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L_0067 | mining and using minerals | T_0679 | FIGURE 3.24 Gemstones come in many colors. is popular, unusually large or very well cut, it will be more valuable. Most gemstones are not used exactly as they are found in nature. Usually, gems are cut and polished. Figure 3.25 shows an uncut piece of ruby and a ruby that has been cut and polished. The way a mineral splits along a surface allows it to be cut to produce smooth surfaces. Notice that the cut and polished ruby sparkles more. Gems sparkle because light bounces back when it hits them. These gems are cut so that the most amount of light possible bounces back. Other gemstones, such as turquoise, are opaque, which means light does not pass through them. These gems are not cut in the same way. | image | textbook_images/mining_and_using_minerals_20465.png |
L_0067 | mining and using minerals | T_0679 | FIGURE 3.25 Ruby is cut and polished to make the gemstone sparkle. Left: Ruby Crystal. Right: Cut Ruby. | image | textbook_images/mining_and_using_minerals_20466.png |
L_0067 | mining and using minerals | T_0683 | FIGURE 3.26 Scientists test water that has been contaminated by a mine. | image | textbook_images/mining_and_using_minerals_20467.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | T_0749 | FIGURE 6.1 The properties of seismic waves allow scientists to understand the composition of Earths interior. | image | textbook_images/inside_earth_20495.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | T_0750 | FIGURE 6.2 The Willamette Meteorite is a metallic meteorite that was found in Oregon. | image | textbook_images/inside_earth_20496.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | T_0752 | FIGURE 6.3 A cross-section of Earth showing the fol- lowing layers: (1) continental crust, (2) oceanic crust, (3) upper mantle, (4) lower mantle, (5) outer core, (6) inner core. | image | textbook_images/inside_earth_20497.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | T_0754 | FIGURE 6.4 How a convection cell is formed in the mantle. | image | textbook_images/inside_earth_20498.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | T_0756 | FIGURE 6.5 The rising and sinking of mantle material of different temperatures and densities creates a convection cell. | image | textbook_images/inside_earth_20499.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0047 | The diagram shows the different layers of the earth. The earth is composed of mainly 3 layers: crust, mantle and the core. The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-33 km thick. The crust is the solid rock layer upon which we live. The mantle is the widest section of the earth. The mantle is made up of semi-molten rocks called magma. Mantle can be further divided into upper mantle and lower mantle. Upper mantle lies between 33-670 km below the earth's crust and the rock is typically hard in this layer. Lower mantle lies between 670-2900 km below the earth's crust and consists of semi-molten rocks. Core is the innermost layer of the earth. It is further divided into upper core and inner core. Inner core is the center and the hottest part of the earth. It is solid and made up of iron and nickel with temperatures of up to 5500ÁC. It lies between 5150-6370km below earth's crust. Outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer made up of iron and nickel with temperatures similar to inner core. It lies between 2900-5150 km below the earth's crust. | image | teaching_images/earth_parts_4015.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0048 | This diagram shows the nature of earthquakes. An earthquake is sudden ground movement. This movement is caused by the sudden release of the energy stored in rocks. An earthquake happens when so much stress builds up in the rocks that the rocks break and energy is transmitted by seismic waves. As depicted in the diagram, Focus is the point where the rock ruptures are the earthquakes focus. The area just above the focus, on the land surface, is the earthquakes epicenter. | image | teaching_images/seismic_waves_8192.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0049 | This diagram shows the structure of the Earth. The outer layer is the crust and this is the thinnest layer. The mantle lies beneath the crust. There is an upper mantle and a lower mantle and they are formed of hot, solid rock. The outer core lies beneath the lower mantle and this is a fluid layer. The inner core is a solid ball and is the hottest of the layers. This is the Earth's innermost part. The distance from the crust to the center of the Earth is 6371 kilometers. | image | teaching_images/earth_parts_4020.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0050 | This diagram shows the various parts or layers of the earth. The outermost layer is the Crust. The crust is the thinnest layer of the earth. Below the crust lies the mantle. The mantle is made of hot, solid rock. Below the mantle lies the outer core. The outer core of the Earth is a fluid layer. The inner core is the Earth's innermost part. It is a solid ball with a rdius of about 1220 kilometers. The inner core is the hottest of the layers. The temperature at the inner core boundary is approximately 5700 K. | image | teaching_images/earth_parts_539.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0051 | The diagram shows the different layers of the Earth, from the inner core to the atmosphere. The three main layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust is the thin, brittle outer shell that covers the Earth. There are two types of crusts: oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is what we call the ocean floor. It is composed mostly of dense volcanic rock and mud that flowed to the bottom of the ocean. Continental crust makes up what we call the land masses or continents. It is formed three different types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Under the crust is the EarthÕs mantle, which is made of hot, solid rock. The mantle is also divided into two kinds: lower and upper. The lower mantle gets its heat directly from the EarthÕs core. Finally, the innermost layer of the Earth is called the core, which is made up of dense, iron core. The outer core is liquid, whereas the inner core is solid. The liquid outer core creates the EarthÕs magnetic fields. The inner core is the innermost layer and comprises the center of the Earth. | image | teaching_images/earth_parts_4016.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0052 | The diagram illustrates the cross section of the Earth's crust and what causes Earthquakes. A Fault is a fracture in the EarthÕs crust separating two blocks of the Earth's crust that slide against one another during an earthquake. The Epicenter is the point on the EarthÕs surface located directly over the Focus, where the most violent tremors are felt. The Focus is also a point in the EarthÕs crust where an earthquake is triggered. Also called the Hypocenter. Shown also are the Wave fronts or seismic waves which is a series of vibrations generated at the focus that disperse in all directions, causing shaking of the EarthÕs surface. A fault scarp is a small step or offset on the ground surface where one side of a fault has moved vertically with respect to the other. They are characterized by uneven landscapes. Fault scarps may be only a few centimeters or many meters high. | image | teaching_images/seismic_waves_7551.png |
L_0075 | inside earth | DD_0053 | This diagram shows how body waves from and earthquake travel through the Earth. There are two types of body waves: P-waves and S-waves. Both types originate at the earthquake's epicenter. P-waves, or primary waves, travel faster than S-waves and are first to reach a seismometer. They can travel through solids, liquids, and gases, meaning they are able to penetrate the Earth's mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core. S-waves, or secondary waves, are about half as fast as P-waves and can only travel through solids. Therefore, they cannot penetrate the Earth's liquid outer core and only travel through the mantle. This creates a large section of the Earth at about 140 degrees away from the epicenter where there are no direct S-waves. | image | teaching_images/seismic_waves_8194.png |
L_0077 | seafloor spreading | T_0766 | FIGURE 6.9 A ship sends out sound waves to create a picture of the seafloor below it. The echo sounder pictured has many beams and as a result it creates a three dimen- sional map of the seafloor beneath the ship. Early echo sounders had only a single beam and created a line of depth measurements. | image | textbook_images/seafloor_spreading_20504.png |
L_0077 | seafloor spreading | T_0766 | FIGURE 6.10 A modern map of the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Darker blue indicates deeper seas. A mid-ocean ridge can be seen running through the center of the Atlantic Ocean. Deep sea trenches are found along the west coast of Central and South America and in the mid-Atlantic, east of the southern tip of South America. Isolated mountains and flat, featureless regions can also be spotted. | image | textbook_images/seafloor_spreading_20503.png |
L_0077 | seafloor spreading | T_0769 | FIGURE 6.11 Scientists found that magnetic polarity in the seafloor was normal at mid-ocean ridges but reversed in symmetrical pat- terns away from the ridge center. This normal and reversed pattern continues across the seafloor. | image | textbook_images/seafloor_spreading_20505.png |
L_0077 | seafloor spreading | T_0771 | FIGURE 6.12 Seafloor is youngest near the mid-ocean ridges and gets progressively older with distance from the ridge. Orange areas show the youngest seafloor. The oldest seafloor is near the edges of continents or deep sea trenches. | image | textbook_images/seafloor_spreading_20506.png |
L_0077 | seafloor spreading | DD_0057 | This image shows the sea floor spreading. Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere. Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new sea floor. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone. | image | teaching_images/seafloor_spreading_8189.png |
L_0077 | seafloor spreading | DD_0058 | This diagram shows the how seafloor spreading happens. Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading occurs along mid-ocean ridgesóîlarge mountain ranges rising from the ocean floor. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the South American plate from the African plate. As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Seafloor is youngest near the mid-ocean ridges and gets progressively older with distance from the ridge. The age, density, and thickness of oceanic crust increases with distance from the mid-ocean ridge. Orange areas show the youngest seafloor. The oldest seafloor is near the edges of continents or deep sea trenches. | image | teaching_images/seafloor_spreading_7543.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0773 | FIGURE 6.13 The Ring of Fire that circles the Pacific Ocean is where the most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions take place. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20507.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0774 | FIGURE 6.14 A map of earthquake epicenters shows that earthquakes are found primarily in lines that run up the edges of some continents, through the centers of some oceans, and in patches in some land ar- eas. most plates are made of a combination of both. Scientists have determined the direction that each plate is moving (Figure 6.15). Plates move around the Earths surface at a rate of a few centimeters a year. This is about the same rate fingernails grow. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20508.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0774 | FIGURE 6.15 Earths plates are shown in different col- ors. Arrows show the direction the plate is moving. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20509.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0775 | FIGURE 6.16 Plates move for two reasons. Upwelling mantle at the mid-ocean ridge pushes plates outward. Cold lithosphere sinking into the mantle at a subduction zone pulls the rest of the plate down with it. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20510.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0778 | FIGURE 6.17 The rift valley in Iceland that is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is seen in this photo. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20511.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0779 | FIGURE 6.18 The Arabian, Indian, and African plates are rifting apart, forming the Great Rift Valley in Africa. The Dead Sea fills the rift with seawater. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20512.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0782 | FIGURE 6.19 Subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate forms a line of volcanoes known as a continental arc and causes earthquakes. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20513.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0782 | FIGURE 6.20 A relief map of South America shows the trench west of the continent. The Andes Mountains line the western edge of South America. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20514.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0783 | FIGURE 6.21 A convergent plate boundary subduc- tion zone between two plates of oceanic lithosphere. Melting of the subducting plate causes volcanic activity and earth- quakes. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20515.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0783 | FIGURE 6.22 The Aleutian Islands that border southern Alaska are an island arc. In this winter image from space, the volcanoes are cov- ered with snow. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20516.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0784 | FIGURE 6.23 When two plates of continental crust col- lide, the material pushes upward, forming a high mountain range. The remnants of subducted oceanic crust remain beneath the continental convergence zone. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20517.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0784 | FIGURE 6.24 The Karakoram Range is part of the Hi- malaya Mountains. K2, pictured here, is the second highest mountain the world at over 28,000 feet. The number and height of mountains is impressive. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20518.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0785 | FIGURE 6.25 The red line is the San Andreas Fault. On the left is the Pacific Plate, which is moving northeast. On the right is the North American Plate, which is moving southwest. The movement of the plates is relative to each other. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20519.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0790 | FIGURE 6.26 The White Mountains in New Hampshire are part of the Appalachian province. The mountains are only around 6,000 feet high. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20520.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0791 | FIGURE 6.27 This view of the Hawaiian islands shows the youngest islands in the southeast and the oldest in the northwest. Kilauea vol- cano, which makes up the southeastern side of the Big Island of Hawaii, is located above the Hawaiian hotspot. recently. Kilauea volcano is currently erupting. It is over the hotspot. The Emperor Seamounts are so old they no longer reach above sea level. The oldest of the Emperor Seamounts is about to subduct into the Aleutian trench off of Alaska. Geologists use hotspot chains to tell the direction and the speed a plate is moving. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20521.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | T_0792 | FIGURE 6.28 Yellowstone Lake lies at the center of a giant caldera. This hole in the ground was created by enormous eruptions at the Yellowstone hotspot. The hotspot lies beneath Yellowstone National Park. | image | textbook_images/theory_of_plate_tectonics_20522.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | DD_0059 | The diagram below is an example of continent-continent convergence. This means that two tectonic plates are colliding into one another. This creates mountain ranges like the one you see in the middle of the diagram. The geological layers shown in this diagram are continental crust at the top, then lithosphere under it, and then the asthenosphere deeper than that. Also, the diagram shows ancient oceanic crust. This crust has already been subducted under the convergence zone. There are other types of convergence than the one listed in the diagram. There are actually three types total: oceanic-oceanic convergence, oceanic-continental convergence, and continental-continental convergence. | image | teaching_images/tectonic_plates_motion_9278.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | DD_0060 | The world is made up of tectonic plates. We can understand and learn a great many things about the Earth from studying tectonic plates and their movements. Plate tectonics helps us to understand where and why mountains form. Using the theory, we know where new ocean floor will be created and where it will be destroyed. We know why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions happen where they do. We even can search for mineral resources using information about past plate motions. Plates interact at three levels of boundaries convergent, divergent and transform boundaries, this is where most of the Earths geologic activity takes place. The tectonic plates movements are responsible for most of the geographical features we see around the world. | image | teaching_images/tectonic_plates_9266.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | DD_0061 | The diagram below shows the types of plate margin. Image result for types of plate boundaries There are three kinds of plate tectonic boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries. This image shows the three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary. | image | teaching_images/tectonic_plates_motion_9281.png |
L_0078 | theory of plate tectonics | DD_0062 | The Pacific Plate is the largest tectonic plate. Take a look at the borders of the Pacific Plate, which are dotted by trenches. The Ring of Fire is located in the basin of the Pacific Ocean. Most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along the Ring of Fire, because it is the location of most of earth's subduction zones. Look at where all of the major earthquakes have occurred within the last fifty years. Only one significant fault line has not had a major earthquake in that time span: The Juan de Fuca. Earthquakes have occurred in the last fifty years in all thirteen trenches. Perhaps the next big earthquake will occur along America's Pacific Northwest. | image | teaching_images/tectonic_plates_9275.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0803 | FIGURE 7.21 Elastic rebound theory. Stresses build on both sides of a fault. The rocks deform plastically as seen in Time 2. When the stresses become too great, the rocks return to their original shape. To do this, the rocks move, as seen in Time 3. This movement releases energy, creating an earthquake. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20543.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0806 | FIGURE 7.22 The focus of an earthquake is in the ground where the ground breaks. The epicenter is the point at the surface just above the focus. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20544.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0808 | FIGURE 7.23 Three people died in this mall in Santa Cruz during the 1989 Loma Prieta earth- quake. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20545.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0808 | FIGURE 7.24 The San Andreas Fault runs through the San Francisco Bay Area. Other related faults cross the region. Lines indicate strike slip faults. Lines with hatches are thrust faults. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20546.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0809 | FIGURE 7.25 The damage in Minato, Japan after a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and the mas- sive tsunami it generated struck in March, 2011. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20547.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0813 | FIGURE 7.26 The range of damage in the 1895 New Madrid earthquake and the 1994 Los An- geles earthquake. New Madrid activity affected a much larger area. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20548.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0814 | FIGURE 7.27 The energy from earthquakes travels in waves, such as the one shown in this diagram. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20549.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0816 | FIGURE 7.28 P-waves and S-waves are the two types of body waves. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20550.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0817 | FIGURE 7.29 Love waves and Rayleigh waves are the two types of surface waves. motions cause damage to rigid structures during an earthquake. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20551.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0819 | FIGURE 7.30 This dramatic image shows the Boxing Day Tsunami of 2004 coming ashore. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20552.png |
L_0080 | nature of earthquakes | T_0820 | FIGURE 7.31 Travel time map for the Boxing Day Tsunami (in hours). Countries near red, orange, and yellow areas were affected the most. | image | textbook_images/nature_of_earthquakes_20553.png |
L_0081 | measuring and predicting earthquakes | T_0823 | FIGURE 7.33 This seismograph records seismic waves. | image | textbook_images/measuring_and_predicting_earthquakes_20555.png |
L_0081 | measuring and predicting earthquakes | T_0824 | FIGURE 7.34 These seismograms show the arrival of P- waves and S-waves. through liquid. So the liquid outer core creates an S-wave shadow zone on the opposite side of the Earth from the quake. | image | textbook_images/measuring_and_predicting_earthquakes_20556.png |
L_0081 | measuring and predicting earthquakes | T_0825 | FIGURE 7.35 Seismographs in Portland, Los Angeles, and Salt Lake City are used to find an earthquake epicenter. | image | textbook_images/measuring_and_predicting_earthquakes_20557.png |
L_0081 | measuring and predicting earthquakes | T_0830 | FIGURE 7.36 Earthquake and tsunami damage in Japan, 2011. The Tohoku earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0. | image | textbook_images/measuring_and_predicting_earthquakes_20558.png |
L_0081 | measuring and predicting earthquakes | T_0830 | FIGURE 7.37 This map shows earthquake probability regions in the United States. | image | textbook_images/measuring_and_predicting_earthquakes_20559.png |
L_0082 | staying safe in earthquakes | T_0832 | FIGURE 7.38 This hazard map predicts the likelihood of strong earthquakes in the area around San Francisco, California. | image | textbook_images/staying_safe_in_earthquakes_20560.png |
L_0082 | staying safe in earthquakes | T_0833 | FIGURE 7.39 Mexico City suffers tremendously in earthquakes because it is built on an old lake bed. In 1985 many buildings col- lapsed. | image | textbook_images/staying_safe_in_earthquakes_20561.png |
L_0082 | staying safe in earthquakes | T_0833 | FIGURE 7.40 A landslide in a neighborhood in Anchor- age Alaska after the 1964 Great Alaska earthquake. | image | textbook_images/staying_safe_in_earthquakes_20562.png |
L_0082 | staying safe in earthquakes | T_0835 | FIGURE 7.41 The Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco is more stable in an earth- quake or in high winds than a rectangular skyscraper. | image | textbook_images/staying_safe_in_earthquakes_20563.png |
L_0082 | staying safe in earthquakes | T_0837 | FIGURE 7.42 Buildings can be retrofit to be made more earthquake safe. | image | textbook_images/staying_safe_in_earthquakes_20564.png |
L_0083 | volcanic activity | T_0839 | FIGURE 8.1 This map shows where volcanoes are located. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_activity_20565.png |
L_0083 | volcanic activity | T_0841 | FIGURE 8.2 The Pacific Ocean basin is a good place to look for volcanoes. The light blue wavy line that goes up the right-center of the diagram is the East Pacific Rise. Trenches due to subduction are on the west and east sides of the plate. Hawaii trends southeast-northwest near the center-top of the image. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_activity_20566.png |
L_0083 | volcanic activity | T_0842 | FIGURE 8.3 Mantle plumes are found all over the world, especially in the ocean basins. The size of the eruptions is different at differ- ent plumes. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_activity_20567.png |
L_0083 | volcanic activity | T_0842 | FIGURE 8.4 A bathymetric map of Loihi seamount. Loihi will be the next shield volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor chain. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_activity_20568.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0845 | FIGURE 8.6 (A) Eyjafjallajkull volcano in Iceland spewed ash into the atmosphere in 2010. This was a fairly small eruption, but it disrupted air travel across Europe for six days. (B) The eruption seen from nearby. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20570.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0846 | FIGURE 8.7 A lava flow in Iceland in 1984. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20571.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0849 | FIGURE 8.8 Magma beneath a volcano erupts onto the volcanos surface. Layer upon layer of lava creates a volcano. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20572.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0849 | FIGURE 8.9 Ropy pahoehoe flows are common on Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20573.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0849 | FIGURE 8.10 A lava tube in a pahoehoe flow. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20574.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0849 | FIGURE 8.11 These underwater rocks in the Galapagos formed from pillow lava. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20575.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0851 | FIGURE 8.12 (A) Mount Etna in Italy is certainly an active volcano. (B) Mount Rainer in Washington State is currently dormant. The volcano could and probably will erupt again. (C) Shiprock in northern New Mexico is the remnant of a long-extinct volcano. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20576.png |
L_0084 | volcanic eruptions | T_0855 | FIGURE 8.13 Mount Cleveland, in Alaska, is monitored by satellite. | image | textbook_images/volcanic_eruptions_20577.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | T_0858 | FIGURE 8.14 Mt. Fuji is a well-known composite vol- cano. | image | textbook_images/types_of_volcanoes_20578.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | T_0858 | FIGURE 8.15 A cross section of a composite volcano reveals alternating layers of rock and ash: (1) magma chamber, (2) bedrock, (3) pipe, (4) ash layers, (5) lava layers, (6) lava flow, (7) vent, (8) lava, (9) ash cloud. Frequently there is a large crater at the top from the last eruption. | image | textbook_images/types_of_volcanoes_20579.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | T_0859 | FIGURE 8.16 This portion of Kilauea, a shield volcano in Hawaii, erupted between 1969 and 1974. | image | textbook_images/types_of_volcanoes_20580.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | T_0862 | FIGURE 8.17 A cinder cone volcano in Lassen National Park. | image | textbook_images/types_of_volcanoes_20581.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | T_0862 | FIGURE 8.18 Crater Lake, Oregon is the remnant of Mount Mazama. After an enormous erup- tion the mountain collapsed, forming a caldera. Crater Lake should actually be named Caldera Lake. Wizard Island, within the lake, is a cinder cone. | image | textbook_images/types_of_volcanoes_20582.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | T_0862 | FIGURE 8.19 Lake Toba is now a caldera. It was the site of an enormous super eruption about 25 million years ago. | image | textbook_images/types_of_volcanoes_20583.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | DD_0066 | This diagram shows a cross section of a composite volcano. Composite volcanoes have broad bases and steep sides. At the top of the volcano is the volcanic crater. Below the surface of the earth lies the magma chamber. This is a large underground pool of magma or molten rock. When a volcano erupts, magma travels from the magma chamber up the conduit channel and exits the volcano through the volcanic crater and side vents. Ash, smoke and steam are other byproducts of volcanic eruptions. | image | teaching_images/volcanoes_1467.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | DD_0067 | The lava begins in the magma chamber. It makes its way up the main vent and comes out of the crater. Volcanic bombs, ash, and an ash cloud are by products of a volcanic eruption. Lava can also come out of a secondary cone by the secondary vent. | image | teaching_images/volcanoes_4902.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | DD_0068 | The diagram shows a simple cross section of a volcano. The bottom most part is the magma chamber, where the lava is stored. The lava flows out of the volcano through an opening called crater. The lava flows from the magma chamber to the crater through the main vent. During the flow, it also flows out through the secondary cone. The mountain like structure on the side are layers of ash and lava. | image | teaching_images/volcanoes_4896.png |
L_0085 | types of volcanoes | DD_0069 | This diagram shows a cross-section of a composite volcano revealing alternating layers of lava and ash. The volcano grows larger with each eruption as lava and ash are deposited onto its surface. The magma that flows from volcanoes comes from underneath the Earth's crust in a magma chamber. It is thick and travels slowly, creating the volcano's steep sides. There are frequently craters at the top from the last eruption. When the volcano erupts from the vent at the top, it spews large amounts of ash into the air creating an ash cloud. Sometime the magma is diverted from the main vent and find its way out of the side of the volcano, creating a secondary vent. Over time, the If the magma remains trapped, it creates a sill. | image | teaching_images/volcanoes_632.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0884 | FIGURE 9.6 Climate is the most important factor in determining the type of soil that forms in a particular area. In tropical regions with high temperatures and lots of rain, thick soils form with no unstable minerals or nutrients. Conversely, dry regions produce thin soils, rich in unstable minerals. | image | textbook_images/soils_20593.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0888 | FIGURE 9.7 This diagram plots soil types by particle size. | image | textbook_images/soils_20594.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0890 | FIGURE 9.8 In this diagram, a cut through soil shows different soil layers. | image | textbook_images/soils_20595.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0893 | FIGURE 9.9 This image shows the various soil hori- zons. | image | textbook_images/soils_20596.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0894 | FIGURE 9.10 Pedalfer soils support temperate forests, such as in the eastern United States. | image | textbook_images/soils_20597.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0895 | FIGURE 9.11 Grasslands grow on pedocal soils. | image | textbook_images/soils_20598.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0896 | FIGURE 9.12 The Amazon Rainforest grows on laterite soils. | image | textbook_images/soils_20599.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0898 | FIGURE 9.13 Material that is not held down can blow in the wind. Topsoil is lost this way. | image | textbook_images/soils_20600.png |
L_0088 | soils | T_0899 | FIGURE 9.14 Trees form a windbreak at the edge of these fields. | image | textbook_images/soils_20601.png |
L_0088 | soils | DD_0070 | This diagram shows that of the soil horizon. There are many different types of soils, and each one has unique characteristics, like color, texture, structure, and mineral content. The depth of the soil also varies. The kind of soil in an area helps determines what type of plants can grow. Soil is made up of distinct horizontal layers; these layers are called horizons. They range from rich, organic upper layers (humus and topsoil) to underlying rocky layers ( subsoil, regolith and bedrock).O Horizon - The top, organic layer of soil, made up mostly of leaf litter and humus (decomposed organic matter). A Horizon - The layer called topsoil; it is found below the O horizon and above the E horizon. Seeds germinate and plant roots grow in this dark-colored layer. It is made up of humus (decomposed organic matter) mixed with mineral particles. E Horizon - This eluviation (leaching) layer is light in color; this layer is beneath the A Horizon and above the B Horizon. It is made up mostly of sand and silt, having lost most of its minerals and clay as water drips through the soil. B Horizon - Also called the subsoil - this layer is beneath the E Horizon and above the C Horizon. It contains clay and mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium carbonate) that it receives from layers above it when mineralized water drips from the soil above. C Horizon - Also called regolith: the layer beneath the B Horizon and above the R Horizon. It consists of slightly broken-up bedrock. Plant roots do not penetrate into this layer; very little organic material is found in this layer. R Horizon - The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is beneath all the other layers. | image | teaching_images/soil_horizons_4258.png |
L_0088 | soils | DD_0071 | This diagram depicts the layers of the Earth. The top layer is the O Horizon. This is the humus that is the surface litter, decomposing plant matter. Below that is the A Horizon which is the topsoil. It is mixed humus and leached mineral soil. Below that is the E Horizon which is the zone of leaching. There is less humus and the minerals are resistant to leaching. Below that is the B Horizon. This is the subsoil that is an accumulation of leached minerals like iron and aluminum oxides. The final layer is the C Horizon. It is the weathered parent material that is partly broken-down minerals. | image | teaching_images/soil_horizons_1413.png |
L_0088 | soils | DD_0072 | The figure shows the different horizons and profiles of soil. The A-horizon is also called topsoil. This is the layer of soil where plants grow. Many small animals such as insects and worms also live here. Topsoil is rich in nutrients from decomposed plants and animals. Right under the A-horizon is the B-horizon, or the subsoil. If a plant has very deep roots, these roots may reach the subsoil. Subsoil contains very little organic matter. However, because of accumulated minerals such clay and iron, it holds more water than topsoil. Beneath the B-horizon is the C-horizon or substratum. The C-horizon is mostly composed of particles of bedrock, sediment, and other geologic materials. | image | teaching_images/soil_horizons_7595.png |
L_0097 | avoiding soil loss | T_0935 | FIGURE 1.1 | image | textbook_images/avoiding_soil_loss_20623.png |
L_0097 | avoiding soil loss | T_0938 | FIGURE 1.2 | image | textbook_images/avoiding_soil_loss_20624.png |
L_0097 | avoiding soil loss | T_0938 | FIGURE 1.3 Source of Erosion Agriculture Strategies for Prevention Source of Erosion Building Construction Strategies for Prevention | image | textbook_images/avoiding_soil_loss_20625.png |
L_0105 | cenozoic plate tectonics | T_0973 | FIGURE 1.1 | image | textbook_images/cenozoic_plate_tectonics_20647.png |
Subsets and Splits