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Bagan | 20th century to present | 20th century to present
thumb|The original Bupaya seen here in 1868 was completely destroyed by the 1975 earthquake. A new gilded pagoda in the original shape has been rebuilt.
Bagan, located in an active earthquake zone, had suffered from many earthquakes over the ages, with over 400 recorded earthquakes between 1904 and 1975.Unesco 1976: ix A major earthquake occurred on 8 July 1975, reaching 8 MM in Bagan and Myinkaba, and 7 MM in Nyaung-U.Ishizawa and Kono 1989: 114 The quake damaged many temples, in many cases, such as the Bupaya, severely and irreparably. Today, 2229 temples and pagodas remain.Köllner, Bruns 1998: 117
Many of these damaged pagodas underwent restorations in the 1990s by the military government, which sought to make Bagan an international tourist destination. However, the restoration efforts instead drew widespread condemnation from art historians and preservationists worldwide. Critics were aghast that the restorations paid little attention to original architectural styles, and used modern materials, and that the government has also established a golf course, a paved highway, and built a watchtower. Although the government believed that the ancient capital's hundreds of (unrestored) temples and large corpus of stone inscriptions were more than sufficient to win the designation of UNESCO World Heritage Site,Unesco 1996 the city was not so designated until 2019, allegedly mainly on account of the restorations.Tourtellot 2004
On 24 August 2016, a major earthquake hit Bagan, and caused major damages in nearly 400 temples. The Sulamani and Myauk Guni temples were severely damaged. The Bagan Archaeological Department began a survey and reconstruction effort with the help of the UNESCO. Visitors were prohibited from entering 33 much-damaged temples.
On 6 July 2019, Bagan was officially inscribed as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO, 24 years after its first nomination, during the 43rd session of the World Heritage Committee. Bagan became the second World Heritage Site in Myanmar, after the Ancient Cities of Pyu. As part of the criteria for the inscription of Bagan, the government had pledged to relocate existing hotels in the archaeological zone to a dedicated hotel zone by 2020.
Bagan today is a main tourist destination in the country's nascent tourism industry.
In March 2025, Myanamr experienced a major earthquake near Bagan. Major stupas in Bagan, including Htilominlo Pagoda and Shwezigon Pagoda, did not incur structural damage. |
Bagan | Geography | Geography
The Bagan Archaeological Zone, defined as the area centred around Old Bagan, consisting of Nyaung U in the north and New Bagan in the south, lies in the vast expanse of plains in Upper Burma on the bend of the Irrawaddy river. It is located south-west of Mandalay and north of Yangon. |
Bagan | Climate | Climate
Bagan lies in the middle of the Dry Zone, the region roughly between Shwebo in the north and Pyay in the south. Unlike the coastal regions of the country, which receive annual monsoon rainfalls exceeding , the dry zone gets little precipitation as it is sheltered from the rain by the Rakhine Yoma mountain range in the west.
Available online climate sources report Bagan climate quite differently. |
Bagan | Cityscape | Cityscape |
Bagan | Architecture | Architecture
Bagan stands out for not only the sheer number of religious edifices of Myanmar but also the magnificent architecture of the buildings, and their contribution to Burmese temple design. The artistry of the architecture of pagodas in Bagan proves the achievement of Myanmar craftsmen in handicrafts. The Bagan temple falls into one of two broad categories: the stupa-style solid temple and the gu-style (ဂူ) hollow temple. |
Bagan | Stupas | Stupas
A stupa, also called a pagoda or chedi, is a massive structure, typically with a relic chamber inside. The Bagan stupas or pagodas evolved from earlier Pyu designs, which in turn were based on the stupa designs of the Andhra region, particularly Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in present-day south-eastern India, and to a smaller extent to Ceylon.Aung-Thwin 2005: 26–31 The Bagan-era stupas in turn were the prototypes for later Burmese stupas in terms of symbolism, form and design, building techniques and even materials.Aung-Thwin 2005: 233–235
Originally, a Ceylonese stupa had a hemispheric body ( "the egg"), on which a rectangular box surrounded by a stone balustrade (harmika) was set. Extending up from the top of the stupa was a shaft supporting several ceremonial umbrellas. The stupa Buddhist cosmos: its shape symbolizes Mount Meru while the umbrella mounted on the brickwork represents the world's axis.Köllner, Bruns 1998: 118–120 The brickwork pediment was often covered in stucco and decorated in relief. Pairs or series of ogres as guardian figures ('bilu') were a favourite theme in the Bagan period.
The original Indic design was gradually modified first by the Pyu, and then by Burmans at Bagan where the stupa gradually developed a longer, cylindrical form. The earliest Bagan stupas such as the Bupaya (c. 9th century) were the direct descendants of the Pyu style at Sri Ksetra. By the 11th century, the stupa had developed into a more bell-shaped form in which the parasols morphed into a series of increasingly smaller rings placed on one top of the other, rising to a point. On top the rings, the new design replaced the harmika with a lotus bud. The lotus bud design then evolved into the "banana bud", which forms the extended apex of most Burmese pagodas. Three or four rectangular terraces served as the base for a pagoda, often with a gallery of terra-cotta tiles depicting Buddhist jataka stories. The Shwezigon Pagoda and the Shwesandaw Pagoda are the earliest examples of this type. Examples of the trend toward a more bell-shaped design gradually gained primacy as seen in the Dhammayazika Pagoda (late 12th century) and the Mingalazedi Pagoda (late 13th century).Aung-Thwin 2005: 210–213 |
Bagan | Hollow temples | Hollow temples
In contrast to the stupas, the hollow gu-style temple is a structure used for meditation, devotional worship of the Buddha and other Buddhist rituals. The gu temples come in two basic styles: "one-face" design and "four-face" design—essentially one main entrance and four main entrances. Other styles such as five-face and hybrids also exist. The one-face style grew out of 2nd century Beikthano, and the four-face out of 7th century Sri Ksetra. The temples, whose main features were the pointed arches and the vaulted chamber, became larger and grander in the Bagan period.Aung-Thwin 2005: 224–225 |
Bagan | Innovations | Innovations
Although the Burmese temple designs evolved from Indic, Pyu (and possibly Mon) styles, the techniques of vaulting seem to have developed in Bagan itself. The earliest vaulted temples in Bagan date to the 11th century, while the vaulting did not become widespread in India until the late 12th century. The masonry of the buildings shows "an astonishing degree of perfection", where many of the immense structures survived the 1975 earthquake more or less intact. (Unfortunately, the vaulting techniques of the Bagan era were lost in the later periods. Only much smaller gu style temples were built after Bagan. In the 18th century, for example, King Bodawpaya attempted to build the Mingun Pagoda, in the form of spacious vaulted chambered temple but failed as craftsmen and masons of the later era had lost the knowledge of vaulting and keystone arching to reproduce the spacious interior space of the Bagan hollow temples.)
Another architectural innovation originated in Bagan is the Buddhist temple with a pentagonal floor plan. This design grew out of hybrid (between one-face and four-face designs) designs. The idea was to include the veneration of the Maitreya Buddha, the future and fifth Buddha of this era, in addition to the four who had already appeared. The Dhammayazika and the Ngamyethna Pagoda are examples of the pentagonal design. |
Bagan | Notable cultural sites | Notable cultural sites
thumb|Bagan at dawn
thumb|Old Bagan at sunset
NamePictureBuiltSponsor(s)Notes Ananda Temple 120px 1105 King Kyansittha One of the most famous temples in Bagan; tall Bupaya Pagoda 120px 850 King Pyu Saw Hti In Pyu style; original 9th century pagoda destroyed by the 1975 earthquake; completely rebuilt, now gilded Dhammayangyi Temple 120px 1167–1170 King Narathu Largest of all temples in Bagan Dhammayazika Pagoda 120px 1196–1198 King Sithu II Gawdawpalin Temple 120px 1211–1235 King Sithu II and King Htilominlo Gubyaukgyi Temple (Wetkyi-in) Early 13th Century King Kyansittha Gubyaukgyi Temple (Myinkaba) 120px 1113 Prince Yazakumar Htilominlo Temple 120px 1218 King Htilominlo , 3-story temple Lawkananda Pagoda 120px 1044–1077 King Anawrahta Mahabodhi Temple 120px 1218 King Htilominlo Smaller replica of the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya Manuha Temple 120px 1067 King Manuha Mingalazedi Pagoda 120px 1268–1274 King Narathihapate Minyeingon Temple 120px Myazedi inscription 120px 1112 Prince Yazakumar "Rosetta Stone of Burma" with inscriptions in four languages: Pyu, Old Mon, Old Burmese and Pali Nanpaya Temple 120px 1160–1170 Hindu temple in Mon style; believed to be either Manuha's old residence or built on the site Nathlaung Kyaung Temple 120px 1044–1077 Hindu temple Payathonzu Temple 120px 1200 in Mahayana and Tantric-styles Seinnyet Nyima Pagoda and Seinnyet Ama Pagoda 120px 11th century Shwegugyi Temple 120px 1131 King Sithu I Sithu I was assassinated here; known for its arched windows Shwesandaw Pagoda 120px 1057 King Anawrahta tall without counting the hti spire; Tallest Pagoda in Bagan Shwezigon Pagoda 120px 1102 King Anawrahta and King Kyansittha Sulamani Temple 120px 1183 King Sithu II Tharabha Gate 120px 1020 King Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu and King Kyiso The only remaining part of the old walls; radiocarbon dated to 1020Aung-Thwin 2005: 38 Thatbyinnyu Temple 120px 1150/51 Sithu I ; Tallest temple in Bagan Tuywindaung Pagoda 120px Anawrahta |
Bagan | The walled core of "Old Bagan" | The walled core of "Old Bagan"
The 140-hectare core on the riverbank is surrounded by three walls. A fourth wall, on the western side, may have once existed before being washed away by the river at some point. The Irrawaddy has certainly eroded at least some parts of the city, since there are "buildings collapsing into the river both upstream and downstream from the walled core".
The walled core called "Old Bagan" takes up only a tiny fraction of the 8,000-hectare area where monuments are found. It is also much smaller than the walled areas of major Pyu cities (the largest, Śrī Kṣetra or Thayekittaya, has a walled area of 1,400 hectares). Altogether, this suggests that "'Old Bagan' represents an elite core, not an urban boundary". |
Bagan | Outlying sites | Outlying sites |
Bagan | Otein Taung | Otein Taung
An important outlying site is at Otein Taung, 2 km south of the Ananda temple in the walled city of Old Bagan. The name "Otein Taung" is a descriptive name meaning "pottery hill"; there is another Otein Taung on the north side of Beikthano. The site of Otein Taung at Bagan actually consists of two different mounds separated by 500 meters. Both are "covered with dense layers of fragmented pottery, and with scatters of potsherds visible around and between them". Local farm fields for crops like maize come right up to the edges of the mounds, and goats and cattle commonly graze on them.
Besides the mounds, there are also about 40 small monuments at Otein Taung, mostly dated to the 13th century. Several of these are clustered around a monastery on the south side of the western mound. There is also a group of monuments arranged in a straight line, which may represent a property boundary or road. Another cluster exists south of the eastern mound, and then there are also randomly scattered monuments in the area between the mounds. Finally, there is a large temple between the two mounds, which was probably built in the 12th century. This temple was restored in 1999.
Otein Taung was excavated by a team led by Bob Hudson and Nyein Lwin in 1999 and 2000. Excavation revealed layers of potash with a fine texture, suggesting that most of the fuel was provided by bamboo and other grasses. Also found were small charcoal fragments, preserved burnt bamboo filaments, and some animal bones and pigs' teeth. Based on radiocarbon dating, Otein Taung dates from at least the 9th century, which is well before recorded history at Bagan.
The sprinkler pot, or kendi, is a very characteristic type of pottery from medieval Myanmar, and over 50 spouts and necks belonging to them were found by archaeologists at Otein Taung. These were all straight, in contrast to the bent spouts found at Beikthano. Also found at Otein Taung are earthenware tubes, about 60 cm long and 40 cm in diameter. Similar pipes have been found at Old Bagan, and they are thought to have been part of toilets.
It is not clear whether Otein Taung represents a large-scale pottery production site or "a huge, and for Bagan unique, residential midden". Archaeologists did not find any "slumps characteristic of overfiring in a stoneware kiln, [or] any large brick or earth structures suggesting a pottery kiln", but several "earthenware anvils" were found at the site, as well as a 10-cm-long clay tube that may have been used as a stamp for decorating pots. The anvils are common potters' tools in South and Southeast Asia: they are held inside a pot while the outside is beaten with a paddle.
If Otein Taung was used as a pottery production site, then it would have had good access to natural clay resources: the Bagan area has clayey subsoil that is "still mined today for brickmaking". There are four tanks within 500 m of Otein Taung that may have originated as clay pits. |
Bagan | Museums | Museums
thumb|Old palace site in Old Bagan. A new completely conjectural palace has been reconstructed since 2003.
The Bagan Archaeological Museum: The only museum in the Bagan Archaeological Zone. The three-story museum houses a number of rare Bagan period objects including the original Myazedi inscriptions, the Rosetta stone of Burma.
Anawrahta's Palace: It was rebuilt in 2003 based on the extant foundations at the old palace site.Ministry of Culture But the palace above the foundation is completely conjectural. |
Bagan | 3D Documentation with LiDAR | 3D Documentation with LiDAR
The Zamani Project from the University of Cape Town, South Africa, offered its services towards the spatial documentation of monuments in Bagan in response to the destruction of monuments by an earthquake in August 2016. After reconnaissance visit to Bagan and a subsequent meeting at the UNESCO offices in Bangkok in February 2017, the Zamani Project documented 12 monuments in Bagan using LiDAR, during three field campaigns between 2017 and 2018, including Kubyauk-gyi (Gubyaukgyi) (298); Kyauk-ku-umin (154); Tha-peik-hmauk-gu-hpaya (744); Sula-mani-gu-hpaya (Sulamani) (748) Monument 1053; Sein-nyet-ama (1085); Sein-nyet-nyima (1086); Naga-yon-hpaya (1192); Loka-ok-shaung (1467); Than-daw-kya (1592); Ananda Monastery; and the City Gate of old Bagan (Tharabha Gate). |
Bagan | Transport | Transport
Bagan is accessible by air, rail, bus, car and river boat. |
Bagan | Air | Air
Most international tourists fly to the city. The Nyaung U Airport is the gateway to the Bagan region. Several domestic airlines have regular flights to Yangon, which take about 80 minutes to cover the 600 kilometres. Flights to Mandalay take approximately 30 minutes and to Heho about 40 minutes. The airport is located on the outskirts of Nyaung U and it takes about 20 minutes by taxi to reach Bagan. |
Bagan | Rail | Rail
The city is on a spur from the Yangon–Mandalay Railway. Myanmar Railways operates a daily overnight train service each way between Yangon and Bagan (Train Nos 61 & 62), which takes at least 18 hours. The trains have a sleeper car and also 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating.
Between Mandalay and Bagan there are two daily services each way (Train Nos 117,118,119 & 120) that take at least 8 hours. The trains have 1st Class and Ordinary Class seating. |
Bagan | Buses and cars | Buses and cars
Overnight buses and cars also operate to and from Yangon and Mandalay taking approximately 9 and 6 hours respectively. |
Bagan | Boat | Boat
An 'express' ferry service runs between Bagan and Mandalay. Following the Irrawaddy river the fastest ferry takes around 9 hours to travel the 170 kilometres. The service runs daily during peak periods and slower sailings with overnight stops are also available. |
Bagan | Economy | Economy
thumb|Workers at a lacquerware factory
Bagan's economy is based mainly on tourism. Because of boycotts against the previous military government, the Bagan region's tourism infrastructure is still quite modest by international standards. The city has a few international standard hotels and many family-run guesthouses. Bagan is also the center of Burmese lacquerware industry, which to a large degree depends on tourist demand. Much of the lacquerware is destined for souvenir shops in Yangon, and to the world markets. Moreover, the lacquerware-making process itself has become a tourist draw. |
Bagan | Demographics | Demographics
The population of Bagan in its heyday is estimated to be anywhere between 50,000Harvey 1925: 78 and 200,000 people.Köllner, Bruns 1998: 115 Until the advent of tourism industry in the 1990s, only a few villagers lived in Old Bagan. The rise of tourism has attracted a sizable population to the area. Because Old Bagan is now off limits to permanent dwellings, much of the population reside in either New Bagan, south of Old Bagan, or Nyaung-U, north of Old Bagan. The majority of native residents are Bamar. |
Bagan | Administration | Administration
The Bagan archaeological zone is part of Nyaung-U District, Mandalay Region. |
Bagan | Sister cities | Sister cities
Luang Prabang, LaosPan Eiswe Star and Soe Than Linn 2010
Siem Reap, Cambodia |
Bagan | Gallery | Gallery |
Bagan | See also | See also
Buddhism in Myanmar
Burmese pagoda
Pagoda festival
Index of Buddhism-related articles
List of Pagodas in Bagan |
Bagan | Notes | Notes |
Bagan | References | References
Rao, Vinay Kumar. "Buddhist Art of Pagan, 2 Vols". Published by Agam Kala Publications, New Delhi, 2011. . |
Bagan | External links | External links
Bagan Map. DPS Online Maps.
Bagan Travel Guide
All about Bagan (english version)
Free travel images of Bagan
The Life of the Buddha in 80 Scenes, Ananda Temple Charles Duroiselle, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, Delhi, 1913–14
The Art and Culture of Burma - the Pagan Period Dr. Richard M. Cooler, Northern Illinois University
Asian Historical Architecture: Bagan Prof. Robert D. Fiala, Concordia University, Nebraska
Buddhist Architecture at Bagan Bob Hudson, University of Sydney, Australia
Photographs of temples and paintings of Bagan Part 1 and Part 2
Bagan moving postcards
Category:Township capitals of Myanmar
Category:9th-century establishments in Asia
Category:Populated places established in the 9th century
Category:Pagan kingdom
Category:Buddhist temples in Myanmar
Category:Populated places in Mandalay Region
Category:Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Myanmar
Category:Buddhist art
Category:Tourist attractions in Myanmar
Category:World Heritage Sites in Myanmar |
Bagan | Table of Content | Short description, Etymology, History, 9th to 13th centuries, 14th to 19th centuries, 20th century to present, Geography, Climate, Cityscape, Architecture, Stupas, Hollow temples, Innovations, Notable cultural sites, The walled core of "Old Bagan", Outlying sites, Otein Taung, Museums, 3D Documentation with LiDAR, Transport, Air, Rail, Buses and cars, Boat, Economy, Demographics, Administration, Sister cities, Gallery, See also, Notes, References, External links |
Dasyuromorphia | Short description | Dasyuromorphia (, meaning "hairy tail"Mammalian Lexicon in Greek) is an order comprising most of the Australian carnivorous marsupials, including quolls, dunnarts, the numbat, the Tasmanian devil, and the extinct thylacine. In Australia, the exceptions include the omnivorous bandicoots (order Peramelemorphia) and the marsupial moles (which are insectivorous but are very different and are now accorded an order of their own, Notoryctemorphia). Numerous South American species of marsupials (orders Didelphimorphia, Paucituberculata, and Microbiotheria) are also carnivorous, as were some extinct members of the order Diprotodontia, including extinct kangaroos (such as Ekaltadeta and Propleopus) and thylacoleonids, and some members of the partially extinct clade Metatheria and all members of the extinct superorder Sparassodonta.
The order contains four families: one, the Myrmecobiidae, with just a single living species (the numbat), two with only extinct species (including the thylacine and Malleodectes), and one, the Dasyuridae, with 73 extant species. |
Dasyuromorphia | Characteristics | Characteristics
Unlike herbivores, which tend to become highly specialized for particular ecological niches and diversify greatly in form, carnivores tend to be broadly similar to one another, certainly on the level of gross external form. Just as Northern Hemisphere carnivores like cats, mongooses, foxes and weasels are much more alike in structure than, for example, camels, goats, pigs and giraffes, so too are the marsupial predators constrained to retain general-purpose, look-alike forms—forms which mirror those of placental carnivores. The names given to them by early European settlers reflect this: the thylacine was called the Tasmanian tiger or Tasmanian wolf, quolls were called native cats or native foxes, and so on.
The primary specialisation among marsupial predators is that of size: prior to the massive environmental changes that came about with the arrival of humans about 50,000 years ago, there were several very large carnivores, none of them members of the Dasyuromorphia and all of them now extinct. Those that survived into historical times ranged from the wolf-sized thylacine to the tiny long-tailed planigale which at 4 to 6 grams is less than half the size of a mouse. Most, however, tend towards the lower end of the size scale, typically between about 15 or 20 grams and about 2 kilograms, or from the size of a domestic mouse to that of a small domestic cat. |
Dasyuromorphia | Phylogeny | Phylogeny
Upham et al. 2019Álvarez-Carretero et al. 2022 |
Dasyuromorphia | See also | See also
List of mammal genera
List of recently extinct mammals
List of prehistoric mammals |
Dasyuromorphia | References | References |
Dasyuromorphia | External links | External links
Dasyuromorphia on Animal Diversity Web
Category:Mammal orders
Category:Extant Chattian first appearances
Category:Taxa named by Theodore Gill |
Dasyuromorphia | Table of Content | Short description, Characteristics, Phylogeny, See also, References, External links |
Katar | about | The katar is a type of push dagger from the Indian subcontinent. The weapon is characterized by its H-shaped horizontal hand grip which results in the blade sitting above the user's knuckles. Unique to the Indian subcontinent, it is the most famous and characteristic of Indian daggers. Ceremonial katars were also used in worship. |
Katar | Etymology | Etymology
Having originated in South India, the weapon's earliest name-form was likely the Tamil (). It is alternatively known in Tamil as () which means "stabbing blade". This was adapted into Sanskrit as () or . The name however is of Indo-Aryan origin, which means Tamil loaned the word from them.
Other regional names for the weapon include () in Kannada, () in Telugu, () in Malayalam, () in Marathi, , () in Panjabi, and kirat Dewan language|(chhuiket) in Nepal () or in Hindi. |
Katar | History | History
The katar was created in Southern India, its earliest forms being closely associated with the 14th-century Vijayanagara Empire. It may have originated with the mustika, a method of holding a dagger between the middle and index finger still used in Kalaripayattu and Gatka today. The real name of this is "Kidaari" is from the ancient Tamil warfare class of weapons. Kidaari derived from the term "Kedayam Ari" meaning the "Shield Splitter" in Tamil. The name indicates this weapon being used to break shields and armor. The weapon was used by many ethnic Tamil infantry units aka "Kaalatpadai". This falls under the "mushtikai" class of Indian weapon system. "Mushti" means the fingers closed and "kai" means arm.
A Tamil king would be gifted with a golden Kidari as a token of loyalty from the Kaalatpadai General. It was worn as a symbol of respect by the king to the soldiers who lay down their lives for him in war without any hesitation. Later Chhatrpati Shivaji Maharaj was gifted with a Kidaari during his conquest to Tamil Nadu. A specific type of dagger might have been designed for this, as maustika is described vaguely as a "fist dagger" in the arsenal list of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak. One of the most famous groups of early katar come from the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom of the 17th century. Katar dating back to this period often had a leaf- or shell-like knucklebow curving up from the top of the blade to protect the back of the hand. This form is today sometimes called a "hooded katara" but the knuckleguard was discarded altogether by the later half of the 17th century. As the weapon spread throughout the region it became something of a status symbol, much like the Southeast Asian kris or the Japanese katana. Princes and nobles were often portrayed wearing a katar at their side. This was not only a precaution for self-defense, but also meant to show their wealth and position. Mughal nobility would even hunt tigers with a katar.
Some modern katar designs may include single-shot pistols built into either side of the weapon. In the 18th century, some traditional katar were refurbished with this innovation. The katar ceased to be in common use by the 19th century, though they were still forged for decorative purposes. During the 18th and 19th century, a distinctive group of katar were produced at Bundi in Rajasthan. They were ornately crafted and their hilts were covered in gold foil. These katar were shown at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Crystal Palace, London. Since then, the weapon has sometimes been mistakenly referred to in English as a "Bundi dagger". |
Katar | Appearance | Appearance
The basic katar has a short, wide, triangular blade. Its peculiarity lies in the handle which is made up of two parallel bars connected by two or more cross-pieces, one of which is at the end of the side bars and is fastened to the blade. The remainder forms the handle which is at right angle to the blade. Some handles have long arms extending across the length of the user's forearm. The handle is generally of all-steel construction and may be gilded or otherwise decorated.
The blade, typically measuring in length, is usually cut with a number of fullers. Most katar have straight blades, but in south India they are commonly wavy. South Indian blades are often made broad at the hilt and taper in straight lines to the point, and elaborately ribbed by grooves parallel to the edges. Occasionally the blades are slightly curved. Some blades are forked into two points, and one decorative variation includes a hollow outer blade which hinges open to expose a smaller blade inside.
thumb|Katar and sheath
The Indian nobility often wore ornamental katar as a symbol of their social status. The hilts may be covered in enamel, gems, or gold foil. Similarly, figures and scenes were chiselled onto the blade. Sheaths, generally made from watered steel, were sometimes pierced with decorative designs. The heat and moisture of India's climate made steel an unsuitable material for a dagger sheath, so they were covered in fabric such as velvet or silk. Some katar served as a sheath to fit one or two smaller ones inside. |
Katar | Techniques | Techniques
Because the katar's blade is in line with the user's arm, the basic attack is a direct thrust identical to a punch, although it could also be used for slashing. This design allows the fighter to put their whole weight into a thrust. The sides of the handle could be used for blocking but it otherwise has little defensive capability. As far back as the 16th century, there was at least one fighting style which focused on fighting with a pair of katar, one in each hand. |
Katar | See also | See also
Pata (sword)
Push dagger |
Katar | References | References |
Katar | External links | External links
Björn-Uwe Abels, A contribution to the development of the Indian punch-dagger, called Katar or Jamdhar, Waffen- und Kostümkunde 2012, 145–158 (in German with an English summary).
Category:Indian martial arts
Category:Weapons of India
Category:Daggers |
Katar | Table of Content | about, Etymology, History, Appearance, Techniques, See also, References, External links |
Legislative assembly | Short description | Legislative assembly is the name given in some countries to either a legislature, or to one of its houses.
The name is used by a number of countries, including member-states of the Commonwealth of Nations and other countries. It is also used by their sub-national divisions, such as the Indian states and union territories, Australian states and Canadian provinces. |
Legislative assembly | Legislative assemblies in the Commonwealth | Legislative assemblies in the Commonwealth
Legislative assemblies in modern-day Commonwealth countries, either as national or sub-national parliaments, are in most cases an evolution of one of the legislative chambers of the previous colonial parliaments, whether the full legislature or a lower house. In a number of jurisdictions, the name House of Assembly is used instead. It is one of the main names used in everyday speech for parliament in many countries. |
Legislative assembly | Australia | Australia
Three of the six Australian states style their lower houses as Legislative Assemblies; in South Australia and Tasmania, they are styled as Houses of Assembly. The unicameral parliaments of Queensland and the two self-governing territories also style their legislature as Legislative Assemblies. Queensland originally had a Legislative Council as its upper house, in line with the other states, until it was abolished leaving it the only state with a sole chamber of parliament.
The previously self-governing Norfolk Island had its own Legislative Assembly until it was abolished and replaced with a Regional Council in 2015.
Members of these assemblies are referred to as MLAs (WA, ACT, NT) and MPs (NSW, QLD, VIC, SA, TAS). Previously, MLA and MHA have been used in states that now use MP. |
Legislative assembly | Canada | Canada
In Canada, seven of the ten provinces and all three of the territories style their legislatures as legislative assemblies. All are unicameral. Manitoba was the first to abolish its Legislative Council in 1876. British Columbia and Newfoundland and Labrador abolished their Councils before becoming provinces. There was no Council for Alberta when it was created in 1905.
The Legislative Assembly of Quebec was renamed the Quebec National Assembly as part of the abolition of the Legislative Council of Quebec on December 31, 1968. |
Legislative assembly | India | India
In India, the lower house or the only house of the State Legislatures are called Legislative Assemblies. The same name is also used for the only house of the legislatures of three of the eight union territories, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Puducherry. The upper house in states with a bicameral legislature are called Legislative Councils. Members of the former are called MLAs, and those of the latter are called MLCs. |
Legislative assembly | Other Commonwealth countries and British Overseas Territories | Other Commonwealth countries and British Overseas Territories
State legislative assemblies of Malaysia
Legislative Assembly of Samoa
Legislative Assembly of Tonga
Legislative Assembly of the Falkland Islands |
Legislative assembly | Former legislative assemblies | Former legislative assemblies
In Mauritius, the unicameral parliament was known as the legislative assembly until 1992, when, following the establishment of a republic, it was renamed the National Assembly
Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada (1791–1838)
Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada (1791–1841)
Legislative Assembly (British Guiana) (1961–1964)
Central Legislative Assembly of British India–1947 |
Legislative assembly | Legislative assemblies outside the Commonwealth | Legislative assemblies outside the Commonwealth
Legislative Assembly is the name given to some national legislatures (or one of the houses of the national legislature) of the sovereign nations of:
Plurinational Legislative Assembly of Bolivia
Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
Legislative Assembly of El Salvador
Former assemblies include:
National Legislative Assembly of Thailand (2014)
National Legislative Assembly (South Sudan)
Legislative Assembly of Kyrgyzstan
Legislative Assembly of Revolutionary France
Legislative bodies of the United States include:
North Dakota Legislative Assembly
Oregon Legislative Assembly
Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico
The legislatures of the States of Brazil are called "legislative assembly", as are the legislatures of the two insular autonomous regions of Portugal, Azores (the Legislative Assembly of the Azores) and Madeira (the Legislative Assembly of Madeira), and the regional councils of three Italian regions (Emilia-Romagna, Marche and Umbria). In Mexico, the legislative branch of government of Mexico City is the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City.
The Legislative Assembly of Macau is the organ of the legislative branch of the Macau Special Administrative Region. |
Legislative assembly | See also | See also
Council
Legislative council
House of Assembly
National Assembly
Landtag
Member of the Legislative Assembly |
Legislative assembly | References | References
Category:Commonwealth of Nations
Category:Legislatures |
Legislative assembly | Table of Content | Short description, Legislative assemblies in the Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, India, Other Commonwealth countries and British Overseas Territories, Former legislative assemblies, Legislative assemblies outside the Commonwealth, See also, References |
Crypto-anarchy | Short description | thumb|Parallel Polis, or the Institute of cryptoanarchy in Prague, 2024
Crypto-anarchy, crypto-anarchism, cyberanarchy or cyberanarchism is a political ideology focusing on the protection of privacy, political freedom, and economic freedom, the adherents of which use cryptographic software for confidentiality and security while sending and receiving information over computer networks.Cryptoanarchism and Cryptocurrencies. Philosophy & Methodology of Economics eJournal. Social Science Research Network (SSRN). Accessed 29 March 2021. In his 1988 "Crypto Anarchist Manifesto", Timothy C. May introduced the basic principles of crypto-anarchism, encrypted exchanges ensuring total anonymity, total freedom of speech, and total freedom to trade. In 1992, he read the text at the founding meeting of the cypherpunk movement. |
Crypto-anarchy | Terminology | Terminology
The prefix "crypto-" originates from the Ancient Greek word κρυπτός kruptós, meaning "hidden" or "secret". This differs from its use in terms like 'crypto-fascist' or 'crypto-Jew' where it signifies that an identity is concealed from the world; rather, many crypto-anarchists are open about their anarchism and promotion of tools based in cryptology. |
Crypto-anarchy | Motives | Motives
One motive of crypto-anarchists is to defend against surveillance of computer networks communication. Crypto-anarchists try to protect against government mass surveillance, such as PRISM, ECHELON, Tempora, telecommunications data retention, the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy, Room 641A, the FRA and so on. Crypto-anarchists consider the development and use of cryptography to be the main defense against such problems.
A 2022 study examined whether crypto-anarchism can be a useful tool in addressing socio-political issues. Their findings revealed that crypto-anarchism does not have a significant influence on actual politics, but studying it can be useful for creating political movements geared toward Internet users. |
Crypto-anarchy | Anonymous trading | Anonymous trading
Bitcoin is a currency generated and secured by peer-to-peer networked devices that maintain a communal record of all transactions within the system that can be used in a crypto-anarchic context. Adrian Chen, writing for The New York Times, says the idea behind Bitcoin can be traced to The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto. Silk Road was an example of an illegal drug market on which Bitcoin was the only accepted currency.
Assassination Market was a Tor-based darknet market operated by a self-described crypto-anarchist going by the pseudonym Kuwabatake Sanjuro.
In The Cyphernomicon, Timothy C. May suggests that crypto-anarchism qualifies as a form of anarcho-capitalism:
Another quote in The Cyphernomicon defines crypto-anarchism. Under the title "What is Crypto Anarchy?", May writes: |
Crypto-anarchy | Virtual and Network States | Virtual and Network States
A network state is a theoretical community of users—called “subscriber citizens”—connected via the internet, who accumulate enough capital, territory, or political clout to achieve diplomatic recognition as a state.
For crypto-anarchists, creating such a virtual or network state to increase freedom and reduce physical coercion has been a consistent talking point since at least 1992, when Timothy May initially discussed a version of these ideas in his article, Libertaria in Cyberspace. May said:This is the most compelling advantage of "Crypto Libertaria": an arbitrarily large number of separate "nations" can simultaneously exist. This allows for rapid experimentation, self-selection, and evolution. If folks get tired of some virtual community, they can leave. The cryptographic aspects mean their membership in some community is unknown to others (vis-a-vis the physical or outside world, i.e., their "true names") and physical coercion is reduced.In his 1999 book, Virtual States, cypherpunk Jerry Everard explored these ideas through the lens of Foucauldian philosophy, especially in the context of discourse formation. His discourse analysis focused on the interrelationship between objects and statements describing the state. He acknowledged the state exists as a monopoly on violence in relation to its subjects. In other words, the state enjoys a power imbalance between itself and its citizenry.
Everard formulated the idea of disaggregating various elements of the nation state while considering what voluntarily procured "virtual states" in a market environment would look like. He suggests that virtual states based in cyberspace will take over the “goods and services economy” aspect of the state apparatus. In the final treatment, he did not believe the "state" would face an extinction-level event, only that its power may be diminished in some areas but strengthened in others.
Technologist, angel investor, and former Coinbase CTO, Balaji Srinivasan, has fully fleshed out the idea of network states. In his 2022 book, The Network State: How to Start Your Own Country, he details how a non-territorial affiliation of like-minded individuals could join to enact a covenant to share, build, and distribute power in the form of a network state. Srinivasan articulated the definition concisely:A network state is a highly aligned online community with a capacity for collective action that crowdfunds territory around the world and eventually gains diplomatic recognition from pre-existing states.He furnished a fuller, more complex articulation as well:A network state is a social network with a moral innovation, a sense of national consciousness, a recognized founder, a capacity for collective action, an in-person level of civility, an integrated cryptocurrency, a consensual government limited by a social smart contract, an archipelago of crowdfunded physical territories, a virtual capital, and an on-chain census that proves a large enough population, income, and real-estate footprint to attain a measure of diplomatic recognition.The "moral innovation" piece of Srinivasan's crypto-anarchist articulation underlies the goal of a network state. His motivation is to align ideologies more cohesively, disrupt political infighting, and institute a freer human future. Throughout the book, he expresses the problems with traditional nation states and emphasizes their territorial, coercive nature. In the section on Nation States, he says, "(State) refers to the entity that governs these people, that commands the police and the military, and that holds the monopoly of violence over the geographic area that the nation inhabits."
In one prominent section, Srinivasan argues for a modern variation of Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis. He makes the case that frontiers throughout history have been open, uncontested territories allowing exploration, experimentation, and settlement. In his modern take on the thesis, cyberspace represents the crypto-anarchist new frontier for social creativity and growth. It is only through these new frontiers, he claims, can people secure greater sovereignty and build saner, more voluntary governance mechanisms.
The Frontier Thesis is reminiscent of John Perry Barlow's famous, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, where he eschews the domination of nation states by comparing cyberspace to a frontier inhabited by the "virus" of freedom. |
Crypto-anarchy | Criticism | Criticism
Some scholars criticize that Crypto-anarchism is referencing the term "Anarchism" in its regards to freedom as a primary value in them, whereas the political thoughts of Crypto-anarchism are closer tied to Libertarianism as to Anarchism:However, it is different in the case of crypto-anarchism. It is a thought and activity not based on anarchism of the turn of the 20th century, in which the idea of freedom had a social dimension. Freedom in anarchism of that time was treated as a value manifested in and towards other people, rather than in competition between individuals. Crypto-anarchism therefore has a different – libertarian – genesis, and libertarianism is not treated by social anarchists as anarchism. Nevertheless, the idea of freedom can be treated as a primary value in crypto-anarchism, and although it would be realised in the virtual world, it could also be realised in the real world. |
Crypto-anarchy | See also | See also
Jim Bell — originator of the idea of assassination politics
Crypto Wars
Cypherpunk
Computer security
Technolibertarianism
Cody Wilson
Defense Distributed |
Crypto-anarchy | Notes | Notes
Works cited |
Crypto-anarchy | Further reading | Further reading
Category:Computer law
Category:Applications of cryptography |
Crypto-anarchy | Table of Content | Short description, Terminology, Motives, Anonymous trading, Virtual and Network States, Criticism, See also, Notes, Further reading |
Hōnen | Short description | , also known as Genkū, was the founding figure of the , the first independent branch of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism.
Hōnen became a Tendai initiate at an early age, but grew disaffected and sought an approach to Buddhism that all people of all classes and genders could follow, even during the current Age of Dharma Decline. After reading Shandao's Commentary on the Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra, Hōnen devoted himself to attaining birth in the pure land of Amitābha Buddha (Amida) through the practice of "recitation of the Buddha's name" (Jp: nembutsu) and to spreading this teaching among all people.
Hōnen gathered a wide array of followers and attracted numerous critics. He taught them all the simple practice of reciting "Namo Amida Butsu" while entrusting oneself to Amida's universal vow power.Hirota, Dennis, "Japanese Pure Land Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.) Hōnen's Pure Land teaching was very popular among laypersons, and was a major influence on the Buddhism of the Kamakura period. He was the first Japanese author to have his writings in Chinese and Japanese printed in the history of Japanese Buddhism.
After receiving many criticisms of Hōnen from various rival traditions and following an incident at court, Emperor Tsuchimikado exiled Hōnen and his followers in 1207. Hōnen was eventually pardoned and allowed to return to Kyoto, where he stayed for a short time before his death. Hōnen was a teacher to Shinran, the founder of Jōdo Shinshū, the other major Japanese Pure Land tradition. As such, he is also considered the Seventh Patriarch in the Shinshū tradition. |
Hōnen | Biography | Biography |
Hōnen | Early life | Early life
Hōnen was born to a prominent family in the city of Kume in Okayama, Mimasaka Province. His father was Uruma no Tokikuni, a province official who headed up policing in the area.浄土宗西山禅林寺派宗祖法然上人立教開宗850年記念サイト. honen850.jpAtone & Hayashi (2011), p. 27 According to legend, his mother is a descendant of the Hata clan. Hōnen was originally named Seishimaru after the bodhisattva Seishi (Sanskrit: Mahāsthāmaprāpta). In 1141 Hōnen's father was assassinated by Sada-akira, an official sent by Emperor Horikawa to govern the province. It is believed that Tokikuni's last words to his son were "Don't hate the enemy but become a monk and pray for me and for your deliverance."
Fulfilling his father's wishes, Hōnen was initiated into his uncle's monastery at the age of nine. From then on, Hōnen lived his life as a monk, and at thirteen, ordained to study at the primary Tendai temple in Mount Hiei near Kyoto. Clerics at Mt. Hiei took the bodhisattva vows and then undertook 12 years of training, a system developed by the Tendai founder, Saichō. While at Mt. Hiei, Hōnen studied under Genkō (源光), Kōen (皇円) and later, with Eikū (叡空). Under Kōen he was officially ordained as a Tendai priest, while under Eikū he received the name Hōnen-bō Genkū (法然房源空). In speaking of himself, Hōnen often referred to himself as Genkū, as did his close disciples. |
Hōnen | Departure from Mt. Hiei | Departure from Mt. Hiei
thumbnail|Hōnen studying the three scriptures of the Tendai school at Mt. Hiei, from the Honen Shonin Eden (Chion-in Version), an Illustrated biography of Hōnen c. 14th century
In 1150, Hōnen left Mt. Hiei for the more peaceful temple of Kurodani, seeking to live in seclusion. Hōnen eventually grew dissatisfied with the teachings at Mt. Hiei. At the age of 24, Hōnen then went to study at the city of Saga, then Nara, and stayed at such temples at Kōfuku-ji and Tōdai-ji. Still not satisfied, he returned to the libraries of Mt. Hiei and studied further. During this time, Hōnen was deeply affected by the contrast between the suffering of the common people and the lives of elite Buddhist monks and their ornate temples. He began to seek a path that would allow all people to liberation, not just the elites and the monks.Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 28
During this period, Hōnen is said to have studied the Chinese Buddhist canon five times. He was deeply impressed when, at the age of forty three, he read the Commentary on the Meditation Sutra () by the Chinese Pure Land master Shandao (613-681). He was particularly struck by the following passage:To recite intently and single-mindedly the name of Buddha Amitabha while walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, without regard for the length of time; to engage without cessation in the recitation of nembutsu for life: This is called the rightly established practice because it is in accordance with the essential vow of Buddha Amitabha. This commentary persuaded Hōnen to believe that the nembutsu (ch: nianfo, the faithful recitation of Amida Buddha's name), was all one needed to enter Amitābha's pure land and attain Buddhahood. Previously, nianfo was recited along with other practices, but Shandao was the first to propose that only nianfo was necessary. This new appreciation and understanding prompted Hōnen to leave Mt. Hiei in 1175 and to focus on the single-minded practice of nembutsu.Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 29 |
Hōnen | A rising figure in the capital | A rising figure in the capital
Hōnen relocated to the district of Ōtani in Kyoto (the capital of Japan at the time), where he began to teach the simple recitation of the nembutsu to crowds of laymen and women, establishing a considerable following. Hōnen taught that through this simple practice, all people could attain Buddhahood in the pure land. One did not need to become a monk or meditate intensively, just say the name of the Buddha with faith.
During this time, the conflict between the Minamoto and the Taira clans (which would culminate in the Genpei war of 1180-1185) plunged the nation into chaos. Many people flocked to the capital seeking refuge and Hōnen's teaching of universal salvation through the nembutsu became very appealing. During this time, he also traveled around the Kansai region, and he likely also encountered various nembutsu hijiri (nembutsu holy people) who may have influenced his thought.
Hōnen's teaching attracted all sorts of people, from samurai like Kumagai Naozane, to merchants, prostitutes, robbers, and other elements of society normally excluded from Buddhist practice.Fitzgerald, chapters 15 and 16Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 34. Hōnen was a man of recognition in Kyoto, and many priests and nobleman allied with him and visited him for spiritual advice.Fitzgerald, chapter 14 The increasing popularity of his teachings drew criticism from noted contemporaries as Chikai, Myōe and Jōkei among others, who argued against Hōnen's sole reliance on nembutsu as a means of rebirth in a pure land.Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 30. This led to a public debate (known as the Ohara Controversy) in 1186 between Hōnen and some monks representing other schools. Hōnen's popularity rose after this debate and he gained more followers.
thumb|Preparations for the Ohara debate
thumb|Hōnen meets Kujo Kanezane
In 1190, Hōnen was granted the great honor of being invited to give a series of lectures on the Pure Land sutras at the national temple of Tōdai-ji in Nara. After these lectures, he became even more popular, giving further lectures in Kyoto, including public talks which drew large crowds. He was also invited to give lectures at the court of the imperial regent (kampaku) Kujō Kanezane (1149–1207), who then became a follower of Hōnen. At the behest of Kanezane, Hōnen reworked his lectures into his magnum opus, the Senchakushū, which outlines his main teachings.
As Hōnen's teaching became popular and spread throughout the nation, some individuals began to interpret the teachings in more radical and unexpected ways, including forms of antinomianism and criticisms of other traditions. In 1204, the Tendai monks at Mt. Hiei implored the head priest of Tendai to ban the teachings of exclusive nembutsu and to banish any adherents from their principality.Atone & Hayashi (2011), pp. 34-35.
In 1205 the temple of Kōfuku-ji, located in Nara, implored Emperor Toba II to sanction Hōnen and his followers.Morell, Robert E. (1983). Jokei and the Kofukuji Petition, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 10 (1), 6-38 The temple provided the emperor with nine charges alleging unappeasable differences with the so-called eight schools. Hōnen's detractors cited examples of his followers, such as Gyoku and Kōsai, who supposedly committed vandalism against Buddhist temples, intentionally broke the Buddhist precepts, or caused others to intentionally turn away from established Buddhist teachings.興福寺奏狀（全） @ 活在恩海裡 :: 痞客邦 PIXNET :: 興福寺奏状
Richard Bowring condenses these charges into two general forms. First is the nature of a single practice. Hōnen's emphasis on the single practice of nembutsu denied the usefulness of all other Buddhist practices. The sole emphasis on Amitābha was also coupled with discouraging the traditional worship of the kami. The second charge was that Hōnen placed the most lowly layperson on equal footing with the wisest monk, rendering the entire monastic establishment as useless.Bowring, Richard. Religious Traditions of Japan: 500-1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. 247.Andrews, Allan A. “The Essentials of Salvation: ‘A Study of Genshin’s Ōjōyōshū.’” The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 4, no. 2, 1971, pp. 50–88. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44361283. Accessed 31 Aug. 2024. p. 50.
In response, Hōnen and his followers agreed to sign the , which called for restraint in moral conduct and in interactions with other Buddhist sects, promising not to criticize or insult the teachings of other sects.Jodo Shu Research Institute, Jokaku-bo Kosai (1163-1247) The Single Calling七箇條起請文 |
Hōnen | Exile and the final years | Exile and the final years
thumbnail|Honen's public preaching
The clamour surrounding Hōnen's teachings dissipated for a time until 1207, though the monks of other sects continued to critique his teaching. In this year, regent Kanezane died, and then Emperor Gotoba implemented a ban against exclusive nembutsu. This ban was sparked by an incident where two of Hōnen's most prominent followers held a nembutsu retreat which was attended by various figures, including two court ladies.Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 35. Hōnen's disciples were accused of using nembutsu practice as a coverup for sexual liaisons. As part of the ban, Hōnen (now eighty) and some of his disciples, including Bencho and Shinran, were exiled to Shikoku, while four disciples were executed.Bowring, 251. This is known as the of 1207. Hōnen is said to have responded:
While Hōnen and some key disciples were exiled to Tosa province, his movement in Kyoto remained strong. While in exile, Hōnen spread the teachings to the people he met - fishermen, prostitutes, and the peasantry. The emperor soon rescinded the exile however, though Hōnen only returned to Kyoto in 1211.Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 37. In 1212, the following year, Hōnen died in Kyoto, but was able to compose the a few days before he died. |
Hōnen | Character | Character
The Japanese Jodo Shu Research Institute describes Hōnen's personality as a "strict" but "bold innovator" who was "introspective and self-critical" and "concerned with solving the problems of daily life rather than worrying about doctrinal matters". On the latter point Hōnen expressed unusual concern over the spiritual welfare of women, regardless of social status. As a consequence the role of women in the Jōdo-shū sects has often been greater than in some other Japanese Buddhist traditions.
Hōnen is also known to have been skilled in attaining nembutsu samadhi and the visions that often comes with it. He is also said to have had various visions in dreams, including a well recorded vision of Shandao. His visions are recorded in a work called Sammai Hottoku Ki (A Record of Receiving Samadhic Revelation), recorded by Genchi.
About himself Hōnen reportedly said: |
Hōnen | Works | Works
thumb|Hōnen teaching |
Hōnen | ''Senchakushū'' | Senchakushū
Hōnen's main work expounding his Pure Land doctrine is the Senchaku Hongan Nenbutsushū (Collection of Selections on Nenbutsu and the Original Vow, 選択本願念仏集, Senchakushū for short), written in 1198 at the request of his patron Lord Kujō Kanezane (1148–1207). The document was not widely distributed by Hōnen's request until after his death. However, it was copied and distributed among Hōnen's close disciples, including by Shinran, who made his own copy.
When Hōnen was exiled in 1207, his disciples in Kyoto worked to have the text printed (using traditional woodblock printing). The carving of the blocks was completed in 1211 and the first copied were then printed and distributed publicly. This was the first printing of the text of a Japanese Buddhist author and it caused another uproar among other Buddhist schools. In 1227, the monks of the Tendai school attacked the print shop, and destroy the printing blocks. In 1239, Hōnen's followers then re-carved the blocks so they could reprint the text again. |
Hōnen | Other | Other
Another key document from Hōnen is his last testament, the Ichimai-kishōmon (一枚起請文) or "One-Sheet Document", which is a short encapsulation of this basic teaching and is often recited in services today.
Most of Hōnen's teachings and writings (which were not published in his lifetime) were collected by his disciples after his death into four main collections. They include writings in classical Chinese and in Japanese. The collections are:Atone & Hayashi (2011), p. 39.
The Collected Teachings of Kurodani-shōnin ("Eminent monk of Kurodani"): The Chinese Anthology (ten fascicles)
The Collected Teachings of Kurodani-shōnin: The Japanese Anthology (five fascicles)
The Supplement to the Collected Teachings of Kurodani-shōnin: The Chinese Anthology (one fascicle)
The Supplement to the Collected Teachings of Kurodani-shōnin: The Japanese Anthology (two fascicles)
There are also other works attributed to Hōnen that as not part of these traditional collections. Scholars debate the authenticity of these secondary works. One example is the Biography of Honen Shonin (Honen Shonin denki, also called Daigo-bon for short) discovered at Daigo-ji temple in 1917. This work contains numerous texts attributed to Hōnen which were written or directly transcribed by Hōnen's disciple Seikan-bo Genchi.Fujimoto Kiyohiko. "A Study of Honen's Doctrine of Evil Persons as the Object of Salvation" (akunin shoki setsu), Bukkyo University, Kyoto. |
Hōnen | Teaching | Teaching
thumb|A depiction of Hōnen's dream vision of master Shandao
The teachings of Hōnen are informed primarily by the Chinese Pure Land tradition, especially the work of key Chinese Pure Land masters like Tanluan, Daochuo, Shandao and Huaigan. Hōnen himself lists these figures as Pure Land patriarchs in his Jōdo goso den. Hōnen was also influenced by the Tendai school background in which he trained as a monk. The work of Genshin was also important for Hōnen, as he was a Japanese Tendai monk who focused on Pure Land practice.Rhodes, Robert F. (2017). Genshin's Ōjōyōshū and the Construction of Pure Land Discourse in Heian Japan, p. 10. (Pure Land Buddhist Studies). University of Hawaii Press. .
Out of all of these, Shandao is clearly the central figure for Hōnen, who writes in his Senchakushū: "Shandao's Commentary on the Meditation Sutra is the guidebook to the Western Pure Land. It should be regarded as the eyes and feet of nembutsu devotees." Hōnen goes even further than this, writing once again in the Senchakushū that "Shandao was a manifestation of Amida...his written works are Amida Buddha's direct preaching. If one desires to copy his Commentary on the Meditation Sutra, it should be done according to the method prescribed for copying the Buddhist sutras."Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, The Influence of Shan-tao on Honen's Teachings (2005) |
Hōnen | Relying on the Buddha's power | Relying on the Buddha's power
Hōnen’s teachings present a path designed not for religious elites but for ordinary individuals. His doctrine centers on attaining rebirth in the pure land through a personal connection with Amida Buddha and a reliance of his other power (Jp. tariki). In contrast to the traditional Buddhist emphasis on achieving nirvana through individual effort or "self-power" (jiriki), Hōnen focuses on reciting Amida’s name (nembutsu), a simple faith based practice that offers liberation to all types of people.Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, The Teachings of Honen Shonin (2005)
The basic premise behind Hōnen's teaching is an existential honesty and humility regarding our limitations to reach Buddhahood. For Hōnen, most, if not all people, cannot attain awakening through the Mahayana practices based on self-effort (the perfections, meditation, etc). This is because most people are deluded and fallible "bombus" (common foolish people filled with defilements). Hōnen certainly believed that about himself, even though he had spent years in monastic training. Since ordinary people lack the ability to liberate themselves, their only other option is to have faith in the salvific power of the Buddha Amitabha. Thus Hōnen argued that we should turn to the easy practice of nembutsu (the faithful recitation of the Buddha's name in the phrase: Namo Amida Butsu, "Homage to Amida Buddha") and completely rely on the power of the Buddha to liberate us from this world into the pure land after death.Atone & Hayashi (2011), pp. 1-3, 29-30
This attitude of reliance on other power also serves to dissolve our attachments to our sense of self and its capacities. This is something which Hōnen believed was found in all those who practice the paths which rely self-power and individual effort. Apart from this, Hōnen also believed that the practice which relies on nembutsu and the Buddha's power was even more important in his current era. This is because he believed that the world had entered the age of Dharma decline (Jp: mappo) in which traditional self-power methods were no longer effective for most people. |
Hōnen | Nembutsu | Nembutsu
Hōnen's teachings on the nembutsu are briefly summarized in his final work, the One-Sheet Document, in which Hōnen also states that he has "no other teaching than this". This short text containing the core of Hōnen's teaching states that the nembutsu is not a kind of meditation, nor does it require studying or understanding.Honen, Ichimai-kishomon (The One Sheet Document), Jodo Shu Research Institute 1996-2002 Instead:
For Hōnen, the nembutsu is a gift by Amida Buddha which has the power to establish a karmic relationship between the devotee and the Buddha and his pure land. Hōnen believed that the nembutsu was "chosen" or "selected" (jp. senchaku) by the Buddha himself as the primary practice, infusing it with all his power and merit. Furthermore, for Hōnen, the nembutsu is really the Buddha himself in sonic form, and thus to say the nembutsu and hear it is to manifest and experience a nirmāṇakāya of the Buddha Amida. |
Hōnen | The "selection" of the nembutsu | The "selection" of the nembutsu
Hōnen's teaching focuses on the nembutsu as the practice chosen by Amida Buddha, the “selected nenbutsu of the original vow” (senchaku hongan nenbutsu), seeing it as the central and most important Buddhist practice. The reason that the Buddha chose this practice and infused it with his power is that the compassion of the Buddha is so great that he wishes all beings to succeed. Therefore, he will promote the practice that is easiest and most accessible for the greatest number of beings.Andrews, Allan A. "Hōnen on Attaining Pure Land Rebirth: the Selected Nenbutsu of the Original Vow". Critical Readings on Pure Land Buddhism in Japan (Volume 1). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004401501_010 Web.
Hōnen writes in the Senchakushū that since the nembutsu is easy to practice in comparison to other Buddhist practices, it is the most universal practice taught by the Buddha, whose compassion seeks the soteriological “equality” (byōdō) of birth in the pure land for all people. Furthermore, he writes:Because the nenbutsu is easy (to practice), it is open to all [people]. Because the manifold practices are difficult [to master], they are not open to the diverse [human] capacities. However, was it not [the aim of Amida's] Fundamental Vow (hongan) to abandon the difficult and take up the easy [practices] in order to enable all sentient beings to attain birth in equality? If the Fundamental Vow required to make Buddha images or to build stupas, poor and destitute [people] certainly would have to give up hope for birth. However, the rich and noble people are few and the poor and low people are extremely numerous. If the Fundamental Vow required wisdom and high intelligence, the foolish and dull certainly would have to give up hope for birth....If the Fundamental Vow would have required the various practices [mentioned] above, the people being able to attain birth would be few and those not attaining birth would be numerous. However, Amida Nyorai, when long ago he was the monk Dharmākara, being moved by compassion of equality in order to grasp all [people] comprehensively, did not make the Fundamental Vow for birth by requiring the various practices such as making Buddha statues or building stupas. He made the Fundamental Vow requiring only the one practice of reciting the nenbutsu. Thus, the main reason that the Buddha chose the nembutsu as the supreme practice was that the vast majority of people are poor, uneducated, defiled, unwise and forced by circumstances to violate the precepts (for example, for fishermen and so on). If liberation depended solely on difficult and time consuming practices, most would not be liberated. Therefore, Amida Buddha compassionately chose to make birth in his pure land contingent on the most accessible practice, making liberation truly open for all beings. This revolutionary idea goes against the traditional assumption that the Buddha's most important and effective practices were the most complex and difficult ones to put into practice (i.e. the most elite practices).
While other schools of Buddhism organized their doctrinal classifications based on which sutra or teaching they believed was the most profound, Hōnen focused on the universal ease and accessibility of the nembutsu as the criterion for it being the highest practice.Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, Classification of Teachings (2005) Since the nembutsu was effective for all kinds of people and in all ages (even in the current Age of Dharma decline), Hōnen argued that it was the supreme teaching of the Buddha.Bloom, Alfred. "Honen Shonin’s Religious and Social Significance in the Pure Land Tradition" (2004) However, Hōnen still believed that the nembutsu was not only the most accessible practice, but that it was also the superior practice and the most effective. This is because, for Hōnen, the nembutsu contained within it Amitabha Buddha's power, bodhicitta (mind of awakening), and all of his merits and enlightenment, as well as the entire Buddhist teaching (the three truths).Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, Honen's View of Senchaku (selection) & the Nembutsu (2005) |
Hōnen | Equality | Equality
Hōnen taught that all people could attain birth in the pure land through nembutsu, where they could become Buddhas easily by learning directly from the Buddha Amitabha. This included all women, the uneducated lower classes and even the most evil people who had committed the worst deeds. This universality and inclusiveness made his teachings extremely popular among all classes of people. According to Hōnen, this was all possible through the Buddha's power and “great compassion of equality” (byōdō no daihi) which embraces and accommodates all human capabilities and conditions. Hōnen partially derived his views on the equality of all people in the nembutsu from Shandao, who writes in his commentary that "the essence of [Amida] Buddha’s mind is compassion, and with this great compassion of equality he grasps all [sentient beings] universally".
Hōnen met all sorts of people in his life including fishermen, prostitutes and samurai, and he recommended nembutsu to all of them. He taught that even if they could not stop acting in immoral ways now, the nembutsu would ensure their birth in the pure land. For example, Hōnen replied to a prostitute that if she could not give up her current work, "then keep reciting nembutsu just as you are...In fact, women like you are the most welcome guests of Amida’s Vow".Williams, Paul (2008). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd Ed., p. 256 Hōnen was also particularly concerned with religious discrimination against women, who were not allowed in numerous holy mountains or temples, and were limited by various taboos around childbirth and menstruation. For Hōnen, when it came to birth in the pure land, women were just as capable as men, and traditional taboos did not matter.
According to Hōnen, what really mattered was saying nembutsu with faith. One's status as a priest, monk, ascetic, or noble being did not matter much. When it came to practice, he emphasized simple and easy actions that all classes could perform, and de-emphasized expensive and lavish ceremonies and offerings. Regarding religious institutions, he also promoted the idea that laypeople and ordained monks were equal in the practice of nembutsu. Thus, he writes "the merits of a holy man’s nenbutsu and the worldly person’s nenbutsu are the same; there is no difference whatsoever." This indicates the radically universal and democratic nature of Hōnen's teaching, which threatened the influence and power of the other schools and the basic idea of the monastic and priestly hierarchy.
Furthermore, if laypersons were said to have just as much potential to attain the pure land and thus Buddhahood, then the status and authority of monks as mediators of Buddhism for laypersons would become much less important. The empowerment of laypersons as agents of their own liberation can be seen in a letter of Hōnen which recommends that the recipient (who asked about the importance of a spiritual advisor) should: “abandon the thought [wish] for an ordinary person as spiritual advisor and rely on Buddha as spiritual guide." For Hōnen, the power of the nembutsu also extended to supernatural protection from spirits (yōkai), kami and demons. This apotropaic power had previously been granted only to religious specialists like Shinto priests, Onmyōdō specialists and Buddhist monks, but now, Hōnen had given it to all people who would recite the nembutsu.Sōhō Machida (1999), pp. 26-27. According to Martin Repp, all of this entailed a clear "decisive shift" from the traditional view that laypersons require the guidance and mediation of a religious professional to the "new approach of direct agency by an ordinary religious individual." This threat to their power is part of the reason that many monastic elites, who relied on the support of the populace to maintain their powerful monastic complexes and land holdings, opposed Hōnen's teaching to fiercely.
Hōnen's soteriological egalitarianism even extended to the pure land itself. He de-emphasized the doctrine of the nine classes of birth, which held that more virtuous people would be born in higher levels of the pure land and evil people in the lowest ones. Hōnen saw this teaching as a skillful means which helped prevent laziness and immorality among people, but was not ultimately true. He argued that once birth in the pure land was attained, beings would experience “birth in equality” (byōdō ni ōjō) into a land which had no hierarchy at all. |
Hōnen | Sincere faith | Sincere faith
A key element of Hōnen's teaching is that one needed to approach the practice of nembutsu with the right attitude. Hōnen cautioned against the mistaken belief that birth in the pure land depends on the sheer number of times one recites the nembutsu or other self efforts. Such a view reflects a reliance on self-power (jiriki), which is unsuitable for ordinary beings (bonpu) living in this degenerate age.Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, An outline of Honen's teaching (2005) Instead, Hōnen emphasized that what truly matters is the depth of faith and sincerity in reciting the nembutsu, rather than any other effort on our part. Whether one chants it a hundred, a thousand, or even a million times, the crucial element is the earnestness with which one entrusts oneself to Amida’s compassion. This genuine reliance on Amida’s power leads to the establishment of unwavering faith, ensuring rebirth in the Pure Land.
Hōnen described this essential faith using Shandao's concept of the triple mind (sanjin), which are necessary for attaining birth in the pure land. These qualities, also called the mind at peace (anjin) by Hōnen, are:
The Utterly Sincere Mind (shijōshin) – The wholehearted belief that one will be born in the pure land through nembutsu practice, trusting in Amida Buddha’s vow and promise.
The Profound Mind (jinshin) – A deep and reflective faith that includes both an understanding of ourselves as bombu (a defiled commoner) and an unshakable trust in Amida's saving power.
The Mind That Dedicates Merit and Resolves to Be Born in the Pure Land (ekō hotsuganshin) – The firm resolve to dedicate the accumulated merit of nembutsu recitation toward birth in the pure land, with the unwavering conviction that Amida’s vow will ensure this outcome. |
Hōnen | Constant repetition of nembutsu | Constant repetition of nembutsu
Regarding the practice of nembutsu, Hōnen recommended extensive and continuous recitation of the nembutsu. He recommended that one may begin with attempting to accumulate ten thousand repetitions per day ("and then go on to twenty, thirty, fifty, sixty or even a hundred thousand"), in order to avoid laziness.Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, Honen's Instructions on Practice Hōnen also wrote that a helpful practice was to perform nembutsu retreats (betsuji nembutsu) once in a while to help us maintain focus and enthusiasm in the nembutsu, a practice recommended by Shandao and Genshin. During these retreats (which traditionally last for seven days), the recitation itself can be undertaken for six or twelve hours at a time. When practicing in a group, participants should take turns to ensure continuous recitation.
Part of the reason that Hōnen recommended constant repetition of the nembutsu seems to be that he believed the nembutsu could eradicate all one's bad karma as well as having the power of making pure karma for one's future birth in the pure land and one's future enlightenment. Thus he writes: lifelong practice [of nenbutsu] means constantly generating pure causation (jōin o nasu) from first arousing the aspiration for enlightenment to [the realization of] enlightenment without ever backsliding. Of course, this generation of merit was not based on one's self-power, but one the power that Amida Buddha had himself imbued into the nembutsu.
Another important reason for Hōnen's promotion of extensive repetition of nembutsu was his belief that this practice established a strong devotional bond between the practitioner and Amida Buddha. Thus, chapter 2 of the Senchakushū states: "those who cultivate the right and assisting practices become extremely intimate and familiar with Amida Buddha."
Furthermore, Hōnen also held that the recitation of the nembutsu could lead to a state of samadhi (meditative absorption), just like other forms of Buddhist meditation. This "nembutsu samadhi" was a heightened religious experience in which one may even have a vision of the Buddha and the pure land. Hōnen considered this samadhi experience as important for legitimating the authority of a Buddhist teacher.Blum (2002), pp. 16-17.
A major dispute arose among Hōnen's followers over two positions: once-calling (Jp: ichinengi) and many-calling (tanengi). Once calling held that since you only needed to recite nenbutsu once to be liberated there was no need to accumulate many recitations, while many-calling held that you needed to recite nenbutsu as much as possible (tens of thousands of times a day even). Hōnen promoted sustained practice as taught by many-calling, though he also said that one could be saved by even a few recitations (but this was not an excuse to abandon practice).Jones, Charles B. (2021). Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice, pp. 123–135. Shambhala Publications, . Thus, Hōnen gave the following advice on the nembutsu regarding this issue: |
Hōnen | Other practices | Other practices
Since the nembutsu is the chosen practice, the "Rightly Established Practice" (shojo no go), all other practices were seen by Hōnen as merely supportive or secondary. For Hōnen if one wanted to attain birth in the pure land, one only needed to recite the name of Amitabha with faith. Hōnen taught that meditation, study, keeping precepts, or other practices were not necessary and thaat nembutsu should be one's priority. Through nembutsu (even just a few recitations), Hōnen believed that even the most unethical people would be born in the pure land. Thus, Hōnen writes:When I consider these matters carefully, I wish to urge that anyone who desires to quickly escape from the cycle of birth-and-death should, of the two types of the excellent teaching, temporarily cease the practices of the Holy Path and select the practices of the Pure Land. (T. 2608, 83:18c-19a)Jodo Shu Research Institute of Buddhism, The Process of Senchaku "Selection," "Rejection", and "Reappropriation" Because of his reliance on a single simple practice, Hōnen's teaching was widely criticized as "exclusive" and as neglecting basic Buddhist ethics and bodhicitta.Williams, Paul (2008). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd Ed., pp. 257–258. Routledge.
However, Hōnen still practiced meditative nembutsu, kept the bodhisattva precepts, shunned meat and alcohol, and continued to perform rituals, monastic ordinations and study texts.Williams, Paul (2008). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd Ed., p. 257 Thus, even if Hōnen saw other practices as unnecessary, he did not teach that one should completely abandon them, since they could still support one's nenbutsu practice. For example, keeping the precepts was important since it was a way to prevent the accumulation of bad karma, which could become a hindrance to one's practice.
The Senchakushū gives three main reasons for why the Buddha taught numerous other practices in the sutras aside from the nembutsu: (1) the myriad practices were taught so beings would set them aside and take refuge in the nembutsu; (2) they were taught to guide beings to the nembutsu; (3) they were taught to explain the two paths fully (path sages and easy path).
For Hōnen, one's relationship with other practices was defined by one's relationship with the nembutsu and one's faith. He held that at first, one needed to make a choice to focus exclusively on the nembutsu (Amida's chosen practice) and set aside all other practices. Once one had become firmly and faithfully established in this practice however, one could reintroduce other auxiliary (jogo) Pure Land practices (such as bodhicitta, and the other five main practices as defined by Shandao) to support one's nembutsu practice. Hōnen clearly states this in Chapter 12 of the Senchakushū, where he accepts that any of the thirteen contemplations taught in the Contemplation Sutra and all of the elements of the three pure acts (including the precepts), can contribute to birth in the pure land.
Furthermore, once one had attained firm faith, other "different good practices helpful to the nembutsu" (irui no jogo) may also be resumed as well. What distinguished these secondary practices at this stage was not their content (they remain the same practices), but whether one had attained the Firm Establishment of Faith (ketsujo ojoshin), i.e. the triple mind or the peaceful mind (anjin). This is because, once one has firm faith in the Buddha's power and the nembutsu, one's attitude towards the secondary practices changes. That is to say, one stops viewing them through the lens of self-power and so one can resume them as aids to the nembutsu.
This relationship between the nembutsu and the secondary practices is described by Hōnen as follows: If one has the heart of the nembutsu then going about daily activities, engaging in various other practices like making offerings or meditating, and getting involved in social welfare activities is something one should do. However, if these activities become the center of one's life and the nembutsu auxiliary, then one should re-prioritize one's life. (Tsuneni osei rarekeru okotoba, SHZ., 493)Thus, the process of "selecting" (senchaku) the nembutsu and setting aside other practices is not one of total and permanent exclusivity, but instead includes the later re-appropriation of the secondary practices once one has attained true faith. At this stage of re-appropriation, the auxiliary and miscellaneous practices are seen not just as mere aids, but as expressions of the nembutsu (which contains all practices). This helps explain why Hōnen continued to perform many other practices alongside the nembutsu throughout his life. |
Hōnen | Amida and the pure land | Amida and the pure land
Hōnen also taught that there were kinds of relationship between Amida and sentient beings:
intimate karmic relations (shin-en): This refers to how Amida calls out to all sentient beings and how Amida listens and perceives to those who say the nembutsu.
close karmic relations (gen-in): This refers to how, when sentient beings desire to see the Buddha, Amida will respond to this desire and appear to them
superior karmic relations (zojo-en): This refers to how those who recite the nembutsu are purified of all their bad karma. Then, at their death, Amida and his assembly of bodhisattvas will arrive to welcome them to the pure land.
Hōnen’s conception of the pure land closely aligns with that of Shandao and is characterized by three key aspects. First, he believed that the pure land was established through the power of Amida, with the fundamental purpose of saving all deluded beings. Second, Hōnen emphasized how, even if individuals enter the pure land while still filled with defilements, these will be eliminated upon arrival through Amida's grace. Third, Hōnen maintained that the pure land was a real realm with divine forms and characteristics. Recognizing that ordinary beings tend to perceive reality in concrete terms and cling to form, Amida Buddha meets them where they are, and leads them to a pure land filled with beautiful forms. In this way, Hōnen rejected the notions of a purely symbolic or psychological view of the pure land. |
Hōnen | Influence | Influence
Hōnen had a profound influence on later Buddhist figures both within Pure Land traditions and beyond. His advocacy of a single chosen practice based on Shandao's Pure Land Buddhism marked a significant departure from the more complex practices of the Tendai and Shingon schools toward a more devotional and accessible practice. As noted by scholars like James Foard, Hōnen’s devotional movement eliminated the need for the mediation of a priestly class and made complete Buddhahood easily available to all laypersons. This emphasis on a single accessible practice would become the hallmark of other popular "New Kamakura schools" of Japanese Buddhism, including Dōgen's Sōtō school and Nichiren's Lotus sutra tradition.
Hōnen's emphasis on faith and practice over scholasticism laid the foundation for later developments in Japanese Pure Land thought and made Pure Land a very appealing form of Buddhism among the masses, one which would eventually overtake the other schools of Japanese Buddhism in popularity in later periods. Hōnen is considered the founder of the Jōdo-shū school. However, during Hōnen's life, Jōdo-shū was never separated from the Tendai establishment, and was really only a faction (ha) or sub-sect of the Tendai school. After the 14th century however, this faction became a truly independent tradition.
Among his most direct successors was Shinran (1173–1263), the founder of Jōdo Shinshū (True Pure Land School), who emphasized absolute reliance on Amida’s grace, rejecting the necessity of repeated nembutsu recitation as a self-powered practice.Jones, Charles B. (2021). Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice, pp. 136–150. Shambhala Publications, . Ippen (1239–1289), another Pure Land reformer, took Hōnen’s teachings in a different direction, promoting ecstatic recitation and proselytizing through the Ji-shū movement. Even within other schools like Shingon, Kegon, Hosso and Tendai, Hōnen’s legacy and the popularity of the nembutsu contributed to ongoing debates about practice, faith, nembutsu and the pure land (often serving as a key opponent to define their orthodoxy). This reflects his enduring impact on Japanese Buddhism as a whole.Blum (2002), pp. 18
Hōnen’s influence can be seen in the ideas of numerous later figures of these traditions, including:Blum (2002), p. 19.Rhodes, Robert F. Review of Tendai endonkai shisō no seiritsu to tenkai (The Formation and Evolution of Theories of the Perfect and Sudden Precepts by Japanese Tendai Monks). By Terai Ryōsen. The Eastern Buddhist 49/1 & 2: 259–268 ©2021 The Eastern Buddhist SocietyProffitt, Aaron P. Esoteric Pure Land Buddhism, pp. 146-148. University of Hawai’i Press, 2023, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv270ktvq.
numerous monks of the Shinsei branch of Tendai, including Hōdō (who promoted recitative nembutsu),
the Kegon monk Gyōnen who wrote a history of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan focusing on Hōnen's lineage, the Jōdo Hōmon Genrushō.
The Shingon monks Jōhen and Dōhan who taught an esoteric form of nembutsu.
Hōnen's influence extended into secular culture as well, as can be seen from his appearance in numerous works of Japanese literature such as Tale of the Heike, Mirror of the East (Azuma kagami), and Essays in Idleness (Tsurezuregusa).Sōhō Machida (1999), p. 2. |
Hōnen | Disciples | Disciples
By 1204 Hōnen had a group of disciples numbering around 190. This number is derived from the number of signatures found on , a guideline for rules of conduct in the Jōdo Shū community to assuage concerns by other groups. Some of his most important disciples include:
Benchō (1162–1238), founder of the Chinzei branch of Jōdo-shū, one of the largest and most influential branches of the school. Often called Shōkō, he was one of the monks exiled in 1207 (to Chinzei, Kyushu.) and was a supporter of the tanengi (many calling) position.
Genchi (1183–1238), Hōnen's personal attendant, and close friend of Benchō.
Shōkū (1147–1247), founder of the Seizan (West Mountain) branch of Jōdo-shū, another one of the larger and most influential branches. He was not exiled like other disciples and was able to continue to establish the Pure Land school in the Kyoto area.
Kōsai (1163–1247), promoted a version of the controversial "single-recitation" (ichinengi) teaching of Jōdo-shū. Chinzei-ha sources claim that he was expelled from Hōnen's community by Hōnen. But it's likely these claims are later sectarian fabrications of the Chinzei sect, since earlier sources from other traditions do not mention this.Piotrowski, Caroline Maria. "Hōnen's “lukewarm” faith: auxiliary actions in the framework of exclusive nembutsu." University of Georgia, 2010
Hōhombō Gyōkū, another proponent of ichinengi doctrine. Exiled to Sado in 1207.
Shinran (1173–1263), founder of the Jōdo Shinshū branch of Pure Land Buddhism. He also supported the idea that one single recitation could lead to birth in the pure land as long as one had shinjin (true faith). He was exiled to Echigo Province in 1207.
Ryūkan (1148–1227), who taught that many-calling and once-calling were both true.
Chōsai (1184–1266), founder of the Shōgyōhongangi branch of Jōdo-shū which believed that all Buddhist practices can lead to rebirth in the Pureland.
Rensei (1141–1208), formerly a notable samurai named Kumagai no Jirō Naozane who had fought at the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani and killed the Heike leader Taira no Atsumori.
A number of disciples went on to establish branches of Pure Land Buddhism, based on their interpretations of Hōnen's teachings. |
Hōnen | Criticisms | Criticisms
Hōnen faced many fierce criticisms from various quarters. Tendai and Shingon monks accused Hōnen of dismissing traditional Buddhist practices such as the precepts, esoteric rituals, and scholarly study. His emphasis on nembutsu was seen as overly simplistic and as a rejection of the broader Buddhist path, including a rejection of bodhicitta, the foundation of Mahayana Buddhism. Critics also argued that Hōnen’s teaching of salvation through nembutsu alone might lead to moral laxity and some feared that laypeople and monks alike would neglect proper conduct.Coates (1981), p. xxvi
In response these concerns, Hōnen clarified in various writings, including the Seven Point Pledge (Shichikajō seikai) he and his students signed together, that he did not reject morality and other Buddhist practices, even if his teaching entailed a focus on the nembutsu. Hōnen also explicitly rejected a misinterpretation of his teaching called “encouragement of evil conduct” (zōaku muge), which was the idea that one can abandon and violate the Buddhist precepts without concern, since Amida will save us anyways. He also told all his followers not to criticize the practices of other schools. Indeed, even though Hōnen believed that the nembutsu was the most effective way to attain Buddhahood, he did not believe that other practices were useless. He held that they could possibly also lead to liberation for some, but that this was not certain, unlike the nembutsu.
In spite of all this, numerous figures wrote texts critiquing Hōnen's teaching, including Myōe who wrote Zaijarin (Breaking the Circle of Heresy), and Jōkei, the monk who also authored the Kofukuji Petition to ban Hōnen's teaching.Bando Shojun. Myoe's criticism of Honen's doctrine. The Eastern Buddhist. 1974;7(1):37-54. Dōgen, the founder of Sōtō Zen, likewise criticized Hōnen's teaching as "completely wrong", claiming that repetition of the nembutsu was "worthless-like a frog in a spring field croaking night and day."Coates (1981), p. xxviii Myōe's most forceful criticism was that Hōnen’s teaching abandoned the generation of bodhicitta (the mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings), which is the foundation of all Mahayana Buddhism. While Hōnen did not ignore bodhicitta in his works, he seems to have held that it was not possible to generate it through self-power, and so one should focus on nembutsu first. In response to these critiques, Hōnen’s students also offered their rebuttals and wrote various responses. Perhaps the most famous of these is Shinran's Kyōgyōshinshō, which has been considered a kind of rebuttal to Myōe's critiques and affirmed that the true faith (shinjin) in Amida was none other than bodhicitta.
Some figures even slandered Hōnen. For example, Jien, the Tendai Abbot of Mount Hiei, claimed that Hōnen suffered from demonic possession. Likewise, Nichiren claimed that Hōnen's nembutsu teaching would lead people to hell in his Treatise on Nembutsu and Eternal Hell (Nembutsu muken jigoku sho).Coates (1981), p. xxvii Myōe wrote that since Hōnen abandoned bodhicitta, he "was despicable, no better than a sentient rock, a priest who is no longer Buddhist, the devil’s messenger".
Hōnen’s doctrine also led to social and political concerns among rival schools. By asserting that all people, regardless of social status or religious training, could attain salvation simply through nembutsu, his teachings undermined the social support and authority of both the Buddhist monastic establishment and the ruling elites who patronized traditional schools.Repp, M. (2020). "Socio-Economic Impacts of Hōnen’s Pure Land Doctrines: an Inquiry into the Interplay between Buddhist Teachings and Institutions". In Critical Readings on Pure Land Buddhism in Japan (Volume 1). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004401501_012 This, as well as a groundswell of conversions from older schools to the nembutsu school, is why there was such a strong political opposition to Hōnen’s pure land movement.Repp, M. (2020). "Socio-Economic Impacts of Hōnen’s Pure Land Doctrines: an Inquiry into the Interplay between Buddhist Teachings and Institutions". In Critical Readings on Pure Land Buddhism in Japan (Volume 1). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004401501_012 |
Hōnen | Notes | Notes |
Hōnen | References | References
Atone Jōji & Hayashi Yōko : The Promise of Amida Buddha, Hōnen’s Path to Bliss (Kurodani Shōnin wagotōroku); Boston, Wisdom Publications, 2011.
Augustine, Morris J., Kondō, Tesshō, trans. (1997). "Senchaku hongan nembutsu shū": a collection of passages on the nembutsu chosen in the original vow compiled by Genkū (Hōnen), Berkeley, Calif.: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
Blum, Mark L. (2002). The Origins and Development of Pure Land Buddhism: A Study and Translation of Gyonen's Jodo Homon Genrusho. Oxford University Press. .
Coates, Harper Havelock & Ishizuka Ryūgaku: Hōnen, The Buddhist Saint, His Life and Teachings (by Shunjō); Kyoto, Chion’in, 1925 / New York and London, Garland Publishing, 1981.
Dobbins, James C. (1989). Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan. Bloomington, Illinois: Indiana University Press. ; OCLC 470742039
Hônen : Le gué vers la Terre Pure, Senchaku-shû, traduit du sino-japonais, présenté et annoté par Jérôme Ducor. Collection "Trésors du bouddhisme". Paris, Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2005.
Jonathan Watts, Yoshiharu Tomatsu, Traversing the Pure Land Path: A Lifetime of Encounters with Honen Shonin, Jodo Shu Press, Tōkyō, 2005,
Jones, Charles B. (2021). Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice. Shambhala Publications. .
Jokai Asai (2001). Exclusion and Salvation in Honen's Thought: Salvation of Those Who Commit the Five Grave Offenses or Slander the Right Dharma, Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 125-156. Archived from the original
Takahashi Koji. Senchakushu no seikaku ni tsuite: tokuni hi ronriteki ichimen o chushin to shite. in Jodokyo no shiso to bunka, Etani Festschrift (Kyoto: Dohosha, 1972)
SETP (Senchakushu English Translation Project): Honen's Senchakushu, Passages on the Selection of the Nembutsu in the Original Vow (Classics in East Asian Buddhism. A Kuroda Institute Book); Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press / Tokyo, Sogo Bukkyo Kenkyusho, Taisho University, 1998.
Sho-on Hattori, A Raft from the Other Shore: Honen and the Way of Pure Land Buddhism, Jodo Shu Press, Tōkyō, 2001,
Sōhō Machida, Renegade monk : Hōnen and Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1999, |
Hōnen | External links | External links
Honen Shonin’s Religious and Social Significance in the Pure Land Tradition by Alfred Bloom
Kyoto National Museum: The Illustrated Biography of Priest Honen
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Category:Buddhist poets
Category:Recipients of Japanese royal pardons |
Hōnen | Table of Content | Short description, Biography, Early life, Departure from Mt. Hiei, A rising figure in the capital, Exile and the final years, Character, Works, ''Senchakushū'', Other, Teaching, Relying on the Buddha's power, Nembutsu, The "selection" of the nembutsu, Equality, Sincere faith, Constant repetition of nembutsu, Other practices, Amida and the pure land, Influence, Disciples, Criticisms, Notes, References, External links |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | Short description | Star Trek: Starfleet Command is a computer game based on the table-top wargame Star Fleet Battles. It was developed by 14° East and Quicksilver Software and published by Interplay Entertainment. It was released in 1999 for Microsoft Windows. It simulates starship operations, ship-to-ship combat, and fleet warfare in the Star Trek universe. An expanded version was released in 2000 titled Star Trek: Starfleet Command - Gold Edition. It includes the latest patch and all the missions that were downloadable from the official website. |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | Gameplay | Gameplay
right|Starfleet battlecruiser in open space.
The player chooses to represent one of the Star Trek factions, including the Gorn, the Hydran Kingdom, the Klingon Empire, the Lyran Empire, the Orion Pirates, the Romulan Star Empire, and the United Federation of Planets. Play can be a simple skirmish, or single- or multi-player mode.
Gameplay consists of maneuvering one's ship to approach enemy ships and assault them in the areas where various systems and ship's shields are vulnerable. It also consists of achieving various other objectives specified in mission assignment, which are provided at the beginning of each scenario. Depending on the specific assignment, this can include interacting with various ships, aliens, planetary bodies, and other objects in space. |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | Plot | Plot
Though the game has no central story-mode campaign, players may play as a member of one of six stellar powers, each one having at least one elite organization that, when joined, will trigger special missions that tell various stories. Though having unique stories, each race's special missions all contribute expository information on the fate of a race known as the Organians and the effect that their departure from known space has since caused. |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | Reception | Reception
The game received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. John Lee of NextGen called it "a complex real-time strategy game with a steep learning curve, but it's eminently rewarding."
According to Erik Bethke, sales of the game surpassed 350,000 copies after a year on shelves "without counting the Gold Edition and the Neutral Zone expansion." It was Interplay's best-selling game through direct sales, above Baldur's Gate.
The staff of Computer Games Strategy Plus nominated the game for their 1999 "Real-Time Strategy Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings. They wrote that the game "avoided the curse of the Star Trek game and produced a game of remarkable depth coupled with simple mechanics."
In 2016, Tom's Guide ranked the game as one of the top ten Star Trek games. A year later, PC Gamer ranked it among the best Star Trek games. Three years afterward, Screen Rant ranked it as the 4th best Star Trek game. |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | See also | See also
Star Trek: Starfleet Command: Orion Pirates
Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War
Star Trek: Starfleet Command III |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | References | References |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | External links | External links
Category:1999 video games
Category:Interplay Entertainment games
Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games
Category:Multiplayer online games
Category:Quicksilver Software games
Category:Real-time tactics video games
Category:Space multiplayer online games
Category:Star Fleet Universe
Starfleet Command
Category:Video games based on board games
Starfleet Command
Category:Video games developed in the United States
Category:Windows games
Category:Windows-only games |
Star Trek: Starfleet Command | Table of Content | Short description, Gameplay, Plot, Reception, See also, References, External links |
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