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Abadeh
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Education
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Education
Islamic Azad University, Abadeh branch
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Abadeh
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Notable people
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Notable people
Jalal Zolfonun was an Iranian musician
Mahmoud Zoufonoun was an Iranian-born American musician accomplished in the art of Persian traditional music.
Hooshmand Aghili is a prominent Iranian singer
Ruhollah Hosseinian was an Iranian principalist politician.
Rahmatollah Khosravi is an Iranian politician who was formerly a member of the Iranian Parliament and City Council of Tehran.
Mojtaba Heidarpanah is an Iranian cartoonist, illustrator, painter, character designer and animator.
Mahmoud Mohammadi (diplomat) is an Iranian diplomat and politician.
Soodeh Farokhi is an Iranian-Canadian award-winning entrepreneur recognized for her innovative contributions to the tech industry and her advocacy for diversity and inclusion.
Seyed Mohammad Torbati researcher of world studies and politics, founder of the Scientific Association of World Studies
Owrang Khazraei Iranian left-wing poet and speaker in Goethe's Ten Nights
Bozorg Khazraei Iranian left-wing painter living in the Netherlands - the designer of Goethe's Ten Nights poster
Iman Islamian bank researcher and deputy of the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development
Mozneb Abadei a poet and Sufi during the Qajar period in Abadeh
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Abadeh
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See also
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See also
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Abadeh
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Notes
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Notes
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Abadeh
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References
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References
Category:Populated places in Abadeh County
Category:Cities in Fars province
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Abadeh
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Demographics, Population, Geography, Location, Climate, Economy, Air defense base, Mining, Arts and crafts, Handicrafts, Transportation, Historical monuments, Sports, Education, Notable people, See also, Notes, References
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Abae
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Short description
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Abae (, ) was an ancient town in the northeastern corner of ancient Phocis, in Greece, near the frontiers of the Opuntian Locrians, said to have been built by the Argive Abas, son of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, and grandson of Danaus. This bit of legend suggests an origin or at least an existence in the Bronze Age, and sites protohistory supports a continued existence in Iron-Age antiquity. It was famous for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, and Mardonius, among others. The site of the oracle was rediscovered at Kalapodi and excavated in modern times. The results confirm an archaeological existence dating from the Bronze Age, as is suggested by the lore, and continuous occupation from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period.
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Abae
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History
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History
Before the Persian invasion, the temple was richly adorned with treasuries and votive offerings. It was twice destroyed by fire; the first time by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in their march through Phocis (480 BCE), and a second time by the Boeotians in the Sacred or Phocian War in 346 BCE. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. Hadrian caused a smaller temple to be built near the ruins of the former one. In the new temple there were three ancient statues in brass of Apollo, Leto, and Artemis, which had been dedicated by the Abaei, and had perhaps been saved from the former temple. The ancient agora and the ancient theatre still existed in the town in the time of Pausanias. According to the statement of Aristotle, as preserved by Strabo, Thracians from the Phocian town of Abae immigrated to Euboea, and gave to the inhabitants the name of Abantes. et seq.
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Abae
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Oracle
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Oracle
Despite destruction of the town, the oracle was still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE. The temple, along with the village of the same name, may have escaped destruction during the Third Sacred War (355–346 BCE), due to the respect given to the inhabitants; however, it was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the 2nd century CE, though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian.
The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, and these were confirmed by the Romans. The Persians did not reflect this opinion and would destroy all the temples that they overcame, Abae included. The Greeks pledged not to rebuild them as a memorial of the ravages of the Persians.
Among the most exciting recent archaeological discoveries in Greece is the recognition that the sanctuary site near the modern village of Kalapodi is not only the site of the oracle of Apollon at Abae, but that it was in constant use for cult practices from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period. It is thus the first site where the archaeology confirms the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion, which has been inferred from the presence of the names of Classical Greek divinities on Linear B texts from Pylos and Knossos.
The fortified site described below, originally identified as Abae by Colonel William Leake in the 19th century, is much more likely to be that of the Sanctuary of Artemis at Hyampolis:
"The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. [150 m] above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found."
The oracle was mentioned in Oedipus Rex.Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 897
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Abae
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Attribution
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Attribution
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Abae
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Notes
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Notes
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Abae
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References
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References
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Abae
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Reference bibliography
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Reference bibliography
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Abae
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External links
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External links
German Archaeological Institute (German)
10-part documentary series (German)
Excavation archive of the British School at Athens and French School at Athens (English and French)
Category:Ancient Greek cities
Category:Cities in ancient Greece
Category:Populated places in ancient Phocis
Category:Former populated places in Greece
Category:Classical oracles
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Abae
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Oracle, Attribution, Notes, References, Reference bibliography, External links
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Abakan
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Short description
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Abakan ( ; , ) is the capital city of Khakassia, Russia, located in the central part of the Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 165,214—a slight increase over 165,197 recorded during the 2002 Census and a further increase from 154,092 recorded during the 1989 Census.
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Abakan
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History
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History
Abakansky ostrog (), also known as Abakansk (), was built at the mouth of the Abakan River in 1675. In the 1780s, the selo of Ust-Abakanskoye () was established in this area. It was granted town status and given its current name on 30 April 1931.Resolution of April 30, 1931
In 1940, Russian construction workers found ancient ruins during the construction of a highway between Abakan and Askiz. When the site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1941–1945, they realized that they had discovered a building absolutely unique for the area: a large (1500 square meters) Chinese-style, likely Han dynasty era (206 BC–220 AD) palace. The identity of the high-ranking personage who lived luxuriously in Chinese style, far outside the Han Empire's borders, has remained a matter for discussion ever since. Russian archaeologist surmised, based on circumstantial evidence, that the palace may have been the residence of Li Ling, a Chinese general who had been defeated by the Xiongnu in 99 BCE, and defected to them as a result. While this opinion has remained popular, other views have been expressed as well. More recently, for example, it was claimed by as the residence of Lu Fang (盧芳), a Han throne pretender from the Guangwu era.
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Abakan
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Lithuanian and Polish exiles
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Lithuanian and Polish exiles
In the late 18th and during the 19th century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830–1831, and 1863 rebellions against Russian rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established where prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in.
Also Polish exiles were deported to Khakassia, with the some descendants still living in the region. In 1994, a local Polish school was founded, which was supported by the local authorities until 2014, and in 1999, a Polish-language faculty was introduced at the local Khakassian State University.
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Abakan
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Administrative and municipal status
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Administrative and municipal status
Abakan is the capital of the republic.Law #20 Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Abakan—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts As a municipal division, the City of Abakan is incorporated as Abakan Urban Okrug.Law #59
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Abakan
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Economy
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Economy
The city has an industry enterprises, Katanov State University of Khakasia, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products.
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Abakan
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Transportation
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Transportation
thumb|Abakan Airport
thumb|Abakan Railway Station
Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction.
The city is served by the Abakan International Airport.
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Abakan
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Military
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Military
The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until circa 1996.
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Abakan
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Sites
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Sites
thumb|Statue of Vladimir Lenin in Abakan
thumb|Abakan Cathedral of the Transfiguration
thumb|Victory Park Monument
Abakan's sites of interest include:
Holy Transfiguration Cathedral (Russian: Спасо-Преображенский кафедральный собор (Spaso-Preobrazhenskiy kafedral’nyy sobor))
"Good Angel of Peace" sculpture (Russian: Скульптура «Добрый ангел мира» (Skul’ptura «Dobryy angel mira»))
Park of Topiary Art (Russian: Парк топиарного искусства (Park Topiarnogo Iskusstva))
Khakas National local history museum named after Leonid Kyzlasov (Russian: Хакасский краеведческий музей имени Л.Р. Кызласова (Khakasskiy Natsional'nyy Krayevedcheskiy Muzey Im. L.R. Kyzlasova))
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Abakan
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Sports
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Sports
Bandy, similar to hockey, is one of the most popular sports in the city. Sayany-KhakassiaTeam picture of Sayany-Khakassia was playing in the top-tier Super League in the 2012–13 season but was relegated for the 2013–14 season and has been playing in the Russian Bandy Supreme League ever since. The Russian Government Cup was played here in 1988 and in 2012.
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Abakan
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Geography
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Geography
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Abakan
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Climate
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Climate
thumb|Abakan Zoo
Abakan has a borderline Dry-winter continental (Köppen climate classification Dwb)/cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk). Temperature differences between seasons are extreme, which is typical for Siberia. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer and is less common because of rain shadows from nearby mountains.
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Abakan
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Local government
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Local government
thumb|Administration of Abakan (10 Shchetinkina Street)
The structure of the local government in the city of Abakan is as follows:
council of deputies of the city of Abakan - a representative body of the municipality;
the head of the city of Abakan - the head of the municipality;
the administration of the city of Abakan - the executive and administrative body of the municipality;
auditing commission of the municipality of the city of Abakan - the control and accounting body of the municipality.
Council of Deputies
The council consists of 28 deputies. Deputies are elected in single-member constituencies and on party lists. Elections of deputies of the VI convocation were held on a single voting day in 2018.
+Composition of the City CouncilPartyNumber of deputiesResultBy okrugBy listsUnited Russia115 (28.83%)16CPRF23 (23.97%)5LDPR03 (22.19%)3Party of Pensioners01 (7.11%)1A Just Russia – For Truth01 (6.93%)1Communists of Russia01 (6.83%)1Self-nominated1 ---1141428
Head of the city (head of the municipality)
Alexey Viktorovich Lyomin
Chairman of the Council of Deputies
Albert Yuryevich Tupikin
Nikolai Bulakin Prize
In 2021, the annual Nikolai Bulakin Prize of Abakan was established for outstanding services and achievements in the city's development. The award includes a monetary reward of 200,000 rubles and a diploma.Applicants for the N. G. Bulakin Prize - Abakan. - 2021. - November 24. - p. 4.Новая муниципальная награда — IRTA Abakan, 15 October 2021.
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Abakan
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References
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References
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Abakan
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Notes
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Notes
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Abakan
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Sources
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Sources
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Abakan
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External links
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External links
Official website of Abakan
Unofficial website of Abakan
Directory of organizations in Abakan
Abakan city streets views
Beyaz Arif Akbas, "Khakassia: The Lost Land", Portland State Center for Turkish Studies, 2007
Category:Cities and towns in Khakassia
Category:Yeniseysk Governorate
Category:Populated places established in 1675
Category:1675 establishments in Russia
Category:Populated places on the Yenisei River
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Abakan
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Lithuanian and Polish exiles, Administrative and municipal status, Economy, Transportation, Military, Sites, Sports, Geography, Climate, Local government, References, Notes, Sources, External links
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Arc de Triomphe
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short description
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The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, often called simply the Arc de Triomphe, is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Place de l'Étoile—the étoile or "star" of the juncture formed by its twelve radiating avenues. The location of the arc and the plaza is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east). The Arc de Triomphe honours those who fought and died for France in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, with the names of all French victories and generals inscribed on its inner and outer surfaces. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I.
The central cohesive element of the Axe historique (historic axis, a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route running from the courtyard of the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense), the Arc de Triomphe was designed by Jean Chalgrin in 1806; its iconographic programme pits heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail. It set the tone for public monuments with triumphant patriotic messages. Inspired by the Arch of Titus in Rome, Italy, the Arc de Triomphe has an overall height of , width of and depth of , while its large vault is high and wide. The smaller transverse vaults are high and wide.
Paris's Arc de Triomphe was the tallest triumphal arch until the completion of the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City in 1938, which is high. The Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, is modeled on the Arc de Triomphe and is slightly taller at . The Grande Arche in La Défense near Paris is 110 metres high, and, if considered to be a triumphal arch, is the world's tallest.
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Arc de Triomphe
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History
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History
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Arc de Triomphe
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Construction and late 19th century
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Construction and late 19th century
left|thumb|Avenues radiate from the Arc de Triomphe in Place Charles de Gaulle, the former Place de l'Étoile.
The Arc de Triomphe is located on the right bank of the Seine at the centre of a dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806, after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes. Laying the foundations alone took two years and, in 1810, when Napoleon entered Paris from the west with his new bride, Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, he had a wooden mock-up of the completed arch constructed. The architect, Jean Chalgrin, died in 1811 and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot.
During the Bourbon Restoration, construction was halted, and it would not be completed until the reign of Louis Philippe I, between 1833 and 1836, by the architects Goust, then Huyot, under the direction of Héricart de Thury. The final cost was reported at about 10,000,000 francs (equivalent to an estimated €65 million or $75 million in 2020).
On 15 December 1840, brought back to France from Saint Helena, Napoleon's remains passed under it on their way to the Emperor's final resting place at .Hôtel des Invalides website . Before burial in the Panthéon, the body of Victor Hugo was displayed under the Arc on the night of 22 May 1885.
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Arc de Triomphe
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20th century
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20th century
The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off on the day, it is said, that the Battle of Verdun began in 1916. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations.
thumb|right|The Arc de Triomphe is located on Paris's Axe historique, a long perspective that runs from the Louvre to the Grande Arche de la Défense.
On 7 August 1919 three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919 (marking the end of hostilities in World War I), Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane under the arch's primary vault, with the event captured on newsreel.Melville Wallace, La vie d'un pilote de chasse en 1914–1918, Flammarion, Paris, 1978. The film clip is included in The History Channel's Four Years of Thunder.* « Un aviateur passe en avion sous l'Arc de Triomphe » , Le Matin from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 3–4.
« Un avion passe sous l'Arc de Triomphe » , L'Écho de Paris from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 3.
« L'Acte insensé d'un aviateur » , par Raoul Alexandre, L'Humanité from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 2.
« Un avion, ce matin, est passé sous l'Arc de Triomphe » , par Paul Cartoux, L'Intransigeant from 1919/08/08, p.1, column 6.
« Aéronautique : l'inutile exploit du sergent Godefroy » , Le Temps from 1919/08/09, morning edition, p.3, column 4–5. Jean Navarre was the pilot who was tasked to make the flight, but he died on 10 July 1919 when he crashed near Villacoublay while training for the flight
thumb|right|Free French forces on parade after the liberation of Paris on 26 August 1944.
Following its construction, the Arc de Triomphe became the rallying point of French troops parading after successful military campaigns and for the annual Bastille Day military parade. Famous victory marches around or under the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1919, the Germans in 1940, and the French and Allies in 1944Image of Liberation of Paris parade . and 1945. A United States postage stamp of 1945 shows the Arc de Triomphe in the background as victorious American troops march down the Champs-Élysées and U.S. airplanes fly overhead on 29 August 1944. After the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades (including the aforementioned post-1919) have avoided marching through the actual arch. The route taken is up to the arch and then around its side, out of respect for the tomb and its symbolism. Both Hitler in 1940 and Charles de Gaulle in 1944 observed this custom.
By the early 1960s, the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 it was cleaned through bleaching. In the prolongation of the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, a new arch, the Grande Arche de la Défense, was built in 1982, completing the line of monuments that forms Paris's Axe historique. After the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, the Grande Arche is the third arch built on the same perspective.
In 1995, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria placed a bomb near the Arc de Triomphe which wounded 17 people as part of a campaign of bombings.
On 12 July 1998, when France won the FIFA World Cup for the first time after defeating Brazil 3–0 at the Stade de France, images of the players including double goal scorer Zinedine Zidane and their names along with celebratory messages were projected onto the arch.
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Arc de Triomphe
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21st century
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21st century
In late 2018, the Arc de Triomphe suffered acts of vandalism as part of the Yellow vests protests. The vandals sprayed the monument with graffiti and ransacked its small museum. In September 2021, the arc was wrapped in a silvery blue fabric and red rope, as part of L'Arc de Triomphe, Wrapped, a posthumous project planned by artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude since the early 1960s.
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Arc de Triomphe
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Design
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Design
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Arc de Triomphe
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Monument
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Monument
thumb|Jean Chalgrin's drawing of the Arc de Triomphe, 1806.
The astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin (1739–1811), in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe: Jean-Pierre Cortot; François Rude; Antoine Étex; James Pradier and Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are The Triumph of 1810 (Cortot), Resistance and Peace (both by Antoine Étex), and the most renowned of them all, Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 commonly called La Marseillaise (François Rude). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the honorary rank of Marshal of France. Since the fall of Napoleon (1815), the sculpture representing Peace is interpreted as commemorating the Peace of 1815.
In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major French victories in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars.The Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro is inscribed as a French victory, instead of the tactical draw and strategic defeat that it actually was. The inside walls of the monument list the names of 660 people, among which are 558 French generals of the First French Empire;Among the generals are at least two foreign generals, Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda and German-born Nicolas Luckner. The names of those generals killed in battle are underlined. Also inscribed, on the shorter sides of the four supporting columns, are the names of the major French victories in the Napoleonic Wars. The battles that took place in the period between the departure of Napoleon from Elba to his final defeat at Waterloo are not included.
For four years from 1882 to 1886, a monumental sculpture by Alexandre Falguière topped the arch. Titled Le triomphe de la Révolution ("The Triumph of the Revolution"), it depicted a chariot drawn by horses preparing "to crush Anarchy and Despotism".
Inside the monument, a permanent exhibition, conceived by artist Maurice Benayoun and architect Christophe Girault, opened in February 2007.
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Arc de Triomphe
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Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
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Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
thumb|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier beneath the Arc de Triomphe.
Beneath the Arc is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I. Interred on Armistice Day 1920, an eternal flame burns in memory of the dead who were never identified (now in both world wars).
A ceremony is held at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier every 11 November on the anniversary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 signed by the Entente Powers and Germany in 1918. It was originally decided on 12 November 1919 to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the Panthéon, but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc de Triomphe. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on 10 November 1920, and put in its final resting place on 28 January 1921. The slab on top bears the inscription: Ici repose un soldat français mort pour la Patrie, 1914–1918 ("Here rests a French soldier who died for the Fatherland, 1914–1918").
In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy paid their respects at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, accompanied by President Charles de Gaulle. After the 1963 assassination of President Kennedy, Mrs. Kennedy remembered the eternal flame at the Arc de Triomphe and requested that an eternal flame be placed next to her husband's grave at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.
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Arc de Triomphe
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Details
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Details
The four main sculptural groups on each of the Arc's pillars are:
Le Départ de 1792 (or La Marseillaise), by François Rude. The sculptural group celebrates the cause of the French First Republic during the insurrection of 10 August 1792. Above the volunteers is the winged personification of Liberty. This group served as a recruitment tool in the early months of World War I and encouraged the French to invest in war loans in 1915–1916.
Le Triomphe de 1810, by Jean-Pierre Cortot celebrates the Treaty of Schönbrunn. This group features Napoleon, crowned by the goddess of Victory.
La Résistance de 1814, by Antoine Étex commemorates the French Resistance to the Allied Armies during the War of the Sixth Coalition.
La Paix de 1815, by Antoine Étex commemorates the Treaty of Paris, concluded in that year.
Six reliefs sculpted on the façades of the arch, representing important moments of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era include:
Les funérailles du général Marceau (General Marceau's burial), by Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire (Southern façade, right).
La bataille d'Aboukir (The Battle of Aboukir), by Bernard Seurre (Southern façade, left).
La bataille de Jemappes (The Battle of Jemappes), by Carlo Marochetti (Eastern façade).
Le passage du pont d'Arcole (The Battle of Arcole), by Jean-Jacques Feuchère (Northern façade, right).
La prise d'Alexandrie (The Fall of Alexandria), by John-Étienne Chaponnière (Northern façade, left).
La bataille d'Austerlitz (The Battle of Austerlitz), by Jean-François-Théodore Gechter (Western façade).
The names of 158 battles fought by the French First Republic and the First French Empire are engraved on the monument. Among them, 30 battles are engraved on the attic:
96 battles are engraved on the inner façades, under the great arches:
The names of 660 military leaders who served during the French First Republic and the First French Empire are engraved on the inner façades of the small arches. Underlined names signify those who died on the battlefield:
The spandrels of the great arches are decorated with allegorical figures representing characters in Roman mythology (by James Pradier):
The ceilings with sculpted roses:
Interior of the Arc de Triomphe:
There are several plaques at the foot of the monument:
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Arc de Triomphe
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Access
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Access
The Arc de Triomphe is accessible by the RER and Métro, with exit at the Charles de Gaulle–Étoile station. Because of heavy traffic on the roundabout of which the Arc is the centre, pedestrians use the two underpasses located at the Champs-Élysées and the Avenue de la Grande Armée. A lift will take visitors almost to the top – to the attic, where a small museum contains large models of the Arc and tells its story from the time of its construction. Another 40 steps remain to climb to reach the top, the terrasse, from where one can enjoy a panoramic view of Paris.
The location of the arc, as well as the Place de l'Étoile, is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east).
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Arc de Triomphe
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Replicas
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Replicas
While many structures around the world resemble the Arc de Triomphe, some were actually inspired by it. Replicas that used its design as a model include the Rosedale World War I Memorial Arch in Kansas City, US (1924); the Arcul de Triumf in Bucharest, Romania (1936); the Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, North Korea (1982); and a miniature version at the Paris Casino in Las Vegas, US (1999).
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Arc de Triomphe
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See also
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See also
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
List of works by James Pradier
Napoleon's tomb
Bastille Day military parade
Romanian Arcul de Triumf
List of tourist attractions in Paris
List of post-Roman triumphal arches
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Arc de Triomphe
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Notes
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Notes
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Arc de Triomphe
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References
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References
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Arc de Triomphe
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External links
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External links
Inscriptions on the Arc de Triomphe
Clarification of history of Arc de Triomphe
The permanent exhibition inside the Arc de Triomphe
View from the Arc de Triomphe
Category:Triumphal arches in France
Category:Monuments and memorials related to Napoleonic Wars
Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1836
Category:Monuments and memorials in Paris
Category:Neoclassical architecture in Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 8th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 16th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Buildings and structures in the 17th arrondissement of Paris
Category:Landmarks in France
Category:Champs-Élysées
Category:Terminating vistas in Paris
Category:Monuments of the Centre des monuments nationaux
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Arc de Triomphe
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Table of Content
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short description, History, Construction and late 19th century, 20th century, 21st century, Design, Monument, Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Details, Access, Replicas, See also, Notes, References, External links
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April 21
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pp-move
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April 21
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Events
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Events
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April 21
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Pre-1600
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Pre-1600
753 BC – Romulus founds Rome (traditional date).
43 BC – Battle of Mutina: Mark Antony is again defeated in battle by Aulus Hirtius, who is killed. Antony fails to capture Mutina and Decimus Brutus is murdered shortly after.
900 – The Laguna Copperplate Inscription (the earliest known written document found in what is now the Philippines): the Commander-in-Chief of the Kingdom of Tondo, as represented by the Honourable Jayadewa, Lord Minister of Pailah, pardons from all debt the Honourable Namwaran and his relations.
1092 – The Diocese of Pisa is elevated to the rank of metropolitan archdiocese by Pope Urban II
1506 – The three-day Lisbon Massacre comes to an end with the slaughter of over 1,900 suspected Jews by Portuguese Catholics.
1509 – Henry VIII ascends the throne of England on the death of his father, Henry VII.
1526 – The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodi is defeated and killed by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat.
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April 21
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1601–1900
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1601–1900
1615 – The Wignacourt Aqueduct is inaugurated in Malta.
1782 – The city of Rattanakosin, now known internationally as Bangkok, is founded on the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya River by King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke.
1789 – John Adams sworn in as first US Vice President (nine days before George Washington).
1789 – George Washington's reception at Trenton is hosted by the Ladies of Trenton as he journeys to New York City for his first inauguration.
1792 – Tiradentes, a revolutionary leading a movement for Brazil's independence, is hanged, drawn and quartered.
1796 – War of the First Coalition: In the climax of the Montenotte Campaign, Napoleon Bonaparte decisively defeats the army of Piedmont at the Battle of Mondovi, leading to Piedmont's surrender a week later and decisively turning the Italian campaign in France's favor.
1802 – Twelve thousand Wahhabis sack Karbala, killing over three thousand inhabitants.
1806 – Action of 21 April 1806: A French frigate escapes British forces off the coast of South Africa.
1809 – Two Austrian army corps are driven from Landshut by a First French Empire army led by Napoleon as two French corps to the north hold off the main Austrian army on the first day of the Battle of Eckmühl.
1821 – Benderli Ali Pasha arrives in Constantinople as the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire; he remains in power for only nine days before being sent into exile.
1836 – Texas Revolution: The Battle of San Jacinto: Republic of Texas forces under Sam Houston defeat troops under Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna.
1856 – Australian labour movement: Stonemasons and building workers on building sites around Melbourne march from the University of Melbourne to Parliament House to achieve an eight-hour day.
1894 – Norway formally adopts the Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifle as the main arm of its armed forces, a weapon that would remain in service for almost 50 years.
1898 – Spanish–American War: The United States Navy begins a blockade of Cuban ports. When the U.S. Congress issued a declaration of war on April 25, it declared that a state of war had existed from this date.
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April 21
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1901–present
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1901–present
1914 – Ypiranga incident: A German arms shipment to Mexico is intercepted by the U.S. Navy near Veracruz.
1918 – World War I: German fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen, better known as "The Red Baron", is shot down and killed over Vaux-sur-Somme in France.
1926 – Al-Baqi cemetery, former site of the mausoleum of four Shi'a Imams, is leveled to the ground by Wahhabis.
1934 – The "Surgeon's Photograph", the most famous photo allegedly showing the Loch Ness Monster, is published in the Daily Mail (in 1994, it is revealed to be a hoax).
1945 – World War II: Soviet forces south of Berlin at Zossen attack the German High Command headquarters.
1946 – The U.S. Weather Bureau records that a tornado which struck Timber Lake, South Dakota was , among the widest tornadoes on record.
1948 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 relating to Kashmir conflict is adopted.
1950 – The Nainital wedding massacre occurs, killing 22 members of the Harijan caste.22 guests slain, The Bend Bulletin (21 April 1950)22 guests slain as wedding held, The Ogden Standard-Examiner (21 April 1950)Drunk Gurkha Kills 22, Los Angeles Times (22 April 1950) Murders 22 at wedding, The Huntingdon Daily News (22 April 1950)
1952 – Secretary's Day (now Administrative Professionals' Day) is first celebrated.
1958 – United Air Lines Flight 736 collides with a United States Air Force fighter jet near Arden, Nevada in what is now Enterprise, Nevada.
1960 – Brasília, Brazil's capital, is officially inaugurated. At 09:30, the Three Powers of the Republic are simultaneously transferred from the old capital, Rio de Janeiro.
1962 – The Seattle World's Fair (Century 21 Exposition) opens. It is the first World's Fair in the United States since World War II.
1963 – The first election of the Universal House of Justice is held, marking its establishment as the supreme governing institution of the Baháʼí Faith.
1964 – A Transit-5bn satellite fails to reach orbit after launch; as it re-enters the atmosphere, of radioactive plutonium in its SNAP RTG power source is widely dispersed.
1965 – The 1964–1965 New York World's Fair opens for its second and final season.
1966 – Rastafari movement: Haile Selassie of Ethiopia visits Jamaica, an event now celebrated as Grounation Day.
1967 – A few days before the general election in Greece, Colonel George Papadopoulos leads a coup d'état, establishing a military regime that lasts for seven years.
1972 – Astronauts John Young and Charles Duke fly Apollo 16's Apollo Lunar Module to the Moon's surface, the fifth NASA Apollo Program crewed lunar landing.Landing site/. Retrieved 25 March 2019
1975 – Vietnam War: President of South Vietnam Nguyễn Văn Thiệu flees Saigon, as Xuân Lộc, the last South Vietnamese outpost blocking a direct North Vietnamese assault on Saigon, falls.
1977 – Annie opens on Broadway.
1982 – Baseball: Rollie Fingers of the Milwaukee Brewers becomes the first pitcher to record 300 saves.
1985 – The compound of the militant group The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord surrenders to federal authorities in Arkansas after a two-day government siege.
1987 – The Tamil Tigers are blamed for a car bomb that detonates in the Sri Lankan capital city of Colombo, killing 106 people.
1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989: In Beijing, around 100,000 students gather in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Chinese reform leader Hu Yaobang.
1993 – The Supreme Court in La Paz, Bolivia, sentences former dictator Luis García Meza to 30 years in jail without parole for murder, theft, fraud and violating the constitution.
2004 – Five suicide car bombers target police stations in and around Basra, killing 74 people and wounding 160.
2010 – The controversial Kharkiv Pact (Russian Ukrainian Naval Base for Gas Treaty) is signed in Kharkiv, Ukraine, by Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev; it was unilaterally terminated by Russia on March 31, 2014.
2012 – Two trains are involved in a head-on collision near Sloterdijk, Amsterdam, in the Netherlands, killing one person and injuring 116 others.
2014 – The American city of Flint, Michigan switches its water source to the Flint River, beginning the ongoing Flint water crisis which has caused lead poisoning in up to 12,000 people, and at least 12 deaths from Legionnaires' disease, ultimately leading to criminal indictments against 15 people, five of whom have been charged with involuntary manslaughter.
2019 – Eight bombs explode at churches, hotels, and other locations in Sri Lanka on Easter Sunday, killing at least 269.
2021 – Indonesian Navy submarine KRI Nanggala (402) sinks in the Bali Sea during a military drill, killing all 53 on board.
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April 21
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Births
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Births
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April 21
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Pre-1600
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Pre-1600
1132 – Sancho VI, king of Navarre (d. 1194)
1488 – Ulrich von Hutten, German religious reformer (d. 1523)
1523 – Marco Antonio Bragadin, Venetian lawyer and military officer (d. 1571)
1555 – Ludovico Carracci, Italian painter and etcher (d. 1619)
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April 21
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1601–1900
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1601–1900
1619 – Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch founder of Cape Town (d. 1677)
1630 – Pieter Gerritsz van Roestraten, Dutch-English painter (d. 1700)
1631 – Francesco Maidalchini, Catholic cardinal (d. 1700)
1642 – Simon de la Loubère, French mathematician, poet, and diplomat (d. 1729)
1651 – Joseph Vaz, Sri Lankan priest, missionary, and saint (d. 1711)
1652 – Michel Rolle, French mathematician and academic (d. 1719)
1671 – John Law, Scottish economist (d. 1729)
1673 – Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1742)
1713 – Louis de Noailles, French general (d. 1793)
1730 – Antonín Kammel, Czech violinist and composer (d. 1788)
1752 – Pierre-Alexandre-Laurent Forfait, French engineer, hydrographer, and politician, French Minister of Marine and the Colonies (d. 1807)
1752 – Humphry Repton, English gardener and author (d. 1818)
1774 – Jean-Baptiste Biot, French physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1862)
1775 – Alexander Anderson, Scottish-American illustrator and engraver (d. 1870)
1783 – Reginald Heber, English priest (d. 1821); re-printed 2015 by Facsimile Publisher and distributed by Gyan Books, New Delhi.
1790 – Manuel Blanco Encalada, Spanish-Chilean admiral and politician, 1st President of Chile (d. 1876)
1810 – John Putnam Chapin, American politician, 10th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1864)
1811 – Alson Sherman, American merchant and politician, 8th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1903)
1814 – Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts, English art collector and philanthropist (d. 1906)
1816 – Charlotte Brontë, English novelist and poet (d. 1855)
1837 – Fredrik Bajer, Danish lieutenant and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1922)
1838 – John Muir, Scottish-American environmentalist and author (d. 1914)
1854 – William Stang, German-American bishop (d. 1907)
1864 – Max Weber, German economist and sociologist (d. 1920)
1868 – Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (d. 1932)
1868 – Mary Rogers Miller, American author and educator (d. 1971)
1870 – Edwin Stanton Porter, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1941)
1874 – Vincent Scotto, French composer and actor (d. 1952)
1882 – Percy Williams Bridgman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)
1885 – Tatu Kolehmainen, Finnish runner (d. 1967)
1887 – Joe McCarthy, American baseball manager (d. 1978)
1889 – Marcel Boussac, French businessman (d. 1980)
1889 – Paul Karrer, Russian-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
1889 – Efrem Zimbalist, Sr., Russian-American violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1985)
1892 – Freddie Dixon, English motorcycle racer and racing driver (d. 1956)
1893 – Romeo Bertini, Italian runner (d. 1973)
1897 – Odd Lindbäck-Larsen, Norwegian Army general and war historian (d. 1975)
1898 – Maurice Wilson, English soldier, pilot, and mountaineer (d. 1934)
1899 – Randall Thompson, American composer and academic (d. 1984)
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April 21
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1901–present
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1901–present
1903 – Luis Saslavsky, Argentinian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995)
1904 – Jean Hélion, French painter (d. 1987)
1904 – Odilo Globocnik, Italian-Austrian SS officer (d. 1945)
1905 – Pat Brown, American lawyer and politician, 32nd Governor of California (d. 1996)
1911 – Ivan Combe, American businessman, developed Clearasil (d. 2000)
1911 – Kemal Satır, Turkish physician and politician (d. 1991)
1912 – Eve Arnold, Russian-American photojournalist (d. 2012)
1912 – Marcel Camus, French director and screenwriter (d. 1982)
1913 – Norman Parkinson, English photographer (d. 1990)
1914 – Angelo Savoldi, Italian-American wrestler and promoter, co-founded International World Class Championship Wrestling (d. 2013)
1915 – Garrett Hardin, American ecologist, author, and academic (d. 2003)
1915 – Anthony Quinn, Mexican-American actor (d. 2001)
1916 – Estella B. Diggs, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)
1918 – Eddy Christiani, Dutch singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)
1919 – Don Cornell, American singer (d. 2004)
1919 – Roger Doucet, Canadian tenor (d. 1981)
1919 – Licio Gelli, Italian financer (d. 2015)
1922 – Alistair MacLean, Scottish novelist and screenwriter (d. 1987)
1922 – Allan Watkins, Welsh-English cricketer (d. 2011)
1923 – John Mortimer, English lawyer and author (d. 2009)
1924 – Ira Louvin, American singer-songwriter and mandolin player (d. 1965)
1925 – Anthony Mason, Australian soldier and judge, 9th Chief Justice of Australia
1925 – John Swinton of Kimmerghame, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire (d. 2018)
1926 – Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom and her other realms (d. 2022)
1926 – Arthur Rowley, English footballer, manager, and cricketer (d. 2002)
1927 – Ahmed Arif, Turkish poet and author (d. 1991)
1928 – Jack Evans, Welsh-Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1996)
1930 – Hilda Hilst, Brazilian author, poet, and playwright (d. 2004)
1930 – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (d. 1989)
1930 – Dieter Roth, German-Swiss illustrator and sculptor (d. 1998)
1930 – Jack Taylor, English footballer and referee (d. 2012)
1931 – Morgan Wootten, American high school basketball coach (d. 2020)
1932 – Slide Hampton, African-American trombonist and composer (d. 2021)
1932 – Elaine May, American actress, comedian, director, and screenwriter
1932 – Angela Mortimer, English tennis player
1933 – Edelmiro Amante, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
1933 – Easley Blackwood, Jr., American pianist, composer, and educator (d. 2023)
1933 – Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Iraqi patriarch (d. 2014)
1935 – Charles Grodin, American actor and talk show host (d. 2021)
1935 – Thomas Kean, American academic and politician, 48th Governor of New Jersey
1936 – James Dobson, American evangelist, psychologist, and author, founded Focus on the Family
1936 – Reg Fleming, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 2009)
1937 – Gary Peters, American baseball player (d. 2023)
1937 – Ben Zinn, Israeli-born American academic and former international soccer player
1939 – John McCabe, English pianist and composer (d. 2015)
1939 – Sister Helen Prejean, American nun, activist, and author
1939 – Reni Santoni, American actor (d. 2020)
1940 – Jacques Caron, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
1940 – Souleymane Cissé, Malian director, producer, and screenwriter
1941 – David Boren, American lawyer and politician, 21st Governor of Oklahoma (d. 2025)
1942 – Geoffrey Palmer, New Zealand politician, 33rd Prime Minister of New Zealand
1945 – Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan, Indian cricketer and umpire
1945 – Mark Wainberg, Canadian researcher and HIV/AIDS activist (d. 2017)
1945 – Diana Darvey, English actress, singer and dancer (d. 2000)
1947 – Al Bumbry, American baseball player
1947 – Iggy Pop, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
1947 – John Weider, English bass player
1948 – Gary Condit, American businessman and politician
1948 – Paul Davis, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 2008)
1948 – Josef Flammer, Swiss ophthalmologist
1948 – Dieter Fromm, German runner
1949 – Patti LuPone, American actress and singer
1950 – Shivaji Satam, Indian actor
1951 – Tony Danza, American actor and producer
1951 – Michael Freedman, American mathematician and academic
1951 – Bob Varsha, American sportscaster
1951 – Steve Vickers, Canadian ice hockey player
1952 – Gerald Early, American author and academic
1952 – Cheryl Gillan, British businesswoman and politician, Secretary of State for Wales (d. 2021)
1953 – John Brumby, Australian politician, 45th Premier of Victoria
1954 – Ebiet G. Ade, Indonesian singer-songwriter and guitarist
1954 – James Morrison, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
1954 – Mike Wingfield, South African academic and scientist
1955 – Murathan Mungan, Turkish author, poet, and playwright
1956 – Peter Kosminsky, English director, producer, and screenwriter
1956 – Phillip Longman, German-American demographer and journalist
1957 – Hervé Le Tellier, French linguist and author
1957 – Herbert Wetterauer, German painter, sculptor, and author
1958 – Andie MacDowell, American model, actress, and producer
1958 – Yoshito Usui, Japanese illustrator (d. 2009)
1958 – Michael Zarnock, American author
1959 – Tim Jacobus, American illustrator and painter
1959 – Robert Smith, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1961 – David Servan-Schreiber, French physician, neuroscientist, and author (d. 2011)
1963 – Ken Caminiti, American baseball player (d. 2004)
1965 – Fiona Kelleghan, American academic, critic and librarian
1969 – Toby Stephens, English actor
1970 – Rob Riggle, American actor and comedian
1971 – Michael Turner, American author and illustrator (d. 2008)
1973 – Steve Backshall, English naturalist, writer, and television presenter
1974 – David Peachey, Australian rugby league playerRugby League Project
1976 – Petero Civoniceva, Fijian-Australian rugby league playerRugby League Project
1977 – Gyula Koi, Hungarian scholar and educator
1977 – Jamie Salé, Canadian figure skater
1979 – Virginie Basselot, French chef
1979 – James McAvoy, Scottish actor
1980 – Tony Romo, American football player and announcer
1983 – Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (d. 2020)
1983 – Kim Wall, British sprinter
1988 – Ricky Berens, American swimmer
1988 – Jencarlos Canela, American singer-songwriter and actor
1989 – Nikki Cross, Scottish wrestler
1992 – Isco, Spanish footballer
1992 – Joc Pederson, American baseball player
1994 – Ludwig Augustinsson, Swedish footballer
1996 – Arianne Hartono, Dutch tennis player
1997 – Mikel Oyarzabal, Spanish footballer
1998 – Jarrett Allen, American basketball player
1999 – Choi Hyun-suk, South Korean rapper
2003 – Xavi Simons, Dutch footballer
2007 – Princess Isabella of Denmark, daughter of King Frederik X and Queen Mary of DenmarkKongehuset – Aktuelt – Den Kongelige Families Kongehuset.dk (21 May 2010). Retrieved 18 July 2015.
2008 – Hyein, South Korean singer
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April 21
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Deaths
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Deaths
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April 21
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Pre-1600
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Pre-1600
234 – Emperor Xian of Han, Chinese emperor (b. 181)
586 – Liuvigild, king of the Visigoths
847 – Odgar, Frankish archbishop of Mainz
866 – Bardas, de facto regent of the Byzantine Empire
941 – Bajkam, de facto regent of the Abbasid Caliphate
1073 – Pope Alexander II
1109 – Anselm of Canterbury, Italian-English archbishop and saint (b. 1033)
1136 – Stephen, Count of Tréguier Breton noblemen (b. )
1142 – Peter Abelard, French philosopher and theologian (b. 1079)
1213 – Maria of Montpellier, Lady of Montpellier, Queen of Aragon (b. 1182)
1329 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1282)
1400 – John Wittlebury, English politician (b. 1333)
1509 – Henry VII of England (b. 1457)
1557 – Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1495)
1574 – Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1519)
1591 – Sen no Rikyū, Japanese exponent of the tea ceremony (b. 1522)
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April 21
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1601–1900
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1601–1900
1650 – Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (b. 1607)
1668 – Jan Boeckhorst, Flemish painter (b. )
1699 – Jean Racine, French playwright and poet (b. 1639)
1719 – Philippe de La Hire, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1640)
1720 – Antoine Hamilton, Irish-French soldier and author (b. 1646)
1722 – Robert Beverley, Jr., English historian and author (b. 1673)
1736 – Prince Eugene of Savoy (b. 1663)
1740 – Thomas Tickell, English poet and author (b. 1685)
1758 – Francesco Zerafa, Maltese architect (b. 1679)
1815 – Joseph Winston, American soldier and politician (b. 1746)
1825 – Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician and academic (b. 1765)
1852 – Ivan Nabokov, Russian general (b. 1787)
1863 – Sir Robert Bateson, 1st Baronet, Irish politician (b. 1782)
1900 – Vikramatji Khimojiraj, Indian ruler (b. 1819)
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April 21
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1901–present
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1901–present
1910 – Mark Twain, American novelist, humorist, and critic (b. 1835)
1918 – Manfred von Richthofen, German captain and pilot (b. 1892)
1924 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (b. 1858)
1930 – Robert Bridges, English poet and author (b. 1844)
1932 – Friedrich Gustav Piffl, Bohemian cardinal (b. 1864)
1938 – Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistani National philosopher and poet (b. 1877)
1941 – Fritz Manteuffel, German gymnast (b. 1875)
1945 – Walter Model, German field marshal (b. 1891)
1946 – John Maynard Keynes, English economist and philosopher (b. 1883)
1948 – Aldo Leopold, American ecologist and author (b. 1887)
1952 – Leslie Banks, American actor, director and producer (b. 1890)
1954 – Emil Leon Post, Polish-American mathematician and logician (b. 1897)
1956 – Charles MacArthur, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1895)
1965 – Edward Victor Appleton, English-Scottish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892)
1971 – François Duvalier, Haitian physician and politician, 40th President of Haiti (b. 1907)
1973 – Arthur Fadden, Australian accountant and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894)
1973 – Kemal Tahir, Turkish journalist and author (b. 1910)
1977 – Gummo Marx, American vaudevillian and talent agent (b. 1892)
1978 – Sandy Denny, English singer-songwriter (b. 1947)
1978 – Thomas Wyatt Turner, American biologist and academic (b. 1877)
1980 – Alexander Oparin, Russian biochemist and academic (b. 1894)
1980 – Sohrab Sepehri, Iranian poet and painter (b. 1928)
1983 – Walter Slezak, Austrian-American actor and singer (b. 1902)
1984 – Marcel Janco, Romanian-Israeli artist (b. 1895)
1984 – Hristo Prodanov, Bulgarian engineer and mountaineer (b. 1943)
1985 – Rudi Gernreich, Austrian-American fashion designer, created the monokini (b. 1922)
1985 – Tancredo Neves, Brazilian banker and politician, Prime Minister of Brazil (b. 1910)
1986 – Marjorie Eaton, American painter and actress (b. 1901)
1986 – Salah Jahin, Egyptian poet, playwright, and composer (b. 1930)
1987 – Gustav Bergmann, Austrian-American philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b. 1906)
1990 – Erté, Russian-French illustrator (b. 1892)
1991 – Willi Boskovsky, Austrian violinist and conductor (b. 1909)
1992 – Väinö Linna, Finnish author (b. 1920)
1996 – Abdul Hafeez Kardar, Pakistani cricketer (b. 1925)
1996 – Jimmy Snyder, American sportscaster (b. 1919)
1998 – Jean-François Lyotard, French sociologist and philosopher (b. 1924)
1999 – Buddy Rogers, American actor (b. 1904)
2003 – Nina Simone, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and activist (b. 1933)
2005 – Zhang Chunqiao, Chinese writer and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1917)
2010 – Gustav Lorentzen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1947)
2010 – Juan Antonio Samaranch, Spanish businessman, seventh President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1920)
2010 – Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan-English engineer and civil servant (b. 1930)
2011 – Catharina Halkes, Dutch theologian and academic (b. 1920)
2012 – Doris Betts, American author and academic (b. 1932)
2013 – Shakuntala Devi, Indian mathematician and astrologer (b. 1929)
2013 – Leopold Engleitner, Austrian Holocaust survivor, author, and educator (b. 1905)
2014 – George H. Heilmeier, American engineer (b. 1936)
2014 – Win Tin, Burmese journalist and politician, co-founded the National League for Democracy (b. 1930)
2016 – Prince, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1958)
2017 – Ugo Ehiogu, English footballer (b. 1972)
2018 – Nabi Tajima, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1900)
2019 – Polly Higgins, Scottish barrister, author and environmental lobbyist (b. 1968)
2024 – Terry A. Anderson, American journalist (b. 1947)
2025 – Pope Francis (b. 1936)
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April 21
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Holidays and observances
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Holidays and observances
Christian feast day:
Abdecalas
Anastasius Sinaita
Anselm of Canterbury
Beuno
Conrad of Parzham
Holy Infant of Good Health
Shemon Bar Sabbae
Wolbodo
April 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Natale di Roma (Rome)Plutarch, Parallel Lives - Life of Romulus, 12.2 (from LacusCurtius)
Parilia (ancient Rome)
Civil Service Day (India)
Grounation Day (Rastafari)
National Tea Day (United Kingdom)
National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
San Jacinto Day (Texas)
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April 21
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References
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References
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April 21
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Sources
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Sources
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April 21
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External links
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External links
BBC: On This Day
Historical Events on April 21
Category:Days of April
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April 21
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Table of Content
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pp-move, Events, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Births, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Deaths, Pre-1600, 1601–1900, 1901–present, Holidays and observances, References, Sources, External links
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Wiktionary
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An automated teller machine (ATM) is an electronic device that performs financial transactions.
ATM or atm may also refer to:
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Computing, telecommunications, electronics, software
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Computing, telecommunications, electronics, software
ATM (computer), a ZX Spectrum clone developed in Moscow in 1991
Adobe Type Manager, a computer program for managing fonts
Accelerated Turing machine, or Zeno machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
Alternating Turing machine, a model of computation used in theoretical computer science
Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a telecommunications protocol used in networking
ATM adaptation layer
ATM Adaptation Layer 5
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Arts, entertainment, media
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Arts, entertainment, media
Amateur Telescope Making (books), a series of books by Albert Graham Ingalls
"ATM" (song), a 2018 song by J. Cole from KOD
ATM (TV series), an Indian Telugu-language TV series
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Film
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Film
ATM (2012 film), an American film
ATM: Er Rak Error, a 2012 Thai film
Azhagiya Tamil Magan, a 2007 Indian film
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Groups, companies, organizations
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Groups, companies, organizations
Abiding Truth Ministries, anti-LGBT organization in Springfield, Massachusetts, US
Association of Teachers of Mathematics, UK
Acrylic Tank Manufacturing, US aquarium manufacturer, televised in Tanked
ATM FA, a football club in Malaysia
Atlético Madrid (abbreviated AtM), football club in Spain
African Transformation Movement, South African political party founded in 2018
The a2 Milk Company (NZX ticker symbol ATM)
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Science and engineering
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Science and engineering
Atmosphere (unit) (symbol atm), a unit of atmospheric pressure
Apollo Telescope Mount, a solar observatory
ATM serine/threonine kinase, a serine/threonine kinase activated by DNA damage
The Airborne Topographic Mapper, a laser altimeter among the instruments used by NASA's Operation IceBridge
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Transportation
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Transportation
Active traffic management, a motorway scheme on the M42 in England
Air traffic management, a concept in aviation
Altamira Airport (IATA airport code ATM), Brazil
Azienda Trasporti Milanesi, the municipal public transport company of Milan
Par Avion (airline), formerly Airlines of Tasmania, (ICAO airline code ATM)
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Catalonia, Spain
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Catalonia, Spain
Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM Àrea de Barcelona), in the Barcelona metropolitan area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat del Camp de Tarragona (ATM Camp de Tarragona), in the Camp de Tarragona area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Girona (ATM Àrea de Girona), in the Girona area
Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l'Àrea de Lleida (ATM Àrea de Lleida), in the Lleida area
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Other uses
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Other uses
A. T. M. Wilson (1906–1978), British psychiatrist
Actun Tunichil Muknal, a cave in Belize
Anti-tank missile, a missile designed to destroy tanks
Ass to mouth, a sexual act
At the money, moneyness where the strike price is the same as the current spot price
At-the-market offering, a type of follow-on offering of stock
Automatenmarken, a variable value stamp
"at the moment" (atm) in the common abbreviation in SMS language
Texas A&M University, whose lettermark resembles "ATM"
ATM (method), a business model
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ATM (disambiguation)
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See also
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See also
ATMS (disambiguation)
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ATM (disambiguation)
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Table of Content
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Wiktionary, Computing, telecommunications, electronics, software, Arts, entertainment, media, Film, Groups, companies, organizations, Science and engineering, Transportation, Catalonia, Spain, Other uses, See also
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Amazonite
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Short description
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Amazonite, also known as amazonstone, is a green tectosilicate mineral, a variety of the potassium feldspar called microcline. Its chemical formula is KAlSi3O8, which is polymorphic to orthoclase.
Its name is taken from that of the Amazon River, from which green stones were formerly obtained, though it is unknown whether those stones were amazonite. Although it has been used for jewellery for well over three thousand years, as attested by archaeological finds in Middle and New Kingdom EgyptHarrell and Osman 2007 and Mesopotamia, no ancient or medieval authority mentions it. It was first described as a distinct mineral only in the 18th century.Mikhail Ostrooumov, Amazonite: Mineralogy, Crystal Chemistry, and Typomorphism (Elsevier, 2016), p. 1–12.
Green and greenish-blue varieties of potassium feldspars that are predominantly triclinic are designated as amazonite. It has been described as a "beautiful crystallized variety of a bright verdigris-green" and as possessing a "lively green colour". It is occasionally cut and used as a gemstone.
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Amazonite
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Occurrence
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Occurrence
Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. In Bronze Age Egypt, it was mined in the southern Eastern Desert at Gebel Migif. In early modern times, it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of Miass in the Ilmensky Mountains, southwest of Chelyabinsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks.
Amazonite is now known to occur in various places around the world. Those places are, among others, as follows:
Australia:
Eyre Peninsula, Koppio, Baila Hill Mine (Koppio Amazonite Mine)
China:
Baishitouquan granite intrusion, Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang: found in granite
Libya:
Jabal Eghei, Tibesti Mountains: found in granitic rocks
Mongolia:
Avdar Massif, Töv Province: found in alkali granite
Ethiopia:
Konso Zone
South Africa:
Mogalakwena, Limpopo Province
Khâi-Ma, Northern Cape
Kakamas, Northern Cape
Ceres Valley, Western Cape
Sweden:
Skuleboda mine, Västra Götaland County: found in pegmatite
United States:
Colorado:
Deer Trail, Arapahoe County:233
Custer County:234
Devils Head, Douglas County:234
Pine Creek, Douglas County:234
Crystal Park, El Paso County:234
Pikes Peak, El Paso County: found in coarse granites or pegmatite
St. Peter's Dome, El Paso County:234
Tarryall Mountains, Park County:235
Crystal Peak, Teller County:235
Wyoming
Virginia:
Morefield Mine, Amelia County: found in pegmatite
Rutherford Mine, Amelia County
Pennsylvania:
Media, Delaware County:244
Middletown, Delaware County:244
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Amazonite
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Color
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Color
For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Some people assumed the color was due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors. A 1985 study suggests that the blue-green color results from quantities of lead and water in the feldspar. Subsequent 1998 theoretical studies by A. Julg expand on the potential role of aliovalent lead in the color of microcline.
Other studies suggest the colors are associated with the increasing content of lead, rubidium, and thallium ranging in amounts between 0.00X and 0.0X in the feldspars, with even extremely high contents of PbO, lead monoxide, (1% or more) known from the literature. A 2010 study also implicated the role of divalent iron in the green coloration. These studies and associated hypotheses indicate the complex nature of the color in amazonite; in other words, the color may be the aggregate effect of several mutually inclusive and necessary factors.
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Amazonite
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Health
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Health
A 2021 study by the German Institut für Edelsteinprüfung (EPI) found that the amount of lead that leaked from an sample of amazonite into an acidic solution simulating saliva exceeded European Union standard DIN EN 71-3:2013's recommended amount by five times. This experiment was to simulate a child swallowing amazonite, and could also apply to new alternative medicine practices such as inserting the mineral into oils or drinking water for days.
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Amazonite
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Gallery
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Gallery
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Amazonite
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References
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References
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Amazonite
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Further reading
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Further reading
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Amazonite
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External links
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External links
Category:Feldspar
Category:Gemstones
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Amazonite
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Table of Content
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Short description, Occurrence, Color, Health, Gallery, References, Further reading, External links
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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short description
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Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (18 January 1573 – 1621) was a Flemish-born Dutch still life painter and art dealer.Ambrosius Bosschaert at The Netherlands Institute for Art History He is recognised as one of the earliest painters who created floral still lifes as an independent genre.Irene Haberland, Bosschaert family at Oxford Art Online He founded a dynasty of painters who continued his style of floral and fruit painting and turned Middelburg into the leading centre for flower painting in the Dutch Republic.
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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Biography
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Biography
left|thumb|Still-Life with flowers, 1618, Hallwyl Museum, Stockholm.
He was born in Antwerp, where he started his career, but he spent most of it in Middelburg (1587–1613), where he moved with his family because of the threat of religious persecution. He specialized in painting still lifes with flowers, which he signed with the monogram AB (the B in the A). At the age of twenty-one, he joined the city's Guild of Saint Luke and later became dean. Not long after, Bosschaert married and established himself as a leading figure in the fashionable floral painting genre.
He had three sons who all became flower painters: Ambrosius II, Johannes and Abraham. His brother-in-law Balthasar van der Ast also lived and worked in his workshop and accompanied him on his travels. Bosschaert later worked in Amsterdam (1614), Bergen op Zoom (1615–1616), Utrecht (1616–1619), and Breda (1619). In 1619 when he moved to Utrecht, his brother-in-law van der Ast entered the Utrecht Guild of St. Luke, where the renowned painter Abraham Bloemaert had just become dean. The painter Roelandt Savery (1576–1639) entered the St. Luke's guild in Utrecht at about the same time. Savery had considerable influence on the Bosschaert dynasty.
After Bosschaert died in The Hague while on commission there for a flower piece, Balthasar van der Ast took over his workshop and pupils in Middelburg.
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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Style
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Style
thumb|250px|Vase of flowers in a window, 1618, Mauritshuis, The Hague.
His bouquets were painted symmetrically and with scientific accuracy in small dimensions and normally on copper. They sometimes included symbolic and religious meanings. At the time of his death, Bosschaert was working on an important commission in the Hague. That piece is now in the collection in Stockholm.Link to Stockholm piece in the RKD
Bosschaert was one of the first artists to specialize in flower still life painting as a stand-alone subject. He started a tradition of painting detailed flower bouquets, which typically included tulips and roses, and inspired the genre of Dutch flower painting. Thanks to the booming seventeenth-century Dutch art market, he became highly successful, as the inscription on one of his paintings attests.Bouquet of Flowers in a Glass Vase, the painting with inscription at the National Gallery His works commanded high prices although he never achieved the level of prestige of Jan Brueghel the Elder, the Antwerp master who contributed to the floral genre.
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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Legacy
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Legacy
His sons and his pupil and brother-in-law, Balthasar van der Ast, were among those to uphold the Bosschaert dynasty which continued until the mid-17th century.
It may not be a coincidence that this trend coincided with a national obsession with exotic flowers which made flower portraits highly sought after.
Although he was highly in demand, he did not create many pieces because he was also employed as an art dealer.
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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References
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References
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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Bibliography
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Bibliography
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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External links
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External links
Category:1573 births
Category:1621 deaths
Category:Flemish Baroque painters
Category:Dutch flower artists
Category:Dutch Golden Age painters
Category:Dutch male painters
Category:Painters from Antwerp
Category:Painters from Middelburg
Category:Dutch still life painters
Category:Flemish still life painters
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Ambrosius Bosschaert
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Table of Content
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short description, Biography, Style, Legacy, References, Bibliography, External links
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Anthroposophy
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short description
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Anthroposophy is a spiritual new religious movementSources for 'new religious movement': which was founded in the early 20th century by the esotericist Rudolf SteinerAnthroposophy , 1998?, Encyclopedia Britannica online. "Anthroposophy, philosophy based on the premise that the human mind has the ability to contact spiritual worlds. It was formulated by Rudolf Steiner (q.v.), an Austrian philosopher, scientist, and artist, who postulated the existence of a spiritual world comprehensible to pure thought but fully accessible only to the faculties of knowledge latent in all humans." that postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible spiritual world, accessible to human experience. Followers of anthroposophy aim to engage in spiritual discovery through a mode of thought independent of sensory experience."Anthroposophy", Encyclopædia Britannica online, accessed 10/09/07 Though proponents claim to present their ideas in a manner that is verifiable by rational discourse and say that they seek precision and clarity comparable to that obtained by scientists investigating the physical world, many of these ideas have been termed pseudoscientific by experts in epistemology and debunkers of pseudoscience.Sources for 'pseudoscience':
Anthroposophy has its roots in German idealism, Western and Eastern esoteric ideas, various religious traditions, and modern Theosophy.Sources for 'Theosophy': Steiner chose the term anthroposophy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος , 'human', and σοφία sophia, 'wisdom') to emphasize his philosophy's humanistic orientation.Rudolf Steiner, Waldorf Education and Anthroposophy, Anthroposophic Press 1995 He defined it as "a scientific exploration of the spiritual world", others have variously called it a "philosophy and cultural movement", a "spiritual movement", a "spiritual science", "a system of thought", "a speculative and oracular metaphysic", "system [...] replete with esoteric and occult mystifications", or "a spiritualist movement".
Anthroposophical ideas have been applied in a range of fields including education (both in Waldorf schools and in the Camphill movement), environmental conservation and banking; with additional applications in agriculture, organizational development, the arts, and more.Sources for 'additional applications':
The Anthroposophical Society is headquartered at the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland. Anthroposophy's supporters include writers Saul Bellow, and Selma Lagerlöf, painters Piet Mondrian, Wassily Kandinsky and Hilma af Klint, filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky, child psychiatrist Eva Frommer, music therapist Maria Schüppel, Romuva religious founder Vydūnas,Bagdonavičius, Vaclovas. "Similarities and Differences between Vydūnas and Steiner ("Berührungspunkte und Unterschiede zwischen Vydūnas und Steiner"). [In Lithuanian]. Vydūnas und deutsche Kultur, sudarytojai Vacys Bagdonavičius, Aušra Martišiūtė-Linartienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2013, pp. 325–330. and former president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia. While critics and proponents alike acknowledge Steiner's many anti-racist statements, "Steiner's collected works...contain pervasive internal contradictions and inconsistencies on racial and national questions."See also
The historian of religion Olav Hammer has termed anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history". See also p. 98, where Hammer states that – unusually for founders of esoteric movements – Steiner's self-descriptions of the origins of his thought and work correspond to the view of external historians. Many scientists, physicians, and philosophers, including Michael Shermer, Michael Ruse, Edzard Ernst, David Gorski, and Simon Singh have criticized anthroposophy's application in the areas of medicine, biology, agriculture, and education, considering it dangerous and pseudoscientific.Sources for 'dangerous' or 'pseudoscientific': Ideas of Steiner's that are unsupported or disproven by modern science include: racial evolution, clairvoyance (Steiner claimed he was clairvoyant), and the Atlantis myth.Sources for 'Atlantis':
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Anthroposophy
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History
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History
thumb|upright|Rudolf Steiner
The early work of the founder of anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner, culminated in his Philosophy of Freedom (also translated as The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity and Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path). Here, Steiner developed a concept of free will based on inner experiences, especially those that occur in the creative activity of independent thought. "Steiner was a moral individualist".
By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests turned almost exclusively to spirituality. His work began to draw the attention of others interested in spiritual ideas; among these was the Theosophical Society. From 1900 on, thanks to the positive reception his ideas received from Theosophists, Steiner focused increasingly on his work with the Theosophical Society, becoming the secretary of its section in Germany in 1902. During his leadership, membership increased dramatically, from just a few individuals to sixty-nine lodges.Of these, 55 lodges – about 2,500 people – seceded with Steiner to form his new Anthroposophical Society at the end of 1912. Geoffrey Ahern, Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner Movement and Gnosis in the West, 2nd edition , 2009, James Clark and Co, , p. 43
By 1907, a split between Steiner and the Theosophical Society became apparent. While the Society was oriented toward an Eastern and especially Indian approach, Steiner was trying to develop a path that embraced Christianity and natural science.Gary Lachman, Rudolf Steiner, New York:Tarcher/Penguin The split became irrevocable when Annie Besant, then president of the Theosophical Society, presented the child Jiddu Krishnamurti as the reincarnated Christ. Steiner strongly objected and considered any comparison between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense; many years later, Krishnamurti also repudiated the assertion. Steiner's continuing differences with Besant led him to separate from the Theosophical Society Adyar. He was subsequently followed by the great majority of the Theosophical Society's German members, as well as many members of other national sections.
By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher and expert in the occult.Ahern, Geoffrey. (1984): Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner movement and the Western esoteric tradition He spoke about what he considered to be his direct experience of the Akashic Records (sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history, pre-history, and future of the world and mankind. In a number of works,especially How to Know Higher Worlds and An Outline of Esoteric Science Steiner described a path of inner development he felt would let anyone attain comparable spiritual experiences. In Steiner's view, sound vision could be developed, in part, by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration, and meditation. In particular, Steiner believed a person's spiritual development could occur only after a period of moral development.
thumb|right|Second Goetheanum, seat of the Anthroposophical Society
In 1912, Steiner broke away from the Theosophical Society to found an independent group, which he named the Anthroposophical Society. After World War I, members of the young society began applying Steiner's ideas to create cultural movements in areas such as traditional and special education, farming, and medicine.
By 1923, a schism had formed between older members, focused on inner development, and younger members eager to become active in contemporary social transformations. In response, Steiner attempted to bridge the gap by establishing an overall School for Spiritual Science. As a spiritual basis for the reborn movement, Steiner wrote a Foundation Stone Meditation which remains a central touchstone of anthroposophical ideas.
Steiner died just over a year later, in 1925. The Second World War temporarily hindered the anthroposophical movement in most of Continental Europe, as the Anthroposophical Society and most of its practical counter-cultural applications were banned by the Nazi government. Though at least one prominent member of the Nazi Party, Rudolf Hess, was a strong supporter of anthroposophy, very few anthroposophists belonged to the National Socialist Party.Sources for 'Nazi Party': In reality, Steiner had both enemies and loyal supporters in the upper echelons of the Nazi regime. Staudenmaier speaks of the "polycratic party-state apparatus", so Nazism's approach to Anthroposophy was not characterized by monolithic ideological unity. When Hess flew to the UK and was imprisoned, their most powerful protector was gone, but Anthroposophists were still not left without supporters among higher-placed Nazis.
The Third Reich had banned almost all esoteric organizations, claiming that these were controlled by Jews. The truth was that while Anthroposophists complained of bad press, they were to a surprising extent tolerated by the Nazi regime, "including outspokenly supportive pieces in the Völkischer Beobachter". Ideological purists from Sicherheitsdienst argued largely in vain against Anthroposophy. According to Staudenmaier, "The prospect of unmitigated persecution was held at bay for years in a tenuous truce between pro-anthroposophical and anti-anthroposophical Nazi factions."
Morals: Anthroposophy was not the stake of that dispute, but merely powerful Nazis wanting to get rid of other powerful Nazis. E.g. Jehovah's Witnesses were treated much more aggressively than Anthroposophists.
Kurlander stated that "the Nazis were hardly ideologically opposed to the supernatural sciences themselves"—rather they objected to the free (i.e. non-totalitarian) pursuit of supernatural sciences.
According to Hans Büchenbacher, an anthroposophist, the Secretary General of the General Anthroposophical Society, Guenther Wachsmuth, as well as Steiner's widow, Marie Steiner, were "completely pro-Nazi."Staudenmaier (2014: 18, 79). Quote: Though raised Catholic, Büchenbacher had partial Jewish ancestry and was considered a “half-Jew” by Nazi standards. He emigrated to Switzerland in 1936. According to his post-war memoirs, “approximately two thirds of German anthroposophists more or less succumbed to National Socialism.” He reported that various influential anthroposophists were “deeply infected by Nazi views” and “staunchly supported Hitler.” Both Guenther Wachsmuth, Secretary of the Swiss-based General Anthroposophical Society, and Marie Steiner, the widow of Rudolf Steiner, were described as “completely pro-Nazi.” Büchenbacher retrospectively lamented the far-reaching “Nazi sins” of his colleagues. Marie Steiner-von Sivers, Guenther Wachsmuth, and Albert Steffen, had publicly expressed sympathy for the Nazi regime since its beginnings; led by such sympathies of their leadership, the Swiss and German Anthroposophical organizations chose for a path conflating accommodation with collaboration, which in the end ensured that while the Nazi regime hunted the esoteric organizations, Gentile Anthroposophists from Nazi Germany and countries occupied by it were let be to a surprising extent. Of course they had some setbacks from the enemies of Anthroposophy among the upper echelons of the Nazi regime, but Anthroposophists also had loyal supporters among them, so overall Gentile Anthroposophists were not badly hit by the Nazi regime.
Staudenmaier's overall argument is that "there were often no clear-cut lines between theosophy, anthroposophy, ariosophy, astrology and the völkisch movement from which the Nazi Party arose."
By 2007, national branches of the Anthroposophical Society had been established in fifty countries and about 10,000 institutions around the world were working on the basis of anthroposophical ideas.
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Anthroposophy
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Etymology and earlier uses of the word
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Etymology and earlier uses of the word
Anthroposophy is an amalgam of the Greek terms ( 'human') and ( 'wisdom'). An early English usage is recorded by Nathan Bailey (1742) as meaning "the knowledge of the nature of man"."Anthroposophy", OED
thumb|right |upright|Ignaz Paul Vitalis Troxler
The first known use of the term anthroposophy occurs within Arbatel de magia veterum, summum sapientiae studium, a book published anonymously in 1575 and attributed to Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa. The work describes anthroposophy (as well as theosophy) variously as an understanding of goodness, nature, or human affairs. In 1648, the Welsh philosopher Thomas Vaughan published his Anthroposophia Theomagica, or a discourse of the nature of man and his state after death.Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes): Anthroposophia Theomagica, or a discourse of the nature of man and his state after death. Oxford 1648
The term began to appear with some frequency in philosophical works of the mid- and late-nineteenth century.The term was used for example in a discussion of Boehme in Notes and Queries, May 9, 1863, p. 373 In the early part of that century, Ignaz Troxler used the term anthroposophy to refer to philosophy deepened to self-knowledge, which he suggested allows deeper knowledge of nature as well. He spoke of human nature as a mystical unity of God and world. Immanuel Hermann Fichte used the term anthroposophy to refer to "rigorous human self-knowledge", achievable through thorough comprehension of the human spirit and of the working of God in this spirit, in his 1856 work Anthropology: The Study of the Human Soul. In 1872, the philosopher of religion Gideon Spicker used the term anthroposophy to refer to self-knowledge that would unite God and world: "the true study of the human being is the human being, and philosophy's highest aim is self-knowledge, or Anthroposophy."Die Philosophie des Grafen von Shaftesbury, 1872
In 1882, the philosopher Robert Zimmermann published the treatise, "An Outline of Anthroposophy: Proposal for a System of Idealism on a Realistic Basis," proposing that idealistic philosophy should employ logical thinking to extend empirical experience.Anthroposophie im Umriß. Entwurf eines Systems idealer Weltsicht auf realistischer Grundlage, 1882 Steiner attended lectures by Zimmermann at the University of Vienna in the early 1880s, thus at the time of this book's publication.Robert Zimmermann Geschichte der Aesthetik als philosophische Wissenschaft. Vienna, 1858. Anthroposophie im Umriss-Entwurf eines Systems idealer Weltansicht auf realistischer Grundlage. (Vienna, 1882): Steiner, Anthroposophic Movement: Lecture Two: The Unveiling of Spiritual Truths, 11 June 1923.
In the early 1900s, Steiner began using the term anthroposophy (i.e. human wisdom) as an alternative to the term theosophy (i.e. divine wisdom).
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Anthroposophy
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Central ideas
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Central ideas
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Anthroposophy
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Spiritual knowledge and freedom
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Spiritual knowledge and freedom
Anthroposophical proponents aim to extend the clarity of the scientific method to phenomena of human soul-life and spiritual experiences. Steiner believed this required developing new faculties of objective spiritual perception, which he maintained was still possible for contemporary humans. The steps of this process of inner development he identified as consciously achieved imagination, inspiration, and intuition. Steiner believed results of this form of spiritual research should be expressed in a way that can be understood and evaluated on the same basis as the results of natural science.
Steiner hoped to form a spiritual movement that would free the individual from any external authority., Schneider quotes here from Steiner's dissertation, Truth and Knowledge For Steiner, the human capacity for rational thought would allow individuals to comprehend spiritual research on their own and bypass the danger of dependency on an authority such as himself.
Steiner contrasted the anthroposophical approach with both conventional mysticism, which he considered lacking the clarity necessary for exact knowledge, and natural science, which he considered arbitrarily limited to what can be seen, heard, or felt with the outward senses.
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Anthroposophy
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Nature of the human being
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Nature of the human being
thumb|upright|The Representative of Humanity, detail of a sculpture in wood by Rudolf Steiner and Edith Maryon
In Theosophy, Steiner suggested that human beings unite a physical body of substances gathered from and returning to the inorganic world; a life body (also called the etheric body), in common with all living creatures (including plants); a bearer of sentience or consciousness (also called the astral body), in common with all animals; and the ego, which anchors the faculty of self-awareness unique to human beings.
Anthroposophy describes a broad evolution of human consciousness. Early stages of human evolution possess an intuitive perception of reality, including a clairvoyant perception of spiritual realities. Humanity has progressively evolved an increasing reliance on intellectual faculties and a corresponding loss of intuitive or clairvoyant experiences, which have become atavistic. The increasing intellectualization of consciousness, initially a progressive direction of evolution, has led to an excessive reliance on abstraction and a loss of contact with both natural and spiritual realities. However, to go further requires new capacities that combine the clarity of intellectual thought with the imagination and with consciously achieved inspiration and intuitive insights.
Anthroposophy speaks of the reincarnation of the human spirit: that the human being passes between stages of existence, incarnating into an earthly body, living on earth, leaving the body behind, and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth. After the death of the physical body, the human spirit recapitulates the past life, perceiving its events as they were experienced by the objects of its actions. A complex transformation takes place between the review of the past life and the preparation for the next life. The individual's karmic condition eventually leads to a choice of parents, physical body, disposition, and capacities that provide the challenges and opportunities that further development requires, which includes karmically chosen tasks for the future life.
Steiner described some conditions that determine the interdependence of a person's lives, or karma.Rudolf Steiner, Theosophy, Rudolf Steiner, An Outline of Esoteric Science,
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