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L_0775
how elements are organized
DD_0251
The following image shows the Periodic Table of Elements. This is a list of known atoms. In the table, the elements are placed in the order of their atomic numbers starting with the lowest number. The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of protons in that particular atom. In the periodic table the elements are arranged into periods and groups. A row of elements across the table is called a period. Each period has a number: from 1 to 7. Period 1 has only 2 elements in it: hydrogen and helium. Period 2 and Period 3 both have 8 elements. Other periods are longer. The periodic table can be used by chemists to observe patterns, and relationships between the elements.
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teaching_images/periodic_table_7388.png
L_0776
classes of elements
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FIGURE 6.5 The three properties described here characterize most metals.
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classes of elements
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FIGURE 6.6 Unlike metals, solid nonmetals are dull and brittle.
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classes of elements
T_4009
FIGURE 6.7 Metalloids share properties with both metals and nonmetals.
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textbook_images/classes_of_elements_22582.png
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classes of elements
T_4010
FIGURE 6.8 The number of electrons increases from left to right across each period in the periodic table. In period 2, lithium (Li) has the fewest electrons and neon (Ne) has the most. How do the numbers of electrons in their outer energy levels compare?
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textbook_images/classes_of_elements_22583.png
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groups of elements
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FIGURE 6.9 In group 1 of the periodic table, all the elements except hydrogen (H) are alkali metals.
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textbook_images/groups_of_elements_22584.png
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groups of elements
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FIGURE 6.10 The alkaline Earth metals make up group 2 of the periodic table.
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textbook_images/groups_of_elements_22585.png
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groups of elements
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FIGURE 6.11 All the elements in groups 3-12 are transition metals.
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textbook_images/groups_of_elements_22586.png
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groups of elements
T_4014
FIGURE 6.12 These groups each contain one or more metalloids. reactive. Oxygen (O), for example, readily reacts with metals to form compounds such as rust. Oxygen is a gas at room temperature. The other four elements in group 16 are solids.
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textbook_images/groups_of_elements_22587.png
L_0778
introduction to chemical bonds
T_4017
FIGURE 7.1 These diagrams show the valence elec- trons of hydrogen and water atoms and a water molecule. The diagrams represent electrons with dots, so they are called electron dot diagrams.
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textbook_images/introduction_to_chemical_bonds_22590.png
L_0778
introduction to chemical bonds
T_4021
FIGURE 7.2 Different compounds may contain the same elements in different ratios. How does this affect their properties?
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L_0778
introduction to chemical bonds
DD_0252
Water is a transparent common substance that makes up the earth's oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, streams and more. Water is essential for every living thing to replenish and hydrate. The chemical formula for water contains one oxygen atom to two hydrogen atoms. Everything from the earth's crust to the human brain contain great amounts of water. Water on earth is continually being used and then goes through the water cycle to become new and usable again. The water cycle involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation and runoff. Even though water does not have any calories or nutritional benefit it is essential to all living forms on earth. Fishing which occurs in salt and fresh type waters yields much food for the world's people. Water even involves exercise for those who like to swim and engage in other sports like water skiing, wakeboarding and so on.
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teaching_images/lewis_dot_diagrams_9146.png
L_0778
introduction to chemical bonds
DD_0253
this image shows the chemical structure of Acetylene. Acetylene is the chemical compound with the formula C2H2. It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne. As an alkyne, acetylene is unsaturated because its two carbon atoms are bonded together in a triple bond. The carbonóñcarbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond angles of 180ŒÁ.
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teaching_images/lewis_dot_diagrams_9130.png
L_0778
introduction to chemical bonds
DD_0254
The diagram shows the Lewis Dot Structure of Carbon. Lewis Structures are visual representations of the bonds between atoms and illustrate the lone pairs of electrons in molecules. The electrons in the outermost electron shell are called valence electrons. These electrons have an essential role in chemical bonding. Lewis Structures can also be called Lewis dot diagrams and are used as a simple way to show the configuration of atoms within a molecule. In constructing a Lewis Structure, an element is represented by a Lewis symbol (e.g. C for Carbon). It is surrounded by dots that are used to represent the valence electrons of the element. Lewis symbols differ slightly for ions. When forming a Lewis symbol for an ion, the chemical symbol is surrounded by dots that are used to represent valence electrons, and the whole structure is placed in square brackets with superscript representing the charge of the ion.
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teaching_images/lewis_dot_diagrams_9140.png
L_0779
ionic bonds
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FIGURE 7.3 An ionic bond forms when the metal sodium gives up an electron to the non- metal chlorine.
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textbook_images/ionic_bonds_22592.png
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ionic bonds
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FIGURE 7.4 Sodium and chlorine are on opposite sides of the periodic table. How is this related to their numbers of valence elec- trons?
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textbook_images/ionic_bonds_22593.png
L_0779
ionic bonds
T_4026
FIGURE 7.5 Sodium chloride crystals are cubic in shape. Other ionic compounds may have crystals with different shapes. ion always comes first. For example, sodium and chloride ions form the compound named sodium chloride. You Try It! Problem: What is the name of the ionic compound composed of positive barium ions and negative iodide ions?
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textbook_images/ionic_bonds_22594.png
L_0779
ionic bonds
DD_0255
This diagram shows the ionic bonds in lithium fluoride molecule. An ionic bond is the force of attraction that holds together positive and negative ions. The lithium fluorine molecule consists of one lithium atom and one fluorine atom with the chemical formula of LiF. The lithium ion has one more protons than the number of electron thus has the charge of +1. The fluorine ion has one more electron than the number of protons thus has the charge of -1. The lithium ion and fluorine ion have equal but opposite charges so they attract each other. By the attracting force, they form a lithium fluoride molecule.
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teaching_images/chemical_bonding_ionic_9071.png
L_0779
ionic bonds
DD_0256
The diagram shows an example of ionic bonding. Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that occurs between a metallic atom and a nonmetallic atom that join together to form an ionic compound. In the figure, the metallic atom is the sodium atom and the nonmetallic atom is the chlorine atom. During iconic bonding, the metallic atom gives up an electron to the nonmetallic atom. The sodium atom therefore loses an electron while the chlorine atom gains an electron. Because of the electron transfer, each atom now has an unequal number of electrons and protons, thereby becoming an electrically charged ion. An atom that has lost an electron becomes an ion with a positive charge. A positive ion is called a cation. An atom that has gained an electron becomes an ion with a negative charge. A negative ion is called an anion. In short, the sodium atom becomes a sodium cation, whereas the chlorine atom becomes a chloride anion. (Chlorine becomes chloride when it gains an electrical charge.) Because the two ions have opposite electrical charges, they become attracted to each other and bond together, forming the ionic compound sodium chloride.
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teaching_images/chemical_bonding_ionic_9066.png
L_0780
covalent bonds
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FIGURE 7.7 This figure shows three ways of representing a covalent bond. A dash (-) between two atoms represents one pair of shared electrons.
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covalent bonds
T_4030
FIGURE 7.8 An oxygen atom has a more stable arrangement of electrons when it forms covalent bonds with two hydrogen atoms.
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covalent bonds
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FIGURE 7.9 A water molecule has two polar bonds.
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covalent bonds
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FIGURE 7.10 An oxygen molecule has two nonpolar bonds. This is called a double bond. The two oxygen atoms attract equally the four shared electrons.
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L_0780
covalent bonds
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FIGURE 7.11 Covalent compounds may be polar or nonpolar, as these two examples show. In both molecules, the oxygen atoms attract electrons more strongly than the carbon or hydrogen atoms do.
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covalent bonds
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FIGURE 7.12 Water is a polar compound, so its molecules are attracted to each other and form hydrogen bonds.
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L_0780
covalent bonds
DD_0257
This diagram depicts covalent bonds in the ammonia compound. A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It has 3 hydrogen atoms and 1 nitrogen atom. The nitrogen atom has 5 outer electrons, and the hydrogen atom has 1 electron. The nitrogen atom shares 2 electrons with each hydrogen atom, one provided by the nitrogen atom and the other provided by the hydrogen atom.
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L_0780
covalent bonds
DD_0258
This diagram shows the covalent bonds in water molecule. A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The water molecule consists of two hybrogen atoms and one oxygen atom with the chemical formula of H2O. The oxygen atom has 6 electrons and each hydrogen atom has one electron. The oxygen atom shares 2 electrons with two electrons from two hydrogen atoms. So, it completes the outer most shell of oxygen atom with 8 total electrons.
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teaching_images/chemical_bonding_covalent_9053.png
L_0780
covalent bonds
DD_0259
This diagram shows the covalent bonds in carbon dioxide molecule. A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The carbon dioxide molecule consists of two oxygen atoms and one carbon atom with the chemical formula of CO2. At the outer most shell of carbon atom, there are 4 electrons. Each oxygen atoms shares 2 electrons with carbon atom. So, it completes the outer most shell of carbon atom with 8 total electrons.
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L_0781
metallic bonds
T_4035
FIGURE 7.13 Positive metal ions and their shared electrons form metallic bonds.
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metallic bonds
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FIGURE 7.14 A blacksmith shapes a piece of iron.
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metallic bonds
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FIGURE 7.15 The girders of this bridge are made of steel.
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L_0782
introduction to chemical reactions
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FIGURE 8.1 Each of these pictures shows a chemical change taking place.
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introduction to chemical reactions
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FIGURE 8.2 A chemical reaction changes hydrogen and oxygen to water.
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L_0783
chemical equations
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FIGURE 8.4 This figure shows a common chemical reaction. The drawing below the equation shows how the atoms are rearranged in the reaction. What chemical bonds are broken and what new chemical bonds are formed in this reaction?
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textbook_images/chemical_equations_22609.png
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chemical equations
T_4046
FIGURE 8.5 Lavoisier carried out several experiments inside a sealed glass jar. Why was sealing the jar important for his results?
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types of chemical reactions
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FIGURE 8.6 Sodium and chlorine combine to synthesize table salt.
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types of chemical reactions
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FIGURE 8.7 In this photo, the air over Los Angeles, California is brown with smog.
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L_0784
types of chemical reactions
T_4051
FIGURE 8.8 As carbon dioxide increases in the atmo- sphere, more carbon dioxide dissolves in ocean water.
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types of chemical reactions
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FIGURE 8.9 A decomposition reaction occurs when an electric current passes through water.
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types of chemical reactions
T_4056
FIGURE 8.10 The burning of charcoal is an example of a combustion reaction.
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types of chemical reactions
T_4058
FIGURE 8.11 The blue flame on this gas stove is pro- duced when natural gas burns.
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L_0785
chemical reactions and energy
T_4059
FIGURE 8.12 Plants can get the energy they need for photosynthesis from either sunlight or ar- tificial light.
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chemical reactions and energy
T_4061
FIGURE 8.13 The combustion of wood is an exothermic reaction that releases energy as heat and light.
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L_0785
chemical reactions and energy
T_4061
FIGURE 8.14 These graphs compare the energy changes in endothermic and exothermic reactions. What happens to the energy that is absorbed in an endothermic reaction?
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chemical reactions and energy
T_4062
FIGURE 8.15 Even exothermic reactions need activation energy to get started.
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chemical reactions and energy
T_4064
FIGURE 8.16 The chemical reactions that spoil food occur faster at higher temperatures.
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chemical reactions and energy
T_4065
FIGURE 8.17 Its dangerous to smoke or use open flames when oxygen is in use. Can you explain why?
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chemical reactions and energy
T_4066
FIGURE 8.18 The nails have more surface area ex- posed to the air than the head of the hammer. How does this affect the rate at which they rust?
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L_0786
properties of carbon
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FIGURE 9.1 The dots in this diagram represent the four valence electrons of carbon.
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properties of carbon
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FIGURE 9.2 Methane is one of the simplest carbon compounds. At room temperature, it exists as a gas. It is a component of natural gas. These diagrams show two ways of representing the covalent bonds in methane.
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L_0786
properties of carbon
T_4070
FIGURE 9.3 Carbon atoms can form single, double, or triple bonds with each other. How many bonds do the carbon atoms share in each compound shown here?
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textbook_images/properties_of_carbon_22626.png
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properties of carbon
T_4071
FIGURE 9.4 A string of beads serves as a simple model of a polymer. Like monomers mak- ing up a polymer, the beads in a string may be all the same or different from one another. MEDIA Click image to the left or use the URL below. URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/5089
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properties of carbon
T_4071
FIGURE 9.5 Many common products are made of the plastic known as polyethylene.
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L_0787
hydrocarbons
T_4074
FIGURE 9.6 Each of these pictures shows a use of hydrocarbons.
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hydrocarbons
T_4075
FIGURE 9.7 Ethane is a saturated hydrocarbon. What is its chemical formula?
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hydrocarbons
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FIGURE 9.8 Alkanes may have any of these three shapes.
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hydrocarbons
T_4077
FIGURE 9.9 Butane and isobutane have the same atoms but different shapes. Isomers usually have somewhat different properties. For example, straight-chain molecules generally have higher boiling and melting points than their branched-chain isomers. The boiling and melting points of iso-butane are -12C and -160C, respectively. Compare these values with the boiling and melting points of butane in Table 9.2. Do these two compounds follow the general trend?
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hydrocarbons
T_4080
FIGURE 9.10 Ethene is the smallest alkene.
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hydrocarbons
T_4081
FIGURE 9.11 These two bunches of bananas were stored in different ways. The bananas on the right were stored in the open air. The bananas on the left were stored in a special bag that absorbs the ethene they release. The bananas in the bag have not yet turned brown because they were not exposed to ethene.
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textbook_images/hydrocarbons_22634.png
L_0787
hydrocarbons
T_4081
FIGURE 9.12 Ethyne is the smallest alkyne.
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L_0787
hydrocarbons
T_4081
FIGURE 9.13 This acetylene torch is being used to cut metal.
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L_0787
hydrocarbons
T_4082
FIGURE 9.14 Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon. Does each carbon atom in benzene have a total of four bonds? Count them to find out.
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textbook_images/hydrocarbons_22637.png
L_0787
hydrocarbons
T_4083
FIGURE 9.15 These photos show just a few of the many uses of hydrocarbons.
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L_0787
hydrocarbons
DD_0260
The diagram shows the chemical composition of four saturated hydrocarbons . It shows the chemical structure of four alkanes namely ethane, propane , butane and pentane with 2,3,4 and 5 carbon atoms respectively . All of the above mentioned alkanes are straight chain compounds with 6,8,10 and 12 hydrogen atoms respectively .
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teaching_images/hydrocarbons_7051.png
L_0787
hydrocarbons
DD_0261
The diagram shows the molecular structure of Butane. Butane molecules have four carbon atoms and ten hydrogen atoms (C4 H10). Butane is classified as compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen molecules, called Hydrocarbons. Saturated Hydrocarbons are the simplest Hydrocarbons. They are called saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible and single bonds between carbon atoms. In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen. The diagram shows 3 carbon-carbon bonds and 10 carbon-hydrogen bonds. Their most important use is as fuels. Hydrocarbons are also used to manufacture many products, including plastics and synthetic fabrics such as polyester.
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teaching_images/hydrocarbons_9121.png
L_0787
hydrocarbons
DD_0262
The diagram shows the molecular structure of Hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons can be classified into Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons. Saturated Hydrocarbons are the simplest Hydrocarbons. They are called saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible and single bond between carbon atoms. In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen. As shown in the diagram, each carbon atoms are bonded to 3 hydrogen atoms and only one carbon atoms. In unsaturated hydrocarbons, The carbon atoms may have more then one bond to other carbon atoms and only 2 hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons are used to manufacture many products, including plastics and synthetic fabrics such as polyester. They are also used as fuels like Butane.
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teaching_images/hydrocarbons_9118.png
L_0788
carbon and living things
T_4087
FIGURE 9.16 Glucose and fructose are isomers. Su- crose contains a molecule of each.
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carbon and living things
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FIGURE 9.17 These foods are all good sources of starch.
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carbon and living things
T_4088
FIGURE 9.18 Cellulose molecules form large cellulose fibers.
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carbon and living things
T_4090
FIGURE 9.19 Glycine is one of 20 common amino acids that make up the proteins of living things.
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L_0788
carbon and living things
T_4091
FIGURE 9.20 The blood protein hemoglobin binds with oxygen and carries it from the lungs to cells throughout the body. Heme is a small molecule containing iron that is part of the larger hemoglobin molecule. Oxy- gen binds to the iron in heme.
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L_0788
carbon and living things
T_4093
FIGURE 9.21 Both of these fatty acid molecules have six carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms. How many hydrogen atoms does each fatty acid have?
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L_0788
carbon and living things
T_4095
FIGURE 9.22 The arrangement of phospholipid molecules in a cell membrane allows the membrane to control what enters and leaves the cell.
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carbon and living things
T_4096
FIGURE 9.23 Each nucleotide contains these three components.
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carbon and living things
T_4096
FIGURE 9.24 DNA has the shape of a double helix because of hydrogen bonds between ni- trogen bases.
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biochemical reactions
T_4098
FIGURE 9.25 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are closely related. What are the products and reactants of each process?
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biochemical reactions
T_4098
FIGURE 9.26 These organisms use sunlight to make glucose in the process of photosynthesis. All of them contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is needed to capture light energy.
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biochemical reactions
DD_0263
The diagram depicts the process of cellular respiration. There are three steps in this process. The first step is Glycolysis. In Glycolysis, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid and two molecules of ATP by direct synthesis. Then pyruvate from Glycolysis is actively pumped into mitochondria. One carbon dioxide molecule and one hydrogen molecule are removed from the pyruvate (called oxidative decarboxylation) to produce an acetyl group, which joins to an enzyme called CoA to form acetyl CoA. This is essential for the Krebs cycle.2 Acetyl CoA gives 2 NADH molecules and acetyl-CoA enters the Citric Acid Cycle, which is also known as Kreb's cycle. This happens inside the mitochondria. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving different enzymes and co-enzymes. During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become ‘±-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate. The total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.All of the hydrogen molecules which have been removed in the steps before (Krebs cycle, Link reaction) are pumped inside the mitochondria using energy that electrons release. Eventually, the electrons powering the pumping of hydrogen into the mitochondria mix with some hydrogen and oxygen to form water and the hydrogen molecules stop being pumped. Eventually, the hydrogen flows back into the cytoplasm of the mitochondria through protein channels. As the hydrogen flows, ATP is made from ADP and phosphate ions. The Electron transport Chain gives about 34 ATP by ATP synthase. The maximum energy generated per glucose molecule is 38 ATP.
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biochemical reactions
DD_0264
This diagram shows the biochemical reaction cycles. Since all energy source of the biological objects on the earth is the sun, the cycle starts from the sun. Sun gives light to plants. The plants produces Glucose or sugar and oxygen by the process called photosynthesis with carbon dioxide and water produced by other plants and animals. Specifically, the Chloroplasts in the plants produces the Glucose. The Glucose and the sugar and oxygen are consumed by other plants and animals by celluar respiration in mitochondria. By the celluar respiration, plants and animals produce ATP which is a source of energy. Comsuming the Glucose and oxygen, the plants and animals also produce water and carbon dioxide. The water and carbon dioxide provides the ingrident for photosynthesis of plants. With the water and carbon dioxide, the plants produces glucose and oxygen with sunlight which completes the cycle.
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biochemical reactions
DD_0265
The diagram depicts the Oxygen Cycle. This is the cycle that maintains the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere. Oxygen from the atmosphere is used up in two processes, namely combustion, respiration and in the formation of oxides of nitrogen. Oxygen is returned to the atmosphere in only one major process, that is, photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide and water are taken up by plants in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll to give glucose and oxygen. This glucose and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide and water during respiration. Respiration also gives energy for work in the form of ATP.
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acceleration
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FIGURE 1.1
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acceleration due to gravity
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FIGURE 1.1
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acid base neutralization
T_4109
FIGURE 1.1 These antacid tablets contain the base calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ). The base reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach. The reaction neutralizes the acid to relieve acid indigestion.
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activation energy
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FIGURE 1.1
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alloys
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FIGURE 1.1
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alpha decay
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FIGURE 1.1
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archimedes law
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FIGURE 1.1
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artificial light
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FIGURE 1.1
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artificial light
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FIGURE 1.2
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artificial light
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FIGURE 1.3
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artificial light
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FIGURE 1.4
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atomic forces
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FIGURE 1.1
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atomic forces
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FIGURE 1.2
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atomic forces
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FIGURE 1.3
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atomic nucleus
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FIGURE 1.1
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atomic number
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FIGURE 1.1
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atomic number
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FIGURE 1.2
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beta decay
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FIGURE 1.1
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L_0809
biochemical compound classification
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FIGURE 1.1
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L_0810
biochemical reaction chemistry
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FIGURE 1.1 Q: What are the reactants and products in photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
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