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Minute and second of arc
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Cartography
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Cartography
Minutes (′) and seconds (″) of arc are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one minute of arc along the equator equals exactly one geographical mile (not to be confused with international mile or statute mile) along the Earth's equator or approximately . A second of arc, one sixtieth of this amount, is roughly . The exact distance varies along meridian arcs or any other great circle arcs because the figure of the Earth is slightly oblate (bulges a third of a percent at the equator).
Positions are traditionally given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of arcs for latitude, the arc north or south of the equator, and for longitude, the arc east or west of the Prime Meridian. Any position on or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given with this method. However, when it is inconvenient to use base-60 for minutes and seconds, positions are frequently expressed as decimal fractional degrees to an equal amount of precision. Degrees given to three decimal places ( of a degree) have about the precision of degrees-minutes-seconds ( of a degree) and specify locations within about . For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees and decimal minutes, for instance, the Needles Lighthouse is at 50°39′44.2″N 1°35′30.5″W.
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Minute and second of arc
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Property cadastral surveying
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Property cadastral surveying
Related to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system and cadastral surveying relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to cardinal directions. A boundary "mete" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction, and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle toward the second cardinal direction. For example, North 65° 39′ 18″ West 85.69 feet would describe a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from north toward the west.
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Minute and second of arc
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Firearms
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Firearms
thumb|right|Example ballistic table for a given 7.62×51mm NATO load. Bullet drop and wind drift are shown both in mrad and minute of angle.
The arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and literature, particularly concerning the precision of rifles, though the industry refers to it as minute of angle (MOA). It is especially popular as a unit of measurement with shooters familiar with the imperial measurement system because 1 MOA subtends a circle with a diameter of 1.047 inches (which is often rounded to just 1 inch) at 100 yards ( at or 2.908 cm at 100 m), a traditional distance on American target ranges. The subtension is linear with the distance, for example, at 500 yards, 1 MOA subtends 5.235 inches, and at 1000 yards 1 MOA subtends 10.47 inches.
Since many modern telescopic sights are adjustable in half (), quarter () or eighth () MOA increments, also known as clicks, zeroing and adjustments are made by counting 2, 4 and 8 clicks per MOA respectively.
For example, if the point of impact is 3 inches high and 1.5 inches left of the point of aim at 100 yards (which for instance could be measured by using a spotting scope with a calibrated reticle, or a target delineated for such purposes), the scope needs to be adjusted 3 MOA down, and 1.5 MOA right. Such adjustments are trivial when the scope's adjustment dials have a MOA scale printed on them, and even figuring the right number of clicks is relatively easy on scopes that click in fractions of MOA. This makes zeroing and adjustments much easier:
To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 × 2 = 6 clicks down and 1.5 x 2 = 3 clicks right
To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 4 = 12 clicks down and 1.5 × 4 = 6 clicks right
To adjust a MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 8 = 24 clicks down and 1.5 × 8 = 12 clicks right
thumb|right|Comparison of minute of arc (MOA) and milliradian (mrad).
Another common system of measurement in firearm scopes is the milliradian (mrad). Zeroing an mrad based scope is easy for users familiar with base ten systems. The most common adjustment value in mrad based scopes is mrad (which approximates MOA).
To adjust a mrad scope 0.9 mrad down and 0.4 mrad right, the scope needs to be adjusted 9 clicks down and 4 clicks right (which equals approximately 3 and 1.5 MOA respectively).
One thing to be aware of is that some MOA scopes, including some higher-end models, are calibrated such that an adjustment of 1 MOA on the scope knobs corresponds to exactly 1 inch of impact adjustment on a target at 100 yards, rather than the mathematically correct 1.047 inches. This is commonly known as the Shooter's MOA (SMOA) or Inches Per Hundred Yards (IPHY). While the difference between one true MOA and one SMOA is less than half of an inch even at 1000 yards, this error compounds significantly on longer range shots that may require adjustment upwards of 20–30 MOA to compensate for the bullet drop. If a shot requires an adjustment of 20 MOA or more, the difference between true MOA and SMOA will add up to 1 inch or more. In competitive target shooting, this might mean the difference between a hit and a miss.
The physical group size equivalent to m minutes of arc can be calculated as follows: group size = tan() × distance. In the example previously given, for 1 minute of arc, and substituting 3,600 inches for 100 yards, 3,600 tan() ≈ 1.047 inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 metres ≈ 2.908 centimetres.
Sometimes, a precision-oriented firearm's performance will be measured in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions (i.e. no wind, high-grade ammo, clean barrel, and a stable mounting platform such as a vise or a benchrest used to eliminate shooter error), the gun is capable of producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. For example, a 1 MOA rifle should be capable, under ideal conditions, of repeatably shooting 1-inch groups at 100 yards. Most higher-end rifles are warrantied by their manufacturer to shoot under a given MOA threshold (typically 1 MOA or better) with specific ammunition and no error on the shooter's part. For example, Remington's M24 Sniper Weapon System is required to shoot 0.8 MOA or better, or be rejected from sale by quality control.
Rifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as sub-MOA, meaning a gun consistently shooting groups under 1 MOA. This means that a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100 yards, or the average of several groups, will measure less than 1 MOA between the two furthest shots in the group, i.e. all shots fall within 1 MOA. If larger samples are taken (i.e., more shots per group) then group size typically increases, however this will ultimately average out. If a rifle was truly a 1 MOA rifle, it would be just as likely that two consecutive shots land exactly on top of each other as that they land 1 MOA apart. For 5-shot groups, based on 95% confidence, a rifle that normally shoots 1 MOA can be expected to shoot groups between 0.58 MOA and 1.47 MOA, although the majority of these groups will be under 1 MOA. What this means in practice is if a rifle that shoots 1-inch groups on average at 100 yards shoots a group measuring 0.7 inches followed by a group that is 1.3 inches, this is not statistically abnormal.
The metric system counterpart of the MOA is the milliradian (mrad or 'mil'), being equal to of the target range, laid out on a circle that has the observer as centre and the target range as radius. The number of milliradians on a full such circle therefore always is equal to 2 × × 1000, regardless the target range. Therefore, 1 MOA ≈ 0.2909 mrad. This means that an object which spans 1 mrad on the reticle is at a range that is in metres equal to the object's linear size in millimetres (e.g. an object of 100 mm subtending 1 mrad is 100 metres away). So there is no conversion factor required, contrary to the MOA system. A reticle with markings (hashes or dots) spaced with a one mrad apart (or a fraction of a mrad) are collectively called a mrad reticle. If the markings are round they are called mil-dots.
In the table below conversions from mrad to metric values are exact (e.g. 0.1 mrad equals exactly 10 mm at 100 metres), while conversions of minutes of arc to both metric and imperial values are approximate.
1′ at 100 yards is about 1.047 inchesDexadine Ballistics Software – ballistic data for shooting and reloading. See Talk
1′ ≈ 0.291 mrad (or 29.1 mm at 100 m, approximately 30 mm at 100 m)
1 mrad ≈ 3.44′, so mrad ≈ ′
0.1 mrad equals exactly 1 cm at 100 m, or exactly 0.36 inches at 100 yards
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Minute and second of arc
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Human vision
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Human vision
In humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc, from a distance of twenty feet.
A 20/20 letter subtends 5 minutes of arc total.
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Minute and second of arc
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Materials
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Materials
The deviation from parallelism between two surfaces, for instance in optical engineering, is usually measured in arcminutes or arcseconds.
In addition, arcseconds are sometimes used in rocking curve (ω-scan) x ray diffraction measurements of high-quality epitaxial thin films.
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Minute and second of arc
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Manufacturing
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Manufacturing
Some measurement devices make use of arcminutes and arcseconds to measure angles when the object being measured is too small for direct visual inspection. For instance, a toolmaker's optical comparator will often include an option to measure in "minutes and seconds".
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Minute and second of arc
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See also
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See also
Gradian
Square minute
Square second
Steradian
Milliradian
Nautical mile
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Minute and second of arc
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References
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References
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Minute and second of arc
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External links
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External links
MOA/ mils By Robert Simeone
A Guide to calculate distance using MOA Scope by Steve Coffman
Arcminute
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Minute and second of arc
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Table of Content
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Short description, Symbols and abbreviations, Common examples, History, Uses, Astronomy, Cartography, Property cadastral surveying, Firearms, Human vision, Materials, Manufacturing, See also, References, External links
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Alberto Giacometti
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Short description
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Alberto Giacometti (, , ; 10 October 1901 – 11 January 1966) was a Swiss sculptor, painter, draftsman and printmaker, who was one of the most important sculptors of the 20th century. His work was particularly influenced by artistic styles such as Cubism and Surrealism. Philosophical questions about the human condition, as well as existential and phenomenological debates played a significant role in his work.
Beginning in 1922, he lived and worked mainly in Paris but regularly visited his hometown Borgonovo to see his family and work on his art. Around 1935, he gave up on his Surrealist influences to pursue a more deepened analysis of figurative compositions.
Giacometti wrote texts for periodicals and exhibition catalogues and recorded his thoughts and memories in notebooks and diaries. His critical nature led to self-doubt about his own work and his self-perceived inability to do justice to his own artistic vision. His insecurities nevertheless remained a powerful motivating artistic force throughout his entire life.Fondation Beyeler. The Collection. Ed. by Vischer, Theodora, Fondation Beyeler, Riehen / Basel. . OCLC 1010067077.
Between 1938 and 1944 Giacometti's sculptures had a maximum height of seven centimeters (2.75 inches).Angela Schneider: Wie aus weiter Ferne. Konstanten im Werk Giacomettis, in: Angela Schneider: Giacometti. p. 71 Their small size reflected the actual distance between the artist's position and his model. In this context he self-critically stated: "But wanting to create from memory what I had seen, to my terror the sculptures became smaller and smaller".Letter to Pierre Matisse, 1947. In: Exhibition of Sculptures, Paintings, Drawings, exh. cat. Pierre Matisse Gallery (New York, 1948), pp. 29.
After World War II, Giacometti created his most famous sculptures: his extremely tall and slender figurines. These sculptures were subject to his individual viewing experience—between an imaginary yet real, a tangible yet inaccessible space.Reinhold Hohl: Lebenschronik. In: Angela Schneider: Giacometti, p. 26
In Giacometti's whole body of work, his painting constitutes only a small part. After 1957, however, his figurative paintings were equally as present as his sculptures. The almost monochrome paintings of his late work do not refer to any other artistic styles of modernity.Lucius Grisebach: Die Malerei, in: Angela Schneider: Giacometti, p. 82
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Alberto Giacometti
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Early life
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Early life
thumb|left|upright 1.3|"Sick boy in bed" (Alberto), by Giovanni Giacometti
Giacometti was born in Borgonovo, Switzerland, the eldest of four children of Giovanni Giacometti, a well-known post-Impressionist painter, and Annetta Giacometti-Stampa. He was a descendant of Protestant refugees escaping the inquisition. Coming from an artistic background, he was interested in art from an early age and was encouraged by his father and godfather.
Alberto attended the Geneva School of Fine Arts. His brothers Diego (1902–1985) and Bruno (1907–2012) would go on to become artists and architects as well. Additionally, his cousin Zaccaria Giacometti, later professor of constitutional law and chancellor of the University of Zurich, grew up together with them, having been orphaned at the age of 12 in 1905.Andreas Kley: Von Stampa nach Zürich. Der Staatsrechtler Zaccaria Giacometti, sein Leben und Werk und seine Bergeller Künstlerfamilie, Zürich 2014, pp. 89 et seq.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Career
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Career
thumb|upright 1.5|Giacometti at work.
In 1922, he moved to Paris to study under the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, an associate of Rodin. It was there that Giacometti experimented with Cubism and Surrealism and came to be regarded as one of the leading Surrealist sculptors. Among his associates were Miró, Max Ernst, Picasso, Bror Hjorth, and Balthus.
Between 1936 and 1940, Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the sitter's gaze. He preferred models he was close to—his sister and the artist Isabel Rawsthorne (then known as Isabel Delmer). This was followed by a phase in which his statues of Isabel became stretched out; her limbs elongated.
Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, he often carved until they were as thin as nails and reduced to the size of a pack of cigarettes, much to his consternation. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to sculpt you, "he would make your head look like the blade of a knife".
thumb|upright 1.4|Giacometti sculpting his wife Annette
During World War II, Giacometti took refuge in Switzerland. There, in 1946, he met Annette Arm, a secretary for the Red Cross. They married in 1949.
After his marriage his tiny sculptures became larger, but the larger they grew, the thinner they became. For the remainder of Giacometti's life, Annette was his main female model. His paintings underwent a parallel procedure. The figures appear isolated and severely attenuated, as the result of continuous reworking.
He frequently revisited his subjects: one of his favourite models was his younger brother Diego, with whom he shared his studio in Paris.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Later years
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Later years
In 1958 Giacometti was asked to create a monumental sculpture for the Chase Manhattan Bank building in New York, which was beginning construction. Although he had for many years "harbored an ambition to create work for a public square", he "had never set foot in New York, and knew nothing about life in a rapidly evolving metropolis. Nor had he ever laid eyes on an actual skyscraper", according to his biographer James Lord.James Lord, Giacometti: A Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 1986, pp. 331–332 Giacometti's work on the project resulted in the four figures of standing women—his largest sculptures—entitled Grande femme debout I through IV (1960). The commission was never completed, however, because Giacometti was unsatisfied by the relationship between the sculpture and the site, and abandoned the project.
In 1962, Giacometti was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and the award brought with it worldwide fame.
Even when he had achieved popularity and his work was in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later. The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné, Giacometti – The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970), comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970.
In his later years Giacometti's works were shown in a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, and despite his declining health, he traveled to the United States in 1965 for an exhibition of his works at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. As his last work he prepared the text for the book Paris sans fin, a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Artistic analysis
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Artistic analysis
thumb|upright 1.5|Alberto GiacomettiPhoto by Henri Cartier-Bresson
Regarding Giacometti's sculptural technique and according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: "The rough, eroded, heavily worked surfaces of Three Men Walking (II), 1949, typify his technique. Reduced, as they are, to their very core, these figures evoke lone trees in winter that have lost their foliage. Within this style, Giacometti would rarely deviate from the three themes that preoccupied him—the walking man; the standing, nude woman; and the bust—or all three, combined in various groupings."
In a letter to Pierre Matisse, Giacometti wrote: "Figures were never a compact mass but like a transparent construction". In the letter, Giacometti writes about how he looked back at the realist, classical busts of his youth with nostalgia, and tells the story of the existential crisis which precipitated the style he became known for.
"[I rediscovered] the wish to make compositions with figures. For this I had to make (quickly I thought; in passing), one or two studies from nature, just enough to understand the construction of a head, of a whole figure, and in 1935 I took a model. This study should take, I thought, two weeks and then I could realize my compositions...I worked with the model all day from 1935 to 1940...Nothing was as I imagined. A head, became for me an object completely unknown and without dimensions."
Since Giacometti achieved exquisite realism with facility when he was executing busts in his early adolescence, Giacometti's difficulty in re-approaching the figure as an adult is generally understood as a sign of existential struggle for meaning, rather than as a technical deficit.
Giacometti was a key player in the Surrealist art movement, but his work resists easy categorization. Some describe it as formalist, others argue it is expressionist or otherwise having to do with what Deleuze calls "blocs of sensation" (as in Deleuze's analysis of Francis Bacon). Even after his excommunication from the Surrealist group, while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were an expression of his emotional response to the subject. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen. He once said that he was sculpting not the human figure but "the shadow that is cast".
Philosopher William Barrett in Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy (1962), argues that the attenuated forms of Giacometti's figures reflect the view of 20th century modernism and existentialism that modern life is increasingly empty and devoid of meaning.
A 2011–2012 exhibition at the Pinacothèque de Paris focused on showing how Giacometti was inspired by Etruscan art.
thumb|centre|upright 2.2|Cat, 1954, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Alberto Giacometti
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''Walking Man'' and other human figures
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Walking Man and other human figures
Giacometti is best known for the bronze sculptures of tall, thin human figures, made in the years 1945 to 1960. Giacometti was influenced by the impressions he took from the people hurrying in the big city. People in motion he saw as "a succession of moments of stillness".
The emaciated figures are often interpreted as an expression of the existential fear, insignificance and loneliness of mankind. The mood of fear in the period of the 1940s and the Cold War is reflected in this figure. It feels sad, lonely and difficult to relate to.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Death
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Death
thumb|upright 1.6
Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease (pericarditis) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at the Kantonsspital in Chur, Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents.
With no children, Annette Giacometti became the sole holder of his property rights. She worked to collect a full listing of authenticated works by her late husband, gathering documentation on the location and manufacture of his works and working to fight the rising number of counterfeited works. When she died in 1993, the Fondation Giacometti was set up by the French state.
In May 2007 the executor of his widow's estate, former French foreign minister Roland Dumas, was convicted of illegally selling Giacometti's works to a top auctioneer, Jacques Tajan, who was also convicted. Both were ordered to pay €850,000 to the Alberto and Annette Giacometti Foundation.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Legacy
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Legacy
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Alberto Giacometti
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Exhibitions
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Exhibitions
thumb|Untitled (Landscape in Rome) (1920–21), The Phillips Collection
Giacometti's work has been the subject of numerous solo exhibitions including the High Museum of Art, Atlanta (1970); Centre Pompidou, Paris (2007–2008); Pushkin Museum, Moscow "The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti" (2008); Kunsthal Rotterdam (2008); Fondation Beyeler, Basel (2009); Buenos Aires (2012); Kunsthalle Hamburg (2013); Pera Museum, Istanbul (2015); Tate Modern, London (2017); Vancouver Art Gallery, "Alberto Giacometti: A Line Through Time" (2019); National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin (2022).
The National Portrait Gallery, London's first solo exhibition of Giacometti's work, Pure Presence opened to five star reviews on 13 October 2015 (to 10 January 2016, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of the artist's death).
From April 2019, the Prado Museum in Madrid, has been highlighting Giacometti in an exhibition.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Public collections
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Public collections
Giacometti's work is displayed in numerous public collections, including:
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo
Art Institute of Chicago
Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland
Bechtler Museum of Modern Art, Charlotte, North Carolina
Berggruen Museum, Berlin
Botero Museum, Bogotá, Colombia
Bündner Kunstmuseum Chur, Switzerland
Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh
Detroit Institute of Arts
Fondation Beyeler, Basel
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C.
Holstebro, Denmark
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California
Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University
Kunsthaus Zürich
Kunstmuseum Basel
Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, South Korea
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark
Minneapolis Institute of Art
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa
North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia
Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Tate, London
Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Iran
University of Michigan Museum of Art
Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Vancouver Art Gallery
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven
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Alberto Giacometti
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Art foundations
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Art foundations
The Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, having received a bequest from Alberto Giacometti's widow Annette, holds a collection of circa 5,000 works, frequently displayed around the world through exhibitions and long-term loans. A public interest institution, the Foundation was created in 2003 and aims at promoting, disseminating, preserving and protecting Alberto Giacometti's work.
The Alberto-Giacometti-Stiftung established in Zürich in 1965, holds a smaller collection of works acquired from the collection of the Pittsburgh industrialist G. David Thompson.
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Alberto Giacometti
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Notable sales
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Notable sales
thumb|Alberto Giacometti at the 31st Venice Biennale, 1962
According to record Giacometti has sold the two most expensive sculptures in history.
In November 2000 a Giacometti bronze, Grande Femme Debout I, sold for $14.3 million. Grande Femme Debout II was bought by the Gagosian Gallery for $27.4 million at Christie's auction in New York City on 6 May 2008.
L'Homme qui marche I, a life-sized bronze sculpture of a man, became one of the most expensive works of art, and at the time was the most expensive sculpture ever sold at auction. It was in February 2010, when it sold for £65 million (US$104.3 million) at Sotheby's, London. Grande tête mince, a large bronze bust, sold for $53.3 million just three months later.
L'Homme au doigt (Pointing Man) sold for $126 million (£81,314,455.32), or $141.3 million with fees, in Christie's May 2015, "Looking Forward to the Past" sale in New York City. The work had been in the same private collection for 45 years. As of now it is the most expensive sculpture sold at auction.
After being showcased on the BBC programme Fake or Fortune, a plaster sculpture, titled Gazing Head, sold in 2019 for half a million pounds.
In April 2021, Giacometti's small-scale bronze sculpture, Nu debout II (1953), was sold from a Japanese private collection and went for £1.5 million ($2 million), against an estimate of £800,000 ($1.1 million).
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Alberto Giacometti
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Other legacy
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Other legacy
Giacometti created the monument on the grave of Gerda Taro at Père Lachaise Cemetery.Robert Whelan, "Robert Capa, the definitive collection", p. 8, Phaidon press 2001,
According to a lecture by Michael Peppiatt at Cambridge University on 8 July 2010, Giacometti, who had a friendship with author/playwright Samuel Beckett, created a tree for the set of a 1961 Paris production of Waiting for Godot.
Giacometti and his sculpture L'Homme qui marche I appear on the former 100 Swiss franc banknote.
In 2001 he was included in the Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000 exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Giacometti's sculptural style has featured in advertisements for various financial institutions, starting in 1987 with the Shoes ad for Royal Bank of Scotland directed by Gerry Anderson.Readings in Popular Culture: trivial pursuits?; edited by Gary Day; Macmillan; London; 1990
The 2017 movie Final Portrait retells the story of his friendship with the biographer James Lord. Giacometti is played by Geoffrey Rush.
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Alberto Giacometti
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References
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References
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Alberto Giacometti
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Citations
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Citations
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Alberto Giacometti
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General sources
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General sources
Jacques Dupin (1962). Alberto Giacometti. Paris, Maeght
Reinhold Hohl (1971). Alberto Giacometti. Stuttgart, Gerd Hatje
Die Sammlung der Alberto Giacometti-Stiftung (1990). Zürich, Zürcher Kunstgesellschaft
Alberto Giacometti (1991–92). Sculptures – peintures – dessins. Paris, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris
Jean Soldini (1993). Alberto Giacometti. Le colossal, la mère, le sacré. Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme
David Sylvester (1996) Looking at Giacometti. Henry Holt & Co.
Alberto Giacometti 1901–1966. Kunsthalle Wien, 1996
James Lord (1997). Giacometti: A Biography. Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Alberto Giacometti. Kunsthaus Zürich, 2001. New York, The Museum of Modern Art, 2001–2002
Yves Bonnefoy (2006). Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work. New edition, Flammarion
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Alberto Giacometti
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Further reading
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Further reading
Alberto Giacometti. L'espace et la force, Jean Soldini, Kimé (2016).
La Cage de Giacometti, Hisato Kuriwaki, Université de Tokyo, via Academia.edu (2012), in French
Alberto Giacometti, Yves Bonnefoy, Assouline Publishing (22 February 2011)
In Giacometti's Studio, Michael Peppiatt, Yale University Press (14 December 2010)
Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work, Yves Bonnefoy, New edition, Flammarion (2006)
Giacometti: A Biography, James Lord, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1997)
Looking at Giacometti, David Sylvester, Henry Holt & Co. (1996)
Alberto Giacometti, Herbert Matter & Mercedes Matter, Harry N Abrams (September 1987)
A Giacometti Portrait, James Lord, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1 July 1980)
Alberto Giacometti, Reinhold Hohl, H. N. Abrams (1972)
Alberto Giacometti, Reinhold Hohl, Stuttgart: Gerd Hatje (1971)
Alberto Giacometti, Jacques Dupin, Paris, Maeght (1962)
The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, Véronique Wiesinger (ed.), exh. cat., Paris: Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti/Centre Pompidou (2007)
"The Dream, the Sphinx, and the Death of T", Alberto Giacometti, X magazine, Vol. 1, No. 1 (November 1959); An Anthology from X (Oxford University Press 1988).
Jacobi, Carol. Out of the Cage: The Art of Isabel Rawsthorne, London: The Estate of Francis Bacon Publishing, Feb 2021
The Cube and the Face: Around a Sculpture by Alberto Giacometti, Didi-Huberman, Georges (2015).
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Alberto Giacometti
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External links
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External links
The Giacometti Foundation website (www.fondation-giacometti.fr) (in English and French)
Alberto Giacometti Stiftung (giacometti-stiftung.ch) (in English and German)
Works of Alberto Giacometti:
The UNESCO Works of Art Collection
smARThistory: Giacometti's City Square
Life of Alberto Giacometti:
Chronology of his life with illustrations from the Museum of Modern Art
Exhibition at Kunsthaus Zürich from 27 February until 24 May 2009
Alberto Giacometti in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection
Category:1901 births
Category:1966 deaths
Category:20th-century Swiss male artists
Category:20th-century Swiss sculptors
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Category:Sibling artists
Category:Swiss Protestants
Category:Swiss surrealist artists
Category:Swiss-Italian people
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Alberto Giacometti
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Table of Content
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Short description, Early life, Career, Later years, Artistic analysis, ''Walking Man'' and other human figures, Death, Legacy, Exhibitions, Public collections, Art foundations, Notable sales, Other legacy, References, Citations, General sources, Further reading, External links
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Anthem
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short description
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An anthem is a musical composition of celebration, usually used as a symbol for a distinct group, particularly the national anthems of countries. Originally, and in music theory and religious contexts, it also refers more particularly to short sacred choral work (still frequently seen in Sacred Harp and other types of shape note singing) and still more particularly to a specific form of liturgical music. In this sense, its use began in English-speaking churches; it uses English language words, in contrast to the originally Roman Catholic 'motet' which sets a Latin text.Anthem (Greek antiphōna: "against voice"; Old English antefn: "antiphon"). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
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Anthem
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Etymology
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Etymology
Anthem is derived from the Greek (antíphōna) via Old English . Both words originally referred to antiphons, a call-and-response style of the singing. The adjectival form is "anthemic".
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Anthem
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History
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History
Anthems were originally a form of liturgical music. In the Church of England, the rubric appoints them to follow the third collect at morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Being written for a trained choir rather than the congregation, the Anglican anthem is analogous to the motet of the Catholic and Lutheran Churches but represents an essentially English musical form. Anthems may be described as "verse", "full", or "full with verse", depending on whether they are intended for soloists, the full choir, or both. Another way of describing an anthem is that it is a piece of music written specifically to fit a certain accompanying text, and it is often difficult to make any other text fit that same melodic arrangement. It also often changes melody and/or meter, frequently multiple times within a single song, and is sung straight through from start to finish, without repeating the melody for following verses like a normal song (although certain sections may be repeated when marked). An example of an anthem with multiple meter shifts, fuguing, and repeated sections is "Claremont", or "Vital Spark of Heav'nly Flame". Another well known example is William Billing's "Easter Anthem", also known as "The Lord Is Risen Indeed!" after the opening lines. This anthem is still one of the more popular songs in the Sacred Harp tune book.
The anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic "votive antiphon" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints.
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Anthem
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Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context
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Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context
During the Elizabethan period, notable anthems were composed by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Tye, and Farrant but they were not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662 when the famous rubric "In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem" first appears. Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. During the 17th century, notable anthems were composed by Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and John Blow, with the verse anthem becoming the dominant musical form of the Restoration. In the 18th century, famed anthems were composed by Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold. In the 19th century, Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the century, Charles Villiers Stanford used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been written since then, generally by specialists in organ music rather than composers, and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually written anthems in response to commissions and for special occasions: for instance Edward Elgar's 1912 "Great is the Lord" and 1914 "Give unto the Lord" (both with orchestral accompaniment); Benjamin Britten's 1943 "Rejoice in the Lamb" (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem, today heard mainly as a concert piece); and, on a much smaller scale, Ralph Vaughan Williams's 1952 "O Taste and See" written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should only be in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertoire.
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Anthem
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Types
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Types
The word "anthem" is commonly used to describe any celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in national anthems. Further, some songs are artistically styled as anthems, whether or not they are used as such, including Marilyn Manson's "Irresponsible Hate Anthem", Silverchair's "Anthem for the Year 2000", and Toto's "Child's Anthem".
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Anthem
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National anthem
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National anthem
A national anthem (also state anthem, national hymn, national song, etc.) is generally a patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions, and struggles of a country's people, recognized either by that state's government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America, Central Asia, and Europe tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a simpler fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, and the former Soviet Union); their constituencies' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states.
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Anthem
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Flag anthem
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Flag anthem
A flag anthem is generally a patriotic musical composition that extols and praises a flag, typically one of a country, in which case it is sometimes called a national flag anthem. It is often either sung or performed during or immediately before the raising or lowering of a flag during a ceremony. Most countries use their respective national anthems or some other patriotic song for this purpose. However, some countries, particularly in South America, use a separate flag anthem for such purposes. Not all countries have flag anthems. Some used them in the past but no longer do so, such as Iran, China, and South Africa. Flag anthems can be officially codified in law, or unofficially recognized by custom and convention. In some countries, the flag anthem may be just another song, and in others, it may be an official symbol of the state akin to a second national anthem, such as in Taiwan.
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Anthem
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Sports anthem
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Sports anthem
Many pop songs are used as sports anthems, notably including Queen's "We Are the Champions" and "We Will Rock You", and some sporting events have their own anthems, most notably including UEFA Champions League.
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Anthem
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Shared anthems
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Shared anthems
Although anthems are used to distinguish states and territories, there are instances of shared anthems. "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" became a pan-African liberation anthem and was later adopted as the national anthem of five countries in Africa including Zambia, Tanzania, Namibia and Zimbabwe after independence. Zimbabwe and Namibia have since adopted new national anthems. Since 1997, the South African national anthem has been a hybrid song combining new English lyrics with extracts of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" and the former state anthem "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika".
For North and South Korea, the folk song Arirang is considered a shared anthem for both countries. For example, it was played when the two Koreas marched together during the 2018 Winter Olympics.
"Hymn to Liberty" is the longest national anthem in the world by length of text. In 1865, the first three stanzas and later the first two officially became the national anthem of Greece and later also that of the Republic of Cyprus.
"Forged from the Love of Liberty" was composed as the national anthem for the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958–1962) and was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago when it became independent in 1962.
"Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada" is the national anthem of Guinea-Bissau and was also the national anthem of Cape Verde until 1996.
"Oben am jungen Rhein", the national anthem of Liechtenstein, is set to the tune of "God Save the King/Queen". Other anthems that have used the same melody include "Heil dir im Siegerkranz" (Germany), "Kongesangen" (Norway), "My Country, 'Tis of Thee" (United States), "Rufst du, mein Vaterland" (Switzerland), "E Ola Ke Alii Ke Akua" (Hawaii), and "The Prayer of Russians".
The Estonian anthem "Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm" is set to a melody composed in 1848 by Fredrik (Friedrich) Pacius which is also that of the national anthem of Finland: "" ("" in Swedish). It is also considered to be the ethnic anthem for the Livonian people with lyrics "Min izāmō, min sindimō" ("My Fatherland, my native land").
"Hey, Slavs" is dedicated to Slavic peoples. Its first lyrics were written in 1834 under the title "Hey, Slovaks" ("Hej, Slováci") by Samuel Tomášik and it has since served as the ethnic anthem of the Pan-Slavic movement, the organizational anthem of the Sokol physical education and political movement, the national anthem of Yugoslavia and the transitional anthem of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The song is also considered to be the second, unofficial anthem of the Slovaks. Its melody is based on Mazurek Dąbrowskiego, which has also been the anthem of Poland since 1926, but the Yugoslav variation is much slower and more accentuated.
Between 1991 and 1994 "Deșteaptă-te, române!" was the national anthem of both Romania (which adopted it in 1990) and Moldova, but in the case of the latter it was replaced by the current Moldovan national anthem, "Limba noastră". Between 1975 and 1977, the national anthem of Romania "E scris pe tricolor Unire" shared the same melody as the national anthem of Albania "Himni i Flamurit", which is the melody of a Romanian patriotic song "Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire".
The modern national anthem of Germany, "Das Lied der Deutschen", uses the same tune as the 19th- and early 20th-century Austro-Hungarian imperial anthem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser".
The "Hymn of the Soviet Union", was used until its dissolution in 1991, and was given new words and adopted by the Russian Federation in 2000 to replace an instrumental national anthem that had been introduced in 1990.
"Bro Gozh ma Zadoù", the regional anthem of Brittany and, "Bro Goth Agan Tasow", the Cornish regional anthem, are sung to the same tune as that of the Welsh regional anthem "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau", with similar words.
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Anthem
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For parts of states
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For parts of states
Some countries, such as the former Soviet Union, Spain, and the United Kingdom, among others, are held to be unions of several "nations" by various definitions. Each of the different "nations" may have their own anthem and these songs may or may not be officially recognized; these compositions are typically referred to as regional anthems though may be known by other names as well (e.g. "state songs" in the United States).
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Anthem
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Austria
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Austria
In Austria, the situation is similar to that in Germany. The regional anthem of Upper Austria, the "Hoamatgsang" (), is notable as the only (official) German-language anthem written – and sung – entirely in dialect.
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Anthem
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Belgium
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Belgium
In Belgium, Wallonia uses "Le Chant des Wallons" and Flanders uses "De Vlaamse Leeuw".
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Anthem
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Brazil
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Brazil
Most of the Brazilian states have official anthems. Minas Gerais uses an adapted version of the traditional Italian song "Vieni sul mar" as its unofficial anthem. During the Vargas Era (1937–1945) all regional symbols including anthems were banned, but they were legalized again by the Eurico Gaspar Dutra government.
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Anthem
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Canada
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Canada
The Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, having been the independent Dominion of Newfoundland before 1949, also has its own regional anthem from its days as a dominion and colony of the UK, the "Ode to Newfoundland". It was the only Canadian province with its own anthem until 2010, when Prince Edward Island adopted the 1908 song "The Island Hymn" as its provincial anthem.
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Anthem
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Czechoslovakia
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Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia had a national anthem composed of two parts, the Czech anthem followed by one verse of the Slovak one. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic adopted its own regional anthem as its national one, whereas Slovakia did so with slightly changed lyrics and an additional stanza.
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Anthem
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Germany
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Germany
In Germany, many of the Länder (states) have their own anthems, some of which predate the unification of Germany in 1871. A prominent example is the Hymn of Bavaria, which also has the status of an official anthem (and thus enjoys legal protection). There are also several unofficial regional anthems, like the "Badnerlied" and the "Niedersachsenlied".
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Anthem
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India
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India
Some of the states and union territories of India have officially adopted their own state anthem for use during state government functions.
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Anthem
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Malaysia
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Malaysia
All the individual states of Malaysia have their own anthems.
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Anthem
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Mexico
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Mexico
In Mexico, after the national anthem was established in 1854, most of the states of the federation adopted their own regional anthems, which often emphasize heroes, virtues or particular landscapes. In particular, the regional anthem of Zacatecas, the "Marcha de Zacatecas", is one of the more well-known of Mexico's various regional anthems.The United States Navy Band, disc: world class marches Archived from www.navyband.navy.mil, accessed 8 October 2020
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Anthem
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Serbia and Montenegro
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Serbia and Montenegro
In 2004 and 2005 respectively, the Montenegrin and Serbian regions of Serbia and Montenegro adopted their own regional anthems. When the two regions both became independent sovereign states in mid-2006, their regional anthems became their national anthems.
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Anthem
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Soviet Union
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Soviet Union
Fourteen of the fifteen constituent states of the Soviet Union had their own official song which was used at events connected to that region, and also written and sung in that region's own language. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic used the Soviet Union's national anthem as its regional anthem ("The Internationale" from 1917 to 1944 and the "National Anthem of the Soviet Union" from 1944 to 1990) until 1990, the last of the Soviet constituent states to do so. After the Soviet Union disbanded in the early 1990s, some of its former constituent states, now sovereign nations in their own right, retained the melodies of their old Soviet-era regional anthems until replacing them or, in some cases, still use them today.
Unlike most national anthems, few of which were composed by renowned composers, the Soviet Union's various regional anthems were composed by some of the best Soviet composers, including world-renowned Gustav Ernesaks (Estonia), Aram Khachaturian (Armenia), Otar Taktakishvili (Georgia), and Uzeyir Hajibeyov (Azerbaijan).
The lyrics present great similarities, all having mentions to Vladimir Lenin (and most, in their initial versions, to Joseph Stalin, the Armenian and Uzbek anthems being exceptions), to the guiding role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and to the brotherhood of the Soviet peoples, including a specific reference to the friendship of the Russian people (the Estonian, Georgian and Karelo-Finnish anthems were apparently an exception to this last rule).
Some of the Soviet regional anthems' melodies can be sung in the Soviet Union anthem lyrics (Ukrainian and Belarus are the most fitted in this case).
Most of these regional anthems were replaced with new national ones during or after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; Belarus, Kazakhstan (until 2006), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (until 1997), and Uzbekistan kept the melodies, but with different lyrics. Russia itself had abandoned the Soviet hymn, replacing it with a tune by Glinka. However, with Vladimir Putin coming to power, the old Soviet tune was restored, with new lyrics written to it.
Like the hammer and sickle and red star, the public performance of the anthems of the Soviet Union's various regional anthems the national anthem of the Soviet Union itself are considered as occupation symbols as well as symbols of totalitarianism and state terror by several countries formerly either members of or occupied by the Soviet Union. Accordingly, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary,Hungarian Criminal Code 269/B.§ (1993) “(1) A person who (a) disseminates, (b) uses in public or (c) exhibits a swastika, an SS-badge, an arrow-cross, a symbol of the sickle and hammer or a red star, or a symbol depicting any of them, commits a misdemeanor—unless a more serious crime is committed—and shall be sentenced to a criminal fine (pénzbüntetés).” and UkraineЗАКОН УКРАЇНИ Про засудження комуністичного та націонал-соціалістичного (нацистського) тоталітарних режимів в Україні та заборону пропаганди їхньої символіки tr. The Law of Ukraine About the popularization of the communal and national-social (Nazi) totalitarian regimes in Ukraine and the propagation of its symbols zakon4.rada.gov.ua, accessed 8 October 2020 have banned those anthems amongst other things deemed to be symbols of fascism, socialism, communism, and the Soviet Union and its republics. In Poland, dissemination of items which are “media of fascist, communist, or other totalitarian symbolism” was criminalized in 1997. However, in 2011 the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional. In contrast to this treatment of the symbolism, promotion of fascist, communist and other totalitarian ideology remains illegal. Those laws do not apply to the anthems of Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan which used the melody with different lyrics.
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Anthem
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Spain
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Spain
In Spain, the situation is similar to that in Austria and Germany. Unlike the national anthem, most of the anthems of the autonomous communities have words. All are official. Three prominent examples are "Els Segadors" of Catalonia, "Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia" of the Basque Country, and "Os Pinos" of Galicia, all written and sung in the local languages.
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Anthem
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United Kingdom
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's national anthem is "God Save the King" but its constituent countries and Crown Dependencies also have their own equivalent songs which have varying degrees of official recognition. England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have anthems which are played at occasions such as sports matches and official events.Johnson, H. (2015). MEDIANZ, 15(1), 96–118..
England - "God Save the King" is usually presumed to be, and often played as, the English regional anthem; but "Jerusalem", "I Vow To Thee, My Country" and "Land of Hope and Glory" are also sung. "Jerusalem" is used as England's anthem at the Commonwealth Games.
Scotland variously uses "Flower of Scotland", "Auld Lang Syne", and "Scotland the Brave" as its unofficial national anthems. "Flower of Scotland" is used as Scotland's anthem at the Commonwealth Games and international football and rugby matches.
Wales has sung "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" since 1856 when it was written by father and son Evan and James James. The music and a Breton translation, "Bro Gozh ma Zadoù", were adopted by Brittany as its anthem; and there is also a Cornish version, "Bro Goth agan Tasow", sung alongside "Trelawney" as an unofficial Cornish anthem. In Wales, "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau" is sometimes accompanied by the hymn, "Guide Me, O thou Great Redeemer" (also referred to as "Bread of Heaven" from repeated words in its first verse), especially at rugby matches.
Northern Ireland currently uses "God Save the King" as its anthem at international football matches and uses "Danny Boy/Londonderry Air" at the Commonwealth Games.
The Isle of Man, a Crown dependency, uses "God Save the King" as a Royal anthem, but also has its own local anthem, "O Land of Our Birth" (Manx: "O Halloo Nyn Ghooie").
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Anthem
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United States
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United States
Although the United States has "The Star-Spangled Banner" as its official national anthem, all except two of its constituent states and territories also have their own regional anthem (referred to by most US states as a "state song"), along with Washington, DC. The two exceptions are New Jersey, which has never had an official state song, and Maryland, which rescinded
"Maryland, My Maryland" in 2021 due to its racist language and has yet to adopt a replacement.
The state songs are selected by each state legislature, and/or state governor, as a symbol (or emblem) of that particular US state.
Some US states have more than one official state song, and may refer to some of their official songs by other names; for example, Arkansas officially has two state songs, plus a state anthem, and a state historical song. Tennessee has the most state songs, with 12 official state songs and an official bicentennial rap.
Arizona has a song that was written specifically as a state anthem in 1915, as well as the 1981 country hit "Arizona", which it adopted as the alternate state anthem in 1982.
Two individuals, Stephen Foster, and John Denver, have written or co-written two state songs. Foster's two state songs, "Old Folks at Home" (better known as "Swanee Ribber" or "Suwannee River"), adopted by Florida, and "My Old Kentucky Home" are among the best-known songs in the US On March 12, 2007, the Colorado Senate passed a resolution to make Denver's trademark 1972 hit "Rocky Mountain High" one of the state's two official state songs, sharing duties with its predecessor, "Where the Columbines Grow". On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make Denver's "Take Me Home, Country Roads" one of four official state songs of West Virginia. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8, 2014.
Additionally, Woody Guthrie wrote or co-wrote two state folk songs – Roll On, Columbia, Roll On and Oklahoma Hills – but they have separate status from the official state songs of Washington and Oklahoma, respectively. Other well-known state songs include "Yankee Doodle", "You Are My Sunshine", "Rocky Top", and "Home on the Range"; a number of others are popular standards, including "Oklahoma" (from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical), Hoagy Carmichael's "Georgia on My Mind", "Tennessee Waltz", "Missouri Waltz", and "On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away". Many of the others are much less well-known, especially outside the state.
New Jersey has no official state song, while Virginia's previous state song, "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny", adopted in 1940, was later rescinded in 1997 due to its racist language by the Virginia General Assembly. In 2015, "Our Great Virginia" was made the new state song of Virginia.
Iowa ("The Song of Iowa") uses the tune from the song "O Tannenbaum" as the melody to its official state song."Maryland, my meh song" , The Baltimore Sun, Baltimore, 15 March 2016. Retrieved on 05 June 2017.
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Anthem
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Yugoslavia
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Yugoslavia
In Yugoslavia, each of the country's constituent states (except for Bosnia and Herzegovina) had the right to have its own anthem, but only the Croatian one actually did so initially, later joined by the Slovene one on the brink of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Before 1989, Macedonia did not officially use a regional anthem, even though one was proclaimed during the World War II by the Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM).
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Anthem
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International organizations
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International organizations
Larger entities also sometimes have anthems, in some cases known as 'international anthems'. Lullaby is the official anthem of UNICEF composed by Steve Barakatt.A musical call to action: ‘Lullaby: The UNICEF Anthem’ UNICEF Website, 19 November 2009 "The Internationale" is the organizational anthem of various socialist movements. Before March 1944, it was also the anthem of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. ASEAN Way is the official anthem of ASEAN. The tune of the "Ode to Joy" from Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 is the official anthem of the European Union and of the Council of Europe. Let's All Unite and Celebrate is the official anthem of the African UnionAU Symbols . ("Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together").
The Olympic Movement also has its own organizational anthem. Esperanto speakers at meetings often use the song "La Espero" as their linguistic anthem. The first South Asian Anthem by poet-diplomat Abhay K may inspire SAARC to come up with an official SAARC Anthem.Indian poet-diplomat pens S.Asian anthem after Earth anthem success ANI, 27 November 2013
"Ireland's Call" was commissioned as the sporting anthem of both the Ireland national rugby union team and the Ireland national rugby league team, which are composed of players from both jurisdictions on the island of Ireland, in response to dissatisfaction among Northern Ireland unionists with the use of the Irish national anthem. "Ireland's Call" has since been used by some other all-island bodies.
An international anthem also unifies a group of organizations sharing the same appellation such as the International Anthem of the Royal Golf Clubs composed by Steve Barakatt. Same applies to the European Broadcasting Union: the prelude of Te Deum in D Major by Marc-Antoine Charpentier is played before each official Eurovision and Euroradio broadcast. The prelude's first bars are heavily associated with the Eurovision Song Contest.
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Anthem
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Global anthem
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Global anthem
Various artists have created "Earth anthems" for the entire planet, typically extolling the ideas of planetary consciousness. Though UNESCO have praised the idea of a global anthem,UNESCO finds Indian poet-diplomat's idea of an Earth Anthem inspiring Business Standard, 27 February 2014 the United Nations has never adopted an official song.
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Anthem
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See also
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See also
Antiphon
List of national anthems
Motet
Stadium anthems
Verse anthem
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Anthem
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Notes
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Notes
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Anthem
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References
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References
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Anthem
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Bibliography
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Bibliography
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Category:Song forms
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Anthem
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Table of Content
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short description, Etymology, History, Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context, Types, National anthem, Flag anthem, Sports anthem, Shared anthems, For parts of states, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Serbia and Montenegro, Soviet Union, Spain, United Kingdom, United States, Yugoslavia, International organizations, Global anthem, See also, Notes, References, Bibliography
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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short description
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thumb|Resurrection by Altdorfer, 1518
Albrecht Altdorfer (12 February 1538) was a German painter, engraver and architect of the Renaissance working in Regensburg, Bavaria. Along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Wolf Huber he is regarded to be the main representative of the Danube School, setting biblical and historical subjects against landscape backgrounds of expressive colours. He is remarkable as one of the first artists to take an interest in landscape as an independent subject. As an artist also making small intricate engravings he is seen to belong to the Nuremberg Little Masters.
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Biography
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Biography
Altdorfer was born in Regensburg or Altdorf around 1480.
He acquired an interest in art from his father, Ulrich Altdorfer, who was a painter and miniaturist. At the start of his career, he won public attention by creating small, intimate modestly scaled works in unconventional media and with eccentric subject matter. He settled in the free imperial city of Regensburg, a town located on the Danube River in 1505, eventually becoming the town architect and a town councillor. His first signed works date to , including engravings and drawings such the Stygmata of St. Francis and St. Jerome. His models were niellos and copper engravings from the workshops of Jacopo de Barbari and Albrecht Dürer.
Around 1511 or earlier, he travelled down the river and south into the Alps, where the scenery moved him so deeply that he became the first landscape painter in the modern sense, making him the leader of the Danube School, a circle that pioneered landscape as an independent genre, in southern Germany. From 1513 he was at the service of Maximilian I in Innsbruck, where he received several commissions from the imperial court. During the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, he dedicated mostly to architecture; paintings of the period, showing his increasing attention to architecture, include the Nativity of the Virgin.
In 1529, he executed The Battle of Alexander at Issus for Duke William IV of Bavaria. In the 1520s he returned to Regensburg as a wealthy man, and became a member of the city's council. He was also responsible for the fortifications of Regensburg.
In that period his works are influenced by artists such as Giorgione and Lucas Cranach, as shown by his Crucifixion. In 1535, he was in Vienna. He died at Regensburg in 1538.
The remains of Altdorfer's surviving work comprises 55 panels, 120 drawings, 125 woodcuts, 78 engravings, 36 etchings, 24 paintings on parchment, and fragments from a mural for the bathhouse of the Kaiserhof in Regensburg. This production extends at least over the period 1504–1537. He signed and dated each one of his works.
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Painting
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Painting
thumb|Christ taking Leave of his Mother, c. 1520
thumb|Albrecht Altdorfer: Sebastian Altar in St. Florian's Priory, c. 1509–16 Upper Austria
Altdorfer was the pioneer painter of pure landscape, making them the subject of the painting, as well as compositions dominated by their landscape; these comprise much of his oeuvre. He believed that the human figure should not disrupt nature, but rather participate in it or imitate its natural processes. Taking and developing the landscape style of Lucas Cranach the Elder, he shows the hilly landscape of the Danube valley with thick forests of drooping and crumbling firs and larches hung with moss, and often dramatic colouring from a rising or setting sun. His Landscape with Footbridge (National Gallery, London)image of 1518–1520 is claimed to be the first pure landscape in oil. In this painting, Altdorfer places a large tree that is cut off by the margins at the center of the landscape, making it the central axis and focus within the piece. Some viewers perceive anthropomorphic stylisation—the tree supposedly exhibiting human qualities such as the drapery of its limbs. He also made many fine finished drawings, mostly landscapes, in pen and watercolour such as the Landscape with the Woodcutter in 1522.image The drawing opens at ground level on a clearing surrounding an enormous tree that is placed in the center, dominating the picture. Some see the tree pose and gesticulate as if it was human, splaying its branches out in every corner. Halfway up the tree trunk, hangs a gabled shrine. At the time, a shrine like this might shelter an image of the Crucifixion or the Virgin Mary, but since it is turned away from the viewer, we are not sure what it truly is. At the bottom of the tree, a tiny figure of a seated man, crossed legged, holds a knife and axe, declaring his status in society/occupation.
Also, he often painted scenes of historical and biblical subjects, set in atmospheric landscapes. His best religious scenes are intense, with their glistening lights and glowing colours sometimes verging on the expressionistic. They often depict moments of intimacy between Christ and his mother, or various saints. His sacral masterpiece and one of the most famous religious works of art of the later Middle Ages is The Legend of St. Sebastian and The Passion of Christ of the so-called Sebastian Altar in St. Florian's Priory (Stift Sankt Florian) near Linz, Upper Austria. When closed the altarpiece displayed the four panels of the legend of St. Sebastian's Martyrdom, while the opened wings displayed the Stations of the Cross. Today the altarpiece is dismantled and the predellas depicting the two final scenes, Entombment and Resurrection were sold to Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna in 1923 and 1930. Both these paintings share a similar formal structure that consists of an open landscape that is seen beyond and through the opening of a dark grotto. The date of completion on the resurrection panel is 1518.
Altdorfer often distorts perspective to subtle effect. His donor figures are often painted completely out of scale with the main scene, as in paintings of the previous centuries. He also painted some portraits; overall his painted oeuvre was not large. In his later works, Altdorfer moved more towards mannerism and began to depict the human form to the conformity of the Italian model, as well as dominate the picture with frank colors.
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Paintings in Munich
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Paintings in Munich
left|thumb|The Battle of Alexander at Issus, 1529, Wood, 158.4 × 120.3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich
His rather atypical Battle of Issus (or of Alexander) of 1529 was commissioned by William IV, Duke of Bavaria as part of a series of eight historical battle scenes destined to hang in the Residenz in Munich. Albrecht Altdorfer's depiction of the moment in 333 BCE when Alexander the Great routed Darius III for supremacy in Asia Minor is vast in ambition, sweeping in scope, vivid in imagery, rich in symbols, and obviously heroic—the Iliad of painting, as literary critic Friedrich Schlegel suggested In the painting, a swarming cast of thousands of soldiers surround the central action: Alexander on his white steed, leading two rows of charging cavalrymen, dashes after a fleeing Darius, who looks anxiously over his shoulder from a chariot. The opposing armies are distinguished by the colors of their uniforms: Darius' army in red and Alexander's in blue. The upper half of The Battle of Alexander expands with unreal rapidity into an arcing panorama comprehending vast coiling tracts of globe and sky. The victory also lies on the planar surface; The sun outshone the moon just as the Imperial and allied army successfully repel the Turks.
By making the mass number of soldiers blend within the landscape/painting, it shows that he believed that the usage and depiction of landscape was just as significant as a historical event, such as a war. He renounced the office of Mayor of Regensburg to accept the commission. Few of his other paintings resemble this apocalyptic scene of two huge armies dominated by an extravagant landscape seen from a very high viewpoint, which looks south over the whole Mediterranean from modern Turkey to include the island of Cyprus and the mouths of the Nile and the Red Sea (behind the isthmus to the left) on the other side. However his style here is a development of that of a number of miniatures of battle-scenes he had done much earlier for Maximilian I in his illuminated manuscript Triumphal Procession in 1512–14. It is thought to be the earliest painting to show the curvature of the Earth from a great height.
The Battle is now in the Alte Pinakothek, which has the best collection of Altdorfer's paintings, including also his small St. George and the Dragon (1510), in oil on parchment, where the two figures are tiny and almost submerged in the lush, dense forest that towers over them. Altdorfer seems to exaggerate the measurements of the forest in comparison to the figures: the leaves appear to be larger than the horse, showing the significance of nature and landscape. He also emphasizes line within the work, by displaying the upward growth of the forest with the vertical and diagonal lines of the trunks. There is a small opening of the forest on the lower right hand corner that provides a rest for your eyes. It serves to create depth within the painting and is the only place you can see the characters. The human form is completely absorbed by the thickness of the forest. Fantastic light effects provide a sense of mystery and dissolve the outline of objects. Without the contrast of light, the figures would blend in with its surrounding environment. Altdorfer's figures are invariably the complement of his romantic landscapes; for them he borrowed Albrecht Dürer's inventive iconography, but the panoramic setting is personal and has nothing to do with the fantasy landscapes of the Netherlands A Susanna in the Bath and the Stoning of the Elders (1526) set outside an Italianate skyscraper of a palace shows his interest in architecture. Another small oil on parchment, Danube Landscape with Castle Wörth (c. 1520) is one of the earliest accurate topographical paintings of a particular building in its setting, of a type that was to become a cliché in later centuries.
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Printmaking
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Printmaking
thumb|Altdorfer's etching Landscape with a city by the lake (1520s), National Museum in Warsaw
Altdorfer was a significant printmaker, with numerous engravings and about ninety-three woodcuts. These included some for the Triumphs of Maximilian, where he followed the overall style presumably set by Hans Burgkmair, although he was able to escape somewhat from this in his depictions of the more disorderly baggage-train, still coming through a mountain landscape. However most of his best prints are etchings, many of landscapes; in these he was able most easily to use his drawing style. He was one of the most successful early etchers, and was unusual for his generation of German printmakers in doing no book illustrations. He often combined etching and engraving techniques in a single plate, and produced about 122 intaglio prints altogether. Many of Altdorfer's prints are quite small in size, and he is considered to be of the main members of the group of artists known as the Little Masters. Arthur Mayger Hind considers his graphical work to be somewhat lacking in technical skill but with an "intimate personal touch", and notes his characteristic feeling for landscape.
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Public life
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Public life
As the superintendent of the municipal buildings Altdorfer had overseen the construction of several commercial structures, such as a slaughterhouse and a building for wine storage, possibly even designing them. He was considered to be an outstanding politician of his day. In 1517 he was a member of the "Ausseren Rates", the council on external affairs, and in this capacity was involved in the expulsion of the Jews, the destruction of the synagogue and in its place the construction of a church and shrine to the Schöne Maria that occurred in 1519. Altdorfer made etchings of the interior of the synagogue and designed a woodcut of the cult image of the Schöne Maria. In 1529–1530 he was also charged with reinforcing certain city fortifications in response to the Turkish threat.
Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach the Elder.
thumb|A Crucifixion (unusually set on the banks of a large river) by Altdorfer, c. 1512
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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See also
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See also
8121 Altdorfer, asteroid named after Altdorfer
Danube school
Early Renaissance painting
List of landscapes by Albrecht Altdorfer
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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References
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References
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Further reading
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Further reading
Alte Pinakotek, Munich; (Summary Catalogue -various authors),1986, Edition Lipp,
Christopher S. Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London,
Christoph Wagner, Oliver Jehle (eds.), Albrecht Altdorfer. Kunst als zweite Natur, 2012, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg (= Regensburger Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, Vol. 17),
Jochen Sander, Stefan Roller, Sabine Haag, Guido Messling (eds.), Fantastische Welten. Albrecht Altdorfer und das Expressive in der Kunst um 1500, 2014, Hirmer, Munich, (exhibition catalogue Städel Museum, Frankfort, November 5, 2014 - February 2015 and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, March 17 - June 14, 2015)
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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External links
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External links
Works by Albrecht Altdofer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
Works by Altdorfer at Zeno.org
Albrecht Altdorfer in the "History of Art"
Albrecht Altdorfer Wallpapers
Page at artcyclopedia.com
Page at ibiblio.org
Artvibrations Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20110211004452/http://www.artvibrations.com/AlbrechtAltdorfer/
Albrecht Altdorfer Paintings Gallery (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com)
Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Albrecht Altdorfer (see index)
Category:1480s births
Category:1538 deaths
Category:16th-century German painters
Category:German male painters
Category:German Renaissance painters
Category:Artists from Regensburg
Category:16th-century German architects
Category:German printmakers
Category:16th-century German engravers
Category:German Lutherans
Category:Manuscript illuminators
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Albrecht Altdorfer
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Table of Content
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short description, Biography, Painting, Paintings in Munich, Printmaking, Public life, See also, References, Further reading, External links
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House of Ascania
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Short description
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thumb|262px|Coat of arms of the Duchy of Anhalt
The House of Ascania () was a dynasty of German rulers. It is also known as the House of Anhalt, which refers to its longest-held possession, Anhalt.
The Ascanians are named after Ascania (or Ascaria) Castle, known as Schloss Askanien in German, which was located near and named after Aschersleben. The castle was the seat of the County of Ascania, a title that was later subsumed into the titles of the princes of Anhalt.
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House of Ascania
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History
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History
The earliest known member of the house, Esiko, Count of Ballenstedt, first appears in a document of 1036. Genealogists assume him to have been a grandson (through his mother) of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark (). From Odo, the Ascanians inherited large properties in the Saxon Eastern March.
Esiko's grandson Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, died in 1123. By Otto's marriage to Eilika, daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony, the Ascanians became heirs to half of the property of the House of Billung, former dukes of Saxony.
Otto's son, Albert the Bear, became, with the help of his mother's inheritance, the first Ascanian duke of Saxony in 1139. However, he soon lost control of Saxony to the rival House of Guelph.
Albert inherited the area of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 from its last Wendish ruler, Pribislav (died 1150), Albert's son's godfather. Albert became the first Ascanian margrave; he and his descendants of the House of Ascania then made considerable progress in Christianizing and Germanizing the Brandenburg lands. As a borderland between German and Slavic cultures, the country was known as a march ().
In 1237 and 1244, two towns, Cölln and Berlin, were founded during the joint rule of Otto and Johann, grandsons of Margrave Albert the Bear. (Later, in 1710, the two centres united into one city, Berlin. Emblems of the House of Ascania, a red eagle (for Brandenburg) and a bear, became heraldic emblems of Berlin.) In 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end.
After the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed Henry the Lion, the Guelph Duke of Saxony, in 1180, Ascanians returned to rule the Duchy of Saxony, which had been reduced to its eastern half by the Emperor. However, even in eastern Saxony, the Ascanians could establish control only in limited areas, mostly near the River Elbe.
In 1212 the County of Anhalt was split off from the Duchy of Saxony, and the remaining Duchy was split into Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. The Ascanian dynasties in these two Saxon states became extinct in 1689 and in 1422, respectively, but Ascanians continued to rule in the smaller state of Anhalt and its various subdivisions until the abolition of monarchy in 1918.
Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, was a member of the House of Ascania as the daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst.
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House of Ascania
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Rulers of the House of Ascania
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Rulers of the House of Ascania
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House of Ascania
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House of Ascania
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House of Ascania
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House of Ascania
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Partitions of the House of Ascania
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Partitions of the House of Ascania
+ County of Weimar-Orlamunde(1113–1247)County of Ballenstedt(1030–1170)Duchy of Saxony(1180–1296)Margraviate of Brandenburg(1157-1266/67)County of Anhalt(1123–1212)Raised to:Principality of Anhalt(1212–1252)Weimar(1247–1372)Orlamunde(from 1354 in Schauenforst and Droyssig)(1247–1420)Zerbst(1st creation)(1252–1396)Bernburg(1st creation)(1252–1468)Aschersleben(1252–1315)StendalFrom Stendal split off:
Krossen (1266–1308)
Neumark (1266–1318)(1266–1318)SalzwedelStargard split off from Salzwedel (1267-1316) and was then annexed to the Duchy of Mecklenburg.(1267–1317) Plassenburg(1285–1340) Wittenberg(1296–1356)Raised to:Electorate of Saxe-Wittenberg(1356–1422) Lauenburg(1296–1303)Lauenstein(1319–1460)Mölln(1303–1401) Ratzeburg(1303–15) Margraviate of Brandenburg(Stendal line)(1318–20) Bergdorf(1303–15)Renamed asRatzeburg(1315–1401)Annexed to the House of WittelsbachAnnexed to Bishopric of HalberstadtAnnexed to the House of WettinLauenburg(Ratzeburg line)(1401–1689) Köthen(1st creation)(1396–1562) Annexed to the House of Wettin DessauThe color chosen for Dessau was the same as the Principality of Anhalt as a whole, because, when united, the principality had this town as capital.(1st creation)(1396–1561)Zerbst(2nd creation)(1544–62) Principality of Anhalt(Zerbst line)(1562–1603)Plötzkau(1603–1665)Köthen(2nd creation)(1603–1847)Dessau(2nd creation)(1603–1863)Zerbst(3rd creation)(1603–1793)Bernburg(2nd creation)(1603–1863)Annexed to the House of Welf Duchy of Anhalt(Dessau line)(1863–1918)
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House of Ascania
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Table of rulers
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Table of rulers
RulerBornReignRuling partConsortDeathNotesAdalbert IEven his name is uncertain; sources name him Adalbert assuming that his grandson, Count Adalbert (II) (d.1080) was named after him.c.970?c.1000–1036County of BallenstedtHiddafour children1036aged 65–66First documented member of the family.Esicoc.1000Son of Adalbert I and Hidda1036–1060County of BallenstedtMatilda of Swabia1026three children1060aged 59–60Adalbert II100pxc.1030BallenstedtSon of Esico and Matilda of Swabia1060–1080County of BallenstedtAdelaide of Weimar-Orlamündec.1070two childrenc.1080Westdorfaged c.49-50Otto I the Richc.1065First son of Adalbert II and Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde1080 – 9 February 1123County of BallenstedtEilika of Saxonyc.1095two children9 February 1123aged 57–58?Children of Adalbert II, divided their inheritance.Siegfried Ic.1070Second son of Adalbert II and Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde1080 – 9 March 1113County of Weimar-OrlamündeGertrude of Northeim1026three children9 March 1113aged 42–43?Regencies of Gertrude of Northeim (1113–1115) and Otto I, Count of Salm (1115–1121)Left no descendants. The county went to his brother.Siegfried II100px1107First son of Siegfried I and Gertrude of Northeim9 March 1113 – 19 March 1124County of Weimar-OrlamündeIrmgard of Hennebergno children19 March 1124aged 16–17 Albert I the Bear 100px c.1100Son of Otto I and Eilika of Saxony9 February 1123 – 18 November 1170County of Ballenstedt(with Brandenburg from 1157)Sophie of Winzenburg1124thirteen children18 November 1170Stendal (possibly)aged 69–70Besides count of Ballenstedt, he was also the first Margrave of Brandenburg (1157). Ruler of the Northern March from 1134, and the county of Weimar-Orlamünde since 1140.Regency of Otto I, Count of Salm (1124-1126)Also ascended as a minor Left no descendants. The county went to his cousin, Albert the Bear, from Ballenstedt.Wilhelm von Ballenstedt1112WormsSecond son of Siegfried I and Gertrude of Northeim19 March 1124 – 13 February 1140County of Weimar-OrlamündeAdelaideno children13 February 1140Cochemaged 27–28Weimar-Orlamünde briefly annexed to Ballenstedt (1140-70) Otto I 100px 1128First son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg18 November 1170 – 8 July 1184Margraviate of BrandenburgJudith of Poland1148two childrenAda of Holland1175one child8 July 1184aged 55–56 Children of Albert I, divided their inheritance. After Adalbert and Dietrich's childless deaths, their possessions were inherited by the younger brother, Bernard.Herman I1130Second son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg18 November 1170 – 19 October 1176County of Weimar-OrlamündeIrmgardtwo children19 October 1176aged 45–46Adalbert (III)1136Fourth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg18 November 1170 – 1171County of Ballenstedt(at Aschersleben)Unmarried1171aged 34–35Theodoric1137Fifth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg18 November 1170 – 1183County of Ballenstedt(at Burgwerben)1183aged 45–46Bernard (I)Numbered Bernard III as Duke of Saxony, but, as an ancestor of the Anhalt branch, he is not counted in Anhalt, as the next prince Bernard, reigning in Bernburg, is usually styled Bernard I. This is probably derived of a different status between this Bernard, a count in Anhalt, and the following Bernards, who were already princes.100px1140Sixth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg18 November 1170 – 2 February 1212County of Anhalt(with Ballenstedt and Saxony) Brigitte of Denmarkone childJudith of Greater Polandc.1173five childrenSophia of Thuringiaone child2 February 1212Bernburgaged 71–72Aschersleben and Burgwerben annexed to AnhaltSiegfried III1155Son of Herman I and Irmgard19 October 1176 – 1206County of Weimar-OrlamündeSophia of Denmarkc.1180three children1206aged 50–51 Otto II the Generous 100px c.1150First son of Otto I and Judith of Poland8 July 1184 – 4 July 1205Margraviate of BrandenburgUnmarried4 July 1205aged 54–55Elder children of Otto I, both left no descendants. The patrimony was inherited by their half-brother, Albert II. Henry c.1150?Second son of Otto I and Judith of Poland8 July 1184 – 1192Margraviate of Brandenburg(at Gardelegen)Unmarried1192aged 41–42? Albert II 100px 1177Son of Otto I and Ada of Holland4 July 1205 – 25 February 1220Margraviate of BrandenburgMatilda of Lusatia1205four children25 February 1220aged 42–43Albert II1182First son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark1206 – 22 October 1245County of Weimar-Orlamünde(at Nordhalben)Unmarried22 October 1245aged 62–63 Children of Siegfried III, divided their inheritance, which was soon reunited by Herman II.Herman II100px1184Second son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark1206 – 27 December 1247County of Weimar-Orlamünde(at Orlamünde)Beatrix of Andechs-Meraniac.1230six children27 December 1247aged 62–63Otto IIc.1185Third son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark1206–1211County of Weimar-Orlamünde(at Weimar)Unmarried1211aged 25–26Nordhalben and Weimar rejoined OrlamündeHenry I100pxc.1173First son of Bernard (I) and Judith of Greater Poland2 February 1212 – 1252County of Anhalt(until 1218)Principality of Anhalt(from 1218) Irmgard of Thuringia1211eleven children1252aged 78–79 Children of Bernard, divided their inheritance. In 1218 Henry becomes Prince of Anhalt, which after his death is divided by his sons.Albert I100pxc.1175Second son of Bernard (I) and Judith of Greater Poland2 February 1212 – 7 October 1260Duchy of Saxony Agnes of Austria1222five childrenAgnes of Thuringia1238three childrenHelene of Brunswick-Lüneburg1247five children7 October 1260aged 84–85Regencies of Henry I, Count of Anhalt (1220–1225), Albert I, Archbishop of Magdeburg (1220–1221) and Matilda of Lusatia (1221–1225) Children of Albert II, ruled jointly, but their children divided the margraviate. John I 100px 1213First son of Albert II and Matilda of Lusatia25 February 1220 – 4 April 1266Margraviate of BrandenburgSophie of Denmark1230six childrenJudith of Saxony1255four children4 April 1266Stendalaged 52–53 Otto III the Pious 1215Second son of Albert II and Matilda of Lusatia25 February 1220 – 9 October 1267Beatrice of Bohemia1243six children9 October 1267Brandenburg an der Havelaged 51–52Herman III the Popularc.1230Second son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania27 December 1247 – 1283County of OrlamündeUnknownfour children1283aged 52–23 Children of Herman II, divided their inheritance.Otto III the Magnificent100px1236Third son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania27 December 1247 – 13 May 1285County of WeimarAgnes of Leiningen(c. 1230/40-13 May 1285)1266four children13 May 1285aged 48–49Albert IIIc.1240Fourth son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania27 December 1247 – 1283County of WeimarUnmarried1283aged 42–43Sophiac.1240Daughter of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania27 December 1247 – 1270County of Weimar-Orlamünde(at Regnitzland)Henry VIII Reuss, Lord of Weida19 July 1258three childrenc.1270aged 29–30Henry II the Fat100px1215First son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia1252 – 12 June 1266Principality of AscherslebenMatilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg1245two children12 June 1266aged 50–51 Children of Henry I, divided their inheritance.Bernard I100px1218Second son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia1252–1287Principality of BernburgSophia of Denmark3 February 1258Hamburgsix children1287aged 68–69Siegfried I1230Seventh son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia1252 – 25 March 1298Principality of Zerbst Catherine of Sweden17 October 1259ten children25 March 1298Köthenaged 67–68John I1249WittenbergFirst son of Albert I and Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg7 October 1260 – 1282 Duchy of Saxony(Since 1296 in Saxe-Wittenberg) Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden1270eight children30 July 1285Wittenbergaged 35–36 Ruled jointly; and associated his nephews to the joint rulership after his brothers death. However, these three nephews divided the land with him. Albert II retained Saxe-Wittenberg, and became the head of the Elder Saxon Line; Albert III, Eric I and John II ruled together in Saxe-Lauenburg, becoming the founders of the Younger Saxon Line.Albert II100px1250WittenbergSecond son of Albert I and Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg7 October 1260 – 25 August 1298 Agnes-Gertrude of Austria1282six children25 August 1298Akenaged 35–36 In 1296 Albert II and his nephews (Albert III, Eric I, and John II) ended their joint rule and divided Saxony into the Lauenburg line, where Albert III, Eric I, and John II continued to rule jointly until 1303, and the Wittenberg line, where Albert II continued as sole ruler until 1298. Since the Duke of Saxony was considered one of the prince-electors electing a new Holy Roman Emperor, conflict arose between the lines of Lauenburg and Wittenberg over the issue of who should cast Saxony's vote. In 1314 both lines found themselves on different sides in a double election. Eventually, the Dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg succeeded in 1356 after the promulgation of the Golden Bull. To distinguish him from other rulers bearing the title Duke of Saxony, he was commonly called Elector of Saxony. Regency of Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1266–1270) Children of Henry II, ruled jointly, first under their mother, who was elected Abbess of Gernrode in 1275. In 1283, Henry renounced his rights in Otto's favor, and later became Archbishop of Magdeburg.Otto I100pxc.1245First son of Henry II and Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg12 June 1266 – 25 June 1304Principality of Aschersleben Hedwig of Wrocław1283three children25 June 1304aged 58–59Henry IIIc.1245Second son of Henry II and Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg12 June 1266 – 1283Unmarried9 November 1307aged 61–62 John II 100px 1237First son of John I and Sophie of Denmark9 October 1267 – 10 September 1281Margraviate of Stendal(at Krossen)Hedwig of Werle(1243–1287)1249two children10 September 1281aged 43–44Children of John I. Despite co-rulership between them, they received different parts in the Margraviate to rule (alone or in co-rulership):
John II received seat at Krossen;
Otto IV received seat at Stendal;
Conrad received seat at Neumark, and associated his sons in 1291. Otto IV of the Arrow 100px 1238Second son of John I and Sophie of Denmark9 October 1267 – 27 November 1308Margraviate of Stendal(at Stendal)Heilwig of Holstein-Kiel(d.1305)1279no childrenJudith of Henneberg-Schleusingen(d.1315)1308no children27 November 1308aged 69–70 Conrad I 100px 1240Third son of John I and Sophie of Denmark9 October 1267 – 1304Margraviate of Stendal(at Neumark)Constance of Greater Poland1260Santokthree children1304Chorinaged 63–64 Otto VIIOtto VII is listed before Otto V and VI here, as his rule, as it was never independent (unlike his brother John IV, who survived their father), is considered within the rule of his father, which began in 1267. 100pxc.1265Second son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland1291–1297Unmarried1297aged 31–32 John III of Prague 100px 6 April 1244PragueFirst son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia9 October 1267 – 8 April 1268Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Salzwedel)Unmarried8 April 1268Merseburgaged 24Children of Otto III. Despite co-rulership between them, they received different parts in the Margraviate to rule (alone or in co-rulership):
John III (and then Otto V with Otto VI) received the seat at Salzwedel, from which Otto VI abdicated in 1286;
Albert III received a seat in Stargard (which he ruled alone at least from 1284. Otto V the Tall 1246PragueSecond son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia9 October 1267 – July 1299Judith of Henneberg-Coburg22 October 1268Freiburgfour childrenJuly 1299aged 52–53 Otto VI the Short 100px 3/17 November 1264Fourth son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia9 October 1267 – 1286Hedwig of AustriaFebruary 1279Viennano children6 July 1303Lehninaged 38 Albert III 100px c.1250Third son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia9 October 1267 – 1300Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Stargard)Matilda of Denmark1268four children1300aged 49–50 Conrad II 1261Son of John II and Hedwig of Werle10 September 1281 – 1308Margraviate of Stendal(at Krossen)Unmarried1308aged 46–47With his childless death his land reverted to Stendal.Krossen re-annexed to StendalHenry IFirst son of Herman III1283 – 26 March 1354County of OrlamündeIrmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg26 July 1313two children26 March 1354aged 83–84?Children of Herman III, divided their inheritance.Herman VHerman V was possibly younger than his cousin Herman IV, but he ascended two years earlier then him.Second son of Herman III1283–1312Unmarried1312aged 41–42?Elisabeth (I) the Elder1265Daughter of Herman III1283–1327County of Orlamünde(at Nordhalben)Hartmann XI, Count of Lobdeburg-Arnshaugkone childAlbert II, Margrave of Meissen1 October 1290no children1327aged 56–57Herman IV100pxFirst son of Otto III and Agnes of Leiningen13 May 1285 – 1319County of WeimarMatilda of Rabenswald(d.1339)24 November 1290four children1319aged 48–49Children of Otto III, divided their inheritance.Otto IV the Younger100px1279Second son of Otto III and Agnes of Leiningen13 May 1285 – 1318County of PlassenburgAdelaide of Kafernburg(d.c.1305)14 December 1296one childCatherine of Hesse(1286–1322)1308one child1318aged 38–39John I1258First son of Bernard I and Sophia of Denmark1287 – 5 June 1291Principality of Bernburg Unmarried5 June 1291aged 32–33 Children of Bernard I, ruled jointly.Bernard II100px1260Third son of Bernard I and Sophia of Denmark1287 – 1323Helena of Rügen27 December 1302three children1323aged 62–63John II1275First son of John I and Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden20 September 1296 – 22 April 1322 Duchy of Mölln(in co-rulership in Lauenburg until 1303) Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg1315one child22 April 1322Möllnaged 46–47Children of John I, co-ruled first with their uncle Albert II since 1282 (since the death of their father), and in 1296 split the land with him. They retained Lauenburg, which they divided once more. Albert passed the land to his widow, and after her death, in 1315, the territory was realigned: Eric divided Bergdorf with his surviving brother and held all of his brother Albert's inheritance. However, he ended up abdicating to his son, and survived for most of his reign.Eric I100px1280Second son of John I and Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden20 September 1296 – 1338Duchy of Bergedorf(in co-rulership in Lauenburg until 1303; in Bergedorf 1303–1315)Duchy of Ratzeburg(from 1315) Elisabeth of Pomerania1316 or 1318four children1360Nienburgaged 79–80Albert III1281Third son of John I and Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden20 September 1296 – 1308Duchy of Ratzeburg (in co-rulership in Lauenburg until 1303) Margaret of Brandenburg-Salzwedel1302two children1308aged 26–27Margaret of Brandenburg-Salzwedel1270Second daughter of Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel and Matilda of Denmark1308 – 1 May 1315Duchy of Ratzeburg Przemysł II, King of Poland1302two childrenAlbert III1302two children1 May 1315Ratzeburgaged 44–45 In 1315, after the death of Margaret of Brandenburg, the remaining brothers Eric and John redesigned the political division in Saxe-Lauenburg; Eric retained all of Margaret's part, but had to give part of his original domains to his brother. Albert Ic.1260Son of Siegfried I and Catherine of Sweden25 March 1298 – 17 August 1316Principality of Zerbst Liutgard of Holstein-Itzehoeafter 1277two childrenAgnes of Brandenburg-Stendal1300five children17 August 1316aged 55–56 Rudolph I(Rudolf I)100px1284WittenbergSon of Albert II and Agnes-Gertrude of Austria25 August 1298 – 10 January 135610 January 1356 – 12 March 1356Duchy of Wittenberg(until 1356)Electorate of Saxony(from 1356) Judith of Brandenburg-Salzwedel1298eight childrenKunigunde of Poland28 August 1328one childAgnes of Lindow-Ruppin1333three children12 March 1356Wittenbergaged 71–72 In January 1356 the Golden Bull confirmed Rudolf I as the legitimate Saxon Prince-Elector, thus the rulers of Saxe-Wittenberg are conceived as Electors of Saxony.The Golden Bull of 1356 confirmed the right to participate in the election of a Holy Roman Emperor to the Duke of Saxony in the Saxe-Wittenberg line. Herman the Tall 100px 1275Son of Otto V and Judith of Henneberg-CoburgJuly 1299 – 1 February 1308Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Salzwedel)Anne of Austria1295Grazfour children1 February 1308Lübzaged 32–33 Children of Otto V, divided the land. Beatrice's part was then annexed to the Duchy of Świdnica-Jawor. Beatrice (I) 1270Daughter of Otto V and Judith of Henneberg-CoburgJuly 1299 – 1316Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Upper Lusatia)Bolko I, Duke of Świdnica4 October 1284Berlinten childrenWładysław, Duke of Bytom21 September 1308two children1316aged 45–46Upper Lusatia annexed to the Duchy of Świdnica-Jawor Beatrice (II) First daughter of Albert III and Matilda of Denmark1300 – 22 September 1314Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Stargard)Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg1292Stargard Castlefour children22 September 1314aged 43–44 Daughter and heiress of Albert III. Her marriage transferred the Stargard region into the Duchy of Mecklenburg.Stargard annexed to the Duchy of Mecklenburg John IV 100px 1261First son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland1304–1305Margraviate of Stendal(at Neumark)Unmarried1305aged 43–44Co-ruler of his father since 1291. His childless death reverted his lands to his younger brother Valdemar.Otto II100pxc.1260Son of Otto I and Hedwig of Wrocław25 June 1304 – 24 July 1315Principality of Aschersleben Elisabeth of Meissen24 August 1309two children24 July 1315aged 54–55 After his death in 1315 without male heirs opened a succession crisis in the Principality. Henry I Lackland 21 March 1256Son of John I and Judith of Saxony27 November 1308 – 14 February 1318Margraviate of Stendal(at Delitzsch since 1297; at Stendal since 1308)Agnes of Bavaria1303three children14 February 1318aged 61Younger brother of John II, Otto IV and Conrad I. Started his co-rulership in 1297, receiving seat at Delitzsch; he ended up as successor of his childless elder brother Otto IV. Regency of Valdemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (1308–1316) Children of Herman, divided the land:
John V received the core of Salzwedel;
Matilda received a seat at Lower Lusatia;
Agnes received a seat at Altmark;
Jutta received a seat at Coburg.
John's and Agnes' childless deaths left the main core of Salzwedel and the important seat of the Altmark to be reunited in Brandenburg. The remaining possessions were annexed by the respective marriages. John V the Illustrious August 1302Son of Herman and Anne of Austria1 February 1308 – 26 March 1317Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Salzwedel)Unmarried26 March 1317Spandauaged 14 Matilda 1296First daughter of Herman and Anne of Austria1 February 1308 – 31 March 1329Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Lower Lusatia)Henry IV, Duke of Żagań5 January 1310four children31 March 1329aged 32–33 Agnes100px1297Second daughter of Herman and Anne of Austria1 February 1308 – 27 November 1334Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Altmark)Valdemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal1309no childrenOtto, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg1319no children27 November 1334Braunschweigaged 36–37 Judith 100px1301Third daughter of Herman and Anne of Austria1 February 1308 – 1353Margraviate of Salzwedel(at Coburg)Henry VI, Count of Henneberg-Coburg1 January 1317 or 1 February 1319five children1353aged 51–52Salzwedel and Altmark reunited with Stendal; Coburg returned to the House of Henneberg, and Lower Lusatia was inherited by the Duchy of ŻagańElisabeth of Meissenc.1280?Daughter of Frederick of Meissen, Margrave of Dresden and Judith of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg24 July 1315 – 1332Principality of Aschersleben(in Aschersleben) Otto II24 August 1309two children1332aged 51–52? Succession crisis in Aschersleben: Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, supported Bernard II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg as successor, but Bernard ended up giving his rights to Aschersleben to the Bishopric of Halberstadt. However, it is known that Otto II's widow inherited Aschersleben as a seat, and that she had to obtain consent of her daughters ("heiresses of the Allodial") and approval of Bernard II of Bernburg for making her donations. This may possibly imply that, at least between Otto II's death (1315) and the definite delivery of Aschersleben to Halberstadt (December 1316), both Otto's minor daughters may have inherited the principality, under regency of the Prince of Bernburg, with Elisabeth receiving its main town as a widow's seat. Regency of Bernard II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg (1315-1316)Catharinac.1310First daughter of Otto II and Elisabeth of Meissen24 July 1315 – December 1316Principality of Aschersleben(in the remaining principality) Herman VI, Count of Weimar1328two children1369aged 58–59Elisabethc.1310Second daughter of Otto II and Elisabeth of MeissenUnmarried1319aged 8–9The whole Principality was definitively annexed by the Bishopric of HalberstadtRegency of Valdemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (1316-1319) Albert III and Valdemar I ruled jointly, as sons of Albert II. In 1359 Albert II associated his eldest son, Albert III, but he predeceased him. Albert IIc.1305First son of Albert I and Agnes of Brandenburg-Stendal17 August 1316 – 17 July 1362Principality of Zerbst Agnes of Rügen2 September 1324no childrenBeatrice of Saxe-Wittenbergc.1337five children17 July 1362aged 56–57Valdemar Ic.1305Second son of Albert I and Agnes of Brandenburg-Stendal17 August 1316 – 7 January 1368Elisabeth of Saxe-Wittenberg22 June 1344six childrenBeatrice d'Este1365no children 7 January 1368aged 62–63Albert IIIc.1337First son of Albert II and Beatrice of Saxe-Wittenberg1359 – 1 August 1359Unmarried1 August 1359aged 21–22 Valdemar the Great 100px 1280Third son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland1305 – 14 February 1318Margraviate of Stendal(at Neumark)Agnes of Brandenburg-Salzwedel1309no children14 August 1319Mieszkowiceaged 38–39 Son of Conrad, co-ruled with his uncles since 1308. Left no descendants, and the margraviate went to his underage cousin.14 February 1318 – 14 August 1319Margraviate of BrandenburgOtto VIOtto VI was possibly younger than his cousin Otto V, but he ascended one year earlier then him.100px1297Son of Otto IV and Adelaide of Kafernburg1318 – 28 July 1340County of PlassenburgKunigunde of Leuchtenberg1321no children28 July 1340aged 42–43Left no descendants. After his death his possessions were annexed by the House of Hohenzollern.Plassenburg annexed to the House of HohenzollernFrederick I the Elder100pxc.1290First son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald1319 – 25 July 1365County of WeimarElisabeth of Meissen(d. 2 May 1347)1322three children25 July 1365aged 74–75Children of Herman IV, divided their inheritance.Otto Vc.1290Third son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald1319 – 12 March 1335County of LauensteinHelena of Nuremberg1321three children12 March 1335aged 44–45Regency of Wartislaw IV, Duke of Pomerania (1319–1320) Children of Henry I, divided their inheritance. Henry died as a minor, and the Brandenburg Ascanians were extinct in the male line. Their lands came under the control of the Emperor Louis IV of the House of Wittelsbach, who granted Brandenburg to his eldest son, Louis V of Bavaria.
For Sophia, she inherited the Margraviate of Landsberg, which was inherited by her sons. Henry II the Child 100px 1302Son of Henry I and Agnes of Bavaria14 August 1319 – July 1320Margraviate of BrandenburgUnmarriedJuly 1320Mieszkowiceaged 17–18 Sophia 1300Daughter of Henry I and Agnes of Bavaria14 August 1319 – 1356Margraviate of Brandenburg(at Landsberg)Magnus I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg1327eight children1356aged 55–56Brandenburg definitively annexed to the House of Wittelsbach; Landsberg definitely annexed to the House of Welf Regency of Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg (1322–1330)Albert IV1315Son of John II and Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg1322–1343Duchy of Mölln Beata of Schwerin1334three childSophia of Werle-Güstrow1341no children1343aged 27–28Bernard III100px1300Son of Bernard II and Helena of Rügen1323 – 20 August 1348Principality of Bernburg Agnes of Saxe-Wittenberg1328five childrenMatilda of Anhalt-Zerbst1339no childrenMatilda of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel1343two children20 August 1348aged 47–48 Frederick IIc.1321Son of Otto V and Helena of Nuremberg12 March 1335 – 14 October 1368County of LauensteinSophia of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg(d.1392)18 November 1357two children14 October 1368aged 46–47Eric II1318RatzeburgSon of Eric I and Elisabeth of Pomerania1338–1368Duchy of Ratzeburg Agnes of Holstein-Plönbetween 1342 and 1349four children1368Ratzeburgaged 49–50 Regency of Sophia of Werle-Güstrow (1343-1349)Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother, Albert.John IIIc.1335First son of Albert IV and Beata of Schwerin1343–1356Duchy of Mölln Unmarried1356aged 20–21Bernard IV100pxc.1330First son of Bernard III and Agnes of Saxe-Wittenberg20 August 1348 – 28 June 1354Principality of Bernburg Unmarried28 June 1354aged 23–24 Frederick IIIc.1320First son of Henry I and Irmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg26 March 1354 – 1379County of Orlamünde(at Schauenforst)Unknowntwo children1379aged 58–59 Children of Henry I, ruled jointly. In 1354, Orlamunde was annexed to the House of Wettin, and the family changed seat to Schauenforst, while Frederick's brother Henry II ruled from Droyssig. After Henry's death, Frederick reunited Orlamunde.Henry IIc.1320Second son of Henry I and Irmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg26 March 1354 – 1357County of Orlamünde(at Droyssig)Richeza of Henneberg(d.1379)1357one child1357aged 36–37Henry IVc.1330Second son of Bernard III and Agnes of Saxe-Wittenberg28 June 1354 – 7 July 1374Principality of Bernburg Sophia of Stolbergc.1345three children7 July 1374aged 43–44Unlike usual co-rulerships seen in the family, Henry was bypassed by his older brother Bernard, who ruled alone. He only assumed rule of the principality when Bernard died in 1354. Albert Vc.1335Second son of Albert IV and Beata of Schwerin1356–1370Duchy of Mölln Catherine of Werle-Güstrow25 January 1366no children1370aged 34–35 Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother, Eric.Rudolph II the Blind (Rudolf II. der Blinde)100px1307WittenbergSon of Rudolph I and Judith of Brandenburg-Salzwedel12 March 1356 – 6 December 1370Electorate of Saxony Elisabeth of Hesse(d.1354)1336three childrenElisabeth of Lindow-Ruppinc.1355?no children6 December 1370Wittenbergaged 62–63 Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his half-brother.Herman VIc.1290?Second son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald25 July 1365 – 1372County of WeimarCatherine of Anhalt(d. 15 April 1369)1328two children1372aged 81–82? Uncle and nephew possibly ruled jointly. After Herman's death Weimar was annexed to the House of Wettin.Frederick IV the Youngerc.1325Son of Frederick I and Elisabeth of MeissenIrmgardno children1381aged 55–56Definitively annexed to the House of WettinOtto VII100pxc.1360Son of Frederick II and Sophia of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg14 October 1368 – 1405County of LauensteinLiutgard Reuss of Gera(d.c.1410)c.1390six children1405Ludwigsstadtaged 44–45John IIc.1340Second son of Albert II and Beatrice of Saxe-Wittenberg7 January 1368 – 11 April 1382Principality of Zerbst Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen1366four children11 April 1382aged 41–42Double cousins, ruled jointly.Valdemar IIc.1345Son of Valdemar I and Elisabeth of Saxe-Wittenberg7 January 1368 – 1371Unmarried1371aged 25–26Wenceslaus100px1337WittenbergSon of Rudolph I and Agnes of Lindow-Ruppin6 December 1370 – 15 May 1388 Electorate of Saxony Cecilia da Carrara23 January 1376six children15 May 1388Celleaged 50–51 Brother of his predecessor. In 1370, jointly with his nephew Albert, he managed to acquire the Principality of Lüneburg. This conquer was lost after his death.Eric III100pxc.1335Third son of Albert IV and Beata of Schwerin1370 – 25 May 1401Duchy of Mölln Unmarried25 May 1401Ratzeburgaged 65–66? Determined to enter to clergy, has to resign to succeed his brothers. He also left no descendants, which allowed the Ratzeburg line to reunite the Duchy of Lauenburg.Mölln was annexed to Ratzeburg; Reunion of LauenburgOtto IIIc.1345Son of Bernard III and Matilda of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel7 July 1374 – 27 February 1404Principality of Bernburg Unknowntwo childrenLutrudisbefore 1391one child27 February 1404aged 58–59Frederick Vc.1360?Son of Frederick III1379–1405County of Orlamünde(at Droyssig)Catherine of Gleichenc.1380?two childrenc.1405aged 44–45 Changed seat once more to Droyssig.Sigismund Ic.1370First son of John II and Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen11 April 1382 – 19 January 1405Principality of Dessau(in co-rulership in Zerbst until 1396)Judith of Querfurt1386eleven children19 January 1405Coswigaged 34–35 Sons of John II. Ruled jointly until 1396, when they divided their inheritance. Albert IVc.1370Second son of John II and Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen11 April 1382 – 24 November 1423Principality of Köthen(in co-rulership in Zerbst until 1396)Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)before 1398six childrenElisabeth of Querfurtbefore 4 January 1419three children24 November 1423Coswigaged 52–53Valdemar IIIc.1370Third son of John II and Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen11 April 1382 – 1391Principality of Zerbst Unmarried1391aged 20–21?Zerbst divided between Kothen and DessauRudolph III100px1378WittenbergFirst son of Wenceslaus and Cecilia da Carrara15 May 1388 – 11 June 1419 Electorate of Saxony Anna of Meissen1387/89three childrenBarbara of LegnicaMarch 1396two children11 June 1419in Bohemia (Prague (?))aged 40–41 Left no male descendants. he was succeeded by his brother, Albert.Eric IV1354RatzeburgSon of Eric II and Agnes of Holstein-Plön1368 – 25 May 1401Duchy of Ratzeburg Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg8 April 1373ten children21 June 1412Ratzeburgaged 57–58 In 1401 reunited Saxe-Lauenburg.25 May 1401 – 21 June 1412Duchy of Lauenburg In 1401 the Ratzeburg line inherited the duchy of Mölln and reunited the Duchy of Lauenburg. Bernard Vc.1350Son of Henry IV and Sophia of Stolberg27 February 1404 – 24 June 1420Principality of Bernburg Elisabeth of Hohnstein-Kelbra8 September 1396one child24 June 1420aged 69–70?Cousins, ruled jointly. As neither of them left male heirs, the land was inherited by his other cousin, Bernard.Otto IVc.1380?First son of Otto III27 February 1404 – 1 May 1415Unmarried 1 May 1415aged 34–35?Valdemar IVc.1386First son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt19 January 1405 – 1417Principality of DessauUnmarried1417aged 30–31Sons of Sigismund I, ruled jointly. In 1468 inherited Anhalt-Bernburg.George I the Elder1390Second son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt19 January 1405 – 22 September 1474Matilda of Anhalt-Bernburg Iafter 1413no childrenEuphemia of Oleśnica1432six childrenSophia of Hohnsteinafter 1442three childrenAnna of Lindow-Ruppin7 September 1453nine children21 September 1474Dessauaged 83–84?Sigismund IIc.1390Fourth son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt19 January 1405 – 1452Matilda of Anhalt-Bernburg IIno children1452aged 61–62Albert Vc.1390Fifth son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt19 January 1405 – 1469Sophie of Hadmerslebenno children1469aged 78–79Williamc.1395First son of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera1405 – 3 March 1460County of LauensteinCatherine of Blankenhain1427two children3 March 1460aged 64–65? Children of Otto VII, divided their inheritance, which was progressively annexed to the House of Wettin. Elisabeth's part of Lauenstein went to the House of Schwarzburg.Elisabeth (II)c.1395Daughter of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera1405–1450Henry XVIII, Count of Schwarzburg-Blankenburgno childrenc.1450aged 54–55?Otto VIIIc.1395Second son of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera1405 – 30 March 1460County of Lauenstein(at Grafenthal)Agnes of Beichlingen(d. 2 May 1347)1322three children30 March 1460aged 64–65?Sigismundc.1395Third son of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera1405 – 2 July 1447County of Lauenstein(at Lichtenberg)Unmarried2 July 1447aged 51–52?Definitively annexed to the House of WettinHenry IIIc.1390?First son of Frederick V and Catherine of Gleichen1405–1423County of Orlamünde(at Droyssig)Unmarried1423aged 32–33? Children of Frederick V, ruled jointly. After their childless deaths their possessions were annexed by the House of Wettin.Martinc.1390?Second son of Frederick V and Catherine of Gleichen14051405aged 14–15?Definitively annexed to the House of WettinEric Vc.1375RatzeburgFirst son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg21 June 1412 – 1436Duchy of Lauenburg Elisabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg1404no childrenElisabeth of Weinsbergbefore 1422one child1436Ratzeburgaged 60–61 Children of Eric IV, ruled jointly.John IVThe numberings here lead to some confusion, as not all genealogists of the House of Ascania count John IV in the list of dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg, numbering John V (John IV's nephew) as John IV.c.1375RatzeburgSecond son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg21 June 1412 – 1414Unmarried1414Ratzeburgaged 38–39Albert III100px1380WittenbergSecond son of Wenceslaus and Cecilia da Carrara11 June 1419 – 1422 Electorate of Saxony Euphemia of Oleśnica14 January 1420no children1422Wittenbergaged 41–42 Left no male descendants, which led the Ascanian Saxe-Wittenberg line to extinction. The Ascanian Dynasty became extinct in Wittenberg in 1422. However, the dynasty's presence in Saxony continued, through the Duchy of Lauenburg, until 1689. After losing the Saxon Electorate to the Wittenberg line in 1356, and failing to obtain it again in 1422, the recognition of power of this Lauenburg line as Dukes of Saxony weakened. To follow the remnant House of Ascania in Saxe-Lauenburg, follow this table. For the following Electors of Saxony, see Rulers of Saxony.Bernard VIc.1390?Second son of Otto III24 June 1420 – 2 February 1468Principality of Bernburg Matilda of Querfurt-Burgscheidungen21 October 1419two childrenHedwig of Żagań11 March 1434no children2 February 1468aged 77–78?His children predeceased him, which left him with no heirs at his death in 1468. Bernburg was inherited by the Dessau line.Anhalt-Bernburg was annexed to Anhalt-DessauAdolph Ic.1400First son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)24 November 1423 – 28 August 1473Principality of KöthenCordula of Lindow-Ruppin2 November 1442Ruppinseven children28 August 1473Zerbstaged 72–73? Ruled jointly. Adolph ruled with his brother Valdemar V until 1436 and then with Valdemar's son John. In 1436, shortly after his father's death, John III renounced his rights to the principality. In 1471, Adolph concluded a succession contract with George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, which would put the latter's youngest son in Köthen's throne as Valdemar VI. Valdemar Vc.1400Second son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)24 November 1423 – 1436Sophie of Hadmersleben1420no children1436aged 35–36?John IIIc.1415?Son of Valdemar V and Sophie of Hadmersleben1436Unmarried1463aged 47–48?Bernard IINumbered after Bernard, Count of Anhalt, who was also Duke of Saxony.1385RatzeburgThird son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg1436 – 16 July 1463Duchy of Lauenburg Adelaide of Pomerania-Stolp2 February 1429two children16 July 1463Ratzeburgaged 77–78John VSometimes numbered John IV. He is sometimes confused with his uncle, John IV (Eric V and Bernard IV's brother) and a son of his own (John IV, Bishop of Hildesheim).18 July 1439RatzeburgSon of Bernard II and Adelaide of Pomerania-Stolp16 July 1463 – 15 August 1507Duchy of Lauenburg Dorothea of Brandenburg12 February 1464twelve children15 August 1507Ratzeburgaged 68 Valdemar VI1450Son of George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau and Sophia of Hohnstein28 August 1473 – 1 November 1508Principality of Köthen Margaret of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt24 January 1485Köthenfour children1 November 1508Köthenaged 57–58 After the contract established with Dessau, this line of princes dominated in Köthen. After the death of Adolph in 1473, George I of Dessau's sons, Valdemar VI and Albert VI, ascended to the principality. After Albert's death, Valdemar co-ruled with his nephews. In 1508, all his co-rulers abdicated to him.Albert VIc.1420Son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Querfurt28 August 1473 – 9 January 1475Elisabeth of Mansfeld (II)27 March 1454Alslebenseven children9 January 1475aged 54–55Philip31 May 1468Son of Albert VI and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (II)9 January 1475 – 13 November 1500Unmarried13 November 1500aged 32Magnus1455Third son of Adolph I and Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin28 August 1473 – 150829 October 1524aged 68–69Adolph II16 October 1458Fifth son of Adolph I and Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin24 March 1526Merseburgaged 67Ernest I1454First son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin21 September 1474 – 12 June 1516Principality of DessauMargaret of Münsterberg20 January 1494Cottbusfour children12 June 1516Dessauaged 61–62 Sons of George I, co-ruled jointly with their father since 1471, and continued the joint rule after his death.George II the Strong1454Second son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin1474 – 25 April 1509Agnes of Pomerania-Barth1478no children25 April 1509aged 54–55Sigismund III1456Third son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin21 September 1474 – 27 November 1487Unmarried27 November 1487Dessauaged 30–31Rudolph the ValiantSometimes numbered Rudolph IV.1466Fourth son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin21 September 1474 – 7 September 15107 September 1510aged 43–44Magnus I100px1 January 1470RatzeburgSon of John V and Dorothea of Brandenburg15 August 1507 – 1 August 1543Duchy of Lauenburg Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel20 November 1509Wolfenbüttelsix children1 August 1543Ratzeburgaged 73Wolfgang the Confessor100px1 August 1492KöthenSon of Valdemar VI and Margaret of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt1 November 1508 – 23 March 1566Principality of Köthen(at Coswig only, since 1562)Unmarried23 March 1566Zerbstaged 73 Sole ruler of Köthen. In 1562, without descendants, he abdicated of all his territories, with the sole exception of Coswig (which he kept until his death) to the recreated Principality of Zerbst.Köthen (and later Coswig) annexed to Zerbst Regency of Margaret of Münsterberg (1516–1524)Children of Ernest I, ruled jointly, firstly under their mother. In 1544, the brothers divided the land. Joachim mainteined Dessau to himself; John took Zerbst and refounded Anhalt-Zerbst; George took Plotzkau. After George and Joachim's deaths without descendants, their lands were inherited by their nephews, sons of John III.John VDespite being the fourth ruler in Dessau/Zerbst named John, sources count John, canon of Merseburg (d.1455), a brother of George I of Dessau who never ruled, as John IV. This compromises the countings of John V and John VI, the fourth and fifth rulers of Anhalt of this name.100px4 September 1504DessauSecond son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg12 June 1516 – 4 February 1551Principality of Zerbst(in co-rulership in Dessau until 1544))Margaret of Brandenburg15 February 1534Dessausix children4 February 1551Zerbstaged 46George III the God-Blessed100px15 August 1507DessauThird son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg12 June 1516 – 17 October 1553Principality of Dessau(in co-rulership until 1544; at Plotzkau since 1544)Unmarried17 October 1553Dessauaged 46Joachim I100px7 August 1509DessauFourth son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg12 June 1516 – 6 December 1561Principality of Dessau(in co-rulership until 1544)6 December 1561Dessauaged 52Dessau and Plotzkau annexed to ZerbstFrancis I1510RatzeburgSon of Magnus I and Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel1 August 1543 – 15711573 – 19 March 1581Duchy of Lauenburg Sibylle of Saxony8 February 1540Dresdennine children19 March 1581Buxtehudeaged 70–71 In 1571 – highly indebted – Francis I resigned in favour of his eldest son Magnus II, who had promised to redeem the pawned ducal demesnes with funds he gained as Swedish military commander and by his marriage to a Swedish princess. However, after warring with his son and pushing him back, he regained the title.Charles I17 November 1534DessauFirst son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg4 February 1551 – 4 May 1561Principality of Zerbst(in co-rulership)Anna of Pomerania-Stettin16 May 1557Zerbstno children4 May 1561Zerbstaged 26 Children of John V, ruled jointly. In 1553 inherited Plotzkau from their uncle George III. In 1561 inherited Dessau and Bernburg from their uncle Joachim. In the next year inherited Kothen. From 1570 Joachim Ernest was the sole owner of all Anhalt.Joachim Ernest100px21 October 1536DessauSecond son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg4 February 1551 – 6 December 1586Principality of Anhalt(in co-rulership in Zerbst until 1562)Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen3 March 1560Barbysix childrenEleonore of Württemberg9 January 1571Stuttgartten children6 December 1586Dessauaged 50Bernard VII17 March 1540DessauThird son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg4 February 1551 – 1 March 1570Clara of Brunswick-Lüneburg28 May 1565Dessauone child1 March 1570Dessauaged 29Magnus II1543RatzeburgSecond son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony1571–1573Duchy of Lauenburg Sophia of Sweden4 July 1568Stockholmone child14 March 1603Ratzeburgaged 59–60 Eldest son of Francis I. He didn't pay the debts he promised to pay and led to war with his father and brothers. Two years later they deposed Magnus II and Francis I re-ascended. Magnus' violent and judicial attempts to regain the duchy failed. In 1588 he was imprisoned for the remainder of his life.Francis II100px10 August 1547RatzeburgThird son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony19 March 1581 – 2 July 1619Duchy of Lauenburg Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast26 December 1574Wolgastfour childrenMaria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel10 November 1582Wolfenbüttelfourteen children2 July 1619Lauenburgaged 71 Brothers of Magnus II, ruled jointly. Francis was vice-regent from 1578, and administrator from 1581. Maurice1551RatzeburgFifth son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony19 March 1581 – 2 November 1612 Katharina von Spörck1581(annulled 1582)no children2 November 1612Buxtehudeaged 60–61John George I the Fragrant 100px9 May 1567HarzgerodeFirst son of Joachim Ernest and Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen6 December 1586 – 24 May 1618Principality of Dessau(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)Dorothea of Mansfeld-Arnstein22 February 1588Hederslebenfive childrenDorothea of Palatinate-Simmern21 February 1595Heidelbergeleven children24 May 1618Dessauaged 51Sons of Joachim Ernest, ruled jointly. In 1603 divided their inheritance.Christian I the LongingNickname given to him by the Fruitbearing Society.100px11 May 1568BernburgSecond son of Joachim Ernest and Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen6 December 1586 – 17 April 1630Principality of Bernburg(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg2 July 1595Lorbachsixteen children17 April 1630Bernburgaged 61Augustus the Victorious14 July 1575DessauSecond son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg6 December 1586 – 22 August 1653Principality of Plötzkau(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)Sibylle of Solms-Laubach25 January 1618Ansbacheight children22 August 1653Plötzkauaged 78Rudolph the Sweet100px28 October 1576HarzgerodeThird son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg6 December 1586 – 30 July 1621Principality of Zerbst(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)Dorothea Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel29 December 1605Wolfenbüttelfour childrenMagdalena of Oldenburg31 August 1612Oldenburgtwo children30 July 1621Zerbstaged 44Louis I the Nourishing100px17 June 1579DessauFifth son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg6 December 1586 – 7 January 1650Principality of Köthen(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)Amöena Amalie of Bentheim-Tecklenburg31 October 1606Rhedatwo childrenSophia of Lippe12 September 1626Detmoldtwo children7 January 1650Köthenaged 70John Casimir the Penetrating 100px17 December 1596DessauSon of John George I and Dorothea of Palatinate-Simmern24 May 1618 – 15 September 1660Principality of DessauAgnes of Hesse-Kassel18 May 1623Dessausix childrenSophie Margaret of Anhalt-Bernburg14 July 1651Dessauno children15 September 1660Dessauaged 63 Augustus the Hundred-fold 100px17 February 1577RatzeburgSon of Francis II and Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast2 July 1619 – 18 January 1656Duchy of Lauenburg Elisabeth Sophie of Holstein-Gottorp5 March 1621Husumsix childrenCatherina of Oldenburg4 June 1633no children18 January 1656Lauenburgaged 78 Left no male descendants; he was succeeded by his half-brother Julius Henry. Regency of Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau (1621–1642)John VI the Well-FormedActually the fifth ruler named John. See note for John V of Zerbst.100px24 March 1621ZerbstSon of Rudolph and Magdalena of Oldenburg30 July 1621 – 4 July 1667Principality of ZerbstSophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp16 September 1649Gottorpfourteen children4 July 1667Zerbstaged 46Christian II the Unchangeable 100px11 August 1599AmbergSecond son of Christian I and Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg17 April 1630 – 22 September 1656Principality of BernburgEleonore Sophie of Holstein-Sonderburg28 February 1625Ahrensbökfifteen children22 September 1656Bernburgaged 57Children of Christian I, divided their inheritance.Frederick the Reasonable 100px16 November 1613EnsdorfFourth son of Christian I and Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg17 April 1630 – 30 June 1670Principality of Bernburg(at Harzgerode)Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar10 August 1642Bückeburgthree childrenAnna Catharina of Lippe-Detmold(31 July 1612 – 15 October 1659)26 May 1657Harzgerodeno children30 June 1670Plötzkauaged 56 Regency of Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau, Lebrecht, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen and Emmanuel, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen (1650–1653)After his death without descendants, his previous regents took over the principality for themselves.William Louis the Achiever3 August 1638KöthenSon of Louis I and Sophia of Lippe7 January 1650 – 13 April 1665Principality of KöthenElisabeth Charlotte of Anhalt-Harzgerode25 August 1663Köthenno children13 April 1665Köthenaged 26Ernest Gottlieb4 September 1620PlötzkauFirst son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach22 August 1653 – 7 March 1654Principality of PlötzkauUnmarried7 March 1654Plötzkauaged 33Lebrecht I the Pleasant100px8 April 1622PlötzkauSecond son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach7 March 1654 – 13 April 1665Principality of PlötzkauSophie Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode18 January 1655Plötzkauno children7 November 1669Köthenaged 47 Cousins of William Louis, and princes of Anhalt-Plötzkau, they served as regents for their cousin alongside their uncle, Augustus. After William Louis' death in 1665, they took the principality of Köthen for themselves, giving away their inheritance in Plötzkau to Anhalt-Bernburg.13 April 1665 – 7 November 1669Principality of KöthenEmmanuel the Striving 100px6 October 1631PlötzkauThird son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach7 March 1654 – 13 April 1665Principality of PlötzkauAnna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode23 March 1670Ilsenburgone child8 November 1670Köthenaged 3913 April 1665 – 8 November 1670Principality of KöthenPlotzkau definitively annexed to the Principality of BernburgVictor Amadeus the Praised 100px6 October 1634HarzgerodeSon of Christian II and Eleonore Sophie of Holstein-Sonderburg22 September 1656 – 14 February 1718Principality of BernburgElisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken16 October 1667Meisenheimsix children14 February 1718Bernburgaged 83 Annexed Anhalt-Plötzkau in 1665.Julius Henry the Lucky100px9 April 1586WolfenbüttelSon of Francis II and Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel18 January 1656 – 20 November 1665Duchy of Lauenburg Anna of East Frisia17 March 1617Grabowno childrenElisabeth Sophia of Brandenburg4 June 1633Toužimone sonAnna Magdalena of Lobkowicz18 August 1632Viennasix children20 November 1665Pragueaged 79 John George II the Filled 100px17 November 1627DessauSon of John Casimir and Agnes of Hesse-Kassel15 September 1660 – 7 August 1693Principality of DessauHenriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau9 September 1659Groningenfive children7 August 1693Berlinaged 65 Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, he also served as regent for his cousin, Emmanuel Lebrecht of Anhalt-Kothen, together with the prince's mother, Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode.Francis Erdmann the Growing25 February 1629ToužimSon of Julius Henry and Elisabeth Sophia of Brandenburg20 November 1665 – 30 July 1666Duchy of Lauenburg Sibylle Hedwig of Saxe-Lauenburg1654no children30 July 1666Schwarzenbekaged 37Left no descendants; He was succeeded by his brother Julius Francis.Julius Francis100px16 September 1641PragueSon of Julius Henry and Anna Magdalena of Lobkowicz30 July 1666 – 30 September 1689Duchy of Lauenburg Hedwig of the Palatinate-Sulzbach9 April 1668Sulzbachtwo children30 September 1689Zákupyaged 48 Definitively annexed to the House of Welf Regency of Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp (1667–1674) Children of John VI, divided their inheritance.Charles William the Shadowy100px16 October 1652ZerbstThird son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp4 July 1667 – 3 November 1718Principality of ZerbstSophia of Saxe-Weissenfels18 June 1676Hallethree children3 November 1718Zerbstaged 66Anton Günther 100px11 November 1653ZerbstFourth son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp4 July 1667 – 1 November 1704Principality of Zerbst(at Mühlingen)Auguste Antonie Marschall of Bieberstein(3 March 1659 – 28 December 1736)1 January 1705Zerbst(morganatic)seven children10 December 1714Zerbstaged 61John Louis I4 May 1656ZerbstSixth son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp4 July 1667 – 1 November 1704Principality of Zerbst(at Dornburg)Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch(5 June 1666 – 17 May 1699)23 July 1687Halle(morganatic)seven children1 November 1704Dornburgaged 48Mühlingen reannexed to ZerbstWilliam Louis100px18 August 1643HarzgerodeSon of Frederick and Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar30 June 1670 – 14 October 1709Principality of Bernburg(at Harzgerode)Elisabeth Juliana of Solms-Laubach(6 March 1631 – 2 January 1693)25 July 1671Laubachno childrenSophie Auguste of Nassau-Dillenburg(28 April 1666 – 14 January 1733)20 October 1695Frederiksborgno children14 October 1709Harzgerodeaged 66 After his death, Harzgerode merged again in Bernburg.Harzgerode reannexed to Bernburg Regencies of Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode (1670–1690) and John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (1690–1692)Emmanuel Lebrecht100px20 May 1671KöthenSon of Emmanuel and Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode20 May 1671 – 30 May 1704Principality of KöthenGisela Agnes of Rath30 September 1692Nienburg(morganatic)ten children30 May 1704Köthenaged 33 Regency of Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau (1693–1698)Leopold I100px3 July 1676DessauSon of John George II and Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau7 August 1693 – 7 April 1747Principality of DessauAnna Louise Föhse8 September 1698Dessau(morganatic)ten children7 April 1747Dessauaged 70 Regency of Gisela Agnes of Rath (1704–1715) With no male heirs, he was succeeded by his brother.Leopold100px29 November 1694KöthenSecond son of Emmanuel Lebrecht and Gisela Agnes of Rath30 May 1704 – 19 November 1728Principality of KöthenFrederica Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg11 December 1721Bernburgone childCharlotte Frederike of Nassau-Siegen 27 June 1725Weimartwo children19 November 1728Köthenaged 33Charles Frederick100px13 July 1668BernburgFirst son of Victor Amadeus and Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken14 February 1718 – 22 April 1721Principality of BernburgSophie Albertine of Solms-Sonnenwalde25 June 1692Bernburgsix childrenWilhelmine Charlotte Nüssler1 May 1715Bernburgtwo children22 April 1721Bernburgaged 52 Children of Victor Amadeus, divided their rule.Lebrecht100px28 June 1669Second son of Victor Amadeus and Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken14 February 1718 – 17 May 1727Principality of Bernburg(in Zeitz and Hoym)Charlotte of Nassau-SchaumburgSchaumburg Castle12 April 1692five childrenEberhardine of Weede27 June 1702Gravesix childrenSophie Sibylla of Ingersleben(18 March 1684 – 31 March 1726)14 September 1725(morganatic)no children17 May 1727Bad Emsaged 57John Augustus100px29 July 1677ZerbstSon of Charles William and Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels3 November 1718 – 7 November 1742Principality of ZerbstFrederica of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg25 May 1702Zerbstno children7 November 1742Zerbstaged 65 Died without issue. Zerbst was inherited by his cousins from Dornburg.Victor Frederick100px20 September 1700BernburgSon of Charles Frederick and Sophie Albertine of Solms-Sonnenwalde22 April 1721 – 18 May 1765Principality of BernburgLouise of Anhalt-Dessau25 November 1724Dessauone childSophie Albertine Fredericka of Brandenburg-Schwedt22 May 1733Potsdamfive childrenKonstanze Fredericka Schmidt13 November 1750Bernburg(morganatic)one child18 May 1765Bernburgaged 64Victor I Amadeus100px7 September 1693SchaumburgSon of Lebrecht and Charlotte of Nassau-Schaumburg17 May 1727 – 15 April 1772Principality of Bernburg(in Zeitz, Hoym and Schaumburg)Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein22 November 1714Birsteinsix childrenHedwig Sophie Henckel of Donnersmarck14 February 1740Pölzigsix children15 April 1772Schaumburgaged 78Augustus Louis100px9 June 1697KöthenThird son of Emmanuel Lebrecht and Gisela Agnes of Rath19 November 1728 – 6 August 1755Principality of Köthen(at Güsten until 1737; at Köthen proper since 1737)Agnes Wilhelmine von Wuthenau23 January 1722Dresden(morganatic)two childrenChristine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless14 January 1726Soraufive childrenAnna Fredericka of Promnitz-Pless21 November 1732Sorautwo children6 August 1755Köthenaged 58 Inheritors of Leopold, "fought" (legally) for the inheritance. Heiress of her father, Gisela Agnes claimed her allodial inheritance (possibly, while Augustus Louis, brother of the deceased Leopold, should keep the main principality. According to the Reichskammergericht final decision, she kept her father's collections, and eventually gave up her inheritance (which included the main capital, Köthen, and other estates) when she married (1737), being compensated by her uncle with great sums of money that highly indebted the principality. Regency of Charlotte Frederike of Nassau-Siegen (1728-1734)Gisela Agnes100px21 September 1722KöthenDaughter of Leopold and Frederica Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg19 November 1728 – 25 May 1737Principality of Köthen(at Köthen, Prosigk and Klepzig)Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau25 May 1737Bernburgseven children20 April 1751Dessauaged 22 The property of the Principality of Köthen was reunited in 1737John Louis II100px23 June 1688DornburgFirst son of John Louis I and Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch7 November 1742 – 5 November 1746Principality of Zerbst(in Dornburg 1704–1742; in Zerbst proper since 1742)Unmarried5 November 1746Dornburgaged 58 First cousins of John Augustus I, they were Princes of Dornburg, until its ending by joining it with the inherited Principality of Zerbst. Christian August100px29 November 1690DornburgThird son of John Louis I and Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch7 November 1742 – 16 March 1747Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp8 November 1727Vecheldefive children16 March 1747Dornburgaged 56Dornburg reannexed to ZerbstLeopold II Maximilian100px25 December 1700DessauSon of Leopold I and Anna Louise Föhse7 April 1747 – 16 December 1751Principality of DessauGisela Agnes of Anhalt-Köthen25 May 1737Bernburgseven children16 December 1751Dessauaged 50 Regency of Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp (1747–1752) Left no descendants; after his death, his property was annexed by his cousins from Dessau.Frederick August100px8 August 1734StettinSon of Christian August and Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp16 March 1747 – 3 March 1793Principality of ZerbstCaroline Wilhelmina Sophia of Hesse-Kassel17 November 1753Zerbstno childrenFriederike Auguste Sophie of Anhalt-Bernburg22 May 1764Ballenstedtno children3 March 1793Luxembourgaged 58Definitively annexed by the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau Regency of Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (1751–1758)Initially under regency, Leopold III himself also served later as regent for his cousin, Louis Augustus Karl Frederick Emil from Anhalt-Kothen. After his death the regency in Anhalt-Kothen passed together with the principality of Anhalt-Dessau to his grandson.Leopold III Frederick Franz100px10 August 1740DessauSon of Leopold II Maximilian and Gisela Agnes of Anhalt-Köthen16 December 1751 – 9 August 1817Principality of Dessau(until 1807)Duchy of Dessau(from 1807)Louise Henriette of Brandenburg-Schwedt25 July 1767Charlottenburgtwo children9 August 1817Luisium Castleaged 76Charles George Lebrecht100px15 August 1730KöthenSecond son of Augustus Louis and Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless6 August 1755 – 17 October 1789Principality of KöthenLouise Charlotte of Holstein-Glücksburg26 July 1763Glücksburgsix children17 October 1789Zemunaged 59Children of Augustus Louis, divided their inheritance. Frederick Erdmann100px27 October 1731KöthenThird son of Augustus Louis and Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless6 August 1755 – 12 December 1797Principality of Köthen(at Pless)Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode13 June 1766Wernigerodenine children12 December 1797Plessaged 66Frederick Albert100px15 August 1735BernburgSon of Victor Frederick and Sophie Albertine Fredericka of Brandenburg-Schwedt18 May 1765 – 9 April 1796Principality of BernburgLouise Albertine of Holstein-Plön25 November 1724Augustenburgtwo children9 April 1796Ballenstedtaged 60Charles Louis16 May 1723SchaumburgThird son of Victor I Amadeus and Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein15 April 1772 – 20 August 1806Principality of Bernburg(in Schaumburg and Hoym)Benjamine Gertrude Keiser(1 January 1729 – 6 January 1787)25 March 1748Stevensweert(morganatic)Amalia Eleonora of Solms-Braunfels12 December 1765Braunfelsfive children20 August 1806Schaumburgaged 83Augustus Christian Frederick18 November 1769KöthenSon of Charles George Lebrecht and Louise Charlotte of Holstein-Glücksburg17 October 1789 – 5 May 1812Principality of Köthen(until 1806)Duchy of Köthen(from 1806)Frederica of Nassau-Usingen9 February 1792Frankfurt-am-Mainno children5 May 1812Geuzaged 42 In 1806 became Duke of Anhalt-Köthen. Left no descendants, and was succeeded by his nephew.Alexius Frederick Christian100px12 June 1767BallenstedtSon of Frederick Albert and Louise Albertine of Holstein-Plön9 April 1796 – 24 March 1834Principality of Bernburg(until 1803)Duchy of Bernburg(from 1803)Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel29 November 1794Kassel(annulled 1817)four childrenDorothea Fredericka of Sonnenberg11 January 1818Ballenstedt(morganatic)no childrenErnestine Charlotte of Sonnenberg2 May 1819Bernburg(morganatic)no children24 March 1834Ballenstedtaged 66 In 1803 became Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg.Victor II Charles2 November 1767SchaumburgSon of Charles Louis and Amalia Eleonora of Solms-Braunfels20 August 1806 – 22 April 1812Principality of Bernburg(in Schaumburg and Hoym)Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg29 October 1793Weilburgfour children22 April 1812Schaumburgaged 44Frederick29 November 1741SchaumburgFifth son of Victor I Amadeus and Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein22 April – 24 December 1812Principality of Bernburg(in Schaumburg and Hoym)Unmarried24 December 1812 After his childless death, Hoym and Holzappel were inherited by his niece Hermine (daughter of Victor II), while Hoym merged in Bernburg again.Hoym reannexed to Bernburg Regencies of Leopold III, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau (1812–1817) and Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt (1817–1818)Nephew of Augustus Christian Frederick. Died as a minor, never ruled by his own.Louis Augustus Karl100px20 September 1802KöthenSon of Louis of Anhalt-Köthen and Louise Caroline of Hesse-Darmstadt5 May 1812 – 18 December 1818Duchy of KöthenLouise Charlotte of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg26 July 1763Glücksburgsix children18 December 1818Leipzigaged 16Hermine100px2 December 1797HoymDaughter of Victor II Charles and Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg24 December 1812 – 14 September 1817Principality of Bernburg(in Schaumburg and Holzappel)Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary30 August 1815Schaumburg Castletwo children14 September 1817Budapestaged 19After her death her lands probably merged again in Bernburg.Schaumburg and Holzappel reannexed to BernburgFrederick Ferdinand100px25 June 1769PlessSecond son of Frederick Erdmann and Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode18 December 1818 – 23 August 1830Duchy of Köthen(in Pless 1797–1818; in Köthen proper since 1818)Maria Dorothea of Holstein-Beck26 July 1763Lindenau bei Heiligenbeilno childrenJulie of Brandenburg20 May 1816Berlinno children23 August 1830Köthenaged 61 From the Anhalt-Pless line, cousin of his predecessor. Attempted, with no success, to reinstall Catholicism in his duchy. Left no descendants; he was succeeded by his brother.Henry100px30 July 1778PlessFourth son of Frederick Erdmann and Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode23 August 1830 – 23 November 1847Duchy of KöthenAugusta Reuss of Middle Köstritz18 May 1819Trebschenno children23 November 1847Köthenaged 69 Left no descendants. His lands were inherited by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau.Definitively annexed to the Principality of Anhalt-DessauAlexander Charles100px2 March 1805BallenstedtSon of Alexius Frederick Christian and Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel24 March 1834 – 19 August 1863Duchy of BernburgFrederica of Holstein-Glücksburg30 October 1834Gottorpno children19 August 1863Hoymaged 58 Left no male descendants. Bernburg reverted to Anhalt-Dessau.Definitively annexed to the Principality of Anhalt-DessauLeopold IV Frederick100px1 October 1794DessauSon of Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Amalie of Hesse-Homburg9 August 1817 – 22 May 1871Duchy of Dessau(until 1863)Duchy of Anhalt(from 1863)Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia18 April 1818Berlinsix children22 May 1871Dessauaged 76Grandson of Leopold III. Ended the regency in Kothen after his cousin's death (1818). In 1863 he reunited Anhalt under his rule, and becomes its first duke.Frederick I100px29 April 1831DessauSon of Leopold IV Frederick and Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia22 May 1871 – 24 January 1904Duchy of AnhaltAntoinette of Saxe-Altenburg22 April 1854Altenburgsix children24 January 1904Ballenstedtaged 72 Frederick II100px19 August 1856DessauFirst son of Frederick I and Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg24 January 1904 – 21 April 1918Duchy of AnhaltMarie of Baden2 July 1889Karlsruheno children21 April 1918Ballenstedtaged 61 Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother.Edward100px18 April 1861DessauSecond son of Frederick I and Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg21 April – 13 September 1918Duchy of AnhaltLouise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg 6 February 1895Altenburg(annulled 26 January 1918)six children13 September 1918Berchtesgadenaged 57 Joachim Ernest100px11 January 1901DessauSon of Edward and Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg13 September – 12 November 1918Duchy of AnhaltElisabeth Strickrodt3 March 1927Ballenstedt(morganatic, annulled 1929)no childrenEdda-Charlotte von Stephani-Marwitz15 October 1929Ballenstedt(morganatic)five children18 February 1947Weimaraged 46 Monarchy abolished in that year.
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House of Ascania
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Heads of the House of Ascania since 1918
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Heads of the House of Ascania since 1918
Duke Joachim Ernest II 1918–1947
Prince Frederick 1947–1963
Prince Edward 1963–present
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House of Ascania
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Family trees
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Family trees
(genealogical list of the dynasty in German)
center|1000px|Lines of the House of Anhalt
center|1000px|Overall Family Tree of the House of Anhalt
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House of Ascania
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Armorial
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Armorial
The original arms of the house of Ascania, from their ancestors the Saxon counts of Ballenstedt, were "Barry of ten sable and or".
The Ascanian margrave Albert the Bear was invested with the Saxon ducal title in 1138; when he succeeded the Welf's Henry the Lion, who was deposed by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1180, Albert's son Bernhard, Count of Anhalt received the remaining Saxon territories around Wittenberg and Lauenburg, and the ducal title. Legend, so unlikely to be true, goes that when he rode in front of the emperor, at the occasion of his investiture, he carried a shield with his escutcheon of the Ballenstedt coat of arms (barry sable and or). Barbarossa took the rue wreath he wore against the heat of the sun from his head, hanging it over Bernhard's shield and thus creating the Saxonian crancelin vert ("Barry of ten sable and or, a crancelin vert"). A more likely explanation is that it probably symbolized the waiver of the Lauenburg lands.Freistaat Sachsen official website Accessed 2009-05-19.
From about 1260, the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg emerged under the Ascanian duke Albert II, who adopted the tradition of the Saxon stem duchy and was granted the Saxon electoral dignity, against the fierce protest of his Ascanian Saxe-Lauenburg cousins. This was confirmed by the Golden Bull of 1356. As the Ascanian Electors of Saxony also held the High office of an Arch-Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire, they added the ensign Per fess sable and argent two swords in saltire gules (the swords later featuring as the trademark of the Meissen china factory) to their coat of arms. When the line became extinct in 1422, the arms and electoral dignity were adopted by the Wettin by margrave Frederick IV of Meissen as it had become synonymous with the Saxon ducal title.
When upon German reunification the Free State of Saxony was re-established, the coat of arms was formally confirmed in 1991.
Flag Legislation (Saxony, Germany) :
The chivalric order was the House Order of Albert the Bear (German: Hausorden Albrechts des Bären or Der Herzoglich Anhaltische Hausorden Albrechts des Bären) which was founded in 1836 as a joint House Order by three dukes of Anhalt from separate branches of the family: Henry, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau, and Alexander Karl, Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg.
The namesake of the order, Albert the Bear, was the first Margrave of Brandenburg from the House of Ascania. The origin of his nickname "the Bear" is unknown.
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House of Ascania
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List of states ruled by the House of Ascania
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List of states ruled by the House of Ascania
County, Principality, and Duchy of Anhalt: c. 1100–1918
Duchy and Electorate of Saxony: 1112, 1139–1142, 1180–1422
County of Weimar-Orlamünde: 1112–1486
Margraviate of Brandenburg: 1157–1320
Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg: 1269–1689
Principality of Lüneburg: 1369–1388
Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg: 1252–1468 and 1603–1863
Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst: 1252–1396 and 1544–1796
Principality of Anhalt-Aschersleben: 1252–1315
Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen: 1396–1561 and 1603–1847
Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau 1396–1561 and 1603–1863
Principality of Anhalt-Plötzkau 1544–1553 and 1603–1665
Principality of Anhalt-Harzgerode 1635–1709
Principality of Anhalt-Mühlingen: 1667–1714
Principality of Anhalt-Dornburg: 1667–1742
Lordship of Jever: 1667–1796
Principality of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym: 1718–1812
Russian Empire: 1762–1796
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House of Ascania
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References
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References
Askanien, Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888
Trillmich, Werner, Kaiser Konrad II. und seine Zeit, Bonn, 1991
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House of Ascania
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External links
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External links
House of Ascania – official website
European Heraldry page
(first page of a series)
Stirnet: Brandenburg1 (genealogy of the Houses of Ascania and Brandenburg, including the most likely ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania)
Stirnet: Ascania1 (an alternate possible ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania)
Category:Saxon nobility
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House of Ascania
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Rulers of the House of Ascania, House of Ascania, Partitions of the House of Ascania, Table of rulers, Heads of the House of Ascania since 1918, Family trees, Armorial, List of states ruled by the House of Ascania, References, External links
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Acceleration
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Short description
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thumb|upright=1.4|Drag racing is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start.
In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object's acceleration, as described by Newton's second law, is the combined effect of two causes:
the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object — magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force;
that object's mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made — magnitude is inversely proportional to the object's mass.
The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (, ).
For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration Extract of page 39 Extract of page 36 or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft. Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralised in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed.
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Acceleration
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Definition and properties
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Definition and properties
thumb|300px|Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass , position , velocity , acceleration .
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Acceleration
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Average acceleration
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Average acceleration
right|thumb|Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The true acceleration at time is found in the limit as time interval of .
An object's average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, , divided by the duration of the period, . Mathematically,
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Acceleration
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Instantaneous acceleration
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Instantaneous acceleration
thumb|right|From bottom to top:
Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time:
As acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, , with respect to time and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, , with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of with respect to :
(Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.)
By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function is the velocity function ; that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time ( vs. ) graph corresponds to the change of velocity.
Likewise, the integral of the jerk function , the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time:
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Acceleration
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Units
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Units
Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T−2. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s−2); or "metre per second per second", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second.
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Acceleration
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Other forms
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Other forms
An object moving in a circular motion—such as a satellite orbiting the Earth—is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing centripetal (directed towards the center) acceleration.
Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer.
In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body's center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton's second law):
where is the net force acting on the body, is the mass of the body, and is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large.
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Acceleration
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Tangential and centripetal acceleration
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Tangential and centripetal acceleration
thumb|left|An oscillating pendulum, with velocity and acceleration marked. It experiences both tangential and centripetal acceleration.
right|thumb|Components of acceleration for a curved motion. The tangential component is due to the change in speed of traversal, and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector (or in the opposite direction). The normal component (also called centripetal component for circular motion) is due to the change in direction of the velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the center of curvature of the path.
The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as:
with equal to the speed of travel along the path, and
a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed and the changing direction of , the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation for the product of two functions of time as:
where is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory (also called the principal normal), and is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time . The components
are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively.
Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet–Serret formulas.
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Acceleration
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Special cases
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Special cases
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Acceleration
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Uniform acceleration
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Uniform acceleration
thumb|Calculation of the speed difference for a uniform acceleration
Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period.
A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength (also called acceleration due to gravity). By Newton's second law the force acting on a body is given by:
Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed:
where
is the elapsed time,
is the initial displacement from the origin,
is the displacement from the origin at time ,
is the initial velocity,
is the velocity at time , and
is the uniform rate of acceleration.
In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth.
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Acceleration
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Circular motion
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Circular motion
In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant speed along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighbouring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle.
For a given speed , the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed:
For a given angular velocity , the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius . This is due to the dependence of velocity on the radius .
Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yields
As usual in rotations, the speed of a particle may be expressed as an angular speed with respect to a point at the distance as
Thus
This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed toward the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called 'centrifugal force', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body's linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion.
In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration , i.e., the rate of change of the angular speed times the radius . That is,
The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration (), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector.
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Acceleration
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Coordinate systems
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Coordinate systems
In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as The two-dimensional acceleration vector is then defined as . The magnitude of this vector is found by the distance formula asIn three-dimensional systems where there is an additional z-axis, the corresponding acceleration component is defined asThe three-dimensional acceleration vector is defined as with its magnitude being determined by
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Acceleration
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Relation to relativity
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Relation to relativity
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Acceleration
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Special relativity
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Special relativity
The special theory of relativity describes the behaviour of objects travelling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations.
As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.
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Acceleration
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General relativity
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General relativity
Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.
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Acceleration
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Conversions
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Conversions
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