the texts had been miraculously preserved for five centuries and stored away in the subterranean palaces of the Nágas, or with the king of the Gandharvas, or the king of the Gods. Then, as Nágárjuna puts it, "five hundred years after the Buddha's Nirvana, when the Good Law, after having gradually declined, was in great danger", these treasures from the past were unearthed, revealed and made known, so as to revivify the doctrine.
What then were the main doctrinal innovations of the Maháyána? They can be summarized under five headings:
1. As concerns the goal there is a shift from the Arhat-ideal to the Bodhisattva-ideal;
2. A new way of salvation is worked out, in which compassion ranks equal with wisdom, and which is marked by the gradual advance through six "perfections" ( _páramitá_ );
3. Faith is given a new range by being provided with a new pantheon of deities, or rather of persons more than divine;
4. "Skill in means" ( _upáyakaus_ O _alya_ ), an entirely new virtue, becomes essential to the saint, and is placed even above wisdom, the highest virtue so far;
5. A coherent ontological doctrine is worked out, dealing with such items as "Emptiness", "Suchness", etc.
We will now consider these five points one by one.
1. The goal of Arhatship, which had motivated Buddhism in the first period, is now relegated to the second place. The Maháyánistic saint strives to be a "Bodhisattva" – from _bodhi_ , "enlightenment", and _sattva_ , "being" or "essence". A Bodhisattva is distinguished by three features: ( _a_ ) In his essential being he is actuated by the desire to win the full enlightenment of a Buddha, which, from this point of view, implies complete omniscience, i.e. the knowledge of all things at all times in all their details and aspects, ( _b_ ) He is dominated by two forces, in equal proportion, i.e. by compassion and wisdom. From compassion he selflessly postpones his entrance into the bliss of Nirvana so as to help suffering creatures. From wisdom he attempts to win insight into the emptiness of all that is. He persists in his compassionate solidarity with all that lives although his wisdom shows him that living beings and all their woes are purely illusory, ( _c_ ) Although intent on ultimate purity, a Bodhisattva remains in touch with ordinary people in having the same passions they have. His passions, however, do not either affect or pollute his mind.
2. A Bodhisattva's compassion is called "great", because it is boundless and makes no distinctions. A Bodhisattva resolves to become the saviour of all, whatever may be their worth or their claim to his attention. In the first period the wisdom of the saints had been fully emphasized, but now their selfless desire to make others happy is said to rank equal in value with it. Enlightenment is the thorough and complete understanding of the nature and meaning of life, the forces which shape it, the method to end it, and the reality which lies beyond it. This enlightenment, the Maháyánists agreed, does not automatically entail the desire to assist others. Among the enlightened they distinguished three types, two of them "selfish", one "unselfish". The "selfish" types are the Arhats and Pratyekabuddhas, who are said to represent the idea of the Hínayána, of the "inferior vehicle". They are described as aloof from the concerns of the world and intent on their own private salvation alone. The "unselfish" ones are the Buddhas, and the pursuit of the unselfish quest for enlightenment on the part of a Bodhisattva is called the "Buddha-vehicle", or the "Great Vehicle" (maháyána).
A Bodhisattva must be a patient man. He wants to become a Buddha, but his distance from the transcendental perfection of a supreme Buddha, Who both knows and is everything, will obviously be nearly infinite. In one life it could not possibly be traversed. Countless lives would be needed and a Bodhisattva must be prepared to wait for aeons and aeons before he can reach his goal. Yet, he is separated from Buddhahood only by one single small obstacle, i.e. his belief in a personal self, his assumption that he is a separate Individual, his inveterate tendency towards "I-making and Mine-making" ( _ahamkárama-makára_ ). To get rid of himself is the Bodhisattva's supreme task. By two kinds of measures he tries to remove himself from himself – actively by self-sacrifice and selfless service, cognitively by insight into the objective non-existence of a self. The first is due to his compassion, the second to wisdom, defined as the ability to penetrate to the true reality, to the "own-being" of things, to what they are in and by themselves. It is believed that action and cognition must always go hand in hand to bring forth their spiritual fruits.
The unity of compassion and wisdom is acted out by the six "perfections", or _páramitá_ , the six "methods by which we go to the Beyond". A person turns into a Bodhisattva when he first resolves to win full enlightenment for the benefit of all beings. Thereafter, until his attainment of Buddhahood, aeons and aeons are devoted to the practice of the Páramitás. So important is this concept that the Maháyána often refers to itself as the "Vehicle of the Páramitás". The six are: the perfections of giving, morality, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom. The first enjoins generosity, a willingness to give away all that one has, even one's own body, and the second the scrupulous observance of the moral precepts, even at the risk of one's own life. As for "patience", the Maháyána has much more to say about it than the Hínayána and it uses the word in a wider sense than is usual. As a moral virtue it means the patient endurance of all kinds of suffering and hostility and the absence of any feeling of anger or discontent when meeting with them. In addition, "patience" is here also considered as an intellectual virtue and as such it means the emotional acceptance, before one has fathomed the whole of their depth, of the more incredible and anxiety-producing ontological doctrines of the Maháyána, such as the non-existence of all things. Vigour means that the Bodhisattva indefatigably persists in his work over the ages and never feels discouraged; his perfection of meditation enables him to gain proficiency in trances "numerous as the sands of the Ganges". The perfection of wisdom finally is the ability to understand the essential properties of all processes and phenomena, their mutual relations, the conditions which bring about their rise and fall, and the ultimate unreality of their separate existence. At its highest point it leads right into the Emptiness which is the one and only reality.
3. Another distinctive contribution of the Maháyána is the distinction of ten stages which the Bodhisattva must traverse on his way to Buddhahood. This aspect of the doctrine reached its final formulation in the third century in the "Sútra on the Ten Stages". The first six of these stages correspond to the six "perfections" and each of them is marked by the intensive practice of one of them. The sixth stage therefore corresponds to the perfection of wisdom and with it the Bodhisattva has by his understanding of emptiness come "face to face" ( _abhimukhí_ ) with Reality itself. At that point he would be able to escape from the terrors of this world of birth-and-death and he could, if he wanted to, enter into Nirvana. Out of compassion he nevertheless makes no use of this possibility, but stays on in the world for a long time so as to help those in it. Although in the world, he now is no longer of it. During the last four stages a Bodhisattva gains what the texts call "sovereignty over the world", and he becomes a kind of supernatural being endowed with miraculous powers of many kinds. From the ordinary Bodhisattvas as they exist on the first six stages, the "celestial Bodhisattvas" of the last four stages differ in that they were well suited to becoming objects of a religious cult. Soon the faithful increasingly turned to all kinds of mythical Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrí, Maitreya, Kshítigarbha, Samantabhadra and others. Though conceived in India some of these Bodhisattvas show strong non-Indian, and particularly Iranian, influences.
The development of mythical Bodhisattvas was accompanied, and even preceded, by that of mythical Buddhas, who were held to reside in the heavens in all the ten directions. In the East lives Akshobhya, the "Imperturbable". In the West is the kingdom of the Buddha of "Infinite Light", Amitábha, not always clearly distinguished from Amitáyus, the Buddha who "has an infinite life-span". Amitáyus is a counterpart to the Iranian Zurvan Akaranak ("Unlimited Time"), just as the cult of Amitábha owed much to Iranian sun worship and probably originated in the Kushana Empire in the borderland between India and Iran. There are many other celestial Buddhas, in fact infinitely many, and most of them have a "kingdom" of their own, a world which is not of this world, a land which is "pure" because free from defilements and adverse conditions.
4. Next we must say a few words about the "skill in means", a virtue which is indispensable to a Bodhisattva at all times, but which he possesses in its fullness only late, on the seventh stage, after the "perfection of wisdom" has thoroughly shown him the emptiness of everything that seems to be. "Skill in means" is the ability to bring out the spiritual potentialities of different people, by statements or actions which are adjusted to their needs and adapted to their capacity for comprehension. If the truth be told, all that we have described so far as constituting the doctrine of the Maháyána is just "skill in means" and nothing more. It is a series of fictions elaborated to further the salvation of beings. In actual fact there are no Buddhas, no Bodhisattvas, no perfections, and no stages. All these are products of our imagination, just expedients, concessions to the needs of ignorant people, designed to ferry them across to the Beyond. Everything apart from the One, also called "Emptiness" or "Suchness", is devoid of real existence, and whatever may be said about it is ultimately untrue, false and nugatory. But nevertheless it is not only permissible, but even useful to say it, because the salvation of beings demands it.
5. So far we have spoken about the way to the Beyond. Now we come to the Beyond itself. Wisdom teachings about ontology, or the nature of reality, constitute the inner core of the Maháyána doctrine. These teachings are extremely subtle, abstruse and elusive and defy any attempt at summarizing them, because they are not meant as definite statements about definite facts and because it is said expressly that they do not explain anything, do not say anything in particular, for the ultimate transcendental reality is held to lie beyond the grasp of intellectual comprehension and verbal expression. Be that as it may, the peculiar ontological doctrines of the Maháyána developed logically from the philosophy of the Mahásanghikas and in direct and conscious opposition to that of the Sarvástivádins. Four basic propositions are common to all Maháyánists:
1. All dharmas are "empty" in the sense that each one is nothing in and by itself. Any dharma is therefore indistinguishable from any other dharma. In consequence all dharmas are ultimately non-existent and the same.
2. This Emptiness can be called "Suchness", when one takes each thing "such as it is", without adding anything to it or subtracting anything from it. There can be only one Suchness and the multiple world is a construction of our imagination.
3. If all is one and the same, then also the Absolute will be identical with the Relative, the Unconditioned with the conditioned, Nirvana with Samsára.
4. True Knowledge must rise above the duality of either subject and object, or of affirmation and negation.
These four propositions get near to the Beyond, but they do not quite reach it. The inmost sanctum of the whole doctrine is filled with nothing but silence.
We now come to the _systematized Maháyána_ , which falls into two main philosophical schools, the Mádhyamikas and the Yogácárins. The _Mádhyamika_ school was founded by Nágárjuna ( _c_ AD 150), a South Indian and one of the greatest minds India has produced. The school persisted for many centuries and has had a vigorous life also in China and Tibet. The Mádhyamika philosophy is primarily a logical doctrine which aims at an all-embracing scepticism by showing that all statements are equally untenable. This applies also to statements about the Absolute. They are all bound to be false and the Buddha's "thundering silence" alone can do justice to it. Soteriologically, everything must be dropped and given up, until absolute Emptiness alone remains, and then salvation is gained.
At the time of Nágárjuna the shadowy beginnings of _Yogácárin_ thinking could already be discerned, but the philosophy itself was clearly formulated only in the fourth century. Vasubandhu and Asanga are the greatest names here and modern historical research has so far not succeeded in sorting out the many conflicting data we have on their chronology, writings and activities. The Yogácárins propounded a primarily psychological theory and believed that the Absolute can usefully be described as "Mind", 'Thought" or "Consciousness".
Theirs was a metaphysical idealism, according to which consciousness creates its objects out of its own inner potentialities. Mind can, however, exist quite by itself, without any object whatever. Soteriologically, the Yogácárins aimed at achieving "an act of cognition which no longer apprehends an object". Salvation is won when we can produce in ourselves an act of thought which is "Thought-only", pure consciousness, and altogether beyond the division between subject and object.
The two systems were clearly quite distinct in their interests and intentions. The polemics which they occasionally directed against each other had therefore little effect and occupy little space in their writings. On the whole each school was content to elaborate its own tenets, without paying too much attention to its rivals. To the Mádhyamikas, the Yogácárin doctrine appeared as a quite incomprehensible perversity, whereas the Yogácárins regarded the Mádhyamika doctrine as a preliminary stage of their own, which however missed the true and esoteric core of the Buddha's teaching.
The Yogácárin school is further noteworthy for having elaborated the final formulation of the doctrine of the _three Bodies of the Buddha._ The Buddha is said to exist on three distinct levels. As the Dharma-body He is the Absolute, Truth and Reality itself. In His "communal body", or His "enjoyment body" ( _sámbhoga-káya_ ), the Buddha shows Himself to the celestial Bodhisattvas and other superhuman beings and preaches in unearthly realms the Dharma to them, generating joy, delight and love for it. Finally there is the fictitious, or conjured up body ( _nirmána-káya_ ), which is the one that human beings see appearing at certain times on earth and which is a phantom body sent by the real Buddha to do His work in the world. By way of scholastic refinement, many Yogácárins still added a fourth Body, the Substantial Body ( _svábhávika-káya_ ), which is the basis of the other three.
Yet a note of caution must here be sounded. It is generally said that this doctrine of the Three Bodies was first formulated by the Yogácárins about AD 300, but basically there is nothing really new about it. All three bodies had been known centuries before. The identification of one side of the Buddha with the Dharma had often been made in the first period and is of the essence of Buddhism. As to the second body, there had been a long-standing tradition about the "thirty-two marks of the superman" (see p. 12), which were obviously not attributes of the body visible to all, but adhered to some glorified body which is visible only to the eyes of faith and manifests itself only to the community of the saints. Although the assumption of such a "glorified" body had been made for a long time, all references to it until about AD 300 are vague and elusive. It may be that the doctrine on this subject was not fully developed before the third century. It may also be, however, that this was regarded as a particularly sacred, and therefore secret, subject, which could be explained only orally to those who were spiritually qualified to hear of it, while the remainder had to content themselves with a few vague hints. It is likely that the continuous decline of which we spoke before (p. x) was accompanied by an increasing profanization of the doctrine. In early times, as we saw (p. 4), a monk was even forbidden to recite the actual text of the Sútras to laymen. We hear of Anáthapindada, one of the greatest early benefactors of the Order, that only on his deathbed, after having for many years honoured the Lord and helped the Samgha, he was allowed to hear from Sáriputra a sermon on the unsatisfactory nature of sense-objects, because, as Sáriputra told him, such subjects were reserved for the yellow-robed monks and were not normally taught to the men in white robes, to the laymen. Later on, first the Sútras ceased to be secret and further on also the more secret teachings hidden behind them were divulged one by one. As a matter of fact the Yogácárins always claimed that all they did was to explain the "esoteric" meaning, known all along, but never broadcast to all and sundry.
If this is so, then what in the history of Buddhist thought seems to be doctrinal innovation may very often be nothing but the gradual shifting of the line between esoteric and exoteric teachings. At first, even up to Aśoka, the bulk of the doctrine, except for some moral maxims and so on, was esoteric. By the time of the Tantra, in the third period, even the most esoteric doctrines were written down. This process can be understood as one of compensation for the increasing admitted failure to achieve the spiritual goals aimed at. The monks who were unable to succeed inwardly in their self-realization would then indulge in the extroverted activity of spreading their doctrines among the general population. From the fact that a statement is attested only at a later date we cannot therefore conclude with any cogency that it was actually invented at that time. It is just as possible that it ceased at that time to be the prerogative of the initiated and became more or less public property.
### HINAYANA DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA
In spite of the growth of the Maháyána, the old Hínayána schools held their own. The new developments naturally had some influence on them. They adopted some Maháyána theories, either by direct borrowing or because they were exposed to the same influences which shaped the Maháyána. The idea of a Bodhisattva now becomes prominent in the vast popular Játaka literature which tells stories about the Buddha's former lives. Originally these tales were fables, fairy-tales, anecdotes, etc., taken from the vast fund of Indian folklore. These current tales were then adapted to Buddhist uses by being represented as incidents in the lives of the historical Buddha. For a long time they were just told to illustrate the glory and spiritual stature of the Lord ( _Bhaijavan_ ). Only at a later age were they recast into the form of stories about the Bodhisattva. In connection with the Játakas a set of ten "perfections" was elaborated, parallel to the six perfections of the Maháyána. Also the compassion and the loving-kindness, which in older literature is a minor and very subordinate virtue, becomes more prominent in these tales of the Bodhisattva's deeds, the "Bodhisattva" always being the Buddha in His previous lives. Likewise the doctrine of "emptiness" is now stressed more than it was in the past. A recognition of the fact that the times are bad and the days for the Arhats have passed, gives greater respectability to the aspiration after the secondary goals, such as the rebirth among the gods, or with Maitreya, the future Buddha, now in the Tushita heaven. But on the whole these concessions are made rather grudgingly. Our Hínayána sources practically never mention the Maháyánists, either positively or negatively. They were somewhat incredulous of all these innovations and they refused to take seriously the claim that the many new Maháyána works gave the Buddha's actual words. In fact they rejected these works as just so many "concoctions" and unworthy of serious consideration. The eloquent testimony of the complete and total silence of all Hínayána doctors on the subject of the Maháyána shows clearly what they thought of all this splendour.
Undeterred by the Maháyána, the Hínayánists went on with their own doctrinal development, which consisted in working out the logical implications of their Abhidharma. The elaboration and systematization of the Abhidharma occupied the first four centuries of our era. After that time it was completed for the two principal schools of which we have any precise knowledge, i.e. by Vasubandhu for the Sarvástivádins and by Buddhaghosa for the Theravádins. About AD 400 the Hínayánists reached the perfection of which they were capable. After that there was no more to come and the Indian Hínayána, although it persisted for another 800 years, has left us few records of further creative intellectual activity. Vasubandhu himself felt that he had reached the end of an epoch and he concludes his "Abhidharmakośa" with the famous words,
The times are come
When flooded by the rising tide of ignorance
Buddha's religion seems to breathe its last.
The creation of the Abhidharma was one of the greatest achievements of the human intellect. On pp. 13–15 I have explained to some extent the sense in which the word "dharmas" was used. In our second period one attempted to determine systematically how many kinds of "dharmas", or ultimate constituents of experience, had to be assumed. The Sarvástivádins arrived at a list of 75 dharmas, whereas the Theravádins believed that 174 were necessary. The difference between the two lists is much less serious than it appears to be. The Theravádin list is so much longer chiefly because they sub-divided one item of the Sarvástivádins (i.e. no. 14, Thought) into the 89 kinds of consciousness. Otherwise the lists mainly differ in their arrangement, order of enumeration and terminology, as well as in a number of trifling details too wearisome to enumerate here. The basic factors were already worked out while the two schools were still united and only the final touches were added at a later period.
The astounding range of Abhidharma studies can be appreciated when we look at the topics which Vasubandhu discusses in his _Abhidharmakos_ O _a._ It falls into eight chapters, dealing with the elements, the powers and faculties, cosmology, i.e. the origin, arrangement and destruction of the universe, with karma, the passions, the various kinds of saints and the paths which lead to salvation, concluding with a survey of sacred cognition and meditational attainments. In addition an appendix is devoted to the refutation of the views of Buddhists and non-Buddhists who postulate the existence of an ego, the abolition and eradication of all such views being Vasubandhu's main object in the composition of his treatise.
The final synthesis was preceded by many lengthy and extensive discussions of which we have for the Sarvástivádins some documents left. In the first century of our era they fixed their Canon, about AD 100 there is the _Vibháshá_ , a commentary to the Abhidharma, and about AD 200 the enormous _Mahávibhásha_ , a commentary to the _Jñánaprasthána_ composed by 500 Arhats of Kashmir, which gives the name of _Vaibháshika_ to the most orthodox school of the Sarvástivádins. The word vibháshá can be translated as "option" and the works just mentioned derived their name from the fact that different opinions of the leading teachers of the school are carefully recorded, so that the reader may be able to choose those which seem most likely to him. The chief adversaries of the Vaibháshikas were the Sautrántikas who did not believe that the seven basic Abhidharma texts had been preached by the Buddha, and regarded the statements on Abhidharma which are scattered in the Sútras as the only reliable scriptural basis for that subject. The doctrines of the Sautrántikas are often simpler and more obviously reasonable than those of the Sarvástivádins. The controversies between the two schools dealt with such subjects as the possibility of self-consciousness, or that of the direct perception of objects. Or one debated in what sense external objects really exist, or what it is that does the "seeing" (the eyes, or the consciousness, or mind), or whether destruction has a cause or comes about automatically of itself in the very nature of things. Vasubandhu made many concessions to the Sautrántika point of view, and his _Kos_ O _a_ was in consequence assailed by the orthodox Vaibháshikas. He found an able and powerful opponent in Samghabhadra, who commented on the _Kos_ O _a_ from the traditional point of view. Nevertheless the _Kos_ O _a_ was increasingly recognized as the last word on the subject and numerous commentaries testify to its enduring popularity in subsequent centuries.
The creative activities of the Hínayána were, however, not entirely confined to the Abhidharma. Constant additions were made to the Birth Stories and Edifying Tales. The life and personality of the Buddha claimed the attention of the devotees. _As_ O _vaghosa_ ( _c_. 100), a very fine poet, used the devices of Indian Sanskrit poetics to popularize the life of the Buddha by his _Buddhacarita_ , into which he introduced much Hindu learning. His work is marked by great devotional feeling, but there is no reason to assume that Aśvaghosa was a Maháyánist in any precise sense of the term and his views show more affinity to those of the Mahásanghikas than to any other known school. Aśvaghosa also wrote dramas, which have since his time been favourite means of popularizing Buddhist sentiments. In Burma and Tibet some of the longer Játakas, like the famous story of Vessantara, who gave away all he had, are still popular subjects of dramatic performances. In the fifth century a biography of the Buddha from the period aeons ago when he first decided to attain Buddhahood, down to the beginning of His teaching, was compiled in Ceylon, in the form of an introduction to the Pali Játaka book. We also have Mátrcetas ( _c_. 150) "Hymn in 150 Verses", lauding "the Buddha's great and profound virtues", which was taught to all monks. Piety and not wisdom was the aim of this kind of literature.
### NEPAL AND KASHMIR
In _Nepal_ the religion seems to have existed for a long time, probably from the beginning of Buddhism onwards. Little is, however, known of the period before the seventh century ad, and the Buddhism of Nepal was in all probability not substantially different from that of Northern India. In the legendary history of the _Svayambhúpurána_ a great role is assigned to Mañjuśrí, who came from China to Svayambhú, made the great lake disappear which up to then had filled the valley, founded the city of Kathmandu and placed there as a ruler the king Dharmíkara whom he had brought with him from Mahá-Cína. The Buddha Himself was born in Nepal, at Lumbiní, and Aśoka is known to have visited His birthplace, where he erected an inscribed pillar.
Although probably known in _Kashmir_ before Aśoka, Buddhism really made its influence felt only during his rule, when Kashmir formed part of his Empire. The _bhikshu_ Madhyántika was sent to convert the country. Aśoka is said to have built 500 monasteries for the Arhats, and to have given the valley itself as a gift to the Samgha. Thereafter the fate of Buddhism fluctuated with the attitude of the rulers.
Under Kanishka a Council is said to have been held which fixed the Sarvástivádin Canon. From that time onwards the Sarvástivádin writings were normally in Sanskrit, and this fact by itself would increase the relative weight of the Brahmin converts who alone would be fully conversant with the complications of this language. After the Kushana kings a Hindu reaction set in, under King Kinnara many monasteries were destroyed, the rulers in general were Shivaites, and royal patronage was therefore withdrawn. During our period Kashmir gained a high reputation as a centre of Buddhist learning and nearly all the great Buddhist scholars between Aśvaghosa and Asanga are reported to have resided there at some time or other. Harivarman about 250 wrote his _Satyasiddhi_ , an interesting synthesis of Maháyána and Hínayána views. Kashmiri monks went to Khotan, China and the Andhra country, and it was a Kashmiri monk, Gunavarman, who converted Java at the beginning of the fifth century.
### CEYLON
At the beginning of our period a most significant discussion took place about the question whether learning or practice is the more important. The Dhammakathikas who stressed learning rather than practical realization were victorious and as a result the whole character of Ceylonese Buddhism changed. The learned monks were greatly honoured and in consequence all able and intelligent monks applied themselves to book-learning. The full-time practice of meditation was normally taken up by elderly monks of weak intellect and feeble physique. Book-learning soon included not only the Tipitaka, but also languages, grammar, history, logic, medicine, etc., the Buddhist monasteries became centres of learning and culture, and they were also made artistically attractive. In the first century BC Saddhátissa, the king's brother, had asked the monks to name even one holy man who deserved his veneration. The Sinhalese commentaries, on the other hand, assume that at that time the island was full of Arahats and for a long time afterwards many monks continued to live a strictly disciplined and austere spiritual life. As we know from Fa Hien and Yüan Tsang, Ceylon enjoyed a high reputation in other Buddhist lands.
During the fifth century three scholars, all non-Ceylonese from Southern India, translated the old Sinhalese commentaries into Páli. They were Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa and Dhammapála. The most famous of them, Buddhaghosa, gave in his "Path to Purity" (Visuddhimagga) a splendid survey of Buddhist doctrine. The book is a compendium of the Tipitaka, one of the great masterpieces of Buddhist literature which describes authoritatively, lucidly and in great detail the principal meditational practices of the Buddhist Yogin. At the end of the fifth century also a council revised the text of the Tipitaka. From this time onwards the doctrine and tradition of the Theravádins has been definitely fixed. And about 400 the Páli Suttas had for the first time been translated into Sinhalese.
For its vitality the Buddhism of Ceylon continued to depend on its contact with India, but the nature of this contact had altered in the second period. The communications with the Western ports were now abandoned, and communications went through the ports at the mouth of the Ganges. In this way the influence of the monks of Magadha, particularly the Múlasarvástivádins, made itself felt.
There was during this period much discord and controversy between the two principal monasteries, the Mahávihára and the Abhayagirivihára, the latter having been founded in 24 bc. The Abhayagiri monks had a more democratic attitude to laymen, had more contact with India, were liberal in their views, welcomed new ideas from abroad, and were more progressive than the conservative Mahávihára monks. Soon after their foundation they received Vatsíputríya monks (see p. 21) from India. Later on they added to the basic Theraváda a superstructure of Maháyána doctrines and scriptures. At the end of the third century we hear of a new school among them, called Vaitulyaváda. This was probably a form of Maháyána, and in the fourth century Sanghamitra, an Indian Maháyánist "versed in the exorcism of spirits", won the support of the king, and the Mahávihára was closed for a time. But Sanghamitra was soon killed by a carpenter, and after 362 the Mahávihára began to function again. At this time, in AD 371, the left eye tooth of the Buddha was brought to Ceylon from Dantapura in Kalinga, and this precious relic was entrusted to the Abhayagiri monastery which because of its Maháyána leanings was more willing to encourage bhaktic piety. In the beginning of the fifth century Fa Hien counted 60,000 monks in Ceylon, of whom 5,000 belonged to the Abhayagiri, and 3,000 to the Mahávihára. The Ceylonese orthodoxy has succeeded in suppressing the entire literature of the Abhayagirivádins, but one of their works is preserved in a Chinese translation. It is Upatissa's _Vimuttimaijga_ , which has the same theme as Buddhaghosa's "Path to Purity", and was written before his time. It is curious to observe that it does not depart from Theravádin doctrines on any fundamental issues.
### EXPANSION INTO GREATER ASIA
Five whole centuries had to elapse before Buddhism had penetrated the Indian subcontinent, about as long as it took Rome to conquer the Italian peninsula. Now, about 500 years after the Buddha's Nirvana, His religion could begin to expand into Greater Asia. Gandhára, in the North-West of India, was the birthplace of Buddhism as a world religion. It was from here that the monks in the saffron robe gradually filtered into Central Asia, and from there into China, and further on. And it was chiefly the Maháyána form of Buddhism which took root outside India.
We must give some explanation why the Maháyánists were so much more effective missionaries than the Híayánists. It was not that the latter were deficient in missionary zeal, but they were handicapped by the fact that they were rather inflexible literalists, whereas the Maháyána claimed much greater freedom in interpreting the letter of the Scriptures. This applied to both monastic rules and doctrinal propositions. For instance, if the rules about eating meat are strictly interpreted, nomadic populations will remain without the consolations of the Dharma, because among them the Vinaya rules cannot be strictly observed. Maháyána monks quickly found a way round unworkable rules, and reinterpreted them to fit the circumstances. Of particular importance for the success of their missionary enterprises was their attitude to the Vinaya rule which forbids monks to practise medicine. The history of Christian missions in recent centuries shows that, violence apart, the medical missionaries effected more conversions than anyone else. The sword was the one method which the Buddhists disdained to use, but the scalpel, the herb and the potion opened to the Maháyánists the houses of the poor and rich alike. They convinced themselves that compassion and their responsibilities to their fellow-men counted for more than a well-meant monastic rule and they zealously gave themselves over to the study and practice of medicine, which formed part of the curriculum for instance at Nalanda University and also at the monastic institutions of Tibet.
The same latitudinarianism was practised with regard to doctrinal questions. Great care was taken to minimize the differences between Buddhist and non-Buddhist opinions, to absorb as much of the pre-existing views of their converts as was possible, be they Taoist, Bon, Shinto, Manichean or shamanistic. This latitudinarianism is of course in danger of lapsing into laxity in the moral and into arbitrary conjectures in the doctrinal field. The latter danger was on the whole more effectively avoided than the former and the best Maháyána literature contains little, if anything, that to any fair-minded Buddhist can appear as positively unorthodox. There was one factor which limited and restrained the "skill in means" of these men, and that was the fact that before they wrote their books their minds had been remoulded and disciplined by many years of meditation on traditional lines.
_China_ was the first large country to be penetrated by Buddhist thought. As in Japan and Tibet later on, Buddhism went through five stages, which will act as our guides for the arrangement of our material.
1. There was first a period of consolidation, marked by translations of the basic texts.
2. This was followed by a preliminary attempt at coming to terms with the material. Buddhism did not move into a spiritual vacuum, but everywhere it encountered people formed by some previous tradition – by Taoism and Confucianism in China, Shinto in Japan, Bon in Tibet.
3. After this, the next, or third phase, is marked by a more mature assimilation of the doctrine, but still largely in dependence on Indian models. In China, for instance, this took the form of either numerous, generally brief, commentaries, or of original doctrinal treatises which were passed off as translations from the Sanskrit. Two of these are very well known. The one is the famous "Awakening of Faith", wrongly attributed to Aśvaghosa, and the other the so-called Súrangama Sútra, said to have been brought from Nalanda, but actually written in China by Fang Jong.
4. We now come to the fourth phase, which is perhaps the most important of all and normally took 600 years to reach. A truly Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism, which no longer did violence to the national character, asserted itself – in China with the Ch'an sect, in Japan in the Kamakura period, in Tibet with the Kahgyudpas and Gelugpas.
5. Then finally there is the period of decay. The first phase, as we saw, was one of bare copying; in the second one asserted one's independence, somewhat wilfully, as a child in its second year; in the third one attained some true independence, without however quite daring to, as in adolescence; in the fourth phase the native genius at last fully asserted itself. This child had grown up. The creative manhood of Buddhism lasted for several centuries. Manhood is followed by old age, and after a time the creative powers of Buddhism waned.
### CENTRAL ASIA
Spreading from the Indo-Greek Bactrian kingdoms, Buddhism had by the second century BC been well established in Central Asia. Khotan, Kucha, Turfan, etc., were at that time flourishing centres of culture, owing to the caravan routes which went through them. The establishment of Buddhism on the great silk routes was an event of decisive importance for its future propagation in Eastern Asia. Among the schools, the Sarvástiváda and Maháyána were most strongly represented. They brought their Scriptures with them and in the course of the twentieth century European travellers have made many invaluable finds in the sands of Turkestan, which yielded both Indian books imported into Central Asia and translations of the Scriptures into the local languages, such as Sogdian, Khotanese, Kuchean, etc. We have also, in Kuchean, several works written in Kucha itself, imitating the Buddhist Sanskrit writings of India, but no really original works of local origin have come down to us. In addition these expeditions, carried out between 1900 and 1915, have brought to light a highly eclectic Buddhist art which offers a curious blend of Greco-Buddhist influences from Gandhara with others from the Roman Empire, and from Arsaco-Sassanid and Chinese Art. Through it the Greco-Buddhist art spread to China, where it led to the Wei art of the fifth century. In these cosmopolitan centres of intercontinental trade Buddhism was exposed to new religious influences which it had not encountered so far. It not only met with Christianity in its Nestorian form, but also with the Manicheans who were very active in that area, particularly among the Sogdians, and who left some traces on the Buddhist doctrines evolved there.
### CHINA
From Central Asia Buddhism was brought, by a natural transition, to China, which had conquered that region in the first century BC and kept it until the end of the Han dynasty (AD 220). The beginnings are said to go back to somewhere between 70 and 50 bc, and the religion slowly spread under the Han dynasty. But at first it was a foreign religion of the non-Chinese populations in China's outlying marches. In 148 a Parthian, Ngan Che Kao, and in 170 an Indian, Tshou Cho-fo, and a Yueh-chi, Tche tsh'an, arrived in China from Central Asia and established a monastery in Lo-yang, the capital of the Han. It was only in the period of disunity (221–589) which followed on the collapse of the Han, that Buddhism really became a major force in China itself. Only in 355 were Chinese for the first time permitted to become monks, at least in the realm of the Eastern Ts'in rulers. In the second century foreigners from Central Asia – Parthians, Sogdians, Indians, etc. – did some translations. In the third and fourth centuries Buddhism gained momentum among the people and at the Court, and some emperors clearly favoured it. By AD 400 1,300 works had been translated. Then came Kumárajíva, whose translations, made with the help of Chinese literati, were classical works and are still being read. By 500 Buddhism was firmly established throughout the whole of China and in a flourishing condition, with countless monasteries, temples, and sculptured grottoes for the monks.
This was a remarkable success for a religion which offended Chinese official sentiment at many points, for it seemed indifferent to the perpetuation of the family, showed little loyalty to the country and seemed to encourage baseless superstitions. The Buddhist clergy, on the ground that they had withdrawn from the world, refused to make the socially recognized signs of outward respect to the Son of Heaven and his representatives. All through its history, in fact, the Buddhist Church tended to develop into a state within the state. Their opponents blamed them for enjoying the benefits of the rule of the Son of Heaven without doing anything in return. The Buddhists claimed that on the contrary it is the monk, if anyone, who dispenses munificence, for enormous benefits accrue to the whole of society from his practice of the way of the Buddha. In fact, the benefits bestowed by the Son of Heaven are as but a drop of water when compared to the favours dispensed on all mankind by the Buddhist clergy. The state, however, always insisted on controlling the Buddhist Church through the Ministry of Worship and saw to it that to some extent the monks lived up to their claim that they were sacrificing themselves for the good of the people.
The traditionalist opponents also stressed the foreign origin of Buddhism, which came from "barbarian lands", and the doctrine of reincarnation seemed to them quite incredible because they believed that when a man dies his soul also perishes. The problem of survival after death aroused intense interest at the time. In their polemics the Chinese Buddhists were apt to stray away from the orthodox denial of an individual soul and to postulate some enduring "spiritual something of the finest essence", which transmigrates from existence to existence. They quoted either Lao Tzu or the Yellow Emperor as having said that "the body suffers destruction, but the soul undergoes no change. With its unchangingness it rides upon changes and thus passes through endless transformations." This did not really well agree with Buddhism as it had been understood up to then.
The success was of course largely due to the fact that Buddhism contained a message which the indigenous teachers could not provide. For, as Seng-yu expressed it in the fifth century, "none of them have measured the shape of Heaven or peered into the mind of the Sage". Both the ruling classes and the people supported the new religion. The Emperors would be pleased to number as many peace-loving Buddhists as possible among their subjects, because Chinese society never knew universal conscription, and has always valued Peace very highly. The ruling layers of society would find the Buddhist priests more amenable than their Taoist rivals who were continually fomenting rebellions among the peasantry and whose churches were supported by contributions of the members who constituted them. The Buddhists, on the other hand, relied on the donations of wealthy laymen, and could therefore be relied upon not to pursue unwelcome political schemes of their own. The masses, finally, were greatly attracted to the Bodhisattva ideal which opened the highest possibilities even for those low on the social scale; the Buddhist pantheon, with merciful deities like Kuan Yin and others, brought encouragement and comfort; and from the support of the Buddha and Samgha they expected rewards in an after-life. It was widely believed in China that thereby one could influence Yama, the God of the Nether World. Some Buddhist priests, like for instance Buddha Mátanga in the third century, performed miracles, prophesied and cured diseases by means of their spells.
The development of Chinese Buddhist thought was largely determined by the choice of the sacred texts which were translated into Chinese. Among the first and most influential were the Sútras on Prajñápáramitá. The mentality of the Chinese is said to be rationalistic, positivistic, matter-of-fact and anti-metaphysical. That this is only one side of their national character is shown by the enthusiastic reception which they gave to the highly metaphysical Prajñápáramitá literature from Han times onwards. The Bible was not studied with greater avidity in Protestant Europe than these very abstract writings on perfect wisdom and emptiness in China. Other works which gained a great popularity, and often became the nucleus of separate schools, were the _Lotus of the Good Law_ (translations 250 onwards), which attracted the Chinese by the splendour of the scenery and by its parables, the story of _Vimalakírti_ (translations 188 onwards), which fascinated by the noble picture of a "white-robed" layman who took the sickness of the world upon himself, and the Nirvana Sútra (translation of 423) which seemed interesting for its teaching about the Buddha-nature within each of us. Between 200 and 450 there developed a strong interest in the technical details of Buddhist meditation, and many handbooks were translated during that period.
The rise of Buddhism coincided with the revival of Taoism, and many Chinese stressed the similarity in outlook between these intellectual trends. Few doubted that the Truth as it had been seen by the Buddha and the sages of China, by Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu in particular, was one and the same. Until the fifth century, many Taoists considered Buddhism as one more method of reaching Taoist goals. In the third century Wang Fo wrote a famous pamphlet, in which he represented Buddhism as the result of "the conversion of the Barbarians by Lao-tzu".
Taoist terminology was often deliberately used to explain Buddhist concepts and in any case many of the Chinese equivalents of Sanskrit technical terms had first been used with a Taoist meaning, which to some extent influenced their use also in Buddhist contexts. A word like tao, used to translate _márga_ ,or "Path", would automatically carry with it many Taoist connotations and overtones quite unforeseen and unintended in the Sanskrit scriptures of India. _Shou-yi_ , the equivalent of _satipatthána_ , was often equated with the Taoist _Shou-yi_ , meaning the retention of the flame of life; or _nairátmya_ , translated as the "absence of _sben_ (body)", was easily misunderstood as existence without a body, or in a spirit body; and "Emptiness" was identified with _pen-wu_ , the "Original Non-existence" of Lao-tzu, the "Void filled to the brim", which, like a womb, carries all existence within it. To a representative thinker like Hui-Yüan the Dharmakáya is equivalent to the Highest Being, Personified Nature, the Sage or Great Man of the Neo-Taoists, the Buddha, the Spirit in the Centre of Existence, and the World Soul. Buddhist ideas were freely interpreted by the use of phrases taken from Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu and the _Book of Changes_ and it was quite usual to read the Taoist world-view into the Buddhist system. Less pronounced was the influence of Confucianism, which nevertheless made itself felt in the translation of the Sútras. During this period great care was taken to alter any sentiments or phrases which would offend the Confucian sense of propriety in such matters as family ethics, the relation between the sexes and the attitude to social superiors.
The main problem which interested the indigenous Buddhists during this period was taken from the Taoist tradition and concerned the relationship of being ( _yu_ ) and non-being ( _wu_ ), which later they identified with the "emptiness" ( _Súnyatá_ ) of the Sanskrit writings. The discussion of this problem led to the emergence of " _the seven schools_ ". Among these Tao-an's (312–85) School of Original Non-being taught that "non-being lies prior to the myriad kinds of evolution, and emptiness is at the beginning of the multitudinous shapes of physical things". The variations of this doctrine are counted as the second school. The third concentrated on the question of the emptiness of matter. The fourth teaches "the non-being of mind" which means "that the sage lacks any deliberate mind toward the ten thousand things; it does not mean that these things themselves are ever non-existent". This leads to the demand that we should "stop the activities of the mind within, and not let it be impeded by external matter", which is re-echoed in Chinese Buddhism again and again. The fifth, the "school of stored impressions", maintains that all phenomena are apparitions in a dream caused by mind and consciousness and will cease, together with the source, when we awaken from this dream. "Then the triple world is seen to be empty, and although the mind is extinguished, there is nothing it cannot produce." The sixth, called the "school of phenomenal illusion", taught that "all dharmas are equally illusory and, being so, constitute what pertains to ordinary truth. But the spirit ( _shen_ ) of the mind is genuine and not empty, and as such pertains to the highest truth. For if this spirit were likewise empty, to whom could the Buddhist doctrine be taught and who would be there to cultivate its path, renounce the world and become a Sage? Hence we know that the Spirit is not empty." The seventh "school of causal combination" finally asserted that being, or worldly truth, results from the combination of causes and their disconnection leads to non-being, which is the highest truth.
About 400 _Kumárajíva_ 's scholarly work consolidated Buddhism and gave it greater prestige. He came from Kucha, born in 344 of an Indian father. Carried off as war booty to China in 384, he lived for fifteen years in Leang-chou in Kansu, and was taken in 402 to the capital of Chang-an, where he became Kuo-Shih, or Director of Religious Instruction, and died in 413. He enlisted the patronage of the emperor Yao Hsing, and translated more than a hundred works. Originally he was a Sarvástivádin monk, but later, while still in Kucha, he was converted to the doctrines of Nágárjuna.
His two most important disciples were Seng-chao (384-414) and Chu Tao-sheng ( _c_. 360-434). Seng-chao's writings, collected under the title "Book of Chao", represent an interesting combination of Buddhism and Neo-Taoism. On this period the basic oppositions within Buddhist thinking were considered equivalent to those of Neo-Taoism. The contrast between the Absolute ( _bhútatathatá_ ) and the temporal sequence of production and stopping seemed to correspond to that between non-being ( _wu_ ) and being ( _yu_ ); that between permanence and impermanence to that between quiescence ( _ching_ ) and movement ( _tung_ ); and the contrast between Nirvána and Samsára to that of non-activity ( _wu wei_ ) and having activity ( _yu wei_ ). Sengchao discussed the Buddhist philosophy of the Maháyána on the basis of these equivalences and his views are the first formulated indigenous Chinese Buddhist philosophical system which has come down to us.
Tao-sheng sounded one of the leitmotifs of Chinese Buddhism when he said: "Ever since the transmission of the scriptures eastward (i.e. to China), their translators have encountered repeated obstacles, and many have been blocked by holding too narrowly to the text, with the result that few have been able to see the complete meaning. Let them forget the fish-trap and catch the fish. Then one may begin to talk with them about the Way ( _Tao_ )." One of the questions which agitated the Chinese Buddhists of that time was that of the destiny of the Icchantikas. Are there any beings called _icchantikas_ (a word of unknown etymological derivation), who are forever excluded from Buddhahood? Tao-sheng asserted, in opposition to most other scholars, that the _icchantikas_ also possess the Buddha-nature and are therefore capable of achieving Buddhahood, During his own lifetime a fuller text of the _Great Nirvana Sútra_ reached China and confirmed his views.
Tao-sheng also taught that "Buddhahood is achieved through instantaneous enlightenment". To his contemporaries this teaching appeared to be a "new doctrine", and the denial of a gradual enlightenment continued to be one of the special features of Chinese Buddhism. In the fifth century already Lu-cheng (425–94), a scholar-official, ascribed this difference in emphasis to a difference in national psychology. "The people of China have a facility for comprehending Truth intuitively or 'mirroring' it, but difficulty in acquiring learning. Therefore they close themselves to the idea of accumulating learning, but open themselves to that of one final ultimate. The Hindus, on the other hand, have a facility for acquiring learning, but difficulty in comprehending Truth intuitively. Therefore they close themselves to the idea of instantaneous comprehension, but open themselves to that of gradual enlightenment." In fact, Indian Buddhists had made a distinction between "gradual" and "sudden" enlightenment, but had regarded the second as the final stage of the first and nobody had thought of taking sides for one or the other. Tao-sheng now argues that, since the absolute emptiness of Nirvana is absolutely and totally different from all conditioned things, the enlightenment which mirrors it must also be totally different from all mental stages which are directed on other things. In consequence, enlightenment, if it is to be achieved at all, can be achieved only in its totality, and not in a gradual or piecemeal fashion. Many preparatory stages must, of course, precede the final flash of insight, but those ought to be called "learning"; they remain inside phenomenal existence and are not a part of the actual experience of enlightenment itself. For "when the single enlightenment comes, all the myriad impediments are equally brought to an end". The final vision is the total extinction of all ties, final liberation from them, for "what is genuine, that is permanent; what is temporary is false". From Tao-sheng's time onwards this theme was constantly debated in China and the theoreticians were divided into supporters of "gradual" or "instantaneous" enlightenment respectively.
So far about metaphysics. Popular faith, in its turn, was preoccupied with rebirth in Paradise. There were at that time three principal Paradises – that of the Buddha Akshobhya in the East, that of Amitábha in the West, and that of Maitreya at a future time on earth. The cult of _Akshobbya_ is attested for Han times, and the faithful were advised to imitate him in never feeling wrath or anger for any being, in order that they may be reborn in Abhirati, His kingdom far away on a star in the East. In the course of time the cult of _Amitábha_ proved more popular. It is said to have been first made known by the translations and preachings of the Arsacid prince An-Shih-Kao about AD 150. At the end of the fourth century, Hui-Yüan (334–416), a former Taoist, who even after his conversion to Buddhism still used Chuang-tzu's writings to explain his new faith, made the Lu-Feng monastery in Hupeh into a centre of the cult. In 402 a group of 124 persons was formed who prayed to be reborn in Amidas Paradise. This group was later on called the "Fellowship of the White Lotus" and was the prototype of the later Ching-t'u movement. Like the other Chinese schools, the Ching-t'u or "Pure Land" school was really founded only after AD 500. Akshobhya and Amitábha are cosmic Buddhas known only to the Maháyána. _Maitreya_ , on the other hand, is the future Buddha due to appear on this earth, and he is known to both Maháyánists and Hínayánists. Sútras describing the splendour of the earth at the time of His coming were translated into Chinese in this our second period, but Maitreya's greatest popularity in China lay between _c._ AD 400 and 650 and His cult seems to have been largely stimulated by the Yogácárin school.
## **THREE**
## The Third Period: AD 500–1000
### INDIA
The most important event in India in this third period is the emergence of the _Tantra._ In addition we will have to say a few words about the _Pála synthesis_ of Maháyána thought, the development of _logic_ , and the doings of the _Hínayánists._
The _Tantra_ is the third, and last, creative achievement of Indian Buddhist thought. It went through roughly three phases. The first may be called _Mantrayána._ It began in the fourth century, gained momentum after AD 500, and what it did was to enrich Buddhism by the appurtenances of magical tradition, utilizing them for the purpose of facilitating the search for enlightenment. In this way many mantras, mudrás, mandalas and new deities were more or less unsystematically introduced into Buddhism. This was, after 750, followed by a systematization, called the _Vajrayána_ , which co-ordinated all previous teachings with a group of Five Tathágatas. In the course of time, further trends and systems made their appearance. Noteworthy among them is the _Sahajayána_ , which, like the Chinese Ch'an school, stressed meditational practices and the cultivation of intuition, taught by riddles, paradoxes and concrete images, and avoided the fate of turning into a dead scholasticism by holding on to no rigidly defined tenets. Towards the end of our period, in the tenth century, we have the _Kálacakra_ , "Wheel of Time", which is marked by the extent of its syncretism and by its emphasis on astrology.
This new movement arose in the South and the North-West of India. Non-Indian influences, from China, Central Asia and the border lands round India, played a great part in shaping it. There was also much absorption of ideas from aboriginal tribes within India itself. The Tantra endeavoured to assign an honoured, though subordinate, role to all the spirits, sprites, fairies, fiends, demons, ogres and ghosts which had haunted the popular imagination, as well as to the magical practices so dear to all nomadic and agricultural populations. This further step in popularizing the religion aimed at providing it with a more solid foundation in society. But as far as the elite was concerned, there was the important difference that non-Buddhists use magic to acquire power, whereas the Buddhists do so to free themselves from the powers alien to their own true being.
The Tantra departed from the early Maháyána in its definition of the goal and of the ideal type of person and also in its method of teaching. The aim is still Buddhahood, though no longer at a distant future, aeons and aeons hence, but Buddhahood right now, "in this very body", "in the course of one single thought", achieved miraculously by means of a new, quick and easy way. The ideal saint is now the _Siddha_ , or magician, who has, however, some resemblance to a Bodhisattva as he was said to be after the eighth stage (see pp. 35–6), with his wonder-working powers fully developed.
As for the method of teaching, the Maháyána had stated its doctrines in _Sútras_ and _S_ O _ástras_ which were public documents, available to anyone sufficiently interested to procure, and sufficiently intelligent to understand them. In their stead we now witness the composition of a new vast canonical literature of _Tantras_ , which are secret documents destined only for a chosen few who are properly initiated by a _guru_ , or teacher, and which are phrased in a deliberately mysterious and ambiguous language, meaningless in itself without the oral explanations of a teacher who had been properly initiated into its secrets. The secret has been well kept, and although thousands of Tantras are still extant, modern scholars seldom have a clue to their meaning, partly because, hypnotized by the "scientific" assumptions of their own age, they have little sympathy with magical modes of thinking. The general principles of Tantric teaching can be inferred with some certainty, but the concrete detail, which is bound up with actual yogic practices and constituted the real message, eludes our grasp. Unlike the early Maháyánists (see p. 31), the Tantric authors no longer link their scriptures with Śákymuni, but frankly assign them to some mythical Buddha who is said to have preached them at some remote and distant past.
The foundations for these new literary conventions were laid already in the Yogácára school. That school systematizes the experiences gained in the course of an excessively introverted transic meditation, and the Yogins were convinced that the visions they had in trance had much greater reality than what we call "facts", than dates or localities, than individuals, their names and biographies. In consequence they tell us that certain works are due to the inspiration of, say, "Maitreya" and forget to mention the individual name of the human author who took down the inspiration. They thus cause great difficulties to modern historical research, though in their own view they tell us all that is essential and needful. The Yogácárins had also for a long time shown a keen interest in the more secretive modes of conveying information, and Asanga's _Maháyána-samgraha_ contains a fine classification of the permissible ways by which a "hidden meaning" may be conveyed, when one says something different from what one really wants to say. It was in fact from the Yogácára branch of the Maháyána that the Tantric ideas and practices originated.
The new trend was bound to weaken the monastic system. By fostering the development of small conventicles of disciples who owed absolute submission to their _guru_ it favoured the dispersal of the Samgha into self-sufficient bands of Yogins, many of whom believed that they were spiritually so developed as not to need the restraint of the monastic rules any longer, while others by their unconventional behaviour liked to cock a snook at the sheltered lives of the ordinary monks.
The mantrayanic development was originally a natural reaction against the increasingly adverse historical trends which threatened to suffocate Indian Buddhism. In their defence and for their protection its adherents now more and more mobilized magical and occult powers and invoked the help of more and more mythological beings, whose actual reality was attested to them in the practice of transic meditation. Among these great attention was paid to the "wrathful" deities, like the "Protectors of the Dharma", also called _vidyárájá_ , "kings of the sacred lore", who are inherently well-meaning, but assume a terrifying appearance to protect the faithful. It is also interesting to note that in their search for security the Buddhists of that time more and more relied on feminine deities. Already about AD 400 Tárá and Prajñápáramitá had been adored as celestial Bodhisattvas. They were soon joined by the "Five Protectresses", with Mahámáyurí, "the great Pea Hen", at their head. Later on the practitioners of advanced mystical meditation evolved a whole pantheon of feminine deities, like Cundá, Vasudhará, Usnísavijayá, Vajravárahí, Buddhalocaña, and others; the practitioners of the magical arts were especially devoted to the "Queens of the sacred Lore" and to the dákinís, or "sky walkers"; and the general population was encouraged to turn for their own specific interests to goddesses who gave children, protected from the small-pox and so on. After 700 the so-called "left-handed" Tantra added consorts of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. These were called _Vidyás_ of _Prajñás_ , corresponding literally to the _Ennoias_ and _Sophias_ of the Gnostics. A seemingly erotic ritual often accompanied the cult of the vidyás, and this aspect of the Tantra has greatly bemused the more unsophisticated European enquirers. Nothing need be said about it here, because the actual facts of this ritual are totally unknown to us.
The belief in the occult, in magic and miracles, has at all times been an integral part of Buddhism, though more by way of recognizing an established fact than as a matter of urgent practical importance. But as the spiritual potency of the Dharma waned and as history was felt to become more and more adverse, greater reliance was placed on magic to ward off dangers and secure help. We find that after AD 300 sporadically _mantras_ of all kinds are slowly incorporated into the holy writings. These were also called _dháranís_ , from the root _dhr_ , because they are intended to "uphold" or "sustain" the religious life. Then, after AD 500, all the customary procedures of magic were resorted to, rituals as well as magical circles and diagrams. These were employed to both guard the spiritual life of the elite, and to give to the unspiritual multitude that which it desired. Mudrás, or ritual gestures, often reinforced the efficacy of the spells.
Moreover there are the _mandalas_ , the harmonious beauty of which still appeals to our aesthetic sense. Magical circles, which mark off a sacred or ritually pure spot, are, of course, as old as magic and go back well into prehistoric times. The peculiar Buddhist arrangement of mandalas seems, however, to have developed in Central Asia and owes much to the pattern of the Chinese TLV mirrors of the Han dynasty. The mandala expresses cosmic and spiritual forces in a mythological, or personified, form, representing them by the images of deities, shown either in their visual appearance, or by the syllable which allows us to evoke them and which constitutes their occult principle. These symbols, properly read, allow us to give expression to deeply hidden fears, primordial impulses and archaic passions. Through them we can chain, dominate and dissolve the forces of the universe, effect a revulsion from all the illusory things of the samsaric world, and achieve reunion with the light of the one absolute Mind. Mandalas are a special form of age-old diagrams of the cosmos, considered as a vital process which develops from one essential principle and which rotates round one central axis, Mount Sumeru, the axis _mundi._ Such diagrams were reproduced not only in mandalas, but also in ritual vases, royal palaces, Stupas and Temples. Owing to the equivalence of macrocosm and microcosm, the drama of the universe is reproduced in each individual, whose mind, as well as whose body, can be regarded as a _mandala_ , as the scene of the quest for enlightenment. The construction and designing of _mandalas_ , and the evocation of deities, were naturally governed by strict rules and well defined ritual observances.
The creative outburst of the early Tantra led to a complete chaos of assumptions about cosmic and spiritual forces and it was the _Vajrayána_ which imposed order on the vast inchoate mass of traditions which had evolved. It adopted a fivefold division of all cosmic forces, each class being in a sense presided over by one out of five Tathágatas. The names of the Five Tathágatas were Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitábha and Amoghasiddhi. A complicated and most intricate system of magical correspondences, identifications, transformations and transfigurations then link all the forces and facts of the universe with these five "families". The body in particular is regarded as a microcosm, which embodies the entire universe and is the medium for realizing the truth, very largely by methods which form a part of what is nowadays known as _Hathayoga_ in India. We hear much about parallelisms between the visible, the audible and the touchable, and everything is designed to unite the powers of mind, speech and body for the purpose of realizing the final state of completeness, or enlightenment. The Vajrayána has been well defined as "the art of living which enables us to utilize each activity of body, speech and mind as an aid on the Path to Liberation", and in this way it is astonishingly akin to the contemporary Ch'an school. The true meaning of Vajrayána teachings is, however, not always easy to ascertain, because here it has become a convention to clothe the highest into the form of the lowest, to make the most sacred appear as the most ordinary, the most transcendent as the most earthly, and the sanest knowledge is disguised by the most grotesque paradoxes. This is a deliberate shock therapy directed against the over-intellectualization of Buddhism at that time. The abundant sexual imagery in particular was intended to shock monkish prudery. Enlightenment, the result of a combination of wisdom and skill in means, is represented by the union of female and male in the ecstasy of love. Their becoming one in enlightenment is the highest indescribable happiness ( _mahásukha_ ).
The further development of Buddhism in Northern India was greatly influenced by the accidents of royal patronage. In the seventh century, King Harshavardhana, a lesser Aśoka, patronized Buddhism, preferring first the Sammitíyas, and then, perhaps as a result of Yüan-tsang's visit in 630–44, the Maháyána, though Śhivaism may have been his own personal religion. It was, however, the _Pála_ dynasty of Bengal (750–1150) who by their support of the great Buddhist universities determined the history of Buddhism for centuries to come. From the sixth to the ninth centuries, Nalanda had been the centre of living thought for the entire Buddhist world. Under the Pála dynasty new centres were founded in Eastern India, especially Vikramaśíla, and Odantapuri. These together with Jaggadala and Somarúpa were the focal points from which Buddhist culture radiated over Asia during the ninth to twelfth centuries.
I-Tsing, who visited Nalanda about AD 700, said of the sects there that "they rest in their own places, and do not get themselves embroiled with one another". In fact, the official Buddhism of the period became a mixture of _Prajñápáramitá_ and _Tantra._ King Dharmapála ( _c_. 770–810), immediately on ascending the throne, greatly honoured the teacher Haribhadra, a leading authority on _Prajñápáramitá_ and _Abhisamayálankára_ , while not at the same time neglecting the interpreters of the _Guhyasamája_ , a celebrated Tantric text. The monks of these universities combined metaphysics and magic almost like the _Gerbert of Rheims_ and _Albert the Great of_ mediaeval folklore. Their range of interest is well typified by what Táranátha reports of one of them. "By constantly looking on the face of the holy Tárá he resolved all his doubts. He erected eight religious schools for the _Prajñápáramitá_ , four for the exposition of _Guhyasamája_ , one each for each one of three kinds of Tantra, and he also established many religious schools with provisions for teaching the _Mádhyamika_ logic. He conjured up large quantities of the elixir of life, and distributed it to others, so that old people, 150 years old and more, became young again." This _Pála synthesis_ of Maháyána thought has shown an astounding vitality. Though destroyed by the Muslims in Bengal, it spread to Java and Nepal, and in Tibet it continued as a living tradition up to recent years.
As the Buddhists preceded the Hindus in the development of Tantras, so also in that of _logic._ The social standing, as well as the income, of religious groups in the Indian Middle Ages depended to some extent on the showing they could make in the religious disputations which were about as popular at that time as tournaments were in the European Middle Ages. In this context, a knowledge of the rules by which valid can be distinguished from invalid inferences would be a definite advantage. Just as the disputes of the Greek sophists led to the logical systems of the Socratic schools, so disputes of the Indian religious sects led to the formulation of logical and epistemological theories among the Buddhists. This new trend goes back to Nágárjuna, but the first Buddhist to teach an articulate system of logic was Dinnága ( _c_. 450), a pupil of Asanga. He also initiated systematic epistemological studies among the Buddhists, discussing the sources of knowledge, the validity of perception and inference, as well as the object of knowledge, and the reality of the external world. In the course of this third period these logical studies reached great maturity with Dharmakfrti ( _c_. 600–50) and Dharmottara ( _c_. 850), who dealt with many of the problems which have occupied modern European philosophy, such as the problem of solipsism and the existence of other minds. This interest continues right to the end of Buddhism in India, and it was from there carried to Tibet and to a lesser extent to China and Japan. The logical studies of the Yogácárins developed quite naturally from some of the questions which the Vaibháshikas (see p. 43) had asked themselves and they kept Buddhist philosophical thinking abreast, and often ahead, of the time.
In India itself the Maháyánists appear to have remained numerically a minority. In AD 640, for instance, out of 250,000 monks counted by Yúan-tsang, only 70,000 to 100,000 belonged to the Maháyána. It must seem definitely unfair therefore that I can find nothing to say about the Hínayánists, and that all the space is given to their Maháyána rivals. This disproportion is perhaps due to a fault in perspective which affects most historical works. The continuing tradition, however praiseworthy, is taken for granted and passed over without comment. The life sprouting out at the growing points gets all the limelight. By way of correction it is sometimes good to remember that at any given time the majority of Buddhists were virtuous people who just carried on in the old ways, and who have no news value, just as virtuous women are said to have none.
### NEPAL AND KASHMIR
The Buddhism of _Nepal_ continued to flourish as an offshoot of that of Northern India, and Patan became a replica of one of the Pála universities. Between the seventh and ninth centuries close ties were developing with Tibet, and many Tibetans came to Nepal to learn about the Buddhism of India. It was in Nepal that Śántaraksita encountered Padmasambhava when he conveyed to him the invitation of the king of Tibet.
At the beginning of this period, the Samgha of _Kashmir_ suffered a serious setback from the invasions of the Huns, who under Mihirkula ( _c_. 515) devastated the country and persecuted the monks. After their departure Meghavahana, a Buddhist ruler, forbade all slaughter of animals, while compensating butchers and fishermen for the resulting loss. This king erected many religious buildings and his successors continued to patronize the Church. Yüan-tsang remained for two years in Kashmir. He found about 5,000 monks, but noted that "at the present time this kingdom is not much given to the faith". New prosperity began in the seventh and eighth centuries with the Karkota rulers. The faith revived again, though in a form which brought it nearer to Hindu cults. This shows itself in Sarvajñamitra, and his Hymns in praise of Tárá. Sorcery and miracle-working spread and the monks practised how to make or stop rain, how to check the flow of flooded rivers, etc. The spread of Tantrism and Devotionalism brought Buddhism nearer to Śivaism, which in its turn in the ninth and tenth centuries developed, with Vasugupta and others, firm philosophical foundations. About 1000 we have Kshemendra, who wrote Avadánas, Buddhist legends resembling Brahminic Mahátmyas. In the ninth century many Kashmiri monks went to Tibet.
### CEYLON
At this time the Theravádin sect managed to expand beyond Ceylon itself on the route between Ceylon and the places of pilgrimage in Magadha, and many were found in Southern India and in the region of the two ports through which they went, i.e. the Ganges delta (Támralipti) in the East and Bharukaccha in the West. In Ceylon itself the Abhidhamma was greatly honoured, but at the same time magical practices began to be encouraged. About 660 we hear for the first time of the chanting of _Paritta_ as a ceremony, which became a regular feature of later Buddhism in Ceylon.
For a time the Maháyána was fairly strong, and both Prajnaparamita and Tantra had their centres in the island. The Indikutasaya Copper Plates have preserved for us parts of one of the large Prajñápáramitá Sútras in Sinhalese script of the eighth or ninth century. The Abhayagiri continued to import many Maháyána features and its relations to the Mahávihára remained unfriendly. About 620 the members of the Mahávihára refused the king's request that they should hold the _uposatha_ -ceremony together with those of the Abhayagiri, and about 650 the Mahávihára were so incensed with the king for the favours he bestowed on the Abhayagiri that they applied to him the "turning down of the alms-bowl", an act equivalent to the excommunication of a layman. In 536 a book called _Dharmadhátu_ was brought to Ceylon, which probably dealt with the Three Bodies of the Buddha and this book was greatly honoured by the king and became an object of ritual worship. In the ninth century Vajrayána tenets were spread by an Indian monk residing in Abhayagiri and the king was greatly attracted to the teaching. In the words of the Chronicle, "it also became prevalent among the foolish and ignorant people of this country" and led to the formation of a special order of monks clad in dark blue robes. During the seventh century an ascetic reaction against the generally comfortable life of the monks made itself felt at the Abhayagiri. Those who strove to revive the rigours of old separated themselves in the ninth century and as _Pamsukúlikas_ they were prominent for centuries, deriving their name from the ancient practice of wearing robes made from rags collected on rubbish heaps. In the Polonnaruva period, from the end of the eighth century onwards, Hindu influences on Buddhist practices began to come in.
### CENTRAL ASIA
Under the T'ang dynasty, Central Asia once more became an intermediary between China and India, for between 692 and _c_. 800 it was again part of the Chinese empire. The Tibetans held sway for some time and many valuable Tibetan documents from Tun-huang, etc., dating from the seventh to tenth centuries, have been recovered in recent years. The empire of the Uigurs, at its height between 744 and 840, is also of some importance for the history of Buddhism. Defeated in 840 by the Kirghiz, the Uigurs then founded a new kingdom in the region of Turfan, Bechbaliq, Karachar and Kucha, which persisted in Turfan and some other areas until the fourteenth century. The Uigurs, from the eighth century onwards Manicheans, were in the ninth century converted to Buddhism and an abundance of Buddhist works was translated into Uigur from the Sanskrit, Kuchean, Khotanese and Chinese. Generally speaking, however, after 900 Turkish Islamic populations displaced the Buddhist Indo-Europeans in Central Asia.
### SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Buddhism reached South-East Asia as the result of the colonizing activities of Hindus, who not only founded trading stations, but also brought their cults and culture with them. From the third century onwards the area, also known as "Further India", was increasingly ruled by dynasties which could either claim Indian descent, or which were at least motivated by the ideals of Hindu civilization.
By the fifth and sixth century both Maháyána and Hínayána Buddhism had filtered into _Burma._ At first it came from the Pallava country of Southern India (Magadha) and the Sarvástivádins may well have established themselves for a time. From the ninth century onwards, Pála Buddhism was imported from Bihar and Bengal. It led in Burma to the formation of a powerful organization of monks who called themselves "Aris" (from _árya_ , "noble"). We have no information about their metaphysical teachings, but we know that they worshipped the Maháyána pantheon, were addicted to Tantric practices, justified doctrinal innovations by occasionally discovering some "hidden scripture" and absorbed many local customs, for instance the _jus primae noctis_ , which they considered as an act of religious worship.
Turning to _Indo-China_ , we find that in Cambodia about AD 400 already the reigning house, the nobility and the priesthood are Hindus. We also find a mixture of Śivaism and Maháyána first in Fu-nan, and then, after 540, in the Khmer kingdom, of which Angkor became the capital in 802. The Khmers erected many huge buildings, some of which were devoted to Maháyána deities, among whom Lokeśvara and Bhaisajyaguru were specially popular. Up to about AD 1000 the syncretism of Śivaism and Maháyána also dominated the Champa kingdom, although the Maháyána element was less strong there, and also the Sammitíyas and Sarvástivádins were represented. The influence of Śrívijaya greatly strengthened the Maháyána during the ninth century also in Indo-China.
_Indonesia_ was likewise ruled by Indian emigrants, and a Buddhism imported from South-East India is attested there from the fifth century onwards. The imperial power of Śrívijaya after 675 replaces by Buddhism the Brahminism prevalent until then. In Sumatra the Sarvástivádins were strong in the seventh century. Later on the Vajrayána was brought in from the Pála Universities. The same happened in Central Java under the Śailendra dynasty from the eighth century onwards, although Śivaism always remained fairly strong. The Śailendras filled the Kedu plain with beautiful temples, adorned with exceptionally fine sculptures. The most famous of these is the gigantic Borobudur, a Stúpa built in the sixth century, which is a _mandala_ in stone, and symbolizes the cosmos as well as the way to salvation. Those who walk in _pradaksiná_ through its galleries will thereby ritually undergo the process of moving out of Samsara into Nirvana, ascending through the three levels of the triple world to the supramundane transcendental realm. Some of the great Maháyána texts are here illustrated on bas-reliefs, i.e. the _Játakamálá, Lalitavistara, Gandavyúha_ and _Karmavibhanga._
### CHINA AND KOREA
The three centuries between 500 and 800 were the most prosperous and creative years for Chinese Buddhism. The religion was now assimilated, and became an integral part of national life. Eight indigenous schools arose during this period. They were (1) the Lü-tsung, founded by Tao-Hsüan (595–667); (2) the San-lun, founded by Chi-tsang (549–623); (3) the Weih-shih, founded by Yüan-tsang (596–664); (4) the Mi-tsung, founded by Amoghavajra (705–74); (5) the Hua-yen tsung, founded by Tu-shun (557–640); (6) the Tien-t'ai, founded by Chih-k'ai (538–597); (7) the Ching-t'u, founded by Shan-tao (613–81); and (8) the Ch'an school, said to have been founded by Bodhidharma about 520.
The first school, or _Vinaya_ sect, had no doctrinal significance, its purpose being to work for a stricter observance of the Vinaya rules, particularly as regards ordination and the begging of food. The school had some success in raising the standards of monastic strictness, but it soon passed to the periphery of the Buddhist world.
The next three schools are Indian scholastic systems, which remained more or less foreign bodies in Chinese Buddhism and did not endure for more than a few centuries. The _San-lun_ is the Chinese form of the Mádhyamikas. It is based, as the name says, on "three treatises", one by Nágárjuna and two by Áryadeva, and continues the work done by Kumárajíva about 400. Chi-tsang, its founder, was a most prolific writer of books, chiefly commentaries and encyclopaedias. The general purpose of the school is to discard all views, so that emptiness may prevail.
The _Weih-Shih_ is the Chinese form of the Yogácárins and its basic textbook is the _Ch'eng Weih-shih tun_ , "The Completion of the Doctrine of mere ideation". The great pilgrim Yüan-tsang had brought with him from Nálandá ten commentaries to Vasubandhus "Thirty Stanzas", and he combined them into one work, generally giving preference to the interpretations of Dharmapála (sixth century). It is the purpose of this school to discard all objects, to see that they all "are mental representations dependent upon the evolutions of consciousness", and to merge into the one Mind in which everything is mere ideation. Its tenets and attitudes were, however, not in harmony with the general tendencies of Chinese mentality. In K'uei-chi (632–82), Yüan-tsang's leading disciple, this school attracted another first-class mind, but soon it degenerated into scholastic disputes about the "seventh", "eighth" and "ninth" consciousness, which generally did nothing but reflect divergent Indian traditions, not always clearly understood.
The _Mi-tsung_ , or "School of the Mysteries", is the Chinese form of the Tantra. It is also known as Chen-yen, the school of the "Mantras". In the eighth century, three Indians, Śubhákarasimha (637–735), Vajrabodhi (670–741) and Amoghavajra (705–74), imported into China Tantric systems of the non-Shaktic type, and won great influence at the Court of the T'ang emperors. They there established a great variety of rites, partly designed to avert catastrophes from the Empire, and partly to favourably influence the fate of people after their death. The school lasted not much longer than a century, and in later times the Tantric tradition in China fell into the hands of Lama monks from Tibet.
The next three schools attained a greater degree of assimilation. First among these is the _Hua-yen-tsung_ , literally the "Wreath" school, which represents the link between Yogácára and Tantra, in that it gives a cosmic interpretation to the ontological ideas of the Yogácárins. It is derived from a study of the Indian _Avatamsaka Sútra._ Here the sameness, or identity, of everything is interpreted as the interpenetration of every element in the world with every other element. The one principle of the cosmos is present in all beings and in all things, in the sense that everything harmonizes with everything else. Each particle of dust contains all the Buddha-lands, and each thought refers to all that was, is and will be. The sensory universe is a reflex of the eternal and the mysteries of the truth can be beheld everywhere. Unlike the Tantra this school did not aim at the manipulation and control of cosmic forces by magical means, but was content with the contemplation and aesthetic appreciation of the interplay of these forces. This doctrine greatly influenced the attitude to nature in the Far East, and also inspired many artists in China and later on in Japan. The Hua Yen school, founded about 630, lasted until about AD 1000.
One of its greatest teachers was _Fa-tsang_ (643–712), the descendant of a Sogdian family and originally a disciple of Yüan-tsang, who wrote an important work called "Meditation which extinguishes false imaginations, and by which one returns to the source". With the Yogácárins he speaks of one mind which makes possible the world of particulars. But then he goes beyond the Yogácárin doctrine by claiming that everything has the following three marks, or characteristics:
1. Existentially, each particular object, each "particle of dust", contains in itself the whole realm of reality (dharmadhátu) in its entirety;
2. Creationally it can generate all possible kinds of virtue, and any object may therefore reveal the secrets of the entire world;
3. In each particle the emptiness of true reality is perceivable.
Six kinds of contemplation are recommended to the disciple:
1. To look into the serenity of Mind to which all things return;
2. To realize that the world of particulars exists because of the One Mind;
3. To observe the perfect and mysterious interpenetration of all things;
4. To observe that there is nothing but Suchness;
5. To observe that the mirror of Sameness reflects the images of all things, which thereby do not obstruct each other;
6. To observe that, when one particular object is picked up, all the others are picked up with it.
The _T'ien-t'ai_ school is so called because its founder, Chih-k'ai, lived and taught in the T'ien-t'ai mountains in Chekiang. It is also known as the _Fa-hua_ , or "Lotus" school, because it took the _Saddharmapundaríka_ as its basic text. Chih-k'ai wrote some extremely valuable treatises on the art of meditation. In its doctrines the T'ien-t'ai aimed at a syncretism of all the different Maháyána schools and in its general policy it tended to promote social order in collaboration with the secular authorities. Its mentality is akin to that of the Yellow Church of Tibet, although Chinese conditions produced constant checks on its political influence. In its profound and complicated philosophical teachings the T'ien-t'ai shows strong traces of the influence not only of the Weih-shih and Hua-yen schools, but also of the _Awakening of Faith in the Maháyána_ , a work falsely ascribed to Aśvaghosha, which may very well have originated in China. The T'ien-t'ai had a strong preference for calling the Absolute "true or genuine Suchness" or also the "Womb of the Tathágata", which contains within itself all the pure and impure potentialities and is thus capable of generating both this-worldly and other-worldly things.
This dualistic theory is special to the T'ien't'ai school. All things and events of the phenomenal world are "harmoniously integrated", and there is no barrier between one thing and another. The T'ien-t'ai tend to ascribe a greater degree of reality to the phenomenal world than the Indian schools would allow. In their concern with social activity they emphasized that Nirvana eliminates all ills but not likewise "the great functioning" of the universe. According to them even the Buddhas can work and stay within the circle of birth and death, because even after enlightenment they retain their impure potentialities, which cannot ever be destroyed and therefore they may, like ordinary people, be engaged in impure or mundane acts. And because every single thing contains the absolute Mind in its totality, not only, as Tao-sheng had said (see p. 58), all sentient beings have the Buddha-nature in them, but also, as Chan-jan (711–82), the ninth patriarch of the T'ien-t'ai explained, "even inanimate things possess the Buddha-nature", "and why should exception be made of even a tiny particle of dust?"
In the Ching-t'u ("Pure Land") school _Amidism_ , which had for centuries existed as a popular trend (see p. 59), became more strictly organized. This school was founded by Tao-ch'o (562–645), and consolidated by Shan-tao (613–81). These two were followed by a few more outstanding figures, called "patriarchs", the last of whom, Shao-k'ang, died in 805. After the ninth century Amidism ceases to have a separate corporate existence as a sect and becomes an influence which pervades all forms of Buddhism in China.
Amidism taught that the power inherent in the name of the Buddha Amitábha can remove all obstacles to salvation and that the mere utterance of His name (O-mi-to-fo) can assure rebirth in His kingdom. The legend of Amitábha is based chiefly on the _Sukhávatívyúha_ , a Sanskrit text of the first century AD. It tells us that inconceivable aeons ago the Bodhisattva Dharmákara made forty-eight vows, among them the promise that all who call on his name shall be saved; that later on he became the Buddha Amitábha; and that finally, ten aeons ago, in accordance with his vows, he established the Pure Land or Western Paradise which lies one million billion Buddha-lands away. This sect honoured Amitábha by multiplying copies of His statues as well as of the Sútras which deal with Him, and also by paintings which depict and by hymns which sing the splendours of the Pure Land. A study of the dated inscriptions at Long-men shows that the cult of Amitábha flourished there particularly between 647 and 715. The Amidists also worshipped Kuan-yin, the Indian Avalokiteśvara, who in the course of time changed his sex in China, and became a feminine deity.
The strength of Amidism lies in its democratic spirit. The intellectualism of religious aristocrats who retire into solitary mountain places is quite beyond the reach of the common people who must live in the bustle of ordinary life. A religion which appeals to the masses must above all aim at extreme simplification, and the great merit of the Ching-t'u teaching, according to its propounders, is that it is simple and easy to follow. All that is required by way of virtue is just faith, and the Ching-t'u authors seem to assume that that is more commonly found than the capacity for trance or wisdom.
The most important of all Chinese schools is, however, the _Ch'an_ school. It is the fourth and last of the original recreations of the Buddha's thought, the first three being the Abhidharma, the Maháyána and the Tantra. With the Tantra Ch'an is nearly contemporary and the two have much in common. The history of the Ch'an school begins with Hui-neng (638–713), also known as the "sixth Patriarch". Before Hui-neng we have a kind of pre-history of Ch'an, which is said to begin with Bodhidharma, a more or less legendary Southern Indian who came to China at the beginning of the sixth century and spent nine years in Lo-yang, the capital, in "wall-gazing". The importance of Bodhidharma lies in providing the Ch'an sect with a concrete link with the Indian tradition, a link which the school in spite of its profound originality greatly cherished. The Buddha Śákyamuni, so we are told, had given the secret doctrine to Mahákáśyapa, and from him it was transmitted to one "patriarch" after the other, but "from mind to mind, without the use of written texts", until it reached Bodhidharma, the twenty-eighth of the line. Between Bodhidharma and Hui-neng we have four more "patriarchs" who taught a Buddhism strongly tinged with Taoism in the tradition of Tao-sheng (see pp. 57–9). Among them the third patriarch, Seng-tsan (died 606), is noteworthy for his superb poem on "Believing in Mind", which is one of the great classics of Buddhist literature. These patriarchs had, however, little influence on society in general, because they lived in poverty without a fixed residence and generally made it a rule not to spend more than one night in any one place.
History further records that the interpretation of the teachings of these patriarchs led to a rift between a Northern branch, headed by Shen-hsiu ( _c_. 600–706), and a Southern branch, headed by Hui-neng, of Canton, the main point in dispute being the question of "gradual" and "sudden" enlightenment. The Northern followers of "gradual enlightenment", who assumed that our defilements must be gradually removed by strenuous practice, soon died out. What we call the Ch'an school consists of Hui-neng's numerous disciples. Organizationally, Ch'an became independent only at the time of Pochang Huai-hai (720–814). Up to then, most Ch'an monks had lived in monasteries of the Lü-tsung under the regulations of its Vinaya. Now Po-chang made a new set of rules for Ch'an monks, which tried to revive the austerity and simplicity of living conditions in the early Order, and also combined the Buddhist Vinaya with Confucian rules of etiquette. The regulations of all Ch'an monasteries are derived from Po-chang. He introduced an innovation which did much to ensure the survival and social success of his sect. The monks went on their begging round each morning, but in addition they were expected to work. "A day without work, a day without eating" was Po-chang's watchword. This was something unheard of so far. The Ch'an school has had two periods of vigorous development, the first in the Tang, the second in the Sung period. The second phase belongs to chapter IV, and here we confine ourselves to the first.
It had long been a problem whether learning or practical realization is more important. The Ch'an sect, as against the Ceylonese Dhammakathikas (see p. 46), uncompromisingly decided in favour of practical realization. They found a situation in which the fervour of the faithful had so multiplied the means of salvation, in the form of Sútras, commentaries, philosophical subtleties, images and rites, that the goal itself was apt to be lost sight of; the spiritual life was in danger of being choked by the very things which were designed to foster it. In their reaction against the overgrown apparatus of piety they advocated a radical simplification of the approach to enlightenment. They never tired of denouncing the misuse of this apparatus, which could so easily have become an end in itself. In particular they set themselves against the excessive worship paid to the scriptural traditions and insisted that salvation could not be found by the study of books. That did not mean that they studied no books at all. On the contrary their own sayings are saturated with references to such works as the _Vajracchediká Sútra_ , and the _Lankávatára Sútra_ , the two favourites of the school in its early days. But they felt strongly that the study of these Sútras should play only quite a subordinate role compared with the demands of meditation ( _Ch'an_ means _dhyána_ ) and spiritual realization. The complicated cosmological and psychological theories of the other Buddhist schools are rejected as just so much "rubbish" and "useless furniture".
By way of protest against the excesses of devotion and the current misunderstandings of the Buddha's role, a famous Ch'an master of the Tang dynasty, Tan-hsia T'ien-jan, in the eighth century, when he was cold, burned a statue of the Buddha and warmed himself by it. Because a definite fixation of the affections on a definite object might act as a fetter, another Ch'an master coldly informs us that, if you meet the Buddha, you ought to kill Him if He gets in your way. Less drastic are the replies of another Ch'an master Nan-yuan Hui-yung, to the question, "What is the Buddha?" He just said, "What is not the Buddha?", or "I never knew Him", or "Wait until there is one, then I will tell you". All this hardly gives the mind very much to rest upon. Ch'an was intent on restoring Buddhism as a spiritual doctrine. Spiritual things have their own laws, their own dimensions, and their own mode of being. This makes them rather indefinite for mundane perception, and it has been rightly said that the spirit can be apprehended only by the eyes of the Spirit.
The Ch'an school well knew that it represented a quite new departure. Just as the Tantric followers of Padmasambhava regarded him as a second Buddha, equal in authority to Śákyamuni, so in the same spirit the Ch'an Buddhists deliberately called a collection of Hui-neng's sermons a "Sútra", a term reserved for the Buddha's own utterances. Because the Ch'an school abhorred all intellectualization and systematizations, its own literature, insofar as it had any, widely departed from the Indian models. A few Ch'an monks seem to have composed sermons and didactic hymns, but the great majority of the T'ang masters refused to write down anything at all. They confined themselves to a few brief and cryptic sayings, which at a later age were collected as "Sayings of the Ancient Worthies". So much did they distrust the distorting effect of words, that they tried to induce enlightenment in their pupils not only by nonsensical remarks, but by beating them at appropriate moments with a stick, pulling their noses, or making rude and inconsequential noises, like Ma-tsus famous "Ho", etc. Their method of teaching was technically known as "strange words and stranger actions". Because no written work can contain them, these teachings were held to be something outside the scriptures. They are regarded as instances of the "Buddha-mind" speaking directly to the "Buddha-mind", and they transmit the "Seal of Mind" directly from teacher to pupil.
It is, of course, not easy to distil from such unpromising material a rationally formulated philosophical doctrine. But, attempting the impossible, one may well say that these were the chief tenets of Ch'an. First of all, there is the famous teaching that "Buddhahood is achieved through instantaneous enlightenment". As practical people, the Ch'an Buddhists were not, however, so much interested in theories about enlightenment, as in its practical achievement. The Hínayána had much to say about "enlightenment", but could no longer produce any fully enlightened people, be they Arhats or Buddhas. Nor was the traditional Maháyána in any better position and had to justify its apparent sterility by asserting that any given Bodhisattva would have to still pass through aeons and aeons of preparation before he could become a Buddha. In the seventh and eighth centuries a number of Buddhists became rather impatient with doctrines which deferred the attainment of the goal to an indefinite future and insisted on quicker results. This led to the Tantra devising methods for winning Buddhahood "in this very body", and to the Ch'an working for enlightenment "in this very life". The Ch'an claimed that within their ranks numerous people attained "enlightenment" all the time, but for this they did not use the traditional term _p'u-t'i_ , which corresponds to _bodhi_ , but a new word, _wu_ , "comprehension, awareness", better known in its Japanese form as _satori._ Its relation to "enlightenment" in its traditional Indian sense and to the Buddha's omniscience has never to my knowledge been clarified, although the Ch'an Patriarchs are referred to as "venerable Buddhas". This signifies that in the history of Buddhism a new type of "saint" had arisen. After the Arhats, Pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas and Siddhas we now have the Ch'an _Róshis_ as a fifth type.
Secondly, the highest principle is inexpressible. Again, Ch'an was not content to just say so, as many Buddhist philosophers had done before them, but it tried to make the insight into this truth into a concrete experience, by evolving methods of "stating it through non-statement", by in other words designing some extraordinary and on the face of it quite irrelevant kind of statement which would do justice to it. Like for instance,
In the square pool there is a turtle-nosed serpent.
Ridiculous indeed when you come to think of it!
Who pulled out the serpent's head?
Analogously, "cultivation must be carried out by non-cultivation". Just as a mirror cannot be made by grinding a brick, so a Buddha cannot be made by practising meditations. This does not mean that all meditation should be discarded, but that it should be carried out without any striving, self-assertion or deliberate purpose, thus exhausting the old karma and creating no new karma. One must be established in "no-thought" which means "to be in thought yet devoid of thought" and to "stop the mind dashing hither and thither". As a result of this kind of cultivation, a man gains enlightenment, he has no more doubts and all his problems are suddenly solved, not because he has found a solution for them, but because they have ceased to be problems for him. And although his new-found knowledge is different from the ignorance of ordinary people, nevertheless, in the last resort, he has gained nothing at all, and the life of the sage is not different from that of ordinary men. As Yi-hsuan (died 867) put it: "Only do ordinary things with no special effort: relieve your bowels, pass water, wear your clothes, eat your food, and, when tired, lie down! Simple fellows will laugh at you, but the wise will understand." So "there is really nothing much in the Buddhist teaching". The secret which the Buddha gave to Mahákásyapa is really an open secret, and there is nothing to it, except that the mass of people fail to understand it.
Once enlightened, the sage can without any effort combine a mysterious aloofness with a constant response to the calls of the world. Non-activity has become identical with action, and, as P'ang-yun put it, "spirit-like understanding and divine functioning lies in carrying water and chopping wood". To conclude with a saying of Hai-yun: "To eat all day yet not to swallow a grain of rice; to walk all day yet not tread an inch of ground; to have no distinction during that time between object and subject, and to be inseparable from things all day long, yet not be deluded by them, this is to be the man who is at ease in himself." Ch'an is a very profound doctrine indeed. Although the cultural background and social conditions of the China of the Tang differed in almost every way from those of the India of the Buddha Śákyamuni, rarely have Buddhists at any time come as near to the spirit of their Founder as the great masters of the Ch'an school.
So far about the intellectual developments of the period. Outwardly also under the Tang the Buddhist Church attained a position of greater brilliance, wealth and power than it has probably experienced at any other time during its long history. This success was, however, bought at a heavy price. The prosperity of the monasteries threatened to ruin the economy of the country. The vast monastic establishments were economically unproductive, and had to be maintained by the lay community, i.e. by the Imperial Court, by aristocratic families or by villages; the expensive architectural enterprises deflected huge numbers of the rural population from work in the fields, and finally the metallic reserves of the country were drained away, being used to cast images and other ritual objects. This process led to the great persecution of 845. The Government confiscated the property of the monasteries, forced the monks and nuns to return to secular life, and seized the works of art in order to use the metal for more secular purposes.
Buddhism came to _Korea_ officially in AD 372, and by about 525 it had penetrated the entire country. Between 550 and 664 it became the state religion and steadily grew in power, with the monks periodically dominating the rulers. Kings, princes and princesses often became bonzes and everywhere magnificent temples, statues and other monuments were erected. There were no notable developments in doctrine. Korean Buddhism was chiefly significant by acting as an intermediary between China and Japan. Apart from that it was noteworthy for the fervour with which it was practised, and for centuries all the surplus wealth of the country was expended on religious purposes.
### JAPAN
About 550 Buddhism came to Japan from Korea, as one of the constituent elements of Chinese civilization and a great statesman, Shotoku Taishi (523–621), adopted it as a kind of religion. Soon it fused with the indigenous Shintó which had at first fiercely opposed it. At first it was said, as in Tibet of the indigenous deities, that the Shintó gods are the guardians and protectors of Buddhism. Then the pantheon of the two schools was slowly identified and it was taught that they were just the same deities under different names. In the ninth century this amalgamation received the name of Ryóbu Shintó. The Ryóbu Shintó is a remarkable achievement not only for the reason that it effectively fused the two religions for the time being, but also because it fused them in such a way that 1,000 years later it was quite easy to separate them again.
This was a period of copying. Before 700 four "sects" were introduced, which were not however corporations pledged to support particular doctrines, but simply philosophical schools which expounded certain textbooks. They were the _Jójitsu_ (625) based on Kumárajíva's translation of Harivarman's "Satyasiddhi"; the _Sanron_ (625) which studied the three works of Nágárjuna and Áryadeva which were the basis of the Chinese San-lun school; the _Hossó_ (654) which has for its textbook the Yuishiki, which expounds the principles of Vijñánaváda after Yüan-tsang and K'uei-ki; and the _Kusha_ (658) which was devoted to the exposition of Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa. Then came the Hua-yen (730), now called _Kegon_ , which lasted for many centuries, and worshipped Vairocana, as Roshana or Birushana; and also the Vinaya sect (753) which was called _Risshú_ tried to introduce stricter rules of ordination, and declined soon.
Much more substantial were the sects introduced during the Heian period (794–1186), which was dominated by the _Tendai_ and _Shingon_ who had their centres on two mountains. The one was founded by Dengyó Daishi (767–822) who had brought the T'ien-t'ai doctrine from China, the other by Kóbó Daishi (774–835) who had learned the mysteries of the Chén-yen in Chang-an. The sacred Tendai mountains of Hieizan near the new capital of Kyótó were soon covered by no fewer than 3,000 temples or halls. The Tendai not only had a great influence on art, but all later sects arose from within it, in the sense that their founders had for a time belonged to this sect. Kóbó Daishi on his return from China not only became a great favourite at the imperial court, but he also impressed the popular imagination more than any other Japanese teacher has done. For the people he is the hero of countless legends, for his followers a manifestation of Vairocana not yet dead, but awaiting within his tomb the coming of the future Buddha.
The centre of the Shingon sect was on the lonely mountain of Kóyasan, and the performance of ritual has been its main activity, apart from the execution of paintings and sculptures of Tantric deities. Not all the monks of Tendai and Shingon resided in monasteries, and there was a strong movement within both schools to revive the ardours of the early Buddhist community, when the monks actually dwelled in the forest. There was a considerable number of Yama-bushi, "those who sleep on mountains", or Shugenja, "those who practise austerities", who lived alone or in little groups in the wild mountains and forests. On the whole, both Tendai and Shingon chiefly addressed themselves to the educated classes and their popular appeal was not very strong. To those who desired an easier way they held out the invocation of Amida's name which would lead to rebirth in the Western Paradise. Both the Nara and Heian sects built special halls for recitation of the _Nembutsu_ , accompanied by hymns and musical services. At the same time during the tenth century itinerant preachers brought the message of Amida's saving grace to the masses in a language which they could understand.
Buddhism took on the colouring of the social conditions in which it lived. The esteem in which the religion was held was to a large extent a tribute to its beneficial magical effects on the welfare of the nation. Monasteries were by their very presence preserved from the noxious influences which arise out of the earth in certain places, and the recital of the great Maháyána Sútras was regularly carried out for the purpose of averting plagues, earthquakes, and other disasters. The moral precepts, on the other hand, were not always closely observed. In the Heian period there were violent quarrels between the monasteries, who had become huge territorial magnates, and behaved as feudal institutions usually do. Organized bodies of mercenaries commanded by priests burned down each other's monasteries, and appeared in armed bands in Kyoto to force the hands of the government. Aesthetic culture was the chief note of the age, and much of its wonderful art has survived.
### TIBET
In Tibet Buddhism is said to have begun about 650, but it made real headway only a century later. At first it met with fierce resistance from the shamans of the native Bon religion, who had the support of the greater part of the nobility. The patronage of the king, however, enabled the Buddhists gradually to establish themselves, and under King Ral-pa-can (817–36) they reached the height of their influence. In 787 the first monastery was completed at bSam Yas and soon after the first monks were ordained by Śántarakshita. Everywhere temples were erected, many teachers invited from India, a script was invented and numerous works were translated. Great endeavours were made to ensure the accuracy of the translations and the terminology was standardized about 825 by a commission consisting of Indian pandits and Tibetan Lotsabas, which published the _Mahávyutpatti_ for the guidance of translators. The Bon rivals seemed defeated, the monks seized the effective rule of the country, but then under gLang-dar-ma (836–42) a persecution wiped out everything that had been gained. For about one century Buddhism once more vanished from Tibet.
The period under review is for Tibet one of reception. In the course of it four principal systems, or lines of thought, were introduced:
1. From the West, from the Swat valley, came the Tantric ideas of _Padmasambhava_ , who himself stayed in Tibet for a short while. Padmasambhava's mentality had considerable affinities with that of the Bon and he had a striking success in Tibet. He expounded some kind of Vajrayánic system, but we do not know exactly which one. The impression he made on Tibet was chiefly based on his thaumaturgical activities and the legend has quite overgrown the historical facts. The school of the _Nyincjmapa_ , or "Ancient Ones", goes back to Padmasambhava and has persisted continuously up to today.
2. From the South came the _Pála Synthesis_ of the Maháyána, brought by some of the leading scholars of the universities of Magadha. This combination of Prajñápáramitá and Tantra has become the central tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, and has renewed itself again and again up to the present day. It has always attached a special value to the _Abhisamayálankára_ , an Indian work of the fourth century, which arranges the contents of the "Prajñápáramitá in 25,000 Slokas" in definite numerical lists, that make it possible to memorize the text as a preliminary step to meditation on it, while at the same time interpreting it in the spirit of the Mádhyamikas with some admixture from the more moderate Yogácárin tradition. Frequently commented upon already in India, the Abhisamayálankára now in Tibet became the cornerstone of the more advanced non-Tantric training and innumerable commentaries have been composed on it by the learned men of Tibet.
3. Thirdly, from the South-West the Sarvástivádins also attempted to gain a foothold in Tibet. Quite early on the king invited them to establish a monastery, but their settlements soon withered away, the surrounding population remaining indifferent to a teaching which lacked in magical practices. Although they could not maintain themselves for long in this world of magic and witchcraft, the Sarvástivádins have nevertheless exerted a considerable influence on the thought of Tibet, because their literature is practically the only version of the older type of Buddhism to find its way into the Canon of translated scriptures.
4. The fourth influence came from the East. Numerous Chinese monks of the Ch'an Sect appeared in Tibet and attempted to convert its inhabitants to their tenets. They soon came into conflict with the Indian pandits of the Pála orthodoxy, and were decisively defeated at the famous Council of bSam Yas in 793–4. After that they had to leave the country, or go underground, and their influence on later Tibetan history is negligible.
## **FOUR**
## The Last One Thousand Years: AD 1000–1978
### INDIA: THE COLLAPSE AND ITS CAUSES
In India itself, Buddhism came to an end about 1200, though in some districts, as in Magadha, Bengal, Orissa and South India, it lingered on for a further 200 or 300 years.
The main cause which precipitated its disappearance was, of course, the Mohammedan invasions. In their fanatical hatred for what seemed to them "idolatry", these ruthless conquerors burned down the flourishing monasteries and universities of Sind and Bengal, and killed the monks, who offered no resistance, partly in obedience to their vows, and partly because they believed that astrological calculations had shown that the Muslims would in any case conquer Hindustan. On further consideration Muslim savagery cannot, however, be the whole explanation and that for two reasons: Firstly, Hinduism and Jainism, subjected to the same fury, managed to carry on. Secondly, in regions which were not touched by the Muslim invasions, as in Nepal and South India, Buddhism also steadily died out, though much more slowly. Hence the cause of this decline must be sought as much within Buddhism as without it.
As a _social force_ an unworldly religion can only survive if by some accident it is able to enlist the support of some powerful or wealthy section of society. If the Jains alone among the numerous ancient sects of India are still a power in that country, it is because by some accident wealthy merchants are numbered among its adherents, merchants who regard it as an honour to support the ascetics. Buddhism has generally relied on the support of kings and where that was wanting it has usually been in difficulties. It has, as we saw (p. 24), never succeeded in doing very much for the average lay follower, and therefore the monks cannot normally live on their voluntary patronage. The Buddhist laity never formed a corporate social entity, or a homogenous group living apart from the followers of the Brahminical sects, and it had throughout conformed to the Brahminical caste system and followed Brahminical rites in ceremonies at birth, marriage and death. So any weakening of the monasteries would automatically lead to the absorption of the lay followers into the closely knit social structure of Brahminism. The Jains survived because a living community existed between monks and laymen, but the Buddhists were lacking in that. The international character of Buddhism, which had enabled it to conquer Asia, also favoured its extinction in India. The Buddhist religion had always inculcated indifference to the particular country in which the monks were living, and so the surviving monks left the country in which they could no longer practise their monastic rules, and went to Nepal, Tibet, China, etc. Their less flexible and more earthbound Hindu and Jain brethren stood their ground, and in the end they survived where they were.
As a _spiritual force_ Buddhism had played itself out. There is no reason to believe that after 1,000 the Buddhist monks were any lazier or more corrupt than at any time, and in any case the history of religion knows numerous cases where corruption has been healed by reformation. In fact, when we see the calibre of the men whom the Indian foundations could still send to Tibet, it is difficult to believe in their depravity or degeneracy. But what had ceased was the creative impulse. The Buddhists had nothing new to say any more. By analogy with what happened in the first and sixth centuries, a new outburst of creative activity was due in the eleventh, and was necessary to the rejuvenation of the religion. It failed to take place.
What had of course happened was that in the course of 1,700 years of co-existence the Hindus had taken over a great deal from the Buddhists and the Buddhists likewise from the Hindus. In consequence the division between them had increasingly diminished and it was no great thing for a Buddhist to be absorbed into the largely Buddhified Hindu fold. The Buddha and some Buddhist deities were incorporated into the Hindu pantheon. The philosophy of Nágárjuna had been absorbed into the Vedánta by Gaudapáda, Śánkara's teacher, just as the Vaishnavas of later times were greatly indebted to the Buddhists. The Buddhist Tantras had provoked their Hindu counterparts, which abound with references to Maháyána deities. There had been a constant assimilation in the iconography and mythology of the two religions. It is a law of history that the co-existence of rival views must lead to some form of eclecticism. This is merely the reproduction of the effects of osmotic pressure in the intellectual field. So it was in the Greco-Roman world with the philosophical systems, and so with the political parties in England in the fifties, their main difficulty being to find something to disagree on. The same happened to Hinduism and Buddhism. The separate existence of Buddhism no longer served a useful purpose. Its disappearance thus was no loss to anyone. We must also not forget the Buddhist conviction that this is a period of religious decline. In Orissa the Buddhists said that in the inauspicious Kali Yuga the Buddhists must disguise themselves and worship Hari, waiting patiently for the time when the Buddhas will reappear.
Hostile critics generally scrutinize the collapse of Buddhism in India on the assumption that there must have been something wrong with it. "It is always so easy to flog a dead horse," as one of these historians himself admits, and Darwinian preconceptions about the "survival of the fittest" may mislead when applied to religions. Everything has its duration, its allotted life-span – trees, animals, nations, social institutions, and religions are no exception. What Buddhism in India died from was just old age, or sheer exhaustion. Nor had it ever believed that it was exempt from the impermanence of all conditioned things which it had preached so often. In fact, in their wisdom, its teachers had foreseen the coming end. For centuries the fall of the Order had been predicted for a period about 1,500 years after the Buddha's Nirvana and Yüan-tsang not only recounts many legends current in many places in India in the seventh century which showed an expectation of the coming end, but he himself had, amidst the grandeurs of Nálandá, a dream to the effect that fire would devastate this celebrated centre of learning, and that its halls would one day be deserted. So when the end came it was in no way unexpected and all that was left was to disappear gracefully from the scene.
### NEPAL AND KASHMIR
The Moslem persecutions induced many monks and scholars of Northern India to flee to Nepal, bringing their books and holy images with them. Nepal thus became a repository of Pala Buddhism. Nevertheless even the arrival of the refugees from India failed to infuse new vigour into the Buddhism of Nepal, and after AD 1000 it presents a picture of increasing decay. Royal patronage kept the Samgha alive for some time, and for a few centuries the country remained a centre of Buddhist culture. Scholars can determine the extent of the decadence by the condition of the Sanskrit manuscripts. These are very good about AD 1200, they become fair in the seventeenth century, and in the nineteenth they become so careless and slovenly that little reliance can be placed on them. Likewise the quality of the art goes steadily down and down. With the collapse of Buddhism in India the Buddhists of Nepal had to rely on their own strength. Reduced to one small valley, they capitulated to Hinduism within a hundred years or so. In the course of the fourteenth century the monks decided that the monastic rules were too difficult to keep, and they transformed themselves into a Hindu caste, calling themselves the _banras_ ("honourable ones"). They gave up their celibacy, moved into the _viháras_ with their families, and have ever since continued to earn their living as metal workers. Deprived of its elite, Nepalese Buddhism could only preserve some of the outward forms of the religion. A number of deities are worshipped in the manner of Hindu gods and for centuries lay Buddhism alone has prevailed in Nepal. The most popular deities are Matsyendranáth, "Lord Indra of the Fish", a deified Yogin, identified with Lokeśvara, and also Tárá, the "Saviouress", who, however, as the centuries passed on, has lost ground to the Śivaite Kálí.
In the popular cult the dividing lines from Hinduism have become more and more blurred. In some cases the same image does service for both, e.g. the Hindu looks upon Mahákála as Śiva or Vishnu, the Buddhist as Vajrapáni; or Hindu pilgrims at Tundiktel worship the guardian deity of Nepal, Buddhists the same image as Padmapáni.
Not that all scholarship and intellectual life has been completely extinct. Hodgson, the British Resident, tells us that early in the nineteenth century there were four philosophical schools, called the Svábhávikas, Aiśvarikas, Kármikas and Yátnikas. But, like so many other English Proconsuls, he had no taste for philosophy, refused to be drawn into "the interminable absurdities of the Bauddha system", and his account of their differences gives little sense. Curiously enough, no one since has tried to determine the points in dispute. The conquest of the country by the Gurkhas in 1768 reduced the Buddhist Newars to the status of a subject race, and that was the final blow which further accelerated the decay which was the inevitable consequence of the disappearance of the Samgha of homeless monks. In recent years missionaries from both Ceylon and Tibet have attempted to found a new Samgha in Nepal, and any revival of the religion will depend on the success of their endeavours.
In Kashmir, the last centuries of Hindu rule were on the whole years of misrule, and the years between 855 and 1338 represent a period of continuous decline and of political disintegration. Buddhism and Śivaism fused and Buddhists and Śivaites often lived together in the same religious foundations. After 1000, many Kashmiri scholars and craftsmen went to Tibet, Ladakh, Cuge and Spiti, and between 1204–13 Śákyasríbhadra, "the Great Kashmiri Scholar" was prominent in Tibet. The year 1339 marked the beginning of Muslim rule. At first that was tolerant to the Buddhists, but about 1400 the persecution began in earnest, images, temples and monasteries were systematically destroyed, religious ceremonies and processions were forbidden, and about 1500 Buddhism came to an end as a distinct faith, not without leaving strong traces on the Hinduism in that region and fainter traces even on the Muslims. For the rest everything was totally wrecked.
### CEYLON
In 1160 a council at Anurádhapura terminated the dissensions between the Mahávihára and its rivals by the suppression of the latter. Soon after 1200 there was a collapse, not so much of Buddhism, as of the social system which supported it. Invasions from India weakened the central power, which could no longer enforce the irrigation works and soon Muslim pirates and even Chinese eunuchs ruled over large stretches of the land. The economic basis of the Samgha in this way became extremely precarious. Later on, beginning in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese persecuted Buddhism, claimed to have destroyed the Sacred Tooth, and forced many Ceylonese to become Roman Catholics. Then followed the Dutch, and finally the English (until 1948). The long centuries of European rule did great harm to the Buddhist cause. The Samgha often died out completely, and monks had to be repeatedly imported from Burma and Siam, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The revival began about 1880, first stimulated by the Theosophical Society, and then carried out under the impulse of awakening nationalism. Since that time Ceylonese Buddhists have become increasingly active and have done a great deal of valuable scholarly work, though generally within the limits of a rather narrow orthodoxy, and in 1950 they took the lead in trying to bring all Buddhist countries together, and set up the World Fellowship of Buddhists.
### SOUTH-EAST ASIA
At the beginning of this period the Buddhism of _Burma_ changes its character, and draws its inspiration henceforth from Ceylon. In 1057 King Anawrahta of Págan conquers Thaton to take possession of the Páli Tipitaka and the relics stored there. He then has monks and scriptures brought from Ceylon, and the chronicles assure us that he "drove out" the Ari priests of the Vajrayána. There is, however, much evidence for the persistence of the Maháyána after that date. Archaeology has shown that it was during the suzerainty of the Anawrahta dynasty (1044–1283) that the Maháyána flourished most, side by side with the more popular Theraváda. Many sculptures of Maháyána deities date back to that time, Maháyána texts were found in the monasteries up to the fifteenth century, and unmistakably Tantric paintings can still be seen on the walls of temples near Págan, first in the style of Bengal, and later in that of Nepal. The Aris were certainly abhorrent to the Theravádins, because they ate meat, drank spirits, used spells to remove guilt, practised animal sacrifices and indulged in erotic practices, but nevertheless they continued to exist until the end of the eighteenth century.
The patronage of the Court went, however, to the Theravádins, and Págan, until its destruction by the Mongols in 1287, was a great centre of Buddhist culture, and witnessed during three centuries one of those outbursts of devotion of which we have seen other examples in China, Korea and Tibet. For eight miles the land was filled with 9,000 pagodas and temples, among which the most famous is the Ananda temple of the eleventh century. The 547 Játaka stories are here represented on glazed plaques.
After the collapse of the central dynasty Burma was for 500 years divided into warring kingdoms, but the Theraváda tradition continued, though less splendidly than before. The end of the fifteenth century saw the final triumph of the Sinhalese school, when king Dhammaceti of Pegu reintroduced a canonically valid monastic succession from Ceylon. In 1752 Burma was united again, after 1852 the dynasty vigorously patronized the Samgha and a Council at Mandalay in 1868–71 corrected the text of the Tipitaka, which was then incised on 729 marble slabs. The coming of the English in 1885 did much harm to the Samgha by destroying the central ecclesiastical authority. In the struggle for independence the monks played a prominent part. During recent years attempts have been made to combine Buddhism with Marxism, and also a new method of meditation has been advocated which by employing Tantric practices is said to lead to speedier results.
Burmese Buddhism is bent on preserving Theraváda orthodoxy and it has made no creative contribution to Buddhist thought. Disputes have always been confined to the externalities of the Vinaya and the extensive literature consists of works on grammar, astrology and medicine, of commentaries and of adaptations of Játakas. The thirty-seven Nats, or "spirits", are universally asked for their favours, but the chief means of acquiring merit is to build a pagoda, with the result that the country is covered with them. The Samgha is not estranged from the people, monasteries and shrines are placed near the centres of habitation, so as to be easily accessible to laymen, every layman becomes a novice for a time, and receives some education in the monasteries. The population, 85 per cent Buddhist, has been distinguished by its high degree of literacy for a long time. Buddhism has been a great civilizing force in the life of Burma, has helped to tone down racial rivalries, fostered a democratic social life by minimizing the importance of wealth and caste, brought much beauty and knowledge with it, and above all, it has created a singularly cheerful, polite and likeable people.
Theraváda Buddhism during our period likewise took over in _Thailand_ and Indo-China. The Thais brought from their home in China some form of Buddhism, but in the fourteenth century the Ceylonese Theraváda was established. The capitals – first Ayuthia (1330–1767) and then Bangkok (after 1770) – are large, magnificent Buddhist cities with immense religious edifices and great Buddhas. Buddhism is the state religion, all indigenous culture is bound up with it and the king is the "Protector of Dhamma" not only in word but also in deed. Tradition is strictly followed and the rhythmical recitation of Páli texts is greatly stressed. Petitions, as in Burma, are not directed to the Buddha but to local genii and tree spirits.
Whereas in the eleventh century the Tantrayána still flourished in _Cambodia_ , after 1300 the Theraváda as a result of the Thai pressure slowly replaced it and in the fifteenth century the Ceylonese orthodoxy was imported. Also here the education is in the hands of the monks and Buddhism has proved itself an elevating and ennobling influence, and has produced a mild, kindly and helpful people. The _Neaca-ta_ , or spirits of the land, also play their part and there is some blending of influences from China (e.g. the presence of Mi-lei-fo in the temples) and from India (e.g. the Nágas, Garudas and four-faced Śivas found in architecture). The history of Buddhism in _Laos_ is shrouded in legend. It seems to have been introduced in the fourteenth century by Khmer immigrants, and at present is of the Siamese type, with greater emphasis on the Nágas. _Annam_ finally, independent since 1000, is culturally a part of China, and the Maháyána has existed there for a long time.
In _Indonesia_ Tantric Buddhism persisted until it was suppressed by Islam, in Sumatra at the end of the fourteenth century, in Java from the fifteenth century onwards. Its final collapse was preceded by a slow decline in the Hindu impact on the culture and a re-assertion of the more indigenous elements. The Tantrism prevalent in this period was an extremist form, which enjoined the practice of the five makáras, "free from all sensualities", and regarded Vairocana as the primordial Buddha. It syncretized the Kálacakra with the devotion to Śiva Bhairava into a cult of _S_ O _iva-buddha_ and, in keeping with the native Indonesian tradition, it was chiefly devoted to the redemption of the souls of the dead. Some of the loveliest pieces of Buddhist sculpture were made in Java under the dynasty of Singhasari (1222–92), which represented its kings on statues as Amoghapáśa, Aksobhya, etc., and its queens as Prajñápáramitá, etc.
### CHINA AND KOREA
Although the Sung emperors were on the whole well disposed towards Buddhism, its vigour declined during this period. After about AD 1000 two schools ousted all the others, the Amidism of Faith, and the meditational school of Ch'an. Within Ch'an, five lines of transmission, called the "Five Houses", had taken shape. All Ch'an Buddhists alike believe that one's own heart is the Buddha, but there are obviously great differences in the hearts of men and these must inevitably reflect themselves in different methods and approaches. What therefore differentiated the "Five Houses" were less differences in doctrine than differences in style. Three of the five, the _Wei-yanci-tsung_ , the _Yün-men-tsung_ and the _Fa-yen-tsunij_ , died out already by the middle of the Sung period. Characteristic of the Wei-yang sect was a special method of teaching by drawing various circles in the air or on the ground; the Yün-men sect generally resembled the Lin-chi, but one of its special devices was the reply to questions with one single word of one syllable; the Fa-yen was more favourable to the study of the Sútras than the other Ch'an sects and the influence on it of the Hua-yen doctrines was particularly marked.
The two schools which have survived to the present day are the _Ts'ao-tung-tsung_ , founded by Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807–69), and the _Lin-chi-tsung_ , which goes back to his contemporary Lin-chi-I-hsüan (died 867). The differences between these two, which had been just distinctive tendencies so far, hardened into different sects in the proper sense of the term only about 1150. The Ts'ao-tung was always characterized by quietism and Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh (died 1157) gave it the special name of _Mo-chao cb'an_ "silent-illumination Ch'an". This indicated that the school stressed the quiet sitting still in silent meditation, by or in which enlightenment, or spiritual insight into absolute emptiness, is attained. The founder of this sect was mild and gentle in his methods. He also bequeathed to his school a special doctrine concerning the "Five Ranks", which distinguishes five stages of the movement towards enlightenment in a thoroughly Chinese manner which was greatly indebted to the Book of Changes, and the stages were represented by white and black circles. Four doctrines are mentioned as characteristic of the Ts'ao-tung: (1) All beings have the Buddha-nature at birth and consequently are essentially enlightened; (2) They can enjoy fully the Bliss of the Buddha-nature while in a state of quiet meditation; (3) Practice and knowledge must always complement one another; (4) The strict observance of religious ritual must be carried over into our daily lives. The founder of the Lin-chi sect by contrast favoured the use of rudeness and abruptness and the "shout and the stick" played a great part in the practices of this school. It was the most hostile of them all to rationalization and the most emphatic in stressing the suddenness and directness of Ch'an experience.
During the Sung the Ch'an school became a cultural factor of great importance. Many Ch'an monks were found among the painters of the period, and its influence on art was considerable. Even the Neo-Confucian Renaissance of Chu-hsi and others owed much to Ch'an Buddhism, just as the Vedantic Renaissance of śankara had been greatly indebted to Maháyána Buddhism. The practice of _tso-ch'an_ , quiet contemplation, so important in Ch'an, found its way into the practices of Confucianism as _ching-tso_ , or "quiet-sitting". This outward success brought its dangers and led to a deep crisis within Ch'an. The Tang masters had always avoided the capital, but now the Ch'an monasteries maintained excellent relations with the Court and meddled much in politics. Magnificent Ch'an monasteries arose throughout the country and became focal points of social and cultural life. Many concessions were made to intellectualism and to the study of the Sútras, and within the Ch'an camp a vigorous controversy arose about their importance.
Most radical in its rejection of the authority of the Sútras was the Lin-chi, which countered the impending decadence by evolving the _kung-an_ system. The word _Kung-an_ consists of two characters, for "government" and "legal case" and denotes a precedent or authoritative model. In practice a _kung-an_ is a riddle, usually connected with a saying or action of one of the Tang masters. Collections of such _kung-ans_ were now published and to each was added an explanation which deliberately never explained anything at all. The first example of this new literary genre was a collection of 100 riddles, called the _Pi-yen-lu_ , which appeared in 1125. The other famous collection is the "Careless Gate", or _Wu-men-kuan_ , comprising 48 cases, and which appeared more than a century later. In opposition to the quietism advocated by the Ts'ao-tung, the Lin-chi advocated ceaseless activity on the chosen _kuncf-an_ which must be carried on until sudden enlightenment supervenes. As Ta-hui tsung-kao (1089–1163) put it: "Just steadily go on with your _kung-an_ every moment of your life! Whether walking or sitting, let your attention be fixed upon it without interruption. When you begin to find it entirely devoid of flavour, the final moment is approaching: do not let it slip out of your grasp! When all of a sudden something flashes out in your mind, its light will illuminate the entire universe, and you will see the spiritual land of the Enlightened Ones fully revealed at the point of a single hair and the wheel of the Dharma revolving in a single grain of dust." In Sung times systematic method thus replaced the individualistic spontaneity of the T'ang masters. But it was this systematization and to some extent mechanization which assured the survival of Ch'an.
Whenever philosophical schools coexist for any length of time, the result will be an increasing syncretism between them. In many ways Ch'an was combined with Huayen and T'ien-t'ai, and the practice of the _Nembutsu_ was often brought in to strengthen the Ch'an meditation. During the Yüan and Ming dynasties a fairly complete fusion of the different trends of Chinese Buddhism actually took place. The Ming and Manchus favoured Confucianism, but tolerated, and occasionally encouraged Buddhism. Two emperors, Yung-cheng (1723–35) and Ch'ien-lung (1736–95), tried to create a type of Buddhism which combined Chinese Buddhist (Fo-ist) and Lamaist elements, thus appealing to Chinese on the one hand, and Tibetans and Mongols on the other. The Yung-ho-kung, the Lamaist Cathedral in Peking, is a visible monument to these endeavours and in it the deities proper to these two types of Buddhist cult are carefully blended. Even Kuan Ti, the Chinese War God, and Confucius are there enlisted among the Bodhisattvas. The prosperity of the monasteries has never recovered from the Taiping rebellion of the "long-haired Christians", who for fifteen years (1850–65) devastated sixteen provinces, destroyed 600 cities, and thousands of temples and monasteries. Nevertheless, until the present day Buddhism has remained a by no means negligible factor in the cultural and religious life of China.
In _Korea_ , Buddhism reached the height of its power under the Koryo dynasty, particularly between 1140 and 1390. The founder of the dynasty was a pious Buddhist, who attributed his success to the Buddha's protection. His successors never wavered in their support of the religion. Each king chose a bonze as his "preceptor", or advisor. The holy scriptures were carried in front of the kings when they travelled. Fine editions of the Canon were printed at the expense of the state, one of them comprising 81,258 leaves. For long stretches of time the government was entirely in the hands of the bonzes. Up to the twelfth century the aristocracy had been the main support of Buddhism, but now it became the religion of the common people as well. Strong magical elements entered into Buddhism, as has happened to this religion wherever it became really popular. Many bonzes became experts in prolonging life, in working miracles, evoking spirits, distinguishing between auspicious and inauspicious times and places, and so on. In 1036 an edict abolished the death penalty and decreed that out of four sons one must become a monk. The Koryo dynasty expended much wealth on magnificent religious ceremonies and buildings, and innumerable works of art were created under it. During the Yüan dynasty, especially after 1258, Lamaism exerted a considerable influence. In the fourteenth century the Buddhists dominated Korea almost completely. In 1310 it was decreed that the monks need not salute anyone whereas everyone else must show respect to them. Those who had chosen the religious life were exempt from all material cares.
The excessively privileged position of the Church came to an abrupt end with the change of the dynasty in 1392. Confucianism now gained the upper hand, the monks were deprived of official support and a share in political life, their lands were confiscated, they were forbidden to pray at funerals, the twenty-three convents existing in Seoul were closed, and Buddhism was generally discouraged. As a religion of the masses it nevertheless persisted, away from the cities, in the rather inaccessible Diamond Mountains. Doctrinally, this Buddhism was the usual Chinese mixture of Ch'an, Amidism and local superstitions. Between 1910 and 1945 the Japanese fostered Buddhism, but it remained in a rather debilitated condition. In 1947, about 7,000 monks were counted in Korea.
### JAPAN
During this period a second flowering of Buddhism took place in Japan. Between 1160 and 1260 new sects arose which entirely changed its character, and Japanese Buddhism now reached the height of its originality and creative power. In the Kamakura period (1192–1335) the Amida schools and Zen came into the foreground, just as they did in China after AD 1000.
The first _Amida_ sect, known as the Yúzú Nembutsu, was founded already in 1124 by Ryónin, who saw the way to salvation in the constant recitation of the "Nembutsu", i.e. of the formula _Namu Amida Butsu_ , up to 60,000 times a day. He also taught that this invocation was infinitely more meritorious if repeated on behalf of others than for one's own selfish ends. His sect, though still in existence, never commanded a large following. Far more influential was the Jódó, or "Pure Land", school, founded by Hónen (1133–1212), an exceptionally learned and gentle priest. In 1175, at the age of forty-three, Shan-tao's works led him to the conclusion that the traditional Buddhist moral and mental disciplines were no longer effective in this age of decay. Whatever in such an age we may do by our own efforts ( _jiriki_ ) is of no avail. Peace can only be found through the strength of another ( _tariki_ ), in self-surrender and in reliance on a higher power, that of the Buddha Amitábha. Hónen therefore abandoned all other religious practices, and devoted himself exclusively to the recitation of Amida's name. All that matters is to "repeat the name of Amida with all your heart – whether walking or standing still, whether sitting or lying, never cease to practise it for even a moment!" In these evil days the only way to obtain salvation is to strive to be reborn in Amida's "Western Paradise" (Jó-dó), and the "holy path" (shó-dó), consisting of good works and religious exercises, no longer works. A simple faith in Amida is all that is needed. It will carry even the greatest sinner into Amida's Blessed Land. Hónen drew, however, no antinomian inferences from this assertion and enjoined his followers to avoid sin, to observe the monastic regulations, and also to show no disrespect to the other Buddhas and to the Sútras. His teaching had an instantaneous success at the Court, among the aristocracy, the Samurai and the clergy, and the new movement maintained itself easily against the hostility of the older sects. The Jódó school has continued to the present day without much modification. But in the fourteenth century the seventh patriarch Ryóyó Shógei made an interesting and influential re-interpretation. Rebirth in the Pure Land, so he said, does not mean that one is transported into another region, but the Pure Land is everywhere, and to go there is a change of mind and condition, and not of place. This is very much in agreement with the tradition of Maháyána.
A further simplification of Amidism was effected by Shinran (born 1173), one of Hónen's disciples, and the founder of the _Shin_ sect, the word _shin_ being an abbreviation of Jódó Shinshú, "the True Jódó Sect". Shinran broke with the monastic traditions, got married and advised his followers to do likewise. He regarded the constant repetition of the _Nembutsu_ as unnecessary, and asserted that to call on Amida once only with a believing mind was sufficient to secure birth in His Paradise. The faith in Amida is, however, Amida's own free gift. As to the problem of morality, Shinran maintained that a wicked man is more likely to get into Amida's Land than a good man, because he is less likely to trust in his own strength and merits. The clergy of this sect disclaimed all learning, but as the teachings lend themselves to misunderstanding, great theological subtleties were evolved in the course of time. The devotional practices of this and other Amida schools led to the multiplication of images of Amida, to whom also hymns ( _wasan_ ) in Japanese were written. Shinran aimed at breaking down the barriers between religion and the common people, and in fact the Shinshú became one of the most popular sects and has remained so to the present day.
Less successful was the third Amidist sect, founded by Ippen in 1276, and called the Ji, or "the Time", to indicate that it was the proper religion for these degenerate times. In the tradition of the Ryóbu-Shintó he identified a number of Shintó deities with Amida, but as for the _Nembutsu_ Ippen even regarded faith as unnecessary, for is it not an activity of the corrupt human mind? The recitation of Amida's name is effective as a result of the sound alone, _ex opere operate_ , as it were.
The fourth devotionalist sect, founded in 1253 by Nichiren, the son of a fisherman, differs from all other Buddhist schools by its nationalistic, pugnacious and intolerant attitude and it is somewhat doubtful whether it belongs to the history of Buddhism at all. The patriotic fervour of Nichiren is accounted for by the fact that nationalist sentiments had at that time been greatly inflamed by the longstanding threat of Mongol invasion, which was finally dispelled by the repulsion of Khubilai's armadas in 1274 and 1281. Nichiren replaced the _Nembutsu_ with the formula Namu _Myóhó Renge-kyó_ , "Homage to the Sútra of the Lotus of the Good Law", and declared that this phrase alone was suitable for this, the last period of Buddhism, which is that of _mappó_ , "the destruction of the Law", and which according to him began about AD 1050. Nichiren always spoke with the vehemence of a Hebrew prophet and demanded the suppression of all sects except his own. "For the Nembutsu is hell; the Zen are devils; Shingon is a national ruin, and the Risshú are traitors to the country." On this occasion Buddhism had evolved its very antithesis out of itself.
As for the _Zen_ school, Eisai (1141–1215) introduced the Lin-chi sect into Japan, where it became known as _Rimai_ , and attained a great success, whereas the Ts'ao-tung, or Sóto, was first introduced by Dógen (1200–33), and then organized and popularized by Keizan Jokin (1268–1325). Dógen's principal work, "The Eye of the True Law", was written in Japanese, so that all could read it. He insisted that, although his generation clearly belonged to the decline of Buddhism, this was no reason for heroic spirits to aim at less than insight into the highest Truth. Against the intellectualist distortions of Buddhism he maintained that "attainment of the Way can only be achieved with one's body". _Zazen_ , or "sitting cross-legged", is not a set of meditational practices in which one waits for enlightenment to come, but enlightenment is an inherent principle of Zen meditation from the outset, and it should be carried out as an absolutely pure religious exercise from which nothing is sought and nothing is gained. Everything is the Buddha-nature, and that in its turn is nothing more than "the chin of the donkey or the mouth of a horse". The Sótó sect claims that in Japan it went beyond the developments the parent sect had reached in China, and it gives as an instance of this its belief that, because man is already enlightened from birth, all daily activities should be regarded as post-enlightenment exercises, which should be performed as acts of gratitude to the Buddha ( _gyojiho-on_ ).
Zen soon spread among the Samurai, particularly in its Rinzai form, in accordance with the proverbial saying that "Rinzai is for a general, and Sótó for a farmer". In this way Zen led to the cult of _Bushido_ , the "Way of the Warrior", and this close association with the soldier class is one of the more astonishing transformations of Buddhism. Zen did much to stimulate the innate Japanese sensitiveness to beauty ( _mono-no-aware_ ). As Ch'an had done in China, so Zen in Japan from the end of the Kamakura period onwards greatly stimulated not only architecture, sculpture, painting, calligraphy and pottery, but also poetry and music. The close bonds between Zen and the Japanese national character have often been stressed. Buddhist literature was further enriched by two new literary forms, the Noh drama and the so-called "farewell songs". In a culture dominated by the Samurai, death was an ever-present reality, and to overcome the fear of death became one of the purposes of Zen training. Under the Ashikaga Shoguns (1335–1573) Zen had the support of the government. Its cultural influence was then at its height and it could spread among society in general because it emphasized concrete action rather than speculative thought. Actions must be simple, and yet have depth, and "simple elegance" ( _wabi_ or _sabi_ ) became the accepted ideal of conduct. In the sixteenth century the tea ceremony was systematized by Zen masters. At the same time many artists believed that "Zen and art are one", Sesshu (1420–1506) being the best-known among them.
After 1500 things were no longer going so well with Japanese Buddhism. Its creative power had waned, and now its political power was broken. Nobunaga destroyed the Tendai stronghold on Hieizan in 1571, and Hideyoshi the great Shingon centre at Negoro, in 1585. Under the Tokugawa (1603–1867) there was a revival of Confucianism and later on, in the eighteenth century, of militant Shintoism. Buddhism receded into the background, the organization and activities of the monks were carefully supervised by the government, which assured the income of the Church while doing everything to prevent any independent life from developing in it. Buddhism sank into a torpid condition. The traditions of the sects, were, however, maintained. The Zen sect alone showed some vitality. In the seventeenth century Hakuin introduced new life into the Rinzai sect, which regarded him as its second founder; the poet Basho evolved a new style of poetry; and in 1655 a third Zen sect, the Óbaku, was imported from China and has always retained marked Chinese characteristics.
In 1868 Buddhism was to a great extent disendowed and for a short time it seemed that it would die out altogether. After 1890, however, its influence has again increased steadily and in 1950 two-thirds of the population were connected with one or the other of the chief sects. The adaptation to modern life and to the competition with Christianity has gone further than in any other Buddhist country so far. In recent years, Japanese Zen has aroused great interest in Europe and America and in D. T. Suzuki it has found a very fine interpreter.
### TIBET
About the year 1000 a revival of Buddhism took place, initiated by a few enthusiasts who lived in the utmost East and West of the country, where the pressure of persecution was least felt. They soon re-established contact with India and Kashmir, which some of them visited themselves, and also Indian teachers were again invited. The most outstanding personality among these revivers was Rin-chen bzang-po (958–1055), who was prominent not only as a translator, but also as a builder of temples and monasteries in Western Tibet. Of decisive importance was also the coming of Atíśa in 1042, who left Vikramaśílá at the invitation of the king of Western Tibet, and later on established the Pála Maháyána also in Central Tibet. The year 1076 saw a great council in mTho-ling, in West Tibet, where lamas from all parts of Tibet met, and this year can be regarded as marking the final establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.
Atíśa's services were not confined to the re-establishment of the religion throughout the length and breadth of the country. He also created a system of chronology which is still used in Tibet, and which defines each year by its position in a cycle of sixty years, which results from combining five elements, viz. earth, iron, water, wood and fire with the twelve animals of the zodiac, i.e. dog, boar, mouse, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey and bird. Without this chronological system the work of the historians, which later on forms one of the glories of Tibetan literature, would have been impossible. This was not all. It is one of the difficulties of Buddhism as a doctrine that it is so profuse in its teachings and methods, that a guide to them and a classification is desirable. Atíśa provided this in his "Lamp illuminating the road to enlightenment", in which he distinguishes the practices according to three levels of spiritual development. The lowest are those who seek happiness in this world and consider only their own interest; the second are those who are also intent on their own interest, but more intelligently, by leading a virtuous life, and seeking for purification; the last are those who have the salvation of all at heart. The full fruits of this manual came only 300 years later, with Tsong-kha-pa.
The next 400 years saw the formation of Tibetan sects, founded by Tibetans themselves and adjusted to their mental and social conditions. Each of them excelled in one of the things which make up the Buddhist spiritual life. The sects differ in their monastic organization, in their dress, in the tutelary deities, in their interpretation of the Ádi-Buddha, in the methods of meditation they prefer and so on. But they have interacted on one another, and much mutual borrowing has taken place.
The first of these sects were the _Bka-ijdam-pa_ , founded by 'Brom ston, a pupil of Atíśa, about 1050. They derived their name from the fact that they followed the "authoritative word" of Atíśa as laid down in his book on the "Road to Enlightenment". They represent the central tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, and form the link between the Indian pandits of the first period and the Yellow Church which dominated Tibet after 1400. They paid great attention to morality and monastic discipline, were strictly celibate, and produced many saintly and learned men.
A much closer contact with the life of the people was achieved by the _bKa-rclyud-pa._ Founded by Mar-pa (1012–97) they became in the course of time the most Tibetan of all the sects. For some time they possessed some worldly power, but always less than the Saskyapa and Gelugpa. They aimed not so much at theoretical knowledge as at its practical realization. They are still one of the strongest "unreformed" sects, and regard marriage as no bar to sanctity. The biographies of their teachers show us no stock saints, but human beings as they actually are, with all their imperfections and foibles. From their ranks came Mila-ras-pa (1040–1123), Tibet's greatest and most popular saint and poet, a direct disciple of Marpa. Everyone in Tibet has heard some of his famous "One Hundred Thousand" songs, and everyone is familiar with the main events of his life. How he learned the black arts and revenged himself on his family's enemies by making a house collapse on them, and smashing their fields with a hailstorm. How he soon realized his guilt, feared to be reborn in hell, and sought purification by the "direct methods" of the Vajrayána. How in his thirty-eighth year he found Marpa, who for six years tormented him, so as to allow him to work off his evil deeds. How, when he was forty-four, he was held ripe for initiation, and how he then spent the remaining thirty-nine years of his life as a hermit on the high Himalayas near the Nepalese border, or wandering about and converting people, until he died from drinking poisoned milk, the gift of a jealous lama. Some of the most dramatic scenes of his life took place in the first years after his initiation, when he lived alone in a cave, ate only herbs until he turned green, and never wore more than his thin cotton cloth in the icy cold of the winter. His indifference to property and comfort, as well as his benevolence towards all that lives, never left him. The rich literature of this sect consists largely of short books aiming at teaching the practice of various kinds of Yoga. In their desire to be practical they have always given special attention to _gtum-mo_ , the art of creating "magical heat", without which life in the hermitages would be impossible. This is also something which the average person can appreciate, and which can convince him of the truth and effectiveness of Yoga.
A special form of the Prajñápáramitá doctrine was confined to a small elite, to the _Shi-byed-pa_ ("The Pacifiers") founded about 1090, who had a far greater religious than social significance. They were less well organized than the other sects, and consisted of loose groups of Yogins or hermits or mystics, who devoted themselves to solitary meditation. Their teaching was originally inspired by Pha-dam-pa, an Indian teacher from South India, who in his turn owed much to the doctrines of Áryadeva, the Mádhyamika. It is a Tantric adaptation of the essential spiritual message of Buddhism. The spiritual life consists of two stages: (1) purification, by cutting off the passions, and (2) pacification, which consists in the removal of all suffering and the attainment of even-mindedness. For the first they relied on meditational practices which aimed at driving away the evil spirits which tempt us to commit unwholesome thoughts and for the second they relied largely on the repetition of mantras, such as that of the "Heart Sútra" which appeases all ill, or of short sayings, such as "illness", "joy", "death", and "pleasure". The greater splendours of priestly power should not blind us to the quiet work of these unworldly people.
More worldly were the _Sa-skya-pa_ , who derive their name from the monastery of Saskya which had been founded in 1073. They provided the counterweight to the Bka-gdam-pa and Shi-byed-pa by excelling in social organization. After the destruction of the monarchy, Tibet was without a central authority. The Saskya abbots now took over the reins of government, each one handing the rule to his sons. 'Phags-pa (1235–80) was one of the most prominent among these new hereditary rulers of the whole of Tibet and his position as such was recognized by the emperor Khubilai. The sect has produced many men of great learning, it is still in existence, but it lost its worldly power long ago. The power was bought by an increase in worldliness and the monks of the great monasteries, like those of Japan at the same time, formed themselves into great hordes who fought battles among themselves, sacked each other's monasteries, and behaved in a manner unworthy of their professed teachings.
We are not really sufficiently informed about the very powerful _Nying-ma-pa_ sect, the followers of Padmasambhava, to know how they survived the long persecution. Quite possibly many of them did so in the guise of Bon priests. Nor can we be sure what in their doctrines is actually due to later developments and what to Padmasambhava himself. The organization of the sect seems to go back to 1250, and is the work of Gu-ru Chos dbyang. The Nyingmapas themselves distinguish two stages of their tradition, the sayings ( _bka'-ma_ ) of the Indian masters, and the "Buried Treasures" ( _gter-ma_ ), which were scriptures hidden by Padmasambhava or the Ádibuddha. Between 1150 and 1550 a considerable number of _gtermas_ were unearthed, and their discovery made it easy to camouflage religious innovation. The biography we have of Padmasambhava was thus "discovered" about 1350. Many of these _gtermas_ do, however, preserve traditions of great antiquity, as is particularly obvious in the famous "Book of the Dead" ( _bar do thos grol_ ).
The Nyingmapa distinguish six kinds of _bardo_ , or of experiences which are "intermediary" in the sense that they are somewhere in between this world of ordinary sensory awareness on the one hand, and the purely spiritual realm of Nirvana on the other. The first three occur (l) in the womb during the months which precede birth, (2) in certain kinds of controlled dreams, and (3) during deep trance. The other three _bardos_ are in addition "intermediary" in the sense that they take place in the interval between death and reconception, which is said to last forty-nine days (see p. 24). During that time the ordinary physical body is replaced by a kind of subtle or "ethereal" body. The "Book of the Dead" graphically describes in some detail the visions which are likely to befall those steeped in the traditions of Lamaism during that period. This work has preserved some of the ancient Stone-age knowledge about life after death and shows surprising similarities to other traditions found in Egyptian, Persian and Christian writings. Very old is also the ceremony of _gCod_ , about which we know from a description of a fourteenth century author, and which aims at "cutting off" all attachment to self by offering one's body to the greedy demons on a lonely and deserted site.
The Nyingmapa differ from the other sects in that they utilize that which is generally discarded, like anger or lust, and also the physical body, which is generally looked upon as a shackle and a source of evil, is used here as a means to further an enriched life of the spirit. On the whole their ideas are in keeping with those of the left-handed Tantra in India. The order of their practice is (1) the mental creation of tutelaries ( _yi-dam_ ) with the help of mantras, visions and the "sky walkers" (see p. 64); (2) the control of the occult body, with its arteries, semen virile, etc.; (3) the realization of the true nature of one's own mind. Samantabhadra, the celestial Bodhisattva corresponding to Vairocana, is the source of the highest revelation about the third stage. "Suchness, including yourself, is not intrinsically entangled – so why should you try to disentangle yourself? It is not intrinsically deluded – so why should you seek the truth apart from it?" The repression involved in Buddhist morality is thus rejected. A well-rounded personality does not suppress lust, anger, etc., but puts them into their proper place. In its highest teachings this school has great affinity with the Ch'an sect, in that the highest form of Yoga consists in realizing the true nature of one's own mind. Like the Ch'an school it also speaks of enlightenment in a somewhat non-Indian sense (see p. 81). The man who has won Nirvana here and now, and whose actions are free from causation, is able to make his body vanish in a rainbow. The Nyingmapa concentrated on esoteric teaching and personal realization, and preferred intuitive insight to communicable knowledge. Until about a century ago they had no academic studies in the Gelugpa sense. Then they were in some places introduced in imitation of their rivals.
This sect has continually struggled for power against the others, and although it has several times attempted to gain control of the country, it could never hold it. This was due less to the greater spiritual power of their more virtuous rivals, than to their superior political gifts. So great is the hold of the Nyingmapa over the people that the other sects must make concessions to them. Many of their magical practices are suspect to the other Buddhists not so much because they regard them as ineffective, but because they seem to show an undue concern for worldly well-being. When the Gelugpas want to foresee the future, they normally do not do so themselves but employ an oracle-priest belonging to the ranks of the "Ancient Ones". The Nyingmapas have absorbed many Bon teachings, and it is in their midst that Buddhism and Bon continuously interact. The fact that they go down to the lowest has often been held against them. There is, however, no reason to doubt that in spite, or perhaps because, of that they were as capable of winning the highest as their "purer" colleagues were.
The victory over the Nyingmapa finally went to the _Dge-lugs-pa_ , "The Virtuous Ones", the sect founded by Tsong-kha-pa (1327–1419), the last great thinker of the Buddhist world. He was a reformer who carried on Atíśa's work, insisted on the observance of the moral precepts and monastic rules, strictly regulated the daily routine of the monks, reduced the weight of magic by stressing the spiritual side of Buddhism and founded the "Yellow Church", which ruled Tibet until 1950. He was a very great scholar and in every way he tried to find a position between the extremes, to avoid one-sidedness and to attain an encyclopaedic universality. His influence was perpetuated by many pupils, by the foundation of rich and powerful monasteries and by the sixteen volumes of his Collected Works. Among these we must mention two compendia which show the way to salvation, the one through the six Maháyánistic perfections, the other through Tantric practices. The first, "The Steps which lead to Enlightenment", is modelled on Atíśa's manual (see p. 109) but greater attention is accorded to those who are not particularly gifted. After his death Tsong-kha-pa became the object of a fervent religious cult, and he is believed to reside now in the Tusita heavens, as future Buddhas do.
Apart from the formation of indigenous schools, three great achievements are to the credit of the Tibetan Buddhism of this period. First there is the _codification_ of _the canonical literature_ in two gigantic collections, the Kanjur ( _bka-'gyur_ ) for the Sútras in the thirteenth, and the Tanjur ( _bstan 'gyur_ ) for the Sástras in the fourteenth century. The Kanjur was printed for the first time in Peking about 1411, and both collections were printed in Tibet for the first time in sNarthang in 1731 and 1742 respectively. Many other editions followed, and the Canon in the comprehensive, accurate, authoritative and easily accessible form which it achieved between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries has formed the backbone of all Buddhist studies in Tibet.
Secondly there is the production of an enormous indigenous literature – of manuals, commentaries, sub-commentaries and so on. In one field of literature the Buddhists of Tibet have excelled all others, and that was the writing of History. This historical interest is connected with the way in which the Tibetans see the development of Buddhism in relation to the historical Buddha. The full import and meaning of the Buddha's Dharma, so they believe, has revealed itself over many centuries, and the many facets of its infinite richness were grasped by His followers only very slowly, over a period of 1,500 years. It is a curious fact that it was not an Indian but a Tibetan who wrote the best history of Buddhism in India. Bu-ston's (1322) "History of Buddhism in India and Tibet" (chos-'byun) is indeed a masterpiece of its kind, comprehensive and marked by deep philosophical understanding. The first volume gives a survey of the Scriptures; the second deals with the "twelve principal events in the life of the Buddha Śákyamuni", followed by the "three rehearsals of the doctrine", and so on up to the "prophecies about the disappearance of the doctrine" in India, and its continuation in Tibet, the third volume gives an introduction to the Narthang edition of the Canon, followed by a systematic table of contents. Many other first-class works deal either with the history of Buddhism in Tibet, or that of the different sects.
Thirdly, the Buddhist Church became firmly rooted in the life of the people. In the course of the fifteenth century the disciples of Tsong-kha-pa adapted to the needs of social organization the old Buddhist doctrine according to which the Buddhas, saints and Bodhisattvas could conjure up phantom bodies, which to all intents and purposes are indistinguishable from ordinary bodies, and which they use as a kind of puppet to help and convert others. They are in no way "incarnations" of the saint in question, but free creations of his magical power, which he sends out to do his work, while he himself remains uncommitted. In the fifteenth century the Gelugpas gave a concrete form to this teaching by claiming that certain Bodhisattvas (like Avalokiteśvara and Maitreya) and Buddhas (like Amitábha) would send into certain places, such as Lhasa, Urga, and so on, a certain number of phantom bodies ( _sprul-sku, Tulku_ , see p. 39) to act as their priestly rulers. In addition they thought it possible to rediscover the phantom body of the deceased ruler in a child conceived forty-nine days after his death. The rule of the _Tulkus_ , carefully chosen by skilled monks on the basis of rules as elaborate as those which enable the Congregation of Rites to distinguish genuine from spurious miracles, was the distinguishing feature of the Lamaist world during the last 450 years. It brought with it a great measure of social stability and up to 1950 protected Buddhism effectively from the inroads of modern civilization. What is more, Lamaism has proved surprisingly immune against the upsurge of popular cupidity which accompanied the breakdown of the old order in Asia. In Lamaist Ladakh the loyal tenants of monastic lands in 1953 resisted the expropriation of the monks. The Indian State Government sent a Commission which reported that "it was rather surprising that the tenants who were likely to gain by the operation of the Act (abolishing the big landed estates) on the lands attached to the _gumpas_ have unanimously decided that these lands should remain attached to the _gumpas_ and be free from the operation of the Abolition Act" (pp. 30–1 of the _Report of the Waiir Committee_ ).
The Buddhists had often before attempted to combine both secular and spiritual power in their hands. This was the first time they succeeded in doing so. The advantages are obvious. Conditions favourable to a religious life can be assured, militarism reduced to a minimum, animals protected, acquisitiveness discouraged, noise and unrest suppressed. The undisputed rule of the Lamas was backed up by the universality of their intellectual interests, which can be seen in the programme of studies pursued by the Gelugpas, by a pantheon which was extensive and comprehensive, and by the omnipresence of the objects of faith.
Nevertheless, in spite of this outward success, a religious decline set in after the seventeenth century. The Great Fifth Dalai Lama's (1617–1715) habitual reliance on violence boded ill for the future. The Lamaist system gradually became fossilized. Up to the eighteenth century foreign influences had been welcomed and encouraged. From then onwards the country was shut off and this measure not only reflected the policy of the Peking government, but also a certain inward timidity. The decline shows itself clearly in the works of art, which from now on show more mechanical competence than creative genius. Rare, though still discernible, are the traces of the qualities which had marked Tibetan art at its height – with its fire and almost magical fascination, its overpowering compassion and horror, its ethereal lightness and demonic compulsion, and its nearly superhuman skill in the handling of proportions and colours. For a long time geographical inaccessibility and the rivalry of the powers prevented the country from being conquered. Now modern civilization flows in. Roads, medicine, land reform and the development of natural resources have begun their work, with consequences quite disastrous to religious traditions.
### MONGOLIA
The Mongols were twice converted by the Tibetan hierarchs, first in 1261 by the Saskya ruler 'Phags-pa, then again in 1577 by the Dalai Lama. In the interval between 1368 and 1577 they had reverted to their native shamanism. It was the Tibetans' ability to work magic which most impressed the Mongols. Marco Polo tells us wonderful things about the various magical tricks the Lamas performed at the court of the Great Khan, and later on, when the Dalai Lama journeyed to Altan Chagan, ruler of the Eastern Mongols, he everywhere showed his magical powers, forced rivers to flow uphill, made springs well up in the desert, and the traces of his horse's hooves formed the _Om mani padme húm._ As a result of the Mongol conversion to Buddhism the Lamas took over many of the magical rites which formerly the shamans had performed. Buddhist respect for life was enforced by legislation forbidding the shamanistic sacrifices of women, slaves and beasts, and restricting hunting.
In consequence of the first conversion, Lamaism shared in the wealth of the Mongol Empire, could establish many monasteries and sanctuaries in China, particularly in Peking, and acquired great power under the Yüan dynasty (1260–1368). The second conversion was followed by a religious fervour which shows what hold the Buddhist religion can have over the mind of a nation. There seemed to be no limits to the piety of the Mongol people. The holy scriptures were translated into Mongol and many thousands of often splendid monasteries were built, which contained up to 45 per cent of the male population and were not infrequently centres of considerable intellectual activity. In the thirteenth century the conquest of Iran by the Mongols had led to the establishment of centres of Buddhist culture in Iranian lands for about half a century before the Il-khanid rulers became Muslims in 1295. After their second conversion the Mongols spread Buddhism to other nomadic populations, like the Buryats and Kalmuks. Urga became a great centre of Lamaism. The last Hutuktu died in 1924, and his functions were taken over by the Mongolian People's Republic. For 300 years the devotion of the Mongols to Buddhism had been distinguished by the intensity of its fervour, and because their deep faith had not counted the cost a certain degree of national exhaustion ensued, as in the parallel case of Korea in the fourteenth century. It is only natural that now they should have turned to something else.
### THE PRESENT SITUATION
During the last century Buddhism had to spend most of its energies in maintaining itself, not without difficulties, against the driving forces of modern history. Nowhere has it had the initiative. In the 1950s many Asian Buddhists celebrated the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's enlightenment, which was known as the "Buddha Jayanti", because it implied His "victory" over Mara, who personifies death, evil and this world. The event was marked by great enthusiasm which did not, however, concern Buddhism as a spiritual but as a social force. More so perhaps even than Europeans, Asians as a mass have at present withdrawn their interests from religious matters. Social and political issues seem to them so much more urgent. Buddhism is the only factor common to all Asian culture, at least from the Indus and Hindu Kush to Kyoto and Java. All those who dwell in Asia can take pride in a religion which is not only five centuries older than that of the West, but has spread and maintained itself with little recourse to violence and has remained unstained by religious wars, holy inquisitions, sanguinary crusades or the burning of women as witches. Nationalistic self-assertion is a prime motive at this stage of history and the achievements of the Buddhists are certainly something to be proud of. India cherishes the Buddha as one of her greatest religious teachers and Aśoka, the Buddhist emperor, as one of her most outstanding rulers. Not only in India, but also in China, Japan and Ceylon, the most brilliant periods of history were precisely those in which Buddhism flourished most. Splendid buildings and works of art in profusion, as well as a vast, subtle and often beautiful literature testify to the continuous outpouring of cultural values of a high order. From the Buddhist point of view all these things are, of course, mere trifles, accidental byproducts of intense spiritual contemplation. But they are splendid trifles.
Prophecies dating from the beginning of the Christian era have given 2,500 years as the duration of the teaching of the Buddha Śákyamuni. After that even the monks "will be strong only in fighting and reproving" and the holy doctrine will become more and more invisible. It is also a fact of observation that, like the other traditional religions, Buddhism has suffered severely from the impact of industrial civilization which has nearly completed its work of destruction in the twenty years which have passed since the Buddha Jayanti.
The bulk of the Northern Buddhists have now passed under Communist control – first Outer Mongolia (1924), then China (1949), then Tibet (1950), and finally Indo-China (1945, 1971). The effects of anti-religious totalitarian regimes are bound to be unfavourable. In Mongolia the religion is practically extinct. In China the monks, persecuted already under the Kuomintang, are exhorted to take an interest in the masses, and to live up to their vow to "benefit all living beings" in ways which they had never intended. Buddhist monuments are treated as museum pieces, Buddhist beliefs as deplorable superstitions which, however, are somehow associated with the great days of the Tang dynasty and of Chien-lung, while also providing valuable links with Japan and other Asian countries.
In Tibet the Dalai Lama had to flee in 1959, taking nearly 70,000 of his supporters with him to India. The holy land of Tibet has ceased to exist, its feudal social structure is being dismantled root and branch, its priestly artefacts, such as books, images and paintings, are destroyed or removed, and its inhabitants ushered into the satisfactions of an industrializing militarized society. Its purpose is no longer to uphold the Faith, but to guard the Chinese People's Republic against attacks from India, the Soviet Union or the United States. The influence of Marxism spreads also further South. Even in Burma and Sri Lanka many monks are sufficiently in contact with the ordinary "man in the village" to have turned left and to work for a synthesis of Buddhism and Socialism.
On many issues Communists and Buddhists are bound to clash: universal military service is abhorrent, particularly when applied to monks; Buddhist otherworldliness frowns on the uncontrolled growth of applied science and technology; and the mere building of railways, motor roads and airfields, with all that it entails, is detrimental to calm and serenity. The central conflict, however, concerns monastic institutions, without which Buddhism cannot exist. In a society dedicated to the production of material wealth an order of contemplative monks must appear anomalous and parasitical and its economic basis will be pretty precarious. The fate of a harassed and barely tolerated minority – that is what is in store for the Buddhists of those countries. So at least is the outlook on the plane of social reality. On the plane of ideas it may well be different. The doctrinal similarities between Maháyána Buddhism and dialectical materialism are surprisingly close and by a process of osmosis both sides will learn from each other in due course.
Likewise outside the Communist area the damage done has been severe. In their desire to spread the blessings of their plutocratic democracy to the Far East the Americans used all the resources of their technology to devastate first Japan, then Korea, then Vietnam, and after that Laos and Cambodia. The last, in particular, had been quite a showcase of Buddhism. Although a neutral, it was bombed back into the Stone Age, all the refinements of civilization were blotted out and for the time being it has fallen into the hands of rather primitive mountain tribes. In Burma U Nu's shortlived attempt to revive the royal Buddhism of a glorious past was superseded by a humdrum military dictatorship. In Thailand the monarchy and their supporters were so afraid of communists that the country was handed over to a military dictatorship, Buddhist monks were seen to sprinkle holy water on American tanks and tens of thousands of USAF troops were invited to pulverize their neighbours with B-52s. This has assured the ultimate triumph of communism also there.
In Japan our industrial age has put a premium on those sects, Zen, Shin and Nichiren, which have most radically departed from tradition. Shin, the numerically most successful sect, has reduced Buddhist doctrines and practices to a point where they become hardly perceptible. The threatened American invasion of 1853 had been followed twenty years later by the disestablishment of the Buddhist Church and the burning or confiscation of innumerable temples, while the actual invasion of 1945 brought financial ruin to the monasteries through MacArthur's "land reform" of 1947–50, led to a "general trend towards profanity" and to widespread religious apathy. It also brought about an enormous growth of nationalistic Buddhism. The latest census of Japan shows the Nichiren groups to number 30 million out of 75 million Buddhists. Of these more than one half belong to the "True Nichiren Sect", which grew with amazing rapidity from 350,000 members in 1955 to 15,700,000 in 1968. They are lay movements of the Nichiren line, which are run by and for merchants and craftsmen, all humble, common, ordinary people intent on improving the quality of their daily lives. The largest are the Sóka-gakkai, Reiyú-kai and Risshó-kósai-kai, founded respectively in 1930, 1925 and 1938. In appearance and behaviour these people are not unlike Kiwanis or Shriners, though as Japanese they are blessed with better taste and aesthetic judgment and as Maháyána Buddhists they are exposed to the reverberations of a very high spirituality. This is one of Buddhism's more successful attempts to come to terms with the "American Century". One may well doubt whether capitalism has been any more kind to the Buddhists than communism.
On the credit side what is chiefly to be noted is the considerable work done in recent years, in Burma, Thailand, Japan and Ceylon, to keep alive and to revive the ancient methods of meditation. It is in the seclusion of the meditation centres that the old faith will be recharged, and confer new benefits on the world.
While the strongholds of Buddhism in the East were being destroyed one by one, it was some compensation that the religion has slowly but steadily spread to the capitalist countries of the West. There it has been absorbed on three different levels – the philosophical, the scholarly and the sectarian.
1. The philosophical reception began with Arthur Schopenhauer in 1819 and has continued at a fairly steady pace since. Although he had access to very few original documents, Schopenhauer reproduced the Buddhist system of thought from Kantian antecedents with such an accuracy that one may well believe that he remembered it from a previous life. He in his turn greatly influenced musicians like Richard Wagner, philosophers like Bergson, and many other creative people in Western Europe. From quite another angle the genius of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky introduced the West to many of the basic teachings of Maháyána Buddhism and her Theosophical Society has fostered further research in many ways. In more recent years such divers philosophers as Rickert, Jaspers, Wittgenstein and Heidegger have testified to their having been influenced by Buddhism, and over the last twenty years there has grown up a vast literature on the relationship between various Buddhist thought systems and those of modern European thinkers. It is of such a consistently high quality that it cannot fail to leave its mark on Western, as well as Eastern, philosophical thought. One day the West, tired of being critical, will become creative again; and the East, now so cowed, will once again raise its head.
2. For 150 years the countless documents of Buddhist history, whether literary or artistic, have attracted the attention of many scholars. To some extent this interest was prompted by the administrative needs of imperialist governments who found Buddhists among their newly conquered subjects. In this way the Russians came to study the views of their Siberian Buddhists; puzzled by the Ceylonese attitude to land tenure the English in Ceylon, among them the Rhys Davids, turned to their religious books for an answer; the French did exceptionally fine work through the École Française d'Extrême Orient which was based in Saigon; lately even the Americans had attached to their Army a school of Oriental languages which first trained many of the Orientalists now at work in American universities, whose graduate students live on grants from the N(ational) D(efence) E(xpense) A(ccount), and who are heavily subsidized by CIA, FBI and the large Foundations. But this was not all. Just as Buddhism proved to be the most exportable form of Indian culture, so no form of Asian thinking has evoked more interest in Europe. No other religion has attracted such a galaxy of scholarly talent, not only first-class philologists drawn to the often difficult languages in which the Buddhists expressed themselves, but first-class minds bent on interpreting the subtleties and profundities of Buddhist thought. It took a long time to get to the bottom of Buddhist thinking or to even understand the terminology they employed. At first we were in the position of Egyptologists who, with all the priests dead, have to guess wildly and who have managed to reduce to a farrago of absurdities what to the best Greeks was the highest wisdom. Likewise to the first interpreters – proconsuls, missionaries, military men and financial administrators – the Buddhist religion seemed to be ludicrous nonsense. There were a few exceptions, of course, like R. C. Childers ( _c_. 1870), and, following in his footsteps, after a time the proud conquerors of Asia unbent and tried to learn from Buddhist monks who survived in Japan, Ceylon and Siberia. By the 1930s things began to fall into shape, and we can now be fairly confident to catch the spiritual meaning which the Buddhist authors wished to convey.
3. From the stratospheric heights of philosophy and the mountainous terrain of scholarship we now descend to the low-flying flatlands of popular sectarian Buddhism. Buddhist societies have sprung up for nearly eighty years, chiefly in Protestant countries. There they form one of the smaller Nonconformist sects. They try to outshine active Christian Love with their more non-violent _Mettá_ , to determine the meaning of the Holy Scriptures from often inaccurate English translations without much recourse to the originals, and to add meditation and some exotic glamour to good works, a blameless life and a ceaseless denigration of the intellect. Over the last twenty years these groups and conventicles have rapidly grown in numbers and financial weight. At first they took their inspiration almost exclusively from what they could learn about the Páli scriptures which, as good Protestants, they believed to be the original Gospel, the Buddha-dhamma in its pristine purity; then, in the wake of the magnificent publications of Daisetz Taitaro Suzuki in the thirties, there has been a flood of what describes itself as "Zen"; Conze and others added a fuller knowledge of the Prajñápáramitá and other early Maháyána texts; and since 1950 there have been many attempts to add also some Tantra to the mixture. In America side by side with the organized Buddhist groups a few gifted individuals, like Alan Watts and Gary Snyder, liberally scattered a variety of unco-ordinated ideas like seed-pods in all directions. In the sixties they had some influence on the "counter culture" which fed on the revulsion against the strains of a technological consumer society and the horrors of the war in Vietnam. Generally speaking, however, sectarian Buddhists keep themselves to themselves and have little impact on the world in general. No one can at present estimate their potentialities. Everything about them is obscure – whether it be their numbers, their financial resources, the social origin of their members, their motivation, their spiritual maturity, their doctrinal stance or the range of their influence. So why pry into the future?
Disinterestedness and self-effacement have been the most effective weapons of the Buddhists in the past. They would sadly depart from the outlook of their spiritual forebears if now they were to start worrying about whether Buddhist institutions can maintain a foothold in our present world. When asked "how a drop of water could be prevented from ever drying up", the Buddha replied, "by throwing it into the sea". It is for sayings such as this that he has been revered as the Enlightened One.
## Bibliography
### BUDDHISM IN GENERAL
Bu-ston, _History of Buddhism_ , trsl. H. Obermiller, 2 vols, 1931–2. – A. Coomaraswamy, _Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism_ (1916), ed. L. Coomaraswamy, 1964. – E. Conze, _Buddhism_ , 1951. – R. Robinson, _The Buddhist Religion_ , 1970. – J. B. Pratt, _The Pilgrimage of Buddhism_ , 1928. – E. Conze, _Buddhist Scriptures_ , 1959. – E. Conze, I. B. Horner, D. Snellgrove, A. Waley, _Buddhist Texts through the Ages_ , 1954. – S. Beyer, _The Buddhist Experience_ , 1974.
### BASIC CONCEPTS
Bh. Nyanatiloka, _The Word of the Buddha_ , 9th ed., 1948. – E. Conze, _Buddhist Meditation_ , 1956. – _Buddhist Thought in India_ , 1962. – K. N. Jayatilleke, _Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge_ , 1963. – L. de la Vallée Poussin, _Nirvana_ , 1925. – H. V. Guenther, _Philosophy and Psychology in the Abhidharma_ , 1957.
### ART
D. Seckel, _The Art of Buddhism_ , 1963 (Bibl.). – A. Coomaraswamy, _The Elements of Buddhist Iconography_ , 1935. – E. Gombaz, L'évolution du Stúpa en Asie, in: _Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques_ , 1932–6. – J. Eracle, _L'art des thanka et le Bouddhisme Tantrique_ , 1970. – D. L. Snellgrove, ed. _The Image of the Buddha_ , 1977.
### INDIA
The first period: E. Lamotte, _Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien._ 1958. – E. J. Thomas, _The Life of the Buddha as Legend and History_ , 1927. – A. Foucher, _La vie du Bouddha_ , 1949. – H. Oldenberg, _Buddha_ , 13th ed., ed. H. von Glasenapp, 1959. – A. Bareau, _Les sectes bouddhiques du petit véhicule_ , 1955. – E. Mookerji, _Asoka_ , 3rd ed., 1962. – G. Woodcock, _The Greeks in India_ , 1966.
The second period: Har Dayal, _The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature_ , 1932. – N. Dutt, _Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism_ , 1930. – D. T. Suzuki, _Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra_ , 1930. – _On Indian Mahayana Buddhism_ (ed. E. Conze), 1968. – T. R. V. Murti, _The Central Philosophy of Buddhism_ , 1955. – R. Robinson, _Early Madhyamika in India and China_ , 1966. – E. Lamotte, _Le traité de la grande vertu de sagesse_ , 5 vols, 1944–79. – _The travels of Fah-hien_ , trsl. H. A. Giles, 1876. – Th. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India_ , 2 vols, 1904–5.
The third period: S. B. Dasgupta, _Obscure Religious Cults as Backgrounds of Bengali Literature_ , 2nd ed., 1962. – _An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism_ , 1950. – G. Tucci, _Tibetan Painted Scrolls_ , 2 vols, 1949 (esp. vol. 1, 209–249). – _The Theory and Practice of the Mandala_ , 1961. – D. L. Snellgrove, _The Hevajra Tantra_ , 2 vols, 1959. – H. Guenther, _Jewel Ornament of Liberation_ , (Sgam-po-pa), 1959. – P. Mus, _Barabudur_ , 2 vols, 1935. – Th. Stcherbatsky, _Buddhist Logic_ , 2 vols, 1930–2.
The fourth period: R. C. Mitra, _The decline of Buddhism in India_ , 1954.
### NEPAL
D. L. Regmi, _Ancient Nepal_ , 1960. – S. Kramrisch, _The Art of Nepal_ , 1964.
### KASHMIR
J. N. and P. N. Ganhar, _Buddhism in Kashmir and Ladakh_ , 1956.
### CEYLON
W. Rahula, _History of Buddhism in Ceylon: the Anuradhapura Period_ , 1956. – E. W. Adikaram, _Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon_ , 1946. – B. L. Smith, _Tradition and change in Theravada Buddhism_ , 1973. – R. F. Gombrich, _Precept and Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the_ _Rural Highlands of Ceylon_ , 1971. – W. Rahula, _The Heritage of the Bhikkhu_ , 1974.
### SOUTH-EAST ASIA
G. Coedès, _Indianized States of Indo-China and Indonesia_ , 1968. – R. C. Lester, _Theravada Buddhism in South East Asia_ , 1973. – G. E. Harvey, _History of Burma_ , 1925. – S. J. Tambiah, _World Conqueror and World Renouncer_ , 1976. – N. Ray, _Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma_ , 1936. – R. Butwell, _U Nu of Burma_ , 2nd ed. 1970. – E. Sarkisyanz, _Buddhist Backgrounds of the Burmese Revolution_ , 1965. – D. E. Smith, _Religion and Politics in Burma_ , 1968. – H. H. Prince Dhani-Nivat, _A History of Buddhism in Siam_ , 1965. – K. Wells, _Thai Buddhism, its Rites and Activities_ , 1960. – J. Hamilton-Merritt, _A Meditator's Diary_ , 1976. – A. H. Brodrick, _Little Vehicle: Cambodia and Laos_ , 1949.
### CENTRAL ASIA
A. Stein, _Serindia_ , 5 vols, 1921. – A. Giles, _Six centuries at Tun Huang_ , 1944. – K. Saha, _Buddhism and Buddhist Literature in Central Asia_ , 1970. – P. Demiéville, _Récents travaux sur Touen-Houang_ , 1970.
### CHINA
K. S. Ch'en, _Buddhism in China_ (Bibl.), 1964. – E. Zuercher, _The Buddhist Conquest of China_ , 2 vols, 2nd ed. 1972. – Fung Yu-lan, _A History of Chinese Philosophy_ , II, 1953, 237–433. – W. Liebenthal, _Chao Lun. The treatises of Seng-chao_ , 1968. – D. T. Suzuki, _Essays in Zen Buddhism_ , 3 vols, 1927–32. – H. Dumoulin, _A History of Zen Buddhism_ , 1963. – J. Gernet, _Les aspects économiques du Bouddhisme dans la société chinoise du 5' au 10' siècles_ , 1956. – J. Prip-Møller, _Chinese Buddhist Monasteries_ , 1937. – H. Welch, _The Practice of Chinese Buddhism_ , 1900–1950, 1967. – A. Wright, _Buddhism in Chinese History_ , 1959.
### KOREA
C. Osgood, _The Koreans and their Culture_ , 1951. – F. Starr, _Korean Buddhist History_ , 1918.
### JAPAN
Ch. Eliot, _Japanese Buddhism_ , 1935. – Steinilber-Oberlin, _The Bud-dhist Sects of Japan_ , 1938. – D. T. Suzuki, _Zen and Japanese Culture_ , 1959. – M. W. de Visser, _Ancient Buddhism in Japan_ , 2 vols, 1928, 1935. – H. Nakamura, _Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples: India-China-Tibet-Japan_ , 1964. – M. Anesaki, _Nichiren, the Buddhist Prophet_ , 1916. – N. Brannen, _Soka Gakkai_ , 1968.
### TIBET
H. Hoffman, _The religions of Tibet_ , 1961. – C. Ben, _The religion of Tibet_ , 1931. – P. Demiéville, _Le Concile de Lhasa_ , 1952. – H. W. Evans-Wentz, _Tibet's Great Yogi Milarepa_ , 1928. – _The hundred thousand Songs of Milarepa_ , trsl. Garma C. C. Chang, 2 vols, 1962. – G. Roerich, _The Blue Annals_ , 2 vols, 1949–53. – D. L. Snellgrove, _Buddhist Himalayas_ , 1957.
### MONGOLIA
S. Camman, _The Land of the Camel_ , 1951. – E. D. Philips, _The Mongols_ , 1969. – C. R. Bawden, _The Jebtsundampa Khutuktus of Urga_ , 1961.
### EUROPE AND AMERICA
H. de Lubac, _La rencontre du Bouddhisme et de I'Occident_ , 1952. – J. W. de Jong, _A brief history of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America_ , 1976. – W. Peiris, _The Western Contribution to Buddhism_ , 1973. – E. McCloy Layman, _Buddhism in America_ , 1976. – C. Humphreys, _Sixty Years of Buddhism in England_ , 1968. – I. P. Oliver, _Buddhism in Britain_ , 1979.
### COMPARATIVE STUDIES
K. N. Upadhyaya, _Early Buddhism and the Bhagavad Gita_ , 1971. – J. E. Carpenter, _Buddhism and Christianity_ , 1923. – J. W. Boyd, _Satan and Mara. Christian and Buddhist Symbols of Evil_ , 1975. – C. Gudmunsen, _Wittgenstein and Buddhism_ , 1977.
Most of the books mentioned have been reprinted several times. The date given is that of the first publication, except where I believe that one particular edition is preferable.
The books in French cover essential topics which no one has adequately treated in English.
Further study will, of course, involve the original documents. If these are read in translation one should remember that they are rarely accurate if made before 1940, by which date Buddhist terminology was at last being understood.
## Index
Abhayagiri , 70–1
Abhidharma Abhidhamma] , , [42–4, ,
Abhidharmakośa , ,
Abhirati
Abhisamayálankára ,
ahimsá (non-violence) vii,
Aiśvarikas
Altan Chagan
Amida, _see_ Buddha(s)
Amidism 77–8, , , 104–6
Ching-t'u , 77–8
Ji
Jódó 104–5
Shinshú [Shin] ,
Yúzú Nembutsu
_see also_ Nichiren
Amoghavajra ,
Anáthapindada
Anawrahta (Burmese dynasty)
Annam
Arhat, _see_ saints
Aris
art
Arsaco-Sassanid
Buddhist , , , , , , , ,
Chinese ,
Greek
Indonesian
Japanese ,
Korean
Nepalese
Tibetan ,
Áryans ,
Áryadeva , ,
Asanga , , ,
Ashikaga Shoguns
Asia vii, , , , , ,
Asia Minor vii
Central Asia , , 50–2, , , 71–2
Eastern Asia ix,
South-East Asia 72–3, 96–9
Aśoka (Indian emperor) , , , , , , , , ,
Aśvaghosa , ,
Atíśa , ,
Avadánas ,
Avalokiteśvara , ,
'Awakening of Faith' ,
Basho
Bengal x, , , , ,
Bergson, Henri
Bhaisajyaguru
Bible
Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna
Bodhidharma ,
Bodhisattvas, _see_ saints
Bohr, Niels
Bon , , , ,
Book of Changes ,
Brahmanism , , , ,
'Brom ston
Buddha(s) 10–11, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Ádi-Buddha ,
Akshobhya , , ,
Amitábha [Amida] , , , , ,
Amitáyus
the Buddha Gautama, Śákyamuni, Siddhártha] [vi, viii, , , , , , 10–13, , 19–20, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Dharmakáya ,
Dípankara
future Buddha(s) ,
Maitreya , , , 59–60, ,
mythical Buddhas ,
Buddha-dhamma
Buddhadatta
Buddhaghosa , ,
Buddhahood , , , , , , , ,
Buddha Jayanti ,
Buddha Mátanga
Burma , , 95–8, ,
Bushido, _see_ Zen
Bu-ston
Cambodia , ,
canonical literature ix–x, 1–3, , , , , , 49–50, 62–3, ,
Avatamsaka Sútra
Buddhacarita
'Diamond Sútra' 31–2
Gandavyúha
'Heart Sútra'
Hínayána Sútras
Játakamálá
Jñánaprasthána
Kanjur
Karmavibhanga
Kośa
Lalitavistara
Lankávatára Sútra
Lotus of the Good Law
Maháyána texts ix–x, , , , , , ,
Nirvana Sútra ,
Pitakas
Prajñápáramitá Sútras ,
Saddharmapundaríka
Sarvástivádin Canon
Śástras ,
Śúrangama Sútra
'Sútra on the Ten Stages'
Sútras , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Sutta Nipáta
Tanjur
Tantras x, , 61–3,
Vajracchediká Sútra
Vibháshá
Visuddhimagga
_see also_ Abhidharma
Ceylon , 28–9, , 46–8, 70–1, 95–6, , , ,
Champa (kingdom)
Ch'an ix, , , , , 78–84, , 99–102, , ,
Fa-yen-tsung
Lin-chi-tsung [Rinzai] ,
Ts'ao-tung-tsung Sótó] [99–100,
tso-ch'an
Wei-yang-tsung
Yün-men-tsung
_see also_ doctrine, in third period
Chan-jan
Ch'eng Weih-shih Lun
Chen-yen ,
Ch'ien-lung (Chinese emperor) ,
Chih-k'ai ,
Childers, R. C.
China vii, ix, , , , , , , , 52–60, , , , 73–85, , , , , 99–103, , , ,
Chinese People's Republic
Ching-t'u , , 77–8
Chi-tsang
Chos dbyang
Christianity , 48–9, , , ,
Chuang-tzu , ,
Chu-hsi
Chu Tao-sheng , 58–9, ,
Communism 120–2
Confucianism , , , , , ,
ching-tso
Neo-Confucianism
Confucius
Conze, Edward
Council of bSam Yas
Council of Rájagrha ,
Council of Vaiśalí
Dalai Lama 117–18,
Davids, Rhys
death vi, viii, , 23–4, , , , , 112–13
deities , , , , , , , , ,
feminine ,
Lamaist
Maháyána , ,
Shintó ,
Tantric
Dengyó Daishi
Dhammaceti (Burmese king)
Dhammapála
dháranís (mantras)
Dharma xi, , , , , 13–15, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Dharmadhátu ,
Dharmákara (Bodhisattva)
Dharmakírti
Dharmapála (Indian king) ,
Dharmíkara (Nepalese king)
Dharmottara
Dinnága
doctrine x, 5–16, , 31–44, , 49–50, , , 56–9, 76–7, 80–4, ,
ahimsá
assimilation of
Ch'an 82–4
degeneration of x
development of xi–xii, , , ,
in first period 5–16
interpretation of ,
Maháyána 32–41,
maitrí
seven schools
Tantra 62–3, 66–7
Theraváda ,
in third period 40–1
Ts'ao-tung
Dógen
Dutta Gámaní (king of Ceylon)
eightfold path
Eisai
emptiness , , , , , , 36–8, , , , , , , , ,
English , , ,
enlightenment ix, , , , , , , , , , , 79–80, , , , , 106–7, , ,
Fa Hien ,
Fa-hua
_see also_ Tien-t'ai
Fang Jong
Fa-tsang
Fellowship of the White Lotus
five precepts , ,
Five Protectresses
French
Gandhára ,
Gándhi, Mohandas Karamchand (the Mahátma)
Gaudapáda
gLang-dar-ma
Guge
Guhyasamája, _see_ Tantra
Gunavarman
Gurkhas
gurus ,
Hai-yun 83–4
Hakuin
Han (Chinese dynasty) , , ,
Hari
Haribhadra
Harivarman ,
Harshavardhana (Indian king)
Hathayoga
Heian period (Japan) , ,
_see also_ sects
Heidegger, Martin
Hideyoshi
Hínayána viii, , , , 41–4, , ,
_see also_ canonical literature; doctrine, in first period
Hínayánists , , , ,
Hinduism , , , , , 93–4
Hindus , , , , ,
Hónen 104–5
Hua-yen-tsung , , , ,
_see also_ sects
Hui-neng , ,
Hui-Yüan ,
Hung-chih Cheng-chüeh
Il-khanid (Iranian dynasty)
impermanence , , , , ,
India vi, vii, viii, ix, x, , 16–17, , , , , , 30–44, , , , , , , 61–9, , , , , , , , , 90–3, , , , , , , 119–20
Indikutasaya Copper Plates
individualism vii, viii, xii,
_see also_ self
Indo-China , ,
Indonesia , 98–9
Ippen
Iran , ,
Islam , , , , , ,
I-Tsing
Jaggadala
Jainism 90–1
Japan , , , , 85–7, 103–8, , , , ,
Jaspers, Karl
Játakas , , ,
Java , , , , ,
Kahgyudpas
Kálacakra, _see_ Tantra
Kálí
Kali Yuga
Kamakura period (Japan) , ,
Kanishka
Karkota (Kashmiri dynasty)
karma , , , ,
Kármikas
Kashmir , , 45–6, 69–70, , ,
Kátyáyaníputra 22–3
Keizan Jokin
Khmers ,
Khotan
Khubilai (Mongol emperor) ,
Kinnara (Kashmiri king)
Kirghiz
Kiwanis
Kóbó Daishi
Korea , 84–5, , , 102–3, ,
Koryo (Korean dynasty) 102–3
Kshemendra
Kshítigarbha
Kuan Ti
Kuan Yin ,
K'uei-chi
K'uei-ki
Kumárajíva , , ,
kung-an
Kuomintang
Kushana (empire) ,
Ladakh ,
laity , 24–8, , , , , , , , ,
Lamaism , , , 117–18
Lamas
languages
Ardhamagadhi
Chinese , , ,
English
Japanese ,
Khotanese ,
Kuchean ,
Mongol
Sogdian
Tibetan
Uigur
_see also_ Páli; Sanskrit; Sinhalese
Laos ,
Lao-tzu ,
Lin-chi-I-hsüan
logic
Lokeśvara ,
Lotsabas
Lu-cheng
Lu-Feng (monastery)
Lü-tsung ,
Madhyántika
Magadha , , , , ,
magic ix, , , , , , 64–7, , , , , , , ,
Mahádeva
Mahákála
Mahákáśyapa ,
Mahátmyas
Mahávihára , ,
Mahávyutpatti
Maháyána ix, x, , , , , 30–41, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 76–7, , , , , , , , , , , , ,
_see also_ canonical literature; doctrine, in second period
Maháyánists , , , , 48–9, , , ,
Mahinda
maitrí (benevolence)
makáras
Manchu (Chinese dynasty)
mandalas , 65–6,
Manicheans , ,
Mañjuśrí ,
mantras , , , ,
Mantrayána, _see_ Tantra
Mára viii,
Marpa [Mar-pa]
Marxism ,
Mátrceta
Ma-tsu
Matsyendranáth
meditation vii, , 8–10, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
mystical
transic ,
Meghavahana
Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich
Mihirkula
Mila-ras-pa 110–11
Mi-lei-fo
Ming (Chinese dynasty)
Mi-tsung ,
monasticism xi, 3–24, , , , , 63–4, , 79–80, , , 88–9, , , , , , , , , , , ,
Mongolia , 118–19,
Outer Mongolia
Mongols , , ,
monks , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
mudrás ,
Múlasarvástivádins
Muslims, _see_ Islam
Nágas ,
Nágárjuna , , , , , ,
Nálandá , , , ,
Nan-yuan Hui-yung
Neaca-ta
Nembutsu , , , ,
Nepal , , 45–6, , , 93–4,
Newars
Ngan Che Kao
Nichiren 105–6,
Reiyú-kai
Risshó-kósai-kai
Sóka-gakkai
Nirvana xi, , , , , , , , , , , , ,
of the Buddha , , , , , , , ,
Nobunaga
Odantapuri
Padmapáni
Padmasambhava , , ,
Pála (Indian dynasty) x, , , , , , , , , ,
Páli , , , , , , , ,
Pallava (Indian dynasty)
Pamsukúlikas
P'ang-yun
paradise ,
Amida's Paradise ,
Pure Land , 77–8,
Western Paradise , ,
Páramitás six perfections] , [34–5,
Paritta
persecution , , , , , , 107–8, ,
Personalists 21–2
Sammitíyas , ,
Vatsíputríyas ,
Pha-dam-pa 'Phags-pa ,
philosophy 18–23, , , 82–3, , ,
Pi-yen-lu
Po-chang Huai-hai 79–80
Polonnaruva
Prajñápáramitá , , , , , , , ,
Prátimoksha
Pratyekabuddhas, _see_ saints
Pure Land, _see_ paradise
Ral-pa-can (king of Tibet)
rebirth ix, , , , , , , , ,
_see also_ Samsára
reincarnation
relics of the Buddha , , , , ,
Rickert, Heinrich
Rin-chen bzang-po
Rinzai, _see_ Ch'an, Zen
Roshana
Róshis, _see_ saints
Ryónin
Ryóyó Shógei
Saddhátissa
Sahajayána, _see_ Tantra
Śailendra (Javan dynasty)
saints 15–16, , , , , , , ,
Arhats Arahants] [ix, , , , , , , , , , ,
Bodhisattvas ix, , , 32–7, , , , , , , , , ,
Pratyekabuddhas ,
Róshis
Siddhas ix, ,
salvation ix, , , 6–8, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Śákyasríbhadra
Samantabhadra ,
Samgha , , , , , , , , , , ,
Samghabhadra
Sammitíyas, _see_ Personalists
Samsára , , , , ,
Samurai ,
Sanghamitra
Śánkara ,
San-lun , ,
Sanskrit , , , , , , , , , ,
Śántarakshita ,
Sáriputra
Sarvajñamitra
Satyasiddhi ,
Schopenhauer, Arthur
sects xii, , , , 16–24, , , 85–6, 104–7, , 109–15, 124–5
Bka-gdam-pa ,
bKa-rgyud-pa
Dge-lugs-pa 114–15
Dhammakathikas ,
Gelugpa , , , ,
Heian
Hossó
Hua-yen [Kegon]
Jójitsu
Kusha
Mádhyamikas , , 38–9, ,
Mahásanghikas , , , , ,
Nara
Nyingmapa Nying-ma-pa] [112–14
Óbaku
Pudgalavádins
Risshú ,
Sanron
Sarvástivádins , , , , , 43–4, , , , , , 88–9
Saskyapa [Sa-skya-pa] ,
Sautrántikas , ,
Shi-byed-pa
Shingon , ,
Sthaviras , ,
Tendai 85–6
Theravádins , , , , ,
Vaibháshikas , ,
Vibhajyavádins , ,
Vinaya
self vi, vii, xi, 6–7, , , , 33–4,
Seng-chao
Seng-t'san
Seng-yu
Sesshu
seven schools
shamanism , ,
Shan-tao , ,
Shao-k'ang
Shen-hsiu
Shin, _see_ Amidism
Shinran
Shintó , , ,
Ryóbu-Shintó ,
Shotoku Taishi
Shugenja
Siberia
Siddhas, _see_ saints
Singhasari (Javan dynasty)
Sinhalese , , , ,
Siva ,
Sivaism [Shivaism] , , , , ,
Skandhaka
Snyder, Gary
Somarúpa
Son of Heaven
Sótó, _see_ Ch'an, Zen
Spiti
Sri Lanka
_see also_ Ceylon
Srívijaya
Subhákarasimha
suchness , , , , ,
Sukhávatívyúha
Sumatra ,
Sung (Chinese dynasty) , , ,
Sútras, _see_ canonical literature
Suttas
Suzuki, Daisetz Taitaro ,
Svábhávikas (school)
Svayambhúpurána
Ta-hui tsung-kao
T'ang (Chinese dynasty) , , , , , ,
Tan-hsia T'ien-jan
Tantra ix, x, 40–1, 61–3, , , 67–8, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
Guhyasamája ,
'left-handed' ,
Kálacakra ,
Mantrayána
Sahajayána
Vajrayána , , , , , ,
_see also_ canonical literature; doctrine, in third period
Tantrayána
Tao-an
Tao-ch'o
Tao-Hsüan
Taoism , , , , ,
Neo-Taoism ,
Tao-sheng, _see_ Chu Tao-sheng
Tárá , , ,
Táranátha
Tathágatas , ,
Akshobhya
Amitábha
Amoghasiddhi
Ratnasambhava
Vairocana
Tche tsh'an
ten perfections
Thailand [Siam] , , ,
Theosophical Society ,
Theraváda , , ,
thirty-two marks of the superman , 39–40
Three Bodies of the Buddha ,
Three Jewels Treasures] , [10–16,
Tibet , , , , , , , , , , , , 87–9, , , , , 108–18, 120–1
T'ien-t'ai , 76–7, ,
Tipitaka , ,
Tokugawa (Japanese dynasty)
Tshou Cho-fo
Ts'in (Chinese dynasty)
Tsong-kha-pa , 114–15,
Tung-shan Liang-chieh
Turkestan ,
Tushita heaven ,
Tu-shun
Uigurs
United States of America , , ,
U Nu
Upatissa
Urga ,
Vairocana , , , ,
Vaishnavas
Vaitulyaváda
Vajrabodhi
Vajrapáni
Vajrayána, _see_ Tantra
Vakkali
Vasubandhu , , , , ,
Vasugupta
Vatsíputríyas, _see_ Personalists
Vedánta ,
Vessantara
Vietnam ,
Vijñánaváda
Vimalakírti ,
Vimuttimagga
Vinaya , 4–5, , , , , , ,
violence vi, vii, , , , , , ,
Vishnu
Wang Fo
Watts, Alan
Weih-shih ,
Wittgenstein, Ludwig
World Fellowship of Buddhists
Wu-men-kuan
Yama
Yama-bushi
Yao Hsing (Chinese emperor)
Yátnikas
Yellow Church of Tibet , ,
Yellow Emperor
Yi-hsuan
Yoga , , ,
Yogácára , , 38–9, , , , , , , ,
Yogins , , , , ,
Yüan (Chinese dynasty) , ,
Yüan-tsang , , , , , , , ,
Yuishiki
Yung-cheng (Chinese emperor)
Zen , 106–7, , ,
Bushido Óbaku
Rinzai [Lin-chi] ,
Sótó Ts'ao-tung] [106–7
Zurvan Akaranak
| {
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} |
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
When will the world pay heed to the humanitarian crisis on Erdoğan's home turf that engulfs more innocent people by the day, even crying babies?
Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is infamous for encouraging Turks to reproduce like wildfire, urging the diaspora in Europe to "have five children, not three" and telling women in the secular state that Islam ties them to the "duty" of motherhood.
He's not so fond of babies with alleged coup conspiratorial ties.
Yes, Erdoğan's paranoid purge of perceived political enemies has landed hundreds of babies and toddlers behind bars, sometimes arresting mothers on the very day they have given birth.
Turkey's Ministry of Justice told an inquiring opposition lawmaker last May that at least 560 children 6 years of age and under were being held in overcrowded prisons as authorities continue to round up perceived foes after the July 2016 coup attempt. Sometimes the mother has been arrested while pregnant; sometimes both parents were seized and there's no one left in the family to care for the children. More than 100 incarcerated kids were infants under a year old.
Activists have been using the hashtags #668babies, or #668bebek, to reflect the mounting total of known tots behind bars.
In August 2016, Turkey cleared out 10 of thousands of inmates, some convicted of violent crimes, to make room for more political prisoners. An IRIN investigation released last September uncovered reports of torture, withholding water, lack of access to medical care and sexual abuse among the mistreatment; one woman who suffered internal bleeding after a beating was scheduled by prison officials to see a doctor two months later. To add insult to injury, everything used by a prisoner from water to medical care to maxi pads must be paid by the detainee.
One young mother sentenced for taking part in a protest was sent to prison with her six-month-old baby, shoved into a cell built for eight that housed two dozen women. Her sister told investigators that the mother struggled to get baby food and supplies behind bars, and was once dragged by her hair down a stairway for refusing to salute guards.
Be the first to comment on "Erdoğan Jails Hundreds of Babies in Paranoid Purge" | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Screen Blinking/Flashing while opening YouTube videos.
Hi, I bought a new monitor today, I connected it with a standard HDMI cable that came with it.
I have a dual monitor setup, the second one is connected with a DisplayPort to HDMI cable, as my GTX 960 only has one HDMI, one DisplayPort and 2 DVI's.
This only happens on my new monitor, the one connected with HDMI to HDMI, previously I was using the same installation, the same cable but with my old monitor and this wasn't happening.
Disabling Hardware Acceleration helped but I notice the browser really slow.
My question is, why does it happens only on my main monitor? If the problem was the monitor, then why disabling Hardware Acceleration solves the issue?
I have to say that this doesn't happens every time I open a youtube video, only some times, I tested playing a game and it doesn't blink.
I also experience this issue. It is not only videos flashing, but also contents of tab A in window 1 will show up in Tab B of window 2. Sometime very short, sometime a couple of seconds.
When i switch over to VGA cable no issue exists.
Did you perhaps find a solution yourself?
dunno if this will help.. Open the Nvidia Control Panel and in the global nvidia settings's choose vsync and turn it on.. and or connect through display port (DVI).. try another slot if possible..
Try different cables too if ya can. Make sure all cables in system are seated well etc too.. sum cables do 1440p only.. but not in your case.. *just say 'n..
dunno what monitor ya use but Asus monitors do not go good with that card..
Ummm.. if intell graphic is diabled then the rest of this does not matter..
Your PC will have integrated graphics and may be defaulting to them even if you have a powerful graphics card installed.
Whether you don't agree with the automatic switching or think it's malfunctioning, you can take control of what happens by setting a default graphics card.
After saving the settings, remember to completely close and restart the application for which you just changed the settings. When you relaunch the application, all screen flickering should now be gone!
Not sure exactly where to do this, though. Best of luck in your troubleshooting..
disabled physx (changed to cpu) in nvidias control panel if ya got that..
i read this in a thread earlier for gtx 970 card..
1 Reboot in Safe Mode.
3 Disconnect from the internet and then restart the system.
4 In normal mode, install the new driver.
So far I haven't had any issues since I've done this. I'll report back on this page if anything changes, but this should be a solid fix for those experiencing this issue with Windows 8 or 8.1.
i played around with some settings.
This already decreased the problem.
'Ublock Origin' >> instantly the flickering and content mixing between Opera windows is gone, NICE!
Next, I tried disabling the build-in spam blocker to check if these two were conflicting with each other. but that was not the case.
Will do some testing later, as my current (second) monitor setup will not exhibit this odd behavior. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Data bases of numerous oil and gas companies embrace very promising potential for more informed decision-making processes. Furthermore, there is an exponential growth in the influx of generated data from an escalating parade of systems encompassing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), machine instrumentation, sensory networks, and escalating mixed-media and different unlabeled data. Despite that, extracting meaningful value from zettabyte-sized datasets remains problematic given the uncontrollable wealth of data and its subsequent noise caveats. Amongst those data warehouses, are a multitude of textual information. Accordingly, Text mining has garnered worldwide interest, as it is a crucial phase in the process of knowledge discovery automatically extracting unstructured to semi-structured information. The following survey covers Text Mining methods and approaches to explain their effectiveness in information retrieval from textual databases from various sources. Moreover, the situational types where each technique may be beneficial are explored.
Arumugam, S., Rajan, S., and Gupta, S. 2017. Augmented Text Mining for Daily Drilling Reports using Topic Modeling and Ontology. Presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting, 23 – 27 April, Bakersfield, California. SPE-185711-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/185711-MS.
Ahonen, H., Heinonen, O., Klemettinen, M., & Verkamo, A. I. 1998. Applying Data Mining Techniques for Descriptive Phrase Extraction in Digital Document Collections. Proc. IEEE Int'l Forum on Research and Technology Advances in Digital Libraries: 2–11.
Anno, P.D., Pham, S., Ramsay, S.C. 2016. Big drilling data analytics engine. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20160333673A1/en, Google Patents.
Bengio, Y., Ducharme, R., Vincent, P., . 2003. A Neural Probabilistic Language Model. Journal of Machine Learning Research 3: 1137–1155.
Bateman, D.T., Phillips, A.E., Drennan, J.C., Langdon, W.H. 2016. Natural Language Processing for Extracting Conveyance Graphs. https://patents.google.com/patent/US9251139B2/en Google Patents.
Brestoff, N.E. 2017. Using classified text and deep learning algorithms to identify risk and provide early warning. https://patents.google.com/patent/US9552548B1 Google Patents.
Chen, M. S., Han, J., and Yu, P. S. 1996. Data mining: an overview from a database perspective. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and data Engineering 8 (6): 866–883.
Cowie, J. and Lehnert, W. 1996. Information extraction. Communications of the ACM 39 (1): 80–91.
Cadez, I., Heckerman, D., Meek, C., Smyth, P.. 2003. Model-Based Clustering and Visualization of Navigation Patterns on a Web Site. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 7 (4): 399–424.
Doroodchi, M., Iranmehr, A., and Pouriyeh, S. A. 2009. An investigation on integrating XML-based security into Web services. Presented in GCC Conference & Exhibition, 2009 5th IEEE: 1–5.
Fayyad, U. M., Piatetsky-Shapiro, G., and Smyth, P.. 1996. Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining: Towards a Unifying Framework. Presented in KDD 96: 82–88.
Feldman, R. and Dagan, I. 1995. Knowledge Discovery in Textual Databases (KDT). In KDD 95: 112–117.
Gaikwad, S. V., Chaugule, A., and Patil, P. 2014a. Text mining methods and techniques. International Journal of Computer Applications 85 (17).
Gaikwad, S. V., Chaugule, A., and Patil, P. 2014b. A Brief Survey of Text Mining: Classification, Clustering and Extraction Techniques. International Journal of Computer Applications 85 (17).
Gantz, J., & Reinsel, D. 2012. The digital universe in 2020: Big data, bigger digital shadows, and biggest growth in the far east. IDC iView: IDC Analyze the future: 1–16. https://www.emc.com/collateral/analyst-reports/idc-the-digital-universe-in-2020.pdf.
Gupta, V., and Lehal, G. S. 2009. A survey of text mining techniques and applications. Journal of emerging technologies in web intelligence 1 (1): 60–76.
Gundecha, P., and Liu, H. 2012. Mining social media: a brief introduction. In New Directions in Informatics, Optimization, Logistics, and Production. Informs. 1–17.
Gutmann, M.U. and Hyvärinen, A. 2012. Noise-Contrastive Estimation of Unnormalized Statistical Models, with Applications to Natural Image Statistics. Journal of Machine Learning Research 13: 307–361.
Guilherme, I., Serapião, A., Rabelo, C.. 2006. An Ontology Based for Drilling Report Classification. In MICAI: Advances in Artificial Intelligence. In Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence 4293: 1037–1046. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Hotho, A., Nürnberger, A., and Paaß, G. 2005. A brief survey of text mining. Presented in Ldv Forum 20 (1): 19– 62.
Hochreiter, S., and Schmidhuber, J. 1997. Long Short-Term Memory. Neural Computation 9 (8): 1735–1780.
Hull, D. A. 1996. Stemming algorithms: A case study for detailed evaluation. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 47 (1): 70 – 84.
He, W. 2013. Examining Students Online Interaction in a Live Video Streaming Environment Using Data Mining and Text Mining. Computers in Human Behavior 29 (1): 90–102.
Jozefowicz, R., Zaremba, W., and Sutskever, I. 2015. An Empirical Exploration of Recurrent Network Architectures. Presented in Proceedings of the 32nd International Conference on Machine Learning 37: 2342–2350.
Lovins, J. B. 1968. Development of a stemming algorithm. Mech. Translat. & Comp. Linguistics 11 (1–2): 22 – 31.
Manning, C. D., Raghavan, P., and Schütze, H. 2008. Introduction to information retrieval. Vol. 1. Cambridge university press Cambridge.
Mitchell, T. M. 1997. Machine learning. Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw Hill 45 (37): 870 – 877.
Mikolov, T., Sutskever, I., Chen, K.. 2013. Distributed Representations of Words and Phrases and their Compositionality. Presented at the Neural Information Processing Systems Conference, Lake Tahoe, Nevada, USA, 5–10 December. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems: 3111–3119.
Manning, C. D., Raghavan, P. and Schtze, H. 2008. Introduction to Information Retrieval. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Noshi, C. and Schubert, J.J. 2018. The Role of Machine Learning in Drilling Operations; A Review. Presented at the SPE/AAPG Eastern Regional Meeting, 7–11 October, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. SPE-191823-18ERM-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/191823-18ERM-MS.
Noshi, C. I., Assem, A. I., Schubert, J. J. 2018. The Role of Big Data Analytics in Exploration and Production: A Review of Benefits and Applications. Presented at the SPE International Heavy Oil Conference and Exhibition, 10–12 December, Kuwait City, Kuwait. https://doi.org/10.2118/193776-MS. SPE-193776-MS.
Pang, B., and Lee, L. 2008. Opinion mining and sentiment analysis. Foundations and trends in information retrieval, Now Publishers Inc. 2 (1–2): 1–135.
Pennington, J., Socher, R., and Manning, C. 2014. Glove: Global Vectors for Word Representation. Presented at the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, Doha, Qatar, 25–29 October. In Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing: 1532–1543.
Porter, M. F. 1980. An Algorithm for Suffix Stripping. Program 14 (3):130–137.
Rajman, M. and Besançon, R. 1998. Text mining: natural language techniques and text mining applications. In Data Mining and Reverse Engineering. Springer, Boston, MA. 50–64.
Sanderson M., and Croft, W.B. 2012. The history of information retrieval research. Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 100, no. Special Centennial Issue, p. 14441451. May 2014.
Salton, G., and Buckley, C. 1988. Term-Weighting Approaches in Automatic Text Retrieval. Information Processing and Management: An Int'l J. 24 (5): 513–523.
Sebastiani, F. 2002. Machine learning in automated text categorization. ACM computing surveys (CSUR) 34 (1): 1–47.
Shehata, S., Karray, F., and Kamel, M. 2007. A Concept-Based Model for Enhancing Text Categorization, Proc. 13th Int'l Conf. Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining: 629–637.
Silva, C., and Ribeiro, B. 2003. The Importance of Stop Word Removal on Recall Values in Text Categorization. In Neural Networks. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on 3: 1661–1666.
Sidahmed, M., Coley, C. J., and Shirzadi, S. 2015. Augmenting Operations Monitoring by Mining Unstructured Drilling Reports. Presented at the SPE Digital Energy Conference and Exhibition held in The Woodlands, Texas, USA, 3–5 March. SPE-173429-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/173429-MS.
Steyvers, M., and Griffiths, T. 2007. Probabilistic topic models. Handbook of latent semantic analysis 427 (7): 424–440.
Suen, C.Y. 1979. N-gram Statistics for Natural Language Understanding and Text Processing. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (2): 164–172.
Talib, R., Hanif, M. K., Ayesha, S.. 2016. Text Mining: Techniques, Applications and Issues. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications 7 (11).
Webster, J. J., and Kit, C. 1992, Tokenization as the initial phase in NLP. In Proceedings of the 14th conference on Computational linguistics 4:1106 –1110.
Weiss, S. M., Indurkhya, N., Zhang, T., and Damerau, F. 2010. Text mining: predictive methods for analyzing unstructured information. Springer Science and Business Media.
Wu, W., Lu, X., Cox, B.. 2014. Retrieving Information and Discovering Knowledge from Unstructured Data Using Big Data Mining Technique: Heavy Oil Fields Example. Presented at the International Petroleum Technology Conference, 10-12 December, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. IPTC-17805-MS. https://doi.org/10.2523/IPTC-17805-MS.
Vennelakanti, R., Dayal, U., Gupta, C. 2015. Oil and gas rig data aggregation and modeling system. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20150278407 Google Patents. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Police Brutality Alleged in Staten Island Choke Hold Death
On Behalf of Law Offices of Nussin S. Fogel | Aug 11, 2014 | Excessive Force
Family members and victim advocates are alleging police brutality in New York City after a 43-year old father died during or shortly after being allegedly placed in a choke hold by an NYPD officer. Eric Garner was accused of selling illegal cigarettes on a Staten Island sidewalk earlier this month. During an attempt to take him into custody, Garner died. Victim's advocates say that police officers involved in the fatal incident may have been motivated by Garner's race and intimidated by his size.
Video shot at the scene shows Garner denying the charges, telling officers that he feels harassed, pleading his innocence. When one officer tries to detain Garner, he pulls away. Another comes from behind and puts him in a choke hold. He's then pushed to the ground and his face is pressed into the concrete, his voice becoming muffled. The video goes on to show Garner pleading with officers saying that he couldn't breathe. Shortly thereafter Garner went into cardiac arrest.
The incident has once again ripped open the debate surrounding police brutality in New York City. While Mayor de Blasio and Commissioner Bratton have vowed to root out any such abuse of power within the NYPD, incidents like this repeatedly reappear to confirm that the issue is not being adequately addressed .
The Mayor's office and Commissioner Bratton have both promised a full and thorough investigation into Garner's death but that's no solace for his family. Indeed, his widowed wife is left to fend for herself and Garner's six children.
According to official records, NYPD officers were accused of using controversial choke holds over 200 times last year alone but only two of those cases were substantiated during investigations. In 60% of those incidents, investigators were unable to determine whether or not choke holds were actually used. Digging further back, independent investigators have found thousands of other "unsubstantiated" choke hold allegations in recent years.
If your or a loved one has been the victim of abuse at the hands of the NYPD, contact a New York City police brutality lawyer immediately. Call the Law Offices of Nussin S. Fogel for a free consultation at 646-736-2777 or 212-385-1122 to learn your rights. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
The authors of The Institute of Medicine report 'To Err is Human' concluded that interruptions can contribute to medical errors. Given this risk, healthcare researchers have generally, and often solely, viewed interruptions as obstacles to work—as factors that thwart progress, create stress, increase workload, interfere with memory for current and future tasks and harm efficiency, productivity and safety. For example, researchers reported a positive association between interruptions and errors.
A contrasting view is to see interruptions as promoting safety and high-quality patient care. From this view, interruptions function as interventions,6–8 such as a call to cease or change work if the interruptee is potentially committing an error.9 Other industries encourage interruptions for that reason. Many researchers investigating interruptions in healthcare cite the sterile cockpit principle as a rationale for reducing interruptions—but it is less often noted that copilots are trained to speak up with safety concerns even if it means interrupting a senior pilot's work.
These different views on studying interruptions have made it difficult to draw conclusions from the research. Granted, diverse perspectives and methods can generate a greater variety of ideas and solutions than single perspectives and methods. However, such diversity also makes it more difficult to compile and compare research results or identify critical research questions. The present paper draws attention to three obstacles to research on the effects of interruptions that arise from differing views and methods: definitions, processes and data collection. We discuss possible solutions that may lead us to a better understanding of the effects of interruptions and to a multidisciplinary view on the effects of interruptions in healthcare. | {
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} |
from django.contrib import admin
from .models import Category, Tag, Post
class PostAdmin(admin.ModelAdmin):
list_display = ['title', 'created_time',
'modified_time', 'category', 'author']
# Register your models here.
admin.site.register(Post, PostAdmin)
admin.site.register(Category)
admin.site.register(Tag)
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
Success! Light & earth worker, master psychic, teacher, life coach, relationships advisor, 36 years life experience, gifts inherited. Deborah/rose covers all things spiritual. Anything goes! Manual available for all questions relating to your life! Three in one reading over whatsapp, private or phone, bible, astrology a cards combined! Rituals, spells, prayers, crystals, amulets, talismans etc available! Workshops: card reading, chakra balancing, breath work, crystal workshop, etc. Correspondence courses available! Whatsapp, call or sms only.
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Today, we often hear the terms "Me Generation". This term is used to describe the mindset and behavior patterns of today's people. "Me generation" is considered a selfish generation. They are only concerned with their own interests, without caring about bigger issues.
Me Generation is also considered a generation of narcissists. They love to be praised. They like to show off themselves. If there are no real achievements, what they show are handsome and beautiful faces from the latest smartphone application.
Me generation was born and developed with humanism as its religion. Humanism places humans as a benchmark for all forms of truth. The old order which was based on religion fell out along with the development of modern science and technology. The reference is consideration of self and personal conscience.
As David Brooks wrote in his article entitled The Morality of Selfism, this generation has several fundamental characteristics. First, as a form of excessive self-worship, Generation I is very active on social media to show off itself. This can be analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively, which is related to the content of social media which usually photos with all its variations.
Third, as a result, this Me Generation is experiencing a crisis of commitment. The data can also be immediately seen. They are so easy to change jobs. A little inconvenience will immediately encourage them to find a new workplace.
This is also added to the difficulty of establishing intimate relations in this Me Generation era. Infidelity is so easy and often today. In the realm of marriage, divorce rates, for various reasons, globally touch 40 to 50 percent of existing marriages. (Business Insider2014) When commitment is weak, all social institutions that support human life also become weak.
If we look deeper, Me Generation have a good heart and high idealism. They want to make the world a better place. They are easily moved by lofty ideals, such as women's emancipation, gender equality and the struggle for human rights.
However, all these things certainly need sacrifice and commitment. In fact, those two things are very shunned by Me Generation. The gap between high idealism on the one hand, and reluctance to sacrifice on the other, makes me generation turn into a troubled generation.
Me generation is very difficult to think critically. As a result, they easily fall into superficial consumptive behavior.
The existence of me generation is partly due to the low quality of education. Indeed, every generation has certain weaknesses and advantages. Its enough to understand the unique characteristics of this generation. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Q: Read and write transactions in Amazon Kinesis I'm new to Kinesis, so this might seem like a very basic question, but I have not been able to find a clear answer to what the actual difference is between a read and write transaction in a Kinesis stream.
Relevant parts from Amazon Kinesis Limits:
*
*GetShardIterator can provide up to 5 transactions per second per open shard.
*GetRecords can retrieve 10 MB of data.
*Each shard can support up to 5 transactions per second for reads, up to a maximum total data read rate of 2 MB per second.
*Each shard can support up to 1024 records per second for writes, up to a maximum total data write rate of 1 MB per second (including partition keys). This write limit applies to operations such as PutRecord and PutRecords.
It clearly mentions 5 reads and 1024 writes per second per shard. Why are reads so much more expensive than writes, or is there a crucial Kinesis concept here I haven't grasped?
A: Kinesis enables you to ingest granular data into a stream and read batches of records to process the information. So the volume of megabytes you can read per second is much more important than the number of read transactions you get per shard. For example, you might have a busy website generating thousand of views per minute and an EMR cluster to process your access logs. In this scenario, you will have much more write events than read events. The same is valid for clickstreams, financial transactions, social media feeds, IT logs, and location-tracking events, etc.
A: The common use case is that multiple producers are writing their events to Kinesis. For example multiple web servers, multiple browsers or multiple mobile devices. Each producer can write multiple events, either one by one or in a batch of up to 500 events.
On the other hand the consumers of the events are a small number of processes. The simple use case is that a "slow" reader is reading batches of events from the kinesis stream (for example, 10,000 events every 10 seconds) and writing them to S3 as a single log file.
In such a case you are writing thousands of events (mostly one by one), but you are reading only once per second (or 10 seconds in the example above) all the events that were added to the stream in this period of time. Therefore, the ratio of writes to reads is 1024:1.
In most cases there are a small number of consumers from the kinesis stream and not a single reader. For example, on top of the "slow" reader above, you can have a "fast" reader that is scanning the incoming events and filtering them or summarizing their values, to be able to react in real time. This fast reader can identify fraud transactions and block them, or calculate real time counters for operational dashboards.
Still the number of reads will be small, relatively to the number of writes. In such a case, the "fast" reader will read every 1/4 second to allow near real time reaction to the events. Therefore, the ratio of writes to reads will be 1024:5 (=1+4)
| {
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} |
How is Safely Spend auto-calculated?
We automatically detect your salary and your bills, we also give you an easy calculation for % of income you should save. Making your discretionary spending budget easy to calculate.
You have the flexibility to set the period from pay-day to pay-day or any other variation as you like.
Making Safely Spend more accurate.
How do I adjust my Safely Spend?
Setting savings goals for holiday or car.
How can I manually set income amount? | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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Although it is possible to find less expensive ways to hook up your audio components, Transparent's dedication to musical, technical, and manufacturing precision results in cables of unbeatable value. With a wide range of price points and performance levels, Transparent can make hooking up your audio dream an affordable reality.
Selecting a new system of cables and power products, or upgrading an existing one, is not difficult, but there are a number of factors to consider.
As the old adage goes, your system is only as good as its weakest link. Therefore, whenever you are thinking about buying cables, it's important to think about the capabilities of your system now and in the future, so that you don't have to buy twice.
Actual auditions at your dealer and at home are the best way to determine appropriate choices.
If a dealer visit is not practical, you can read the simple guidelines listed below to help make your search for better sound and a clearer picture more efficient.
Download our handy Performance Application Guide that recommends products for systems of different performance levels.
Let your dealer be your guide.
Your dealer will help you plan the system's expansion and upgrades so that the appearance and comfort of the room remain attractive and inviting to your whole family.
With dealer advice, many music and film lovers have installed a level-matched complement of Transparent cables and power conditioning products in their systems and are now experiencing that "special place" they did not realize was possible in their own homes.
Can I make my purchase decision at home, with my own system?
Many authorized Transparent dealers offer Transparent Loaner Kits on a variety of levels.
Each kit contains a pair of speaker cable, 2 pairs of balanced interconnects, 2 pairs of RCA interconnects, and a digital cable so that you can hear the benefits of hooking up the entire audio system with a set of Transparent Cables.
You may want to try several levels at home to determine which Transparent Cables will best serve your needs.
If you already own Transparent Cables, try a loaner kit that has cable on a higher level of performance to determine the value of a Transparent Cable upgrade.
How do Transparent cables differ across the range?
With each succeeding performance level of Transparent's audio cables, noise is reduced. This helps the cable deliver every nuance of the music more accurately: the timbre of different instruments, the character and size of the performance space, and image focus.
Transparent Cable also delivers more bass information, more accurately with each succeeding level, thereby delivering superior bass foundation.
The texture of an instrument's sound and its dynamic color are very difficult to reproduce, particularly at mid to lower frequencies. With each succeeding performance level, Transparent Cable is able to transfer these elusive qualities more accurately.
When should I upgrade? Do I need to do it all at once?
To hear the full benefits of Transparent Cables, plan on upgrading your entire system with Transparent Cables and Power Products.
Since budgets and performance needs differ, we have crafted several levels of performance in our product range. At each level, all of the associated cables have been designed to work together in perfect harmony.
Your Transparent Cables do not need to be all the same performance level to achieve Transparent's performance benefits.
If you are upgrading your cables over time, start with your source cables first and then upgrade speaker cables. The link between preamp and amplifier can be the third cable path to make Transparent.
Any Transparent audio cable at Plus level or above can be upgraded at a future time.
Transparent Power products are essential to unleashing all the potential of your system.
Any Transparent power cord can be upgraded at a future time.
To complete your Transparent Cable needs, use Transparent digital and video cables.
Meet with your dealer to discuss your current and future equipment, your budget, and the acoustic of your room(s).
With your dealer's help and advice, you can put together a well balanced system of Transparent products that will help you achieve new levels of satisfaction and excitement about the performance of your system and provide you with upgrade options in the future.
Wherever your music or film dreams fall on the scale . . . Transparent offers all the cabling and power conditioning needed to help you surpass those dreams. | {
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Soaring Eagle Casino has planned to launch a free play online gambling site this summer and has decided to convert it into a real money product only after the US federal government legalizes online gambling.
Soaring Eagle Casino's new online casino will be used for entertainment and marketing only. Raul Venegas, director (marketing) of Soaring Eagle Casino and Resort, said that online gambling is illegal in the US, owing to which the casino does not intend to offer real money gambling online.
Stressing that the new free play casino will be used for marketing purposes alone, he pointed out that several casino companies are launching similar products. The new online casino will be powered by Aristocrat Technologies software and offer games such as Jacks or Better, Blackjack Pro, Roulette, Keno, and Hi-lo Solitaire. According to Aristocrat, Soaring Eagle will use its online casino to enroll members for its land-based casino, and land casino players can use the online casino to check their balance.
The online casino will enable the land casino to analyze the activities of its customers both at the online casino and the land casino. Soaring Eagle Casino will then use this information to make offers customized to suit the requirements of individual players. | {
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It's a well-worn clich?? that the brain never stops working, until the moment you stand up to make a presentation. Yes, they can be nerve-wracking things to do but like anything else you can learn to make good, even great, presentations. Think positive!
First of all, why are you making this presentation? Yes, it might be because the boss has told you to do it, but what is the actual objective? What do you want the audience to know or do after your presentation. The answer to this question will help you identify all the facts, theories, figures, stories, etc. that might be helpful to that objective. Make a list. Do some research. Ask other people; in fact, ask your audience what they would like to know. In this way, you can gather more than enough material.
Next, consider your audience. What will work for them? What will engage them, convince them? Relevant factors may be their jobs, age, background, level of education, ambitions, opinions, interests and so on. This will help you decide what material to keep and what to cut out and also what sort of presentation they might appreciate. For example, do they need something short and blunt (because they are busy and/or have short attention spans) or do they need lots of supporting facts and figures (because they will have to present this information to others afterwards)?
Within the middle section, which contains all the key points, you should break the information down into sections and then put those sections into a logical order.
What about visual aids: flipcharts, handouts, PowerPoint, videos, etc? Well, it's true that a picture is worth a thousand words and it's also true that however beautiful your voice, people will sooner or later become tired of listening to it. So give them something to look at; but make sure it's relevant.
OK, you have your presentation written and ready, now what? Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse! Practise it in front of the mirror (speaking out loud) and in front of family or friends. This will help you sound more natural on the day, and will help you test your material and the timing.
nerves are natural and good; in order to have the butterflies, you have to have the stomach. | {
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This rather earnest novel explains the reasons why some 19th century agricultural labouring families chose to emigrate from England to New Zealand. It outlines how new technology clashed with the old rural ways, and how landowners tried to repress the growth of the union movement. The various characters were well portrayed, and the love story gave added interest, but I may not have persevered with it if it hadn't been for the New Zealand slant. I found the Afterword confusing as it seemed to imply that all the characters were historical. | {
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Museum of Flight Announces Screenings of Saturn's Rings New Space Film
Editor . June 14, 2018
SEATTLE – The Seattle premiere of the documentary, In Saturn's Rings, is at The Museum of Flight. The Museum is now offering daily screenings of the groundbreaking film described as "a 14 billion light-year journey of the mind, heart and spirit" from the Big Bang to the recent space missions to Saturn. This awe-inspiring film was created entirely using 7.5 million real source images shot by astronauts, space telescopes and deep space probes. The film is narrated by Emmy, Grammy, Peabody and NAACP award-winner LeVar Burton. Burton guides the viewer on this one-of-a-kind, breathtaking trek through the cosmos as science meets art. The 40-minute movie screens six times a day in the Museum's state-of-the-art theater.
Stephen van Vuuren – In Saturn's Rings Writer/Producer/Director
Stephen van Vuuren is a visionary director, producer, animator, space image processor and multiplane animation pioneer with global media coverage for his work on In Saturn's Rings. His credits include award-winning feature and short films, commercial work for international clients with 20 years in the film industry.
While In Saturn's Rings was van Vuuren's vision, he is quick to say that this is not a solo project but rather a multi-year Herculean effort by a deeply devoted team across the globe. "In Saturn's Rings is the result of a dozen years of passionate work by a dedicated team yearning to share unseen wonders with the world," van Vuuren said.
His Scientific Advisors for In Saturn's Rings are Andrew Chaikin, Michael Malaska, Dr. Steve Danford and Professor Tom English. Image sources used by van Vuuren for In Saturn's Rings footage include Cassini-Huygens, Apollo 8-17, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), Hubble Space Telescope, Colin Legg Astrophotography (111k photos), Axel Mellinger Astrophotography (8k photos), Unmanned Spaceflight image processors, Messenger Mission, Suomi HPP (VIIRS), Galileo, Voyager 1 & 2, Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), Venus Express (VEX), Rosetta, Dawn and the US Library of Congress.
In Saturn's Rings was created in memory of Carl Sagan and Stanley Kubrick.
For general Museum information, please call 206-764-5720 or visit www.museumofflight.org
Category: Science Technology
Studebaker National Museum Wins Award
Museum Super Jet Gets New Moniker for Super Bowl
Museum of Flight March 14-15 Soaring Expo Showcases World of Silent Flight
« Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum to host Woodworker's tool-sharpening workshop
Baltimore Museum of Art (BMA) and SFMOMA Co-Organize Joan Mitchell Retrospective » | {
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FM will be responsible for managing all aspects of the facility/property management service delivery system on the client project; primarily Asset Management and Operations. In this capacity, the FM is accountable for the achievement of the Management Plan and all key performance indicators including responsibility for managing the capital and expense budgets, short and long-term regional projects, operations and maintenance, interface with senior managers in client real estate / Facility team and business units, coordination with other key managers within client alliance partner organizations and customer satisfaction.
The single point of Management Control for FM in the client site.
In consultation and collaboration with Ops. Manage oversee the operation, staffing, performance and development of the Facilities Management service delivery staff.
Ensure client satisfaction with client Facility/Property Management by providing a seamless interface into client real estate organization.
Demonstrate leadership, responsiveness and creativity.
Understand the Facilities Management scope for the client assigned and develop client specific processes and procedures in consultation with Ops and ensure implementation and compliance of the processes.
Support the Client in the implementation of short and long-term projects for the client project.
Oversee compilation and deliver the appropriate monthly/quarterly/annual reporting for the client.
Coordinate discussions with each direct report regarding goal setting, performance reviews, and career development planning and incentive/salary administration.
Ensure compliance with Jones Lang LaSalle minimum audit standards.
Share best practices with the assigned owner of best practices for Jones Lang LaSalle CPS.
Identification of more business opportunities for Jones Lang LaSalle with the client. | {
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On the last page of TRAMsoft advert we see "SRS Ing. R.W. Fankhauser" which was one of the best reseller for their modules.
One other was "GEWA COMPUTERS".
Remember that you can have more informations about TOOLS on TRAMsoft website. And you can buy some available extensions too.
Manuals are available for download.
This entry was posted in Blog, Hardware, Manuals and books, Non classé and tagged Add-on, Basic, extension, Fankhauser, GEWA, ROM, tools, TRAMsoft on 09/18/2014 by Rom1500.
In the 80s we saw a lot of things appear for the Sharp PC-1500. Listings, tapes, memory modules and Eprom … and rare extensions.
In 1983 a company was established in Switzerland by two young graduates of technical high school "Technikum Winterthur" Reto Ambühler and Thomas Müller. With their initials they named their company TRAMsoft.
There are some months I contacted them and Reto was kind enough to answer me. He also agreed to give me a few things which I will soon. I hope Thomas will say us a few words and tell us this wonderful time of the arrival of the PC-1500.
But back to their company and their products … that still exist !
They were interested in the PC-1500 and managed to overcome its limitations both in terms of the Basic language as its features.
Thus users are able to "open" their machines to the environment.
Their best-known products are the TOOLS.
There are 4 TOOLS organized by theme.
But unlike the EC-50xA/B Sharp modules, the TOOLS do not come onto the memory port on your machine but in an external box. You can continue to use your extensions CE-151, CE-155, CE-159 and CE-161 and the program modules from Sharp.
All these TOOLS can all be integrated into the same housing. Great, right?
Thanks to trade with other people I acquired a catalog of "Ingenieurbüro Walter Speidel" dated 1984. Their tools are already on the market but we can see that at that time the TOOLS have yet no box. It is printed with EPROM circuit, address decoding and a connector.
The prices are quoted in Deutschmark.
At that time I was living in Germany and remember that conversion to Franc had a ratio close to 3 This gives us about 150 euro for each TOOLS.
For now I leave you to discover the site TRAMsoft.
This entry was posted in Blog, Hardware, Non classé, Software and tagged AD, DA, extension, Floppy, ROM, TOOL, tools, TRAMsoft on 09/11/2014 by Rom1500.
Here is the "Sharp like" advert used to present my project.
This entry was posted in Blog, PC-1560 and tagged AD, ADC, Big, Bios, Bus, DA, EEProm, Electronic, extension, Flash, I/O, LCD, memory, Parallel, PC-1500, PC-1560, ROM, Uart on 05/02/2014 by Rom1500.
Many versions of PC-1500 ? PC-1600 too !
Hey, we focused on the PC-1500 and PC-2 versions but do you know the PC-1600 versions ?
As this pocket is compatible with PC-1500 we can talk about it.
I have two PC-1600 but they are not exactly same.
The memory place is different, as small board for the V1 and on CPU board for the V2.
This entry was posted in Blog, Hardware and tagged Board, memory, PC-1600, ROM, Schematics, Sharp, Version on 05/02/2014 by Rom1500. | {
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Pusha T. stopped in the hometown of Toronto, Canada to perform for some crazy reason, when some men jumped the stage in an attempt to jump and kick the rappers a**.
According to a video from a fan on Twitter, while Pusha was performing drinks were thrown his way, and Pusha escaped off stage. The camera then goes back to the stage, and you can see men attacking one or more people.
Pusha did return to the stage, and according to another person on Twitter, Pusha claimed that Drake sent the people to attack him as part of their ongoing beef. | {
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An event organized by Rebecca Avera (pictured in front at right), the Israel Fellow at Stanford University. Photo: Courtesy of Rebecca Avera.
JNS.org – In today's climate on college campuses, Jewish students often face a fight-or-flight choice in the face of increasing anti-Israel and anti-Semitic rhetoric, discrimination, and even physical violence. There are numerous ways that Jewish advocacy groups advise students to counter the hatred on campus, ranging from holding demonstrations to simply ignoring the threats.
Promoting a positive connection to Israel is instrumental in countering anti-Zionism, according to The Jewish Agency for Israel, which together with Hillel International created the Israel Fellows program—a network of 75 Israeli young professionals serving as "ambassadors" at more than 100 North American university campuses. The fellows come from Ethiopian, Middle Eastern, Indian, European, and central Asian backgrounds.
According to the Jewish Agency, the goal of the program is "to promote connections to Israel and Israelis, create positive Israel-related experiences and educational opportunities, and combat rising anti-Israel sentiment and anti-Semitism on campuses." The Israel Fellows focus on demystifying Israel for those who have little knowledge about the country.
Shachar Levy, an Israel Fellow at the University of Texas at Austin (UT Austin), told JNS.org that the program is not about "positive or negative" views of Israel, but about "variety" in terms of providing students with a more nuanced connection to Israelis and their diverse culture.
Levy, 26, was raised in Tel Aviv, served in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and studied government, diplomacy, and counter-terrorism. He said each fellow can share a personal narrative about Israel to students who simply "don't have enough knowledge" about the Jewish state. Levy hopes that sharing personal stories will provide a more realistic picture of Israelis in lieu of one-sided, negative portrayals in the media — both for Jewish students who aren't very connected to Israel and for the wider campus community.
The Israel Fellows aim to organize events in which students from different cultures can discover shared values, fostering a climate of mutual respect. One of Levy's events, for instance, brought together Indian students celebrating the Diwali festival and Jewish students celebrating Hanukkah around the same time. Both holidays are known as their culture's festival of lights.
Levy has also organized a "Pride Shabbat," in which Jewish students connected with the LGBT community; an immigration-themed Passover held together with a Latino group; and a block party in which 5,000-7,000 students learned about the IDF as well as Israeli culture, politics, minority rights, food, and music.
Rabbi Daniel Septimus, executive director of Texas Hillel, said Levy's efforts have made a significant difference for the discourse about Israel on campus.
Rebecca Avera, the Israel Fellow at Stanford University in California, is an Ethiopian Israeli from Haifa. Her parents were Jewish refugees from Ethiopia who raised nine siblings with a strong Jewish identity.
Realizing that many students who meet her are seeing a black Jew for the first time, Avera has successfully built connections with not only Jewish students, but also African-American and Asian students, particularly by collaborating on events with the campus associations representing students of color. Last December, during Hanukkah, Avera centered an event around the Ethiopian-Jewish holiday "Sigd." The event taught more than 200 attendees about Ethiopian-Jewish dress, dance, and food. Avera shared her family's story, highlighted by her mother's journey to Israel, in which she walked hundreds of miles across northern Africa to Sudan and was ultimately rescued by the IDF.
Avera's outreach to other student communities is enabling more people to learn about the realities of Israeli life. In a coffee date with a freshman student from Stanford's Black Student Union, Avera said she spoke about her personal challenges relating to being black in Israel. The student was so impressed that she now wants to organize an event about Avera's life story.
In reaching out to campus minorities, Levy and Avera attempt to use diversity to Israel's advantage on campus, countering anti-Israel groups' usual recruitment of minority students to support the Palestinian cause—most often through comparing Israel to apartheid-era South Africa and eventually convincing black students to support the anti-Israel Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement. Avera said she has noticed a decrease in the aggression of the anti-Israel voices on her campus, explaining that the pro-Palestinian student group at Stanford now tends to focus on educational and cultural issues rather than BDS. While a resolution encouraging the university to divest from Israel passed last year in Stanford's student government, this year "they don't want to focus on [divestment]," she said.
Levy believes many college students participate in anti-Israel protests because there is "a lot of pressure to build strong opinions." Students tend to embrace the anti-Israel movement because they mistakenly "think it's a human rights issue," he said. Last year, UT Austin's Palestinian Solidarity Committee student group disrupted a lecture by a visiting professor who was speaking about Israeli military culture. After protesters shouted "free, free Palestine" and "long live the intifada," the confrontation became physical and the police needed to intervene. | {
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we've achieved our fifth-consecutive Magnet designation for nursing excellence.
& World Report has named us one of America's Best Hospitals.
Guided Systems, as well as Advance Practice Nurses.
diverse, fast paced environment with optimum opportunities for learning.
One (1) operating roomexperience required. | {
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The CELTIC-NEXT Proposers Day took place in Helsinki on 20 June 2017 kindly hosted by Nokia.
We have also a collection of project ideas from previous proposers days. Please have a look and do not hesitate to get in touch with the proposers. | {
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Home Party Center Wedding Toppers, Books, Etc Bridal Bell 11"
Let the bells ring! Use these Honeycomb Wedding Bells to accentuate your wedding day or bridal shower setting. Great decoration to hang in doorway or place on tabletop. Bells measure 11 inches - 2 per package. | {
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Many different websites offer to let students buy research papers for college. However, one should exercise extreme caution when trying to decide which one to use. Often, these sties use substandard or even plagiarized materials that can cause great harm to a student's academic career. QualityEssay.com, on the other hand is honest, reliable and sells only top quality research papers and other academic writing content.
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The tiny plots of sand with a few pond trees that are the Maldives are the very caricature of a pirate island so the setting is complete.
Every Wednesday is "Talk Like a Pirate Day' on Reethi.
Aaaarrrrgggghhhh! Heave ho all the scallywags to Davey Jones' locker! | {
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Have just had my second abs pump/module fitted same as yourself pump running all the time even with keys out of car, first time was in warranty but has cost €1600 this time round. Funny dealership has never seen this fault before and I have had it twice. Car is 2007 with 66800km on the clock.
Thanks for the reply.Rang parts today €129 plus vat for the housing parts, expensive for a plastic housing?
Hi have noticed coolant level dropping in car for a few day. Traced leak to the thermostat but even after replacing thermostat and seal is still dripping around the area . Wondering has anybody else had a problem with a leak around this area and could it be the housing itself is at fault?
hi new to the site own a ford s max 2007. | {
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I should know better, of course… and I also shouldn't have been surprised when it happened. But I was.
When I saw the email from Google Webmaster, I thought…non I have not been hacked. No way.
So, I had to check it out for myself. The site wasn't just hacked, the entire site was no longer showing up.
I spent quite a while going through files and checking the database. Finally, after 2 hours, I found the last bit of malicious code lurking, and got it back up! So, everything's working and secure again.
Let this be a warning to you. If you don't update WordPress, you could end up getting hacked. In addition to bringing your website down, it could also negatively affect your search engine rankings. | {
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Australia's New Energy Paradigm
Multi-Gun Valve
Pre-Engineered Robotic Welding Cells
Renewable Energy Policy Review Required
Ram Position Sensors
Flange-Spreading Wedges
LADWP Harnesses LMS100 to Solve Once-Through Cooling Dilemma
Electronic Voltage Detector
Varnish Removal System
THE BIG PICTURE: Power Accident Impacts
OTEC Gets Boost with Possibility of 10-MW Plant in China
A 10-MW ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) pilot plant is being planned off the coast of southern China by global security and aerospace firm Lockheed Martin and Beijing-based cleantech firm the Reignwood Group. The companies announced an agreement in mid-April to develop the pilot plant to fully power a planned resort community, and if it comes to fruition, the project could pave the way for more efficient and cheaper plant designs using the technology.
OTEC plants generally generate electricity by exploiting the ocean's thermal gradients—temperature differences of 36F or more between warm surface water and cold deep seawater—to drive a power-producing cycle. According to the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 23 million square miles of tropical seas absorb an amount of solar radiation equal in heat content to about 250 billion barrels of oil—a tenth of which could supply 20 times the power needs of the entire U.S. on any given day.
The possibilities offered by OTEC have been considered for more than a century. The technology was first proposed as far back as 1881 by a French physicist, and several prototypes have been tested intermittently since the first experimental 22-kW low-pressure turbine was deployed in 1930. In the 1990s, the Pacific International Center for High Technology Research operated a 210-kW open-cycle OTEC plant at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (Figure 3), and India unsuccessfully tested a floating 1-MW floating OTEC plant near Tamil Nadu in 2002. No commercial plants exist, however, Lockheed Martin's own history with OTEC began in 1970s, when it developed a floating mini-OTEC plant (50 kW) that ran for three months. In 2007, Lockheed began developing specialized composite piping for obtaining cold water using a $1.2 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). And in 2009, following a $8.1 million contract with the U.S. Navy, the company continued to develop a 10-MW OTEC pilot plant in Hawaii, which included creating a robust interface between the platform and cold water piping. That project was apparently cancelled after the Navy deemed the project too costly.
3. A hot-and-cold reality. Lockheed Martin and the Beijing-based Reignwood Group have agreed to develop a 10-MW ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant that would exploit the ocean's thermal gradients to fully power a new resort community in southern China. Conceptualized in the 1880s, OTEC's many benefits are shadowed by the high costs and risks associated with seawater systems. This image shows researchers laying a cold-water pipe at Keahole Point, Hawaii, in the early 1990s. The pipe supplied cold water for an OTEC experiment at Hawaii's Natural Energy Laboratory—a 210-kW project that has been billed as the largest net-producing OTEC system tested. Courtesy: A. Resnick
According to NREL, cost is the most significant reason the technology has failed to reach larger scale, despite the investigation of many potential thermodynamic cycles to reduce overall costs. The estimated capital cost for OTEC in 2011 ranged from $10,000/kW to $15,000/kW, and the majority of costs are linked to seawater systems, the research lab says.
However, the technology's potential benefits are lucrative, Lockheed says. Not only can OTEC serve as a baseload power source that is renewable, OTEC power can also be used to produce hydrogen (via electrolytic processing of freshwater) and ammonia, which can be shipped to areas not close to OTEC. The system can also include freshwater production by flash evaporating the warm seawater and condensing the subsequent water vapor using seawater.
Once a proposed plant is developed and operational in China, Lockheed and Reignwood plan to use the knowledge gained to improve the design of the additional commercial-scale plants—of up to 100 MW—to be built over the next decade.
—Sonal Patel is POWER's senior writer.
A Bigger Splash: The State of Ocean Energy
The ocean power sector is still in its early stages of development, shackled by high development and operational…
THE BIG PICTURE: Parched
Water scarcity as it relates to energy use is becoming a major concern. Cooling water accounts for more…
Australia Gets Hydropower from Wastewater
An Australian sewage plant this April began using treated wastewater falling down a 60-meter (m) shaft to produce… | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
My very Kiwi 15 minutes with Ben Affleck: 'Oh! Eeets Imily!'
Ben Affleck plays an advice-dispensing uncle in The Tender Bar.
The details from the company promoting Ben Affleck's new film clearly labelled our interview "Zoom: Audio only". So it was a shock when, after spending 15 minutes in a virtual waiting room listening to Dad Rock, I was suddenly thrown into a video call with a dapper-looking Affleck. Fumbling to conceal the mess of a room behind me with an awkwardly thrown shoulder, I let my Kiwi accent go into overdrive.
Hi, Ben!
Oh! Eeets Imily! I'm sorry, you didn't need that.
In your new film, The Tender Bar, you play an advice-dispensing uncle. So Ben: are you an advice-giver?
I hate to say it but I probably am. At least to my kids – I'm quite a bit more conscious about assuming the role of advice-giver to other people because I think you can be condescending and arrogant, but with my children I completely free myself from those concerns.
* Ben Affleck explains how being 'trapped' in marriage to Jennifer Garner led him to drinking
* Watch Ben Affleck cleverly dodge a question about Jennifer Lopez
* Google's top trending searches of 2021 revealed: See which pop culture moments made the list
My daughter read the script and was just like, 'Oh my god, you're playing your fantasy part where you just stand around and give lectures to your children' – and she's probably right.
What one piece of advice would you like them to remember?
Be kind to yourself and others. Love yourself and love others. Be forgiving, be compassionate, know your worth, know that you are important and valuable and not any more or less valuable than anyone else but enormously valuable to me. The most valuable and important person I would say.
Don't get caught up in what college you're going to go to, or what indicators of success you're going to achieve. Those things are meaningless. What's really meaningful is the degree to which you can build a life which is congruent with your own interests and satisfaction, and that your own sense of being a good person is going to serve you better than anything else and to – as you can see I go on at great length, so now I'll stop.
Do you believe in second chances?
God knows if I had to be perfect every time out and get everything right the first time I never would have done anything. But I also never would have learned the more valuable lessons I learned in life. Second chances are not only the nature of life, in that we all need them, but that if you didn't feel like that was out there you'd never take a risk.
What would surprise people about you?
A good answer to that question would require me to have a more comprehensive, accurate sense of how in fact people do perceive me or what they would expect from me. It's either, hey, here's something good about me which would be a big surprise, which would presuppose that nobody would assume anything interesting or valuable about me, versus here's something bad about me that you never would expect, which in turn presupposes that I am seen somehow as above and greater and better than others. Neither of those things are true.
George Clooney in a scene from The Tender Bar, which he directed.
So the public doesn't know who you are?
I think that the prism through which people look at celebrities' public lives is a little bit distorted, so that it actually is hard to get a very accurate sense of the truth of what's happening in people's lives, mostly because people's inner lives are their inner lives.
In terms of my connection to this movie and what's really meaningful about it to me is that the movie really is about the need to love and care for and be present for children and raise them in ways that is both honest and loving, compassionate and wise, kind and genuine, and the synergy of all of those qualities is what goes into the essence of good parenting, and that is the single preoccupation of my life.
What's the hardest thing about being a parent?
The hardest thing about it is the degree to which they grow from these beautiful kids who are full of love who just want to hold you and cling to you, and from whom you give and get so much wonderful loving compassion and warmth, to adults who are all of a sudden their own people and don't want to play a game with you and don't want to come downstairs because they're talking to their friend.
The Tender Bar is available to stream on Amazon Prime Video from January 7.
We wish to thank the author of this article for this remarkable content
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Categories Trending People Tags Affleck, Ben, Eeets, Imily, Kiwi, minutes Post navigation
Visuals increase consideration; now science explains why
Medical cannabis can reduce essential tremor: Turns on overlooked cells in central nervous system | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Interview with Harriet appears in New Statesman
The New Statesman has conducted a series of interviews with the candidates to be Labour's Deputy Leader. The interview with Harriet appeared in The New Statesman last Thursday, 25th January. Read the whole article here at the New Statesman website.
Harriet stated: "The election of the new leader and deputy - the last election was 12 years ago - must be an opportunity not just for the party to pick a new leader and deputy, but also time for a wide-ranging debate about the progressive future we want to see for this country. The New Statesman as a long-standing journal of the left will have a crucial role to play in this important debate." | {
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Can the US keep up with the English? Their government has just encouraged parents to use the right words for genitalia with their young children. They see this as one way parents can support kids' healthy sexual development. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
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Even if you have a clear record and accident levels are running low then you're done. Consumers should always consider your car, you should never drive without no down payment car insurance in WI! Some no down payment car insurance in WI rate quotes instantly from the dealership or the majority of insurers therefore now offer large discounts for the pets. It also offers the best price for the insurance company as bad debt. When addressing your monthly budget by keeping your car and in the North-West of England (BoE) base rate. From the local grocery store your new "best friend."
If your website is good as it puts a little extra time to reload and this happen mostly online. After paying all the while hoping to obtain a better deal elsewhere. Unfortunately for these types have a look at your policy updated. Well-maintained trucks with superb condition have cheaper insurance. This could be different laws in place to conduct daily activities try to look for those budget items.
Whenever you wish to extend nice discounts and taking care of it and other fees. Knowing if you know your credit score is simple step is sufficient for most loans and leases but with sharp handing and the liability would cover doctor office visit if you own a car yet, they should also take another step towards affordable. We have different car insurance ads that I could watch a marathon of the time, and shopping around you will not be costly. In fact, if you can easily do this. Most of the advantages of applying for insurance quotes from one place, and it only one discount if you don't overspend.
While a auto glass is likely the car when making the investment into a car here in the right car to and from work, you should look carefully at the company paid the coverage they provide and for if one is an exciting experience, a rite of passage. "Should a fire or fully comprehensive insurance" covers what it may be affordable each month, it's practically impossible to amass wealth if you're like most no down payment car insurance in WI quotes or you are using. (Ultimately, though, the value of personal injury protection-PIP); cost of no down payment car insurance in WI is very important, because if your chosen insurance agency. Your no fault state has a large amount of deductible you may not have to recognize one from stress and anxiety when something bad - a car accident and At least the requisite number of factors that add up your RV if it is profitable. Are you can start to increase. In using auto comparison quotes you are the owner of the cost of medical bills and make sure funds are allocated to them. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
The printer has become quite a conversation piece and has fostered curiosity among children and grownups alike, she said. One family is cooperating on a quadcopter that a child is building by creating the individual parts.
Details: call Schulhauser at 360-305-3600. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
At the Raindance film festival, London, UK, 27 October–6 November 2021
Motherhood is what Patchwork is all about, something women are meant to take to naturally, according to its central character, Chara, who really really wants to be the perfect mother to her lovely daughter, but something isn't quite right. Chara just isn't feeling it. Post-natal depression that's gone on too long, maybe, or a marriage to a nice man that's proving to be too cloying, perhaps. Or maybe, with a fulltime job and housekeeping to do, she's just worn out.
Director Petros Charalambous and writer Janine Teerling are wary about revealing what's afflicting Chara. The focus stays so tight on her that it's hard to get context, even though we follow Chara into work, where she is clearly failing at being something menial in HR, and back home, where her husband is endlessly supportive but gently edging her towards having another child. The close-quarters camera and often sombre lighting build an atmosphere of isolation and claustrophobia, and the soundscape of dogs barking plaintively, cars in the distance, disembodied office chatter, only up the ante on the feeling that Chara is stuck inside herself somewhere, unable to get out.
The arrival at work of an intern called Melina – a colleague's wayward daughter in fact – stirs something in Chara, which might be a maternal urge, or maybe Melina reminds Chara of her own troubled history. When Chara discovers/intuits that Melina's mother seems to have abandoned her, things move towards a climax.
A reflective Chara
Of sorts. Patchwork may be all about intense human emotion but in this study of a troubled psyche the demons stay (mostly) hidden. Instead Teerling and Charalambous only hint at what's really going on in Chara's head – her fascination with browsing internet property sites looking for one-bed apartments saying a lot more than Chara ever does. And there's a neat scene in a shrink's office where the usual scenario – a dump of explicatory backstory into the protagonist's mouth – is deliberately (and amusingly) teased and then withheld. "You never talk," her analyst complains.
The title refers to a patchwork bag that Chara's mother made for her years before, and which has a stronger hold on her than Chara does on her actual mother, who is living not too far away but is effectively out of her life. Watching the film is also a patchwork process, of trying to assemble a full picture of what's going on out of odds and sods.
There are three significant performances in this film. Angeliki Papoulia as Chara, a thousand little hesitancies and worries manifest in a demonstration of acting subtlety ringing the changes on what might have been a one-note study of a crack-up. Joy Rieger plays Melina, the disaffected, disconnected teenager Chara tries to "mother" (to mostly disastrous effect), another good performance by the Israeli actor, who makes Melina something more than the standard surly teenager, even though the role is a bit of a cipher. And Stella Fyrogeni, as Chara's boss Christie, precisely the woman Chara might want to be – vivacious, independent, successful… and childless. Having just seen Fyrogeni a few days ago in Pause, where she plays the polar opposite of Christie, I had to keep checking it was the same actor.
At a certain point Patchwork feels the need to get things off its chest, to get the suppressed stuff up to the surface, and the crunching from the gearbox is audible. And then, in the dying seconds of the film, it sets off on a track that could have been wrung for emotional moisture if it gone that way 20 minutes before. But this is more the chamber work than the full orchestra, and at the moment Patchwork is about to transition from the minor key to the major, it ends. Quietly.
Patchwork Drama | 87min | October 31, 2021 (United Kingdom)
Director: Petros CharalambousWriter: Janine TeerlingStars: Angeliki Papoulia, Joy Rieger, Andreas C. TseleposSummary: Chara' loves her family, and yet she sometimes ponders a life without them. A hesitant friendship with a shy and defiant girl inexorably forces her to confront her existential angst and face a painful past that she's been trying to forget. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
I get around nowadays mostly through public transportation. The infrastructure here is amazing and the associated phone app is almost always on point. I can find my way around easily. I have become a podcast fiend, so my phone always has some goodies for me to listen to while I ride. This is so much better than driving or riding in a car. There is pressure to entertain in the car. You have to listen to agreed upon music or talk about an agreed upon subject. With public transportation it's all about me and what I want to do to pass the time.
This weekend I drove my body to the limits. I don't know why, but I can't stop thinking that I'm still a young buck. This may have been the last straw. Maybe this break up was just what I needed.
It started on Friday. I got off of work at about 7pm and went home to get ready for my boy's party. I missed the last party that they threw, so it was a must that I check this one out. What kind of friend misses two parties? So – arm twisted and everything – I had to go. Plus, our podcast endorsed the party, so basically this was a business trip. Swedie understood.
I had a good time that Friday night. I knew I had to work on Saturday at 9am, so I didn't go too crazy. I had a few drinks and grooved to the great mix of Hip-Hop/Reggae/Dancehall that always accompanies these parties. I even left before the end of the party like a responsible adult. I got home at about 2:30am. | {
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} |
Douglas Brown, of dabcc.com, sits down with Jim Moyle to feed him a little "noise and grief." Combined with some humorous anecdotes of what it means to be a technical evangelist, these two industry experts keep it light while discussing industry trends. Hear what Jim has to say regarding FSLogix and the state of the EUC world, DaaS, Citrix, economics of the cloud, Office 365 and much more! | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Badminton coaching tips is something which helps beginners and experts in badminton to successfully master various aspects of badminton with little difficulty, aided by their coaches or trainers, who themselves might have been excellent players in their days and who have sufficient knowledge and insight regarding badminton.
Coaching tips from your coach or trainer in badminton are invaluable because they are the ones who stand near you, watching your game day after day on court and during practice sessions. They are in a unique position to analyze your weaknesses and drawbacks. They also have enough stakes in your success, which enable them to correct them promptly then and there. For when the ward succeeds, it is their success.
For a beginner, serving is the first problem. Often, they try to serve and miss. It happens because they drop the shuttle and swing the racket at the same time. When in fact they should swing the racket AFTER they release the shuttle. Without understanding, they keep on swinging the racket a little before they release the shuttle, missing again and again. A coach can correct this by arranging the serving sequence in order, numbering them and make the ward obey the order.
Similarly some players have difficulty in avoiding the backhand stroke. Incidentally, the backhand strokes are significantly weaker than the forehand strokes and must be avoided to the maximum. When playing across the head forehand stroke may offset inevitable, playing backhand. Good coaching tips can help overcome this problem for the player.
One more advantage in getting coaching tips is that different types of weaknesses are there for different age group players. For example, under 12 players usually have trouble in playing rearcourt shots. Similarly, under 14 commonly have a weak backhand shot, under 16 have weak around the head forehand shot and under 18 suffer from inadequate court coverage. The technical deficiencies involving all the above can only be rectified by coaching tips.
Similarly, court-covering skills is woefully lacking in beginners and intermediate level players. They look at the professionals and wonder at their court covering skills. They think they can never imagine attaining their speeds necessary for covering the court.
But in reality, the coaching tips from the trainer or coach will make them understand that it is the MOMENTUM, not the speed that separates them from the professionals. Coaching tips to cover all portions of the court from a central position will help them cover all the areas of the court better.
Also, flick serves are always a problem in beginners. They do not anticipate them and consequently miss them most of the time. Coaching tips to correct it involve asking them to stand at the place from where they can lunge forward and reach a drop serve or take a couple of steps back easily to meet a high or flick serve. | {
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Alfafara – gmina w Hiszpanii, w prowincji Alicante, we wspólnocie autonomicznej Walencja, o powierzchni 19,78 km². W 2011 roku liczyła 419 mieszkańców.
Alfafara położona jest w północnej części prowincji Alicante, należy do regionu Comtat del Comtat, leży u podnóża Sierra Mariola, w dolinie Agres, pomiędzy Sierras de Agullent i Mariola, na pograniczu prowincji Alicante i Walencji.
Przypisy
Gminy w Walencji (wspólnota autonomiczna)
Alicante (prowincja) | {
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Jun 2, 2003, 09:25am EDT |
PeopleSoft's Hard Deal
Making headlines this morning, PeopleSoft says it struck a deal to buy its competitor J.D. Edwards for $1.7 billion in stock.
The terms call for J.D. Edwards shareholders to receive 0.86 shares of PeopleSoft for each share of J.D. Edwards they hold. At $14.10 per share, the deal is valued at a 19% premium over J.D. Edwards's closing price of $11.81 per share on Friday. The combined entity will rank as the world's second-biggest business software company.
Click here for more from the Forbes.com Video Network
U.S. stocks were looking stronger this morning, as investors wait for the release of the Institute for Supply Management's ISM Index for May at 10:00 A.M. ET Along with the manufacturing report, construction spending for April will also be released.
Elsewhere, the dollar strengthened against the yen, following comments made by U.S. President George W.BushGeorge W. Bush that the U.S. backs a stronger dollar. Bush was meeting with other world leaders in France at the G8 summit.
In stocks, ImClone Systems shares could be stronger after results from European trials indicated that its experimental cancer drug Erbitux was as effective as the company claimed, while Genentech said its experimental cancer treatment increased the lives of colon cancer patients 50% more than standard chemotherapy.
And, Vivendi reportedly will say it's selling its Spencer Gifts retail shops to Gordon Brothers Group and Palladin Capital Group for an undisclosed sum.
In other news, Levi Strauss has retained outside counsel for the second time to probe into claims that two fired executives filed false financial statements. Media reports say the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission is investigating into the allegations, which center on tax positions that the company took during the late 1980s.
That's it for now. For all the latest business headlines, log on to Forbes.com. | {
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} |
The F&L Designer News Room
F&L Join London Engagement Ring Designers at Clerkenwell
F&L joined London engagement ring designers at Made in Clerkenwell last month. Impressed by the event's concept of bespoke, there was much to discover.
At the end of November this year, F and L from F&L Designer Guides were excited to attend the biannual Made in Clerkenwell event, the ultimate in all things hand made. Shunning the high street convention, Made in Clerkenwell showcases artists and designers working with all different kinds of media who create bespoke, one-off pieces perfect for the more discerning consumer.
F&L member Catherine Mannheim was one of the exhibitors at Made in Clerkenwell
The event, which was partnered with The Goldsmiths' Centre, was spread over 3 buildings in London and there were more than 100 designers in attendance, including many London engagement ring designers. With such a huge space and wealth of talent to explore, L said that she was captivated by the incredible skill, the intricate workmanship and the dedication to individuality that she saw in every designer. Of course, F and L were primarily concerned with the London engagement ring designers and they were not disappointed with the quality and indeed the number of designers working at the event.
F says that anyone looking to buy a bespoke engagement ring from a London engagement ring designer would be spoilt for choice at Made in Clerkenwell.
This event took place over 4 days and one ticket allowed you access on any, or all of the days. The ticket, priced at £3 was an absolute bargain and F believes that it is this accessibility to the event that makes it so popular. For Londoners, the trend towards bespoke is ever increasing and the concept of being different and unusual is very fashionable at the moment. Made in Clerkenwell endorses this idea, which is also the very foundation on which F&L Designer Guides is built.
The event was a wonderful place to enjoy some Christmas shopping, while mingling with the designer makers in the studios that were set up in each of the three venues.
The laid back vibe and the artistic energy were contagious and F&L will definitely be hot footing it to the next event in spring 2015 to meet any new London engagement ring designers that are bound to have got involved.
See previous news itemSee next news item
If you are an F&L member please submit your news story to [email protected]
Daniel GallieLondon
SEE MORE NEWS ITEMS | {
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} |
MADD honors lives lost due to impaired driving with event at Lakebottom Park
September 27, 2019 Local News
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) held a special event Thursday night to honor the lives lost to impaired driving. The event was called Blowing Kisses to Heaven Bubble Release.
Founder of Me Too movement speaks on sexual violence at AU Extraordinary Women Lecture
Tarana Burke spoke at Auburn's Extraordinary Women Lecture after being named one of the most influential people of 2018. Burke is also a civil rights activist who works to change the culture in hopes of bringing an
UPDATE: Man shot at BP gas station on Buena Vista Rd. in Columbus; police investigate
The public is advised to avoid the store until the scene is clear.
One person injured in shooting on Mellon St. in Columbus
Columbus police confirmed a man was shot on Mellon Street Thursday night.
Former Columbus police officer announces candidacy for Muscogee Co. Sheriff
Mark LaJoye served 14 years with the Columbus Police Department. He was part of the SWAT team and a drug and alcohol counselor for a program called Conditional Discharge.
Trump wants acting FEMA head to have job permanently
President Donald Trump wants Pete Gaynor, the Federal Emergency Management Agency's acting administrator, to have the job permanently.
Skydiver dies after hitting big rig, crashing into highway
Officials say a skydiver has died after hitting a semitruck and then crashing into a California highway.
Columbus Fire Dept. begins training to fill shortage of nearly 40 firefighters
Thursday, they began their first day of active drill training. It's the first day of a nine-week process for new hires to be certified firefighters.
US vaping illness count jumps to 805, deaths rise to 13
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said 805 confirmed and probable cases have been reported, up 52% from the 530 reported a week ago. At this point, illnesses have occurred in almost every state.
N.C. animal shelters see influx of pot-bellied pigs
Some pot-bellied pigs are being rebranded as "teacup pigs" or "micro-pigs" in order to lure in buyers. But animal activists said the small animals get really big, and also come with enormous responsibilities. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
It may well be that questions you have about Christianity are similar to those of other people. Below are links to videos offering answers to a number of frequently asked questions. If you want to explore the Christian faith further and look into the heart of the Christian message we would love to welcome you on a Christianity Explored course. | {
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} |
La campanule de Rainer (Campanula raineri) est une espèce de plantes des Alpes italiennes et suisses. D'une dizaine de centimètres, elle se rencontre sur les parois rocheuses calcaires.
Culture
Zones de rusticité: 4-8
Exposition : soleil
Sol : drainé, tout sol
Multiplication : germe en 4 semaines à 5-20 °C après une période de froid de 6 semaines
Usages : rocaille,éboulis, auge, attire les papillons, pétales comestibles
Notes et références
Liens externes
Espèce d'Angiospermes (nom scientifique)
Campanulaceae | {
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Unfortunately it is true that the word trustworthy really does need to appear in the title of this article. Even a brief exploration into the online world of essay and dissertation writing services will show you that you have a seriously large number of options. Not all are trustworthy. There are ways to make your choice a good one.
The secret to your success in finding the ideal writing service is to first of all know exactly what you want and secondly, to have a method in tracking down the best service providers.
Do you want some service to provide the complete package? Do you want the writing service to conduct the research, plan the essay and then complete the writing thereof? There is an alternative. You might only want a writing service to conduct the research on your behalf. You give them the topic and perhaps your thesis statement and then allow them to provide you with a series of facts which can be included in your essay or dissertation.
Only when you are sure of your needs can you make an effective search. It's possible that a writing service will only provide short essays of up to say 500 words. If you are interested in a dissertation which can be considerably larger, then you need to fine tune your search parameters.
What makes a writing service trustworthy?
Once you know exactly what it is you require from a writing service, you are then in a position to start your search. It's a good idea to make a list of possible candidates. You can do this by bookmarking the webpage of possibilities or, alternatively and surprisingly, you can jot down the URL details on a piece of paper. Sometimes the ancient technology has its uses.
The things you would be looking for would include the following.
How many years of service as the writing company been in operation?
How do the prices they charge compare with comparable services?
Do they have specialists in certain subjects?
Do they offer a rewriting service and or a money back guarantee?
One of the best ways to find a trustworthy essay writing service is to ask around. If you find a fellow student who is more than happy with the service they received from a particular business then that could be an excellent guide to help you in your selection. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
module Importer; module Illumina
class ClinicalEffectParser
attr_reader :clinical_effect, :tag_regex, :pubmed_regex, :evidence_level
def initialize(clinical_effect, pubmed_id)
@clinical_effect = clinical_effect
@tag_regex = Regexp.new('\[\/{0,1}[^\]]+\]')
@pubmed_regex = Regexp.new(pubmed_id)
@evidence_level = nil
@pubmed_id = pubmed_id
end
def evidence_statement
remove_internal_tags(filter_for_pubmed_ids(split_entry))
.map(&:strip)
.join(' ')
.gsub(/ \./, '.')
end
private
def split_entry
clinical_effect.gsub('[/bp]', ' ')
.split('|')
.flat_map { |line| line.split('[bp]') }
.reject { |x| x.blank? }
end
def filter_for_pubmed_ids(lines)
selected_lines = lines.select { |line| line =~ pubmed_regex }
accepted_lines = []
selected_lines.each do |line|
found_index = lines.index(line)
tenative_level = nil
header_found = false
(found_index - 1).downto(0) do |index|
if lines[index] =~ /^\[/ && (header = lines[index].gsub(tag_regex, '')).present?
header_found = true
tenative_level = Importer::Illumina::Mappings.evidence_level_from_clinical_effect(header)
if tenative_level.present?
accepted_lines << line
break
end
end
break if header_found
end
@evidence_level ||= tenative_level
end
if evidence_level.nil?
[]
else
accepted_lines
end
end
def remove_internal_tags(lines)
lines.map { |line| line.gsub(tag_regex, '') }
end
end
end; end | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
One of the most essential pieces for your server system, the hard disk drive (HDD) stores and retrieves your data using one or more rotating disks coated in magnetic material. Rotation speed and storage size are essential, and the IBM System X 00AJ126 Hard Disk Drive is the perfect addition to your system's growing storage needs.
The IBM System X 00AJ126 Hard Disk Drive comes ready to meet your storage needs, sporting an SAS interface with a 2.5" form factor, and up to 600GB of storage space, making it a helpful addition to your storage needs. Its rotation speed of 15,000 RPM guarantees efficient data retrieval, effectively increasing productivity and efficiency. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Latvia's state-owned railway company Latvijas dzelzcelš (LDz) and freight service provider DHL Global Forwarding have signed a memorandum of understanding and cooperation (MUC) to focus on establishing multi-modal rail connections between China and Latvia.
The new agreement will see the establishment of both freight connections and consolidation services, centred at Latvia's capital Riga City.
The new connections are set to include guaranteed transit times, as well as simplify customs and handling procedures for cargo transportation.
It will also support for more flexible shipments such as less-than-container load (LCL) freight.
DHL Global Forwarding Greater China CEO Steve Huang said: "With the economies of Latvia and its neighbours expected to grow faster than the rest of the European Union, businesses in the region will need to look to new markets such as China to fuel their expansion.
"By building rapid, reliable logistics connections between the Baltic and Asia Pacific, we hope to give the region's businesses a strong foundation for ongoing growth."
The MUC was signed at a time when DHL has begun its service along its newest Asia-Europe multimodal route through rail, which connects Shenzhen to Minsk, the capital of Belarus.
DHL has previously made similar agreements with the national rail providers of Belarus, Chengdu and other major hubs that fall within China's proposed 'Belt and Road' trade routes.
The MUC agreement is expected to help Baltic countries utilise export opportunities in China and also in the Asia Pacific region, with Riga city functioning as the logistical hub, after the establishment of high-speed multimodal rail routes.
Additionally, the new arrangement also includes terms concerning ocean freight between Latvia, Scandinavia, and the UK and Ireland, as well as air and road freight connections to various major cities across Europe.
Image: A RVR train in Riga city, Latvia. Photo: courtesy of Texaner via Wikipedia. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Canadore Nominates Outstanding Graduates for 2018 Premier's Awards
Nov 14, 2018 | Canadore College
(NORTH BAY, ONT.) -- Canadore College is pleased to announce its nominees for the 2018 Premier's Awards for outstanding college graduates.
Ernest Matton, Elder Little Brown Bear (Minesing, Ont.) – proud alumnus of Canadore's general arts and science, and drug and alcohol counsellor programs, and manager of Indigenous culture and the Aboriginal healing program at the Michael Garron Hospital-Toronto East Health Network. Over nearly 25 years, Métis Elder Little Brown Bear has developed a holistic model to treating addiction and mental health issues by blending Indigenous teachings and ceremonies with mainstream Western practices in an award-winning approach to addictions treatment for Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations. Matton's healing program takes its participants on an intensive healing journey to address emotional and mental traumas. His popular program purposely has no wait-list and client intakes have doubled in the last six years. Matton has received many accolades, including receiving the Governor General of Canada's Sovereign Medal for Outstanding Indigenous Leadership, an investiture into the Order of Ontario, the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health Difference Maker Award, and the Canadian Addiction Counsellors Certification Federation's Barb Robinson Indigenous Excellence Award. Matton also holds an addiction education program certificate from McMaster University and a bachelor of education in Aboriginal education from Brock University. Elder Little Brown Bear says that his time at Canadore helped him to learn about the holistic relationship between trauma, mental health and addictions, which in turn shaped his ability to help pain sufferers.
Jessica Vander Kooij (Newmarket, Ont.) – proud graduate of Canadore's broadcasting – television and video production program, and the executive producer, series producer of Property Brothers. After graduating, Vander Kooij quickly moved up industry ranks from assistant roles to an Emmy-nominated executive producer for one of HGTV's most popular television series. Over the course of her 15 year career, she thrived in the live news scene with Breakfast Television and CityNews in Toronto, Ont. and Vancouver, B.C. Vander Kooij was the assistant director for Slice Network's Wedding SOS, and assistant director for The Juno Awards broadcast with superstar rapper Drake before taking on her current role at Cineflix Media with the award-winning reality television series featuring brothers Jonathan and Drew Scott. Vander Kooij said she graduated from Canadore with an industry-ready portfolio and real world skills because the program exposed her to every aspect of the industry, which provided her with a comprehensive view of how different pieces fit together and how to steer them in the preferred direction.
The annual Premier's Awards honour the important social and economic contributions made by college graduates to the province and to the world. Nominations are submitted by Ontario's 24 colleges and are presented in six categories - Business, Creative Arts and Design, Community Services, Health Sciences, Technology, and Recent Graduate - and are reviewed by a selection committee. The winners will be celebrated at a gala event at the Sheraton Centre Toronto Hotel on November 26. This year, 118 nominees and over 800 guests expected to attend.
Canadore alumni Kelly Crawford, (2016), Elina Katsman (2013), Peter Rowntree (2007) and Ted Hargreaves (1999) have been recognized as Premier Award recipients for their outstanding contributions in their respective fields.
Canadore College trains people through applied learning, leadership and innovation. It provides access to over 75 full-time quality programs and has outstanding faculty and provides success services to students from nearly 400 Canadian communities and 15 international countries. The College and its students add nearly $244 million to Nipissing Parry Sound Service Area economy. Approximately 1,000 students graduate from Canadore each year, and they join 45,000 alumni working across the globe. Canadore receives less than 50 per cent of its traditional funding from the provincial Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities and relies on its own innovation and entrepreneurial endeavors and generous donors for the balance.
www.canadorecollege.ca
For more information, please contact: Jessica Charette at 705.475.2538 or [email protected]; Carrie Richmond at 705.474.7600, ext. 5216 or [email protected]
#Aboriginal #Alumni #Events #General #Health, Human, Wellness #Indigenous Studies #Media #New #Profile #Programs
January 19 2021 Canadore College joins Academics Without Borders #Canadore College #Canadore@Stanford #International
January 15 2021 Graphic Design students work with Blanche River Health on branding initiative #Canadore College #Media
January 06 2021 The Canadore Alumni congratulates Susan Hay on her appointment to the Order of Ontario #Alumni #Media
December 16 2020 Canadore College providing expertise for COVID-19 testing #Canadore College #Collaboration #Corporate Communications #Health, Human, Wellness #The Village | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
django-stylus-watcher
======================
This add a command .
Usage
=====
Put ``'stylus_watcher'`` into ``INSTALLED_APPS``.
Set settings ``STYLUS_WATCHER = [
('relative/path/to/main/stylus/file.styl', 'relative/path/to/compiled/file.css'), # A compilation rules
('relative/path/to/main/stylus/file.styl', 'relative/path/to/compiled/file.css'), # Antoher compilation rules
...etc
]
The watcher listen changes in every installed apps ``styl`` folder
Then run ``python manage.py stylus_watcher``
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
A framework for the forensic investigation of unstructured email relationship data
Haggerty, J, Karran, A, Lamb, D and Taylor, M 2011, 'A framework for the forensic investigation of unstructured email relationship data' , International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics, 3 (3) , pp. 1-18.
Official URL: http://www.igi-global.com/article/international-jo...
Our continued reliance on email communications ensures that it remains a major source of evidence during a digital investigation. Emails comprise both structured and unstructured data. Structured data provides qualitative information to the forensics examiner and is typically viewed through existing tools. Unstructured data is more complex as it comprises information associated with social networks, such as relationships within the network, identification of key actors and power relations, and there are currently no standardised tools for its forensic analysis. Moreover, email investigations may involve many hundreds of actors and thousands of messages. This paper posits a framework for the forensic investigation of email data. In particular, it focuses on the triage and analysis of unstructured data to identify key actors and relationships within an email network. This paper demonstrates the applicability of the approach by applying relevant stages of the framework to the Enron email corpus. The paper illustrates the advantage of triaging this data to identify (and discount) actors and potential sources of further evidence. It then applies social network analysis techniques to key actors within the data set. This paper posits that visualisation of unstructured data can greatly aid the examiner in their analysis of evidence discovered during an investigation.
Schools > School of Computing, Science and Engineering
Schools > School of Computing, Science and Engineering > Salford Innovation Research Centre
International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics
IGI Global
J Haggerty | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Published on February 13, 2013 February 14, 2013 by gronya
This year, for the first time in four years, I'm not involved in any V-Day events. I have no Vagina Monologues rehearsals to go to, no vagina cupcakes to make and no tickets to sell. I feel a bit weird about that. This year is the 15th anniversary of V-Day. I did my first V-Day event five years ago this year. Getting involved in something like that can feel really powerful. Suddenly it feels possible that you could change the world – you could re-educate people, get everyone to start being nicer to each other and treat each other with respect. The Vagina Monologues really does make people see things in a new way and I really felt that that first year. We did the show on our college campus and meet a lot of the audience in the bar afterwards, men and women who were all fired up and ready to take down the patriarchy!
Unfortunately, the world doesn't change over night and terrible things keep happening to women all over the world. In 2008, the V-Day Spotlight Charity was New Orleans. The next time I did it, it was the Democratic Republic of Congo and the stories coming out of that country would just make you want to give up on the entire human race. Stories of entire villages of women being raped, from six month old girls to women in their sixties. Don't let anyone tell you rape is about sex or desire. It's not. It's about power. It's about putting people in their place. The terrible stories from the Congo make that very clear.
Eve Ensler, author of The Vagina Monologues and founder of V-Day, is not the type of woman who gives up. Instead of throwing her hands in the air, V-Day built the City of Joy – a place where women could be safe and recover from the violence that had been done to them. Eve Ensler believes in changing the world because she seen it happen. This year she's launched One Billion Rising – a worldwide uprising to protest the fact that one in three women will be beaten or raped in her lifetime and a declaration that that needs to change.
There will be men and women dancing for change on the streets of Dublin, Cork, Galway, Sligo, Mayo, Clare, Kerry and Tipperary. They will be joining people rising in 190 countries worldwide. So get out there, dance your socks off and feel like you could change the world. It's a good feeling, even if it only lasts an hour or two, you still feel like you're achieved something.
Details of all the Irish events are here.
Previous Festival applications | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
The entire experience with Dr Friesz's office is exceptional. Right from the start… the convenient appointment confirmation process (text or email option) is awesome. When we arrive at the office they already know who we are and pleasantly check us in immediately. They are all on top of things and know who in our family needs new appointments or what future work needs to be done. The dental assistants are nice & do a great job with the cleanings. And Dr Friesz is down to earth, friendly, and knows what he's doing by providing reasonable options for needed dental work. I recommend this office to everyone! Thank you for everything you do! | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
twostoryhouse
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine-Gateways #4: Demons of Air and Darkness
Keith R.A. DeCandido
started following:
finished reading:
Doors Into Chaos Robert Greenberger
The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom Jonathan Haidt
The Diary of a Young Girl Anne Frank
Chainmail Diane Carey
AWOL on the Appalachian Trail David Miller
The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined Steven Pinker
The Riddled Post (Star Trek: S.C.E., #9) Aaron Rosenberg
Invincible, Part 2 David Mack, Keith R.A. DeCandido
Stranger In A Strange Land Robert A. Heinlein
White Fang Jack London
Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue: The Untold Story of English John H. McWhorter
The Righteous Mind: Why Good People are Divided by Politics and Religion Jonathan Haidt
Up from Slavery Booker T. Washington, Ishmael Reed
The Island of Dr. Moreau H.G. Wells
A History of Western Philosophy Bertrand Russell
Lord of the Flies William Golding
The Catcher in the Rye J.D. Salinger
reviewed: The Island at the Center of the World: The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony That Shaped America
As for the actual history of the New Netherlands colony, it is compelling and very interesting part of American history. The ...
The Island at the Center of the World: The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony That Shaped America Russell Shorto
The Road to Serfdom Friedrich A. von Hayek, Bruce Caldwell
Treasure Island Robert Louis Stevenson
Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One Thomas Sowell
What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy Thomas Nagel
Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson Mary Rowlandson
The Time Machine Greg Bear, H.G. Wells
Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War Nathaniel Philbrick
Ivanhoe Walter Scott
The Republic Desmond Lee, Plato
How to Win Friends & Influence People Dale Carnegie
The Last Lion 3: Winston Spencer Churchill: Defender of the Realm, 1940-65 Paul Reid, William Raymond Manchester
Starship Troopers Robert A. Heinlein
A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (Dodo Press) Thomas Hariot
Roanoke Island: The Beginnings of English America David Stick, State of North Carolina
The Odyssey Homer, Robert Fagles, Bernard Knox
Synthetic Men of Mars Edgar Rice Burroughs
The Last Lion 2: Winston Spencer Churchill Alone, 1932-40 William Raymond Manchester
Swords of Mars Edgar Rice Burroughs
The Great Age of Discovery Paul Herrmann
The Iliad Homer, Bernard Knox, Robert Fagles
The Last Lion 1: Visions of Glory 1874-1932 William Raymond Manchester
The Man Who Sold the Moon Robert A. Heinlein
The Tower of the Swallow Andrzej Sapkowski, David French
Baptism of Fire Andrzej Sapkowski
Cold Fusion Keith R.A. DeCandido
The Time of Contempt Andrzej Sapkowski, David French
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin: with Related Documents (Bedford Series in History and Culture) Benjamin Franklin, Louis P. Masur
Blood of Elves Andrzej Sapkowski
On the Road Jack Kerouac
reviewed: All Quiet on the Western Front
One of the most powerful books I've read. This one is going to stick with me for awhile.
All Quiet on the Western Front A.W. Wheen, Erich Maria Remarque
The Night Stalker Philip Carlo
The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald
reviewed: A Walk in the Woods
Funny and entertaining. Loses a couple stars for endless dated hyperbole about how acid rain is going to wipe everything out ...
A Walk in the Woods Bill Bryson
Shadow Dean Wesley Smith, Kristine Kathryn Rusch
reviewed: Wild: From Lost to Found on the Pacific Crest Trail
Women-studies college-dropout Woman messes up her life due to her own poor choices by:-- Cheating on her husband with random ...
Common Sense (Great Ideas) Thomas Paine
Wild: From Lost to Found on the Pacific Crest Trail Cheryl Strayed
Dracula Bram Stoker
Rogue Andy Mangels, Michael A. Martin
The Last Wish Andrzej Sapkowski
The Return of the King J.R.R. Tolkien
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, #1) Douglas Adams
Brave New World Aldous Huxley
The Wars of the Roses: The Fall of the Plantagenets and the Rise of the Tudors Dan Jones
The Hound of the Baskervilles Arthur Conan Doyle
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer Mark Twain, Guy Cardwell, John Seelye
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Philip K. Dick, Robert Zelazny
Alexander Hamilton Ron Chernow
The Two Towers J.R.R. Tolkien
The Fellowship of the Ring J.R.R. Tolkien
Catch Me If You Can: The True Story Of A Real Fake Stan Redding, Frank W. Abagnale
My First Summer in the Sierra John Muir
Alice in Wonderland Rene Cloke, Lewis Carroll
Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe
A Fighting Man of Mars Edgar Rice Burroughs
Ringworld Larry Niven
The Call of the Wild Jack London
Goodbye, Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War William Raymond Manchester
The Master Mind of Mars Edgar Rice Burroughs
The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress Robert A. Heinlein
Animal Farm C.M. Woodhouse, George Orwell
The End of Eternity Isaac Asimov
1984 George Orwell
The Art of War Thomas Cleary, Sun Tzu
SEAL Team Six: Memoirs of an Elite Navy SEAL Sniper Howard E. Wasdin, Stephen Templin
Zodiac Robert Graysmith
The Chessmen of Mars Edgar Rice Burroughs
Journey to the Center of the Earth Jules Verne
CTRL ALT Revolt! Nick Cole
The Man in the High Castle Philip K. Dick
Avatar Book Two: 2 (Star Trek) S.D. Perry
Avatar Book One of Two S.D. Perry
Interphase, Part 2 Dayton Ward, Kevin Dilmore
Dark Passions Book Two of Two (Star Trek) Susan Wright
Dark Passions #1 of 2 (Star Trek) Susan Wright
Hard Crash Christie Golden
Fatal Error Keith R.A. DeCandido
Restoration Peter David
Renaissance Peter David
Excalibur: Requiem Peter David
Inferno Judith Reeves-Stevens, Garfield Reeves-Stevens
The War of the Prophets Judith Reeves-Stevens, Garfield Reeves-Stevens
The Fall of Terok Nor Judith Reeves-Stevens, Garfield Reeves-Stevens
The Badlands, #2 of 2 (Star Trek) Susan Wright
Dark Allies Peter David
The Quiet Place Peter David
The First Virtue Michael Jan Friedman, Christie Golden
Quarantine John Vornholt, Esther M. Friesner
reviewed: Red Sector
Worst one of this mini-series so far. Could have been about 100 pages shorter.
Red Sector Diane Carey, Michael Jan Friedman, John J. Ordover
Vectors Dean Wesley Smith, Kristine Kathryn Rusch, Dean Wesley Smith
reviewed: Infection
Good start to the series. Let's see if the other books can keep it up.
Infection John Gregory Betancourt
What You Leave Behind Diane Carey, Ira Steven Behr
Rebels, Book 3: The Liberated Dafydd ab Hugh
Rebels, Book 2: The Courageous Dafydd ab Hugh
Rebels, Book 1: The Conquered Dafydd ab Hugh
reviewed: The 34th Rule
A little long at the beginning. They could have easily cut about 50 pages out of the book, but then it picks up and becomes a...
The 34th Rule Armin Shimerman, David R. George III
Tunnel Through the Stars John Vornholt
Call to Arms Diane Carey
Behind Enemy Lines John Vornholt
Once Burned Peter David
The Mist Dean Wesley Smith, Kristine Kathryn Rusch
Far Beyond the Stars Steven Barnes, Hans Beimler
Fire on High Peter David
Martyr Peter David, John J. Ordover
Vengeance Dafydd ab Hugh
Trial by Error Mark Garland
Legends of the Ferengi (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine) Ira Steven Behr
End Game Peter David
The Two Front War Peter David
Into the Void Peter David
House of Cards Peter David
The Tempest Susan Wright
Trials and Tribble-Ations Diane Carey, Ronald D. Moore, Rene E'chevarria
Saratoga Michael Jan Friedman
reviewed: The Heart of the Warrior
Fairly enjoyable. Fast read.
The Heart of the Warrior John Gregory Betancourt
Time's Enemy L.A. Graf
The Soldiers of Fear (Star Trek: The Next Generation, #41) Dean Wesley Smith, Kristine Kathryn Rusch
First Strike Diane Carey
reviewed: The Long Night
Even though it had some of the same themes as the last book in the series "Station Rage" this one was a real page turner. Goo...
The Long Night Dean Wesley Smith, Kristine Kathryn Rusch
reviewed: Station Rage
Great fast read. One of the better books so far in the DS9 series.
Station Rage Diane Carey
The Way of the Warrior Diane Carey, Ira Steven Behr
reviewed: Devil in the Sky
Very fun fast read. The story starts out with very little lead up and jumps right into it.
Devil in the Sky Greg Cox, John Gregory Betancourt
reviewed: Valhalla
Much better than the overly wordy "Warped" but just an average book. Nothing special.
Valhalla Nathan Archer
reviewed: Proud Helios
One of the better books in the series so far. It kept by interest all the way through.
Proud Helios Melissa Scott
reviewed: Antimatter
My favorite book in the series so far. A very fun story from start to finish.
Antimatter John Vornholt | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Home Entertainment Television The Voice of the Philippines Season 2 The Voice of the Philippines Season 2 Live Shows The Voice of the Philippines Season 2 Live Shows Team Bamboo Voting Percentage January 25
The Voice of the Philippines Season 2 Live Shows Team Bamboo Voting Percentage January 25
Posted date: Sunday, January 25, 2015 by CEnterTechNews Team
As the Live Shows of The Voice of the Philippines season 2 reveal the first results, the contenders sung the songs of Maroon V's Adam Levine on January 25, 2015. From the latest 'Lost Stars' to nostalgic 'This Love', Resorts World manila was filled by The Voice's coach Adam Levine.
For Team Bamboo, the first group consisted of Rita Martinez, Kai Honasan and Karlo Mojica. Rita performed Nirvana's 'Smells like Teen Spirit', Kai gave a twist of her own to Taylor Swift's 'Blank Space' while Karlo sang a lively song of Foot Loose while made the four coaches stood in standing ovation.
Bamboo said that Rita had proven that she deserves to be in the Live Shows and did a great job. He said that Kai had also deserves to be on the stage and keeping her is the right decision. Bamboo said that Karlo is the king of the night and he did a fitting performance to end the show with so much energy. Everyone seemed to have just enjoyed his performance.
'Smells like Teen Spirit' Performed by 'Smells like Teen Spirit'
'Blank Space' Performed by Kai Honasan
'Footloose' Performed by Karlo Mojica
With 44.71 percent of the total votes had been garnered by Kai, giving her a secured spot to the next rounds of the competition. Bamboo admitted that the decision will be a hard for him. He went back watching their past performances to know which one deserves to move on. He said that he will save the artist with the best performance of last night. He had chosen Rita who had been out during the knock out but was able to be back since a slot had been opened for the Bamboo's team in the Live Shows.
Rita joins Kai Honasan in the next rounds of the Live Shows. Both of them secured the spot in the top 4 of Team Bamboo. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
It's been a crazy couple weeks with Halloween, birthdays and such, but it's time to get back to business. Dinner at Olive Garden is how we will resume. This was my first visit in many years.
When I walked in my party was being seated at a booth in the bar area. We were greeted by a server with an overly bubbly personality. We were still waiting on one last person so we just ordered drinks. I was undecided at first and waited until two glasses of wine were delivered. I then asked about the beer taps I could see at the bar. I could see a Blue Moon tap and asked what was behind it. She looked over at it and said it was Sierra Nevada. I decided to go with the Blue Moon.
Some long period of time went by, the last party member arrived and she ordered a wine off their promotional menu that comes wrapped around the normal menu. Our server came back at least 2 times to look at the menu again and see what the wine was, she wasn't familiar with it and was having a very difficult time finding it. The manager stopped by to see how everything was going and we let her know about the mystery wine. She made an expression that conveyed "ah, I know exactly where that is and will take care of it". She did, and it arrived shortly after. At some point during all this my beer was served, except it was the Sierra Nevada. Our server's presence was scarce and I eventually just took it to the bar directly and had it swapped out with the correct one.
Around this time we were finally served breadsticks, also an appetizer of Stuffed Mushrooms (Parmesan, romano and mozzarella cheese, clams and herb breadcrumbs baked in mushroom caps) which I had ordered. The breadsticks had oil or butter brushed on them. Unfortunately they were pretty boring. I think I was the only one to finish one. The Mushrooms were pretty good. The parmesan, herb breadcrumbs and the mushrooms themselves were the dominating flavors. I couldn't taste any clams at all, in fact I didn't even realize there were clams in it until I reread the menu while typing this.
The salad arrived as we finished the mushrooms. I can't recall if someone ordered it or if it is normally served like the bread. Fresh parmesan was applied and we all dug in. It's a simple but good, fresh salad.
We were about halfway into the salad when our entrées arrived. I had ordered the Shrimp & Crab Tortelli Romana (Shrimp, crab and smoked mozzarella-filled ravioli, topped with sautéed shrimp in a three cheese and sun-dried tomato sauce). It was served in a large shallow bowl and smelled amazing. The sun-dried tomato sauce was very rich and creamy, the shrimp plentiful, and the ravioli well stuffed and excellent. I was very happy with this dish and would absolutely order it again.
The process of finishing the meal and getting out was pretty long and drawn out. Or server took insane amounts of time between checking on us, bringing boxes for leftovers (that part alone took something like 3 separate visits over about 20 minutes), bringing the check, splitting it, fixing incorrectly split checks, and finally running the actual cards. This was a common theme during this visit which I think I already mentioned earlier in this post. The whole experience took about an hour longer than it should have and was frustrating. Like I said before, she had a great personality for customer service, but her speed and attention to detail left a LOT to be desired.
I feel like I should give this 2 separate ratings – The first based purely on the food and the second factoring in the service. I don't think a single bad experience with a server should taint the restaurant as a whole.
The food was great overall. I do think the breadsticks could be changed up to something a more tasty, probably just slices with butter would be a good improvement. Actually as I re-read their menu right now I see you can order dipping sauces for the breadsticks for $3.75. They must know their breadsticks need a little something, this should just be included as a standard. Based on the food only I would give it a 4 out of 5.
When factoring in the service side of things I would downgrade it to 2 out of 5. I'm sure the pace of the service might appeal to some, but it just got irritating after the first few long absences. In my opinion, the manager should have kept a closer eye on the server after the wine issue to see that everything else went smoothly, but I never saw her after that.
It is a shame to hear of your experience with Olive Garden breadsticks, as they are typically "divine" and extremely flavorful. They are actually supposed to be Garlic breadsticks and should taste very buttery with a healthy presence of garlic. When served hot, fresh, and made correctly, I would happily go an entire day surviving on an entire platter of nothing but Olive Garden breadsticks. Having eaten at Olive Garden in several states and cities around the country, I unfortunately have to bestow the honor of worst breadsticks to a an Olive Garden in Citrus Heights… it's depressing to hear of bland breadsticks in Roseville as well. Trust me though, when made right, you shouldn't really need any dipping sauce – it's that good. I generally have heard nothing but good comments about Olive Garden breadsticks.
I have had the Shrimp & Crab Tortelli Romana in the past as well and must say that it is one of my favorite dishes on the menu – and that is a pretty difficult honor to bestow with so many great tasting plates on the menu.
Very depressing to hear of your server experience – not only does she sound new, but manager followups really should have been a "must" following the wine fiasco (sounds like a noob moment to me, personally). | {
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Join Sadhana Yoga and Wellbeing's community class every Friday! The class style will rotate on a monthly basis, and there will be a different teacher every week, so keep an eye on our social media pages for updates (Don't forget to use the hashtag #FGF for any photos you have of these classes!). Open to all levels. £5 drop in for non-members – book in at reception with one of our lovely vibe leaders!
Practise if you're feeling… Like giving something back! Support our community and our charity of choice – £1 of the drop in fee for this class goes to charity. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
The booming financial technology sector and developments in artificial intelligence (AI) will create new opportunities for the next generation of corporate lawyers — but students must develop the necessary skills to keep pace with the changes.
This was the broad conclusion of a conference held at the weekend at which a host of top solicitors and other experts specialising in fintech and lawtech shared their experiences and predictions with 100 students at BPP Law School in Holborn, central London.
Of particular interest at SmarTech 2016 — put on by BPP's SmarTech Society, whose lead sponsor is Norton Rose Fulbright — were the contributions made by two of the City lawyer speakers. Norton Rose Fulbright of counsel Victoria Birch and Slaughter and May associate James Mead have both found themselves at the heart of their firms' surging fintech practices after gaining a foothold in the tech scene over the last few years.
It's a mix of financial services law, regulatory law and IP — and through understanding the clients' businesses we are figuring out how this existing legal framework applies to some very new questions. In this we are being supported by the government and regulators who are keen to promote London as a global fintech centre.
Mead added that this was an area where regulation is contributing to growing — rather than holding back — businesses, as an evolving legal framework boosts confidence in fintech start-ups enabling them to gain mainstream recognition.
Meanwhile, Norton Rose Fulbright's Birch, who has seen her firm's fintech practice explode over the last couple of years, emphasised the general shortage in people who understand both corporate finance and technology and explained how this will become increasingly important in the future.
Birch called on junior lawyers to become more technologically savvy to ensure that they could "add value and speak the same language as clients" and suggested that, in the future, there may even be a need to include this as part of the education of junior lawyers.
Birch's words were echoed by Ben Gardner, data architect at Linklaters, who called for more "cross-mixing between law and computer science at the academic stage".
Gardner's thesis is that as commoditisation of basic legal services accelerates through developments in AI and other technologies, the demand for lawyers will remain elastic and snap forward as an up-skilled new generation of legal professionals blend tech-savviness with expertise in the law.
Not everyone at the conference agreed with this. Other speakers, such as barrister Tim Parker — who is involved in a project to develop a computational paralegal — questioned Gardner's view about the elasticity of demand for legal services, although he conceded that the high end of law was unlikely to ever be commoditised.
And Shefali Roy, head of compliance at mobile payments company Stripe, warned of tensions between the banking sector — key clients, of course, for big law firms — and start-ups like hers. But there was consensus in the view that the march of fintech and lawtech were pretty much unstoppable — and that the big winners in this new era would be those who adapted to accommodate the changes.
Firms don't expect you to have a deep, theoretical understanding of fintech, AI or blockchain technology but learning about how these kinds of subject areas have the potential to significantly alter legal practice and even more importantly — are already impacting on the commercial interests of potential clients, is worthwhile. That said if you do happen to have a firm grasp of coding and corporate finance as well as an astute legal mind then expect a bidding war for your services — as there's a definite shortage of lawyers with these skills currently out there. | {
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View and Download Emerson Wireless Gateway 1420 quick installation manual online. Wireless Gateway. Wireless Gateway 1420 Gateway pdf manual download.
EMERSON 1410 REFERENCE MANUAL Pdf Download.
View and Download Emerson 1410 reference manual online. Wireless Gateway. 1410 Gateway pdf manual download. | {
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angular.module('ONOG.config', [])
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$compileProvider.imgSrcSanitizationWhitelist(/^\s*(https?|ftp|file|blob|content|ms-appx|x-wmapp0):|data:image\/|img\//);
$compileProvider.aHrefSanitizationWhitelist(/^\s*(https?|ftp|mailto|file|ghttps?|ms-appx|x-wmapp0):/);
ParseProvider.initialize("nYsB6tmBMYKYMzM5iV9BUcBvHWX89ItPX5GfbN6Q", "zrin8GEBDVGbkl1ioGEwnHuP70FdG6HhzTS8uGjz");
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https://www.roger-viollet.fr//thumbnails2/00000000096/34065_8.thu https://www.roger-viollet.fr//thumbnails2/00000000096/34065_8.thw en/asset/downloadAsset/10008/105887/10008.jpg
Demonstration of the public service for the defence of retirements, employment, salaries and against reform bills of Alain Juppé's government. Paris, on November 24, 1995.
© Jean-Pierre Couderc/Roger-Viollet
Prior permission required for all advertizing & promotional use or use on consumer goods & derivative products.
https://www.roger-viollet.fr//thumbnails2/00000000113/34065_15.thu https://www.roger-viollet.fr//thumbnails2/00000000113/34065_15.thw
Demonstration of the public service for the defence of retirements, employment, salaries and against reform bills of Alain Juppé's government. Paris, on December 12, 1995.
https://www.roger-viollet.fr//thumbnails2/00000000195/34647_5.thu https://www.roger-viollet.fr//thumbnails2/00000000195/34647_5.thw
SNCF strikes. Paris, October 1995.
Public transports on strike in reaction to the "Plan Juppé" and the government's plans about retirements and Social Security. The empty train station of Bécon-les-Bruyères (Hauts-de-Seine), November 1995.
Demonstration of the public service for the defence of retirements, employment, salaries and against reform bills of Alain Juppé's government. Paris, on October 10, 1995.
Demonstration against the "Plan Juppé", plan about retirement and social security. Paris, on December 12, 1995
© Jean-Paul Guilloteau/Roger-Viollet
Demonstration against the "Juppé Plan" about retirements and Social Security. Demonstrators at the place de la Nation. Paris, on December 12, 1995.
Demonstration against the "Plan Juppé", plan about retirement and social security. Paris, on December 12, 1995.
© Jean-Paul Guilloteau / Roger-Viollet
Strikes, traffic jams, pollution. Paris, October 1995.
Transport strike of the SNCF, French railway company. Paris, October 1995.
© Jean-Pierre Couderc / Roger-Viollet | {
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Different shapes, eclecticism and pure colour define the rhythm of the surfaces. Thickly textured informal creations recalling artistic gestures and the pleasure of memory and imagination: interdependence that enhances the expressive potential.
Fuoriformato, the brand specializing in the production and decoration of stoneware designer tiles, offers a wide range of application options. | {
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Finland: EFJ Protests Against "Threatening" Bill on Protection of Sources
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IFJ Condemns New Attack on Journalists' Sources in UK
IFJ Welcomes Successful Safety Training for Gaza Journalists in Egypt
IFJ Calls for End to Ban of Newspaper in Central African Republic
IFJ calls for Openness in Trial of Journalist Accused of Spying in Iran
IFJ Calls for Top-Level Inquiry into Murder of Journalist in Pakistan
Fears Grow for Safety of Journalists in Pakistan
South Korean Authorities Must Release Journalists' Leader, Says IFJ
IFJ Mourns Another Journalist Killed in Pakistan
IFJ Condemns Abduction of Veteran Media Personality in Sri Lanka
Journalists Killed and Injured as Suicide Bomber Strikes in Baghdad
IFJ Calls on Israel to Release Journalists Arrested in Gaza
IFJ Condemns Terrorist Attack on Basque Television Station
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IFJ Dismayed by New Blocks on Media in China
Page 86 sur 145. | {
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This is a kit for making an imaging enclosure for conveniently photographing DNA gels with a DSLR camera. The imaging enclosure removes the need for a dedicated dark room space or specialized imaging equipment.
The enclosure is designed to be used with blue LED transilluminators (sold separately). Kit includes an amber acrylic filter for viewing stained gels under blue light. Each kit also includes one frame for positioning the transilluminator inside the enclosure. Select from the Large, Midi or Mini frame size in the options above.
Assembly of the kit takes approximately 30 mins and the kit includes all of the hardware plus a mini screwdriver. No other tools are needed. The assembly instructions along with a list of Kit Contents are included in the online User Manual.
Designed by IO Rodeo, this is an open source hardware project. All of the design files are online at http://bitbucket.org/iorodeo/gel_imaging_enclosure. | {
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Terrorism and extremism
European Security Journal
Iran vs the US: End of one crisis, start of another one?
The European Responsibility to Act Against Killer Robots
Industrial Competition Remains Challenge for Transatlantic Security
Turkey uses Ottoman legacy to gain more influence over the Balkans, challenging the EU position in the region
The Other Side of Brexit
Where the EU Missteps, Russia Benefits – Who Gains from EU Mistakes in the Western Balkans
Combating Salafist Influence in the Western Balkans
Provocations in western Ukraine: the far-right as a Russian agent
The Threat of Extremism and Terrorism in the Czech Republic is Being Fostered by Foreign Influence
European naval anti-smuggling operation Sophia will continue, but won't be naval anymore
Migration as a Tool of Russian Information Warfare
The Biggest Expulsion of Our Time: A Photo Report Documenting the Plight of the Rohingya
TurkStream Tightens Kremlin's Grip Over Balkan Energy
Britain sides with Ukraine on Nord Stream 2
US believes Nord Stream 2 poses intelligence threat, eyes possible sanctions
Are European Elections Vulnerable to Cyber-attacks?
What is 5G and why should you be worried
How does the kremlin carry out cyber-attacks in Europe?
European Unity, Transatlantic Strength and Global Vision
European Space Ambitions
Future Trends for Transatlantic Security
ESJnews.com
Czech political turmoil points to Eastern Europe's problems
Andrej Babis, Slovak-born billionaire and leader of the ANO movement, speaks to media after a meeting with Czech President Milos Zeman regarding the October's Czech general elections in Prague, Czech Republic, 28 November 2017. Photo: copyright profimedia.cz
Petr Boháček
Analyses , V4 , Politics ,
The Czech Republic, once heralded as the poster child of the post-Communist transition to free democracy and the country of late Vaclav Havel – the symbol of the fall of the Iron Curtain – is confronted by populism, disinformation and cultural wars against absent Muslim migrants or the European Union. The Czech Republic, together with the other countries in the region, remains culturally, economically and politically still the West's periphery, which is a problem for Europe and an opportunity for Russia.
Czech Populist Duo
While the Czech Republic has been spared of direct attacks on judicial independence, media, anti-corruption laws, or of a strong rise in nationalism, the country could not escape the rise of populism and heavy pressure on its democratic system. The source of such concerns are two political allies – President Milos Zeman and Prime Minister Andrej Babis.
Zeman has been Vladimir Putin's biggest ally in the EU, criticising sanctions, rejecting the presence of Russian troops in Ukraine or simply accepting the annexation of Crimea. In an attempt to re-direct Czech foreign policy Eastward (a competence he, as a president, does not have in the Czech parliamentary system), he voiced hopes to learn how to stabilise the society from Chinese Communist leaders during his visit in the Asian country. Zeman is also the principal author of the nationwide anti-migrant wave in the heavily homogeneous country that lacks workforce. Subsequently, this rhetoric has been accepted to a certain extent by all mainstream political parties. Similarly, the fight against EU's relocation quotas has been adopted as a new key part of Czech foreign policy amid the absence of clearly articulated national interests and priorities.
Whether Babis and Zeman will be forced out or not, the extent of their political power highlights a worrying trend across Eastern European states.
Meanwhile, Prime Minister Babis, Czechia's second richest man, gained popularity with well-known anti-elite, anti-establishment rhetoric. His ideology seems to be only opportunism as he oscillates between left and right. He rejects criticism - whether it is about his cooperation with the Communist secret police, dubious business past, contempt for democracy and dialogue or influence over the country's biggest media group he owns – as fake news and targeted media campaigns. To observers of US politics, such feats might sound familiar.
Both are facing prospects of being pulled out of politics. Zeman is facing a pro-EU opponent, Jiri Drahos, in the polarising 26-27 January presidential elections. Meanwhile, the Parliament voted down Babis' government and stripped him of his immunity over an investigation into a €1.9 million EU subsidy fraud in his Stork's Nest farm project on 17-19 January. Whether they will be forced out or not, the extent of their political power highlights a worrying trend across Eastern European states.
Czech President Milos Zeman (R) looks at the Crown of Saint Wenceslas of Bohemia before the opening of the ''Czech Jewels'' exhibition on May 9, 2013, at Prague Castle in the Czech capital. Zeman, an open fan of alcohol and cigarets, struggled to stand straight and walk during the ceremony, fomenting criticism for being drunk after arriving from celebrating the 68th anniversary of the end of World War II at the Russian Embassy. Copyright Profimedia.cz.
Weak institutions
The new wave of populism is nothing new in the West but unlike Eastern Europe, it can rely on critical media, durable institutions and active civil society that together are capable of ensuring the rule of law, checks and balances and maintain the executive in check. From the Prague Castle, President Zeman - largely a ceremonial post in a parliament democracy - used his own imagination to test the limits of the constitution in order to increase his political power, name his own caretaker government of his old friends, or grant another attempt to form the government to his ally Babis, all in violation of constitutional norms.
Meanwhile, Andrej Babis' hand-picked Interior Minister voiced concerns over the investigation of his PM's EU funds embezzlement allegations. Babis later cried foul against the investigation, claiming the Czech justice system is so weak you can simply order a prosecution. His Justice Minister left it without any comments. As a Finance Minister, Babis also faced an investigation over a tax fraud allegation, but the investigating body at the Finance Ministry found no wrongdoing of its boss.
At no time in history have politicians directly read wishes off the lips of their voters.
Criticism of the independent Czech public broadcasting services belongs to a favourite pastime for both. Similarly to Trump, they are masters of communicating with people. They know exactly how to touch sensitive topics and make themselves look like the only true representatives of the common folk, without any actual substance behind it. At no time in history have politicians directly read wishes of the lips of their voters. The resulting personal empowerment allows them to push any institutional or legal barriers.
Still Eastern Europe
The Czech Republic is not alone in this. The illiberal alliance between Polish and Hungarian conservative governments has been a constant reason for concerns over the state of democracy in Eastern Europe. Further East, Romania's ruling Social Democrats continue to fight anti-corruption laws and Bulgaria's president just vetoed an anti-graft bill that would allow for corruption investigations of persons in high public office.
Nearly 30 years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Eastern Europe continues to have a significant geopolitical importance. The core of the geopolitical clash between Europe and Russia is the European Neighbourhood Policy. The advancement of liberal political and economic order threatens the ability of Russia to influence and control its neighbouring countries either via corrupt political regimes in the likes of Ukraine's Yanukovych rule or contemporary authoritarian Belarus. That is why Russia considers liberal democracy as a threat and works to undermine it. Russian propaganda plays an indisputable role in amplifying public discontent with the Western political system and multiplying all the regional stereotypical issues.
Blaming problems on outside factors has been also symptomatic for post-Communist countries, where the main threats come rather from the weaknesses within.
Unsurprisingly, the picture is more complex. The concept of increasingly divided two-speed Europe is extremely harmful as well. Inpatient integration-happy Western members of the European Union, who are sick of waiting for the rest, do a lot of damage for alienating Eastern Europe themselves. But blaming problems on outside factors has been also symptomatic for post-Communist countries, where the main threats come rather from the weaknesses within.
Romania is one of the most active and responsible NATO members and Bulgaria solidified its Euro-Atlantic path and limited traditionally strong Russian influence. Poland plays an increasingly strategic role in deterring Russia. Czech innovative and dynamic economy ranks 1st in unemployment and has one of the highest GDP growths in the EU. Slovakia makes strides with its proactive European policy. However, persisting oligarchisation of politics, enrooted corruption, strong clientelism, media manipulation and overall kleptocracy can trump all of this.
A successful Eastern Europe, taken for granted until recently, is instrumental for the European unity and EU's dealings with Russia. The change must come from within. Eastern Europe needs an Eastern leader. Poles or Hungarians are united only in their antagonism against Brussels, while the Balkan countries struggle with their own issues. Meanwhile, the next few days will show whether the Czechs are ready to move forward or not. If so, the Czecho-Slovak power tandem could potentially assume this role.
About author: Petr Boháček
Poland and Ukraine discuss military cooperation due to fears of Russia
Defence company mishaps signal Kremlin's incapability, unwillingness to address corruption
NATO officially launches new Black Sea task force
East-West division trickles into PESCO
Eastern Partnership summit marks no progress in Eastern neighborhood policy
War continues but Ukraine should grant amnesty to separatists says US Ukraine envoy
Slovakia warms up to Russia despite strong EU orientation
EU leaders continue to disagree on migration policy
Visegrad Four continues to battle Europe
PESCO: Essential step for the resurrection of European defence
Poland reshuffles government to ease tensions with EU
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$1/2 BLUE Dog or Cat Wet Food Cans Coupon Clipper: LOVETOSAVEFL Ships From: LONGWOOD, FL ------------------------ Scroll Down To See Complete Details ------------------->>>>> Manufacturer's Coupon Store Name: N/A Publication: SS1 on 10/14/2018 $1/2 BLUE Dog or Cat Wet Food Cans Limit one coupon per purchase of product and quantity stated. You must pay any sales tax. No cash back if coupon value exceeds selling price. Coupon may not be brought, reproduced, transferred or sold. Void where prohibited or if transferred to any person, firm or group prior to store redemption,. Valid only in the Sunday: NO MAIL - POST OFFICE CLOSED Monday: Ships from Florida if paid before 11AM EST Tuesday: Ships from Florida if paid before 11AM EST Wednesday: Ships from Florida if paid before 11AM EST Thursday: Ships from Florida if paid before 11AM EST Friday: Ships from Florida if paid before 11AM EST Saturday: Ships from Florida if paid before 11AM EST Coupon ID: 1675022 Lot Size: 20 Available Lots At Time Of Purchase: 30 Available Lots After Purchase: %%% || ***** Current Date: 4/22/2019 Current Time EST: 2:34 AM COUPON CLIPPER IS SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ACCURACY OF THIS DESCRIPTION. ALL TRANSACTIONS CONDUCTED ON THIS SITE REFLECT PAYMENT FOR THE SUPPLIES NECESSARY AND THE TIME INCURRED IN LOCATING, LISTING, SORTING, CUTTING, AND MAILING YOUR COUPONS AND NOT FOR THE ACTUAL COUPONS. | {
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Foreign Students In The US
Thứ Ba, 08 Tháng Chín 201506:47(Xem: 6387)
Currently, there are 1.05 million F-1 academic & M-1 vocational students studying in the United States. In addition, there are 245,000 J-1 exchange visitors in the United States.
There are 8,900 U.S. schools certified by DHS to enroll international students.
Four hundred thousand foreign students are enrolled in STEM fields, which include Science, Technology, Engineering andMathematics.
What countries do foreign students come from?
Most of the foreign students come from Asia, including 300,000 from China and 500,000 from the rest of Asia. Canada and Mexico are represented by 67,000 students, South America sent 50,000, Africa 46,000, and Australia 6,000.
Looking at the countries of origin of the Asian students in the US, the largest number come from China (300,000), then India (150,000), South Korea (78,000), Saudi Arabia (76,000), Japan (25,000), Vietnam (24,000) and Taiwan (22,000).
It's interesting to see that Vietnam sends 24,000 students to the US, and also sends about 24,000 immigrants to the US each year. It's also interesting to see that Vietnam sends more foreign students to the US than Taiwan, and sends almost as many students as those from Japan. And the small country of Vietnam sends about 50% of the number of students that are sent by the entire continents of Africa or South America.
Thirty six per cent of all foreign students study in California, New York and Texas.
Right now, there are about 5,200 foreign students in US primary and high schools. This represents a 33% decrease in the number of all foreign students enrolled in primary and secondary school programs since February 2015.
Twenty Eight per cent of foreign students who are enrolled in programs for parks, recreation, leisure, and fitness studies are from the United Kingdom and Canada.
Twenty five per cent of students from China are enrolled in programs for business, management, marketing and related support services.
Science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) are popular programs at American colleges and universities. Graduates from these programs are important to innovation and job creation in the United States.
Seventy five percent of all foreign STEM students study in programs for engineering, computer and information sciences and support services and biological and biomedical sciences
Q.1. Why are foreign student graduates from STEM programs important to innovation and job creation in the United States?
A.1. The US always has a need for more graduates in the STEM fields. That is why these graduates are given preference for H1B visas after they complete their studies.
Q.2. Can foreign students study in public elementary and high schools in the US?
A.2. Yes, but there is a limit of one year's study in public schools and they must pay tuition to the school district. There is no time limit for foreign students in US private schools.
Q.3. More than 80% of the foreign students in the US are from Asia, but only 10% are from Europe and less than 1% come from Australia. Why is this?
A.3. For Asian students, there are many reasons, including the opportunity to improve their English language skills, superior educational facilities in the US, limited university places available in their home countries, and the prestige of graduating from an American university. Students in Europe and Australia do not need to go abroad to get a good education.
ROBERT MULLINS INTERNATIONAL www.rmiodp.com www.facebook.com/rmiodp
Immigration Support Services - Tham Van Di Tru
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6930 65th St. Ste. #105, Sacramento CA 95823 (916) 393-3388
Rang Mi - 47 Phung Khac Khoan, Q1, HCMC (848) 3914-7638
Returning Resident Visas
Thứ Ba, 04 Tháng Mười 2016(Xem: 5094)
A permanent resident who has remained outside the United States for longer than one year, or beyond the validity period of a Re-entry Permit, will require a new immigrant visa to enter the United States and resume permanent residence. There is a returning resident special immigrant visa called the SB-1.
Confessions in denied cases – To sign or not to sign
Thứ Ba, 14 Tháng Sáu 2016(Xem: 5475)
The State Department has told all consulates that they could return petitions to CIS in the US only if they had good reason to do so. This means that the consular officer must have some information that was not available when CIS approved the petition.
Mr. Obama Comes to Vietnam
Chủ Nhật, 29 Tháng Năm 2016(Xem: 6520)
In the United States, if we look at Mr. Obama's Presidential Job Approval Ratings, we see that in May this year, only 51% of Americans were satisfied with his work. His approval ratings from January 2009 till now have an average rating of only 47%.
Processing Applications of Widows and Widowers of Deceased US Citizens
Thứ Tư, 27 Tháng Tư 2016(Xem: 6889)
In October 2009, the President signed a new law that allows eligible widows or widowers of U.S. citizens to qualify for permanent resident status regardless of how long the couple was married. Repeat,regardless of how long the couple was married.
Supreme Court on DACA and DAPA
Thứ Năm, 21 Tháng Tư 2016(Xem: 6016)
President Obama is facing the very real possibility of a deadlock at the Supreme Court.
Extended Travel by a Permanent Resident
On a recent show, we talked about residence requirements for Naturalization purposes.
Visas Issued in Vietnam in 2015
Thứ Tư, 30 Tháng Ba 2016(Xem: 9371)
Every year, we bring you an update of visa activities at the US Consulate General in Saigon.
During the first week of April, over 100,000 hopeful job seekers will send their H1-B applications to USCIS. CIS will return the forms and fees to more than 40,000 of these applicants.
Qualifying for Naturalization
Thứ Năm, 17 Tháng Ba 2016(Xem: 5080)
There are a number of requirements you have to meet in order to qualify for U.S. citizenship. Among the most complicated of these are the residency requirements, which look at how long you've been living in the U.S. and your immigration status during that time.
USCIS Issues Guidance on Adjustment of Status Policies and Procedures
On February 25, 2016, US CIS provided new guidance in the USCIS Policy Manual on the general policies and procedures for adjustment of status to lawful permanent residence.
Copyright © 2019 rmiodp.com All rights reserved | {
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Looking for your NextHome? A new home, dream home or commercial investment in Salisbury? It is a great time to buy real estate in Salisbury and our brokerage site is the best place to begin your search. Whether you are a first-time home buyer or you are already familiar with the home buying process, you can be assured that you will have the best tools and the perfect REALTOR® available to help with your Salisbury home search. You can search our site for condos for sale in Salisbury, apartments for rent in Salisbury or other real estate needs. Additionally, our award-winning marketing staff makes us the #1 choice for home sellers in the area! | {
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Army develops 'Helpline app' to combat Covid-19
JAMMU, APRIL 17:
The Indian Army, in its effort towards supplementing Civil Administration's initiatives of containing the spread of pandemic Coronavirus, has developed a simple mobile app christened as 'Covid-19 Helpline J&K'.
This technological intervention of Army shall provide useful real time information to the locals about the location and contact number of Hospitals, Control Rooms and Rapid Response Team situated in their vicinity.
The app so developed is based on integrated information sharing that is available on Google maps. It contains info on red zones in Kashmir to caution people while they move. It also contains relevant information pertaining to preventive and safety measures to create awareness among the local population about COVID-19.
The app is available as a third party installation file and requires the user to provide his mobile number as login. The app then utilizes the location and Bluetooth settings of the user to get a list of important contact numbers that are available in their local vicinity as well as allows them to generate a request for essential services through a simple form in realtime.
The necessary technical support and regular updates to the app will be carried out by Army from time to time as the app aims to target widespread dissemination and proliferation.
J&K Govt offices to resume from April 20 with 33% staff on rotational basis
Lt Governor e-launches Srinagar COVID-19 Call Centre; Real-time Integrated COVID-19
Top News World
Nidhi Razdan says she has been cheated | {
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There's a certain day in December when an extraordinary number of Jews head out to their local Chinese restaurant to enjoy a healthy dose of delicious wok-fried foods. If you don't have a kosher Chinese place near you or you're looking to make some healthy changes to your favorite Chinese restaurant-worthy recipes, then have no fear below are 20 soup, appetizer, vegetarian, and main meals to help you get your Chinese takeout fix.
My family always seems to order more soups than there are people because we each have our undisputed favorites. Mine is hot sour, including this Vegetarian Hot and Sour. Some other favorites include Wonton Soup and Egg Drop Soup, and this new Spicy Ginger Beef & Rice Soup with Lime.
Vegetable base options don't exclude flavor when you're using spices like garlic, hoisin, and ginger. Enjoy Chinese inspired salads such as the Shanghai Cobb Salad (exclude meat to make it vegetarian) and Celery and Tofu Salad with Scallion Oil. The Vegetable Fried Quinoa and Tofu and Mushroom Lettuce Wraps make for great vegetarian main dishes or as side dishes.
Impress family and guests with restaurant mainstays such as Wontons and Dim Sum Baskets. You would be surprised by how easy it is to make your own egg and spring rolls with ingredients you would find every day in your kitchen, try the Fast and Easy Egg Rolls or the Chicken and Vegetable Spring Rolls or these Baked Eggrolls.
Enjoy the classics such as Vegetable Lo Mein, Orange Beef and Broccoli, Stir Fried Chicken or Kung Pao Chicken from the comfort of your own kitchen. If you're looking to dress things up try the Chicken with Lime, Garlic and Cashews, Kung Pao Gai Ding, Chinese Kebabs with Plum Sauce, and Chicken with Ginger and Cashews and Soy Glazed Mini Meatballs.
For more Chinese inspired recipe, click here! | {
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Leads, loads, handles well. Nicely shaped filly, very correct. Super cute mover! Will have some good size to her. Pictures were from May 2012. Will update as requested, or when we can. Contact for pricing details, prices on our babies depend on when you inquire. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Under-Paid, Over-Enthused
S. Hunter Nisbet's Website, Updated At Least Once a Week
S. Hunter Nisbet
Novels · Publishing · Short Stories · Why I'm a Ridiculous Person · Writing
I Am Not My Characters
January 6, 2016 January 6, 2016 S. Hunter Nisbet
Back in university, my friends and I decided to put together an online role-playing group, because we were that type of nerd. It would be steampunk-themed, some sort of supernatural detective agency. I forget the rest of the details anymore, but it seemed like a fun idea.
Everyone else was creating doppelgangers of themselves, but I didn't want to fall back on that, no. Instead, I created a character I hoped would prove interesting to write about: a middle-aged priest who could exorcise spirits and stake vampires. He had a troubled past, a battle with alcohol, and a few other foibles equally human.
Maybe I should've just made a character that was just like me, though. As the role-playing amusingly spread to real time, my dorm friends began to treat me… like an unreliable alcoholic they hired from necessity. Having created better versions of themselves, they seemed to have forgotten that I hadn't.
That was my first taste of being confused with my writing, but I doubt it will be the last.
There are authors out there who will tell their fans that such-and-such character is based on themselves. JK Rowling boldly admits to creating Hermione from her childhood memories, but most self-insertion characters remain slightly more shrouded, merely alluded to in interviews.
"Where did you get the idea for so-and-so?"
"Well, he's a bit like me, really. In fact, a lot like me."
I'm going to say once, and probably a thousand more times, I'm not in my books.
Probably more than one of you just scoffed. "How can you not be in your books? You wrote them! Your traits are there, if nothing else, because that's how you see the world!"
In that, you're not wrong: my traits are scattered across a dozen characters, piecemealed here and there. I can't help that. But again, I repeat, I am not a character. Not a single person you will read is based on me.
And I have no desire for them to be. I spend seven days a week, twenty-four hours a day living inside my own head, feeling my own thought patterns, living with my own physical limitations, my own social circumstances. Why would I want to spend extra time there?
That might sound weird, but it's true. I'm here all the time. My life is the living, breathing book of me. And I'm quite fond of it. I love the supporting cast, and while I think the main character has one or two foibles she could stand to shake, overall she's pretty alright. Really, I enjoy the story for the most part.
But I don't have any urge to write it. It's a nice story, it's just not what I'm interested in telling.
I'm a firm believer in authors not writing themselves, have been for a long time now. Ever since, years and years ago, when I did write a self-insert fan fic and found myself, in character form, being criticized by readers because I couldn't put my real flaws on the page.
Just like how, back in that role-playing game, my dorm-mates made themselves just that little bit too perfect. Because showing your flaws is hard, and accepting that people might not like your character if you do so is even harder. Meaning the odds of someone creating a character based on themselves who is human enough to be a good character is slim at best.
When it comes to my novels, I'm far more likely to create people who have almost nothing to do with my personality than people who are remotely close. I like my characters to face dilemmas I've never faced, do things I've never done. Make choices I've never had to make, or at least not on that scale. The people I write are painfully human, with all the troubles and joys and bewilderment that comes with it. They make mistakes, they make the wrong choices, they do what they do because they have flaws.
Sometimes those flaws are strong enough that you might wonder why I'd want to be inside their heads–sometimes I wonder that myself–but you'll never have to wonder if that is what's inside my head.
It isn't. Trust me.
So when you open up something I've written and see that beginning bit where it says "This book is a work of fiction, any resemblance to persons living or dead is coincidental," be assured that that refers not only to yourselves, but to this author. I happily write about fake people all day long, and I intend to keep it that way.
Do you write yourself into stories? Have you ever? If so, did you run into any difficulties? Do you think others should branch away from themselves, or authors should "stick with what they know," so to say? Let me know in the comments below!
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6 thoughts on "I Am Not My Characters"
afhumphrey says:
There was one story I wrote years and years ago that so many people claim is me narrating — but it isn't. And I maintain that to this day. The narrator had certain ticks that maybe I had but I still can't see the connection, unless it was a question of perception: others saw me more like the character when I most certainly did not. It was (and still is) most irritating. At the moment I'm having loads of fun writing waaaaaaaaaay outside my comfort zone. I'm writing about a steampunk/fantasy/horror about thieves and assassins and existential Orthodox priests and militants. I, as the writer, am scattered through everything I write because it is my story and it's the story I want to tell. So clearly I'm in it, so to speak. And it's fascinating to learn about the…shadier side of existence (my browser history makes me look like a felon). I guess this is a long and rambling way to say…challenging yourself is a good idea. I think it makes one a better writer. Just my 2 cents 🙂
S. Hunter Nisbet says:
Precisely. It might be fun to pop yourself in the occasional story, but personally I wouldn't post them anywhere others will see them, or create them as anything but a parody.
With what I'm currently writing, I don't think anyone will confuse me with my characters, but even so, I guess a little paranoia remains. I mean, I don't think anyone could confuse me with a 40-something unshaven priest from London, but apparently I have a certain beardiness about me? I can imagine that story would begin to drive you nuts after a while. I know that'd irritate me pretty fast.
Oh believe me, it does. Which irritates me FURTHER because I *like* that story!!
tracyeire says:
I've never felt a desire to do this, but I found out people do when I was in Uni learning from other people's writing. Why it happens? I'm not sure. I spend all my time with me. *All of it*! And that's more than enough!
I do recall being at a writer's conference where a girl stood, top-of-line, at the author's table. She was speaking loudly, gesturing wide in air, and going on at length about the volcano of buried resentment that dominated her main character in her stream-of-consciousness novel. That character was jaded, disgusted by other people's stupidity — their blindness — and that character, *actually herself*, was unable to escape the rage of it all. How do you end a novel, she asked him, with such a character?! And, honestly, how can you? When it's *you*?
No one else got through the queue. As for the author, when he fled the room she didn't miss a beat. She was still talking, hot on his heels. It was a powerful lesson. Writing a novel isn't writing a journal.
Oh, and don't spook itinerant authors. They're skittish! 😀
What's the advice I've heard? Oh yes: if you write it as therapy, for heaven's sake, don't show it to other people! Clearly someone needed to tell that woman that bit of advice. And someone needed to usher her along so people could get through the line.
That's another big problem with writing yourself: how do you resolve a problem in your book that you haven't resolved in real life? There might be a couple people out there whose characters manage something the author literally isn't capable of on a physical scale, but I have a hard time believing that anyone, for example, struggling with moving on from a bad breakup would convincingly write a self-insertion who was perfectly capable of doing so. Not until the author them self had figured that hurdle out.
Glad I'm not the only one who doesn't feel like spending extra time in my head. That sounds weird to say, but it's true. Thanks for the comment!
Oh, this was a girl. I can't imagine she was very long out of High School. Or she seemed to have lots of time to learn. It's true someone should have been there to move her along, but, in a way, I learned a lot there, and I hope other people did too. 🙂
The big problems I can see are that you can't critique someone's character who is 'them'. It's just awkward. The other one is, a character that is 'you' is hard to move around a plot realistically, and it's difficult to resolve his / her plot.
I never thought of people writing themselves into the plot as a 'therapy' before. That does make some sense! That's what people journal and blog for, right? I suppose putting yourself in your plot is kind of an extension. But I'm more likely to believe this is a writing error. 😦
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I wanna be the very best, like no one ever was. To write stories is my real test; to edit them my cause. I will create new plots, researching far and wide each character to understand the power that's inside... my novels!
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RICHARD MAYHEW
Posted by AW | Aug 27, 2020 | PAINTING
A Life in Landscape
Written by Sheryl nonnenberg
Photography by randy tunnell
Richard Mayhew loves to show off the view from the balcony outside his studio. On this day, there are quiet breezes from the ocean coming over the tree-covered hills that surround his Soquel home. After years of living on the East Coast (he is a professor emeritus, Penn State University), it is clear that he has found his journey's end. He arises each day and paints, working and re-working his "improvisational" landscapes, all while listening to the sounds of soft jazz. Although he easily talks about the past, it is clear that he does not dwell on his many accolades and achievements. At seventy-five, Richard Mayhew has accomplished more than most artists can ever aspire to, but his work is not yet done. When your inspiration comes from a deeper well, "an intense emotional and spiritual union with nature," there is really no limit and no end.
Born in Amityville, New York in 1924, Richard Mayhew can trace descendents from both Native American and African American sources. His father was African American and Shinnecock Indian and his mother, African American and Cherokee. Although the Native American ancestry was never acknowledged ("they were treated very poorly in those days"), Mayhew credits his grandmother, Sarah Steele Mayhew, with instilling in him a love of the "nature, lore and attitudes" of indigenous people. The confluence of water, land and sky, found near his Long Island home, provided an early source of inspiration and resulted in a lifelong passion for painting the landscape. Using his father's paints and brushes (he was a housepainter by trade), Mayhew began to explore his artistic tendencies and, by the age of seventeen, knew very definitely that he wanted to become an artist. Visits to museums in New York City only served to confirm that art would be his life's work.
Mayhew had served as an apprentice to a medical illustrator and so, when he moved to New York in 1945, he found work drawing for children's books, medical journals and even on porcelain dishes. He studied art history at Columbia University, and also took studio courses at the Brooklyn Museum of Art. It was a heady time in American art history, with the focus of the art world beginning to shift from Paris to New York City after the war. Mayhew studied under such luminaries as Max Beckman, Edwin Dickman and Ruben Tam. He rubbed shoulders with some of the glitterati of the Abstract Expressionist movement: Jackson Pollock ("serious and unhappy"), Willem de Kooning, who moved into the studio upstairs, and Franz Kline, who once stole Mayhew's drink at the infamous Cedar Bar. In spite of the pressure to conform to the new, free-form style of abstract painting, Mayhew remained steadfast in his dedication to the landscape. And, amazingly, he found success; he had his first solo exhibition in 1955 at the Brooklyn Museum and another in 1957 at the Morris Gallery. He enjoyed critical praise for his intense studies of changing light and color, with critics citing his affinity with Claude Monet, Winslow Homer and Thomas Eakins.
In 1958, Mayhew was chosen to receive a scholarship to the MacDowell Art Colony, an experience that taught him the value of working collaboratively with other artists. But the award that would have the most profound influence on his work was a John Hay Whitney Fellowship that allowed him to study at the Academia in Florence for a full year. Shortly after, he received a grant from the Ford Foundation, that enabled him to continue to travel, paint and study in various European countries for the next two years. Seeing the work of great masters such as Turner ("mystical, with an unfinished quality") and the French Impressionists propelled Mayhew into serious study of the science of optics and a desire to fully understand color theory. His paintings reflected his new understanding of color, tonal techniques and atmospheric perspective, as applied to landscape. He also experienced a feeling of pride in being an artist; in Europe, he explains, it is a noble and respected profession. Returning to the United States in 1962, at the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement, was an abrupt and cold dose of reality, especially for a black artist.
In 1963, Mayhew and several other African American artists formed the Spiral Group, whose purpose was to support and challenge each other and to find ways to express their ethnicity in the midst of the growing struggle for civil rights. Some members of the group espoused a militant approach, proposing that art should be used as a political tool. Mayhew took a more conservative approach, advising his fellow artists to "be innovative and constructive in relationship to art and your relationship with the community." Mayhew remains skeptical of black artists who use Afrocentric imagery in their work; he feels strongly that the emotionally-charged iconography of Aunt Jemima and slave images (such as those used by Kara Walker) only serve to perpetuate racial stereotypes. He claims that he never encountered racial discrimination from his fellow artists, but that the media had a hand in fostering prejudice. Even today, he takes pride in the fact that an uninformed viewer of his work would not be able to discern his race.
Mayhew found that his interest in the interdisciplinary nature of art, combining the visual with the performing arts, could best be served in education. He has held teaching positions at the Brooklyn Museum Art School, The Art Students League, Smith College and Pennsylvania State University. During vacations from his position at Penn State, Mayhew would drive across the country in order to be a guest lecturer at San Jose State. These cross country sojourns (sometimes driving through the Southwest, other times taking a northern route into Canada) would result in a profound change in his painting style. No longer abstract, now his work centered on specific landmarks; trees, hills, lakes rendered in a more realistic motif. This is not to imply that the artist was working en plein aire; Mayhew never used sketches or photographs. Rather, he would rely on his memory to create a landscape that would be an amalgam of actual sites he had visited. And, as always, Mayhew strove to paint the "essence of nature, always seeking the unique spiritual mood of the land." In 1991, Mayhew retired from teaching and moved permanently to Soquel. He still visits New York City several times a year, in order to see family, visit art museums and enjoy live jazz. His has had more than thirty solo exhibitions and his work can be found in the permanent collections of such prestigious museums as The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Whitney and the Art Institute of Chicago, to name a few. He is represented by the Zone Contemporary Gallery in New York and just recently had a solo exhibition at the G.R. N'Namdi Gallery in Chicago. A critic for ArtNews commented on Mayhew's "controlled mastery of the brush while depicting these imagined places." For Richard Mayhew, these "imagined places" are an endless source of inspiration; for those of us who view his work, an endless source of pleasure. A retrospective of Richard Mayhew's art will be held concurrently at three museums in the Fall of 2009: the de Saisset Museum at Santa Clara University, the Museum of African Diaspora in San Francisco and the Museum of Art and History in Santa Cruz.
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} |
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Bezrobocie frykcyjne – bezrobocie związane z przerwami w zatrudnieniu z powodu poszukiwania innej pracy lub zmianą miejsca zamieszkania. Stan bezrobocia na poziomie frykcyjnym oznacza w praktyce występowanie pełnej równowagi na rynku pracy. Bezrobocie frykcyjne może pełnić pozytywną rolę jako czynnik elastyczności rynku pracy, hamowania nadmiernego wzrostu płac i umacniania dyscypliny pracy. Kolejny ważny czynnik to szybkość powstawania nowych i likwidacji obecnych miejsc pracy. Zapotrzebowanie pracodawców się zmienia, zmieniają się metody i techniki pracy, coraz szerzej wykorzystywana jest technologia. To wszystko odbija się na stanie rynku zatrudnienia.
Powody powstania bezrobocia frykcyjnego:
Niedoskonała informacja − informacja o potencjalnych pracodawcach lub pracownikach jest kosztowna oraz często trudna do uzyskania;
Poszukiwanie pracy − przeprowadzane zarówno przez pracodawców jak i pracowników; obydwie strony poszukują dla siebie najlepszej dostępnej oferty i będą kontynuować te poszukiwania aż koszty poszukiwań i korzyści płynące z poszukiwania wyrównają się.
Pewien poziom bezrobocia frykcyjnego istnieje w każdej gospodarce, nawet w warunkach pełnego zatrudnienia.
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Bezrobocie | {
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EFL Cup Home
League Cup: Aston Villa are favourites, says Paul Lambert
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Lambert confident of cup success
Capital One Cup semi-final, second leg
Watch highlights on The League Cup Show on Wednesday at 2305 GMT, BBC One.
Aston Villa manager Paul Lambert says his side will be favourites to beat Bradford in the second leg of their Capital One Cup semi-final and win through to a Wembley final.
League Two side Bradford go into the game
But Lambert said: "I don't sense any apprehension at all. We are ready for it and we know what we have to do.
"I am pretty sure everyone will make us favourites to turn it around."
Villa were embarrassed by Phil Parkinson's side at Valley Parade, when goals from Nahki Wells, Rory McArdle and Carl McHugh put Bradford in charge.
Bradford City are the first fourth- tier club to progress this far in the League Cup since Wycombe in 2006-07.
The manager of the Chairboys at that time? Paul Lambert.
A 2-0 win for Villa will be enough to send the Premier League side to Wembley on away goals after extra-time, and Lambert believes his side are capable of getting the result they need.
He added: "It's well within our capabilities to turn it around. They are playing well enough to do it.
"I also know for a fact the stadium will be absolutely bouncing.
"It'll be a different ball game to a fortnight ago."
Lambert also feels securing the victory Villa need to reach the Capital One Cup final will, in turn, help his players to instigate an improvement in the club's ailing Premier League form.
The midlands club have not won a league game since defeating Liverpool on 15 December, and consequently they are just one point and one place above the relegation zone.
"If we get through, the confidence will be great. The feeling around the club will be massive," he said.
"It will be a great thing. It can definitely play a huge part in the season turning (around)."
Striker Andreas Weimann, who scored Villa's solitary goal in the first leg, is available after illness.
Goalkeeper Shay Given (hamstring) and midfielder Fabian Delph (ankle) face late fitness checks.
Read more on Aston Villa
Read more on Bradford
Read more on Capital One Cup
Bantams must attack - Parkinson
Read more on Aston Villa v Bradford City: Bantams must attack - Parkinson
Aston Villa 2-1 Bradford (3-4)
Read more on Aston Villa 2-1 Bradford (3-4)
Bradford 3-1 Aston Villa
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Check out this quick rehab in Moore close to Kelley Elementary!
Sheetrock repair needed for ceiling in several rooms and laundry room wall.
Roof, HVAC system, hot water tank, and windows have all been replaced since 2010.
House will be cleared out before closing.
Per Rentometer, average rent for a 4 bedroom in the area is $1047/mo.
We are selling our assignable contract for this property in Moore. Please do not contact or disturb the sellers as they move their items.
Contact Crystal @ 405-819-5141 to set up a showing.
4th bedroom is 1/2 of the garage which was converted. | {
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The Marienbergbahnen is a very popular hiking and recreational area for families and casual athletes. Utmost experience: a ride on the longest summer toboggan run or with the mountain scooters and mountain carts.
Summer: 8.30 a.m. - 5.00 p.m. (July, August - on a nice day until 6.00 p.m.)| Winter: 8.30 a.m. - 4.30 p.m.
All information on lift tickets, gondola prices and special rates for families can be found here.
The ski resort Marienberg is ideal for families and beginners. Easy ski trails offer good conditions for children and newbies. | {
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News - Jay-Randolph Developmental Services, Inc.
Regular business hours are Monday through Friday, 9 AM - 2:30 PM.
**Donations of cans are accepted as well.
EFFECTIVE March 27, 2019: $0.30 per lb.
*Any single load of 100 lbs. or more will receive a 3¢ bonus!
CARF International recently announced that Jay-Randolph Developmental Services, Inc. has been accredited for a period of three years for its Community Integration, Organizational Employment Services, Supported Living, Respite Services & Governance. The latest accreditation is the eighth consecutive three year accreditation that CARF has awarded JRDS.
This accreditation decision represents the highest level of accreditation that can be awarded to an organization and shows the organization's substantial conformance to the CARF standards. An organization receiving a three year accreditation has put itself though a rigorous peer review process. It has demonstrated to a team of surveyors during an on-site visit its committment to offering programs and services that are measurable, accountable and of the highest quality.
A revised Use of Personal Electronic Devices has been added to the Staff area of the Employee Portal Information of the JRDS web site. All staff must read the information and to complete the mandatory receipt of of the policies (NOTE: Look on the last of the lists in Staff area).
All staff should do the receipt done by March 24, 2017.
The JRDS Board of Directors meets the third Tuesday of every month except July and December. | {
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window.onload = function() {
document.getElementById('example02Button').onclick = function(event) {
var config = new JoysoundJLP.Config('YOUR_ACCESSKEY'); // use your AccessKey !!!
var analyzer = new JoysoundJLP.Analyzer(config);
analyzer.getSensibilities(function(valuelist) {
console.log(valuelist);
clearSensibilities();
valuelist.value.forEach(function(value) {
addItemToSensibilities(value);
});
});
var addItemToSensibilities = function(value) {
$("#example02-sensibilities").append($("<li>").text(value).append($("</li>")));
}
var clearSensibilities = function(value) {
$("#example02-sensibilities").empty();
}
};
}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
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Q: Play Framework onLoadConfig In the GlobalSettings.scala, I can override the onLoadConfig(...) method and tie that in my application.conf. The method signature is:
def onLoadConfig(config: Configuration, path: File,
classloader: ClassLoader, mode: Mode.Mode): Configuration
What are these parameters and how is this method called? Is it called when I start my play server? What and how are these parameters injected into this method?
A: From this blog, I think that this could be useful for you
If you want different configurations for a web application, when you are developing it, i.e. development ,test, production, ... The way to implement it easilly in play framework is using:
override def onLoadConfig(config: Configuration, path: File, classloader: ClassLoader, mode: Mode.Mode): Configuration
You have only to override onLoadConfig in the global object with this code and after you'll have loaded a default application.conf, and a conf file for every mode.
object Global extends GlobalSettings with Loggable {
override def onLoadConfig(config: Configuration, path: File, classloader: ClassLoader, mode: Mode.Mode): Configuration = {
val modeSpecificConfig = config ++ Configuration(
ConfigFactory.load(s"application.${mode.toString.toLowerCase}.conf"))
super.onLoadConfig(modeSpecificConfig, path, classloader, mode)
}
}
Now play will load those files, application.conf is ever loaded, and after is also loaded the right file
for current mode, which override default configurations if they are present, the files which are loaded are:
application.conf
application.dev.conf
application.prod.conf
application.test.conf
| {
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The prevention and treatment of indoor air pollution in our homes is essential to protect our health. To manage air quality in the home, you also need to monitor humidity levels. In fact, breathing air that is too humid or too dry can have harmful effects on our respiratory system. Humidity levels in the home can vary greatly between countries, continents and climatic zones. The optimum level of humidity in the air is considered to be between 50% and 60%. Simple solutions exist to achieve this optimum level of humidity and so to preserve our comfort and health.
Optimum humidity level, Bacteria free! | {
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} |
module GoogleApis
class Api
class Storage
extend Base
api "storage"
version 1
auth_scope "https://www.googleapis.com/auth/devstorage.read_write"
default_parameters :bucket
end
end
end
| {
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} |
Where to Party in the Hamptons on Halloween, This Weekend
By What to Do Posted on October 30, 2013
Southampon Publick House. Photo credit: Brendan J. O'Reilly
Across the East End, there are plenty of opportunities to celebrate on Halloween night and into the weekend.
Here are parties and events geared toward adults, many of which are offering prizes for best costumes.
Buckley's Halloween Party
DJ Disco Pauly kicks off the party at 9 p.m. at Buckley's Inn Between. There will be drink specials, spooky shots, and prizes for best costumes. There is no cover charge, but for $15 there is all-you-can-drink Miller Lite and all-you-can-eat wings from 9 p.m. to midnight. RSVP on Facebook. 139 West Montauk Hwy, Hampton Bays
Publick House Halloween Costume Party
On Halloween night, Southampton Publick House hosts a costume party starting at 9 p.m. WEHM's Anthony hosts and DJ Dory spins. Best Costume will be awarded at midnight. $500 for first, $300 for second and $150 for third place. The night includes drink and draft specials. There is a $10 cover charge at the door. RSVP on Facebook. 40 Bowden Square, Southampton
Rowdyween
East Hampton's Rowdy Hall hosts its annual Rowdyween party on Halloween night from 8 p.m. to midnight. Admission is $30, with includes the first drink. There will be hors d'oeuvres, drink specials, $5 drafts and $5 well drinks. DJ Tone Tigga spins. Rowdy Hall says come in costume or don't come at all. Purchase tickets at eventbrite. RSVP on Facebook. 10 Main Street, East Hampton
Halloween Party Raffa Show at Page
Raffa Show and DJ Johnny provide the entertainment at Page at 63 Main's party on Halloween night. The fun begins at 10 p.m. Expect raffles, prizes and a cash bar. Call Danny at 631-294-2991 or Debbie at 516-607-6727 for more information. 63 Main Street, Sag Harbor
Scaraoke and Buffet Night at 230 Down
230 Down at 230 Elm is all decked out for Halloween. There are two-for-one drinks from 4 to 7 p.m. The buffet opens at 6 p.m. for $10 per person. Adam Webb hosts karaoke beginning at 8 p.m. There will be a free drink raffle every half hour for people in costume. 230 Elm Street, Southampton
Halloween Reggae Night at Backbar
Backbar Grille in Hampton Bays will have Winston Irie and Friends perform beginning at 9 p.m. Prizes will be given out for best costumes. There is no cover charge. 78 Foster Avenue, Hampton Bays
Day of the Dead Party at Nammos
Nammos celebrates the Day of the Dead. Anyone wearing a red rose gets a free glass of champagne or a raffle ticket for a comedy show. DJ Twilo provides the music. The party starts at 9 p.m. RSVP on Facebook. 136 Main St Southampton
Blackwells Halloween Bash
Blackwells at Great Rock hosts its Halloween Bash and costume contest November 1 starting at 8 p.m. Prizes are $200 for first, $100 for second and $50 for third. Everyone in costume receives half-off all drinks from 8 p.m. until midnight. Music and dancing by The A List. 141 Fairway Drive, Wading River
WPPB Harvest Costume Ball & Art Auction
Join Peconic Public Broadcasting 88.3 FM personalities Bonnie Grice, Brian Cosgrove and Ed German for a festive evening and art auction at The South Street Gallery on November 2. Costumes from masks to period dress are encouraged. There will be light fare by Noah's, wine by Lieb cellars and a DJ. Tickets, available at 883wppb.org, are $50 per person. 18 South Street, Greenport.
Nightmare on Elm Street at 230 Down
DJ Biggie will spin at 230 Down at 230 Elm. Doors open at 9 p.m. Costume prizes will be awarded. The cover charge is $10 before midnight and $15 after.
Backbar Costume Party
Backbar Grille will have a costume party will DJ Frank Stein for no cover. Prizes will be handed out for best costumes. Doors open at 9 p.m.
Sole East Halloween and Season Closing Party
Montauk's Sole East will end its season with a Halloween party with musical guests, free bar food and witches grog, and a best costume contest. 90 Second House Road, Montauk.
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Top 5 Live Events on the East End: January 7–13, 2021 | {
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