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Apoptosis
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Plants
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Plants
Programmed cell death in plants has a number of molecular similarities to that of animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notable ones being the presence of a cell wall and the lack of an immune system that removes the pieces of the dead cell. Instead of an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a vacuole that ruptures as the cell dies. Additionally, plants do not contain phagocytic cells, which are essential in the process of breaking down and removing apoptotic bodies. Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name apoptosis (as opposed to the more general programmed cell death) is unclear.
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Apoptosis
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Caspase-independent apoptosis
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Caspase-independent apoptosis
The characterization of the caspases allowed the development of caspase inhibitors, which can be used to determine whether a cellular process involves active caspases. Using these inhibitors it was discovered that cells can die while displaying a morphology similar to apoptosis without caspase activation. Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS (nuclear localization signal). Inside the mitochondria, AIF is anchored to the inner membrane. In order to be released, the protein is cleaved by a calcium-dependent calpain protease.
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Apoptosis
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See also
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See also
Anoikis
Apaf-1
Apo2.7
Apoptotic DNA fragmentation
Atromentin induces apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells.
Autolysis
Autophagy
Cisplatin
Cytotoxicity
Entosis
Ferroptosis
Homeostasis
Immunology
Necrobiosis
Necrosis
Necrotaxis
Nemosis
Mitotic catastrophe
p53
Paraptosis
Pseudoapoptosis
PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
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Apoptosis
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Explanatory footnotes
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Explanatory footnotes
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Apoptosis
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Citations
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Citations
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Apoptosis
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General bibliography
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General bibliography
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Apoptosis
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External links
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External links
Apoptosis & Caspase 3, The Proteolysis Map – animation
Apoptosis & Caspase 8, The Proteolysis Map – animation
Apoptosis & Caspase 7, The Proteolysis Map – animation
Apoptosis MiniCOPE Dictionary – list of apoptosis terms and acronyms
Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology
Apoptosis Research Portal
Apoptosis Info Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications.
Database of proteins involved in apoptosis
Apoptosis Video
Apoptosis Video (WEHI on YouTube )
The Mechanisms of Apoptosis Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March 2007.
WikiPathways – Apoptosis pathway
"Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button". CR magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer.
Xiaodong Wang's lecture: Introduction to Apoptosis
Robert Horvitz's Short Clip: Discovering Programmed Cell Death
The Bcl-2 Database
DeathBase: a database of proteins involved in cell death, curated by experts
European Cell Death Organization
Apoptosis signaling pathway created by Cusabio
Category:Cell signaling
Category:Cellular senescence
Category:Immunology
Category:Medical aspects of death
Category:Programmed cell death
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Apoptosis
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Table of Content
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Short description, Discovery and etymology, Activation mechanisms, Intrinsic pathway, Extrinsic pathway, TNF pathway, Fas pathway, Common components, Caspases, Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway, Apoptosis model in amphibians, Negative regulators of apoptosis, Proteolytic caspase cascade: Killing the cell, Apoptotic cell disassembly, Removal of dead cells, Pathway knock-outs, Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic cells, Implication in disease, Defective pathways, Dysregulation of p53, Inhibition, HeLa cell, Treatments, Hyperactive apoptosis, Treatments, HIV progression, Viral infection, Plants, Caspase-independent apoptosis, See also, Explanatory footnotes, Citations, General bibliography, External links
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Appomattox
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wikt
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Appomattox, shorthand for the surrender of Robert E. Lee to Ulysses S. Grant in the American Civil War, may refer to:
Battle of Appomattox Court House, a battle of the American Civil War that was a culmination of the Appomattox Campaign and resulted in the surrender of Robert E. Lee
Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, a National Historical Park in Virginia at the site of the surrender
Appomattox may also refer to:
Appomattox County, Virginia, in the United States
Appomattox, Virginia, a town and the seat of that county
Appomattox Court House (disambiguation), several courthouses in Appomattox, Virginia
Appomattox River, a tributary of the James River in Virginia
Appomattox Basin, a name for the Tri-Cities, Virginia region
Appomattox Manor, a manor in City Point, Hopewell, Virginia
Battle of Appomattox Station, a battle of the American Civil War in Appomattox, Virginia, a day before the Battle of Appomattox Court House
SS Appomattox, a large American wooden steamship operated mainly on the Great Lakes
SS Appomattox (1893), a British steamship of the early 20th century
Appomattox (opera), a 2007 opera in based on the American Civil War, composed by Philip Glass
Appomattox (statue), a bronze Confederate soldier memorial in Alexandria, Virginia
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Appomattox
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See also
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See also
Appomattoc (people)
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Appomattox
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Table of Content
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wikt, See also
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Anal sex
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Short description
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class=notpageimage|thumb|An illustration of heterosexual anal sex
Anal sex or anal intercourse principally means the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person's anus, or anus and rectum, for sexual pleasure.See pages 270–271 for anal sex information, and page 118 for information about the clitoris. Other forms of anal sex include anal fingering, the use of sex toys, anilingus, and pegging. Although anal sex most commonly means penileanal penetration, sources sometimes use anal intercourse to exclusively denote penileanal penetration, and anal sex to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.
While anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all homosexual men engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships. Types of anal sex can also be part of lesbian sexual practices. People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration – by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area in the vagina (sometimes called the G-spot) in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve). However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so, which may be due to psychological factors in some cases.
As with most forms of sexual activity, anal sex can facilitate the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Anal sex is considered a high-risk sexual practice because of the vulnerability of the anus and rectum. The anal and rectal tissue are delicate and do not, unlike the vagina, provide lubrication. They can easily tear and permit disease transmission, especially if a personal lubricant is not used. Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity, and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex.World Health Organization, Department of Reproductive Health and Research Global strategy for the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections: 2006–2015. Breaking the chain of transmission , 2007,
Strong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, often because of religious prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity. It may be considered taboo or unnatural, and is a criminal offense in some countries, punishable by corporal or capital punishment. By contrast, anal sex may also be considered a natural and valid form of sexual activity as fulfilling as other desired sexual expressions, and can be an enhancing or primary element of a person's sex life.
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Anal sex
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Anatomy and stimulation
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Anatomy and stimulation
thumb|Male genital anatomy, showing the location of the prostate with respect to the rectum
The abundance of nerve endings in the anal region and rectum can make anal sex pleasurable for men and women. The internal and external sphincter muscles control the opening and closing of the anus; these muscles, which are sensitive membranes made up of many nerve endings, facilitate pleasure or pain during anal sex. Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia states that "the inner third of the anal canal is less sensitive to touch than the outer two-thirds, but is more sensitive to pressure" and that "the rectum is a curved tube about long and has the capacity, like the anus, to expand".
Research indicates that anal sex occurs significantly less frequently than other sexual behaviors, but its association with dominance and submission, as well as taboo, makes it an appealing stimulus to people of all sexual orientations. In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as a dildo, a butt plug or anal beads, engage in anal fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation, figging or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included. Fisting is one of the least practiced of the activities, partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.
In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the object of insertion rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.
General statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm. The vaginal walls contain significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris (which has many nerve endings specifically intended for orgasm), and therefore intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, from vaginal sexual stimulation is less likely to occur than from direct clitoral stimulation in the majority of women. The clitoris is composed of more than the externally visible glans (head). The vagina, for example, is flanked on each side by the clitoral crura, the internal legs of the clitoris, which are highly sensitive and become engorged with blood when sexually aroused. Indirect stimulation of the clitoris through anal penetration may be caused by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris. Although the anus has many nerve endings, their purpose is not specifically for inducing orgasm, and so a woman achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare. Stimulation from anal sex can additionally be affected by popular perception or portrayals of the activity, such as erotica or pornography. In pornography, anal sex is commonly portrayed as a desirable, painless routine that does not require personal lubricant; this can result in couples performing anal sex without care, and men and women believing that it is unusual for women, as receptive partners, to find discomfort or pain instead of pleasure from the activity.See page 560 for effects of viewing pornography with regard to anal sex, and pages 286–289 for anal sex as a birth control method. Pdf. Preview. By contrast, each person's sphincter muscles react to penetration differently, the anal sphincters have tissues that are more prone to tearing, and the anus and rectum, unlike the vagina, do not provide lubrication for sexual penetration. Researchers say adequate application of a personal lubricant, relaxation, and communication between sexual partners are crucial to avoid pain or damage to the anus or rectum. Additionally, ensuring that the anal area is clean and the bowel is empty, for both aesthetics and practicality, may be desired by participants.
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Anal sex
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Male to female
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Male to female
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Anal sex
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Behaviors and views
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Behaviors and views
thumb|1892 lithograph by Paul Avril depicting male-to-female anal sex.
The anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis.See page 3 for women preferring anal sex to vaginal sex, and page 15 for reaching orgasm through indirect stimulation of the G-spot. Men may also enjoy the penetrative role during anal sex because of its association with dominance, because it is made more alluring by a female partner or society in general insisting that it is forbidden, or because it presents an additional option for penetration.
While some women find being a receptive partner during anal intercourse painful or uncomfortable, or only engage in the act to please a male sexual partner, other women find the activity pleasurable or prefer it to vaginal intercourse.
In a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, anal intercourse is used to specifically denote penile-anal penetration, and anal sex is used to denote any form of anal sexual activity. The review suggests that anal sex is exotic among the sexual practices of some heterosexuals and that "for a certain number of heterosexuals, anal intercourse is pleasurable, exciting, and perhaps considered more intimate than vaginal sex".
Anal intercourse is sometimes used as a substitute for vaginal intercourse during menstruation. The likelihood of pregnancy occurring during anal sex is greatly reduced, as anal sex alone cannot lead to pregnancy unless sperm is somehow transported to the vaginal opening. Because of this, some couples practice anal intercourse as a form of contraception, often in the absence of a condom.SIECUS Prevalence of Unprotected Anal Sex among Teens Requires New Education Strategies Accessed January 26, 2010
Some couples may practice anal sex as a way of preserving female virginity because it is non-procreative and does not tear the hymen; this has been reported in Christian communities in the United States. A person, especially a teenage girl or woman, who engages in anal sex or other sexual activity with no history of having engaged in vaginal intercourse may be regarded as not having yet experienced virginity loss. This is sometimes called as technical virginity.See here and pages 48–49 for the majority of researchers and heterosexuals defining virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in vaginal sex.
Heterosexuals may view anal sex as "fooling around" or as foreplay; scholar Laura M. Carpenter stated that this view "dates to the late 1600s, with explicit 'rules' appearing around the turn of the twentieth century, as in marriage manuals defining petting as 'literally every caress known to married couples but does not include complete sexual intercourse." One study found US teens who pledged to not have sex until marriage were more likely to engage in anal sex without vaginal sex than teens who had not made a sexual abstinence pledge, and found pledge-takers were just as likely to test positive for an STI five years after taking the pledge as those who had not pledged to abstinence.
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Anal sex
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Prevalence
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Prevalence
Because most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples. In Kimberly R. McBride's 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n=1,299) and women (n=1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral–anal sex, manual–anal sex, or anal sex toy use. The report states the majority of men (n=631) and women (n=856) who reported heterosexual anal intercourse in the past 12 months were in exclusive, monogamous relationships: 69% and 73%, respectively. The review added that because "relatively little attention [is] given to anal intercourse and other anal sexual behaviors between heterosexual partners", this means that it is "quite rare" to have research "that specifically differentiates the anus as a sexual organ or addresses anal sexual function or dysfunction as legitimate topics. As a result, we do not know the extent to which anal intercourse differs qualitatively from coitus."
According to a 2010 study from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) that was authored by Debby Herbenick et al., although anal intercourse is reported by fewer women than other partnered sex behaviors, partnered women in the age groups between 18 and 49 are significantly more likely to report having anal sex in the past 90 days. Women engaged in anal intercourse less commonly than men. Vaginal intercourse was practiced more than insertive anal intercourse among men, but 13% to 15% of men aged 25 to 49 practiced insertive anal intercourse.National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB). Findings from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior, Center for Sexual Health Promotion, Indiana University. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, Vol. 7, Supplement 5. 2010.
With regard to adolescents, limited data also exists. This may be because of the taboo nature of anal sex and that teenagers and caregivers subsequently avoid talking to one another about the topic. It is also common for subject review panels and schools to avoid the subject. A 2000 study found that 22.9% of college students who self-identified as non-virgins had anal sex. They used condoms during anal sex 20.9% of the time as compared with 42.9% of the time with vaginal intercourse.
Anal sex being more common among heterosexuals today than it was previously has been linked to the increase in consumption of anal pornography among men, especially among those who view it on a regular basis. Seidman et al. argued that "cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography", and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men.
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Anal sex
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Male to male
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Male to male
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Anal sex
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Behaviors and views
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Behaviors and views
thumb|19th-century erotic interpretation of Hadrian and Antinous (detail), by Paul Avril.
Anal sex has been commonly associated with male homosexuality. However, not all homosexual men engage in anal sex. Oral sex and mutual masturbation are more common than anal stimulation among men in sexual relationships with other men. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the top and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the bottom. Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as versatile. Though some men who have sex with men may find that being a receptive partner during anal sex makes them question their masculinity, playing bottom in sexual intercourse is at least as common as playing top among western gay and bisexual men and, among committed male couples, anal intercourse is rated as providing the most satisfying orgasms.
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Anal sex
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Prevalence
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Prevalence
Reports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among men who have sex with men vary. According to 2011 research from the Journal of Sexual Medicine, in the most recent sexual intercourse between homosexual men, the most common behavior was kissing the partner on the mouth, followed by oral sex, and mutual masturbation. Anal sex occurred in less than half of the sexual relationships between homosexual men.
A survey publish by The Advocate in 1994 indicated that 46% of homosexual men who have anal sex, preferred to penetrate their partners, while 43% preferred to be the receptive partner. Other sources suggest that roughly three-fourths of homosexual men have had anal sex at least one time, with an equal percentage participating as tops and bottoms. In a 2012 sex survey conducted by the NSSHB in the U.S., among homosexual men who have anal sex, 83.3% report ever having anal sex in the insertive position, and 90% in the receptive position.
According to Weiten et al., anal intercourse is more popular among homosexual male couples than among heterosexual couples, but "it ranks behind oral sex and mutual masturbation" among both sexual orientations in prevalence. Wellings et al. reported that "the equation of 'homosexual' with 'anal' sex among men is common among lay and health professionals alike" and that "yet an Internet survey of 180,000 MSM across Europe (EMIS, 2011) showed that oral sex was most commonly practised, followed by mutual masturbation, with anal intercourse in third place". Though anal sex is less common than oral sex and handjobs among committed male couples, they rate orgasms derived from anal intercourse as more satisfying than that of any other sexual practice.
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Anal sex
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Female to male
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Female to male
thumb|A woman wearing a strap-on dildo about to engage in anal sex with a man (pegging)
Women may sexually stimulate a man's anus by fingering the exterior or interior areas of the anus; they may also stimulate the perineum (which, for males, is between the base of the scrotum and the anus), massage the prostate or engage in anilingus. Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used. The practice of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo for sexual activity is called pegging.
Reece et al. reported in 2010 that receptive anal intercourse is infrequent among men overall, stating that "an estimated 7% of men 14 to 94 years old reported being a receptive partner during anal intercourse".
The BMJ stated in 1999:
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Anal sex
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Female to female
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Female to female
thumb|right|A woman performing anilingus on another woman
With regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes anal fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus.
There is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a lesbian social organization in Colorado. When asked what techniques they used in their last ten sexual encounters, lesbians in their 30s were twice as likely as other age groups to engage in anal stimulation (with a finger or dildo). A 2014 study of partnered lesbian women in Canada and the U.S. found that 7% engaged in anal stimulation or penetration at least once a week; about 10% did so monthly and 70% did not at all. Anilingus is also less often practiced among female same-sex couples.
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Anal sex
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Health risks
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Health risks
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Anal sex
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General risks
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General risks
thumb|Mucous membranes of the rectum
Anal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers which are infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility. Unprotected penile-anal penetration, colloquially known as barebacking, carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens. Use of condoms, ample lubrication to reduce the risk of tearing, and safer sex practices in general, reduce the risk of STIs. However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other sex acts because of the tightness of the anal sphincters during friction.
Unprotected receptive anal sex (with an HIV positive partner) is the sex act most likely to result in HIV transmission.
As with other sexual practices, people without sound knowledge about the sexual risks involved are susceptible to STIs. Because of the view that anal sex is not "real sex" and therefore does not result in virginity loss, or pregnancy, teenagers and other young people who are unaware of the risks of the anal sex may consider vaginal intercourse riskier than anal intercourse and also they may believe that an STI can only result from vaginal intercourse. It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries.
Although anal sex alone does not lead to pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with anal sex or other forms of sexual activity if the penis is near the vagina (such as during intercrural sex or other genital-genital rubbing) and its sperm is deposited near the vagina's entrance and travels along the vagina's lubricating fluids; the risk of pregnancy can also occur without the penis being near the vagina because sperm may be transported to the vaginal opening by the vagina coming in contact with fingers or other non-genital body parts that have come in contact with semen.
There are a variety of factors that make male-to-female anal intercourse riskier than vaginal intercourse for women, including the risk of HIV transmission being higher for anal intercourse than for vaginal intercourse. The risk of injury to the woman during anal intercourse is also significantly higher than the risk of injury to her during vaginal intercourse because of the durability of the vaginal tissues compared to the anal tissues. Additionally, if a man abruptly changes from anal intercourse to vaginal intercourse without a condom or without changing it, infections can arise in the vagina (or urinary tract) due to bacteria present within the anus; these infections can also result from switching between vaginal sex and anal sex by the use of fingers or sex toys.
Pain during receptive anal sex is formally known as anodyspareunia.Handbook of affirmative psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men By Kathleen Ritter, Anthony I. Terndrup; p350 Factors predictive of pain during anal sex include inadequate lubrication, feeling tense or anxious, lack of stimulation, as well as lack of social ease with being gay and being closeted. Research has found that psychological factors can in fact be the primary contributors to the experience of pain during anal intercourse and that adequate communication between sexual partners can prevent it, countering the notion that pain is always inevitable during anal sex. The prevalence of anodyspareunia is difficult to measure; in two population studies of men receiving anal sex, 18% and 14% reported experiencing anodyspareunia. In a study of 2002 women, 8.7% of those who had engaged in anal sex reported experiencing severe pain.
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Anal sex
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Damage
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Damage
Anal sex can exacerbate hemorrhoids and therefore result in bleeding; in other cases, the formation of a hemorrhoid is attributed to anal sex. If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention. Because of the rectum's lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible.
By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal and rectal tissues; anal fisting injuries include anal sphincter lacerations and rectal and sigmoid colon (rectosigmoid) perforation, which might result in death.
Repetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the anal sphincters becoming weakened, which may cause rectal prolapse or affect the ability to hold in feces (a condition known as fecal incontinence). Rectal prolapse is very uncommon, and its causes are not well understood. Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the anal sphincters and overall pelvic floor, and may help prevent or remedy fecal incontinence.
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Anal sex
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Cancer
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Cancer
Most cases of anal cancer are related to infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). The risk of anal cancer through anal sex is attributed to HPV infection, which is often contracted through unprotected anal sex.* Anal cancer is significantly less common than cancer of the colon or rectum (colorectal cancer); the American Cancer Society estimates that in 2023 there were approximately 9,760 new cases (6,580 in women and 3,180 in men) and approximately 1,870 deaths (860 women and 1,010 men) in the United States, and that, though anal cancer has been on the rise for many years, it is mainly diagnosed in adults, "with an average age being in the early 60s" and it "affects women somewhat more often than men."
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Anal sex
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Cultural views
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Cultural views
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Anal sex
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General
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General
thumb|Depiction of anal sex on 510 BCE Attic red-figure kylix
thumb|Suzuki Harunobu, A shunga print depicting an older and a younger man
Different cultures have had different views on anal sex throughout human history, with some cultures more positive about the activity than others. Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity. A number of cultures have especially recorded the practice of anal sex between males, and anal sex between males has been especially stigmatized or punished. In some societies, if discovered to have engaged in the practice, the individuals involved were put to death, such as by decapitation, burning, or even mutilation.
Anal sex has been more accepted in modern times; it is often considered a natural, pleasurable form of sexual expression. The buttocks and anus have become more eroticized in modern culture, including via pornography. Engaging in anal sex is still, however, punished in some societies. For example, regarding LGBT rights in Iran, Iran's Penal Code states in Article 109 that "both men involved in same-sex penetrative (anal) or non-penetrative sex will be punished" and "Article 110 states that those convicted of engaging in anal sex will be executed and that the manner of execution is at the discretion of the judge".
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Anal sex
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Ancient and non-Western cultures
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Ancient and non-Western cultures
From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and did not regard anal sex as taboo. priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. Anal sex is also obliquely alluded to by a description of an omen in which a man "keeps saying to his wife: 'Bring your backside. Other Sumerian texts refer to homosexual anal intercourse. The , a set of priests who worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations, were especially known for their homosexual proclivities. The Sumerian sign for was a ligature of the signs for 'penis' and 'anus'. One Sumerian proverb reads: "When the wiped off his ass [he said], 'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress [i.e., Inanna].'"
The term Greek love has long been used to refer to anal intercourse, and in modern times, "doing it the Greek way" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex. Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, "Most citizens are ('wide-arsed') now." The terms , , and were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. Pederastic practices in ancient Greece (sexual activity between men and adolescent boys), at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to avoid penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a "clean" act. Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as shameful and seen as a form of hubris.David Cohen, "Sexuality, Violence, and the Athenian Law of Hubris" Greece and Rome; V.38.2, pp 171-188 Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the ) did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being 'feminine'.
thumb|left|Two Roman males on the Warren Cup, British Museum
In later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with "eligible" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him. Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy.
A male citizen taking the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse ( in Latin) was condemned in Rome as an act of ('immodesty' or 'unchastity'); free men, however, could take the active role with a young male slave, known as a or . The latter was allowed because anal intercourse was considered equivalent to vaginal intercourse in this way; men were said to "take it like a woman" ( 'to undergo womanly things') when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy's role. Likewise, women were believed to only be capable of anal sex or other sex acts with women if they possessed an exceptionally large clitoris or a dildo. The passive partner in any of these cases was always considered a woman or a boy because being the one who penetrates was characterized as the only appropriate way for an adult male citizen to engage in sexual activity, and he was therefore considered unmanly if he was the one who was penetrated; slaves could be considered "non-citizen". Although Roman men often availed themselves of their own slaves or others for anal intercourse, Roman comedies and plays presented Greek settings and characters for explicit acts of anal intercourse, and this may be indicative that the Romans thought of anal sex as something specifically "Greek".
thumb|Man and woman having anal sex. Ceramic, Moche Culture. 300 C.E. Larco Museum Collection.
In Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that some males engaged in penetrative anal intercourse with males. Evidence suggestive of widespread male-female anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey, of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted male-female anal intercourse significantly more than any other sex act. Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Therefore, the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an erotic gallery in which this pottery is showcased.
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Anal sex
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Religion
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Religion
thumb|upright|François-Rolland Elluin, Sodomites provoking divine wrath, from Le pot-pourri (1781)
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Anal sex
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Judaism
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Judaism
The Mishneh Torah, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects,Isidore Twersky, Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Yale Judaica Series, vol. XII (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980). passim, and especially Chapter VII, "Epilogue", pp. 515–538. states "since a man's wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any organ of her body he wishes, and he may have intercourse with her naturally or unnaturally [traditionally, unnaturally refers to anal and oral sex], provided that he does not expend semen to no purpose. Nevertheless, it is an attribute of piety that a man should not act in this matter with levity and that he should sanctify himself at the time of intercourse."
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Anal sex
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Christianity
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Christianity
Christian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the ('the sin against nature', after Thomas Aquinas) or ('sodomitical lusts', in one of Charlemagne's ordinances), or ('that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named').
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Anal sex
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Islam
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Islam
thumb|Ottoman illustration depicting two young men having sex (from Sawaqub al-Manaquib)
, or the sin of Lot's people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to "unnatural" sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. Same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called luti or lutiyin in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal.
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Anal sex
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Other animals
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Other animals
As a form of non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals, anal sex has been observed in a few other primates, both in captivity and in the wild.
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Anal sex
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See also
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See also
Anal eroticism
Ass to mouth
Autosodomy
Coprophilia
Creampie (sexual act)
Felching
Gay bowel syndrome
Klismaphilia
Sodomy law
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Anal sex
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References
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References
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Anal sex
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Further reading
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Further reading
Brent, Bill Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Men, Cleis Press, 2002.
DeCitore, David Arouse Her Anal Ecstasy (2008)
Houser, Ward Anal Sex, Encyclopedia of Homosexuality Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 48–50.
Morin, Jack Anal Pleasure & Health: A Guide for Men and Women, Down There Press, 1998.
Sanderson, Terry The Gay Man's Kama Sutra, Thomas Dunne Books, 2004.
Tristan Taormino The Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women, Cleis Press, 1997, 2006.
Underwood, Steven G. Gay Men and Anal Eroticism: Tops, Bottoms, and Versatiles, Harrington Park Press, 2003
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Anal sex
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External links
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External links
Category:Anal eroticism
Category:Sexology
Category:Sexual acts
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Anal sex
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Table of Content
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Short description, Anatomy and stimulation, Male to female, Behaviors and views, Prevalence, Male to male, Behaviors and views, Prevalence, Female to male, Female to female, Health risks, General risks, Damage, Cancer, Cultural views, General, Ancient and non-Western cultures, Religion, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Other animals, See also, References, Further reading, External links
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Aarau
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distinguish
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Aarau (, ) is a town, a municipality, and the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The town is also the capital of the district of Aarau. It is German-speaking and predominantly Protestant. Aarau is situated on the Swiss plateau, in the valley of the Aare, on the river's right bank, and at the southern foot of the Jura Mountains, and is west of Zurich, south of Basel and northeast of Bern. The municipality borders directly on the canton of Solothurn to the west. It is the largest town in Aargau. At the beginning of 2010 Rohr became a district of Aarau.
The official language of Aarau is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.
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Aarau
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Geography and geology
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Geography and geology
thumb|left|Aarau and the Jura Mountains
The old city of Aarau is situated on a rocky outcrop at a narrowing of the Aare river valley, at the southern foot of the Jura mountains. Newer districts of the city lie to the south and east of the outcrop, as well as higher up the mountain, and in the valley on both sides of the Aare. The neighboring municipalities are Küttigen to the north and Buchs to the east, Suhr to the south-east, Unterentfelden to the south, and Eppenberg-Wöschnau and Erlinsbach to the west. Aarau and the nearby neighboring municipalities have grown together and now form an interconnected agglomeration. The only exception is Unterentfelden whose settlements are divided from Aarau by the extensive forests of Gönhard and Zelgli. Approximately nine-tenths of the city is south of the Aare, and one tenth is to the north. It has an area, , of . Of this area, 6.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 34% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 55.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (4.5%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes). The lowest elevation, , is found at the banks of the Aar, and the highest elevation, at , is the Hungerberg on the border with Küttigen.
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Aarau
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Climate
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Climate
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Aarau
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History
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History
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Aarau
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Prehistory
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Prehistory
thumb|right|150px|Schlössli
thumb|right|150px|City Hall
thumb|right|150px|Town Church Tower
thumb|right|150px|Upper Gate Tower
A few artifacts from the Neolithic period were found in Aarau. Near the location of the present train station, the ruins of a settlement from the Bronze Age (about 1000 BC) have been excavated. The Roman road between Salodurum (Solothurn) and Vindonissa passed through the area, along the route now covered by the Bahnhofstrasse. In 1976 divers in the Aare found part of a seven-meter wide wooden bridge from the late Roman times.
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Aarau
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Middle Ages
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Middle Ages
thumb|left|150px|Rore Tower
Aarau was founded around AD 1240 by the counts of Kyburg. Aarau is first mentioned in 1248 as Arowe. Around 1250 it was mentioned as Arowa. However the first mention of a city sized settlement was in 1256. The town was ruled from the "Rore" tower, which has been incorporated into the modern city hall.
In 1273 the counts of Kyburg died out. Agnes of Kyburg, who had no male relations, sold the family's lands to King Rudolf I von Habsburg. He granted Aarau its city rights in 1283. In the 14th century the city was expanded in two stages, and a second defensive wall was constructed. A deep ditch separated the city from its "suburb;" its location is today marked by a wide street named "Graben" (meaning Ditch).
In 1415 Bern invaded lower Aargau with the help of Solothurn. Aarau capitulated after a short resistance, and was forced to swear allegiance to the new rulers. In the 16th century, the rights of the lower classes were abolished. In March 1528 the citizens of Aarau allowed the introduction of Protestantism at the urging of the Bernese. A growth in population during the 16th Century led to taller buildings and denser construction methods. Early forms of industry developed at this time; however, unlike in other cities, no guilds were formed in Aarau.
On 11 August 1712, the Peace of Aarau was signed into effect. This granted each canton the right to choose their own religion thereby ending Catholicism's control. Starting in the early 18th century, the textile industry was established in Aarau. German immigration contributed to the city's favorable conditions, in that they introduced the cotton and silk factories. These highly educated immigrants were also responsible for educational reform and the enlightened, revolutionary spirit that developed in Aarau.
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Aarau
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1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic
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1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic
On 27 December 1797, the last Tagsatzung of the Old Swiss Confederacy was held in Aarau. Two weeks later a French envoy continued to foment the revolutionary opinions of the city. The contrast between a high level of education and a low level of political rights was particularly great in Aarau, and the city refused to send troops to defend the Bernese border. By Mid-March 1798 Aarau was occupied by French troops.
On 22 March 1798 Aarau was declared the capital of the Helvetic Republic. It is therefore the first capital of a unified Switzerland. Parliament met in the city hall. On 20 September, the capital was moved to Lucerne.
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Aarau
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Aarau as canton capital
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Aarau as canton capital
thumb|Aerial view (1958)
In 1803, Napoleon ordered the fusion of the cantons of Aargau, Baden and Fricktal. Aarau was declared the capital of the new, enlarged canton of Aargau. In 1820 the city wall was torn down, with the exception of the individual towers and gates, and the defensive ditches were filled in.
The wooden bridge, dating from the Middle Ages, across the Aare was destroyed by floods three times in thirty years, and was replaced with a steel suspension bridge in 1851. This was replaced by a concrete bridge in 1952. The city was linked up to the Swiss Central Railway in 1856.
The textile industry in Aarau broke down in about 1850 because of the protectionist tariff policies of neighboring states. Other industries had developed by that time to replace it, including the production of mathematical instruments, shoes and cement. Beginning in 1900, numerous electrical enterprises developed. By the 1960s, more citizens worked in service industries or for the canton-level government than in manufacturing. During the 1980s many of the industries left Aarau completely.
In 1802 the Canton School was established; it was the first non-parochial high school in Switzerland. It developed a good reputation, and was home to Nobel Prize winners Albert Einstein, Paul Karrer, and Werner Arber, as well as several Swiss politicians and authors.
The purchase of a manuscript collection in 1803 laid the foundation for what would become the Cantonal Library, which contains a Bible annotated by Huldrych Zwingli, along with the manuscripts and incunabula. More newspapers developed in the city, maintaining the revolutionary atmosphere of Aarau. Beginning in 1820, Aarau has been a refuge for political refugees.
The urban educational and cultural opportunities of Aarau were extended through numerous new institutions. A Theatre and Concert Hall was constructed in 1883, which was renovated and expanded in 1995–96. The Aargau Nature Museum opened in 1922. A former cloth warehouse was converted into a small theatre in 1974, and the alternative culture center KIFF (Culture in the fodder factory) was established in a former animal fodder factory.
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Aarau
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Origin of the name
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Origin of the name
The earliest use of the place name was in 1248 (in the form Arowe), and probably referred to the settlement in the area before the founding of the city. It comes, along with the name of the River Aare (which was called Arula, Arola, and Araris in early times), from the German word Au, meaning floodplain.
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Aarau
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Old town
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Old town
thumb|left|200px|Painted Gable
The historic old town forms an irregular square, consisting of four parts (called Stöcke). To the south lies the Laurenzenvorstadt, that is, the part of the town formerly outside the city wall. One characteristic of the city is its painted gables, for which Aarau is sometimes called the "City of beautiful Gables". The old town, Laurenzenvorstadt, government building, cantonal library, state archive and art museum are all listed as heritage sites of national significance.
The buildings in the old city originate, on the whole, from building projects during the 16th century, when nearly all the Middle Age period buildings were replaced or expanded. The architectural development of the city ended in the 18th century, when the city began to expand beyond its (still existing) wall. Most of the buildings in the "suburb" date from this time.
The "Schlössli" (small Castle), Rore Tower and the upper gate tower have remained nearly unchanged since the 13th century. The "Schlössli" is the oldest building in the city. It was already founded at the time of the establishment of the city shortly after 1200; the exact date is not known. City hall was built around Rore Tower in 1515.
thumb|right|View of Aarau from 1612
The upper gate tower stands beside the southern gate in the city wall, along the road to Lucerne and Bern. The jail has been housed in it since the Middle Ages. A Carillon was installed in the tower in the middle of the 20th century, the bells for which were provided by the centuries-old bell manufacturers of Aarau.
The town church was built between 1471 and 1478. During the Reformation, in 1528, its twelve altars and accompanying pictures were destroyed. The "Justice fountain" (Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen) was built in 1634, and is made of French limestone; it includes a statue of Lady Justice made of sandstone, hence the name. It was originally in the street in front of city hall, but was moved to its present location in front of the town church in 1905 due to increased traffic.
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Aarau
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Economy
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Economy
thumb|right|Kunsthaus Museum
, Aarau had an unemployment rate of 2.35%. , there were 48 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 4,181 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 164 businesses in this sector. 20,186 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,461 businesses in this sector. This is a total of over 24,000 jobs, since Aarau's population is about 16,000 it draws workers from many surrounding communities. there were 8,050 total workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 4,308 or about 53.5% of the residents worked outside Aarau while 17,419 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 21,161 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.
The largest employer in Aarau is the cantonal government, the offices of which are distributed across the entire city at numerous locations. One of the two head offices of the Aargauer Zeitung, Switzerland's fifth largest newspaper, is located in Aarau, as are the Tele M1 television channel studios, and several radio stations.
Kern & Co., founded in 1819, was an internationally known geodetic instrument manufacturer based in Aarau. However, it was taken over by Wild Leitz in 1988, and was closed in 1991.
The small scale of Aarau causes it to continually expand the borders of its growth. The urban center lies in the middle of the "Golden Triangle" between Zurich, Bern, and Basel, and Aarau is having increasing difficulty in maintaining the independence of its economic base from the neighboring large cities. The idea of merging Aarau with its neighboring suburbs has been recently discussed in the hope of arresting the slowly progressing losses.
Manufacture include bells, mathematical instruments, electrical goods, cotton textiles, cutlery, chemicals, shoes, and other products. Aarau is famous for the quality of their instruments, cutlery and their bells.
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Aarau
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Markets and fairs
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Markets and fairs
Every Saturday morning there is a vegetable market in the Graben at the edge of the Old City. It is supplied with regional products. In the last week of September the MAG (Market of Aarauer Tradesmen) takes place there, with regional companies selling their products. The "Rüeblimärt" is held in the same place on the first Wednesday in November, which is a Carrot fair. The Aarau fair is held at the ice skating rink during the Spring.
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Aarau
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Transport
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Transport
Aarau railway station is a terminus of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S11.
The town is also served with public transport provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG.
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Aarau
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Routes
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Routes
Number Start point End point 1 Küttigen Buchs 2 Barmelweid Rohr 3 Gretzenbach Aarau 4 Biberstein Suhr 5 Goldern Aarau 6 Damm Suhr 7 Zelgli Aarau
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Aarau
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Population
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Population
The population of Aarau grew continuously from 1800 until about 1960, when the city reached a peak population of 17,045, more than five times its population in 1800. However, since 1960 the population has fallen by 8%. There are three reasons for this population loss: firstly, since the completion of Telli (a large apartment complex), the city has not had any more considerable land developments. Secondly, the number of people per household has fallen; thus, the existing dwellings do not hold as many people. Thirdly, population growth was absorbed by neighboring municipalities in the regional urban area, and numerous citizens of Aarau moved into the countryside. This trend might have stopped since the turn of the 21st century. Existing industrial developments are being used for new purposes instead of standing empty.
Aarau has a population (as of ) of . , 19.8% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1%. Most of the population () speaks German (84.5%), with Italian being second most common ( 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 2.9%).
The age distribution, , in Aarau is; 1,296 children or 8.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,334 teenagers or 8.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,520 people or 15.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,518 people or 15.8% are between 30 and 39, 2,320 people or 14.6% are between 40 and 49, and 1,987 people or 12.5% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,588 people or 10.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,219 people or 7.7% are between 70 and 79, there are 942 people or 5.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 180 people or 1.1% who are 90 and older.
, there were 1,365 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 3,845 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 2,119 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 1.99 individuals. there were 1,594 single family homes (or 18.4% of the total) out of a total of 8,661 homes and apartments.
In Aarau about 74.2% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a ). Of the school age population (), there are 861 students attending primary school, there are 280 students attending secondary school, there are 455 students attending tertiary or university level schooling, there are 35 students who are seeking a job after school in the municipality.
Population Growth year population Swiss Nationals % German Speaking % French Speaking % Italian Speaking % Protestant % Roman Catholic 1558 ca. 1,200 1764 1, 868 1798 2, 458 1850 4,657 4,299 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1880a 5,914 5,381 99.2% 0.7% 0.2% 81.9% 17.4% 1910 9,593 7,986 90.6% 2.2% 6.7% 71.7% 26.6% 1930 11,666 10,472 95.3% 1.7% 2.3% 72.7% 25.4% 1950 14,280 13,373 93.8% 2.2% 3.2% 70.4% 27.9% 1970 16,881 13,782 82.4% 1.6% 11.2% 60.1% 37.6% 1987 15,750 75% 1990 16,481 13,146 81.7% 1.0% 5.3% 49.7% 33.0% 1993 15,900 2010 19,497 15,695 85.0% 1.0% 3.3% 44.4% 28.8% 2016 21,036 16,534
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Aarau
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Sport
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Sport
The football club FC Aarau play in the Stadion Brügglifeld. From 1981 until 2010 they played in the top tier of the Swiss football league system when they were relegated to the Swiss Challenge League. In the 2013/2014 they climbed back to the highest tier only to be relegated again. In the 2016/17 season they will play in the Swiss Challenge League. They won the Swiss Cup in 1985 and were three times Swiss football champions, in 1912, in 1914 and in 1993.
The Argovia Stars play in the MySports League, the third highest league of Swiss ice hockey. They play their home games in the 3,000-seat KeBa Aarau Arena.
BC Alte Kanti Aarau plays in the Swiss Women's Basketball Championship, the country's top division.
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Aarau
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Sites
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Sites
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Aarau
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Heritage sites of national significance
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Heritage sites of national significance
thumb|City Church
Aarau is home to a number of sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. The list includes three churches; the Christian Catholic parish house, the Roman Catholic parish house, and the Reformed City Church. There are five government buildings on the list; the Cantonal Library, which contains many pieces important to the nation's history, and Art Gallery, the old Cantonal School, the Legislature, the Cantonal Administration building, and the archives. Three gardens or parks are on the list; Garten Schmidlin, Naturama Aargau and the Schlossgarten. The remaining four buildings on the list are; the former Rickenbach Factory, the Crematorium, the Haus zum Erker at Rathausgasse 10 and the Restaurant Zunftstube at Pelzgasse.
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Aarau
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Tourist sites
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Tourist sites
The Bally Shoe company has a unique shoe museum in the city. There is also the Trade Museum which contain stained glass windows from Muri Convent and paintings.
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Aarau
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Annual events
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Annual events
Each May, Aarau plays host to the annual Jazzaar Festival attracting the world's top jazz musicians.
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Aarau
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Religion
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Religion
From the , 4,473 or 28.9% are Roman Catholic, while 6,738 or 43.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 51 individuals (or about 0.33% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic i.e. Old Catholic faith.
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Aarau
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Government
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Government
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Aarau
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Legislative
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Legislative
In place of a town meeting, a town assembly (Einwohnerrat) of 50 members is elected by the citizens, and follows the policy of proportional representation. It is responsible for approving tax levels, preparing the annual account, and the business report. In addition, it can issue regulations. The term of office is four years. In the last two elections the parties had the following representation:
Party 2001 2018 FDP 13 11 SP 12 14 SVP 11 10 Die Mitte (Formerly Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland, CVP) 4 3 Pro Aarau 4 3 Green 2 5 EVP 3 2 GLP 0 2
At the district level, some elements of the government remain a direct democracy. There are optional and obligatory referendums, and the population retains the right to establish an initiative.
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Aarau
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Executive
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Executive
The executive authority is the town council (Stadtrat). The term of office is four years, and its members are elected by a plurality voting system. It leads and represents the municipality. It carries out the resolutions of the assembly, and those requested by the canton and national level governments.
The seven members (and their party) are:
Hanspeter Hilfiker (FDP) (City President)
Werner Schib (Die Mitte) (City Vice President)
Angelica Cavegn Leitner (Pro Aarau)
Franziska Graf (SP)
Daniel Siegenthaler (SP)
Hanspeter Thür (Grüne)
Suzanne Marclay-Merz (FDP)
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Aarau
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National elections
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National elections
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (22.1%), the FDP (17.5%) and the Green Party (11.8%).
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Aarau
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Coat of arms
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Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent an Eagle displayed Sable beaked langued and membered Gules and a Chief of the last.
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Aarau
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Notable people
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Notable people
140px|thumb|Maximilian Bircher-Benner
140px|thumb|Martin Schlumpf, 2011
140px|thumb|Marisa Brunner, 2013
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Aarau
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Born in Aarau
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Born in Aarau
Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770–1843), first director of the United States Coast Survey
Hans Herzog (1819–1894), Swiss army General.
Carl Feer-Herzog (1820–1880), politician, President of the Swiss National Council 1874
Friedrich Mühlberg (1840–1915), a Swiss geologist
Hans Renold (1852–1943), a Swiss/British engineer, inventor and industrialist in Britain
Friedrich Zschokke (1860–1936), zoologist and parasitologist, grandson of Heinrich Zschokke
Emil Hassler (1864–1937), physician, ethnographer, naturalist and botanist
Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–1939), physician, pioneer nutritionist popularised muesli
Frederick Sutermeister (1873–1934), a Swiss theologian and pastor
Martha Burkhardt (1874–1956), painter and photographer
Otto Hunziker (1879–1940), politician and author
Eugen Bircher (1882–1956), politician
Edmund Heuberger (1883–1962), art director, screenwriter and film director IMDb Database retrieved 1 January 2019
Karl Ballmer (1891–1958), painter, anthroposophical philosopher and writer
Felix Hoffmann (1911–1975), graphic designer, illustrator and stained glass artist
Erika Burkart (1922–2010), writer and poet
Fritz Vogelsang (born 1932), decathlete, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics
Hansruedi Jost (1934–2016), hammer thrower, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics
Klaus Merz (born 1945), writer
Martin Schlumpf (born 1947), musician, composer, conductor, improviser and academic teacher
(born 1947), author
Charlotte Walter (born 1951), figure skater, competed in the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics
Jürg Frey (born 1953), composer and clarinettist
Jörg Müller (born 1961), retired track cyclist and road bicycle racer, competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics
Christian Reich (born 1967), bobsledder, competed in four Winter Olympics, winning silver
Andreas Hilfiker (born 1969), former international footballer, 376 club caps
Daniel Wermelinger (born 1971), football referee, president of the Swiss Referees Union
Ivan Benito (born 1976), retired professional football goalkeeper, 327 club caps
Marisa Brunner (born 1982), retired football goalkeeper, 75 caps for Switzerland women's national football team
Stefan Eichenberger (born 1984), film director and film producerIMDb Database retrieved 1 January 2019
Ricardo Feller (born 2000), racing driver and ADAC GT Masters champion
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Aarau
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Lived in Aarau
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Lived in Aarau
140px|thumb|Sylvia Flückiger-Bäni
(1753–1807), politician
(1754–1786), author and actor
(1768–1841), politician, physician
Heinrich Zschokke (1771–1848), German, later Swiss, author and reformer
Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780–1866), physician, politician, philosopher
Johann Rudolph Rengger (1795–1832), naturalist and doctor
Albert Einstein (1879–1955), scientist, professor, physicist, and technical assistant at the Swiss Patent Office
(1899–1982), writer
Bruno Hunziker (1930–2000), a Swiss attorney and politician
Sylvia Flückiger-Bäni (born 1952), politician
David Hönigsberg (1959–2005), a South African classical composer, conductor and musicologist
Nicolas Müller (born 1982), a Swiss snowboarder
Nivin Pauly (born 1984), an Indian actor
Alexander Estis (born 1986), a Swiss author, translator and journalist
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Aarau
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International relations
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International relations
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Aarau
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Twin towns – sister cities
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Twin towns – sister cities
Aarau is twinned with:
Delft, Netherlands Neuchâtel, Switzerland Reutlingen, Germany
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Aarau
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See also
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See also
Lenzburg (boasts a historical museum)
History of the Canton of Aargau
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Aarau
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Footnotes
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Footnotes
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Aarau
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References
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References
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Aarau
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External links
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External links
Aarau.ch
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Aarau
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Sister projects
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Sister projects
Category:Cities in Switzerland
Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland
Category:Municipalities of Aargau
Category:Aargau
Category:Cultural property of national significance in Aargau
Category:Populated places on the Aare
Category:Former national capitals
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Aarau
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Table of Content
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distinguish, Geography and geology, Climate, History, Prehistory, Middle Ages, 1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic, Aarau as canton capital, Origin of the name, Old town, Economy, Markets and fairs, Transport, Routes, Population, Sport, Sites, Heritage sites of national significance, Tourist sites, Annual events, Religion, Government, Legislative, Executive, National elections, Coat of arms, Notable people, Born in Aarau, Lived in Aarau, International relations, Twin towns – sister cities, See also, Footnotes, References, External links, Sister projects
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Aargau
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short description
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Aargau ( ; ), more formally the Canton of Aargau (; ; ; ), is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of eleven districts and its capital is Aarau.
Aargau is one of the most northerly cantons of Switzerland, by the lower course of the Aare River, which is why it is called Aar-gau ("Aare province"). It is one of the most densely populated regions of Switzerland.
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Aargau
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History
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History
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Aargau
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Early history
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Early history
The area of Aargau and the surrounding areas were controlled by the Helvetians, a tribe of Celts, as far back as 200 BC. It was eventually occupied by the Romans and then by the 6th century, the Franks. The Romans built a major settlement called Vindonissa, near the present location of Brugg.
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Aargau
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Medieval Aargau
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Medieval Aargau
thumb|left|Aarau
The reconstructed Old High German name of Aargau is Argowe, first unambiguously attested (in the spelling Argue) in 795. The term described a territory only loosely equivalent to that of the modern canton, including the region between Aare and Reuss rivers, including Pilatus and Napf, i.e. including parts of the modern cantons of Bern (Bernese Aargau, Emmental, parts of the Bernese Oberland), Solothurn, Basel-Landschaft, Lucerne, Obwalden and Nidwalden, but not the parts of the modern canton east of the Reuss (Baden District), which were part of Zürichgau.
Within the Frankish Empire (8th to 10th centuries), the area was a disputed border region between the duchies of Alamannia and Burgundy. A line of the von Wetterau (Conradines) intermittently held the countship of Aargau from 750 until about 1030, when they lost it (having in the meantime taken the name von Tegerfelden). This division became the ill-defined (and sparsely settled) outer border of the early Holy Roman Empire at its formation in the second half of the 10th century. Most of the region came under the control of the ducal house of Zähringen and the comital houses of Habsburg and Kyburg by about 1200.
In the second half of the 13th century, the territory became divided between the territories claimed by the imperial cities of Bern, Lucerne and Solothurn and the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. The remaining portion, largely corresponding to the modern canton of Aargau, remained under the control of the Habsburgs until the "conquest of Aargau" by the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1415. Habsburg Castle itself, the original seat of the House of Habsburg, was taken by Bern in April 1415.Peter Frey. "Die Habsburg. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen von 1994/95" in: Argovia, Jahresschrift der Historischen Gesellschaft des Kantons Aargau 109 (1997), p. 167. The Habsburgs had founded a number of monasteries (with some structures enduring, e.g., in Wettingen and Muri), the closing of which by the government in 1841 was a contributing factor to the outbreak of the Swiss civil war – the "Sonderbund War" – in 1847.
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Aargau
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Under the Swiss Confederation
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Under the Swiss Confederation
thumb|Switzerland in 1416, showing the part of the Aargau under Bernese control, the county of Baden and the Freie Ämter.
When Frederick IV of Habsburg sided with Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, Emperor Sigismund placed him under the Imperial ban. In July 1414, the Pope visited Bern and received assurances from them, that they would move against the Habsburgs. A few months later the Swiss Confederation denounced the Treaty of 1412. Shortly thereafter in 1415, Bern and the rest of the Swiss Confederation used the ban as a pretext to invade the Aargau. The Confederation was able to quickly conquer the towns of Aarau, Lenzburg, Brugg and Zofingen along with most of the Habsburg castles. Bern kept the southwest portion (Zofingen, Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), northward to the confluence of the Aare and Reuss. The important city of Baden was taken by a united Swiss army and governed by all 8 members of the Confederation. Some districts, named the Freie Ämter (free bailiwicks) – Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten, with the countship of Baden – were governed as "subject lands" by all or some of the Confederates. Shortly after the conquest of the Aargau by the Swiss, Frederick humbled himself to the Pope. The Pope reconciled with him and ordered all of the taken lands to be returned. The Swiss refused and years later after no serious attempts at re-acquisition, the Duke officially relinquished rights to the Swiss.
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Aargau
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Unteraargau or Berner Aargau
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Unteraargau or Berner Aargau
thumb|upright|Districts in Bernese controlled Unteraargau
Bern's portion of the Aargau came to be known as the Unteraargau, though can also be called the Berner or Bernese Aargau. In 1514 Bern expanded north into the Jura and so came into possession of several strategically important mountain passes into the Austrian Fricktal. This land was added to the Unteraargau and was directly ruled from Bern. It was divided into seven rural bailiwicks and four administrative cities, Aarau, Zofingen, Lenzburg and Brugg. While the Habsburgs were driven out, many of their minor nobles were allowed to keep their lands and offices, though over time they lost power to the Bernese government. The bailiwick administration was based on a very small staff of officials, mostly made up of Bernese citizens, but with a few locals.
When Bern converted during the Protestant Reformation in 1528, the Unteraargau also converted. At the beginning of the 16th century a number of anabaptists migrated into the upper Wynen and Rueder valleys from Zürich. Despite pressure from the Bernese authorities in the 16th and 17th centuries anabaptism never entirely disappeared from the Unteraargau.
Bern used the Aargau bailiwicks mostly as a source of grain for the rest of the city-state. The administrative cities remained economically only of regional importance. However, in the 17th and 18th centuries Bern encouraged industrial development in Unteraargau and by the late 18th century it was the most industrialized region in the city-state. The high industrialization led to high population growth in the 18th century, for example between 1764 and 1798, the population grew by 35%, far more than in other parts of the canton. In 1870 the proportion of farmers in Aarau, Lenzburg, Kulm, and Zofingen districts was 34–40%, while in the other districts it was 46–57%.
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Aargau
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Freie Ämter
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Freie Ämter
thumb|upright|Map of the Freie Ämter, including the 1712 line dividing the Upper and Lower Freie Ämter
The rest of the Freie Ämter were collectively administered as subject territories by the rest of the Confederation. Muri Amt was assigned to Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug and Glarus, while the Ämter of Meienberg, Richensee and Villmergen were first given to Lucerne alone. The final boundary was set in 1425 by an arbitration tribunal and Lucerne had to give the three Ämter to be collectively ruled. The four Ämter were then consolidated under a single Confederation bailiff into what was known in the 15th century as the Waggental Bailiwick (). In the 16th century, it came to be known as the Vogtei der Freien Ämter. While the Freien Ämter often had independent lower courts, they were forced to accept the Confederation's sovereignty. Finally, in 1532, the canton of Uri became part of the collective administration of the Freien Ämter.
At the time of the Protestant Reformation, the majority of the Ämter converted to the new faith. In 1529, a wave of iconoclasm swept through the area and wiped away much of the old religion. After the defeat of Zürich in the second Battle of Kappel in 1531, the victorious five Catholic cantons marched their troops into the Freie Ämter and reconverted them to Catholicism.
In the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712, the Freie Ämter became the staging ground for the warring Reformed and Catholic armies. While the peace after the 1656 war did not change the status quo, the fourth Peace of Aarau in 1712 brought about a reorganization of power relations. The victory gave Zürich the opportunity to force the Catholic cantons out of the government in the county of Baden and the adjacent area of the Freie Ämter. The Freie Ämter were then divided in two by a line drawn from the gallows in Fahrwangen to the Oberlunkhofen church steeple. The northern part, the so-called Unteren Freie Ämter (lower Freie Ämter), which included the districts of Boswil (in part) and Hermetschwil and the Niederamt, were ruled by Zürich, Bern and Glarus. The southern part, the Oberen Freie Ämter (upper Freie Ämter), were ruled by the previous seven cantons but Bern was added to make an eighth.
During the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803), the county of Baden, the Freie Ämter and the area known as the Kelleramt were combined into the canton of Baden.
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Aargau
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County of Baden
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County of Baden
thumb|upright|County of Baden
The County of Baden was a shared condominium of the entire Old Swiss Confederacy. After the Confederacy conquest in 1415, they retained much of the Habsburg legal structure, which caused a number of problems. The local nobility had the right to hold the low court in only about one fifth of the territory. There were over 30 different nobles who had the right to hold courts scattered around the surrounding lands. All these overlapping jurisdictions caused numerous conflicts, but gradually the Confederation was able to acquire these rights in the county. The cities of Baden, Bremgarten and Mellingen became the administrative centers and held the high courts. Together with the courts, the three administrative centers had considerable local autonomy, but were ruled by a governor who was appointed by the Acht Orte every two years. After the Protestant victory at the Second Battle of Villmergen, the administration of the County changed slightly. Instead of the Acht Orte appointing a bailiff together, Zürich and Bern each appointed the governor for 7 out of 16 years while Glarus appointed him for the remaining two years.
The chaotic legal structure and fragmented land ownership combined with a tradition of dividing the land among all the heirs in an inheritance prevented any large scale reforms. The governor tried in the 18th century to reform and standardize laws and ownership across the county, but with limited success. With an ever-changing administration, the County lacked a coherent long-term economic policy or support for reforms. By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zürich. Road construction first became a priority after 1750, when Zürich and Bern began appointing a governor for seven years.
During the Protestant Reformation, some of the municipalities converted to the new faith. However, starting in 1531, some of the old parishes were converted back to the old faith. The governors were appointed from both Catholic and Protestant cantons and since they changed every two years, neither faith gained a majority in the county.
After the French invasion, on 19 March 1798, the governments of Zürich and Bern agreed to the creation of the short lived canton of Baden in the Helvetic Republic. With the Act of Mediation in 1803, the canton of Baden was dissolved. Portions of the lands of the former County of Baden now became the District of Baden in the newly created canton of Aargau. After World War II, this formerly agrarian region saw striking growth and became the district with the largest and densest population in the canton (110,000 in 1990, 715 persons per km2).
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Aargau
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Forming the canton of Aargau
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Forming the canton of Aargau
thumb|Helvetic Republic /99, with the newly created cantons of Aargau and Baden
thumb|Swiss Confederation following the 1803 Act of Mediation, with the modern canton of Aargau formed
The contemporary canton of Aargau was formed in 1803, a canton of the Swiss Confederation as a result of the Act of Mediation. It was a combination of three short-lived cantons of the Helvetic Republic: Aargau (1798–1803), Baden (1798–1803) and Fricktal (1802–1803). Its creation is therefore rooted in the Napoleonic era. In the year 2003, the canton of Aargau celebrated its 200th anniversary.
French forces occupied the Aargau from 10 March to 18 April 1798; thereafter the Bernese portion became the canton of Aargau and the remainder formed the canton of Baden. Aborted plans to merge the two halves came in 1801 and 1802, and they were eventually united under the name Aargau, which was then admitted as a full member of the reconstituted Confederation following the Act of Mediation. Some parts of the canton of Baden at this point were transferred to other cantons: the Amt of Hitzkirch to Lucerne, whilst Hüttikon, Oetwil an der Limmat, Dietikon and Schlieren went to Zürich. In return, Lucerne's Amt of Merenschwand was transferred to Aargau (district of Muri).
The Fricktal, ceded in 1802 by Austria via Napoleonic France to the Helvetic Republic, was briefly a separate canton of the Helvetic Republic (the canton of Fricktal) under a Statthalter ('Lieutenant'), but on 19 March 1803 (following the Act of Mediation) was incorporated into the canton of Aargau.
The former cantons of Baden and Fricktal can still be identified with the contemporary districts – the canton of Baden is covered by the districts of Zurzach, Baden, Bremgarten, and Muri (albeit with the gains and losses of 1803 detailed above); the canton of Fricktal by the districts of Rheinfelden and Laufenburg (except for Hottwil which was transferred to that district in 2010).
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Aargau
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Chief magistracy
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Chief magistracy
The chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly:
first two consecutive Regierungsstatthalter :
April 1798 – November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (1754–1833)
1802–1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz (1766–1833)
Presidents of the Government Commission
10 March 1803 – 26 April 1803 Johann Rudolf Dolder (1753–1807)
26 April 1803 – 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly)
annual Amtsbürgermeister 1815–1831
annual Landammänner since 1815
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Aargau
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Jewish history in Aargau
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Jewish history in Aargau
thumb|upright|Two separate doors (one for Jews and one for Christians) on a house in Lengnau
thumb|18th century etching of the synagogue in Lengnau. In the Jewish Museum of Switzerland’s collection.
In the 17th century, Aargau was the only federal condominium where Jews were tolerated. In 1774, they were restricted to just two towns, Endingen and Lengnau. While the rural upper class pressed incessantly for the expulsion the Jews, the financial interests of the authorities prevented it. They imposed special taxes on peddling and cattle trading, the primary Jewish professions. The Protestant occupiers also enjoyed the discomfort of the local Catholics by the presence of the Jewish community. The Jews were directly subordinate to the governor; from 1696, they were compelled to renew a letter of protection from him every 16 years.
During this period, Jews and Christians were not allowed to live under the same roof, neither were Jews allowed to own land or houses. They were taxed at a much higher rate than others and, in 1712, the Lengnau community was "pillaged." In 1760, they were further restricted regarding marriages and procreation. An exorbitant tax was levied on marriage licenses; oftentimes, they were outright refused. This remained the case until the 19th century. In 1799, the Helvetic republic abolished all special tolls, and, in 1802, removed the poll tax. On 5 May 1809, they were declared citizens and given broad rights regarding trade and farming. They were still restricted to Endingen and Lengnau until 7 May 1846, when their right to move and reside freely within the canton of Aargau was granted. On 24 September 1856, the Swiss Federal Council granted them full political rights within Aargau, as well as broad business rights; however the majority Christian population did not fully abide by these new liberal laws. The time of 1860 saw the canton government voting to grant suffrage in all local rights and to give their communities autonomy. Before the law was enacted, it was however repealed due to vocal opposition led by the Ultramonte Party. Finally, the federal authorities in July 1863, granted all Jews full rights of citizens. However, they did not receive all of the rights in Endingen and Lengnau until a resolution of the Grand Council, on 15 May 1877, granted citizens' rights to the members of the Jewish communities of those places, giving them charters under the names of New Endingen and New Lengnau. The Swiss Jewish Kulturverein was instrumental in this fight from its founding in 1862 until it was dissolved 20 years later. During this period of diminished rights, they were not even allowed to bury their dead in Swiss soil and had to bury their dead on an island called Judenäule (Jews' Isle) on the Rhine near Waldshut. Beginning in 1603, the deceased Jews of the Surbtal communities were buried on the river island which was leased by the Jewish community. As the island was repeatedly flooded and devastated, in 1750 the Surbtal Jews asked the Tagsatzung to establish the Endingen cemetery in the vicinity of their communities.
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Aargau
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Geography
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Geography
thumb|View of the Lägern from Bözberg
The capital of the canton is Aarau, which is located on its western border, on the Aare. The canton borders Germany (Baden-Württemberg) to the north, the Rhine forming the border. To the west lie the Swiss cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn and Bern; the canton of Lucerne lies south, and Zürich and Zug to the east. Its total area is . Besides the Rhine, it contains two large rivers, the Aare and the Reuss.
The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is diversified with undulating tracts and well-wooded hills, alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aare and its tributaries. The valleys alternate with hills, many of which are wooded. Slightly over one-third of the canton is wooded (), while nearly half is used from farming (). or about 2.4% of the canton is considered unproductive, mostly lakes (notably Lake Hallwil) and streams. With a population density of 450/km2 (1,200/sq mi), the canton has a relatively high amount of land used for human development, with or about 15% of the canton developed for housing or transportation.
It contains the hot sulphur springs of Baden and Schinznach-Bad, while at Rheinfelden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Königsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of Vindonissa (Windisch).
Fahr Monastery forms a small exclave of the canton, otherwise surrounded by the canton of Zürich, and since 2008 is part of the Aargau municipality of Würenlos.
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Aargau
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Political subdivisions
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Political subdivisions
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Aargau
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Districts
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Districts
thumb|Districts in Aargau
Aargau is divided into 11 districts:
Aarau with capital Aarau
Baden with capital Baden
Bremgarten with capital Bremgarten
Brugg with capital Brugg
Kulm with capital Unterkulm
Laufenburg with capital Laufenburg
Lenzburg with capital Lenzburg
Muri with capital Muri
Rheinfelden with capital Rheinfelden
Zofingen with capital Zofingen
Zurzach with capital Zurzach
The most recent change in district boundaries occurred in 2010 when Hottwil transferred from Brugg to Laufenburg, following its merger with other municipalities, all of which were in Laufenburg.
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Aargau
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Municipalities
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Municipalities
There are (as of 2014) 213 municipalities in the canton of Aargau. As with most Swiss cantons there has been a trend since the early 2000s for municipalities to merge, though mergers in Aargau have so far been less radical than in other cantons.
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Aargau
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Coat of arms
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Coat of arms
The blazon of the coat of arms is Per pale, dexter: sable, a fess wavy argent, charged with two cotises wavy azure; sinister: sky blue, three mullets of five argent.
The flag and arms of the canton of Aargau date to 1803 and are an original design by Samuel Ringier-Seelmatter; the current official design, specifying the stars as five-pointed, dates to 1930.
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Aargau
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Demographics
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Demographics
Aargau has a population () of . , 21.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 11%. Migration accounted for 8.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 2.8%. Most of the population () speaks German (477,093 or 87.1%) as their first language, Italian is the second most common (17,847 or 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian is the third (10,645 or 1.9%). There are 4,151 people who speak French and 618 people who speak Romansh.
Of the population in the canton, 146,421 or about 26.7% were born in Aargau and lived there in 2000. There were 140,768 or 25.7% who were born in the same canton, while 136,865 or 25.0% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 107,396 or 19.6% were born outside of Switzerland.
, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 62.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 13.4%.
, there were 227,656 people who were single and never married in the canton. There were 264,939 married individuals, 27,603 widows or widowers and 27,295 individuals who are divorced.
, there were 224,128 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.4 persons per household. There were 69,062 households that consist of only one person and 16,254 households with five or more people. , the construction rate of new housing units was 6.5 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the canton, , was 1.54%.
The majority of the population is centered on one of three areas: the Aare Valley, the side branches of the Aare Valley, or along the Rhine.
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Aargau
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Historic population
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Historic population
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Historic Population Data Year Total Population German Speaking Italian Speaking Protestant Catholic Christian Catholic Jewish Other No religion given Swiss Non-Swiss 1850 199,852 107,194 91,096 1,562 79 196,890 2,962 1900 206,498 203,071 2,415 114,176 91,039 990 293 196,455 10,043 1950 300,782 291,101 5,335 171,296 122,172 5,096 496 1,722 290,049 10,733 1990 507,508 435,103 24,758 218,379 224,836 3,676 405 29,736 30,476 420,616 86,892 1993 512,000 2000 547,493 477,093 17,847 203,949 219,800 3,418 342 20,816 57,573
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Aargau
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Politics
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Politics
In the 2011 federal election, the most popular party was the SVP which received 34.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP/PS (18.0%), the FDP (11.5%) and the CVP (10.6%).
The SVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (36.2% in 2007 vs 34.7% in 2011). The SPS retained about the same popularity (17.9% in 2007), the FDP retained about the same popularity (13.6% in 2007) and the CVP retained about the same popularity (13.5% in 2007).
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Aargau
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Federal election results
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Federal election results
Percentage of the total vote per party in the canton in the National Council Elections 1971-2023 Party Ideology 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011 2015 2019 2023 SVP/UDC Swiss nationalism 12.5 12.8 13.9 14.1 15.7 17.9 19.8 31.8 34.6 36.2 34.7 38.0 31.5 35.5 SP/PS Social democracy 23.9 24.2 27.6 27.5 18.5 17.4 19.4 18.7 21.2 17.9 18.0 16.1 16.5 16.4 FDP.The Liberals Classical liberalism 15.9 17.7 20.5 20.2 20.3 16.4 15.8 17.2 15.3 13.6 11.5 15.1 13.6 13.1 The Centre Christian democracy * * * * * * * * * * * * * 12.0 GLP/PVL Green liberalism * * * * * * * * * * 5.7 5.2 8.5 8.5 GPS/PES Green politics * * * * * 6.8 5.3 4.4 5.1 8.1 7.3 5.5 9.8 7.1 EVP/PEV Christian democracy 3.8 4.6 5.0 5.0 3.4 3.3 3.0 3.8 5.2 4.2 3.2 3.3 3.6 4.5 EDU/UDF Christian right * * * * 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.4 * 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 CVP/PDC/PPD/PCD Christian democracy 20.0 20.6 22.5 21.5 18.9 14.5 14.2 16.3 15.6 13.5 10.6 8.6 9.9 * BDP/PBD Conservatism * * * * * * * * * * 6.1 5.1 3.1 * SD/DS National conservatism 3.4 3.5 1.6 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 2.7 1.4 0.7 0.4 * * * FPS/PSL Right-wing populism * * * * 5.3 13.2 11.3 1.4 0.2 * * * * * FGA Feminist * * * * 6.9 * 0.1 * 0.8 * * * * * Ring of Independents Social liberalism 9.4 6.6 5.5 5.9 4.7 4.3 3.3 2.0 * * * * * * Rep. Right-wing populism 5.8 6.5 2.1 * * * * * * * * * * * POCH Progressivism * 0.6 * * * * * * * * * * * * Other 5.2 2.9 1.1 1.8 0.9 0.4 1.1 0.1 0.4 4.7 1.3 2.0 2.5 1.9 Voter participation % 62.5 50.7 45.6 44.9 43.1 42.3 42.1 42.0 42.3 47.9 48.5 48.3
FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009
"*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
Part of the GPS
CVP and BDP merged to form The Centre party.
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Aargau
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Cantonal politics
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Cantonal politics
The Grand Council of the canton of Aargau is called Grosser Rat. It is the legislature of the canton, has 140 seats, with members elected every four years.
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Aargau
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Religion
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Religion
thumb|Catholic City Church in Baden, Aargau
From the , 219,800 or 40.1% were Roman Catholic, while 189,606 or 34.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 11,523 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.10% of the population), there were 3,418 individuals (or about 0.62% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 29,580 individuals (or about 5.40% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 342 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 30,072 (or about 5.49% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 1,463 individuals who were Buddhist, 2,089 individuals who were Hindu and 495 individuals who belonged to another church. 57,573 (or about 10.52% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 15,875 individuals (or about 2.90% of the population) did not answer the question.
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Aargau
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Education
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Education
In Aargau about 212,069 or (38.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 70,896 or (12.9%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 70,896 who completed tertiary schooling, 63.6% were Swiss men, 20.9% were Swiss women, 10.4% were non-Swiss men and 5.2% were non-Swiss women.
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Aargau
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Economy
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Economy
thumb|Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant
, Aargau had an unemployment rate of 3.6%. , there were 11,436 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 3,927 businesses involved in this sector. 95,844 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 6,055 businesses in this sector. 177,782 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 21,530 businesses in this sector.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 238,225. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 7,167, of which 6,731 were in agriculture, 418 were in forestry or lumber production and 18 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 90,274 of which 64,089 or (71.0%) were in manufacturing, 366 or (0.4%) were in mining and 21,705 (24.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 140,784. In the tertiary sector; 38,793 or 27.6% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 13,624 or 9.7% were in the movement and storage of goods, 8,150 or 5.8% were in a hotel or restaurant, 5,164 or 3.7% were in the information industry, 5,946 or 4.2% were the insurance or financial industry, 14,831 or 10.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 10,951 or 7.8% were in education and 21,952 or 15.6% were in health care.
Of the working population, 19.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 55.3% used a private car. Public transportation – bus and train – is provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG.
The farmland of the canton of Aargau is some of the most fertile in Switzerland. Dairy farming, cereal and fruit farming are among the canton's main economic activities. The canton is also industrially developed, particularly in the fields of electrical engineering, precision instruments, iron, steel, cement and textiles.
Three of Switzerland's five nuclear power plants are in the canton of Aargau (Beznau I + II and Leibstadt). Additionally, the many rivers supply enough water for numerous hydroelectric power plants throughout the canton. The canton of Aargau is often called "the energy canton".
A significant number of people commute into the financial center of the city of Zürich, which is just across the cantonal border. As such the per capita cantonal income (in 2005) is 49,209 CHF.
Tourism is significant, particularly for the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach-Bad, the ancient castles, the landscape, and the many old museums in the canton. Hillwalking is another tourist attraction but is of only limited significance.
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Aargau
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See also
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See also
Aargauer Zeitung
FC Aarau
Grand Prix of Aargau Canton, bicycle race
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