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why is it that sounds that would normally drive is to murder, become perfectly bearable when we are the ones making them? | You may have something called Misophonia. This is a psychological condition where certain sounds trigger your fight or flight response. So you hear someone chewing loudly, and either you want to leave or you want to hit them.
These sounds don't actually bother the other people.
from _URL_0_
"Exposure to a trigger sound elicits an immediate negative emotional response from a person with sound sensitivities. The response can range from moderate discomfort to acute annoyance or go all the way up to full-fledged rage and panic. Fight or flight reactions can occur. While experiencing a trigger event, a person may become agitated, defensive or offensive, distance themselves from the trigger or possibly act out in some manner." | [
"A folk etymology is that it is from white people honking their car horns a lot to get people's attention and perhaps as a metaphor for liberal whites who make a lot of noise (honking) but do not do anything.\n",
"Particularly severe cases of misophonia may result in violent impulses toward the source of the sound. One such case described in the journal \"Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology\" detailed 'involuntary violence' exhibited by a sufferer in response to a trigger in the form of another person eating loudly.\n",
"\"Make Some Noise\" is about making noise as you stand up for what is right. Krystal writes, \"I really want me and my generation to be a part of leaving a positive impact on the world, and that's what \"Make Some Noise\" is all about. We need to stand up for what we believe, and for who we are. Don't let anyone ignore you. Don't be afraid to take a stand, because we were born to make some noise!\" \n",
"Extremely loud sound systems in automobiles may violate the noise ordinance of some municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002 the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.\n",
"Frequently, false alarms occur because car alarm owners use high sensitivity settings. This may be the main reason why loud bass frequency sound (loud music, other cars or motorcycles with loud exhaust systems, thunderstorms, etc.) can set off car alarms. The second possible reason is that some parts of the alarm system may be improperly installed.\n",
"The \"Conjectural Sound\" principle applies even to happenstance sounds, such as tires squealing, doorknobs turning or people walking. If the sound editor wants to communicate that a driver is in a hurry to leave, he will cut the sound of tires squealing when the car accelerates from a stop; even if the car is on a dirt road, the effect will work if the audience is dramatically engaged. If a character is afraid of someone on the other side of a door, the turning of the doorknob can take a second or more, and the mechanism of the knob can possess dozens of clicking parts. A skillful Foley artist can make someone walking calmly across the screen seem terrified simply by giving the actor a different gait.\n",
"Cars significantly contribute to noise pollution. While on common perception the engine is the main cause for noise, at city speeds the noise produced by wheel and asphalt is commonly the dominant factor while at highway speeds air friction noises become a major factor.\n"
] |
internet cookies? | Imagine you're reading a book. You're at a specific part of the book, somewhere in the middle. You decide "that's enough book for today" and you close the book. Next time you open your book, you're going to have to flip through all those pages again and manually find your page. Rather than having to remember what page you're on, why not just have the book remember for you? So you decide to put a bookmark in the book. You can also write down little notes on this bookmark, like "This character just did this" so that next time you open the book you can easily remember what you just read and pick up exactly where you left off.
Cookies are essentially bits of data that websites leave in your browser so that they can quickly easily access them next time you visit. For example, if you sign into Facebook and say "Remember Me", Facebook leaves a cookie that remembers that you logged in on this machine and that you want to be logged in automatically in the future. | [
"An \"HTTP cookie\" (also called \"web cookie\", \"Internet cookie\", \"browser cookie\", or simply \"cookie\") is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's computer by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers.\n",
"An HTTP cookie (also called web cookie, Internet cookie, browser cookie, or simply cookie) is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's computer by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers.\n",
"Cookies are arbitrary pieces of data, usually chosen and first sent by the web server, and stored on the client computer by the web browser. The browser then sends them back to the server with every request, introducing states (memory of previous events) into otherwise stateless HTTP transactions. Without cookies, each retrieval of a web page or component of a web page would be an isolated event, largely unrelated to all other page views made by the user on the website. Although cookies are usually set by the web server, they can also be set by the client using a scripting language such as JavaScript (unless the cookie's codice_5 flag is set, in which case the cookie cannot be modified by scripting languages).\n",
"Cookies were originally introduced to provide a way for users to record items they want to purchase as they navigate throughout a website (a virtual \"shopping cart\" or \"shopping basket\"). Today, however, the contents of a user's shopping cart are usually stored in a database on the server, rather than in a cookie on the client. To keep track of which user is assigned to which shopping cart, the server sends a cookie to the client that contains a unique session identifier (typically, a long string of random letters and numbers). Because cookies are sent to the server with every request the client makes, that session identifier will be sent back to the server every time the user visits a new page on the website, which lets the server know which shopping cart to display to the user.\n",
"Cookies have some important implications on the privacy and anonymity of web users. While cookies are sent only to the server setting them or a server in the same Internet domain, a web page may contain images or other components stored on servers in other domains. Cookies that are set during retrieval of these components are called \"third-party cookies\". The older standards for cookies, RFC 2109 and RFC 2965, specify that browsers should protect user privacy and not allow sharing of cookies between servers by default. However, the newer standard, RFC 6265, explicitly allows user agents to implement whichever third-party cookie policy they wish. Most browsers, such as Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Google Chrome, do allow third-party cookies by default, as long as the third-party website has Compact Privacy Policy published. Newer versions of Safari block third-party cookies, and this is planned for Mozilla Firefox as well (initially planned for version 22 but postponed indefinitely).\n",
"An HTTP cookie is data stored on a user's computer that assists in automated access to websites or web features, or other state information required in complex web sites. It may also be used for user-tracking by storing special usage history data in a cookie, and such cookies—for example, those used by Google Analytics—are called \"tracking cookies\". Cookies are a common concern in the field of Internet privacy. Although website developers most commonly use cookies for legitimate technical purposes, cases of abuse occur. In 2009, two researchers noted that social networking profiles could be connected to cookies, allowing the social networking profile to be connected to browsing habits.\n",
"HTTP cookies are strings of text that are saved on a computer when a user browses different web pages. Cookies allow small bits of information to be stored, such as passwords and shopping lists. They are also used to track demographics and browsing habits. This information is sent to the user's computer and then uploaded to web databases without the user's approval.\n"
] |
why do kids love bright colors so much, but as they get older, bright colors seem less important? | While growing, humans use attention to collect useful information. In early childhood attention is mostly focused on easily perceivable differences between events and things like contrast, brightness, loudness, primary tastes etc When you grow older you already collected that information and unless some part of your focus got permanently attracted to some of it, like getting hobby of collecting colorful things, your attention moves onto other, more complex and nuanced differences like differences in art style, subtle tastes, refined music styles etc.
Why is it working this way? Because brain builds more complex concepts using more simple ones increasing neural network complexity for their representation. | [
"The age when infants begin showing a preference for color is at about 12 weeks old. Generally, children prefer the colors red/pink and blue, and cool colors are preferred over warm colors. Purple is a color favored more by girls than by boys. Color perception of children 3–5 years of age is an indicator of their developmental stage. Color preferences tend to change as people age.\n",
"Furthermore, plenty of variables, such as gender and age, have notable effects on individuals' colors' preferences; gender of humans influences conformance and force of colors tendency, and young people are more enjoyable in warm colors including orange and red rather than intense colors such as green which are preferred by older adults. Moreover, several personal characteristics related to colors; outgoing people are more partial to warm colors, and on the other hand, introverts engage in intense colors. Researchers prove that humans who have high optimum stimulation level are more likely to choose red colors rather than blue.\n",
"Coloring books are widely used in schooling for young children for various reasons. For example, children are often more interested in coloring books rather than using other learning methods; pictures may also be more memorable than simply words. Coloring may also increase creativity in painting, according to some research.\n",
"Slightly older children who have developed a sense of favorite color often tend to pick items that are in that color. However, when their favorite color is not available for a desired item children choose colors that they think matches the product best. Children's preferences for chocolate bar wrappers showed that although one third of the children picked a wrapper of their favorite color, the remaining two thirds picked a wrapper they perceived as fitting the product best. For example, most children thought that a white wrapper was most fitting for white chocolate and a black wrapper for most fitting for a dark chocolate bar and therefore chose those options for those two bars. This application can be seen in The Hershey Company chocolate bars where the company strategically has light wrappers for white chocolate and brown wrappers for milk chocolate, making the product easily identifiable and understandable.\n",
"Red-eye effect is seen in photographs of children also because children's eyes have more rapid dark adaption: in low light a child's pupils enlarge sooner, and an enlarged pupil accentuates the red-eye effect.\n",
"They display a wide range of colors, predominantly bright shades of yellow, red, orange, and blue, although some are a relatively drab brown, black, or grey. The young are often a different, brighter color than adults.\n",
"Three-year-olds are no longer toddlers, but they behave like toddlers at times, and they are not steady in their gains. Children's social skills are still uncertain, they are still working on how to regulate and appropriately express their emotions, and they are not yet able to communicate their ideas and feelings in skilled, complex ways. They believe in fairies and monsters and have trouble with logical sequences that seem basic to adults- which is why adults tend to underestimate their abilities. Yet at other times, their language ability, motor skills, reasoning abilities, and other behaviors make them seem older than they are.\n"
] |
Could it ever be possible to "download" our brains and assemble a "Wiki" of an individual's knowledge, memories, etc? | No.
A number of other threads in /r/askscience recently have been on the same, or similar topics.
Using the search feature with these keywords will show those:
* download/downloading
* upload/uploading
* transfer
* singularity
* brain
To give you the short version: we don't know how brains work, contrary to what we like to claim. Beyond that, we have no idea how to create a technology (or algorithms) that would be anything remotely brain like. It's not just a matter of more RAM/storage/processors. | [
"He proposes that every memory, skill, and passion is encoded somehow in the connectome. And when the brain is not wired properly it can result in mental disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's. Understanding the human connectome may not only help cure such diseases with treatments but also possibly help doctors prevent them from occurring in the first place. And if we can represent the sum of all human experiences and memories in the connectome, then we can download human brains on to flash drives, save them indefinitely, and replay those memories in the future, thereby granting humans a kind of immortality.\n",
"Via the reno, or microminiaturized personal computer implanted in the brain in childhood, people have access to unlimited amounts of information about everything. The only restricted information is that which is protected under the \"Seal Of Aristoi\".\n",
"People can \"upload\" by recording the contents of their brains on computer disks. The individual then becomes a \"ghost\", an infomorph very easily confused with \"sapient artificial intelligence\". However, this technology has several problems as the solely available \"brainpeeling\" technique is fatal to the original biological lifeform being simulated, has a significant failure rate and the philosophical questions regarding personal identity remain equivocal. Any infomorph, regardless of its origin, can be plugged into a \"cybershell\", or a biological body, or \"bioshell\". Or, the individual can illegally make multiple \"xoxes\", or copies of themselves, and scatter them throughout the system, exponentially increasing the odds that at least one of them will live for centuries more, if not forever.\n",
"BULLET::::- Computers are now capable of learning and creating new knowledge entirely on their own and with no human help. By scanning the enormous content of the Internet, some computers \"know\" literally every single piece of public information (every scientific discovery, every book and movie, every public statement, etc.) generated by human beings.\n",
"Other individuals may also be used as external memory aids. Before the development of technology, individuals still had access to collective memory. First referred to as transactive memory by Daniel Wegner, the idea is (basically): An individual may know things that other people don't know while other people know things that that individual does not. Together, individuals know more than apart. \"In any long-term relationship, a team work environment, or other ongoing group, people typically develop a group or transactive memory, a combination of memory stores held directly by individuals and the memory stores they can access because they know someone who knows that information. Like linked computers that can address each other’s memories, people in dyads or groups form transactive memory systems.\"\n",
"One idea that has been advanced involves uploading an individual's habits and memories via direct mind-computer interface. The individual's memory may be loaded to a computer or to a new organic body. Extropian futurists like Moravec and Kurzweil have proposed that, thanks to exponentially growing computing power, it will someday be possible to upload human consciousness onto a computer system, and exist indefinitely in a virtual environment. This could be accomplished via advanced cybernetics, where computer hardware would initially be installed in the brain to help sort memory or accelerate thought processes. Components would be added gradually until the person's entire brain functions were handled by artificial devices, avoiding sharp transitions that would lead to issues of identity, thus running the risk of the person to be declared dead and thus not be a legitimate owner of his or her property. After this point, the human body could be treated as an optional accessory and the program implementing the person could be transferred to any sufficiently powerful computer. Another possible mechanism for mind upload is to perform a detailed scan of an individual's original, organic brain and simulate the entire structure in a computer. What level of detail such scans and simulations would need to achieve to emulate awareness, and whether the scanning process would destroy the brain, is still to be determined. It is suggested that achieving immortality through this mechanism would require specific consideration to be given to the role of consciousness in the functions of the mind. An uploaded mind would only be a copy of the original mind, and not the conscious mind of the living entity associated in such a transfer. Without a simultaneous upload of consciousness, the original living entity remains mortal, thus not achieving true immortality. Research on neural correlates of consciousness is yet inconclusive on this issue. Whatever the route to mind upload, persons in this state could then be considered essentially immortal, short of loss or traumatic destruction of the machines that maintained them.\n",
"Another way in which cognitive models of information may help in information retrieval is with natural language searching. For instance, How Stuff Works imagines a world in which, rather than searching for local movies, reading the reviews, then searching for local Mexican restaurants, and reading their reviews, you will simply type \"\"I want to see a funny movie and then eat at a good Mexican restaurant. What are my options?\" into your browser, and you will receive a useful and relevant response. Although such a thing is not possible today, it represents a holy grail for researchers into cognitive models of information retrieval. The goal is to somehow program information retrieval programs to respond to natural language searches. This would require a fuller understanding of how people structure queries.\n"
] |
What are some examples of historic deals which were done over beer? | Sorry, we don't allow [throughout history questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of trivia, not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history or /r/askhistory. | [
"In the long run, Herrero's brewery did not survive, and the production of European-style beverages such as beer and wine were heavily taxed and heavily regulated by Spain to protect home markets. The purpose of this was to make colonials import these products from Europe. While the policy mostly worked, beer brewing never entirely ceased. In the years just before independence, beer consumption was becoming established in Mexico, leading to disputes over the rights to produce it. Englishmen Gillons and Mairet, Miguel Ramos Arizpe and Justino Tuallion all claimed exclusive rights to produce beer in Mexico. After the end of the war, the beer produced by the Tuallion brewery was the most popular. After the war, colonial restrictions were gone and the industry was allowed to develop, starting in the 1820s. In 1845, a barley beer flavored with \"piloncillo\" was introduced with the names of Pila Seca and La Candelaria by Swiss Bernhard Boldgard and Bavarian Federico Herzog.\n",
"In 1516, William IV, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the \"Reinheitsgebot\" (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, hops and barley-malt. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European monasteries. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results.\n",
"Beer brewed with grain such as barley was produced in small quantities by Hernán Cortés’ soldiers, but it was limited due to the lack of supplies. The first official concession to brew European-style beer was granted to Alfonso de Herrero in 1543 or 1544. Its exact location is unknown, but it is thought to have been located in the south of Mexico City (where Metro Portales is today) or in Amecameca, Mexico State. Herrera's brewery struggled during its first years, as alcohol consumption was highly regulated by authorities, and the new brew had to compete with native beverages. It was also more expensive due to the lack of ingredients. However, the beverage caught on, as it was drunk by colonial authorities, leading others to want it as well. Herrera worked to expand his brewery and the land on which wheat and barley were raised.\n",
"The brewery's history dates directly to 1096 in Tournai, and a time of severe medieval famine, locally remembered as part of \"the great plague\". Beer was already known as a safe alternative to impure local water supplies and the local community desperately needed help to avoid starvation. To promote public health, and compensate for minimal humanitarian support from far-away Rome, Benedictine Bishop Radbod included brewing permissions in the charter to re-establish Abbaye de Saint-Martin.br\n",
"The effects on the beer market were short-lived, and consumption of beer resumed over the course of the year. Attempts to revive the pure beer movement were nullified by the Commission's report, and by the fact that arsenic was present in malted barley as well as sugar. There seemed to be no direct effects on legislation resulting from the incident.\n",
"In 1979, Carter deregulated the American beer industry by making it legal to sell malt, hops, and yeast to American home brewers for the first time since the effective 1920 beginning of Prohibition in the United States. This Carter deregulation led to an increase in home brewing over the 1980s and 1990s that by the 2000s had developed into a strong craft microbrew culture in the United States, with 6,266 micro breweries, brewpubs, and regional craft breweries in the United States by the end of 2017.\n",
"The brewery was founded in 1892 by James Hanley, an Irish immigrant, and featured state of the art facilities of the period, including the installation of two industrial-scale climate control systems needed to control temperatures for the lagering of beer. It is the only industrial-scale brewery of the period to survive in the state, and is one of only a few surviving designs of Adam Wagner. The brewery was operated only until 1922, when it closed as a consequence of Prohibition. In 1936, the property was adapted for use as a warehouse and storage facility, in which use it continued until 2005.\n"
] |
Dear Scientists, How hard is it to synthesis Diesel or Petrol or other fuels obtain by crude oil? | Not hard, just not worth it while there's cheap oil to burn.
Basically, you use a [gasifier](_URL_1_) to generate a mixture of H2 and CO gasses, called "synthesis gas". This is basically done by burning a chunk of carbon (which can come from coal or biomass) in an oxygen-starved atmosphere, and then passing hot steam over the coals. The water molecule will yield its oxygen atoms to two different carbon atoms, so the overall reaction looks like:
H2O(g) + C(s) - > H2(g) + CO(g)
This process produces other products, too, depending on the composition of your feed stock.
Anyways, once you have your synthesis gas, you pass it through a [Fischer-Tropsch reactor](_URL_0_), which uses high temperatures, high pressures, and a metal catalyst to condense the hydrogen and carbon monoxide into hydrocarbons. The length of the carbon chain can be controlled by varying the reactor parameters mentioned above in addition to the "cooking" time.
I don't know enough about chemistry to tell you how the whole catalytic process works, but hopefully somebody will come in here and enlighten both of us. Point is, the technology does exist to do what you mention and it's fairly mature; it's just not (yet) economically competitive. | [
"Synthetic crude may also be created by upgrading bitumen (a tar like substance found in oil sands), or synthesizing liquid hydrocarbons from oil shale. There are a number of processes extracting shale oil (synthetic crude oil) from oil shale by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution.\n",
"An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils. Petrochemicals feed stock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced directly by cracking crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha.\n",
"Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into fuel oil and gasoline, both important \"\"primary energy\"\" sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.\n",
"Pyrolysis oil is another type of fuel derived from the lignocellulosic fraction of biomass. By rapidly heating biomass in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), a liquid crude can be formed that can be further processed into a usable bio-oil. As opposed to other biofuels, pyrolysis oils use the non-edible fraction of biomass and can occur on the order of milliseconds and without the need for large fermentation reactors.\n",
"Synthetic diesel fuel by pyrolysis of organic materials is not yet economically competitive. Higher efficiency is sometimes achieved by flash pyrolysis, in which finely divided feedstock is quickly heated to between for less than two seconds. \n",
"Crude oil is processed in the crude distillation unit, from which liquified petroleum gas (LPG), naphtha, kerosene, diesel and fuel oil are produced. Kerosene and Diesel are further treated mainly in order to remove sulfur thus complying with the required specifications and to produce jet fuel and diesel fuel respectively (both automotive and heating grades).\n",
"Petroleum crude oil is a complex mixture of hundreds of different hydrocarbon compounds generally having from 3 to 60 carbon atoms per molecule, although there may be small amounts of hydrocarbons outside that range. The refining of crude oil begins with distilling the incoming crude oil in a so-called \"atmospheric distillation column\" operating at pressures slightly above atmospheric pressure.\n"
] |
Is there any material that allows light to pass through without any interference? Is it possible to manufacture such a material? | Even a completely transparent substance still has an index of refraction that bends light that goes through it and I assume that refraction would count as "interference."
I don't believe there's anything other than a vacuum that has a refractive index of zero, so I think the answer to your question is "no."
Edit: value of refractive index of a vacuum is 1, not 0. | [
"Some materials allow much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted through the material without being reflected. Materials that allow the transmission of light waves through them are called optically transparent. Chemically pure (undoped) window glass and clean river or spring water are prime examples of this.\n",
"As implied in the nomenclature, this is a type of light transmission. Transmission of light (EM radiation) through an object such as metallic film occurs with an assist of tunnelling between resonating inclusions. This effect can be created by embedding a periodic configuration of dielectrics in a metal, for example. By creating and observing transmission peaks interactions between the dielectrics and interference effects cause mixing and splitting of resonances. With an effective permittivity close to unity, the results can be used to propose a method for turning the resulting materials invisible.\n",
"Solid light is a hypothetical material, made of light in a solidified state. Theoretically, it is possible to make such a material, and there are claims this material was already made, including claims from MIT and Harvard.\n",
"BULLET::::- Scientists demonstrate mathematically that asymmetrical materials should be possible; such material would allow most light or sound waves through in one direction, while preventing them from doing so in the opposite direction; such materials would allow the construction of true one-way mirrors, soundproof rooms, or even quantum computers that use light to perform calculations.\n",
"These materials, which act as isotropic semiconductors for light, can be used to control and manipulate light in a wide range of applications including optical communications, photonic computers, energy harvesting, non-linear optics and improved light sources.\n",
"Ultralight material is constantly subjected to compression and accidental physical damage or abuse during practical applications. Recent advances in ultralight magnetic framework has allowed structures made from lightweight material to self repair their structure when it is compromised. Ultralight materials are capable of healing because of pH induced coordination between iron and catecholic compounds.\n",
"BULLET::::- The design and demonstration of photonic band gap crystals, a geometrical arrangement of dielectric materials that allows light to pass except when the frequency falls within a forbidden range. These materials would make it easier to develop numerous practical devices, including optical lasers, optical computers, and solar cells.\n"
] |
Female Suffrage in France | There was actually quite some activity towards women's suffrage in interwar France; for example, Léon Blum's government made a proposal for this (Léon Blum had probalby the best feminist pedigree in that time period), which was voted by the (left-wing) Assemblée nationale, but rejected by the (right-wing) upper house (this being one of the few ways it could actively impede government policy). There were other propositions, coming from the far-right, such as giving the vote to war widows (as a compensation for the vote of their defunct husband).
A standard argument against women suffrage was that:
1) men were better educated than women (this went back to the late XIXth century and had, among other, military reasons),
2) women were thought to be more church-going than men,
3) therefore, the Radicals (= anticlerical - but socially conservative - center-left, and in control of a lot of parliamentary majorities) thought that women would at best vote like their husbands - and, at worst, like their priest. | [
"The French Union for Women's Suffrage (UFSF: \"Union française pour le suffrage des femmes\") was founded by a group of feminists who had attended a national congress of French feminists in Paris in 1908.\n",
"The French Union for Women's Suffrage (UFSF: \"Union française pour le suffrage des femmes\") was founded by a group of feminists who had attended a national congress of French feminists in Paris in 1908, led by Jeanne Schmahl and Jane Misme.\n",
"The French Union for Women's Suffrage (UFSF: ) was a French feminist organization formed in 1909 that fought for the right of women to vote, which was eventually granted in 1945. The Union took a moderate approach, advocating staged introduction of suffrage starting with local elections, and working with male allies in the Chamber of Deputies.\n",
"By the time French women were granted the suffrage in July 1944 by Charles de Gaulle's government in exile, by a vote of 51 for, 16 against, France had been for about a decade the only Western country that did not at least allow women's suffrage at municipal elections.\n",
"France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, though it was never formally enacted in practice (the subsequent election occurring after the fall of the Jacobin government). The Second French Republic did institute adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848.\n",
"Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom was a movement to fight for women's right to vote. It finally succeeded through two laws in 1918 and 1928. It became a national movement in the Victorian era. Women were not explicitly banned from voting in Great Britain until the Reform Act 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. In 1872 the fight for women's suffrage became a national movement with the formation of the National Society for Women's Suffrage and later the more influential National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). As well as in England, women's suffrage movements in Wales and other parts of the United Kingdom gained momentum. The movements shifted sentiments in favour of woman suffrage by 1906. It was at this point that the militant campaign began with the formation of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).\n",
"In France, women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic of 21 April 1944. The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by Fernand Grenier, they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the November 1946 elections, the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the \"gender gap\", stating in \"Le Populaire\" that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the baby boom period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles.\n"
] |
how does a bill that passed overwhelmingly in the house and senate (98%+) not get enforced by the executive branch? | In response to the title, since the Executive branch has sole authority in enforcing the law, as a consequence it can choose not to enforce the law at all.
In response to the post, since I do not know what specific bill you are talking about I can describe the two vetoes.
First, the President can outright veto a bill on his/her desk and send it back to Congress within 10 days (or it defaults into a law) to vote on it again. If they get a two-thirds majority it becomes a law without having to go back to the President, if they do not get a two-thirds majority, it does not become a law.
Second, a pocket veto is when a President does not sign a bill into law at the end of the 10 day time limit **and** Congress is not in session at the end of the 10 day time limit to override it with a two-thirds vote. | [
"Each bill needs the consent of both houses in order to be submitted to the president for his signature. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority. If either house voted down on a bill or fails to act on it after an adjournment sine die, the bill is lost and would have to be proposed to the next congress, with the process starting all over again. Congress' decisions are mostly via majority vote, except for voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties, while money bills may only be introduced by the House of Representatives. The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official.\n",
"Section 53, in part, prevents the Senate from introducing or amending any bill dealing with taxation, revenues or appropriation. This section limits the power of the Senate and reflects a constitutional distinction between the House of Representatives, as the house of the people and the chamber to which the government is responsible, and the Senate, as the house of the states. However, the Senate may still request omissions from or amendments to any such bill (in which case the House of Representatives deals with the request as it sees fit), or block its passage entirely.\n",
"BULLET::::- If the president vetoes a bill, the president's objections shall be considered by the Congress. Each house may vote to override the president's veto. If 2/3 of each house agree to override the president's veto, the bill is enacted into law.\n",
"The president has several options when presented with a bill from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can veto it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes unless the Congress is out of session then the president may rely on a pocket veto.\n",
"The House of Representatives is modeled after the United States House of Representatives; the two chambers of Congress have roughly equal powers, and every bill or resolution that has to go through both houses needs the consent of both chambers before being passed for the president's signature. Once a bill is defeated in the House of Representatives, it is lost. Once a bill is approved by the House of Representatives on third reading, the bill is passed to the Senate, unless an identical bill has also been passed by the lower house. When a counterpart bill in the Senate is different from the one passed by the House of Representatives, either a bicameral conference committee is created consisting of members from both chambers of Congress to reconcile the differences, or either chamber may instead approve the other chamber's version.\n",
"The president approves or rejects a bill in its entirety; he is not permitted to veto specific provisions. In 1996, Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, the Line Item Veto Act of 1996, which gave the president the power to veto individual items of budgeted expenditures in appropriations bills. The Supreme Court subsequently declared the line-item veto unconstitutional as a violation of the Presentment Clause in \"Clinton v. City of New York\", . The Court construed the Constitution's silence on the subject of such unilateral presidential action as equivalent to \"an express prohibition,\" agreeing with historical material that supported the conclusion that statutes may only be enacted \"in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered, procedure\", and that a bill must be approved or rejected by the president in its entirety. The Court reasoned that a line-item veto \"would authorize the President to create a different law--one whose text was not voted on by either House of Congress or presented to the President for signature,\" and therefore violates the federal legislative procedure prescribed in Article I, Section 7.\n",
"The Senate was modeled upon the United States Senate; the two chambers of Congress have roughly equal powers, and every bill or resolution that has to go through both houses needs the consent of both chambers before being passed for the president's signature. Once a bill is defeated in the Senate, it is lost. Once a bill is approved by the Senate on third reading, the bill is passed to the House of Representatives, unless an identical bill has also been passed by the lower house. When a counterpart bill in the lower house is different from the one passed by the Senate, either a bicameral conference committee is created consisting of members from both chambers of Congress to reconcile the differences, or either chamber may instead approve the other chamber's version.\n"
] |
would the screen rotation function work in space? | Phones have devices called accelerometers which feel the pull of gravity similar to how we do. Take one of these devices on a bungee jump, and it will record the increased force that you feel at the bottom of the cord.
In orbit, everything is in constant free-fall, so there is very little apparent gravity for people on-board the ISS, but the ISS is spinning slightly, creating something called the coriolis effect. Just like those carnival rides which spin and push you up against the wall, people and objects on the ISS are ever-so-slightly pushed toward the outside of the station's spin. The accelerometers can detect this and the effect can be used to force the screen to rotate. However, the force is so much less than gravity on Earth and astronauts don't really use it very much, it is likely more of an inconsistent annoyance than a useful feature. | [
"An example where rotation representation is used is in computer vision, where an automated observer needs to track a target. Consider a rigid body, with three orthogonal unit vectors fixed to its body (representing the three axes of the object's local coordinate system). The basic problem is to specify the orientation of these three unit vectors, and hence the rigid body, with respect to the observer's coordinate system, regarded as a reference placement in space.\n",
"Every rotation in 3D space has an invariant axis-line which is unchanged by the rotation. The rotation is completely specified by specifying the axis of rotation and the angle of rotation about that axis. Without loss of generality, this axis may be chosen as the -axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, allowing a simpler visualization of the rotation.\n",
"There are other problems that might be more appropriately described as continuity errors, such as the back-and-forth horizontal switching of Earth's lit side when viewed from Clavius, and the schematic of the space station on the Pan Am spaceplane's monitors continuing to rotate after the plane has synchronized its motion with the station. The latter is due to the position readout actually being a rear-projected film shown in a continuous loop, and being out of sync with other visual elements. The direction of the rotation of the Earth's image outside the space station window is clockwise when Floyd is greeted by a receptionist, but counterclockwise when he phones his daughter.\n",
"When a series of autostereograms are shown one after another, in the same way moving pictures are shown, the brain perceives an animated autostereogram. If all autostereograms in the animation are produced using the same background pattern, it is often possible to see faint outlines of parts of the moving 3D object in the 2D autostereogram image without wall-eyed viewing; the constantly shifting pixels of the moving object can be clearly distinguished from the static background plane. To eliminate this side effect, animated autostereograms often use shifting background in order to disguise the moving parts.\n",
"Rotation is now a common feature of modern video cards, and is widely used in tablet PCs (many tablet devices can sense the direction of gravity and automatically rotate the image), and by writers, layout artists, etc. Operating systems and drivers do not always support it; for example, Windows XP Service Pack 3 conflicts with monitor rotation on many graphics cards using ATI's Catalyst control software, Nvidia's proprietary drivers for Linux do not support screen rotation unless manual changes are made to its configuration.\n",
"A positioning goniometer or goniometric stage is a device used to rotate an object precisely about a fixed axis in space. It is similar to a linear stage, however, rather than moving linearly with respect to its base, the stage platform rotates partially about a fixed axis above the mounting surface of the platform. Positioning goniometers typically use a worm drive with a partial worm wheel fixed to the underside of the stage platform meshing with a worm in the base. The worm may be rotated manually or by a motor as in automated positioning systems.\n",
"A positioning goniometer or goniometric stage is a device used to rotate an object precisely (within a small angular range) about a fixed axis in space. Its appearance is similar to that of a linear stage. However, rather than moving linearly with respect to its base, the stage platform rotates partially about a fixed axis above the mounting surface of the platform. The distance of the center of rotation from the platform mounting surface is often chosen so that two different goniometer models may be stacked in an X-Y configuration and both stages will rotate about the same point. Positioning goniometers typically use a worm drive with a partial worm wheel fixed to the underside of the stage platform meshing with a worm in the base. The worm may be rotated manually or by a motor as in automated positioning systems.\n"
] |
If a human got shrunk to a minuscule size, would physics act on him in the same way? | I'm no expert in this by any means, but I seem to remember a biology textbook saying that the size of our cells are such because a certain ratio of surface area to volume is required to preform certain cellular functions.
So I'm assuming that if we were truly "shrunk" are bodies wouldn't be able to function normally. | [
"The problems of the miniaturized human do not stop there, however. Basic geometry governs such things as the relationship between cross-section, volume, and surface area. It may be impossible for a one-inch high human to kill themselves in a fall of any conceivable height, but they may be able to drown themselves with a single drop of water.\n",
"Nick Small (McGavin) and Chip Frye (Blessing) are private investigators. Due to a lab accident, Frye is able to physically shrink to a height of six inches, but he can't control this ability; he could become miniature or normal size at any time. This is sometimes an aid to their investigations, and sometimes an embarrassing hindrance.\n",
"If an animal were isometrically scaled up by a considerable amount, its relative muscular strength would be severely reduced, since the cross section of its muscles would increase by the \"square\" of the scaling factor while its mass would increase by the \"cube\" of the scaling factor. As a result of this, cardiovascular and respiratory functions would be severely burdened.\n",
"After constant experimentation with size-changing via ingested capsules and particle-filled gas, Pym is eventually able to change size at will, and mentally generate Pym particles to change the sizes of other living beings or inanimate objects. Pym retains his normal strength when \"ant\" size, and possesses greatly increased strength and stamina when in \"giant\" form, courtesy of the increased mass. Pym's costume is synthetic stretch fabric composed of unstable molecules and automatically adapts to his shifting sizes.\n",
"The Thing's highly advanced musculature generates fewer fatigue toxins during physical activity, granting him superhuman levels of stamina. When in his Thing form, he has only four fingers on each hand. The loss of one digit on each hand, and the increase in volume of the remainder, does not affect his manual dexterity. However, he has been shown doing things like holding a pencil and using it to dial a phone (even with rotary dials), or to push buttons on a keypad, to use devices that would ordinarily be too small for him.\n",
"The Shape's entire body is extremely rubbery, putty-like and malleable. He has approximately of body mass that he can shift from one area of his body to another; when he is relaxed it settles in his legs and lower body. He can shift up to 80% of his physical mass at will, thus altering his entire shape. He can use this mass to elongate, compress, or enlarge various parts of his body, or form non-humanoid shapes such as hammer-shaped fists or a trampoline-shaped torso, or taking the shape of a hang glider. His bones stretch to a maximum of five times their ordinary length. The Shape's below normal intelligence prevents him from thinking of more creative uses for his shifting body mass.\n",
"In 1966, and referring to his 1888 world record, a physiologist, B.B. Lloyd, writing in \"Advancement of Science\", described Littlewood's feat as \"“probably about the maximum sustained output of which the human frame is capable”\".\n"
] |
how do brackets move teeths from their cavity? | Your bone isn't a static structure, the hard mineral deposits that gives it its strength is constantly being repaired and remodeled by specialized cells.
Applying force in one direction on the tooth stimulates the removal of bone on one side (by osteoclasts) and deposited on the other (by osteoblasts) so the entire cavity can be slowly shifted, similar to how your teeth erupted out of your jaw bone originally. | [
"The application of braces moves the teeth as a result of force and pressure on the teeth. There are traditionally four basic elements that are used: brackets, bonding material, arch wire, and ligature elastic (also called an “O-ring”). The teeth move when the arch wire puts pressure on the brackets and teeth. Sometimes springs or rubber bands are used to put more force in a specific direction.\n",
"Teeth are constantly subject to both horizontal and vertical occlusal forces. With the center of rotation of the tooth acting as a fulcrum, the surface of bone adjacent to the pressured side of the tooth will undergo resorption and disappear, while the surface of bone adjacent to the tensioned side of the tooth will undergo apposition and increase in volume. When the amount of root remaining in the bone is so short that the entire surface of bone adjacent to the root surface is constantly under compression or tension (with no middle section acting as a stabilizer for the fulcrum), the prognosis for the tooth is deemed highly unfavorable. This is usually the outcome associated with untreated secondary occlusal trauma.\n",
"Lingual brackets are located more closely to the center of resistance of a tooth than brackets placed on a buccal surface of a tooth. Thus when a patient bites down, the biting forces are directed through the center of resistance of those anterior teeth. Thus the light continuous forces directed towards the upper lingual brackets may induce slight intrusion of the upper anterior teeth. However, forces that are felt on the anterior teeth seem to be minimal, in milligrams. An optimum force needed to intrude teeth is 30-40g.\n",
"Teeth to be braced will have an adhesive applied to help the cement bond to the surface of the tooth. In most cases the teeth will be banded and then brackets will be added. A bracket will be applied with dental cement, and then cured with light until hardened. This process usually takes a few seconds per tooth. If required, orthodontic spacers may be inserted between the molars to make room for molar bands to be placed at a later date. Molar bands are required to ensure brackets will stick. Bands are also utilized when dental fillings or other dental work make securing a bracket to a tooth infeasible.\n",
"A mouth prop (also bite block) is a wedge-shaped implement used in dentistry for dentists working with children and other patients who have difficulty keeping their mouths open wide and steady during a procedure, or during procedures where the patient is sedated. It has a rubber-like texture and is typically made from thermoplastic vulcanizate (TPV) material. They come in several different sizes, from pediatric to adult, and are typically ridged as to use the back teeth to hold them in place.\n",
"BULLET::::3. Cementum - This tissues covers the root of a teeth and is an attachment tissue that forms part of the periodontium. It is typically infilled with Sharpey's fibers that help anchor the tooth in place in the socket.\n",
"The mouth is unique, in that the teeth are well secured to the bone ends but come through epithelium (mucosa). A leg or wrist, for instance, has no such structure to help with a closed reduction. In addition, when the fracture happens to be in a tooth bearing area of the jaws, aligning the teeth well usually results in alignment of the fracture segments.\n"
] |
Before the American war of independence, did the residents of the colonies consider themselves American, or as British colonists living in America? | Many of them considered themselves to be British before and during the American Revolution, and actively fought against the Colonists on the side of the British. These people were known as Loyalists. The others did not view themselves as Americans either though. They identified themselves as Virginians or Pennsylvanians or Georgians ect. depending on which colony they were from. This mentality carried on long after the Revolution for many Americans too. Even during the Civil War there are examples of this such as When Robert E. Lee declined the offer to lead the Union Army in favor of leading the Army of Northern Virginia on the side of the Confederacy. He did so even though he was strongly opposed to the idea of slavery, due to the fact that Virgina had seceded from the Union and he considered himself a Virginian before anything else. | [
"The colonies were very different from one another but they were still a part of the British Empire in more than just name. Demographically, the majority of the colonists traced their roots to the British Isles and many of them still had family ties with Great Britain. Socially, the colonial elite of Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia saw their identity as British. Many had never lived in Britain in over a few generations, yet they imitated British styles of dress, dance, and etiquette. This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment. The seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities in the eyes of many inhabitants.\n",
"One event that reminded colonists of their shared identity as British subjects was the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) in Europe. This conflict spilled over into the colonies, where it was known as \"King George's War\". The major battles took place in Europe, but American colonial troops fought the French and their Indian allies in New York, New England, and Nova Scotia with the Siege of Louisbourg (1745).\n",
"The colonial period was followed by the prolonged conflict with Great Britain which began in 1775. By this time there were many settlers living in present-day Edgefield County and almost all of them were involved, on one side or the other, in the Revolutionary War. Some Edgefieldians were die-hard patriots from the outset, who believed that the American colonies should be free and independent. Others were loyal to the king who had granted them land and provided a home for them in the New World. Still others wanted no part of the conflict but were inevitably drawn into it by partisans on each side. Finally, others were strictly opportunists who switched sides back and forth as they perceived their best interest. The conflict was, in this area, a bitter civil war in which personal vendettas often superseded politics as the cause for fighting. Cousins fought against cousins and neighbors against neighbors. When General Lighthorse Harry Lee later wrote about the Revolution in this area, he stated that \"in no part of the South was the war fought with such asperity as in this quarter. It often sank into barbarity.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- \"American Migrations 1765-1799\". The lives, times, and families of colonial Americans who remained loyal to the British Crown before, during and after the Revolutionary War, as related in their own words and through their correspondence\n",
"In 1763, after Great Britain defeated France in the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War), it took possession of the French territory in North America east of the Mississippi River, including Prairie du Chien. During the American Revolutionary War, the city was used as a meeting point for British troops and their Native American allies. After the American victory, the Treaty of Paris (1783) granted the area to the new United States of America, but the British and their Loyalists were slow to withdraw. Only after the War of 1812 did the city become fully American.\n",
"Though not a unique occurrence on the frontier, colonists remained loyal to the British crown during the French and Indian War in North America from 1754 to 1763. The conflict, which somewhat uniquely began in the Ohio Valley and spread to Europe, resulted in local colonial losses and economic disruption. Higher taxes were to follow, and adverse local reactions to these and how they were determined would drive events well into the next decade.\n",
"Due to the flow of people back and forth between Britain and the colonies, and America and the Caribbean, there has been an American diaspora of a sort since before the United States was founded. During the American Revolutionary War, a number of American Loyalists relocated to other countries, chiefly Canada and Great Britain. Residence in countries outside the British Empire was unusual, and usually limited to the well to do, such as Benjamin Franklin, who was able to self-finance his trip to Paris as an American diplomat.\n"
] |
How could a backdoor be put into a random number generator? | The trick is that Intel's RdRand is a black box that we have to trust. So, conceptually, what is something they could do to "backdoor" the system?
In cryptography, a secure stream cipher is *indistinguishable from random* by an adversary (that is limited to probabilistic polynomial time, but details details). In other words, if you have a stream cipher, you have a way of generating a practically infinite bitstream that an attacker thinks is random, but is really not. That infinite bitstream is generated *solely* from a secret key and a random seed.
So RdRand could actually just be using a stream cipher with a baked-in secret key and a seed that Intel (or the NSA or whatever) can predict - maybe the seed is the time at which the machine booted. An RdRand user cannot determine if the bitstream is "truly" random, so if they use RdRand, they implicitly trust that it is not maliciously designed. On the other hand, the backdoor user knows the secret key and can test for some predictable seeds, eventually find the seed in question, and then use that key+seed to determine all of RdRand's output.
That's one possible scenario.
*In general*, it's also possible for pseudorandom algorithms themselves to contain "mathematical backdoors" that aren't easily discovered even if you know the algorithm. An example of that is [Dual_EC_DRBG](_URL_0_). For a simplified version of the attack, view D.W.'s post [here](_URL_2_) - the section that says "I see that you want to explain the mathematics". In that section, he attacks a simplified version of Dual_EC_DRBG. If you want to see the real attack explained, with all of the nitty-gritty details, view my post [here](_URL_1_). | [
"An example of a simple mathematical trapdoor is \"6895601 is the product of two prime numbers. What are those numbers?\" A typical solution would be to try dividing 6895601 by several prime numbers until finding the answer. However, if one is told that 1931 is one of the numbers, one can find the answer by entering \"6895601 ÷ 1931\" into any calculator. This example is not a sturdy trapdoor function – modern computers can guess all of the possible answers within a second – but this sample problem could be improved by using the product of two much larger primes.\n",
"A backdoor may take the form of a hidden part of a program, a separate program (e.g. Back Orifice may subvert the system through a rootkit), code in the firmware of the hardware, or parts of an operating system such as Windows. Trojan horses can be used to create vulnerabilities in a device. A Trojan horse may appear to be an entirely legitimate program, but when executed, it triggers an activity that may install a backdoor. Although some are secretly installed, other backdoors are deliberate and widely known. These kinds of backdoors have \"legitimate\" uses such as providing the manufacturer with a way to restore user passwords.\n",
"A sophisticated form of black box backdoor is a compiler backdoor, where not only is a compiler subverted (to insert a backdoor in some other program, such as a login program), but it is further modified to detect when it is compiling itself and then inserts both the backdoor insertion code (targeting the other program) and the code-modifying self-compilation, like the mechanism through which retroviruses infect their host. This can be done by modifying the source code, and the resulting compromised compiler (object code) can compile the original (unmodified) source code and insert itself: the exploit has been boot-strapped.\n",
"A trapdoor in cryptography has the very specific aforementioned meaning and is not to be confused with a backdoor (these are frequently used interchangeably, which is incorrect). A backdoor is a deliberate mechanism that is added to a cryptographic algorithm (e.g., a key pair generation algorithm, digital signing algorithm, etc.) or operating system, for example, that permits one or more unauthorized parties to bypass or subvert the security of the system in some fashion.\n",
"The threat of backdoors surfaced when multiuser and networked operating systems became widely adopted. Petersen and Turn discussed computer subversion in a paper published in the proceedings of the 1967 AFIPS Conference. They noted a class of active infiltration attacks that use \"trapdoor\" entry points into the system to bypass security facilities and permit direct access to data. The use of the word \"trapdoor\" here clearly coincides with more recent definitions of a backdoor. However, since the advent of public key cryptography the term \"trapdoor\" has acquired a different meaning (see trapdoor function), and thus the term \"backdoor\" is now preferred, only after the term trapdoor went out of use. More generally, such security breaches were discussed at length in a RAND Corporation task force report published under ARPA sponsorship by J.P. Anderson and D.J. Edwards in 1970.\n",
"A backdoor in a login system might take the form of a hard coded user and password combination which gives access to the system. An example of this sort of backdoor was used as a plot device in the 1983 film \"WarGames\", in which the architect of the \"WOPR\" computer system had inserted a hardcoded password which gave the user access to the system, and to undocumented parts of the system (in particular, a video game-like simulation mode and direct interaction with the artificial intelligence).\n",
"A backdoor is a method of bypassing normal authentication procedures, usually over a connection to a network such as the Internet. Once a system has been compromised, one or more backdoors may be installed in order to allow access in the future, invisibly to the user.\n"
] |
who makes direct-to-video movies and how do they make money? | Filmmaker here. To understand how studios such as "The Asylum" make money on movies like Transmorphers you have to understand a bit about the industry.
There are approximately 7 major studios who make the major pictures you've heard of eg. Transformers. The majors have the vast money to fund, make and distribute their own movies. But they make very few films and they're very expensive.
But internationally there is a huge demand for original content to fill television time slots. Think midnight on an obscure Japanese channel. They have to air something and they have a small budget to buy content with. Ideally but not necessarily something people will want to watch.
So below the 7 majors are approximately 300+ "mini-majors" who are movie distributors ("sellers") with the connections to these international networks ("buyers") but not enough money to actually make the films themselves. But they constantly need new content ("product") to sell to them.
So the buyers want content, the sellers want content to sell, and studios like The Asylum turn out pre-sold product to fill the demand. As long as it sounds like something people might watch they can pre-sell it.
Studios like Asylum know that the foreign film buyers need to buy *something* to fill their theaters/time slots, and the mini-major distributors need *something* to sell to those hungry buyers. By aping an upcoming major release, Asylum gets all the publicity for their movies for free and are guaranteed pre-arranged sales. The distributor pre-sells the movie ("Transmorphers") to a multitude of the buyers based on the title and concept alone without regards to the quality. Nobody cares because they need to spend their budgets and they know Asylum will deliver *something* that's in 90 minutes and in rough focus.
**tl;dr** The rights are pre-sold overseas and these movies are profitable before they're ever made. Quality doesn't matter, they're just filling an order. | [
"A-Company Filmed Entertainment (commonly known as A-Company) is an independent film and video content provider for Central and Eastern Europe, CIS and Vietnam. A-Company distributes theatrical, home entertainment and television productions as well as Video-On-Demand.\n",
"Videofilms in this era were produced on very low budgets and do not pass through the traditional theatrical run, as they were shot using cheap video cameras without the required cinematic quality, and edited with basic VCR machines. These films are usually funded by Marketers who act as the executive producers for the films; these marketers often have control on crucial areas of production, such as casting, and they make sure the films are made in a way they believe would attract the right audience and thereby recoup investments.\n",
"Rather than relying solely on the traditional distribution system to distribute content, FilmDoo chooses to source films directly from all levels of the film distribution chain from filmmakers through to sales agents and distributors. Through this approach they have given international releases to films that had previously received no home video distribution, including films from Southeast Asia and South Africa, as well as giving exclusive UK releases to feature films such as Trinidadian crime drama \"God Loves the Fighter.\" Their international catalogue includes multiple films from such directors as Raya Martin and Wang Bing.\n",
"Film commissions are quasi-governmental, non-profit, public organizations that attract motion media production crews (including movies, television, and commercials) to shoot on location in their respective localities, and offer support so that productions can accomplish their work smoothly.\n",
"A film production company is a company that generally produces, creates and distributes motion pictures (films), musics or other programmmes by their own subsidiary companies. This is a list of notable film production houses, distributors and music studios situated or headquartered in India.\n",
"Running as more of a collective of filmmakers, rather than a formal company, it took 3 years for the company to raise the capital to buy its own equipment, members are now free to create films, music promos and TV shows of their own devising, whether live-action, animated, CGI-heavy or musical. With 15 members who work on films regularly, and around 25 members who pitch in occasionally, it is one of the fastest growing film companies in the UK, and the only one to work in its unique way.\n",
"There are thousands of smaller production companies that produce authentic independent films yearly, in addition to these higher profile \"independent\" studios. These smaller companies look either to release their films regionally in theaters or for additional financing and resources to distribute their projects on a national scale. The direct-to-video market is not often noted as a strong outlet, nor as artistically fertile ground, but among its many entries are ambitious independent films that either failed to achieve theatrical distribution or did not seek it. As technology advances and distribution of films continues to shift more towards digital methods, the line between \"film,\" direct-to-disc productions, and feature-length videos whose main distribution channel is wholly electronic, will continue to converge.\n"
] |
what's the difference between a state and a province? | Technically, a state is an independent political entity, while a province is a sub-section of a state.
The confusion arises from nomenclature not keeping pace with politics. The United States was, when founded, similar to the modern European Union. It was a union of various sovereign entities. However, after the Civil War, the entire union became a nation of its own and the 'state' label wasn't updated to reflect this fact.
You see the same issue with the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom is actually the United Kingdoms - of Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England. So you've got a nation state that's actually the union of 4 'kingdom's that are neither sovereign nor ruled by a king. | [
"In many federations and confederations, the province or state is not clearly subordinate to the national or central government. Rather, it is considered to be sovereign in regard to its particular set of constitutional functions. The central- and provincial-government functions, or areas of jurisdiction, are identified in a constitution. Those that are not specifically identified are called \"residual powers.\" In a decentralized federal system (such as the United States and Australia) these residual powers lie at the provincial or state level, whereas in a centralized federal system (such as Canada) they are retained at the federal level.\n",
"In some nations, a province (or its equivalent) is a first-level administrative unit of sub-national government—as in the Netherlands—and a large constituent autonomous area, as in Argentina, Canada, South Africa, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It can also be a constituent element of a federation, confederation, or republic. For example, in the United States, no state may secede from the federal Union without the permission of the federal government.\n",
"A provincial government is autonomous of other provinces within the Republic. Each province is governed by two main elected branches of the government: executive and legislative. Judicial affairs are separated from provincial governance and are administered by the Supreme Court of the Philippines. Each province has at least one branch of a Regional Trial Court.\n",
"A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called \"states\", \"provinces\", etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).\n",
"The provinces and territories are nearly all sub-divided into regions for a variety of official and unofficial purposes. The geographic regions are largely unofficial and therefore somewhat open to interpretation. In some cases, the primary regions are separated by identifiable transition zones, particularly in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario. The largest provinces can be divided into a number of primary geographic regions of comparatively large size (e.g. southern Ontario), and subdivided into a greater number of smaller secondary regions (e.g. southwestern Ontario). The primary and secondary regions in Ontario are mainly non-administrative in nature. However, they tend to be defined as geographic groupings of counties, regional municipalities, and territorial districts, so that the regions are defined by a system or collection of borders that have local administrative importance.\n",
"This is a list of the Legislative Assemblies of Canada's provinces and territories. Each province's legislative assembly, along with the province's Lieutenant Governor, form the province's legislature (which is called a parliament or general assembly in some provinces). Historically, several provinces had bicameral legislatures, but they all eventually dissolved their upper house or merged it with their lower house. \n",
"The reference to \"state\" denotes country subdivisions which are officially or widely known as \"states\", and should not be confused with a \"sovereign state\". Provinces are usually divisions of unitary states. Their governments, which are also \"provincial governments\", are not the subject of this article.\n"
] |
as a heavy ( > 1pack/day) smoker, why don't i wake up from nicotine withdrawals when i can barely make it two hours without a smoke? | Most smokers *DO* wake up after a night's sleep with nicotine withdrawal. I do not know why you do not. That is not the usual pattern for addicted smokers. | [
"Normal between-cigarettes discontinuation, in unrestricted smokers, causes mild but measurable nicotine withdrawal symptoms. These include mildly worse mood, stress, anxiety, cognition, and sleep, all of which briefly return to normal with the next cigarette. Smokers have worse mood than they would have if they were not nicotine-dependent; they experience normal moods only immediately after smoking. Nicotine dependence is associated with poor sleep quality and shorter sleep duration among smokers.\n",
"Most smokers, when denied access to nicotine, exhibit withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, jitteriness, dry mouth, and rapid heart beat. The onset of these symptoms is very fast, nicotine's half-life being only 2 hours. The psychological dependence may linger for months or even many years. Unlike some recreational drugs, nicotine does not measurably alter a smoker's motor skills, judgement, or language abilities while under the influence of the drug. Tobacco withdrawal has been shown to cause clinically significant distress.\n",
"In nicotine-dependent smokers, quitting smoking can lead to symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as nicotine cravings, anxiety, irritability, depression, and weight gain. Professional smoking cessation support methods generally attempt to address nicotine withdrawal symptoms to help the person break free of nicotine addiction.\n",
"Nicotine dependence leads to heavy smoking and causes severe withdrawal symptoms and relapse back to smoking. Nicotine dependence develops over time as a person continues to use nicotine. Teenagers do not have to be daily or long-term smokers to show withdrawal symptoms. Relapse should not frustrate the nicotine user from trying to quit again. A 2015 review found \"Avoiding withdrawal symptoms is one of the causes of continued smoking or relapses during attempts at cessation, and the severity and duration of nicotine withdrawal symptoms predict relapse.\" Symptoms of nicotine dependence include irritability, anger, impatience, and problems in concentrating.\n",
"Nicotine withdrawal is a group of symptoms that occur in the first few weeks upon the abrupt discontinuation or decrease in intake of nicotine. Symptoms include intense cravings for nicotine, anger/irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger or weight gain, and difficulty concentrating. A smoking cessation program may improve one’s chance for success in quitting nicotine. Nicotine withdrawal is recognized in both the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and the WHO International Classification of Diseases.\n",
"When nicotine intake stops, the upregulated nicotinic acetylcholine receptors induce withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms can include cravings for nicotine, anger, irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger, weight gain, and difficulty concentrating. When trying to quit smoking with vaping a base containing nicotine, symptoms of withdrawal can include irritability, restlessness, poor concentration, anxiety, depression, and hunger. The changes in the brain cause a nicotine user to feel abnormal when not using nicotine. In order to feel normal, the user has to keep his or her body supplied with nicotine. E-cigarettes may reduce cigarette craving and withdrawal symptoms. Lessoning tobacco use via campaigns that portray cigarette smoking as unacceptable and harmful have been enacted, though, advocating for the use of e-cigarettes jeopardizes this with the chance of increasing nicotine addiction. It is not clear whether e-cigarette use will decrease or increase overall nicotine addiction, but the nicotine content in e-cigarettes is adequate to sustain nicotine dependence. Chronic nicotine use causes a broad range of neuroplastic adaptations, making quitting hard to accomplish. A 2015 study found that users vaping non-nicotine e-liquid exhibited signs of dependence. Experienced users tend to take longer puffs which may result in higher nicotine intake. It is difficult to assess the impact of nicotine dependence from e-cigarette use because of the wide range of e-cigarette products. The addiction potential of e-cigarettes may have risen because as they have progressed, they delivery nicotine better.\n",
"At Allen Carr Clinics during stop-smoking sessions, smokers are allowed to continue smoking while their doubts and fears are removed, with the aim of encouraging and developing the mindset of a non-smoker before the final cigarette is extinguished. A further reason for allowing smokers to smoke while undergoing counselling is Carr's belief that it is more difficult to convince a smoker to stop until they understand the mechanism of \"the nicotine trap\". This is because their attention is diminished while they continue to believe it is traumatic and extremely difficult to quit and continue to maintain the belief that they are dependent on nicotine.\n"
] |
When a photon is emitted from an stationary atom, does it accelerate from 0 to the speed of light? | They don't start off at zero, and there's no acceleration. They start off at *c* and always travel at *c*. This is because, due to special relativity, any massless particle can *only* ever move at *c*, any other speed isn't allowed physically. | [
"By combining the small momentum of a single photon with a velocity and spatially dependent absorption cross section and a large number of absorption-spontaneous emission cycles, atoms with initial velocities of hundreds of metres per second can be slowed to tens of centimetres per second.\n",
"BULLET::::- Relativistic Doppler effect, where light that bounces on an object that is moving in a very high speed will get its wavelength changed; if the light bounces at an object that is moving towards it, the impact will compress the photons, so the wavelength will become shorter and the light will be blueshifted and the photons will be packed more closely so the photon flux will be increased; if it bounces at an object that is moving away from it, it will be redshifted and the photons will be packed more sparsely so the photon flux will be decreased.\n",
"According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n",
"BULLET::::- If the electrons emit a light wave which is 270° out of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause the wave to travel faster. This is called \"anomalous refraction\", and is observed close to absorption lines (typically in infrared spectra), with X-rays in ordinary materials, and with radio waves in Earth's ionosphere. It corresponds to a permittivity less than 1, which causes the refractive index to be also less than unity and the phase velocity of light greater than the speed of light in vacuum \"c\" (note that the signal velocity is still less than \"c\", as discussed above). If the response is sufficiently strong and out-of-phase, the result is a negative value of permittivity and imaginary index of refraction, as observed in metals or plasma.\n",
"When any charged particle (such as an electron, a proton, or an ion) accelerates, it radiates away energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. For velocities that are small relative to the speed of light, the total power radiated is given by the Larmor formula:\n",
"In an inertial frame an observer cannot detect their motion via light signals as the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. This means an observer can detect when their motion is accelerated by studying light signals.\n",
"When a charged particle moves faster than the phase speed of light in a medium, electrons interacting with the particle can emit coherent photons while conserving energy and momentum. This process can be viewed as a decay. See Cherenkov radiation and nonradiation condition for an explanation of this effect.\n"
] |
if the odds of winning the powerball is 1 in 235 million, but the jackpot is $800 million, wouldn't it make sense to buy 235 million quick picks if you could afford it? | Taxes, and the unfortunate circumstances where you share your winnings with others who only bought a few hundred picks... Not a good investment no | [
"While Mega Millions and Powerball each have similar jackpot odds despite having a different double matrix (Mega Millions is 5/75 + 1/15), since Powerball is $2 per play, it now takes $584,402,676 (not counting Power Play side bets) on average to produce a jackpot-winning ticket.\n",
"The odds of winning or sharing a Mega Millions jackpot (October 19, 2013 – October 27, 2017): 1 in about 258.9 million. The overall odds of winning a prize were 1 in 14.71, including the base $1 prize for a \"Mega Ball\"-only match.\n",
"As of September 3, 2015, the cost of buying two lines increased from €3 to €4 and players must now choose from 47 instead of 45 numbers, lengthening the odds of winning the jackpot to almost 11 million (approximately 10.7 million) to one. The odds against winning the second prize have increased also, but so too has the prize value, from €25,000 to an estimated €100,000. There will also be a new prize for matching 2 balls and the bonus ball.\n",
"When the Powerball jackpot is won, the next jackpot is guaranteed to be $40 million (annuity). If a jackpot is not won, the minimum rollover is $10 million. The cash in the jackpot pool is guaranteed to be the current value of the annuity. If revenue from ticket sales falls below expectations, game members must contribute additional funds to the jackpot pool to cover the shortage; the most likely scenario where this can occur is if the jackpot is won in consecutive drawings.\n",
"The odds of matching all six numbers to win the Mega Millions jackpot are 1 in 258,890,850. The odds of winning any prize are 1 in 14.7. As of September 2017, nine Mega Millions jackpots have been won in Virginia.\n",
"Powerball jackpots begin at $40 million (annuitized), and increase by at least $10 million if not won. Games cost $2 each; with \"Power Play\", $3. There are nine prize levels; second prize is $1,000,000 (cash) in a $2 game; if \"Power Play\" was selected, $2,000,000.\n",
"The odds of winning can also be reduced by increasing the group from which numbers are drawn. In the SuperEnalotto of Italy, players must match 6 numbers out of 90. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 622,614,630.\n"
] |
High exposure to sunlight damages your skin. What does it do to the bacterial population? | The given "sunlight damages your skin" needs to be addressed before the question. The pathogenesis of sunburn is distinct from the mechanism of alkaline or thermal burns insofar as the agent (sunlight) is not directly traumatic. The change is mediated by signaling cascades possibly secondary to alteration of base pairs in DNA. Put another way, you can give a corpse a chemical burn or a thermal burn, but not a sunburn. It's our body's response to sun that creates the cutaneous changes, not, strictly speaking, the sun damaging our skin.
So UV light doesn't hurt, but it does disrupt DNA. In bacteria, sufficient disruption will result in cell death, however they have enzymes capable of reversing the dimerization caused by UV that are not present in humans. | [
"Exposure to sunlight has been shown to deactivate diarrhea-causing organisms in polluted drinking water. The inactivation of pathogenic organisms is attributed to: the UV-A (wavelength 320–400 nm) part of the sunlight, which reacts with oxygen dissolved in the water and produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) that damage pathogens, while it also interferes with metabolism and destroys bacterial cell structures; and simultaneously the full band of solar energy (from infrared to UV) heats the water.\n",
"BULLET::::- Phytophotodermatitis: UV radiation induces inflammation of the skin after contact with certain plants (including limes, celery, and meadow grass). Causes pain, redness, and blistering of the skin in the distribution of plant exposure.\n",
"For human beings, skin exposure to germicidal wavelengths of UV light can produce rapid sunburn and skin cancer. Exposure of the eyes to this UV radiation can produce extremely painful inflammation of the cornea and temporary or permanent vision impairment, up to and including blindness in some cases. UV can damage the retina of the eye.\n",
"Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.\n",
"Ultraviolet light causes progressive damage to human skin and erythema even from small doses. This is mediated by genetic damage, collagen damage, as well as destruction of vitamin A and vitamin C in the skin and free radical generation. Ultraviolet light is also known to be a factor in formation of cataracts. Ultraviolet radiation exposure is strongly linked to incidence of skin cancer.\n",
"The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.\n",
"Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation present in sunlight is an environmental human carcinogen. The toxic effects of UV from natural sunlight and therapeutic artificial lamps are a major concern for human health. The major acute effects of UV irradiation on normal human skin comprise sunburn inflammation erythema, tanning, and local or systemic immunosuppression. The most deadly form, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by indirect DNA damage from UVA radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma. UVC is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.\n"
] |
what is it about how sound waves interact that make some sounds/chords pleasing? for example, why does a 5th sound good but a tritone (diminished 5th) doesn’t? why does it seem chords/chord progressions resolve? | It has to do with the ratio of one sound wave's frequency to that of another. When the value can be expressed as a simple ratio, we interpret the interval as pleasing, or "consonant." If the ratio is complex, we tend to interpret the result as displeasing, or "dissonant." A perfect fifth, for example, is a 3:2 ratio, while a half-step is more like 15:8 and a tritone 45:32.
Resolution follows similar principles, but it also heavily influenced by common notes, starting notes and the cultural dominance of specific scales in Western music.
| [
"A conical shaped resonator, such as a megaphone, tends to amplify all pitches indiscriminately. A cylindrical shaped resonator is affected primarily by the length of the tube through which the sound wave travels. A spherical resonator will be affected by the amount of opening it has and by whether or not that opening has a lip.\n",
"Aside from pitch and loudness, another quality that distinguishes sound stimuli is timbre. Timbre allows us to hear the difference between two instruments that are playing at the same frequency and loudness, for example. When two simple tones are put together they create a complex tone. The simple tones of an instrument are called harmonics or overtones. Timbre is created by putting the harmonics together with the fundamental frequency (a sound's basic pitch). When a complex sound is heard, it causes different parts in the basilar membrane to become simultaneously stimulated and flex. In this way, different timbres can be distinguished.\n",
"Whenever two different pitches are played at the same time, their sound waves interact with each other – the highs and lows in the air pressure reinforce each other to produce a different sound wave. Any repeating sound wave that is not a sine wave can be modeled by many different sine waves of the appropriate frequencies and amplitudes (a frequency spectrum). In humans the hearing apparatus (composed of the ears and brain) can usually isolate these tones and hear them distinctly. When two or more tones are played at once, a variation of air pressure at the ear \"contains\" the pitches of each, and the ear and/or brain isolate and decode them into distinct tones.\n",
"What is prized is not so much the \"overtone\" itself, but a unique sound whose achievement is most easily recognized by the presence of the \"overtone\". The precise synchrony of the waveforms of the four voices \"simultaneously\" creates the perception of a \"fifth voice\" while at the same time melding the four voices into a unified sound. The ringing chord is qualitatively different in sound from an ordinary musical chord e.g. as sounded on a tempered-scale keyboard instrument.\n",
"\"Strong phonemes are characterized by the intensiveness (tension) of the articulation. The intensity of the pronunciation leads to a natural lengthening of the duration of the sound, and that is why strong [consonants] differ from weak ones by greater length. [However,] the adjoining of two single weak sounds does not produce a strong one […] Thus, the gemination of a sound does not by itself create its tension.\"\n",
"If two sounds of two different frequencies are played at the same time, two separate sounds can often be heard rather than a combination tone. The ability to hear frequencies separately is known as \"frequency resolution\" or \"frequency selectivity\". When signals are perceived as a combination tone, they are said to reside in the same \"critical bandwidth\". This effect is thought to occur due to filtering within the cochlea, the hearing organ in the inner ear. A complex sound is split into different frequency components and these components cause a peak in the pattern of vibration at a specific place on the cilia inside the basilar membrane within the cochlea. These components are then coded independently on the auditory nerve which transmits sound information to the brain. This individual coding only occurs if the frequency components are different enough in frequency, otherwise they are in the same critical band and are coded at the same place and are perceived as one sound instead of two.\n",
"To the human ear, a sound that is made of more than one sine wave will have perceptible harmonics; addition of different sine waves results in a different waveform and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Presence of higher harmonics in addition to the fundamental causes variation in the timbre, which is the reason why the same musical note (the same frequency) played on different instruments sounds different. On the other hand, if the sound contains aperiodic waves along with sine waves (which are periodic), then the sound will be perceived to be noisy, as noise is characterized as being aperiodic or having a non-repetitive pattern.\n"
] |
what exactly is gluten, and why is it bad for you? | It's a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye, and it gives bread it's chewyness.
Unless you have an allergy to it or Celiac disease, it's not bad for you at all. | [
"Gluten, a mixture of proteins found in wheat and related grains including barley, rye, oat, and all their species and hybrids (such as spelt, kamut, and triticale), causes health problems for those with gluten-related disorders, including celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, dermatitis herpetiformis, and wheat allergy. In these people, the gluten-free diet is the only available treatment.\n",
"A gluten-free diet (GFD) is a diet that strictly excludes gluten, which is a mixture of proteins found in wheat (and all of its species and hybrids, such as spelt, kamut, and triticale), as well as barley, rye, and oats. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial, and may depend on the oat cultivar and the frequent cross-contamination with other gluten-containing cereals.\n",
"Gluten (from Latin \"gluten\", \"glue\") is a group of proteins, called prolamins and glutelins, which occur with starch in the endosperm of various cereal grains. This protein complex comprises 75–85% of the total protein in bread wheat. It is found in related wheat species and hybrids, (such as spelt, khorasan, emmer, einkorn, and triticale), barley, rye, and oats, as well as products derived from these grains, such as breads and malts. \n",
"Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value and replacing grains that contain gluten is easy from the nutritional point of view. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid/carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits.\n",
"Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value, and the grains that contain gluten are not essential in the human diet. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid/carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. Nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education.\n",
"A gluten-free diet is a diet that strictly excludes gluten, proteins present in wheat (and all wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut), barley, rye, oat, and derivatives of these grains such as malt and triticale, and foods that may include them, or shared transportation or processing facilities with them. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial. Oat toxicity in people with gluten-related disorders depends on the oat cultivar consumed because the immunoreactivities of toxic prolamins are different among oat varieties. Furthermore, oats are frequently cross-contaminated with the other gluten-containing cereals. Pure oat (labelled as \"pure oat\" or \"gluten-free oat\") refers to oats uncontaminated with any of the other gluten-containing cereals. Some cultivars of pure oat could be a safe part of a gluten-free diet, requiring knowledge of the oat variety used in food products for a gluten-free diet. Nevertheless, the long-term effects of pure oats consumption are still unclear and further studies identifying the cultivars used are needed before making final recommendations on their inclusion in the gluten-free diet.\n",
"Glutens, especially Triticeae glutens, have unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties, which give dough its elasticity, helping it rise and keep its shape and often leaving the final product with a chewy texture. These properties and its relative low cost are the reasons why gluten is so widely demanded by the food industry and for non-food uses.\n"
] |
why our ears remain numb and produce high frequency sound post concert? | There'll be a better answer by someone else soon, but:
Inside your ear there's an organ shaped like a snail. It has tiny hairs on it, that when they vibrate translate this into nerve impulses to send to your brain. If they are stressed too much, they stick to that organ, producing a constant signal. Some times they will never come back up, effectively making you loose that frequency forever. The beeping is called tinnitus.
Tldr: wear earplugs for Pete's sake! My hearing is significantly worse than that of my mates because I went to many concerts without earplugs! | [
"When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n",
"Rock concerts are often performed at very high decibel levels. Prolonged exposure to noise at these levels can permanently damage the bones of the middle ear and the nerves of the inner ear. Thus health officials recommend that concertgoers use earplugs. Since the 1960s, many musicians have worn earplugs at concerts, and some concert promoters actually give out free earplugs.\n",
"The most challenging sounds to reproduce from a sound engineering soundpoint are usually the extremely low-pitched sound effects in the 20 Hz range, such as those used to simulate the sound of an explosion, earthquake, a rocket launch, or submarine depth charges. The human ear is not very sensitive to sounds at these low frequencies, so it takes a tremendous amount of amplification for the human ear to hear them. Further, sounds at these frequencies are more felt in the body, rather than heard. As well, since they are sound effects, they may have a longer duration or sustain than many low-pitched musical notes, which makes them harder to reproduce accurately.\n",
"Excessive vibrations that occur in the inner ear can result in structural damage that will affect hearing. These vibrations result in an increase in the metabolic demands of the auditory system. During exposure to sound, metabolic energy is needed to maintain the relevant electrochemical gradients used in the transduction of sounds. The extra demands on the metabolic activity of the system can result in damage that can propagate throughout the ear.\n",
"Due to plasticity of central nervous system inactive hearing centers of the brain cortex switch over to processing of sound stimuli of another frequency and intensity. The brain start perceiving sounds amplified by the hearing aid right after the initial adjustment, however, it may not process them correctly at once.\n",
"The human ear is sensitive to loud sounds being suddenly reduced in volume, but less so to soft sounds being increased in volume—parallel compression takes advantage of this difference. Unlike normal limiting and downward compression, fast transients in music are retained in parallel compression, preserving the \"feel\" and immediacy of a live performance. Because the method is less audible to the human ear, the compressor can be set aggressively, with high ratios for strong effect.\n",
"When exposed to noise, the human ear's sensitivity to sound is decreased, corresponding to an increase in the threshold of hearing. This shift is usually temporary but may become permanent. A natural physiological reaction to these threshold shifts is vasoconstriction, which will reduce the amount of blood reaching the hair cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea. With the resultant oxygen tension and diminished blood supply reaching the outer hair cells, their response to sound levels is lessened when exposed to loud sounds, rendering them less effective and putting more stress on the inner hair cells. This can lead to fatigue and temporary hearing loss if the outer hair cells do not get the opportunity to recover through periods of silence. If these cells do not get this chance to recover, they are vulnerable to death.\n"
] |
Were there any volunteer gladiators? | One exceptional example would be the Emperor Commodus, as depicted in the movie Gladiator. Commodus believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules and sought to imitate his martial accomplishments before the eyes of the Roman public. He, of course, was never in any real danger from his human opponents who (as recorded by Dio Cassius) would yield to him after token resistance rather than fight seriously, or were infirm and could not put up a fair fight in the first place. He also enjoyed killing exotic animals, such as leopards and ostriches, from a safe distance; Herodian writes that he had a circular platform built in the arena from atop which he would throw javelins at them.
Commodus was assassinated not long after rumors spread that he intended to appear before the Senate in animal skins, the attire of a gladiator, and be sworn in as consul (after arranging for the death of the currently elected consul.) | [
"Athletic exercises by free citizens (no longer required to serve as soldiers since Marius' army reform) were partly replaced by gladiatorial games performed in amphitheatres. The gladiators were mainly recruited among slaves, war captives and death row convicts — the very lowest, who had no choice — but occasionally a free man chose this fast lane to fame and riches.\n",
"Two other sources of gladiators, found increasingly during the Principate and the relatively low military activity of the Pax Romana, were slaves condemned to the arena (\"damnati\"), to gladiator schools or games (\"ad ludum gladiatorium\") as punishment for crimes, and the paid volunteers (\"auctorati\") who by the late Republic may have comprised approximately half – and possibly the most capable half – of all gladiators. The use of volunteers had a precedent in the Iberian \"munus\" of Scipio Africanus; but none of those had been paid.\n",
"There is no evidence for the existence or training of female gladiators in any known gladiator school. Vesley suggests that some might have trained under private tutors in \"Collegia Iuvenum\" (official \"youth organisations\"), where young men of over 14 years could learn \"manly\" skills, including the basic arts of war. He offers three inscriptions as possible evidence; one, from Reate, commemorates Valeria, who died aged seventeen years and nine months and \"belonged\" to her \"collegium\"; the others commemorate females attached to \"collegia\" in Numidia and Ficulea. Most modern scholarship describes these as memorials to female servants or slaves of the \"collegia\", not female gladiators. Nevertheless, female gladiators probably followed the same training, discipline and career path as their male counterparts; though under a less strenuous training regime.\n",
"Gladiator is a science fiction novel by American author Philip Wylie, first published in 1930. The story concerns a scientist who invents an \"alkaline free-radical\" serum to \"improve\" humankind by granting the proportionate strength of an ant and the leaping ability of the grasshopper. The scientist injects his pregnant wife with the serum and his son Hugo Danner is born with superhuman strength, speed, and bulletproof skin. Hugo spends much of the novel hiding his powers, rarely getting a chance to openly use them. \n",
"Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world.\n",
"Gladiators were trained combatants who might be slaves, convicts, or free volunteers. Death was not a necessary or even desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, whose training represented a costly and time-consuming investment. By contrast, \"noxii\" were convicts sentenced to the arena with little or no training, often unarmed, and with no expectation of survival. Physical suffering and humiliation were considered appropriate retributive justice for the crimes they had committed. These executions were sometimes staged or ritualized as re-enactments of myths, and amphitheatres were equipped with elaborate stage machinery to create special effects. Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be nothing more than a dressed-up form of human sacrifice.\n",
"Gladiators could subscribe to a union (\"collegia\"), which ensured their proper burial, and sometimes a pension or compensation for wives and children. Otherwise, the gladiator's \"familia\", which included his \"lanista\", comrades and blood-kin, might fund his funeral and memorial costs, and use the memorial to assert their moral reputation as responsible, respectful colleagues or family members. Some monuments record the gladiator's career in some detail, including the number of appearances, victories — sometimes represented by an engraved crown or wreath — defeats, career duration, and age at death. Some include the gladiator's type, in words or direct representation: for example, the memorial of a retiarius at Verona included an engraved trident and sword. A wealthy editor might commission artwork to celebrate a particularly successful or memorable show, and include named portraits of winners and losers in action; the Borghese Gladiator Mosaic is a notable example. According to Cassius Dio, the emperor Caracalla gave the gladiator Bato a magnificent memorial and State funeral; more typical are the simple gladiator tombs of the Eastern Roman Empire, whose brief inscriptions include the following:\n"
] |
one day they're there and the other day gone after construction! how on earth are cranes made!?? | I presume you're talking about tower cranes - the type with the tall metal lattice tower?
They actually build themselves.
The very first thing that's done is that the bottom section of the tower is put in and, on top of that they put a special section of the tower that can move up and down, before plonking the top bit of the crane on top of that. To do this, they use a mobile crane, but that's only good for the bottom, as mobile cranes generally aren't as tall as tower cranes can be.
So, once they've built a little tiny tower crane, the special tower section that I mentioned jacks itself up, leaving a space where a new section of lattice tower can be slotted in. The tower crane itself lifts up the new section to where it's needed.
Once this new section is bolted in, the whole thing happens again - the top parts of the crane are lifted up on the movable section at the top, a new bit is slotted in, and so on...
Edit: And here's a video, which shows it quite nicely _URL_0_ | [
"Throughout Asia, the crane is a symbol of happiness and eternal youth. In Japan, the crane is one of the mystical or holy creatures (others include the dragon and the tortoise) and symbolizes good fortune and longevity because of its fabled life span of a thousand years. The crane is a favourite subject of the tradition of \"origami\", or paper folding. An ancient Japanese legend promises that anyone who folds a thousand origami cranes will be granted a wish by a crane. After World War II, the crane came to symbolize peace and the innocent victims of war through the story of schoolgirl Sadako Sasaki and her thousand origami cranes. Suffering from leukemia as a result of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and knowing she was dying, she undertook to make a thousand origami cranes before her death at the age of 12. After her death, she became internationally recognised as a symbol of the innocent victims of war and remains a heroine to many Japanese girls.\n",
"The first known crane machine was the shadouf, a water-lifting device that was invented in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and then appeared in ancient Egyptian technology. Construction cranes later appeared in ancient Greece, where they were powered by men or animals (such as donkeys), and used for the construction of buildings. Larger cranes were later developed in the Roman Empire, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.\n",
"The crane is a Class 1, standard 5 tonne jib hand crane, No. T171, fixed on a stone base adjacent to the western timber platform. The stone base was not widely used. It is still in use irregularly and in fair condition.\n",
"The hammerhead crane was built between 1944 and 1951 on the Fitting Out Wharf at Garden Island. The electrically powered crane had a radius of and a total height of . The electrical and mechanical equipment was sourced from England, while the steel frame was fabricated in Sydney. Although officially declared completed in January 1952, the crane was operational from March 1951. The crane's primary purpose was the removal and installation of warship gun turrets, although it was regularly used for other machinery and loads, and had a lifting capacity of up to . It was last used in 1996.\n",
"The crane was made by John Smith Ltd of Keighley, Yorkshire, in 1900 and was originally installed at a farm in Alton, Hampshire. It is rated at 5 tons capacity and is worked by hand. It forms part of a reconstructed timber yard.\n",
"In Japan, this crane is known as the \"tanchōzuru\" and is said to live for 1,000 years. A pair of red-crowned cranes was used in the design for the Series D 1000-yen note (reverse side). In the Ainu language, the red-crowned crane is known as \"sarurun kamuy\" or \"marsh-kamuy\". At Tsurui, they are one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan. Cranes are said to grant favours in return for acts of sacrifice, as in \"Tsuru no Ongaeshi\" (\"crane's return of a favor\").\n",
"Many professionals such as sculptors, painters, and other craftsmen work on the construction of the \"falles\" for months. They are hired by the commissions. The \"falles\" are erected in the streets on the night of the 15th of March. This day is known as the \"Plantà\". In actual fact, nowadays the process of erecting the \"falles\" starts several days earlier, due to their size and the need to use cranes. The monuments are burnt on the day of the \"Cremà\".\n"
] |
how dangerous is it to taste a small amount of cocaine? | I imagine this question popped into your head because of the movie trope where someone dips their finger or knife into some white powder then tastes it or rubs it on their gums to confirm "Yup, that's cocaine."
The small amount of exposure to the drug there would likely be too small to feel an effect, let alone have a dangerous reaction. Well, an effect other than local tingling or numbness of the tongue or gums, which is more likely what our hero is checking for rather than him knowing what cocaine tastes like.
However, perhaps on day one of high school chemistry, you might've learned that tasting an unknown substance to find out what it might be is a monumentally bad idea.
What if those barrels, bags or bricks contained any number of dangerous and toxic chemicals that are white powders, or how about anthrax for pete's sake?
TL;DR:
Tasting a small amount of cocaine = not dangerous.
Tasting a small amount of white powder = pretty damn stupid.
EDIT: I forgot this was ELI5, so replace "high school chemistry" with "kindergarten" and "tasting an unknown substance to find out what it might be is a monumentally bad idea." with "Don't put that in your mouth! That's yucky!" | [
"The acute toxicity of the drug is low. Overdose causes only harmless side effects such as nausea and vaginal bleeding. The has been found to range between 500 mg/kg in dogs and over 3000 mg/kg in rats. Chronic toxicity has been examined in animals, but nothing but the typical adverse effects of progestogens, and reduction of prostatic weight in rhesus monkeys, have been found. Accidental intake of the drug, including in children, is normally not dangerous. Intake of extremely large doses, or intake by patients with epilepsy or impaired kidney function, can result in central nervous cramping.\n",
"Large amounts of crack cocaine (several hundred milligrams or more) intensify the user's high, but may also lead to bizarre, erratic, and violent behavior. Large amounts can induce tremors, vertigo, muscle twitches, paranoia, or, with repeated doses, a toxic reaction closely resembling amphetamine poisoning.\n",
"The discovery that cocaine is so prevalent in U.S. banknotes has a legal application that reactions by drug-sniffing dogs is not immediately cause for arrest of persons or confiscation of banknotes. (The drug content is too low for prosecution but not too low to trigger response to drug-sniffing dogs.), though this has been contested legally in a number of U.S. states as a standard of what constitutes 'unusual' levels of contamination remains to be achieved (\"see below\").\n",
"An appreciable tolerance to cocaine's high may develop, with many addicts reporting that they seek but fail to achieve as much pleasure as they did from their first experience. Some users will frequently increase their doses to intensify and prolong the euphoric effects. While tolerance to the high can occur, users might also become more sensitive (drug sensitization) to cocaine's local anesthetic (pain killing) and convulsant (seizure inducing) effects, without increasing the dose taken; this increased sensitivity \"may\" explain some deaths occurring after apparent low doses of cocaine.\n",
"Due to the high concentrations of non-opiate substances relative to the diamorphine content of the drug, abuse and overdose of cheese are more dangerous than pure-form opiate overdoses. Emergency personnel must address the overdose effects of each component of the drug, since the contents and concentrations of each component vary widely among batches they must wait for either the completion of the toxicology report to begin treatment or wait for the effects of each drugs overdose to manifest. The acetaminophen content of the drug induces severe, irreversible damage to the liver when taken in high doses for long periods of time. Very high doses of acetaminophen are capable of producing acute liver failure and death within hours, patients who survive this acute phase of the toxicity generally require dialysis and eventually a liver transplant. Due to the many methods of preparation a user can not know how much acetaminophen is in any given batch and therefore can not reliably determine a safe dose. A dose of the last batch which produced no toxic effects may produce lethal effects in the next batch.\n",
"Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the reward pathway in the brain. After a short period of use, there is a high risk that dependence will occur. Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, and sudden cardiac death. Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar, which can result in additional toxicity. Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure and be very physically tired.\n",
"An injected mixture of cocaine and heroin, known as \"speedball\" is a particularly dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, including celebrities such as comedians/actors John Belushi and Chris Farley, Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix, grunge singer Layne Staley and actor Philip Seymour Hoffman. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.\n"
] |
Is there a compound that can be found naturally but cannot be made artificially? | Depends in what way you mean by 'made artificially'. Proteins and enzymes are very complex structures that can't really be made by standard chemical reactions, and require a living organism such as bacteria to be produced in a lab.
A good example is insulin, a hormone used to treat diabetics. It was originally isolated in the early 20th century by harvesting it from the pancreas of a dog, but nowadays its produced by specially cultivated bacteria.
It's not currently possible to synthesise insulin chemically (along with a lot of other biological compounds) as the molecules are so complex. Edit:[More info about insulin](_URL_0_)
Edit2: I just learned that insulin can in fact be synthesised! See below comment. | [
"Since synthons are idealized structures, it is often difficult to find equivalent chemical compounds in the real world. Many carbanion synthons, as drawn, present stability issues that render the molecule’s existence in reality impossible. For example, an acyl anions are not stable species, but the acyl anion synthon can be used to represent reagents such as lithiated dithianes, which are nucleophilic and often used in umpolung chemistry.\n",
"Natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are still extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially. Examples include most sugars, some alkaloids and terpenoids, certain nutrients such as vitamin B, and, in general, those natural products with large or stereoisometrically complicated molecules present in reasonable concentrations in living organisms.\n",
"BULLET::::- Urea becomes the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised, by Friedrich Wöhler, establishing that organic compounds could be produced from inorganic starting materials and potentially disproving a cornerstone of vitalism, the belief that life is not subject to the laws of science in the way inanimate objects are.\n",
"Drugs derived from natural sources are usually produced by isolation from the natural source, or, as described here, by semisynthesis from such an isolated agent. From the viewpoint of chemical synthesis, living organisms are remarkable chemical factories, capable of producing structurally complex chemical compounds with ease by biosynthesis. In contrast, engineered chemical synthesis is necessarily simpler, with a lower chemical diversity in each reaction, than the incredibly diverse biosynthesis pathways that are crucial to life. As a result, certain functional groups are much easier to prepare via engineered synthesis than others – for example, acetylation – where certain biosynthetic pathways can generate groups and structures with minimal economic input that would be prohibitive via total synthesis. Plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria are all used as sources for these tricky precursor molecules, including the use of bioreactors at the meeting point between engineered and biological chemical synthesis.\n",
"There are numerous situations in which chemical intermediates are synthesized \"in situ\" in various processes. This may be done because the species is unstable, and cannot be isolated, or simply out of convenience. Examples of the former include the Corey-Chaykovsky reagent and adrenochrome.\n",
"It was once thought that organic compounds could only be created by living organisms. Over time, however, scientists learned how to synthesize organic compounds in the lab. The number of organic compounds is immense and the known number of defined compounds is close to 10 million. However, an indefinitely large number of such compounds are theoretically possible. \n",
"Most biological molecules and pharmaceutical targets exist as one of two possible enantiomers; consequently, chemical syntheses of natural products and pharmaceutical agents are frequently designed to obtain the target in enantiomerically pure form. Chiral auxiliaries are one of many strategies available to synthetic chemists to selectively produce the desired stereoisomer of a given compound.\n"
] |
If person A is travelling at a fast speed away from person B, why is it that person A's time runs slower when you could say that person B is travelling away relative to A? | Your assessment is spot on. They both see the others clock running slow, which is generally called 'the principle of reciprocity' in introductory textbooks.
If you have two space ships pass each other while traveling at constant velocities, each will feel 'at rest' with respect to the other. This results in each of them seeing the others time slow down. This may seem spooky, but it's a straight forward consequence of the Lorentz transformations. | [
"More generally, it is normally impossible for information or energy to travel faster than \"c\". One argument for this follows from the counter-intuitive implication of special relativity known as the relativity of simultaneity. If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by \"c\" then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. As a result, if something were travelling faster than \"c\" relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame, and causality would be violated. In such a frame of reference, an \"effect\" could be observed before its \"cause\". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded, and would lead to paradoxes such as the tachyonic antitelephone.\n",
"Consider a situation common in everyday life. Two cars travel along a road, both moving at constant velocities. See Figure 1. At some particular moment, they are separated by 200 metres. The car in front is travelling at 22 metres per second and the car behind is travelling at 30 metres per second. If we want to find out how long it will take the second car to catch up with the first, there are three obvious \"frames of reference\" that we could choose.\n",
"A second equivalent solution swaps the return trips. Basically, the two fastest people cross together on the 1st and 5th trips, the two slowest people cross together on the 3rd trip, and EITHER of the fastest people returns on the 2nd trip, and the other fastest person returns on the 4th trip.\n",
"The two-second rule is useful as it can be applied to any speed. Drivers can find it difficult to estimate the correct distance from the car in front, let alone remember the stopping distances that are required for a given speed, or to compute the equation on the fly (BD = (SMPH/20)*SMPH). The two-second rule gets around these problems and provides a simple and common-sense way of improving road safety.\n",
"It is usually understood as having two aspects: firstly, that a time traveller cannot \"redo\" an act that he has previously committed, and secondly, that a dangerous energy discharge will result if two temporal versions of the same person come into contact.\n",
"A common objection to the idea of traveling back in time is put forth in the grandfather paradox or the argument of auto-infanticide. If one were able to go back in time, inconsistencies and contradictions would ensue if the time traveler were to change anything; there is a contradiction if the past becomes different from the way it \"is\". The paradox is commonly described with a person who travels to the past and kills their own grandfather, prevents the existence of their father or mother, and therefore their own existence. Philosophers question whether these paradoxes make time travel impossible. Some philosophers answer the paradoxes by arguing that it might be the case that backward time travel could be possible but that it would be impossible to actually \"change\" the past in any way, an idea similar to the proposed Novikov self-consistency principle in physics.\n",
"To estimate the time, a driver can wait until the rear end of the vehicle in front passes any distinct and fixed point on the roadway—e.g. a road sign, mailbox, line/crack/patch in the road. After the car ahead passes a given fixed point, the front of one's car should pass the same point no less than two seconds later. If the elapsed time is less than this, one should increase the distance, then repeat the method again until the time is at least two seconds.\n"
] |
Does the concept of religion differ outside of Abrahamic religions? | This isn't really a history question, but some here may want to answer. Meanwhile, you might consider x-posting this question to r/AskReligion, r/AskAnthropology, or r/AskSocialScience | [
"Today, religion is broadly conceived as an abstraction which entails beliefs, doctrines and sacred places—even though the ancient and medieval cultures that produced religious texts, like the Bible or the Quran, did not have such conceptions or ideas in their languages, cultures, or histories. However, there is still no scholarly consensus over what a religion is.\n",
"Adam Dodds argues that the term \"Abrahamic faiths\", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences. For example, the common Christian beliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for example Islamic view of Jesus' death). There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as strict monotheism and adherence to Divine Law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Bahá'í Faith not shared by Judaism (such as the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus, respectively).\n",
"The concept of religion was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries, despite the fact that ancient sacred texts like the Bible, the Quran, and others did not have a word or even a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. For example, there is no precise equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. One of its central concepts is \"halakha\", meaning the walk or path sometimes translated as law, which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life. Even though the beliefs and traditions of Judaism are found in the ancient world, ancient Jews saw Jewish identity as being about an ethnic or national identity and did not entail a compulsory belief system or regulated rituals. Even in the 1st century CE, Josephus had used the Greek term \"ioudaismos\", which some translate as Judaism today, even though he used it as an ethnic term, not one linked to modern abstract concepts of religion as a set of beliefs. It was in the 19th century that Jews began to see their ancestral culture as a religion analogous to Christianity. The Greek word \"threskeia\", which was used by Greek writers such as Herodotus and Josephus, is found in the New Testament. \"Threskeia\" is sometimes translated as religion in today's translations, however, the term was understood as worship well into the medieval period. In the Quran, the Arabic word \"din\" is often translated as religion in modern translations, but up to the mid-1600s translators expressed \"din\" as law.\n",
"The three major Abrahamic faiths (in chronological order of revelation) are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some strict definitions of what constitutes an Abrahamic religion include only these three faiths. However, there are many other religions incorporating Abrahamic doctrine, theology, genealogy and history into their own belief systems.\n",
"It was in the 17th century that the concept of \"religion\" received its modern shape despite the fact that ancient texts like the Bible, the Quran, and other sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. In the 19th century, Max Müller noted that what is called ancient religion today, would have been called \"law\" in antiquity. For example, there is no precise equivalent of \"religion\" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. The Sanskrit word \"dharma\", sometimes translated as \"religion\", also means law or duty. Throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between \"imperial law\" and universal or \"Buddha law\", but these later became independent sources of power. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of \"religion\" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea.\n",
"Advocates of the term \"Abrahamic religion\" since the second half of the 20th century have proposed a hyper-ecumenicism that emphasizes not only Judeo-Christian commonalities but that would include Islam as well (the rationale for the term \"Abrahamic\" being that while only Christianity and Judaism give the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) the status of scripture, Islam does also trace its origins to the figure of Abraham as the \"first Muslim\").\n",
"Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes called Abrahamic religions because they all accept the tradition of the God (known as Yahweh in Hebrew and Allah in Arabic) that revealed himself to the prophet Abraham. The theological traditions of all Abrahamic religions are thus to some extent influenced by the depiction of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, and the historical development of monotheism in the history of Judaism.\n"
] |
what is the keynesian multiplier, and how does it help disprove supply-side economics? | The mythical Keynesisn multiplier falls hard for the Broken Window Fallacy. It measures what is seen in one part of the economy and neglects to subtracts out the unseen losses in the rest of the economy. If it were true we would never have another recession. | [
"The complex multiplier is the multiplier principle in Keynesian economics (formulated by John Maynard Keynes). The simplistic multiplier that is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save is a special case used for illustrative purposes only. The multiplier applies to any change in autonomous expenditure, in other words, an externally induced change in consumption, investment, government expenditure or net exports. Each of these operates to increase or reduce the equilibrium level of income in the economy.\n",
"Keynesian economics ( ; sometimes called Keynesianism) are a group of various macroeconomic theories about how in the short run – and especially during recessions – economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total demand in the economy). In the Keynesian view, named for British economist John Maynard Keynes, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation.\n",
"New Keynesian economics is a school of contemporary macroeconomics that strives to provide microeconomic foundations for Keynesian economics. It developed partly as a response to criticisms of Keynesian macroeconomics by adherents of new classical macroeconomics.\n",
"Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973), though it lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s. The advent of the financial crisis of 2007–08 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought, which continues as new Keynesian economics. Keynesian economics developed during and after the Great Depression from the ideas presented by Keynes in his 1936 book, \"The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money\". Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply-focused classical economics that preceded his book. The interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy.\n",
"Two main assumptions define the New Keynesian approach to macroeconomics. Like the New Classical approach, New Keynesian macroeconomic analysis usually assumes that households and firms have rational expectations. However, the two schools differ in that New Keynesian analysis usually assumes a variety of market failures. In particular, New Keynesians assume that there is imperfect competition in price and wage setting to help explain why prices and wages can become \"sticky\", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.\n",
"Keynesian economics has developed from the work of John Maynard Keynes and focused on macroeconomics in the short-run, particularly the rigidities caused when prices are fixed. It has two successors. Post-Keynesian economics is an alternative school—one of the successors to the Keynesian tradition with a focus on macroeconomics. They concentrate on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes, and research micro foundations for their models based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. Generally associated with Cambridge, England and the work of Joan Robinson (see Post-Keynesian economics). New-Keynesian economics is the other school associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. These researchers tend to share with other Neoclassical economists the emphasis on models based on micro foundations and optimizing behavior, but focus more narrowly on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of these models, rather than simply assumed as in older style Keynesian ones (see New-Keynesian economics).\n",
"The value Keynes assigns to his multiplier is the reciprocal of the marginal propensity to save: \"k\" = 1 / \"S\" '(\"Y\" ). This is the same as the formula for Kahn's mutliplier in a closed economy if all saving, and not just hoarding, constituted leakage. Keynes gave his formula almost the status of a definition (it is put forward in advance of any explanation). His multiplier is indeed the value of \"the ratio ... between an increment of investment and the corresponding increment of aggregate income\" under his Chapter 13 model of liquidity preference, which implies that income must bear the entire effect of a change in investment. But under his Chapter 15 model a change in the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital has an effect shared between the interest rate and income in proportions depending on the partial derivatives of the liquidity preference function. The resulting multiplier has a more complicated formula and a smaller numerical value.\n"
] |
what causes some tv shows/movies to look somehow "off" on newer screens (kind of soap opera-looking)? | You have motion interpolation turned on. It is a function that inserts computer-generated estimate frames between the existing frames of video to create smoother motion, but it's an aesthetic associated with camcorders and soap operas, so people often dislike it.
Look through your TV's menu and turn it off. | [
"Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. For this reason, almost all manufacturers have built in an option to turn the feature off or lower the effect strength.\n",
"Phin Wong of \"TODAY\" found that the adaptation from small to big screen \"ends up looking less like a film and more like a series of skits built around a barely-there story, with a handful of inexplicable melodrama thrown in\", also calling it \"an unfortunate waste of a talented cast playing well-loved characters capable of so much more.\"\n",
"The lighting, or lack of light, in darker scenes has been a recurring point of criticism since season 6 of the series. In 2016, \"Bustle\"s Caitlyn Callegari listed 31 examples of scenes where the lighting caused viewers problems ranging from not being able to tell a character's hair color to not being able to see what was going on. Some reviewers have noted this is part of a wider trend among shows that are made by people who have experience working primarily on films, suggesting they \"haven't grasped the nuances (or lack thereof)\" of television as a medium, especially the differences between watching a scene on a television screen versus watching it on the big screen in a movie theater.\n",
"\"Bad Girls\" was one of the more earlier television series to be produced in widescreen format . Although most of Britain were still viewing standard screen televisions, the early years of the series were seen in a format of on analog television and cropped to pan and scan for the DVD releases of the first three series. These series' of the show are now available in their original widescreen format, as they have been re-screened on ITV3 and CBS Drama, and the DVD re-releases.\n",
"For instance, both movies contain shots that create an artificial lighting situation such that a character is lit in the background and walks or runs through dark areas to the foreground, where his arrival triggers, off-screen, a light not on before. The result is so visually dramatic because a character moves, only barely visible, through vast pools of shadow, only to exit the shadow very close to the camera, where his whole face is suddenly completely lit. This use of much more shadow than light, soon one of the main techniques of low-key lighting, heavily influenced film noir.\n",
"The impact these films had on the big screen cannot be assessed from television or video, or even from 'scope prints, which marry the three images together with the seams clearly visible. Because they were designed to be seen on a curved screen, the geometry looks distorted on television; someone walking from left to right appears to approach the camera at an angle, move away at an angle, and then repeat the process on the other side of the screen.\n",
"Other effects also relied on simple cinema tricks. Early in the film, the audience sees Abigail Crain lying in bed, aging from a young child to an old woman. A camera was fixed over the bed, and four different actresses (each a different age) posed in the bed beneath the camera. Dissolves were then used to illustrate the aging process. In another scene, the characters come across a \"cold spot\" in the haunted mansion. Wise had initially wanted the actors to simply play up \"the 'quality of [being] cold' in [the] sequence\", but he quickly recognized that an additional visual effect was needed to more clearly emphasize the temperature drop. To overcome the unique issue of having to \"photograph 'nothing'\", Wise instructed the makeup department to apply a special makeup onto the actors. This makeup contained a compound that was usually invisible to the naked eye but that appeared under certain filters. When it came time to film, the actors walked onto the portion of the set that was supposed to represent the cold spot, and these filters were gradually drawn over the set's lights. This gave the visual impression that the characters had turned pale due to a drop in temperature.\n"
] |
why some people can float, while others can' t? | People can float in water if they learned or figured out how to do so. Those who cannot did not learn how. But no one is incapable of it. In fact its harder to not float than it is to float, because of your lungs, since they are filled with air.
If you wanna see what I mean, try getting a basketball underwater. | [
"A floating sensation (referred to as 'float') is cultivated throughout. Float does not ignore the existence of gravity. However rather than giving into gravity and adhering to heaviness, the body uses gravity as a force of energy and even elevation of the limbs. Naharin states, “we sense the weight of our body parts, yet, our form is not shaped by gravity.” Additionally, float is intended to facilitate a constant awareness and activeness in which dancers are never completely released, even when they are doing nothing, leaving them 'available' for movement.\n",
"A ship will float even though it may be made of steel (which is much denser than water), because it encloses a volume of air (which is much less dense than water), and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water.\n",
"Floaters are able to catch and refract light in ways that somewhat blur vision temporarily until the floater moves to a different area. Often they trick persons who are troubled by floaters into thinking they see something out of the corner of their eye that really is not there. Most persons come to terms with the problem, after a time, and learn to ignore their floaters. For persons with severe floaters it is nearly impossible to ignore completely the large masses that constantly stay within almost direct view.\n",
"The term floating island is sometimes used for accumulations of vegetation free-floating within a body of water. Due to the lack of currents and tides, these are more frequently found in lakes than in rivers or the open sea. Peaty masses of vegetable matter from shallow lake floors may rise due to the accumulation of gases during decomposition, and will often float for a considerable time, becoming ephemeral islands until the gas has dissipated enough for the vegetation to return to the lake floor.\n",
"A floating island is a mass of floating aquatic plants, mud, and peat ranging in thickness from several centimetres to a few metres. Floating islands are a common natural phenomenon that are found in many parts of the world. They exist less commonly as an artificial phenomenon. Floating islands are generally found on marshlands, lakes, and similar wetland locations, and can be many hectares in size.\n",
"Swimming float-assisted can be more difficult than swimming without the float, because if the float is held in front of the swimmer a more vigorous workout for the legs is given as the swimmer's weight is propelled solely by the legs, and vice versa for the arms.\n",
"Floating population is a terminology used to describe a group of people who reside in a given population for a certain amount of time and for various reasons, but are not generally considered part of the official census count.\n"
] |
Q from my 5-year old: did dinosaurs have boogers? | [Birds are more likely related to dinosaurs](_URL_2_), rather than reptiles to dinosaurs, and birds do get [nasal mucus](_URL_1_).
A booger by any other name is still a [booger](_URL_0_). | [
"\"Stegosaurus\" has long been featured in popular informational books about dinosaurs. This is ostensibly due to its status as being one of the most famous dinosaurs in popular culture. Several older nonfiction books incorrectly stated that \"Stegosaurus\" had two brains, due to a mistake made by Marsh during the 1800s, in which a bundle of nerves located in the hips was thought to be a \"second brain\". However, newer informational works have corrected this, and most nonfiction dinosaur books published nowadays correctly state that \"Stegosaurus\" had only one — albeit tiny — brain, located in its skull, as all other known vertebrates do. \"Stegosaurus\" has also featured in numerous video games such as \"\" and \"Carnivores\". In the latter game, the animal was depicted as an awkward, lumbering reptile, similar to many outdated illustrations, even though the game was released in 1998, at least a decade after the general public recognized \"Stegosaurus\" and other dinosaurs as active warm-blooded beasts. Players can play as \"Stegosaurus\" in \"Combat of Giants\". A stuffed \"Stegosaurus\" makes an appearance in the video game \"Gone Home\", nicknamed Steggy.\n",
"Nuthetes is the name given to a dubious, possibly dromaeosaurid, genus of theropod dinosaur, known only from fossil teeth and jaw fragments found in rocks of the middle Berriasian (Early Cretaceous) age in the Cherty Freshwater Member of the Lulworth Formation in England. As a dromaeosaurid \"Nuthetes\" would have been a small predator, about two metres long.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Brachiosaurus\" is the first dinosaur seen by the park's visitors. It is inaccurately depicted as chewing its food and standing up on its hind legs to browse among the high tree branches. According to artist Andy Schoneberg, the chewing was done to make the animal seem docile, resembling a cow chewing its cud. The dinosaur's head and upper neck was the largest puppet without hydraulics built for the film. Despite scientific evidence of their having limited vocal capabilities, sound designer Gary Rydstrom decided to represent them with whale songs and donkey calls to give them a melodic sense of wonder. Penguins were also recorded to be used in the noises of the dinosaurs.\n",
"Elzanowski and Wellnhofer noted that the specimen has distinct bite marks while the back of the head fragment was ragged, and suggested that the jaws were bitten off from its braincase by a deltatheridiid (\"Deltatheridium\") mammal the size of a weasel (adding that these are common in the Bayn Dzak assemblage). Clark and colleagues (2002) noted that it may have also passed through the digestive tract of the predator before fossilization. If true, this may be the first known evidence of Mesozoic mammals feeding on dinosaurs (see \"Repenomamus\").\n",
"Kritosaurus is an incompletely known genus of hadrosaurid (duck-billed) dinosaur. It lived about 74.5-66 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous of North America. The name means \"separated lizard\" (referring to the arrangement of the cheek bones in an incomplete type skull), but is often mistranslated as \"noble lizard\" in reference to the presumed \"Roman nose\" (in the original specimen, the nasal region was fragmented and disarticulated, and was originally restored flat).\n",
"Kerberosaurus (meaning \"Kerberos lizard\") was a genus of saurolophine duckbill dinosaur from the late Maastrichtian-age Upper Cretaceous Tsagayan Formation of Blagoveshchensk, Amur Region, Russia (dated to 66 million years ago). It is based on bonebed material including skull remains indicating that it was related to \"Saurolophus\" and \"Prosaurolophus\".\n",
"Over twenty skulls have been found from this dinosaur. As with other lambeosaurines, the animal bore a tall, elaborate bony crest atop its skull, which contained the elongate narial passages. The narial passages extended into the crest, first into separate pockets in the sides, then into a single central chamber and onward into the respiratory system. The skull of the type specimen has no dermal impressions on it. During preservation it was compressed laterally, so now the width is about two-thirds what it would have been in real life. According to Brown, the compression also caused the nasals to shift where they pressed down on the premaxillaries. Because they were pressed on the premaxillaries, the nasals would have closed the nares. Apart from the compression, the skull appears to be normal. Contrary to what Brown assumed, the areas concerned were fully part of the praemaxillae.\n"
] |
calvinism | John Calvin was a theologian who was part of the reformation. His theology became known as Calvinism.
Basically Calvinism is boiled down to the TULIP beliefs.
* T - Total Depravity - All parts of man are affected by sin
* U - Unconditional Election - We are saved by Christ without any conditions. We do not earn it, it is completely a gift.
* L - Limited Atonement - Jesus died on the cross only for those who follow Him. His atonement for sins was not for everyone.
* I - Irresistible Grace - If God wants you to follow Him you can't resist the call.
* P - Perseverance of the Saints -Once saved always saved. You can't lose your salvation.
Not every Calvinist agrees with all 5 points. In fact, some say Calvin didn't believe in all of them (the term TULIP was made up after he died) but these are the basic theological points.
**tl;dr - There are two main camps of Christian theology. Men are in control and choose to follow God (Arminianism) and God is in control and chooses who follows Him (Calvinism).** | [
"Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought within the Protestant tradition articulated by John Calvin, a Protestant Reformer in the 16th century, and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin, his interpretation of scripture, and perspective on Christian life and theology. Calvin's system of theology and Christian life forms the basis of the reformed tradition, a term roughly equivalent to \"Calvinism\".\n",
"Calvinism is a system of Christian theology and an approach to Christian life and thought within the Protestant tradition articulated by John Calvin and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin and his interpretation of Scripture, and perspective on Christian life and theology. Calvin's system of theology and Christian life forms the basis of the Reformed tradition, a term roughly equivalent to \"Calvinism\".\n",
"Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. Calvinists differ from Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers, among other things. As declared in the Westminster and Second Helvetic confessions, the core doctrines are predestination and election. The term \"Calvinism\" can be misleading, because the religious tradition which it denotes has always been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder. In the context of the Reformation, Huldrych Zwingli began the Reformed tradition in 1519 in the city of Zürich. His followers were instantly labeled \"Zwinglians\", consistent with the Catholic practice of naming heresy after its founder. Very soon, Zwingli was joined by Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, William Farel, Johannes Oecolampadius and other early Reformed thinkers. The namesake of the movement, French reformer John Calvin, converted to the Reformed tradition from Roman Catholicism only in the late 1520s or early 1530s as it was already being developed. The movement was first called \"Calvinism\", referring to John Calvin, by Lutherans who opposed it. Many within the tradition find it either an indescriptive or an inappropriate term and would prefer the word \"Reformed\" to be used instead. Some Calvinists prefer the term Augustinian-Calvinism since Calvin credited his theology to Augustine of Hippo. The most important Reformed theologians include John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, and R. C. Sproul were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I. Packer, John MacArthur, Timothy J. Keller, David Wells, and Michael Horton.\n",
"Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552. It was a common practice of the Roman Catholic Church to name what it viewed as heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles. Calvin denounced the designation himself:\n",
"Calvinism is a very strict form of Protestantism and the islands found their churches being changed with the removal of paintings and religious symbols such as statues, decorated altars and fonts and the removal of crosses. By using the Ecclesiastical courts in the islands they enforced compulsory attendance at church twice every Sunday, bans of gambling and dancing and many other restrictions, especially on Sundays, upon pain of flogging, locking in stocks, imprisonment in the town cages or in castle dungeons.\n",
"The Calvinistic Methodists are a Welsh Protestant revivalist movement forming the Presbyterian Church of Wales. They trace their origins back to the evangelism and preaching of George Whitefield and especially Howell Harris in the late 1730s and 40s. They formed a separate body from the Church of England and from other Methodists after 1821, when their Rules of Discipline were published, followed in 1823 by their Confession of Faith based on the predestinationist Five Points of Calvinism. The working language of the Calvinistic Methodists has always been Welsh, and the services at Soar-y-mynydd are held in Welsh.\n",
"New Calvinism, also known as the Young, Restless, and Reformed Movement, is a movement within conservative evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th-century Calvinism while seeking to engage these historical doctrines with present-day culture. \n"
] |
I always hear how "Wilt played against milkmen" or "NFL players had day jobs as oil workers". How did sports contracts go from the equivalent of a second job to multi-million dollar deals? | The answer boils down to about two points: Market size and collective negotiations.
Back in the day, sports athletes were considered amateurs and were more motivated by passion to engage in a hobby more than working a primary job for earning income. As time went on through the 30s and 40s, competition and swelling audience sizes encouraged the development of a more professional caste of athletes who were naturally a bit better paid than their amateur predecessors, but we’re still not close to the modern multimillion dollar contract.
By the 1950s broadcasting emerged as the big game changer, catapulted by effective collective action. With broadcasting the audience size increased exponentially, and earning of the overall sport. As owners and broadcasters made more and more, players increasingly organized to bargain for better pay. Through the 1970s and onward, as player organizations and unions became powerful and ubiquitous, and rating soared to higher and higher levels, players’ salaries ballooned.
Keep in mind, though, players’ salaries vary wildly even with the same league or even the same team.
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"Bonus babies were the group of amateur baseball players who went straight to the Major Leagues between the years 1947 and 1965 and received a signing bonus in excess of $4,000. The bonus rule prevented the player from spending time in the Minor League Baseball system that was, and is, the training ground for most professional baseball players in the United States, and came under criticism because it often caused such a player to languish on a major league bench instead of gaining experience in the minors.\n",
"That season also marked the last time Tupa was used regularly as a quarterback; since then he almost exclusively punted, with only emergency occasions or trick plays making use of his throwing skills. Tupa sat out the 1993 NFL season, having been cut by the Cleveland Browns right before the season. However, he was re-signed by the Browns the following year and stayed with them for two seasons as their starting punter, and he scored the first ever 2-point conversion in the history of the NFL by rushing from a fake extra point kick attempt. He joined the New England Patriots in 1996 and played for them for three years. In 1999, Tupa signed with the New York Jets. It was during this season that Tupa received his first invitation to the Pro Bowl. He also made his first pass attempt since 1996, and went 6-of-11 for 165 yards and two touchdowns during the Jets' week one matchup against the New England Patriots. Tupa was put in at quarterback in the first quarter after Vinny Testaverde tore his achilles tendon.\n",
"An article in \"The Guardian\" in 2014 noted that the inclusion of sevens in the Olympics had greatly expanded funding available to the sport, and that the large pool of American football players who may be unable to earn professional contracts in the NFL meant there were many sportsmen who had skills and strengths they could transfer to rugby union.\n",
"In February 2014, the NFL released the \"Wells Report\" finding that Jerry, along with Dolphins teammates Richie Incognito and Mike Pouncey, had bullied and harassed lineman Jonathan Martin, another unnamed player, and an assistant trainer during the 2012-13 seasons. The harassment of the assistant trainer, in which Jerry took part, included racial insults.\n",
"In 2010 Rickert successfully negotiated more NFL free agent contracts than any other NFL agent, most notably that of Joshua Cribbs of the Cleveland Browns, which was made famous by Deion Sanders on NFL Network when he on air began to refer to Cribbs as \"Pay The Man\". He also negotiated contracts for Lorenzo Alexander, Artis Hicks, Rex Hadnot, and Matt Ware in the 2010 free agency period.\n",
"Hochuli has served as the head of the NFL Referees Association, the union which represents NFL game officials. The union was responsible for negotiating a new contract for the officials prior to the 2001 NFL season. At the time, salaries ranged from a first-year official earning US$1,431 a game to a veteran official with twenty years of experience making $4,330 a game. Officials were looking for a 400 percent increase in salary while the league was offering just 40 percent. During the negotiations, Hochuli believed the issue in finding a resolution was to convince the league that officials are full-time employees.\n",
"Bob and Tom had a friendly wager with former Indianapolis Colts center Jeff Saturday that if he ever got a touchdown they would donate $5,000 to the charity of his choice. During the 2006–07 NFL season, they increased the wager to $10,000. They assumed that they were safe since offensive linemen almost never score points in NFL games. In January 2007 in the AFC Championship game against the rival New England Patriots, on a play near New England's goal line, Dominic Rhodes carried into the middle of the line and fumbled. Saturday fell on the ball in the end zone for the touchdown. Bob and Tom made good on their wager and donated $10,000 total with $5,000 each going to People's Burn Foundation of Indiana and Kid's Voice of Indiana, Inc.\n"
] |
what are the benefits to running in the cold | I played rugby in high school and I much preferred training and playing in the cold because of how tired and overheated I felt after. At first it sucked since I was all clammy and cold but after you get blood moving this is no longer an issue. At the end of the day, I always preferred playing and training in the cold, especially if it was rainy and muddy. | [
"Running is an effective way to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and tension. It helps people who struggle with seasonal affective disorder by being more outside running when it's sunny and warm. Running can improve mental alertness and also improve sleep which is needed for good mental health. Both research and clinical experience have shown that exercise can be a treatment for serious depression and anxiety even some physicians prescribe exercise to most of their patients. Running can have a longer lasting effect than anti-depressants. \n",
"While there exists the potential for injury while running (just as there is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits include potential weight loss, improved cardiovascular and respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood cholesterol, strengthening of bones (and potentially increased bone density), possible strengthening of the immune system and an improved self-esteem and emotional state. Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow or reverse the effects of aging. Even people who have already experienced a heart attack are 20% less likely to develop serious heart problems if more engaged in running or any type of aerobic activity. \n",
"Running can also have psychological benefits, as many participants in the sport report feeling an elated, euphoric state, often referred to as a \"runner's high\". Running is frequently recommended as therapy for people with clinical depression and people coping with addiction. A possible benefit may be the enjoyment of nature and scenery, which also improves psychological well-being (see Ecopsychology § Practical benefits).\n",
"Environmental factors such as air resistance, rain, terrain, and heat all contribute to a marathon runner's ability to perform at the full potential of their physiological characteristics. Air resistance or wind and the physical terrain of the marathon course (hilly or flat) were often associated with increased intensities in order to maintain pace. The rain can affect a marathon runner's performance by adding weight to the attire of the marathon runner causing their overall load to carry to be slightly heavier. Temperature, in particular the heat, is the strongest contributor of environmental factors leading to poorer marathon performance. An increase in air temperature affects all the runners the same. This negative correlation of increased temperature and decreased race time is affiliated with marathon runners' hospitalizations and exercise induced hyperthermia. There are other environmental factors less directly associated with marathon performance such as the pollutants in the air and even prize money associated with a specific marathon itself.\n",
"Winter swimming isn't dangerous for healthy persons, but should be avoided by individuals with heart or respiratory diseases, obesity, high blood pressure and arrhythmia, as well as children and the elderly. Through conditioning, experienced winter swimmers have a greater resistance to effects of the cold shock response.\n",
"Studies reveal that such enduring and extreme running on mountains also bring the health benefits such as low energy costs for those runners. Although there are individual differences, those frequent mountain running could develop much slower energy cost system that could be 14% lower than average individuals. As a type of mountain race, sky running could allow for the strong development in the physical competence, like the prolonged running time, faster speed, and other competitive aspects that will allow an individuals to improve their ability in cope with dangers and get survival in some extreme situations. The most important changes in the physical status for different types of mountain runners, including sky runners, is the heart rates. Runners intend to develop stronger physical system with the heart rate stable enough to cope with the extreme situations. that could extend runners’ adaptation to the competition intensity of the races. Heart can be strengthened with improvement in cardiac biomarkers, electro- and echocardiography. Another discovery is that skyrunning will challenge people's physical status for long duration and distance and professional skyrunners usually develop low body mass index and low body fat. Although there are gender differences in the improvement in physical status with women is less strong than male in those indexes, the gender differences are narrowing for those men and women who have participated in those long-distance or long-duration activity.\n",
"If the weather is hot and humid, or horses are moving at a faster speed, horses are more likely to need supplemental electrolytes. Usually, horses that drink regularly have little need for electrolyte supplementation. Excitable, anxious horses or horses that sweat excessively for any reason may need supplementation.\n"
] |
how do huge herbivores such as elephants and rhino's build muscle and mass without meat? what makes a human's body unable to grow similarly from just grass/leaves? | Au contraire! Vegetables, especially grains, have all kinds of protein in them. Here's a series of charts.
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I think they get enough protein because they consume enough in their food.
Elephants are not ruminants.
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"Members of the rhinoceros family are some of the largest remaining megafauna, with all species able to reach or exceed one tonne in weight. They have a herbivorous diet, small brains (400–600 g) for mammals of their size, one or two horns, and a thick (1.5–5 cm) protective skin formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice structure. They generally eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on more fibrous plant matter when necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the two African species of rhinoceros lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their lips to pluck food.\n",
"The ability to process food more rapidly than foregut fermenters gives hindgut fermenters an advantage at very large body size, as they are able to accommodate significantly larger food intakes. The largest extant and prehistoric megaherbivores, elephants and indricotheres (a type of rhino), respectively, have been hindgut fermenters. Study of the rates of evolution of larger maximum body mass in different terrestrial mammalian groups has shown that the fastest growth in body mass over time occurred in hindgut fermenters (perissodactyls, rodents and proboscids).\n",
"Elephants have the largest brains of all land animals, and ever since the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, have been renowned for their cognitive skills, with behavioural patterns shared with humans. Pliny the Elder described the animal as being closest to a human in sensibilities. They also have a longer lifespan than most livestock. Elephants exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, including those associated with grief, learning, allomothering, mimicry, play, altruism, use of tools, compassion, cooperation, self-awareness, memory, and language. The adult male elephant occasionally goes through a \"musth\" period, making him dangerously aggressive.\n",
"While feeding, elephants use their trunks to pluck at leaves and their tusks to tear at branches, which can cause enormous damage to foliage. A herd may deplete an area of foliage depriving other herbivores for a time. African elephants may eat up to of vegetation per day, although their digestive system is not very efficient; only 40% of this food is properly digested. The foregut fermentation used by ruminants is generally considered more efficient than the hindgut fermentation employed by proboscideans and perissodactyls; however, the ability to process food more rapidly than foregut fermenters gives hindgut fermenters an advantage at very large body size, as they are able to accommodate significantly larger food intakes.\n",
"Like that of modern elephants, the mammoth's sensitive, muscular trunk was a limb-like organ with many functions. It was used for manipulating objects and social interaction. Although healthy adult mammoths could defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks, and size, juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves and big cats. Bones of juvenile Columbian mammoths, accumulated by \"Homotherium\" (the scimitar-toothed cat), have been found in Friesenhahn Cave in Texas. Tusks may have been used in intraspecies fighting for territory or mates and for display, to attract females and intimidate rivals. Two Columbian mammoths that died in Nebraska with tusks interlocked provide evidence of fighting behavior. The mammoths could use their tusks as weapons by thrusting, swiping, or crashing them down, and used them in pushing contests by interlocking them, which sometimes resulted in breakage. The tusks' curvature made them unsuitable for stabbing. On Goat Rock Beach in Sonoma Coast State Park, blueschist and chert outcrops (nicknamed \"Mammoth Rocks\") show evidence of having been rubbed by Columbian mammoths or mastodons. The rocks have polished areas above the ground, primarily near their edges, and are similar to African rubbing rocks used by elephants and other herbivores to rid themselves of mud and parasites. Similar rocks exist in Hueco Tanks, Texas, and on Cornudas Mountain in New Mexico.\n",
"\"Stegomastodon mirificus\" is known from NMNH 10707, a roughly 30-year-old male, of which most of the skeleton has been found. Alive, it stood about tall, with a weight around . Like modern elephants, but unlike most of its closer relatives, it had just two tusks, which curved upward and were about long. \"Stegomastodon\"'s molars were covered in enamel and had a complex pattern of ridges and knobbly protrusions on them, giving the creature a large chewing surface that enabled it to eat grass. Its brain weighed about .\n",
"Elephants' tusks are specialized incisors for digging food up and fighting. Elephants are polyphyodonts with teeth are similar to those in manatees, and it is notable that elephants are believed to have undergone an aquatic phase in their evolution.\n"
] |
why are female pornstars paid more than male pornstars? isn't that illegal? | How many beautiful women do you know that are willing to let a complete stranger fuck them in the ass and spray semen on their faces? Now, while you're pondering that I ask you, how many guys do you know that would fuck a beautiful woman they've never met in the ass and spray semen on their face? I believe it all comes down to supply and demand.... | [
"Payment for pornstars is dependent on the sex acts performed; however, in a single scene, female actresses typically make between $100 and $6000, while male actors make between $100 and $400. In 2017, the Independent reported that female performers in scenes with male performers typically earn around $1,000, compared with $700-800 in scenes with other females. The Independent also claimed that pay rates are subject to variation up or down by around 10-20%, depending on various factors. The Daily Beast claimed in 2019 that female performers could make between $300 and $2500 per scene, depending on their level of experience and the sex acts performed. Higher paid female performers could make around $1200 per scene. The \"Los Angeles Times\" reported, in 2009, that the pay rates for a female actress performing heterosexual scenes were $700 to $1,000. According to the porn website Videobox in 2008, actresses make these rates: Blowjobs: $200–$400; Straight sex: $400–$1,200; Anal sex: $900–$1,500; Double Penetration: $1,200–$1,600; Double anal: $2,000. For more unusual fetishes, women generally get 15% extra. Ron Jeremy has commented that in 2008, \"The average guy gets $300 to $400 a scene, or $100 to $200 if he's new.\" According to producer Seymore Butts in 2007, who runs his own sex-film recruitment agency, as well as producing sex films; \"depending on draw, female performers who perform in both straight and lesbian porn earn more than those who do just heterosexual scenes usually make about US$200–800 while those who only do oral sex (blow job) usually only make about US$100–300 for the scene\". In an 2004 interview conducted by Local10 news of Florida, it was claimed that individuals were offered $700 for sexual intercourse while shooting a scene of the popular series Bang Bus. In 2001, actress Chloe said of pay-rates; \"In Gonzo, you're paid not by the picture, but by the scene. So it's girl-girl: $700, plus $100 for an anal toy. Boy-girl: $900. Anal: $1,100. Solo: $500. DP: $1,500.\" \n",
"Male pornographic actors are commonly paid more for homosexual work than heterosexual. There are also more opportunities to become a \"star\" in gay porn than in straight porn, where the attention is on female performers.\n",
"Among gay-for-pay actors, there is divided preference for the performance roles of top vs. bottom. It is common for gay-for-pay porn actors to start out as tops before they eventually give in to fan and industry pressure to shoot a scene or more as a bottom. Gay-for-pay actors are typically more comfortable being tops because the role of top is analogous to the \"less gay\" penetrator role of the man in straight sex. On the other hand, some gay-for-pay porn actors prefer to act as bottoms because they can do so without maintaining an erection. The implication here is that they are not even necessarily aroused during sex, making this the \"less gay\" of the two positions.\n",
"Most male performers in heterosexual porn are paid less than their female counterparts. Some state that homosexual male porn generally pays men much more than heterosexual porn. Men who identify themselves as \"heterosexual\" but perform in gay pornography are said to do gay-for-pay. This means they perform in gay movies only for the paycheck.\n",
"At both large and small pornography studios, men typically marginalize the viewpoints and concerns of women. The studios place more emphasis on what men want because they feel that their products will sell more. Furthermore, these companies will often create a competitive environment which pits women against each other. Black performers often receive only half to three-quarters of what White performers are paid. Just as in other industries, women and men of color face discrimination and disparities in structural and interpersonal forms. Porn industry workers are striving to get more control over their labor and the products they create. The Internet is by far the most efficient and rapid way to democratize the porn industry. There is a range of women from diverse backgrounds who enter the pornography business, such as soccer moms, single mothers, and college students, who are filming themselves and presenting their own pornographic fantasies. The majority of women in pornography feel strongly that society should not treat porn as problematic and socially immoral. However, women in the industry highlight that conditions can be improved, particularly with regard to workers’ rights.\n",
"Besides appearing in films, porn stars often make money from endorsements and appearance fees. For instance, in 2010, some night clubs were paying female porn stars and Playboy Playmates to appear there to act as draws for the general public; the Los Angeles Times reported that Jesse Jane was paid between $5,000 to $10,000 for one appearance by a Chicago club. \n",
"Salaries for female actresses typically range from $60,000 to $400,000, compared with $40,000 for male actors. In 2017, the Independent reported that top porn performers' salaries were around $300,000 to $400,000. In 2011, the manager of Capri Anderson said, \"A contract girl will only shoot for one company, she won't shoot for anyone else. Most actresses in the adult industry are free agents – they'll shoot for anyone. Most contract girls make $60,000 a year. In one year, a contract girl will shoot, on average, four movies and each movie takes about two or three weeks to shoot.\" Ron Jeremy has commented on the salaries of performers, stating in 2008 that \"A woman makes $100,000 to $250,000 at the end of the year.\" and in 2003 that \"Girls can easily make 100-250k per year, plus stuff on the side like strip shows and appearances. The average male makes $40,000 a year.\".\n"
] |
How can Planck's Constant be well... a constant if we know that space itself has and is expanding? | Physical constants are immutable with respect to time by definition. If for instance the speed of light would speed up or slow down for some magical reason, it would from a physical stand point be the meter which gets longer or shorter as the speed of light and the passing of time must be constant.
In your example, the Planck energy:
E=hc/λ (Energy = Planck Constant*speed of light/wavelength)
of a photon would decrease as it propagated through the expanding universe, but since the speed of light and Planck constant are constants, it's the wavelength which gets expanded. | [
"The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n",
"The Planck constant is related to the quantization of light and matter. It can be seen as a subatomic-scale constant. In a unit system adapted to subatomic scales, the electronvolt is the appropriate unit of energy and the petahertz the appropriate unit of frequency. Atomic unit systems are based (in part) on the Planck constant. The physical meaning of the Planck's constant could suggest some basic features of our physical world.\n",
"The Planck constant (denoted , also called Planck's constant) is a physical constant that is the quantum of electromagnetic action, which relates the energy carried by a photon to its frequency. A photon's energy is equal to its frequency multiplied by the Planck constant. The Planck constant is of fundamental importance in quantum mechanics, and in metrology it is the basis for the definition of the kilogram.\n",
"The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n",
"The term \"Planck scale\" refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the Standard Model, quantum field theory and general relativity are no longer reconcilable, and quantum effects of gravity are expected to dominate. This region may be characterized by energies around (the Planck energy), time intervals around (the Planck time) and lengths around (the Planck length). At the Planck scale, current models are not expected to be a useful guide to the cosmos, and physicists have no scientific model to suggest how the physical universe behaves. The best known example is represented by the conditions in the first 10 seconds of our universe after the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago.\n",
"One conceivable objection is that this theory is classical, and therefore it is not obvious how Planck's constant should be a part of the theory at all. If desired, one could indeed recast the theory without mass dimensions at all: However, this would be at the expense of slightly obscuring the connection with the quantum scalar field. Given that one has dimensions of mass, Planck's constant is thought of here as an essentially \"arbitrary fixed reference quantity of action\" (not necessarily connected to quantization), hence with dimensions appropriate to convert between mass and inverse length.\n",
"The Planck length is the scale at which quantum gravitational effects are believed to begin to be apparent, where interactions require a working theory of quantum gravity to be analyzed. The Planck area is the area by which the surface of a spherical black hole increases when the black hole swallows one bit of information. To measure anything the size of Planck length, the photon momentum needs to be very large due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and so much energy in such a small space would create a tiny black hole with the diameter of its event horizon equal to a Planck length.\n"
] |
why my torrents go so slow even though there's more seeders than leechers? | There are several possibilities.
1. If you are using a public site like piratebay most of those "seeders" are probably limiting their upload to a few k/s
2. Your internet provider might be limiting your download over torrents.
3. You might not be connectable the port you are using is not open. This limits who you can connect to. | [
"Super seeding transfers stall when there is only one downloading client. The seeders will not send more data until a second client receives the data. To avoid this, rTorrent continues to offer more pieces to the peers without waiting for confirmation, until it is uploading at its configured capacity. This improves the upload speed until enough peers have joined the swarm, at the cost of not being able to detect cheating peers, who engage in such anti-social actions as downloading only from seeds, downloading from the fastest peers, or advertising false pieces.\n",
"The algorithm applies to a scenario in which there is only one seed in the swarm. By permitting each downloader to download only specific parts of the files listed in a torrent, it equips peers to begin seeding sooner. Peers attached to a seed with super-seeding enabled therefore distribute pieces of the torrent file much more readily before they have completed download themselves. \n",
"Web \"seeding\" was implemented in 2006 as the ability of BitTorrent clients to download torrent pieces from an HTTP source in addition to the \"swarm\". The advantage of this feature is that a website may distribute a torrent for a particular file or batch of files and make those files available for download from that same web server; this can simplify long-term seeding and load balancing through the use of existing, cheap, web hosting setups. In theory, this would make using BitTorrent almost as easy for a web publisher as creating a direct HTTP download. In addition, it would allow the \"web seed\" to be disabled if the swarm becomes too popular while still allowing the file to be readily available. This feature has two distinct specifications, both of which are supported by Libtorrent and the 26+ clients that use it.\n",
"However, on most BitTorrent tracker sites, the term \"leecher\" is used for all users who are not seeders (which means they do not have the complete file yet). As BitTorrent clients usually begin to upload files almost as soon as they have started to download them, such users are usually not freeloaders (people who don't upload data at all to the swarm). Therefore, this kind of leeching is considered to be a legitimate practice. Reaching an upload/download ratio of 1:1 (meaning that the user has uploaded as much as they downloaded) in a BitTorrent client is considered a minimum in the etiquette of that network. In the terminology of these BitTorrent sites, a leech becomes a seeder (a provider of the file) when they finished downloading and continues to run the client. They will remain a seeder until the file is removed or destroyed (settings enable the torrent to stop seeding at a certain share ratio, or after X hours have passed seeding).\n",
"Although \"swarming\" scales well to tolerate \"flash crowds\" for popular content, it is less useful for unpopular or niche market content. Peers arriving after the initial rush might find the content unavailable and need to wait for the arrival of a \"seed\" in order to complete their downloads. The seed arrival, in turn, may take long to happen (this is termed the \"seeder promotion problem\"). Since maintaining seeds for unpopular content entails high bandwidth and administrative costs, this runs counter to the goals of publishers that value BitTorrent as a cheap alternative to a client-server approach. This occurs on a huge scale; measurements have shown that 38% of all new torrents become unavailable within the first month. A strategy adopted by many publishers which significantly increases availability of unpopular content consists of bundling multiple files in a single swarm. More sophisticated solutions have also been proposed; generally, these use cross-torrent mechanisms through which multiple torrents can cooperate to better share content.\n",
"In file sharing, super-seeding (aka 'Initial Seeding') is an algorithm developed by John Hoffman for the BitTorrent communications protocol that helps downloaders to be able to become uploaders more quickly, but it introduces the danger of total seeding failure if there is only one downloader.\n",
"Seedboxes generally make use of the BitTorrent protocol for uploading and downloading files, although they have also been used on the eDonkey2000 network. Seedboxes are usually connected to a high-speed network, often with a throughput of 100 Mbit/s or even 1 Gbit/s. Some providers are testing and offering 10 Gbit/s shared servers, while others are developing other systems that will allow users to scale their needs on the fly. Files are downloaded from the torrent site and its users, and from there they can be downloaded at high speeds to a user's personal computer via the HTTP, FTP, SFTP, or rsync protocols. This allows for anonymity and, usually, removes the need to worry about share ratio.\n"
] |
How did Hitler finance the industrial build up to WW2? The story’s of wheelbarrow bread buyers would make one assume it be impossible to ramp up such huge industrial undertaking... where did the money come from? | He did the same thing most modern economies do. Deficit spending.
Hitler and his Finance minister, Hjalmar Schacht, knew that simply printing money to pay for rearmament would lead to inflation, so they decided to re-finance industry by using credit. Schacht and the largest German industrial firms teamed up and issued "Mefo" bills. Mefo was short for "Mettalurgische Forschungsgesellschaft" - Mettalurgical Research corporation.
Simply put, they used these bills instead of money. They were guaranteed by the state and could be exchanged for Cash at the Reichsbank. They also regulated the Mefo bills so each bill issued was tied to a batch of newly produced goods. This way, they were able to avoid inflation. Unfortunately, this eventually led to a huge amount of internal state Debt, which was fine for Hitler. His end goal was to expand his "German Reich" by invading Europe, and debt gave him the opportunity to make everyone see things his way.
To make the most of the opportunities presented by the Mefo Bills, Hitler also instituted other controls. First and foremost, Hitler cracked down on labor unions not affiliated with the Nazis. This was intended to stop unions from advocating for rights and benefits for workers, which allowed Employers and Big Businesses to spend more money on investing to expand their businesses, since they could cut down on their Employees' wages and other assorted benefits. Also, in order to be able to participate in the Mefo scheme, Businesses would have to agree to re-invest most of their earnings (62%) into rearmament and the economy.
In summary, the money came from thin air. Hitler and Schacht issued Mefo bills that were essentially promissory notes/IOUs, which German big businesses used as credit to finance rearmament.
References
_URL_1_
_URL_0_
ETA: links and spelling fixed | [
"After the war, Albert Speer claimed that the German economy achieved greater armaments output, not because of diversions of capacity from civilian to military industry but through streamlining of the economy. Richard Overy pointed out some 23 percent of German output was military by 1939. Between 1937 and 1939, 70 percent of investment capital went into the rubber, synthetic fuel, aircraft and shipbuilding industries. Hermann Göring had consistently stated that the task of the Four Year Plan was to rearm Germany for total war. Hitler's correspondence with his economists also reveals that his intent was to wage war in 1943–1945, when the resources of central Europe had been absorbed into the \"Third Reich\".\n",
"In 1942, after the death of Armaments Minister Fritz Todt, Hitler appointed Albert Speer as his replacement. Wartime rationing of consumer goods led to an increase in personal savings, funds which were in turn lent to the government to support the war effort. By 1944, the war was consuming 75 percent of Germany's gross domestic product, compared to 60 percent in the Soviet Union and 55 percent in Britain. Speer improved production by centralising planning and control, reducing production of consumer goods, and using forced labour and slavery. The wartime economy eventually relied heavily upon the large-scale employment of slave labour. Germany imported and enslaved some 12 million people from 20 European countries to work in factories and on farms. Approximately 75 percent were Eastern European. Many were casualties of Allied bombing, as they received poor air raid protection. Poor living conditions led to high rates of sickness, injury, and death, as well as sabotage and criminal activity. The wartime economy also relied upon large-scale robbery, initially through the state seizing the property of Jewish citizens and later by plundering the resources of occupied territories.\n",
"Defending the German investment strategy as \"highly profitable\", Alfred P. Sloan told shareholders in 1939 GM's continued industrial production for the Nazi government was merely sound business practice. In a letter to a concerned shareholder, Sloan said that the manner in which the Nazi government ran Germany \"should not be considered the business of the management of General Motors...We must conduct ourselves as a German organization. . . We have no right to shut down the plant.\"\n",
"In 1939, defending the German investment strategy as \"highly profitable\", Alfred P. Sloan had told shareholders that GM's continued industrial production for the Nazi government was merely sound business practice. In a letter to a concerned shareholder, Sloan said that the manner in which the Nazi government ran Germany \"should not be considered the business of the management of General Motors...We must conduct ourselves as a German organization. . . We have no right to shut down the plant.\"\n",
"Hitler completely reorganized the economic landscape in Germany. The economic chamber of the Third Reich consisted of over two hundred organizations and national councils involved in industry, commercial, and craft lines. Large public works programs, such as the construction of the Autobahn, stimulated the economy and reduced unemployment. These programs also prevented the recurrence of inflation, which plagued the German economy immediately following World War 1 and led to widespread civil unrest. As the economy slowly recovered under the Nazi Party, Hitler adapted the economy to cater towards war preparations.\n",
"In August 1934, Hitler appointed \"Reichsbank\" President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews. Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 percent. The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.\n",
"Adam Tooze wrote that the German economy was being prepared for a long war. The expenditure for this war was extensive and put the economy under severe strain. The German leadership were concerned less with how to balance the civilian economy and the needs of civilian consumption but to figure out how to best prepare the economy for total war. Once war had begun, Hitler urged his economic experts to abandon caution and expend all available resources on the war effort but the expansion plans only gradually gained momentum in 1941. Tooze wrote that the huge armament plans in the pre-war period did not indicate any clear-sighted blitzkrieg economy or strategy.\n"
] |
how do artists who don't make their own music... get their music? | Songs are bought by music producers from writers either on spec or commissioned and then given to the artist to test out and possibly record. Commercial music artists pretty much just record the vocals of songs in studios, and then they are mixed with hired gun musicians (aka studio musicians). They are the front of businesses, they don't have a lot to say on what they sing or what is released. They're expensive popular employees. | [
"Musicians often use this license for self-promotion. For instance, a cellist who performed a musical work on a recording may obtain a mechanical license so he can distribute copies of the recording to others as an example of his cello playing. Recording artists also use this when they record cover versions of songs. This is common among artists who don't usually write their own songs. In the United States, this is required by copyright law regardless whether or not the copies are for commercial sale.\n",
"\"When I was writing some of the songs of the album I was very much aware of this contradiction between being an artist, being a musician, trying to be creative and write songs and, then, at the point you finish an album, the music is finished, the creative side is finished, you then have to go out and sell and market and promote. And that's like a completely different experience. It's not a very creative process. It's quite - in some ways - a cynical process going on having to sell your music. But you have to do it. I mean, if a modern musician is going to survive as a musician, you have to - in a sense - 'prostitute yourself' to try and sell your music and your art. And I was very much aware of that contradiction. If you think about that too much, it can drive you crazy, you know. It's an absurd thing to be doing. That kind of led me thinking about when I was a teenager, when I was just starting out and I was interested in being a musician. And I think a lot of teenage kids have this dream of being pop stars, of being a professional musician. This 'stupid dream' of being famous and 'life is a ball and everything is wonderful'. And, of course, actually the reality is that being a professional musician is a very hard work. It can be very heartbreaking, there's a lot of disappointment, there's a lot of hard work, there's a lot of travelling.\"\n",
"\"Some [bands] are very open minded and you can make suggestions about musical changes or ideas and they will pick it up and make it their own. Others don't want a lot of outside influences, because they are scared it would take away from their creativity or credit. In those cases, if you want to achieve a certain result, you have to plant a \"creative seed\" which, in a few days will turn into the result you are looking for, but it still seems like it was all the idea of the musician him/herself. The downside, of course is, that the musician looks at it as if he did ALL the work and the producer \"didn't really do anything\". The logical next step for those kind of musicians is to produce their next album themselves, their ego telling them they don't need a producer and, like in the above mentioned case, they might fall flat on their face, and come up with an album that doesn't sell anywhere near what the previous one did.\"\n",
"Artists can also create their own record labels and sell their music under the label's imprint as well. Services such as Nimbit gives facilities for independent musicians to release their music independently as well as under a record label create by artist itself. Other efforts made in this field include Magnatune, an independent record label based in Berkeley, California, United States.\n",
"Many unsigned artists used to sell their music and music-related merchandise without the financial support of a record label, while often seeking a recording contract through the recording of demos. Recently, the Internet has helped promote independent artistic material. Artists tend to post their music on websites such as MySpace, and ILike, and sometimes have their music played on podcast shows like Kooba Radio. In recent times, artists such as Nine Inch Nails and Radiohead, who once had major label record deals, have started to release their music independently.\n",
"Bands, artists & labels are able to utilize music licensing for opportunity. Businesses are legally required to pay for the music they use to promote their product. Music has a positive effect on consumer behavior\n",
"Musical performers often self-release (self-publish) their recordings without the involvement of an established record label. While some acts who enjoy local or small scale popularity have started their own labels in order to release their music through stores, others simply sell the music directly to customers, for example, making it available to those at their live concerts. With the growth of the Internet as a medium for publicizing and distributing music, many musical acts have sold their recordings over the Internet without a label. Unlike self-publishing a novel, which is usually done only when no other options exist, even well-established musicians will choose to self-release recordings.\n"
] |
Why did the Neanderthals (200,000 BCE - 30,000 BCE) start burying their dead? | Not to discourage any responses, but this is more of a question for /r/askanthropology/ since it pre-dates written history. | [
"Though disputed, evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first humans to intentionally bury the dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons.\n",
"There are disputed claims of intentional burial of Neanderthals as old as 130,000 years. Similar claims have been made for early anatomically modern humans as old as 100,000 years. The earliest undisputed cases of burials are found in modern human sites of the Upper Palaeolithic.\n",
"Archaeologists have established the existence of burial rituals among Neanderthals some 50,000 years ago: their appearance has sometimes been taken as evidence of the human capacity to \"transform\" instinct, rather than to be driven by it.\n",
"Claims that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead, and if they did, whether such burials had any symbolic meaning, are heavily contested. The debate on deliberate Neanderthal burials has been active since the 1908 discovery of the well-preserved Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 skeleton in a small hole in a cave in southwestern France. In this controversy's most recent installment, a team of French researchers reinvestigated the Chapelle-aux-Saints cave and in January 2014 reasserted the century-old claim that the 1908 Neanderthal specimen had been deliberately buried, and this has in turn been heavily criticised.\n",
"Until the late twentieth century, it was believed that the last Neanderthals disappeared about 35,000 years ago. However, studies have suggested that Neanderthals survived in southern Iberia and Gibraltar to less than 30,000 years before the present. Radiocarbon dating performed on charcoal in Gorham's Cave in Gibraltar in 2006 suggests that Neanderthals lived there 24,000 to 28,000 years ago, well after the arrival of \"Homo sapiens\" in Europe 40,000 years ago. Vanguard Cave and Gorham's Cave are still the sites of active archaeological excavation in 2012. These caves may have represented the refugium of Gibraltar's Neanderthals.\n",
"BULLET::::- 35-000-26,000 BCE:Neanderthal burials are absent from the archaeological record. This roughly coincides with the time period of the Homo sapiens' introduction to Europe and decline of the Neanderthals; individual skulls and/or long bones began appearing, heavily stained with red ochre and separately buried. This practice may be the origin of sacred relics. The oldest discovered \"Venus figurines\" appeared in graves. Some were deliberately broken or repeatedly stabbed, possibly representing the murders of the men with whom they were buried, or owing to some other unknown social dynamic.\n",
"Neanderthals are also contenders for the first hominids to intentionally bury the dead. They may have placed corpses into shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones. The presence of these grave goods may indicate an emotional connection with the deceased and possibly a belief in the afterlife. Neanderthal burial sites include Shanidar in Iraq and Krapina in Croatia and Kebara Cave in Israel.\n"
] |
why are gas stations still advertising gas as unleaded? | Not all engines that use gasoline use unleaded gasoline. It's best to specify lest somebody fill up their gas tank and find their engine doesn't work. | [
"Due to heavy fluctuations of gasoline price in the United States, some gas stations offer their customers the option to buy and store gas for future uses, such as the service provided by First Fuel Bank.\n",
"Generic Advertisement Service (GAS): An IEEE 802.11u service that provides over-the-air transportation for frames of higher-layer advertisements between Wi-Fi stations (802.11 Stations) or between a server in an external network and a station. GAS may be used prior stations are authenticated, or associated to a wireless Access Point (AP) in a Basic Service Set (BSS). GAS supports higher-layer protocols that employ a query/response mechanism.\n",
"In the year 2015 the US government outlaws the distribution of gasoline to the public, reserving it only for the politicians, the Military and law enforcement. While it is implied this is due to a fuel shortage, later dialogue rebuffs this stating that gasoline is in abundance. Civilians are also banned from owning or using any form of motor vehicle, and those that do are refer to as Burners who do so as a form of rebellion. Burners however are monitored and dealt with harshly by the DVC; The Department of Vehicle Control.\n",
"Gasoline theft (sometimes known colloquially as fill and fly, gas and dash, and drive-off) is the removal of gasoline from a station without payment. The thief will usually use some form of decoy to prevent nearby witnesses from noticing the lack of payment until they have left the station. Common decoys include pretending to press the wrong buttons after swiping the credit card, or having multiple people get gas at the same time with one paying for another person and the other running off with both cars.\n",
"The main utility of these websites is that they allow users to find the lowest price of gasoline in their area, since gasoline prices often vary significantly between gas stations in the same neighborhood. In addition to listing prices for particular filling stations, some of sites also show the average cost of gasoline in the area and price trends.\n",
"Some locations also have fuel stations which sell gasoline distributed by Murphy USA (which spun off from Murphy Oil in 2013), Sunoco, Inc. (\"Optima\"), the Tesoro Corporation (\"Mirastar\"), USA Gasoline, and even now Walmart-branded gas stations.\n",
"Some convenience stores in the United States also sell gasoline. Only 2,500 stores had self-serve at the pump by 1969. It was not until the 1970s that retailers realized selling gasoline could be profitable—and competitive. In 2011, there were approximately 47,195 gas stations with convenience stores that generated $326 billion in revenue. Out of those over 3,008 of the gas stations had gas station TV installed at the gas station pumps.\n"
] |
physiologically how do some scents cause certain animals to panic in fear even if they are naive to the origin of the scent? | Not about smells but there's a cool paper on how water fleas develop protective helmets and longer tail spines in response to a chemical from a fish predator.
Even if they've never met the fish before they will develop these traits. This means that the response was inherited from their parents because they realise that the chemical means "crap there's a fish better armour up so it doesn't eat me" and that message was passed through their DNA.
They also found that if the populations weren't exposed to the fish predators for many generations then they respond slower. So the link between the chemical and the need to protect themselves gets weaker over time if they haven't seen the fish in a while.
Here's a blog about the paper, probably explains it better than me: _URL_0_
| [
"When people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased bloodflow in the amygdala. In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors.\n",
"Studies on mice have shown that certain conditional fears can be inherited from either parent. In one example, mice were conditioned to fear a strong scent, acetophenone, by accompanying the smell with an electric shock. Consequently, the mice learned to fear the scent of acetophenone alone. It was discovered that this fear could be passed down to the mice offspring. Despite the offspring never experiencing the electric shock themselves the mice still displayed a fear of the acetophenone scent, because they inherited the fear epigenetically by site-specific DNA methylation. These epigenetic changes lasted up to two generations without reintroducing the shock.\n",
"Toxiphobia in animals is rejection of foods with tastes, odors, or appearances which are followed by illness resulted from toxins found in these foods. In humans, toxiphobia is fear of poisons and being poisoned.\n",
"Mister Fear employs a compound based on the flight scent pheromone—chemicals produced by most animals, used to communicate a variety of simple messages over distances. This flight-scent pheromone stimulates fear reactions in herd animals. The drug is tailored for human beings, whose reactions to pheromones are not completely understood. It induces severe anxiety, fear, and panic, and sometimes nightmarish hallucinations in his victims, rendering them incapable of fighting or resisting his will. The drug is most commonly used in the form of gas pellets shot from a gun. The pellets rupture on contact, releasing the flight scent, which is inhaled by the victim. The dosage contained in one pellet is enough to incapacitate a normal adult male for about 15 minutes, or an exceptionally fit male, such as Daredevil, for about five minutes. The side effects of anxiety, edginess, and mild nausea can persist for several days.\n",
"In threatening situations insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones (\"Schreckstoff\" in German). This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal.\n",
"Animals such as rats and mice display a natural aversion to brightly lit open areas. However, they also have a drive to explore a perceived threatening stimulus. Decreased levels of anxiety lead to increased exploratory behavior. Increased anxiety will result in less locomotion and a preference to stay close to the walls of the field (thigmotaxis).\n",
"In addition to extreme sensitivity to low concentrations of certain chemicals, several hypotheses have been proposed. The distinction between physiological and psychological causes is often difficult to test, and it is particularly challenging for MCS because many substances used to test for sensitivity have a strong odor. Odor cues make double blind studies of MCS patients difficult, as scents can provoke a psychosomatic response or recall expectations and prior beliefs.\n"
] |
Might the radioactive water from Fukushima create radioactive rain on the west coast of the United States? | There is a [team in Berkeley which measures radiation in rainwater](_URL_0_). They found some I-131 during the weeks after the meltdown, but quickly fell below detectable levels, and has stayed that way ever since.
Food took a little bit longer, but they [haven't found anything in quite a while at this point](_URL_1_). | [
"A year after the disaster, in April 2012, sea fish caught near the Fukushima power plant still contain as much radioactive Cs and Cs compared to fish caught in the days after the disaster. At the end of October 2012 TEPCO admitted that it could not exclude radioactivity releases into the ocean, although the radiation levels were stabilised. Undetected leaks into the ocean from the reactors, could not be ruled out, because their basements remain flooded with cooling water, and the 2,400-foot-long steel and concrete wall between the site's reactors and the ocean, that should reach 100 feet underground, was still under construction, and would not be finished before mid-2014. Around August 2012 two greenling were caught close to the Fukushima shore, they contained more than 25 kBq per kilogram of caesium, the highest caesium levels found in fish since the disaster and 250 times the government's safety limit.\n",
"In August 2013, it was reported that there might have been radioactive water leaks for three years from the storage pools of the nuclear power plant's two reactors. Official from Taipower said that the water might come from different sources, such as condensation water or water used for cleaning up the floors. The water however has been collected in a reservoir next to the storage pools used for spent nuclear rods and has been recycled back into the storage pools, thus is claimed to pose no threat to the environment.\n",
"On 7 January 2007 a contractor working on the decommissioning of the station noticed water leaking on to the floor of the laundry where he was washing his clothes. The water was found to be cooling water from the pond that holds the reactor's spent nuclear fuel which had dropped more than without activating any of the alarms. It is estimated that up to 40,000 gallons (151,500 litres) of radioactive water had leaked from a 15 ft (4.6 m) split in a pipe, with some spilling into the North Sea. According to the HM Nuclear Installation Inspectorate's report of the incident, without the chance intervention of the contractor, the pond could have drained before the next scheduled plant inspection. If the exposed irradiated fuel had caught fire, it would have resulted in an airborne off-site release of radiation.\n",
"Forty-five tons of highly radioactive water leaked from the apparatus being used to decontaminate the water at the plant. Plant workers attempted to contain the leak, but it was unknown if any of the water escaped into the water table or the ocean.\n",
"Radioactive material was released from the containment vessels for several reasons: deliberate venting to reduce gas pressure, deliberate discharge of coolant water into the sea, and uncontrolled events. Concerns about the possibility of a large scale release led to a exclusion zone around the power plant and recommendations that people within the surrounding zone stay indoors. Later, the UK, France, and some other countries told their nationals to consider leaving Tokyo, in response to fears of spreading contamination. In 2015, the tap water contamination was still higher in Tokyo compared to other cities in Japan. Trace amounts of radioactivity, including iodine-131, caesium-134, and caesium-137, were widely observed.\n",
"In March 2014, numerous news sources, including NBC, began predicting that the radioactive underwater plume traveling through the Pacific Ocean would reach the western seaboard of the continental United States. The common story was that the amount of radioactivity would be harmless and temporary once it arrived. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration measured caesium-134 at points in the Pacific Ocean and models were cited in predictions by several government agencies to announce that the radiation would not be a health hazard for North American residents. Groups, including Beyond Nuclear and the Tillamook Estuaries Partnership, challenged these predictions on the basis of continued isotope releases after 2011, leading to a demand for more recent and comprehensive measurements as the radioactivity made its way east. These measurements were taken by a cooperative group of organizations under the guidance of a marine chemist with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and revealed that total radiation levels, of which only a fraction bore the fingerprint of Fukushima, were not high enough to pose any direct risk to human life and in fact were far less than Environmental Protection Agency guidelines or several other sources of radiation exposure deemed safe. Integrated Fukushima Ocean Radionuclide Monitoring project (InFORM) also failed to show any significant amount of radiation and as a result its authors received death threats from supporters of a Fukushima-induced \"wave of cancer deaths across North America\" theory.\n",
"In addition to the large releases of contaminated water (520 tons and 4.7 PBq) believed to have leaked from unit 2 from mid-March until early April, another release of radioactive water is believed to have contaminated the sea from unit 3, because on 16 May TEPCO announced seawater measurements of 200 Bq per cubic centimeter of caesium-134, 220 Bq per cubic centimeter of caesium-137, and unspecified high levels of iodine shortly after discovering a unit-3 leak.\n"
] |
Pre 1800s how was money transferred between bank accounts across different countries? | I answered a very similar question [here](_URL_0_)
In your specific case of traveling to Italy from the US pre-1800, I am not sure. But, generally,, you would look to find and pay a merchant or bank that did enough business there to make up a letter of credit that said, essentially, pay John Smith 1,000 ducats. When you arrived, you would go to that other merchant or bank and present your letter. There would be signatures on file and on the document to be compared, that could discourage fraud. There would be a discount- i.e. they might only pay you , say, 950 ducats. There might also be a delay: they might hold the note and ask for someone to vouch for you. You might also get a couple of letters, for different banks, etc., as you might not know until you got there really whether a note/letter was good. | [
"Generally, a central bank or treasury is solely responsible within a state or currency union for the issue of banknotes. However, this is not always the case, and historically the paper currency of countries was often handled entirely by private banks. Thus, many different banks or institutions may have issued banknotes in a given country. Commercial banks in the United States had legally issued banknotes before there was a national currency; however, these became subject to government authorization from 1863 to 1932. In the last of these series, the issuing bank would stamp its name and promise to pay, along with the signatures of its president and cashier on a preprinted note. By this time, the notes were standardized in appearance and not too different from Federal Reserve Notes.\n",
"Prior to centralized banking, each commercial bank issued its own notes. The first institution with responsibilities of a central bank in the U.S. was the First Bank of the United States, chartered in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton. Its charter was not renewed in 1811. In 1816, the Second Bank of the United States was chartered; its charter was not renewed in 1836, after President Andrew Jackson campaigned heavily for its disestablishment. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era there was no formal central bank, and banks issued their own notes again. From 1862 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act. The first printed notes were Series 1914. In 1928, cost-cutting measures were taken to reduce the note to the size it is today.\n",
"Until the middle of the 19th century, privately owned banks in Great Britain and Ireland were free to issue their own banknotes. Paper currency issued by a wide range of provincial and town banking companies in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland circulated freely as a means of payment.\n",
"Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. Many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act 1844. Under the 1844 Act, bullionism was institutionalized in Britain, creating a ratio between the gold reserves held by the Bank of England and the notes that the Bank could issue. The Act also placed strict curbs on the issuance of notes by the country banks.\n",
"The advent of paper money in the mid-17th century and the development of modern banking and floating exchange rates in the 20th century allowed a foreign exchange market to develop. This provided a way for banks and other specialist financial companies such as bureaux de change and forex brokers to easily change one country's money for another, and with the added confidence of transparency.\n",
"Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were the common form of currency throughout England, outside London. The Bank Charter Act of 1844, which established the modern central bank, restricted authorisation to issue new banknotes to the Bank of England, which would henceforth have sole control of the money supply in 1921. At the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt. The Act gave the Bank of England an effective monopoly over the note issue from 1928.\n",
"Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. Many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under the 1844 Act, bullionism was institutionalized in Britain, creating a ratio between the gold reserves held by the Bank of England and the notes that the Bank could issue. The Act also placed strict curbs on the issuance of notes by the country banks.\n"
] |
what happens when you cancel an installation process? | If the program has a GOOD installer, then it will go back and delete any files and revert back any registry changes it may have made. If the installer is crap it will just leave everything right where it was, which can sometimes cause problems if you try to install the program again.
If you forcekill the installer from ctrl+alt+del, then it doesn't have a chance to reverse anything and all the files/registry changes sit right where they are. | [
"All installation operations are transactional. In other words, for each operation that Windows Installer performs, it generates an equivalent undo operation that would revert the change made to the system. In case any script action fails during deferred execution, or the operation is cancelled by the user, all the actions performed until that point are rolled back, restoring the system to its original state. Standard Windows Installer actions automatically write information into a rollback script; package authors who create custom actions that change the target system should also create corresponding rollback actions (as well as uninstall actions and uninstallation-rollback actions). As a design feature, if applied correctly this mechanism will also roll back a failed uninstall of an application to a good working state.\n",
"A factory reset, also known as master reset, is a software restore of an electronic device to its original system state by erasing all of the information stored on the device in an attempt to restore the device to its original manufacturer settings. Doing so will effectively erase all of the data, settings, and applications that were previously on the device. This is often done to fix an issue with a device, but it could also be done to restore the device to its original settings. Such electronic devices include smartphones.\n",
"Additionally, some Win32/FakeSysdef variants that may terminate running processes during installation and may block launched application after the computer restarts. During the installation process, they may terminate all running processes and force the computer to restart. After the restart, FakeSysdef attempts to block every launched program, and may then display fake error messages offering to fix the problem. It then repeatedly restarts the computer until the user agrees to buy the fake software.\n",
"Computer factory resets will restore the computer to the computer's original operating system and delete all of the user data stored on the computer. Microsoft's Windows 8 and Windows 10, and Apple's macOS have options for this.\n",
"Installation typically involves code (program) being copied/generated from the installation files to new files on the local computer for easier access by the operating system, creating necessary directories, registering environment variables, providing separate program for un-installation etc.. Because code is generally copied/generated in multiple locations, uninstallation usually involves more than just erasing the program folder. For example, registry files and other system code may need to be modified or deleted for a complete uninstallation.\n",
"The Reset option was introduced with Windows 8 and is used for restoring systems to factory defaults. It re-installs the Windows OS and permanently discards all files and system settings other than the pre-installed applications. \n",
"processor’s reset signal REBOOT ON ERROR. By default, it is enabled when the system boots and reset each time the scheduler executes. If the system fails to respond within the predefined time period, the system will reboot and run the initialization instruction sequence to hopefully regain control.\n"
] |
why can't i just drink water and eat bread (or some such food for calories) and take in all other nutrients via vitamins or supplements and be healthy? | First, you're going to be healthiest with the appropriate protein/carb/fat balance. Bread has WAY too many carbs, and it's typically not a complete protein. But assume you had a food that did have the right balance, and included complete proteins. Would that work?
Probably, yes. The risk you run is that you don't get any vitamin-like substances which we haven't yet identified as such. But you probably won't suffer from any malnutrition, you just won't get the benefit. | [
"Dietary supplements contain one or more dietary ingredients (including vitamins; minerals; amino acids; herbs or other botanicals; and other substances) or their constituents is intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid. Athletes may choose to consider taking dietary supplements to assist in improving their athletic performance. There are many other supplements out there that include performance enhancing supplements (steroids, blood doping, creatine, human growth hormone), energy supplements (caffeine), and supplements that aid in recovery (protein, BCAAs).\n",
"Other dietary substances found in plant foods (phytochemicals, polyphenols) are not identified as essential nutrients but appear to impact health in both positive and negative ways. Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt provides sodium and chloride, both essential nutrients, but will cause illness or even death in too large amounts.\n",
"Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).\n",
"In chapter 242 of the first book (verse 10 and 13) of the \"Great Gospel of John\", it is preached that certain food should be avoided for health reasons. Such foods includes unripe fruits, potatoes and coffee. But then what one eats or drinks for the necessary strengthening of the body, will not make him either blessed nor unblessed.\n",
"Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.\n",
"Green apple, carrot, celery, parsley, ginger, kale, maybe a little bit of lemon or something, but that’s a standard juice we make ... I think the best thing to do, even if you’re not vegetarian, is to juice vegetables. There’s no possible way to eat all that—you can’t consume it all. So you drink it and get all the nutrients, and also it gets in your body faster because your body doesn’t have to break it down or anything. Juicing is one of the best things to do to heal or replenish your body and get rid of all the toxins ... When I’d go on trips I’d just feel like shit and eat like shit ... I think I just feel healthier in general.\n",
"When too much of one or more nutrients is present in the diet to the exclusion of the proper amount of other nutrients, the diet is said to be unbalanced. High calorie food ingredients such as vegetable oils, sugar and alcohol are referred to as \"empty calories\" because they displace from the diet foods that also contain protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber.\n"
] |
why does money go to the hundredths decimal place? | We use base-10 so we like to dived things by 10. Dividing by 10 twice gives you 1/100. Divide by ten again and you get 1/1000 which is now ~~(and has always been)~~ too small to be useful for transactions. So, 1/100 **used to be** the smallest [order of magnitude](_URL_1_) of our currencies that was still useful for making transactions. [Now, because of inflation, it's completely worthless.](_URL_0_) | [
"A decimal currency is a currency where the ratio between the main unit and the subunit is an integral power of 10. Non-decimal currencies are now rare but had some advantages in daily life transactions. For example, 1 South German Gulden = 60 Kreuzer. 60 can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 or 30 parts that are still integers, making pricing easy. This advantage (in an age without mechanical or electronic calculators) and the lack of widespread accurate weighing apparatus (meaning an item might sometimes simply be divided in 2,4,6 etc.) coupled with tradition were the reasons why non-decimal currencies were used.\n",
"In financial calculations, a number is often rounded to a given number of places (for example, to two places after the decimal separator for many world currencies). This is done because greater precision is immaterial, and usually it is not possible to settle a debt of less than the smallest currency unit.\n",
"Beginning with Lord Wrottesley's proposals in the 1820s, there were various attempts to decimalise the pound sterling over the next century and a half. These attempts came to nothing significant until the 1960s when the need for a currency more suited to simple monetary calculations became pressing. The decision to decimalise was announced in 1966, with the pound to be divided into 100, rather than 240, pence. Decimal Day was set for 15 February 1971, and a whole range of new coins were introduced. Sixpences continued to be legal tender with a value of new pence until 30 June 1980.\n",
"Since decimalisation on Decimal Day in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence (denoted on coinage, until 1981, as \"new pence\"). The symbol for the penny is \"p\"; hence an amount such as 50p (£0.50) properly pronounced \"fifty pence\" is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced \"fifty pee\" /fɪfti pi/. This also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system. A decimal halfpenny was issued until 1984 but was removed due to having a higher cost to manufacture than its face value.\n",
"Prior to decimalisation, monetary amounts in the UK were described in terms of pounds, shillings, and pence, with 12 pence per shilling and 20 shillings per pound, so that \"£1 7s 6d\", for example, corresponded to the mixed-radix numeral 176.\n",
"Beginning with Lord Wrottesley's proposals in the 1820s there were various attempts to decimalise the pound sterling over the next century and a half. These attempts came to nothing significant until the 1960s when the need for a currency more suited to simple monetary calculations became pressing. The decision to decimalise was announced in 1966, with the pound to be redivided into 100, rather than 240, pence. Decimal Day was set for 15 February 1971, and a whole range of new coins were introduced. Shillings continued to be legal tender with a value of 5 new pence until 31 December 1990.\n",
"Historically, non-decimal currencies were much more common: such as the British pound sterling before decimalisation in 1971. Until 1971, the pound sterling had sub-units of account of shillings (20 to a pound) and pence (12 to a shilling). Like other currencies, it also had coins with other names (ha'pence, guineas, and crowns); and in addition, until 1960 the penny was divided into 4 farthings. There were nineteen different fractions of a pound of a whole number of pence. For example, a third, quarter, fifth and sixth of a pound were respectively 80, 60, 48, and 40 pence, normally written as shillings and pence: 6/8, 5/-, 4/-, and 3/4. There were eight additional fractions which were a whole number of farthings (for example, one sixty-fourth of a pound was three pence three farthings, written d).\n"
] |
Is there any material/chemocal that can go from a solid to a gas and skip the liquid state? | There are lots, its not a property of the material so much as its a property of its tempature/pressure. Remember that water has different boiling points at diffrent pressures. Low pressure, low temp required, however at higher pressure (think pressure cooker) higher tempatures are required to boil (change into a gas) the water
the solid to gas transition is called Sublimation. Wiki page here: _URL_0_ | [
"Liquid–liquid extraction is possible in non-aqueous systems: In a system consisting of a molten metal in contact with molten salts, metals can be extracted from one phase to the other. This is related to a mercury electrode where a metal can be reduced, the metal will often then dissolve in the mercury to form an amalgam that modifies its electrochemistry greatly. For example, it is possible for sodium cations to be reduced at a mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam, while at an inert electrode (such as platinum) the sodium cations are not reduced. Instead, water is reduced to hydrogen. A detergent or fine solid can be used to stabilize an emulsion, or third phase.\n",
"In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the rare equations that plasma is used in plasma is symbolized as (p).\n",
"An example of a more traditionial liquid–solid technique has been described by Sardar \"et al.\" by beginning with the immobilization of gold nanoparticles on a silanized glass surface. Then the glass surface was exposed to 11-mercapto-1-undecanol, which bonded to the exposed hemispheres of the gold nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were then removed from the slide using ethanol containing 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid, which functionalized the previously masked hemispheres of the nanoparticles.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the field of industrial chemistry, large amounts of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products, from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials.\n",
"Beyond this, most substances have three ordinarily recognized states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Some can also exist in a plasma. Many have further, more finely differentiated, states of matter, such as for example, glass, and liquid crystal. In many cases, at fixed temperature and pressure, a substance can exist in several distinct states of matter in what might be viewed as the same 'body'. For example, ice may float in a glass of water. Then the ice and the water are said to constitute two phases within the 'body'. Definite rules are known, telling how distinct phases may coexist in a 'body'. Mostly, at a fixed pressure, there is a definite temperature at which heating causes a solid to melt or evaporate, and a definite temperature at which heating causes a liquid to evaporate. In such cases, cooling has the reverse effects.\n",
"Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being liquid, gas, and plasma). In solids particles are closely packed. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice (crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass), and are typically low in energy. Solids cannot be compressed with little pressure whereas gases can be compressed with little pressure because in gases molecules are loosely packed.\n",
"\"Above\" the critical point there exists a state of matter that is continuously connected with (can be transformed without phase transition into) both the liquid and the gaseous state. It is called supercritical fluid. The common textbook knowledge that all distinction between liquid and vapor disappears beyond the critical point has been challenged by Fisher and Widom who identified a p,T-line that separates states with different asymptotic statistical properties (Fisher-Widom line).\n"
] |
how much does "data" cost internet/service providers? where does the actual overhead come from? | The overhead comes from running an extremely complex network with lots of infrastructure that requires highly trained and specialized engineers operating significant portions of it. Depending on what kind of a connection you're looking at setting up, your minimum entry cost is tens of thousands of dollars for a simple connection to millions of dollars for more complex connections. If you were laying an undersea cable, your costs could easily get into the hundreds of millions of dollars depending on the scope and complexity of your project. | [
", only 40% of internet connections now have a fixed data cap. Once users have exceeded their data cap, they typically have the option of having the speed limited to 64-128 kbit/s for the rest of the month or paying for any extra data used. Most RSP's (retail service providers) offer unlimited data plans. On average (May 2018), each household uses 204GB of data per month.\n",
"\"Internet + Finance\" means that financial industries can apply internet technology to their service provision and product sale. For instance, clients can pay bills or transfer money from one account to another through internet. The number of Internet users has reached about 649 million in China, while the amount of e-commerce has been more than 13 trillion yuan (Chinese monetary unit). China's import and export transactions of cross-border e-commerce has exceeded 3 billion yuan.\n",
"Internet access is provided in two sizes: 'basic internet' with 70 Mbit/s per 1000 subscribers, and 'fast internet' with 280 Mbit/s per 1000 subscribers. Prices are currently approx. $10/month and $25/month flat fee.\n",
"Similarly, if many users are shown to use 14 GB of data per month on a data plan, then offering data plans of 10 GB or 30 GB will force many users to pay for much more data than they need, which will expire at the end of each month.\n",
"Some internet content has always historically been paid for — until recently there has been little discussion about paying for scientific, technical and medical (STM) content as well as certain trade information.\n",
"An i-mode user pays for both sent and received data. There are services to avoid unsolicited e-mails. The basic monthly charge is typically on the order of JPY ¥200 - ¥300 for i-mode not including the data transfer charges, with additional charges on a monthly subscription basis for premium services. A variety of discount plans exist, for example family discount and flat packet plans for unlimited transfer of data at a fixed monthly charge (on the order of ¥4,000/month).\n",
"The cost of Internet service is steadily decreasing: as of 2010, monthly unlimited ADSL connection of 1 Mbit/s cost around US$20–25 per month. While the cost of international traffic has gone down over the last several years, the cost for usage of the local infrastructure remains unchanged. Approximately 50 percent of the expenses of small ISPs are local connection costs paid to the state-owned company controlling the market. Because these expenses are the same for all providers, they agreed among themselves to charge end users the same price for unlimited monthly dial-up service. Larger providers temporarily blocked the ISPs that tried to contravene the concerted practice. In December 2007, for example, two small providers—SuperOnline and AvirTel —were blocked by local ISPs (Adanet and IntraNS) while trying to provide service at a lower price for customers. Shortly after the providers agreed to bring the price of their services into line, the block was lifted. For similar reasons, the larger ISPs blocked another smaller local ISP, Azeronline.\n"
] |
why does amazon constantly have "sales" with $0.03 off? | For me, it's a classic marketing trick.
Pure and simply; it's designed to get you in the store or at least looking at the item.
Just because it's $0.03 off, doesn't mean it's not technically a sale.
It's like when a store has a massive sign outside saying "50% OFF SALE!". Most people fail to see the "Up To" in small writing before the 50%.
You walk in, and almost everything is still full price. You get angry and leave.
Technically, the store isn't lying. They do have 50% off, but it's on, say, a pair of socks nobody wants. As long as they have 1 item for 50% off, they can legally put a big sign outside advertising said 50% off.
People assume it applies to everything in store so they walk in. And the store layout/design kicks in, designed to draw your eye to X items. You forget about the sale, and you see something you like, so you buy it.
You probably wouldn't have gone in if it weren't for the massive 50% off sign outside the store.
Same thing applies here.
Amazon are doing it to draw your eye.
People are constantly looking for deals where they can save money, so they see the red line through the price and a new price next to it and BAM, you've got a savings. Suddenly, the person is interested. Everyone wants to save money.
Combine that with the methods I'm sure Amazon employ to reduce tax payments and maximize profits through financial algorithms, and it's in Amazon's best interest to apply said "sales". | [
"In January 2017, Amazon.ca was required by the Competition Bureau to pay a $1M penalty, plus $100,000 in costs, over pricing practices for failing to provide \"truth in advertising\" according to Josephine Palumbo, the deputy commissioner for deceptive marketing practices. This fine was levied because some products on Amazon.ca were shown with an artificially high \"list price\", making the lower selling price appear to be very attractive, producing an unfair competitive edge over other retailers. This is a frequent practice among some retailers and the fine was intended to \"send a clear message [to the industry] that unsubstantiated savings claims will not be tolerated\". The Bureau also indicated that the company has made changes to ensure that regular prices are more accurately listed.\n",
"Amazon.com is primarily a retail site with a sales revenue model; Amazon takes a small percentage of the sale price of each item that is sold through its website while also allowing companies to advertise their products by paying to be listed as featured products. , Amazon.com is ranked 8th on the Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.\n",
"As of 2018, Amazon was reported to be the third largest online advertising platform and saw predicted advertising revenues sit at above $4 billion. With a reported 197 million unique online visitors per month, Amazon has a wide customer outreach similar to Google and Facebook. Amazon currently allows its users to pay to have their products made more visible on target customer's screens and also allows sellers to act as affiliates, being paid a referral commission of up to 15%. As of May 2019, Amazon is attempting to expand its affiliate advertising program by partnering with other large online media agencies and heavily trafficked websites. Amazon has reportedly reached out to online media giants Buzzfeed and The New York Times with an offer that would see them being paid in order to recommend or advertise products on their site. Such advertisements would include a link to the Amazon page where a potential customer could buy the product and in return, the media agencies would receive a percentage commission of the purchase.\n",
"For the fiscal year 2018, Amazon reported earnings of US$10.07 billion, with an annual revenue of US$232.887 billion, an increase of 30.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Since 2007 sales increased from 14.835 billion to 232.887 billion, thanks to continued business expansion. Amazon's market capitalization was valued at over US$803 billion in early November 2018.\n",
"The Amazon sales rank (ASR) provides an indication of the popularity of a product sold on any Amazon locale. It is a relative indicator of popularity that is updated hourly. Effectively, it is a \"best sellers list\" for the millions of products stocked by Amazon. While the ASR has no direct effect on the sales of a product, it is used by Amazon to determine which products to include in its bestsellers lists. Products that appear in these lists enjoy additional exposure on the Amazon website and this may lead to an increase in sales. In particular, products that experience large jumps (up or down) in their sales ranks may be included within Amazon's lists of \"movers and shakers\"; such a listing provides additional exposure that might lead to an increase in sales. For competitive reasons, Amazon does not release actual sales figures to the public. However, Amazon has now begun to release point of sale data via the Nielsen BookScan service to verified authors. While the ASR has been the source of much speculation by publishers, manufacturers, and marketers, Amazon itself does not release the details of its sales rank calculation algorithm. Some companies have analyzed Amazon sales data to generate sales estimates based on the ASR, though Amazon states:\n",
"Amazon.com engaged in price discrimination for some customers in the year 2000, showing different prices at the same time for the same item to different customers, potentially violating the Robinson–Patman Act. The company stopped and apologised after it was discovered.\n",
"Amazon paid no federal income taxes in the U.S. in 2017 and 2018, and actually got tax refunds worth millions of dollars, despite recording several billion dollars in profits each year. CNN reported that Amazon's tax bill was zero because they took advantage of provisions in years when they were losing money that allowed them to offset future taxes on profits, as well as various other tax credits. Amazon was criticized by political figures for not paying federal income taxes.\n"
] |
Could giant humans survive? | I don't know the specific answer, but [this article](_URL_0_) deals with some of the problems of scaling up. | [
"Humans were the least affected. The only thing they have lost was their original size and duration of life. Along with being giants, the first humans were believed to have had larger eyes and bigger bones than the present. Roog did not touch the human spirit. Instead, it allowed them to develop their minds and put their own branding on Earth.\n",
"Should the human race become extinct, then the various features assembled by humanity will begin to decay. The largest structures have an estimated decay half-life of about 1,000 years. The last surviving structures would most likely be open pit mines, large landfills, major highways, wide canal cuts, and earth-fill flank dams. A few massive stone monuments like the pyramids at the Giza Necropolis or the sculptures at Mount Rushmore may still survive in some form after a million years.\n",
"BULLET::::- Aristaeus: According to the \"Suda\", he was the only Giant to \"survive\". He is probably named on an Attic black-figure dinos by Lydos (Akropolis 607) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, fighting Hephaestus.\n",
"Philip Lieberman argues that since band societies of approximately 30–50 people are bounded by nutritional limitations to what group sizes can be fed without at least rudimentary agriculture, big human brains consuming more nutrients than ape brains, group sizes of approximately 150 cannot have been selected for in paleolithic humans. Brains much smaller than human or even mammalian brains are also known to be able to support social relationships, including social insects with hierarchies where each individual knows its place (such as the paper wasp with its societies of approximately 80 individuals ) and computer-simulated virtual autonomous agents with simple reaction programming emulating what is referred to in primatology as \"ape politics\".\n",
"Megafauna – in the sense of the largest mammals and birds – are generally K-strategists, with high longevity, slow population growth rates, low mortality rates, and (at least for the largest) few or no natural predators capable of killing adults. These characteristics, although not exclusive to such megafauna, make them vulnerable to human overexploitation, in part because of their slow population recovery rates.\n",
"The little people's objectives are: (1) survival, by obtaining food and avoiding capture by the Giants or attacks from animals, such as cats and dogs; and (2) repair of their spacecraft, so they can attempt to return to Earth. They largely manage to survive by the help of sympathizers and stealth, making the most of their small size, plus their ingenuity in using their technology where it's superior to that of the Giants.\n",
"In his book \"The Natural Refuge of Giant Panda at Qinling\" () co-authored with postgraduates under his supervision, researchers and other collaborators, Pan put forward for the first time arguments supporting “giant pandas in Qinling can survive living in natural conditions” which was acclaimed by international peers to be “significant contribution to the biological theory of giant panda”. Following that in his book Chance for Continual Survival () Pan commented that “since the cause leading to the near-extinct of giant panda was human error, it must require human to rectify their acts in order giant pandas could have a chance for continual survival”. In the book The White Dolphins of Qinzhou () Pan and his co-authors unveiled that Chinese white dolphin appeared in Beibu Gulf only from 6000 years ago and that in the Beibu Gulf population is preserved an ancient and rare genotype that is so far never found in populations in other territorial waters. In the book he as well suggested that the social developments of Qinzhou must be planned to optimize a win-win situation between its economy and nature conservation for that is the only way to achieve sustainable development. The Natural History of White-headed Langur () is a live record of researches in wilderness. When Pan went into the Nongguan Mountains he noticed there the sustenance environment was almost totally devastated and that “human was suffering more miserably than the langurs there”. In view of which he suggested “the core issue of nature conservation in Nongguan Mountains is to improve the living conditions of the people there. Only after people’s lives been improved could white-headed langur conservation be anticipated”. 20 years practice of his words has proved his foresight; during the period the white-headed langur population in Nongguan Mountains has increased from the initial of about 100 individuals to about 820 individuals, and the people there have as well gradually improved their livings to well-off standard.\n"
] |
How 'German' was Eastern Prussia under Frederick the Great? | Just to correct a few things first: That doesn't correspond to the modern Baltic states, which are further northeast, that's broadly the north and west of modern Poland and the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad, formerly Königsberg. It's also a map of Prussia under the German Empire (1871-1918), not a map of Prussia under Frederick the Great ([see here](_URL_0_) for the latter).
East Prussia corresponds to the original Duchy of Prussia, or so-called *Altpreußen* (Old Prussia). From the 13th century, this area had been colonised by Germans, originally under the aegis of the Teutonic Order, which had aimed to convert the region to Christianity. The Teutonic state *did* extend up to the modern Baltic states, but these areas, then known as Courland and Livonia, were culturally mixed -- though after they were subsumed by Russia, they remained dominated by a German aristocracy until the fall of the Russian Empire.
The area that became Ducal Prussia was more firmly Germanised, and certainly by the time of Frederick the Great in the 18th century there was little doubt that it was, essentially, German. Königsberg was the capital of East Prussia and became a seat of German-speaking culture under Frederick, paying host to philosophers such as Immanuel Kant.
This situation prevailed more or less up until the end of the Second World War, when the Polish borders were rearranged by the victorious Soviets, who incorporated the eastern territories of Poland while compensating the Poles by awarding them eastern Germany. A process of ethnic cleansing then took place whereby Germans were forcibly expelled and Poles resettled in the area. At the same time, Königsberg was annexed to the Soviet Union and renamed Kaliningrad, again coupled with a policy of ethnic cleansing and resettlement. That area remains a Russian province to this day, despite having been cut off from the rest of Russia by the fall of the Soviet Union. | [
"East Prussia (, ; ; ; ; ) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and again from 1878 (with the Kingdom itself being part of the German Empire from 1871); following World War I it formed part of the Weimar Republic's Free State of Prussia, until 1945. Its capital city was Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad). East Prussia was the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"East Prussia\" : Prussia began as a duchy in what is now Poland. As the highest-ranking dignity of the Hohenzollern dynasty, the name came to be applied to their territories stretching across Germany. The name East Prussia became more significant when it was separated from the rest of Prussia and Germany by the Polish Corridor.\n",
"The Province of West Prussia (; ; ) was a province of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and 1878 to 1922. West Prussia was established as a province of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773, formed from Royal Prussia of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth annexed in the First Partition of Poland. West Prussia was dissolved in 1829 and merged with East Prussia to form the Province of Prussia, but was re-established in 1878 when the merger was reversed and became part of the German Empire. From 1918, West Prussia was a province of the Free State of Prussia within Weimar Germany, losing most of its territory to the Second Polish Republic and the Free City of Danzig in the Treaty of Versailles. West Prussia was dissolved in 1922, and its remaining western territory was merged with Posen to form Posen-West Prussia, and its eastern territory merged with East Prussia as the Region of West Prussia district.\n",
"Prussia (; , , Old Prussian: \"Prūsa\" or \"Prūsija\") was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525 with a duchy centred on the region of Prussia on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It was de facto dissolved by an emergency decree transferring powers of the Prussian government to German Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932 and de jure by an Allied decree in 1947. For centuries, the House of ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised and effective army. Prussia, with its capital first in and then, in 1701, in Berlin, decisively shaped the history of Germany.\n",
"At the time of the foundation of the German Empire in 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia was the largest and dominant part of the empire. Prussian territory east of the Oder–Neisse line included West Prussia and Posen (taken by Prussia in the first two Partitions of Poland in the 18th century), also Silesia, East Brandenburg, and Pomerania. Later, these territories would come to be called in Germany \"\"Ostgebiete des deutschen Reiches\"\" (Eastern territories of the German Empire).\n",
"The kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a great power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia, which became a military power under Frederick William, known as \"The Great Elector\". Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more commonly known as Frederick the Great, who was the third son of Frederick William I. Frederick the Great was instrumental in starting the Seven Years' War, holding his own against Austria, Russia, France and Sweden and establishing Prussia's role in the German states, as well as establishing the country as a European great power. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a major power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles, and many wars. Because of its power, Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states (excluding the German cantons in Switzerland) under its rule, although whether Austria would be included in such a unified German domain was an ongoing question.\n",
"Prussia (Old Prussian: \"Prūsa\"; ; ; ; ) is a historical region in Europe, stretching from Gdańsk Bay to the end of Curonian Spit on the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea, and extending inland as far as Masuria. The territory and inhabitants were described by Tacitus in Germania in 98, where Suebi, Goths and other Germanic people lived on both sides of the Vistula River, adjacent to the Aesti (further east). About 800 to 900 years later the Aesti were named Old Prussians, who, since 997, repeatedly defended themselves against take-over attempts by the newly created Duchy of the Polans. The territory of the Old Prussians and neighboring Curonians and Livonians was unified politically in the 1230s as the Teutonic Order State. Prussia was politically divided between 1466 and 1772, with western Prussia under protection of the Crown of Poland and eastern Prussia a Polish–Lithuanian fief until 1660. The unity of both parts of Prussia remained preserved by retaining its borders, citizenship and autonomy until western and eastern Prussia were also politically reunited under the German Kingdom of Prussia (which despite the name was based in Berlin, Brandenburg). It is famous for many lakes, as well as forests and hills. Since the military conquest of the area by the Soviet Army in 1945 and the expulsion of the German-speaking inhabitants it was divided between northern Poland (most of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship), Russia's Kaliningrad exclave, and southwestern Lithuania (Klaipėda Region). The former German kingdom and later state of Prussia (1701–1947) derived its name from the region.\n"
] |
Why do some ants have such a high brain to body mass ratio? | As the article you linked to, along with [this one](_URL_1_) describe, brain size does not scale linearly (isometrically) with body size. Instead, it scales *allometrically*, proportional to approximately (body mass)^(k), where the exponent k is somewhere around 0.5 to 0.75 (depending on the group of animals being studied; it's ~0.7 for mammals). This means that in terms of percentage total body mass, small animals have larger relative brain size. As a measure of intelligence relative to body size, it is therefore more typical to look at how much an animal's brain size deviates from the expected size for an animal for that size. For example, both humans and mice have brains that weigh ~2-3% of their total body mass. Since humans are much larger, they would be expected to have a lower percentage than mice. The fact that they do not suggests higher relative intelligence. Ants, being very small animals, have a very high percentage brain mass.
As to why this scaling law is the case, that is not known. However, it is one of several well known allometric scaling laws in biology, all with exponents in a similar range. One reason mentioned by the wikipedia article is that neurons have approximately the same size in all species, although this is now known [not to be true](_URL_0_). Nevertheless, some type of 'overhead' may play a role in this relationship. For example, certain neuronal circuits are required for basic functions, e.g., breathing. Such circuits need not necessarily involve 100 times as many neurons in species that are 100 times larger, since they serve the same basic function. [This paper](_URL_2_) confirms that different brain structures scale differently with body size. Nevertheless, the exact reason for the scaling relationship of brain mass with body size is not known.
**TL;DR:** Brain mass scales with body size, such that smaller animals tend to have a higher percentage brain mass. The reason for this is not yet known. | [
"It is also important to note that the measure of brain mass or volume, seen as cranial capacity, or even relative brain size, which is brain mass that is expressed as a percentage of body mass, are not a measure of intelligence, use, or function of regions of the brain. Total neurons, however, also do not indicate a higher ranking in cognitive abilities. Elephants have a higher number of total neurons (257 billion) compared to humans (100 billion). Relative brain size, overall mass, and total number of neurons are only a few metrics that help scientists follow the evolutionary trend of increased brain to body ratio through the hominin phylogeny.\n",
"Phylogenetic studies of brain sizes in primates show that while diet predicts primate brain size, sociality does not predict brain size when corrections are made for cases in which diet affects both brain size and sociality. The exceptions to the predictions of the social intelligence hypothesis, which that hypothesis has no predictive model for, are successfully predicted by diets that are either nutritious but scarce or abundant but poor in nutrients. Researchers have found that frugivores tend to exhibit larger brain size than folivores. One potential explanation for this finding is that frugivory requires 'extractive foraging,' or the process of locating and preparing hard-shelled foods, such as nuts, insects, and fruit. Extractive foraging requires higher cognitive processing, which could help explain larger brain size. However, other researchers argue that extractive foraging was not a catalyst in the evolution of primate brain size, demonstrating that some non primates exhibit advanced foraging techniques. Other explanations for the positive correlation between brain size and frugivory highlight how the high-energy, frugivore diet facilitates fetal brain growth and requires spatial mapping to locate the embedded foods.\n",
"Recent research indicates that whole brain size is a better measure of cognitive abilities than EQ for non-human primates at least. The relationship between brain-to-body mass ratio and complexity is not alone in influencing intelligence. Other factors, such as the recent evolution of the cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding, which increases the surface area (and volume) of the cortex, are positively correlated to intelligence in humans.\n",
"These concepts can be tied to the social brain hypothesis, mentioned above. This hypothesis posits that human cognitive complexity arose as a result of the higher level of social complexity required from living in enlarged groups. These bigger groups entail a greater amount of social relations and interactions thus leading to a expanded quantity of intelligence in humans. However, this hypothesis has been under academic scrutiny in recent years and has been largely disproven. In fact, the size of a species' brain can be much better predicted by diet instead of measures of sociality as noted by the study conducted by DeCasien et. al. They found that ecological factors (such as: folivory/frugivory, environment) explain a primate brain size much better than social factors (such as: group size, mating system).\n",
"Comparisons of primate species show that what appears to be a link between group size and brain size, and also what species do not fit such a correlation, is explainable by diet. Many primates that eat specialized diets that rely on scarce food have evolved small brains to conserve nutrients and are limited to living in small groups or even alone, and they lower average brain size for solitary or small group primates. Small-brained species of primate that are living in large groups are successfully predicted by diet theory to be the species that eat food that is abundant but not very nutritious. Along with the existence of complex deception in small-brained primates in large groups with the opportunity (both abundant food eaters in their natural environments and originally solitary species that adopted social lifestyles under artificial food abundances), this is cited as evidence against the model of social groups selecting for large brains and/or intelligence.\n",
"Recent research indicates that, in non-human primates, whole brain size is a better measure of cognitive abilities than brain-to-body mass ratio. The total weight of the species is greater than the predicted sample only if the frontal lobe is adjusted for spatial relation. The brain-to-body mass ratio was however found to be an excellent predictor of variation in problem solving abilities among carnivoran mammals.\n",
"It is known that some of T. \"rugatulus\" specializations in colonies include being lazy. Some scientists disputed this as an inaccurate conclusion because T. \"rugatulus\" has primarily been studied in the laboratory, where conditions may not reflect their natural habitat. Researchers have found; however, that there is no significant difference in ant activity between laboratory and field observations. It is thought that because ants are exotherms, they are unable to adjust their internal environment to match their activity level like most endotherms do. When they are in a laboratory setting, they are less stimulated than they would be in nature, expressing a seemingly decreased level of activity in a laboratory setting.\n"
] |
how do zero gravity pens work? | They inject pressurized gas into the ink capsule, that constantly pushes the ink toward the tip regardless of gravity or orientation. | [
"BULLET::::- The Space Pen, also known as the Zero Gravity Pen, is a pen that uses pressurized ink cartridges and is claimed to write in zero gravity, upside down, underwater, over wet and greasy paper, at any angle, and in extreme temperature ranges. The ballpoint is made from tungsten carbide and is precisely fitted in order to avoid leaks. A sliding float separates the ink from the pressurized gas. The thixotropic ink in the hermetically sealed and pressurized reservoir is claimed to write for three times longer than a standard ballpoint pen. In 1965, the space pen was invented and patented by Paul C. Fisher. After two years of testing at NASA, the space pen was first used during the \"Apollo 7\" mission in 1968.\n",
"BULLET::::- American inventor Paul C. Fisher filed for the patent on the \"Anti-gravity pen\", known also as the \"space pen\", which used \"a pressurized ink supply which enables the pen to write when the force of gravity acts against the flow of ink in the ink cartridge\" in order for astronauts to write data observations in a weightless environment. Although there is an urban legend that NASA spent millions of dollars to develop an unnecessary replacement to a pencil, Fisher was privately funded and earned his costs back when both the American and Soviet space programs began purchasing pens, which were necessary because of the hazards of broken pencil tips, graphite dust, and flammable wood; the pens themselves were sold for six dollars apiece. U.S. Patent Number 3,285,228 would be granted on November 15, 1966.\n",
"The Fisher Space Pen is a gas-charged ball point pen that is rugged and works in a wider variety of conditions, such as zero gravity, vacuum and extreme temperatures. Its thixotropic ink and vent-free cartridge release no significant vapor at common temperatures and low pressures. The ink is forced out by compressed nitrogen at a pressure of nearly 35 psi (240 kPa), and it functions at altitudes up to 12,500 feet (3800 m) and at temperatures from −30 to 250 °F (−35 to 120 °C). However, it is more expensive than the aforementioned alternatives. It has been used by both NASA and Soviet/Russian astronauts on Apollo, Shuttle, Mir, and ISS missions.\n",
"Because of a ballpoint pen's reliance on gravity to coat the ball with ink, most cannot be used to write upside-down. However, technology developed by Fisher pens in the United States resulted in the production of what came to be known as the \"Fisher Space Pen\". Space Pens combine a more viscous ink with a pressurized ink reservoir that forces the ink toward the point. Unlike standard ballpoints, the rear end of a Space Pen's pressurized reservoir is sealed, eliminating evaporation and leakage, thus allowing the pen to write upside-down, in zero-gravity environments, and reportedly underwater. Astronauts have made use of these pens in outer space.\n",
"The Fisher Space Pen is a ballpoint pen which works with thixotropic ink and a pressurized ink cartridge. It can write on almost any substance ranging from butter to steel. It also can survive a wide array of temperatures, ranging from -50 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit.\n",
"A common urban legend states that, faced with the fact that ball-point pens would not write in zero-gravity, NASA spent a large amount of money to develop a pen that would write in the conditions experienced during spaceflight (the result purportedly being the Fisher Space Pen), while the Soviet Union took the simpler and cheaper route of just using pencils. The Fisher Space Pen was developed independently by a private organization in the 1960s.\n",
"Thixotropic ink (along with a gas pressurized cartridge and special shearing ball design) is a key feature of the Fisher Space Pen, used for writing during zero gravity space flights by the US and Russian space programs.\n"
] |
Where do the photons go after the light is turned off in the room? | They get absorbed by the surroundings! Photons are electromagnetic waves, so when they come to matter, they "wave" the electrons in the matter around, so the photons lose their energy are are absorbed. This is why a wall in the sun feels hot! The light is being absorbed by the wall and all energy goes into the wall feeling hot.
As a side note, this is a simplification. Like mirrors don't absorb light, they reflect it. For that matter, most materials reflect some amount of light, that's why we can see them. But all materials absorb light, even in small amounts, so eventually all the light would be absorbed by the material. | [
"Note that, because the points of emission of the photons can be at any place on the (normally straight line) trajectory of the particle through the radiator, the emerging photons fill a light-cone in space.\n",
"If a single photon is emitted into the entry port of the apparatus at the lower-left corner, it immediately encounters a beam-splitter. Because of the equal probabilities for transmission or reflection the photon will either continue straight ahead, be reflected by the mirror at the lower-right corner, and be detected by the detector at the top of the apparatus, or it will be reflected by the beam-splitter, strike the mirror in the upper-left corner, and emerge into the detector at the right edge of the apparatus. Observing that photons show up in equal numbers at the two detectors, experimenters generally say that each photon has behaved as a particle from the time of its emission to the time of its detection, has traveled by either one path or the other, and further affirm that its wave nature has not been exhibited.\n",
"If the \"lower-path\" photon did not detect a bomb, it will arrive at a second half-silvered mirror at the same time as the \"upper-path\" photon. This will result in the single photon interfering with itself.\n",
"It might seem at first glance that a device that allows light to flow in only one direction would violate Kirchhoff's law and the second law of thermodynamics, by allowing light energy to flow from a cold object to a hot object and blocking it in the other direction, but the violation is avoided because the isolator must absorb (not reflect) the light from the hot object and will eventually reradiate it to the cold one. Attempts to re-route the photons back to their source unavoidably involve creating a route by which other photons can travel from the hot body to the cold one, avoiding the paradox.\n",
"The detection loophole for photons has been closed for the first time in a group by Anton Zeilinger, using highly efficient detectors. This makes photons the first system for which all of the main loopholes have been closed, albeit in different experiments.\n",
"Once in the ring, VUV or X-ray, the electrons orbit and lose energy as a result of changes in their angular momentum, which cause the expulsion of photons. These photons are deemed white light, i.e. polychromatic, and are the source of synchrotron radiation. Before being used in a beamline endstation, the light is collimated before reaching a monochromator or series of monochromators to get a single and fixed wavelength.\n",
"In this thought experiment the telescopes are always present, but the experiment can start with the detection screen being present but then being removed just after the photon leaves the double-slit diaphragm, or the experiment can start with the detection screen being absent and then being inserted just after the photon leaves the diaphragm. Some theorists aver that inserting or removing the screen in the midst of the experiment can force a photon to retroactively decide to go through the double-slits as a particle when it had previously transited it as a wave, or vice versa. Wheeler does not accept this interpretation.\n"
] |
how is it possible that sites like _url_0_ or any other movie streaming service violating copyright laws are still up and running? | Not hosted on a server in the United States, perhaps? | [
"Professor Jukka Kemppinen, an expert on copyright legislation, states that Pirate Cinema is a deliberate provocation, but that, despite it being illegal, there is no point in making a big issue out of it. Kemppinen states \"It is no more illegal than showing a legally rented DVD to residents of an apartment building after an afternoon of volunteer work.\"\n",
"\"There are websites that provide legal downloads. This is not one of them. This website has been permanently shut down by court order because it facilitates the illegal downloading of copyrighted motion pictures. The illegal downloading of motion pictures robs thousands of honest, hard-working people of their livelihood, and stifles creativity. Illegally downloading movies from sites such as these without proper authorization violates the law, is theft, and is not anonymous. Stealing movies leaves a trail. The only way not to get caught is to stop.\"\n",
"In June 2015, the country passed an amendment which will allow the court-ordered censorship of websites deemed to primarily facilitate copyright infringement. In December 2016, the Federal Court of Australia ordered more than fifty ISP's to censor 5 sites that infringe on the Copyright Act after rights holders, Roadshow Films, Foxtel, Disney, Paramount, Columbia and the 20th Century Fox companies filed a lawsuit. The sites barred include The Pirate Bay, Torrentz, TorrentHound, IsoHunt and SolarMovie.\n",
"In July 2017, the \"International Business Times\" reported that \"15% of internet users in the UK are either infringing copyright through streaming or illegal downloads, with pirated TV material primarily accessed through Kodi (16%) or Putlocker (17%)\". In August 2017, Justice John Nicholas of the Federal Court of Australia ordered Australian internet service providers to block access to 42 piracy sites in a case brought by Village Roadshow, with Putlocker, KissCartoon, and GoMovies being among those ordered to be blocked.\n",
"Kevin Lincoln, a writer for Business Insider, argued that the Act is extremely weak in protecting copyright because under the act, content that may infringe on copyright can only be policed after it is uploaded. Only the uploader, not the website hosting possibly illegal content, would be penalized. To prove that someone violated copyright, the accuser must prove that the uploader knew they were uploading illegal content and they didn’t know they were uploading it for Fair Use. The accused person must be notified 30 days before the content is taken down so they have adequate time to fight the claim. Monitoring of content being downloaded, uploaded or edited would not be allowed without legal permission, and to try to remove content without a court order would be considered against the freedom of speech and the perpetrator would be subject to legal penalty.\n",
"The second section covers penalties for streaming video and for selling counterfeit drugs, military materials, or consumer goods. The bill would increase penalties and expand copyright offenses to include unauthorized streaming of copyrighted content and other intellectual property offenses. The bill would criminalize unauthorized streaming of copyrighted content if they knowingly misrepresent the activity of the site, with a maximum penalty of five years in prison for ten such infringements within six months. The copyrighted content can be removed, and infringements can lead to the site being shut down. In July 2013, the Department of Commerce's Internet Policy Task Force issued a report endorsing \"[a]dopting the same range of penalties for criminal streaming of copyrighted works to the public as now exists for criminal reproduction and distribution.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Amendments to the copyright law in 2012 criminalized intentionally downloading content that infringes on copyright. There were calls for civil rather than criminal penalties in such cases. Downloading this content may be punishable by up to 2 years' imprisonment.\n"
] |
How can a paper cup full of water not burn up on a 2400 degree billet of steel? | The reason is that, perhaps surprisingly, the paper simply does not get hot enough. Paper has an autoignition temperature (the temperature at which it will burst into flame) of about 210-250^o C. If you were to just put an empty paper cup on the hot steel, it would rapidly reach this temperature and start burning. However, with water in the cup the situation is different. The presence of water on the other side of the wall of paper will reduce the rate at which the paper can be heated by the steel because it will cool the material. This cooling can be fairly efficient since [convection](_URL_0_) will cause hot water to move away from the walls, letting cool water replace it. Once you reach 100^o C, the water will start boiling. However the temperature of the water will not rise any further at that point, because as happens at any phase transition, all the extra heat added to the system will go into that driving that transition (boiling).
So surprising as it may sound, you can get into a steady state regime, where even if the water is hot enough to boil, because this process occurs at 100^o C, the boiling water may still be "cool" enough to prevent the paper from going above 210^o C(ish) and burn. | [
"The second section of the paper machine is the press section, which removes much of the remaining water via a system of nips formed by rolls pressing against each other aided by press felts that support the sheet and absorb the pressed water. The paper web consistency leaving the press section can be above 40%.\n",
"Over 6.5 million trees were cut down to make 16 billion paper cups used by US consumers only for coffee in 2006, using of water and resulting in 253 million pounds of waste. Overall, North Americans use 58% of all paper cups, amounting to 130 billion cups.\n",
"The duplicating fluid typically consisted of a 50/50 mix of isopropanol and methanol, both of which were inexpensive, readily available in quantity, evaporated quickly, and would not wrinkle the paper.\n",
"Its melting point is approximately . Its boiling point is over . Its water absorption is maximum 7%. Its thermal expansion coefficient is 5.2 mm/m and thermal conductivity is 0.8 W/(m·K) at 100 °C and 1.0 W/(m·K) at 1000 °C. It is not easily wetted by steel.\n",
"Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water. Whereas, when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.\n",
"Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.\n",
"Water is a good conductor of heat but has drawbacks as a cutting fluid. It boils easily, promotes rusting of machine parts, and does not lubricate well. Therefore, other ingredients are necessary to create an optimal cutting fluid.\n"
] |
what is a probation? | Basically means he can live feely as long as he abides by certain conditions (not out after certain time, keep the peace, and/or abstain from drugs/alcohol, etc...). | [
"Probation is a period of time where an offender lives under supervision and under a set of restrictions. Violations of these restrictions could result in arrest. Probation is typically an option for first time offenders with high rehabilitative capacity. At its core, it is \"a substitute for prison\", with the goal being to \"spare the worthy first offender from the demoralizing influences of imprisonment and save him from recidivism\". In the United States, there are 4,162,536 probationers. Probationers are supervised by probation officers just as parolees are supervised by parole officers. Probation officers have similar authority as parole officers do to restrict mobility, social contact, and mandate various other conditions and requirements. Probationers just like parolees are at high risk of imprisonment due to violation of their restrictions that may not be classified as criminal. In the United States, 40% of probationers were sent to jail or prison for technical and criminal violations.\n",
"Probation is a system of supervision and social-pedagogic activities over offender, ordered by a Court and in accordance to the legislation; enforcement of certain types of a criminal penalty, not concerned the deprivation of liberty and to provide the Court with information characterized the offender.\n",
"In a workplace setting, probation (or probationary period) is a status given to new employees of a company or business or new members of organizations, such churches, associations, clubs or orders. It is widely termed as the Probation Period of an employee. This status allows a supervisor or other company manager to evaluate closely the progress and skills of the newly hired worker, determine appropriate assignments, and monitor other aspects of the employee such as honesty, reliability, and interactions with co-workers, supervisors or customers.\n",
"In some jurisdictions, the term \"probation\" applies only to community sentences (alternatives to incarceration), such as suspended sentences. In others, probation also includes supervision of those conditionally released from prison on parole.\n",
"Academic probation in the United Kingdom is a period served by a new academic staff member at a university or college when they are first given their job. It is specified in the conditions of employment of the staff member, and may vary from person to person and from institution to institution. In universities founded prior to the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, it is usually three years for academic staff and six months to a year for other staff. In the universities created by that Act, and in colleges of higher education, the period is generally just a year across the board, for both academic and other staff.\n",
"Disciplinary probation is a disciplinary status that can apply to students at a higher educational institution or to employees in the workplace. For employees, it can result from both poor performance at work or from misconduct. For students, it results from misconduct alone, with poor academic performance instead resulting in scholastic probation.\n",
"Since probation is a form of punishment, once the sentence of probation has commenced, the court will run afoul of the double jeopardy clause if it increases the penalty. Probation's primary objective is to protect society by rehabilitating the offender. A person placed on probation is considered a probationer of the court as a whole, and not that of a particular judge thereof. When a defendant is placed on probation, he expressly agrees to be subject to supervision appropriate to a probationer, to avoid the more onerous regimen of a prisoner; accordingly, the defendant retains those rights of an ordinary citizen that are compatible with probationary status, although certain rights, such as the right against self-incrimination, are impaired. There is no requirement that probation must be granted on a specified showing. Probation is considered a privilege and not a right. The action of a district court in refusing to grant probation is not reviewable on appeal except possibly for arbitrary or capricious action on the part of the District Court amounting to abuse of discretion.\n"
] |
what's the religious situation in the us? | Westboro Baptist Church isn't a religion. It's a bigoted and angry old man and his family. There are a couple members that aren't related to the Phelps family. There are a lot of family members who have dropped out of the church as well. | [
"The religious and cultural holidays in the United States is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. However, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that \"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ...\" and Article VI specifies that \"no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.\" As a result, various religious faiths have flourished, as well as perished, in the United States. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unique among developed nations.\n",
"Religion in the United States has a high adherence level compared to other developed countries, as well as a diversity in beliefs. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the Federal government from making any \"law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof\". The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed countries, although similar to the other nations of the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including both later imports spanning the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country; these have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world.\n",
"Religion plays a part in American elections. Religion is part of the political debate over LGBT rights, abortion, the right to die/assisted suicide, universal health care, workers rights and immigration.\n",
"A 2011 Gallup poll showed that when it comes to the number of people seeing religion as important in everyday life, New Hampshire and Vermont were the least religious, both with 23%, followed up with 25% in Maine.\n",
"Religion in the United States is remarkable in its high adherence level compared to other developed countries. The First Amendment to the country's Constitution prevents the government from having any authority in religion, and guarantees the free exercise of religion. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a \"very important\" role in their lives, a proportion unusual among developed nations, though similar to other nations in the Americas. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including imports spanning the country's multicultural heritage as well as those founded within the country, and have led the United States to become the most religiously diverse country in the world.\n",
"A 2008 Gallup survey reported that religion is not an important part of daily life for 34% of Americans. In May of that year, a Gallup poll asking the question \"Which of the following statements comes closest to your belief about God: you believe in God, you don't believe in God but you do believe in a universal spirit or higher power, or you don't believe in either?\" showed that, nationally, 78% believed in God, 15% in \"a universal spirit or higher power\", 6% answering \"neither\", and 1% unsure. The poll also highlighted the regional differences, with residents in the Western states answering 59%, 29%, and 10% respectively, compared to the residents in the Southern states that answered 86%, 10%, and 3%. Several of the western states have been informally nicknamed Unchurched Belt, contrasting with the Bible Belt in the southern states.\n",
"As America's secular demographic has grown and become more visible and active, a number of lawsuits have been brought to challenge references to God and religion in government. These cases have had limited success.\n"
] |
what is the ndaa and why did obama veto it? | It's basically a defense spending bill. He vetoed it because it had provisions that prohibited removing spending cuts and prohibited the closing of Guantanamo Bay.
[sauce](_URL_0_) | [
"On September 30, 2015, President Barack Obama threatened to veto the NDAA 2016. The reason for the veto threat by the Obama administration was that the bill bypassed the Budget Control Act of 2011 spending caps by allocating nearly $90 billion to the Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) account, designating routine spending as emergency war expenses exempted from the caps. On October 22, 2015, Obama vetoed the bill. \n",
"President Obama's White House administration vowed to veto any re-authorization of VAWA that failed to include the tribal protection clause. On February 28, 2013, President Barack Obama received the Senate's re-authorization of VAWA after a vote passing the act in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.\n",
"The NDAA, an otherwise mundane annual bill that lays out the use of funds for the Department of Defense, has come under attack during the Obama administration for the introduction of a provision in 2012 that allows the military to detain United States citizens indefinitely without charge or trial for mere suspicions of ties to terrorism. Under the 2012 NDAA's Sec. 1021, U.S. President Obama did not agree to give the military the power to arrest and hold Americans without the writ of habeas corpus as he promised with that year's signing statement that his administration would not abuse that privilege.\n",
"The NDAA 2014 was introduced into the United States House of Representatives on October 22, 2013 by Rep. Theodore E. Deutch (D, FL-21). It was referred to the United States House Committee on Armed Services. On October 28, 2013, the House voted to pass the bill by a voice vote. It was received in the United States Senate and referred to the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services on October 29, 2013. The Senate passed the bill on November 19, 2013, with amendments. The House agreed to the Senate amendments and added their own amendments on December 12, 2013. The compromise agreement was structured in a \"fast-track process that precludes senators from tacking on controversial amendments dealing with Iran sanctions and other divisive issues.\" The Senate agreed to those amendments on December 19, 2013 in Roll Call Vote 284 by a vote of 84-15. On December 26, 2013, President Barack Obama signed the bill into law.\n",
"The Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 (, ), is a law in the United States signed by President Barack Obama on January 7, 2011. As a bill it was originally H.R.5136 in the 111th Congress and later co-sponsored by Representative Ike Skelton as H.R. 6523 and renamed. The overall purpose of the law is to authorize funding for the defense of the United States and its interests abroad, for military construction, and for national security-related energy programs.\n",
"Also in September 2016, both the Senate and the House of Representatives overrode President Obama's veto to pass the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA), which targets Saudi Arabia, into law. Despite McConnell voting to override the President, McConnell would criticize JASTA within a day of the bill's passing, saying that it might have \"unintended ramifications\". McConnell appeared to blame the White House regarding this as he quoted that there was \"failure to communicate early about the potential consequences\" of JASTA, and said he told Obama that JASTA \"was an example of an issue that we should have talked about much earlier\". In vetoing the bill, Obama had provided three reasons for objecting to JASTA: that the courts would be less effective than \"national security and foreign policy professionals\" in responding to a foreign government supporting terrorism, that it would upset \"longstanding international principles regarding sovereign immunity\", and that it would complicate international relations.\n",
"President Barack Obama released a statement saying that the bill \"would impose an unreasonable deadline that would curtail the thorough consideration of the issues involved, which could result in serious security, safety, foreign policy, environmental, economic, and other ramifications.\" Obama threatened to veto the bill.\n"
] |
Does our moon have a name in common english? | The proper English name for the moon is "the Moon". ([source](_URL_0_)). "Luna" is sometimes used in literature, and is the name of the Roman goddess that was the personified moon to the Romans. | [
"Every human language has its own word for the Earth's Moon, and these words are the ones normally used in astronomical contexts. However, a number of fanciful or mythological names for the Moon have been used in the context of astronomy (an even larger number of lunar epithets have been used in non-astronomical contexts). In the 17th century, the Moon was sometimes referred to as \"Proserpina\". More recently, especially in science-fictional contexts, the Moon has been called by the Latin name \"Luna\", presumably on the analogy of the Latin names of the planets, or by association with the adjectival form \"lunar\". In technical terminology, the word-stems \"seleno-\" (from Greek \"selēnē\" \"moon\") and \"cynthi-\" (from \"Cynthia\", an epithet of the goddess Artemis) are sometimes used to refer to the Moon, as in \"selenography, selenology,\" and \"pericynthion.\"\n",
"The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is \"the Moon\", which in nonscientific texts is usually not capitalized. The noun \"moon\" is derived from Old English \"mōna\", which (like all Germanic language cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic \"*mēnô\", which comes from Proto-Indo-European \"*mḗh₁n̥s\" \"moon\", \"month\", which comes from the Proto-Indo-European root \"*meh₁-\" \"to measure\", the month being the ancient unit of time measured by the Moon. Occasionally, the name \"Luna\" is used. In literature, especially science fiction, \"Luna\" is used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote personification of Earth's moon.\n",
"As a family name, Moon is written with one hanja, meaning \"writing\" (; 글월 문 \"geulwon mun\"). The 2000 South Korean census found a total of 426,927 people and 132,881 households with this family name. They identified with 47 different surviving bon-gwan (origin of a clan lineage, not necessarily the actual residence of the clan members):\n",
"The naming of moons has been the responsibility of the International Astronomical Union's committee for Planetary System Nomenclature since 1973. That committee is known today as the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN).\n",
"Historically, month names are names of moons (lunations, not necessarily full moons) in lunisolar calendars. Since the introduction of the solar Julian calendar in the Roman Empire, and later the Gregorian calendar worldwide, people no longer perceive month names as \"moon\" names. The traditional Old English month names were equated with the names of the Julian calendar from an early time (soon after Christianization, according to the testimony of Bede around AD 700).\n",
"\"Lunar maria\" (singular \"mare\") are large, dark, regions of the Moon. They do not contain any water, but are believed to have been formed from molten rock from the Moon's mantle coming out onto the surface of the Moon. This list also includes the one \"oceanus\" and the features known by the names \"lacus\", \"palus\" and \"sinus\". The modern system of lunar nomenclature was introduced in 1651 by Riccioli. Riccioli's map of the Moon was drawn by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who has a crater named after him.\n",
"The first two Uranian moons, discovered in 1787, did not receive names until 1852, a year after two more moons had been discovered. The responsibility for naming was taken by John Herschel, son of the discoverer of Uranus. Herschel, instead of assigning names from Greek mythology, named the moons after magical spirits in English literature: the fairies Oberon and Titania from William Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", and the sylphs Ariel and Umbriel from Alexander Pope's \"The Rape of the Lock\" (Ariel is also a sprite in Shakespeare's \"The Tempest\"). The reasoning was presumably that Uranus, as god of the sky and air, would be attended by spirits of the air.\n"
] |
absolute and apparent magnitude | Apparent magnitude is how bright a star appears to an observer on Earth. Absolute magnitude is a measure of how bright the star would appear to an observer on earth if the star were 10 parsecs away.
Absolute magnitude allows astronomers to compare the inherent brightness of stars since the variations caused by distance are removed. | [
"Absolute magnitude () is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object, on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were viewed from a distance of exactly , without extinction (or dimming) of its light due to absorption by interstellar matter and cosmic dust. By hypothetically placing all objects at a standard reference distance from the observer, their luminosities can be directly compared on a magnitude scale.\n",
"Absolute magnitude differs from apparent magnitude in that it is a measure of the intrinsic luminosity (rather than the apparent brightness) of a celestial object, expressed on the same inverse logarithmic scale. Absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that a star or object would have if it were observed from a standard reference distance of 10 parsecs.\n",
"While apparent magnitude is a measure of the brightness of an object as seen by a particular observer, absolute magnitude is a measure of the \"intrinsic\" brightness of an object. Flux decreases with distance according to an inverse-square law, so the apparent magnitude of a star depends on both its absolute brightness and its distance (and any extinction). For example, a star at one distance will have the same apparent magnitude as a star four times brighter at twice that distance. In contrast, the intrinsic brightness of an astronomical object, does not depend on the distance of the observer or any extinction.\n",
"Moment magnitude (M) is considered the authoritative magnitude scale for ranking earthquakes by size because it is more directly related to the energy of an earthquake, and does not \"saturate\". (That is, it does not underestimate magnitudes like other scales do in certain conditions.) It has become the standard scale used by seismological authorities (such as the U.S. Geological Survey), replacing (when available, typically for M 4) use of the (Local magnitude) and (surface-wave magnitude) scales. Subtypes of the moment magnitude scale (, etc.) reflect different ways of estimating the seismic moment.\n",
"The magnitude for great earthquakes is often underestimated, at first. The standard teleseismic measure of the ‘size’ of an earthquake is the surface wave magnitude, , which has to be derived by definition from the surface waves with 20 second period. A more reliable and more modern scale is that of the moment magnitude, .\n",
"Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. The \"apparent\" magnitude () is the brightness of an object as it appears in the night sky from Earth. Apparent magnitude depends on an object's intrinsic luminosity, its distance, and the extinction reducing its brightness. The \"absolute\" magnitude () describes the intrinsic luminosity emitted by an object and is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars. A more complex definition of absolute magnitude is used for planets and small Solar System bodies, based on its brightness at one astronomical unit from the observer and the Sun.\n",
"The absolute magnitude , of a star or astronomical object is defined as the apparent magnitude it would have as seen from a distance of 10 parsecs (about 32.6 light-years). The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (green) and 5.48 in the B band (blue).\n"
] |
If Ulysses S Grant was such a bad president why is he on the $50 bill? | It's less to do with the substance of his Presidency, and more to do with him winning the Civil War for the United States as a General, and then being elected to the Presidency. When Grant first appeared on a $50 gold certificate in 1913, he'd been dead for nearly 30 years: long enough to forgive some of the bad things, and recent enough to remember the hero. | [
"According to historian John Y. Simon, had Grant served only one term of office, he would have been considered a great President by more historians, particularly noted for his successful negotiations of the \"Alabama Claims\" under his Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, his strong enforcement of civil rights for blacks, his concilliation with former Confederates, and for the delivery of a strong economy. However, his second term, the Liberal Republican bolt had deprived Grant of the needed support from party intellectuals and reformers, while the Panic of 1873 devastated the national economy for years and was blamed on Grant. When Grant left office in 1877 the age of the Civil War and Reconstruction ended, and his second administration foreshadowed the future administrations of Benjamin Harrison and William McKinley. \n",
"Many of Grant's friends who knew him claimed that the President was \"a truthful man\" and it was \"impossible for him to lie.\" Yet Treasury Clerk A. E. Willson told future Supreme Court Justice John Harlan, \"What hurt Bristow most of all and disheartened him is the final conviction that Grant is himself in the Ring and knows all about [it]\" Grant's popularity, however, decreased significantly in the country as a result of his testimony and after Babcock was acquitted in the trial. Grant's political enemies used this deposition as a launchpad to public office. The New York Tribune stated that the Whiskey Ring scandal \"had been met at the entrance of the White House and turned back.\" However, the national unpopularity of Grant's testimony on behalf of his friend Babcock ruined any chances for a third term nomination.\n",
"The 20th-century historical views of Grant were less favorable. Political analyst Michael Barone noted in 1998 that, \"Ulysses S. Grant is universally ranked among the greatest American generals, and his Memoirs are widely considered to belong with the best military autobiographies ever written. But he is inevitably named, by conservatives as well as liberals, as one of the worst presidents in American history.\" Barone argues that: \"This consensus, however, is being challenged by writers outside the professional historians' guild.\" Barone points to a lawyer Frank Scaturro, who led the movement to restore Grant's Tomb while only a college student, and in 1998 wrote the first book of the modern era which portrays Grant's presidency in a positive light. Barone said that Scaturro's work was a \"convincing case that Grant was a strong and, in many important respects, successful president. It is an argument full of significance for how we see the course of American political history ... Scaturro's work ... should prompt a reassessment of the entire Progressive-New Deal Tradition.\"\n",
"Grant's presidency has traditionally been viewed by historians as incompetent and full of corruption. An examination of his presidency reveals Grant had both successes and failures during his two terms in office. In recent years historians have elevated his presidential rating because of his support for African American civil rights. Grant had urged the passing of the 15th Amendment and signed into law the Civil Rights Bill of 1875 that gave all citizens access to places of public enterprise. He leaned heavily toward the Radical camp and often sided with their Reconstruction policies, signing into law Force Acts to prosecute the Ku Klux Klan. In foreign policy Grant won praise for the Treaty of Washington, settling the Alabama Claims issue with Britain through arbitration. Economically he sided with Eastern bankers and signed the Public Credit Act that paid U.S. debts in gold specie, but was blamed for the severe economic depression that lasted 1873–1877. Grant, wary of powerful congressional leaders, was the first President to ask for a line item veto—though Congress never allowed one.\n",
"During his second term, Pawlenty erased a $2.7-billion deficit by cutting spending, shifting payments, and using one-time federal stimulus money. His final budget (2010–2011) was the state's first two-year period since 1960 in which net government expenditures decreased. Pawlenty has claimed this as \"the first time in 150 years\" that spending has been cut, but fact-checkers have disputed this claim as no public budget records prior to 1960 are known to exist.\n",
"Over time, Bill Clinton took up most of the fundraising burden, sending out fundraising letters, signing campaign memorabilia, and selling appearances with him. By the start of 2012, the debt was down to about $250,000. A team of Obama donors, including Steve Spinner and Jane Watson Stetson, who wanted to thank Clinton for her service during the Obama administration, took up the cause; they used public records to find potential donors who still had not reached contribution limits for 2008. In addition, the Clinton campaign's donor list was rented out to Obama's 2012 re-election campaign, bringing in around $63,000 in October 2012. The Clinton campaign finally declared it had paid off all its debt in a report filed at the beginning of 2013, showing in fact a $205,000 surplus, just as Clinton was about to end her tenure as Secretary of State.\n",
"In 2011, Chernow signed a deal to write a comprehensive biography on Ulysses S. Grant. Chernow explained his transition from writing about George Washington to Grant: \"Makes some sense as progression. Towering general of Revolution to towering general of Civil War. Both two-term presidents, though with very different results.\" \"Grant\" was released on October 10, 2017 and the biography strongly argues against conventional wisdom that Grant was an \"...adequate president, a dull companion and a roaring drunk.\" The book received overwhelmingly positive reviews and was named by The New York Times as one of the 10 Best Books of 2017.\n"
] |
To what extent did the typical 15th/16th century European peasant know about/be affected by the Age of Exploration? | Well, there was the introduction of the potato, sugar (in loaves) from canes (as opposed to beets) and coffee. Oh, and tobacco. | [
"In the wake of the Age of Exploration, roughly between the 15th and 18th centuries, there was an explosion in the number of commodities and availability of products. People were using newly created cartography and using these maps to explore the world on paper. There was an accumulation of more objects and a desire for more acquisitions. Coupling this, there was the value of exoticism, valuing things that came from a great distance. Europeans and Ottomans alike were developing a consciousness of themselves in relation to the broader world. At the same time the Ottomans were slowly ceasing to be regarded as a serious military threat to Western Europe, despite their continuing occupation of the Balkans, and campaigns such as that ended by the Battle of Vienna as late as 1683.\n",
"Although there was relatively little immigration from Europe, the rapid expansion of settlements to the West, and the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, opened up vast frontier lands. The high birth rate, and the availability of cheap land caused the rapid expansion of population. The average age was under 20, with children everywhere. The population grew from 5.3 million people in 1800, living on 865,000 square miles of land to 9.6 million in 1820 on 1,749,000 square miles. By 1840, the population had reached 17,069,000 on the same land.\n",
"The 20th century, following in Henri Beraldi's wake, keeps developing a pyreneist subjectivity linked with the post-exploration and post-conquest. Although at the end of the 19th century another type of conquest already begins with the search for new trails, we witness a new form of conquest based notably on an important technical evolution, European at first, then under the influence of North America. Thus is set, similarly to the \"difficulty alpinism\", a \"difficulty pyreneism\".\n",
"Throughout the early age of exploration, it became increasingly clear that the residents of the Iberian Peninsula were experts at navigation, sailing, and expansion. From Henry the Navigator's first adventures down the African coast to Columbus's fabled expedition resulting in the discovery of the new world, the figures that catalyzed the European appetite for expansion and imperialism heralded from either Spain or Portugal. However, merely a century earlier, nautical travel for most peoples was resigned to keeping within sight of a coastline and very rarely did ships venture out into deeper waters. The period's ships were not able to handle the forces of open ocean travel and the crewmen had neither the ability nor the necessary materials to keep themselves from getting lost. A sailor's ability to travel was dictated by the technology available, and it wasn’t until the late 15th century that the development of the nautical sciences on the Iberian Peninsula allowed for the genesis of long distance shipping by directly effecting, and leading to the creation of, new tools and techniques relative to navigation.\n",
"Geopolitical, monetary, and technological factors drove the Age of Discovery. During this period (1450-17th century), the European economic center shifted from the Islamic Mediterranean to Western Europe (Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and to some extent England). This shift was caused by the successful circumnavigation of Africa, which opened up sea-trade with the east: after Portugal's Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed in Calicut, India in May 1498, a new path of eastern trade was possible, ending the monopoly of the Ottoman Turks and the Italian city-states. The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade. Following this, Portugal became the controlling state for trade between east and west, followed later by the Dutch city of Antwerp. Direct maritime trade between Europe and China started in the 16th century, after the Portuguese established the settlement of Goa, India in December 1510, and thereafter that of Macau in southern China in 1557. Since the English came late to the transatlantic trade, their commercial revolution was later as well.\n",
"From the mid-18th century through the 19th century scientific missions mapped the newly discovered regions, brought back to Europe the newly discovered fauna and flora, made hydrological, astronomical and meteorological observations and improved the methods of navigation. This stimulated great advances in the scientific disciplines of natural history, botany, zoology, ichthyology, conchology, taxonomy, medicine, geography, geology, mineralogy, hydrology, oceanography, physics, meteorology etc. – all contributing to the sense of \"improvement\" and \"progress\" that characterized the Enlightenment. Artists were used to record landscapes and indigenous peoples, while natural history illustrators captured the appearance of organisms before they deteriorated after collection. Some of the world's finest natural history illustrations were produced at this time and the illustrators changed from informed amateurs to fully trained professionals acutely aware of the need for scientific accuracy.\n",
"The age of discovery, seen from the European point of view, introduced major economic changes. The Columbian exchange resulted in Europe adopting new crops, as well as shaking up traditional cultural ideas and practices. The commercial revolution continued, with Europeans developing mercantilism and European imports of luxury goods (notably spices and fine cloth) from eastern and southern Asia switching from crossing Islamic territory in the present-day Middle East to passing the Cape of Good Hope. Spain proved adept at plundering the gold and silver of the Americas, but incompetent at converting its new wealth into a vibrant domestic economy, and declined as an economic power. The centres of commerce and manufactures shifted definitively from the Mediterranean to the centres of shipping and colonisation on the western Atlantic coastal fringe: economic activity went into a relative decline in the Italian peninsula and in the Ottoman Empire - but to the advantage of Portugal, Spain, France, the Dutch Republic and England/Britain. In eastern Europe, Russia suppressed the Tatar slave-trade, expanded commerce in luxury furs from Siberia and rivalled the Scandinavian and German states in the Baltic. \"Colonial goods\" like sugar and tobacco from the Americas came to play a role in the European economy. Meanwhile, changes in financial practice (especially in the Netherlands and in England), the second agricultural revolution in Britain and technological innovations in France, Prussia and England not only promoted economic changes and expansion in themselves, but also fostered the beginnings of the industrial revolution.\n"
] |
what the different url means | They're just supposed to denote what kind of organisation is using the website. The usual .com was originally intended for commercial sites, .org for nonprofit organisations, and .net for networking technologies (guess what .tv was supposed to be used for?), but they ended up being unrestricted so anyone can use mostly anything (.mil and .gov are obvious examples of ones that aren't open to public use). There are also country-specific ones that are an offshoot, ._URL_0_ (British site) and .de (German site) being the most commonly seen ones, but most countries again don't really restrict their usage. | [
"As such, a URL is simply a URI that happens to point to a resource over a network. However, in non-technical contexts and in software for the World Wide Web, the term \"URL\" remains widely used. Additionally, the term \"web address\" (which has no formal definition) often occurs in non-technical publications as a synonym for a URI that uses the \"http\" or \"https\" schemes. Such assumptions can lead to confusion, for example, in the case of XML namespaces that have a visual similarity to resolvable URIs.\n",
"A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications.\n",
"A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), or web address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably.\n",
"A URI is a string of characters used to identify a name or resource. URIs are used in many Internet protocols to refer to and access information resources. URI schemes include the familiar codice_1, as well as hundreds of others.\n",
"A \"namespace name\" is a uniform resource identifier (URI). Typically, the URI chosen for the namespace of a given XML vocabulary describes a resource under the control of the author or organization defining the vocabulary, such as a URL for the author's Web server. However, the namespace specification does not require nor suggest that the namespace URI be used to retrieve information; it is simply treated by an XML parser as a string. For example, the document at http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml itself does not contain any code. It simply describes the XHTML namespace to human readers. Using a URI (such as \"http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml\") to identify a namespace, rather than a simple string (such as \"xhtml\"), reduces the probability of different namespaces using duplicate identifiers.\n",
"In XML, a namespace is an abstract domain to which a collection of element and attribute names can be assigned. The namespace name is a character string which must adhere to the generic URI syntax. However, the name is generally not considered to be a URI, because the URI specification bases the decision not only on lexical components, but also on their intended use. A namespace name does not necessarily imply any of the semantics of URI schemes; for example, a namespace name beginning with \"http:\" may have no connotation to the use of the HTTP.\n",
"The uniform resource locator (URL) of a home page is most often the base-level domain name, such as https://wikipedia.org. Historically it may also be found at http://domain.tld/index.html or http://domain.tld/default.html, where \"tld\" refers to the top-level domain used by the website.\n"
] |
How do astronauts tell how fast they are going in space? | It is just as valid for an astronaut to say they are still and all else is moving as it is to say the earth is still (we know it rotates on its axis and around the sun).
There will be someone on the ground telling them by radio their speed and position **relative** to the shuttle/satellite/station. | [
"There was no mass or power available in the LESS for an Inertial Measurement Unit to measure acceleration and tell the astronauts where they were, where they were going or how fast they would be getting there, or even for a radar altimeter to show altitude above the lunar surface.\n",
"In order to unambiguously express the speed of a spacecraft, a frame of reference must be specified. Typically, this frame is fixed to the body with the greatest gravitational influence on the spacecraft, as this is the most relevant frame for most purposes. Velocities in different frames of reference are not directly comparable; thus the matter of the \"fastest spacecraft\" depends on the reference frame used.\n",
"With current technology severely limiting the velocity of space travel, however, the differences experienced in practice are minuscule: after 6 months on the International Space Station (ISS) (which orbits Earth at a speed of about 7,700 m/s) an astronaut would have aged about 0.005 seconds less than those on Earth. The cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Sergei Avdeyev both experienced time dilation of about 20 milliseconds compared to time that passed on Earth.\n",
"To launch a space vehicle with humans on board, a mass driver's track would need to be several hundreds of kilometers long if providing almost all the velocity to Low Earth Orbit, though a lesser length could provide major launch assist. Required length, if accelerating mainly at near a constant maximum acceptable g-force for passengers, is proportional to velocity squared. For instance, half of the velocity goal could correspond to a quarter as long of a tunnel needing to be constructed, for the same acceleration. For rugged objects, much higher accelerations may suffice, allowing a far shorter track, potentially circular or helical (spiral). Another concept involves a large ring design whereby a space vehicle would circle the ring numerous times, gradually gaining speed, before being released into a launch corridor leading skyward.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Space mean speed\" is measured over the whole roadway segment. Consecutive pictures or video of a roadway segment track the speed of individual vehicles, and then the average speed is calculated. It is considered more accurate than the time mean speed. The data for space calculating space mean speed may be taken from satellite pictures, a camera, or both.\n",
"BULLET::::- Imagine you are watching a rocket take off nearby and measuring the distance it has traveled once each second. In the first couple of seconds your measurements may be accurate to the nearest centimeter, say. However, 5 minutes later as the rocket recedes into space, the accuracy of your measurements may only be good to 100 m, because of the increased distance, atmospheric distortion and a variety of other factors. The data you collect would exhibit heteroscedasticity.\n",
"Project Mercury astronauts could only adjust yaw, pitch, or roll, but Gemini crewmen had full manual control over their flight path. Walter Schirra said that on Gemini 6 \"I was amazed at my ability to maneuver. I did a fly-around inspection of Gemini 7, literally flying rings around it, and I could move to within inches of it in perfect confidence\". Because there is no turbulence in space \"It was like the Blue Angels at 18,000 miles per hour, only it was easier\".\n"
] |
if a non-english speaker learns english from a natural english speaker, why exactly do they have an accent? | It's not as easy as you think to "emulate sounds".
Basically, the older we get, the harder it is to learn new skills. Learning how to pronounce sounds is easy when you're a baby -- literally child's play. But once you're past puberty, it gets harder to learn new sounds.
To actually make intelligible sounds that mean something, a lot of things have to work very closely together. Your diaphragm, vocal cords, glottis, tongue, jaw and lips have to move in very precisely controlled ways and all in sync just to make the right sounds. This means creating neural pathways in the brain to deal with all this, something that gets harder as we get older.
It would be interesting to hear how you cope with learning a new foreign language. I would wager that no matter how good you think you are, you would have a very noticeable accent.
> If you learn a word, but cannot properly pronounce it, have you actually learned it?
Yes. You would be pronouncing it as best you could, given the limitations imposed by your own brain. You may know exactly what sounds you're aiming for, but you're simply not capable of getting them exactly right because your brain isn't wired up to cope with them. | [
"The speech of non-native English speakers may exhibit pronunciation characteristics that result from their imperfectly learning the sound system of English, either by transferring the phonological rules from their mother tongue into their English speech (\"interference\") or through implementing strategies similar to those used in primary language acquisition. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds not found in the speaker's first language.\n",
"The following is a list of common non-native pronunciations that English speakers make when trying to speak foreign languages. Many of these are due to transfer of phonological rules from English to the new language as well as differences in grammar and syntax that they encounter.\n",
"English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing them. For example:\n",
"Many teachers of English as a second language neglect to teach speech/pronunciation. Many adult and near-adult learners of second languages have unintelligible speech patterns that may interfere with their education, profession, and social interactions. Pronunciation in a second or foreign language involves more than the correct articulation of individual sounds. It involves producing a wide range of complex and subtle distinctions which relate sound to meaning at several levels.\n",
"Non-native pronunciations of English result from the common linguistic phenomenon in which non-native users of any language tend to carry the intonation, phonological processes and pronunciation rules from their first language or first languages into their English speech. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds not found in the speaker's first language.\n",
"When a group defines a standard pronunciation, speakers who deviate from it are often said to \"speak with an accent\". However, everyone speaks with an accent. People from the United States would \"speak with an accent\" from the point of view of an Australian, and vice versa. Accents such as BBC English or General American may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as \"accentless\" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to the speaker's regional or social background.\n",
"It can be noted that use of language such as certain accents may result in an individual experiencing prejudice. For example, some accents hold more prestige than others depending on the cultural context. However, with so many dialects, it can be difficult to determine which is the most preferable. The best answer linguists can give, such as the authors of \"Do You Speak American?\", is that it depends on the location and the individual. Research has determined however that some sounds in languages may be determined to sound less pleasant naturally. Also, certain accents tend to carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States speaking General American (i.e., an absence of a regional, ethnic, or working class accent) is widely preferred in many contexts such as television journalism. Also, in the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation is associated with being of higher class and thus more likeable. In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence, and having poorer social skills. An example can be seen in the difference between Southerners and Northerners in the United States, where people from the North are typically perceived as being less likable in character, and Southerners are perceived as being less intelligent.\n"
] |
If Earth had a huge equatorial ocean like it did in the past, would it be possible we'd observe persistent hurricanes lasting months or even years, like a mini-version of Jupiter's great red spot? | Not quite.
Global winds and ocean currents on planets are based off numerous factors.
- The tilt of the planet (not just seasons, but if influences the amount of sunlight at the equator and the poles)
- Positioning of continents (alters ocean currents)
- Positioning of continents (warm and cold air)
- Speed of the planet rotation (Coriolis effect)
- Size of Planet
- What 'substances' are being involved (we still don't know for sure what is in the Great Red Spot).
If earth contained only land at the poles, and was just ocean from 60S to 60N, you would see some systematic weather. Earth (with continents) has ocean currents surround our continents and impact our climates.
An example: Western Europe should be Taiga (as Taiga forests usually occur around 60N and 60S). However, the Gulf Stream which hits the Eastern United States Seaboard provides warm currents to Europe; Europe, as we know, contains deciduous forest.
_____
Now about Jupiter and other planets:
It is not uncommon for gas giants to have bizarre weather. There is little 'atmosphere', let alone friction from the surface of the planet. We still don't know what makes the Great Red Spot 'exist'. A theory is that hot gases rise to higher levels, eddies form, and ultimately fuel the Great Red Spot.
Anticyclonic storms, or storms which 'spin' in the wrong direction (like Great Red Spot), are not impacted by the Coriolis effect because they are so 'small' compared to the planet's size. We know this because tornados on Earth can sometimes spin backwards.
| [
"Storms do not only occur on Earth; other planetary bodies with a sufficient atmosphere (gas giants in particular) also undergo stormy weather. The Great Red Spot on Jupiter provides a well-known example. Though technically an anticyclone, with greater than hurricane wind speeds, it is larger than the Earth and has persisted for at least 340 years, having first been observed by astronomer Galileo Galilei. Neptune also had its own lesser-known Great Dark Spot.\n",
"According to 2006 studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, \"the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the earth's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere\".\n",
"According to 2006 studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, \"the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the Earth's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere\".\n",
"The 1875 Atlantic hurricane season featured three landfalling tropical cyclones. However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated. There were five recorded hurricanes and one major hurricane – Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. \n",
"The 1863 Atlantic hurricane season featured five landfalling tropical cyclones. In the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 has been estimated. There were seven recorded hurricanes and no major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. Of the known 1863 cyclones, seven were first documented in 1995 by José Fernández-Partagás and Henry Diaz, while the ninth tropical storm was first documented in 2003. These changes were largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT), with some adjustments.\n",
"Often in part because of the threat of hurricanes, many coastal regions had sparse population between major ports until the advent of automobile tourism; therefore, the most severe portions of hurricanes striking the coast may have gone unmeasured in some instances. The combined effects of ship destruction and remote landfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official record before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft and satellite meteorology. Although the record shows a distinct increase in the number and strength of intense hurricanes, therefore, experts regard the early data as suspect. Christopher Landsea \"et al.\" estimated an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910. These undercounts roughly take into account the typical size of tropical cyclones, the density of shipping tracks over the Atlantic basin, and the amount of populated coastline.\n",
"A natural form of large scale environmental dimming effect on the development of tropical cyclones originates from Sahara desert dust, when the drifting sand and mineral particles laden air moves over the Atlantic Ocean. The particles reflect and absorb sunlight, less sun rays reach Earth surface layers, thus resulting in cooler water and land surface temperatures, and also less cloud formation, subsequently dampening the development of hurricanes.\n"
] |
What physical properties make Iron, Cobalt and Nickel ferromagnetic? | It is complicated. Paramagnetism and diamagnetism can be explained in terms of electron spins and electron orbital motion around an atom. If there are too many spins that are unpaired then the spins align with the field (para), if the spins are paired then the spins play no role and it is all about orbital motion which opposes the field (dia).
For transition metals it is more complicated, because you cannot longer see the problem in the atom by atom picture. Iron, cobalt and nickel have important electron electron interactions that give rise to interesting phenomena. You have to consider the whole material, and think it terms of energy bands. The bands of transition metals are very narrow and large. This materials have unfilled "d-bands", one for up spins and one for down spins and interactions may favor one of this bands. As the bands are very large, even having a slight difference between the two bands, means having a lot of electrons pointing at the same direction.
If a field is applied electrons may point in the direction of the field. Surely, not all unpaired bands can point in the same direction in the material because it would be too energetic. But, you can have different domains in your material to counteract this effect. Anyhow, the direction of the magnetic field would be preferable. When you turn off the field it may cost some energy to randomize the domains again, so the material would prefer to keep a remnant magnetization. Impurities in the material may help to pin the domains.
Short anwser: it depends on the interactions, the number and properties of the valence electrons and the impurities of the material
Edit: typos | [
"The workability and corrosion resistance of iron and chromium are increased by adding gadolinium; the creep resistance of nickel is improved with the addition of thorium. Tellurium is added to copper (Tellurium Copper) and steel alloys to improve their machinability; and to lead to make it harder and more acid-resistant.\n",
"Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron, cobalt, and gadolinium) that are ferromagnetic at approximately room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys; about 68% of world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, 9% in plating and 4% in other applications, including the fast-growing battery sector. As a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogenation, cathodes for batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments. Nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site.\n",
"Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the turbine blades of jet engines, in spacecraft, and in nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers.\n",
"Nickel aluminide is unique in that it has very high thermal conductivity combined with high strength at high temperature. These properties, combined with its high strength and low density, make it ideal for special applications like coating blades in gas turbines and jet engines.\n",
"Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. Cobalt has a relative permeability two-thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is , but in practice the energy difference between them is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common.\n",
"In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with nickel. Both are characteristic components of meteoric iron, though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed) metal, though neither element is seen in that form in the ancient terrestrial crust.\n",
"Cobalt-based superalloys have historically consumed most of the cobalt produced. The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and aircraft jet engines, although nickel-based single-crystal alloys surpass them in performance. Cobalt-based alloys are also corrosion- and wear-resistant, making them, like titanium, useful for making orthopedic implants that don't wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear-resistant. Special cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts (hip and knee replacements). Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic. Some high-speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium-cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets. It is also alloyed with 95% platinum for jewelry, yielding an alloy suitable for fine casting, which is also slightly magnetic.\n"
] |
what constitutes resisting arrest? if i just go ragdoll when arrested, would that count? | If you do not comply with the officers instructions, then you are resisting. They will instruct you to do certain things with your hands, and to get into certain positions, and if you just go rag-doll and refuse to comply then you will be treated as non-compliant and resisting arrest. It's passive resistance, not violent resistance, but resistance none-the-less, and the officers will likely apply cooperative measures to ensure that you obey their commands.
If an officer says "get your hands up" or "face me" and you just stand there all rag-doll he's going to take you down you so fast that your head will spin while it's getting a knee jammed into it. | [
"A person commits resisting arrest by intentionally preventing or attempting to prevent a person reasonably known to him to be a peace officer, acting under color of such peace officer's official authority, from effecting an arrest by: (1). Using or threatening to use physical force against the peace officer or another (2) Using any other means creating a substantial risk of causing physical injury to the peace officer or another (3) Engaging in passive resistance. B. Resisting arrest pursuant to subsection A, paragraph 1 or 2 of this section is a class 6 felony. Resisting arrest pursuant to subsection A, paragraph 3 of this section is a class 1 misdemeanor. C. For the purposes of this section, \"passive resistance\" means a nonviolent physical act or failure to act that is intended to impede, hinder or delay the effecting of an arrest.\n",
"A person commits the offense of resisting arrest if he or she knowingly resists a person known by him or her to be a law enforcement officer effecting an arrest. (2) As used in this subsection, \"resists\" means using or threatening to use physical force or any other means that creates a substantial risk of physical injury to any person. (3) It is no defense to a prosecution under this subsection that the law enforcement officer lacked legal authority to make the arrest if the law enforcement officer was acting under color of his or her official authority. (4) Resisting arrest is a Class A misdemeanor. (b) (1) A person commits the offense of refusal to submit to arrest if he or she knowingly refuses to submit to arrest by a person known by him or her to be a law enforcement officer effecting an arrest. (2) As used in this subsection, \"refuses\" means active or passive refusal. (3) It is no defense to a prosecution under this subsection that the law enforcement officer lacked legal authority to make the arrest if the law enforcement officer was acting under color of his or her official authority. (4) Refusal to submit to arrest is a Class B misdemeanor.\n",
"The courts in the United States regard resisting arrest as a separate charge or crime in addition to other alleged crimes committed by the arrested person. It is possible to be charged, tried and convicted on this charge alone, without any underlying cause for the original decision to arrest or even if the original arrest was clearly illegal. Accordingly, it is never advisable to resist even an unlawful arrest as it will likely result in the use of force by the arresting officer and the addition of the charge of resisting. In most states, see below, resisting arrest is a misdemeanor which can result in jail time.\n",
"A person commits the offense of resisting arrest if the person intentionally prevents a law enforcement officer acting under color of the law enforcement officer's official authority from effecting an arrest by: (a) Using or threatening to use physical force against the law enforcement officer or another; or (b) Using any other means creating a substantial risk of causing bodily injury to the law enforcement officer or another. (2) Resisting arrest is a misdemeanor. [L 1972, c 9, pt of §1; gen ch 1993; am L 2001, c 91, §4]\n",
"Arrestment, in Scots law, is the process by which a creditor detains the goods or effects of his debtor in the hands of third parties till the debt due to him shall be paid. It is divided into several kinds:\n",
"RESISTING ARREST The defendant is charged with resisting arrest. Section 32B of chapter 268 of our General Laws provides as follows: “A person commits the crime of resisting arrest if he [she] knowingly prevents or attempts to prevent a police officer, acting under color of his [her] official authority, from effecting an arrest of [himself] or another [either] by using or threatening to use physical force or violence against the police officer or another; or [by] using any other means which creates a substantial risk of causing bodily injury to such police officer or another.” In order to prove the defendant guilty of this offense, the Commonwealth must prove four things beyond a reasonable doubt: First: That the defendant prevented or attempted to prevent a police officer from making an arrest (of the defendant) (or) (of another person); Second: That the officer was acting under color of his (her) official authority at the time; Third: That the defendant resisted: either by using, or threatening to use, physical force or violence against the police officer (or another person); or by using some other means which created a substantial risk of causing bodily injury to the police officer (or another person); and Fourth: That the defendant did so knowingly; that is to say, that the defendant knew at the time that he (she) was acting to prevent an arrest by a police officer acting under color of his (her) official authority. As I have indicated, the Commonwealth must prove that the police officer was acting “under color of official authority.” A police officer acts “under color of official authority” when, in the regular course of assigned duties, he (she) makes a judgment in good faith, based on the surrounding facts and circumstances, that he (she) should make an arrest.\n",
"A person is guilty of resisting arrest when he intentionally prevents or attempts to prevent a peace officer, recognized to be acting under color of his official authority, from effecting an arrest of the actor or another by: (a) Using or threatening to use physical force or violence against the peace officer or another; or (b) Using any other means creating a substantial risk of causing physical injury to the peace officer or another. (2) Resisting arrest is a Class A misdemeanor.\n"
] |
How strong/durable would a sheet of diamond be? | Diamond is the hardest naturally occuring substance, which means it's scratch resistant. But it doesn't mean it won't break. That's more of a toughness thing. Toughness measures how much energy it takes to break it.
Diamond has a toughness of about 2.0 MPa m^(1/2). Glass is about 0.7 to 0.8 MPa m^(1/2). So diamonds would be about 2.6 times tougher. Imagine throwing a rock to break a window. You'd need to throw a rock 2.6 times heavier the same speed or the same rock 1.4 times faster to break a diamond window than a glass window.
In case you're wondering, strength refers to how much force it takes to break something. If it flexes more, a material that's just as strong can be tougher. I can't find anything saying how strong diamond is though. | [
"Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic. Diamond is an optically isotropic crystal that is transparent to opaque. Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Yet, due to important structural weaknesses, diamond's toughness is only fair to good. The precise tensile strength of bulk diamond is unknown, however compressive strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–100 GPa in the form of nanometer-sized wires or needles (~100-300 nanometers in diameter),with a corresponding local maximum tensile elastic strain in excess of 9%. The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting. Diamond has a high refractive index (2.417) and moderate dispersion (0.044) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present. Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond's crystal structure, and in some cases structural defects, are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond. Most diamonds are electrical insulators but extremely efficient thermal conductors. Unlike many other minerals, the specific gravity of diamond crystals (3.52) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond.\n",
"The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown, however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and theoretically it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the sample volume/size, the perfection of diamond lattice and on its orientation: Tensile strength is the highest for the [100] crystal direction (normal to the cubic face), smaller for the [110] and the smallest for the [111] axis (along the longest cube diagonal). Diamond also has one of the smallest compressibilities of any material.\n",
"Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – \"adámas\" (\"proper\", \"unalterable\", \"unbreakable\") and sometimes called adamant, diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms, where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds. The material boron nitride, when in a form structurally identical to diamond (zincblende structure), is nearly as hard as diamond; a currently hypothetical material, beta carbon nitride, may also be as hard or harder in one form. It has been shown that some diamond aggregates having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals, thus they perform better as abrasive material. Owing to the use of those new ultra-hard materials for diamond testing, more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness. A surface perpendicular to the [111] crystallographic direction (that is the longest diagonal of a cube) of a pure (i.e., type IIa) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with a nanodiamond tip, while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip. Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested, the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa.\n",
"Diamond is the hardest known natural material on both the Vickers scale and the Mohs scale. Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.\n",
"Diamond is the hardest known material to date, with a Vickers hardness in the range of 70–150 GPa. Diamond demonstrates both high thermal conductivity and electrically insulating properties and much attention has been put into finding practical applications of this material. However, diamond has several limitations for mass industrial application, including its high cost and oxidation at temperatures above 800 °C. In addition, diamond dissolves in iron and forms iron carbides at high temperatures and therefore is inefficient in cutting ferrous materials including steel. Therefore, recent research of superhard materials has been focusing on compounds which would be thermally and chemically more stable than pure diamond.\n",
"The material was first proposed in 1985 by Marvin Cohen and Amy Liu. Examining the nature of crystalline bonds they theorised that carbon and nitrogen atoms could form a particularly short and strong bond in a stable crystal lattice in a ratio of 1:1.3. That this material would be harder than diamond on the Mohs scale was first proposed in 1989.\n",
"Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property \"toughness\", which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.5–10 MPa·m. This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughnesses over 100 MPa·m. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting. \"Impact toughness\" is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds.\n"
] |
pulse vs hearth-rate | **Heart**-rate
Your pulse can have a little extra information on your health. A heart rate is the number of beats per minute that your heart makes, but on top of that a pulse can add the strength and consistency of the heartbeat at the point where it's measured. For example, a pulse can be characterized as "weak and thready" meaning your circulation system is having difficulty moving blood around due to a blood clot somewhere, even if your heart rate is normal.
As for sources for further reading, this is ELI5, not "quote your sources". Google it if you want more than a layman's explanation. | [
"The pulse is the rate at which the heart beats while pumping blood through the arteries, recorded as beats per minute (bpm). It may also be called \"heart rate\". The pulse is commonly taken at the wrist (radial artery). Alternative sites include the elbow (brachial artery), the neck (carotid artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), or in the foot (dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries). The pulse rate can also be measured by listening directly to the heartbeat using a stethoscope. The pulse varies with age: a newborn or infant can have a heart rate of 130–150 bpm, a toddler of 100–120 bpm, an older child of 60–100 bpm, an adolescent of 80–100 bpm, and an adult of 50–80 bpm.\n",
"In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the neck (carotid artery), wrist (radial artery), at the groin (femoral artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and on foot (dorsalis pedis artery). Pulse (or the count of arterial pulse per minute) is equivalent to measuring the heart rate. The heart rate can also be measured by listening to the heart beat by auscultation, traditionally using a stethoscope and counting it for a minute. The radial pulse is commonly measured using three fingers. This has a reason: the finger closest to the heart is used to occlude the pulse pressure, the middle finger is used get a crude estimate of the blood pressure, and the finger most distal to the heart (usually the ring finger) is used to nullify the effect of the ulnar pulse as the two arteries are connected via the palmar arches (superficial and deep). The study of the pulse is known as sphygmology.\n",
"BULLET::::- Indexes of beat-to-beat variability such as RMSSD reported by The Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Heart Rhythm Society. Frequency analysis of heart rate in the range 0.15–0.4 Hz has been reported to quantify vagal tone.\n",
"The first person to accurately measure the pulse rate was Santorio Santorii who invented the \"pulsilogium\", a form of pendulum, based on the work by Galileo Galilei. A century later another physician, de Lacroix, used the pulsilogium to test cardiac function.\n",
"Heart rate is the speed of the heartbeat measured by the number of contractions (beats) of the heart per minute (bpm). The heart rate can vary according to the body's physical needs, including the need to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide. It is usually equal or close to the pulse measured at any peripheral point. Activities that can provoke change include physical exercise, sleep, anxiety, stress, illness, and ingestion of drugs.\n",
"Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse. The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.\n",
"The pulse rate can be used to check overall heart health and fitness level. Generally lower is better, but bradycardias can be dangerous. Symptoms of a dangerously slow heartbeat include weakness, loss of energy and fainting.\n"
] |
how there can be so much money in network tv advertising and so little in comparative online advertising? | First off, Youtube is not struggling to profit; neither is Netflix. Netflix made more than $2 Billion in profit and $20 billion in revenue last year, far more than any TV station. Alphabet Inc (parent of Google/Youtube) is the 3rd largest company on earth with a value of $988200000000.
Secondly, there are few TV stations. There are only 5 broadcast networks in the US: ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox, and The CW. There are a few dozen pay channels available via cable. There are literally millions of websites. It's very easy to start a website. It's very difficult to start a TV station; you either need a license to broadcast or an agreement with a cable provider. So a TV station doesn't have to fight as hard for viewers.
Everyone sees the same ads on TV, whereas ads on websites are individualized. An ad that 50 million people see is worth more than an ad that 1 thousand people see. | [
"The advertising network market is a large and growing market, with Internet advertising revenues expected to grow from $135.42 bn in 2014 to $239.87 bn in 2019. Digital advertising revenues in the United States alone are set to reach $107.30 bn in 2018 which is an 18.7% increase from 2017 ad spend. This growth will result in many new players in the market and encourage acquisitions of ad networks by larger companies that either enter the market or expand their market presence. Currently, there are hundreds of ad networks worldwide and the landscape changes daily.\n",
"Advertising has developed into a multibillion-dollar business. In 2014, 537 billion US dollars were spent worldwide for advertising. In 2013, TV accounted for 40.1% of ad spending, compared to a combined 18.1% for internet, 16.9% for newspapers, 7.9% for magazines, 7% for outdoor, 6.9% for radio, 2.7% for mobile and 0.5% for cinema as a share of ad spending by medium. Advertising is considered to raise consumption.\n",
"In 2016, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and broadcast television. In 2017, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $83.0 billion, a 14% increase over the $72.50 billion in revenues in 2016.\n",
"Television retained the lion's share of advertising expenditure, with 55% of above-the-line advertising. In a 2006 poll, GAM found that 94% of its members used outdoor advertising, although 81% companied about problems, mainly caused by quality issues and delays. The potential for expansion is huge, and while telecoms should remain the largest advertising segment, fast-growing sectors of the economy such as retail, automobile and real estate are providing advertising companies with new opportunities.\n",
"Revenues of U.S. advertising agencies (more than 65,000 advertising businesses employing more than 248,000 employees) were $166.8 billion in 2014. In 2016, global advertising sales reached $493 billion. For 2017 it was estimated that digital ad sales were first to surpass the TV market.\n",
"With global advertising spend more than doubling its growth rate from 2.6% to 5.7% from 2013 to 2014, and with a study by ZenithOptimedia finding that TV advertising still accounts for 39.6% of adspend in 2014, television advertising and its workflow is a thriving and growing industry.\n",
"Only around 7 percent of advertising money goes to newspapers. 45 percent goes to broadcast media. Still, even if this is the largest share, regional TV channels receives a little part of this, with most money going to national ones. But since there are fifteen nationwide TV channels, the slices are still small. State-owned media offers lower rates than private one, because they do not need advertising money for their survival.\n"
] |
Need to explain gravity and falling objects to my 9yo... | A simple thing that no one's mentioned is to put the piece of paper on top of and underneath the book when you drop them, rather than side by side. If they actually fall at different speeds, they would separate in one case. They'll fall together in both though, because the paper is shielded from air resistance effects by the book. If air resistance wasn't what was causing the difference, then this wouldn't matter. | [
"This particular equivalence often referred to as the \"Galilean equivalence principle\" or the \"weak equivalence principle\" has the most important consequence for freely falling objects. Suppose an object has inertial and gravitational masses \"m\" and \"M\", respectively. If the only force acting on the object comes from a gravitational field \"g\", the force on the object is:\n",
"Technically, an object is in free fall even when moving upwards or instantaneously at rest at the top of its motion. If gravity is the only influence acting, then the acceleration is always downward and has the same magnitude for all bodies, commonly denoted formula_1.\n",
"Closely tied in with this equivalence is the fact that gravity vanishes in free fall. For objects falling in an elevator whose cable is cut, all gravitational forces vanish, and things begin to look like the free-floating absence of forces one sees in videos from the International Space Station. It is a linchpin of general relativity that everything must fall together in free fall. Just as with acceleration versus gravity, no experiment should be able to distinguish the effects of free fall in a gravitational field, and being out in deep space far from any forces.\n",
"Intelligent Falling proposes that the scientific explanation of gravitational force cannot explain all aspects of the phenomenon, so credence should be given to the idea that things fall because a higher intelligence is moving them. Furthermore, IF asserts that theories explaining gravity are not internally consistent nor mathematically reconcilable with quantum mechanics, making gravity a \"theory in crisis\". IF also makes the claim that gravity is \"only a theory\", parodying the claims made by creationists regarding the theoretical status of evolution. IF apologists jokingly advocate that IF should be taught in school along with the theory of gravity so that students can make \"an informed decision\" on the subject in a parody of the demands to \"teach the controversy\".\n",
"For an object in free-fall, this force is unopposed and the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall, the force of gravity is opposed by the reaction forces applied by their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground experiences zero net force, since a normal force (a reaction force) is exerted by the ground upward on the person that counterbalances his weight that is directed downward.\n",
"The equivalence between gravitational and inertial effects does not constitute a complete theory of gravity. When it comes to explaining gravity near our own location on the Earth's surface, noting that our reference frame is not in free fall, so that fictitious forces are to be expected, provides a suitable explanation. But a freely falling reference frame on one side of the Earth cannot explain why the people on the opposite side of the Earth experience a gravitational pull in the opposite direction.\n",
"Objects allowed to free-fall in an \"inertial trajectory\" under the influence of gravitation only feel no g-force, a condition known as zero-g (which means zero g-force). This is demonstrated by the \"zero-g\" conditions inside an elevator falling freely toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or (to good approximation) conditions inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. The experience of no g-force (zero-g), however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness.\n"
] |
in the way that people are able to build their own pcs, how far away are we from being able to build our own cellphones? | The major issue there is that most cellphone technology is extremely compact and build to fit around preselected parts where computers have components that can come in diffrent shapes and sizes, the designs are also far less modular. When I replied my iPhones charging port I had to use tweasers to re attach some components. They also lack a uniform standees design like computers making most parts incompatibl. | [
"The majority of people around the world still do not have access to personal computing. Many of the current efforts to bridge the digital divide are failing and it is difficult for organizations to make a dent in this large demand. The idea of providing a “laptop per child” sounds feasible in theory, but there is merely not enough funding to do so. Other initiatives to provide students with mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, are struggling to provide a fulfilling educational experience, especially if students aspire to go into the professional world. The distribution of relatively expensive mobile devices can pose a danger to many students in low income communities throughout the world, as children become potential targets of crime.\n",
"A few researchers at places such as SRI and Xerox PARC were working on computers that a single person could use and that could be connected by fast, versatile networks: not home computers, but personal ones.\n",
"One respected Tajik NGO estimates that 1 percent of households own personal computers and that most people access the Internet from home by way of dial-up connections. Access with DSL and wireless (Wi-Fi and WiMAX) technologies is limited by relatively high costs, and therefore restricted to a small number of commercial companies.\n",
"As of June 2008, the number of personal computers in use worldwide hit one billion, while another billion is expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58% of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging markets were expected to double their installed PCs by 2012 and to take 70% of the second billion PCs. About 180 million computers (16% of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12% annually.\n",
"As of June 2008, the number of personal computers worldwide in use hit one billion. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58 percent of the worldwide installed PCs. About 180 million PCs (16 percent of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12 percent annually.\n",
"Passing out the technology free of charge is not enough to ensure youth and adults learn how to use the tools effectively. Most American youths now have at least minimal access to networked computers, be it at school or in public libraries, but \"children who have access to home computers demonstrate more positive attitudes towards computers, show more enthusiasm, and report more enthusiast and ease when using computer than those who do not (Page 8 Wartella, O'Keefe, and Scantlin (2000)). As the children with more access to computers gain more comfort in using them, the less tech-savvy students get pushed aside. It is important to note that it is more than a simple binary at work here, as working-class youths may still have access so some technologies (e.g. gaming consoles) while other forms remain unattainable. This inequality would allow certain skills to develop in some children, such as play, while others remain unavailable, such as the ability to produce and distribute self-created media.\n",
"The American One Laptop per Child (OLPC) project, launched in several African countries in 2005, aimed to equip schools with laptop computers at low cost. While the average price of an inexpensive personal computer was between US$200 and US$500, OLPC offered its ultraportable XO-1 computer at the price of US$100. This technological breakthrough marked an important step in potential access to ICT. OLPC became an institutional system: the programme was “bought” by governments, which then took responsibility for distribution to the schools. The underlying logic of the initiative was one of centralization, thus enabling the largescale distribution of the equipment. Almost 2 million teachers and pupils are now involved in the programme worldwide (http://one.laptop.org/) and more than 2.4 million computers have been delivered. Following on from OLPC, the Intel group launched Classmate PC, a similar programme also intended for pupils in developing countries. Though it has a smaller presence in sub-Saharan Africa than the OLPC project, Classmate PC has enabled laptop computers to be delivered to primary schools in the Seychelles and Kenya, particularly in rural areas. Also in Kenya, the CFSK (Computer for School in Kenya) project was started in 2002 with the aim of distributing computers to almost 9,000 schools.\n"
] |
what is programmatic advertising? | Using programming (computers) to buy ads. Some are sold in what's called real time bidding. Basically when you visit a website with the ad in question whoever is selling the ad starts a short "auction" among some competitors and whoever has the highest bid gets the add and that's what you see. So obviously this all happens very fast, less than a second. The sellers then obviously will use computer programs to make this efficient.
When you visit a web page certain information is available about you from your browser, your IP (which can reveal information about where you are browsing from), cookies and other things that which can reveal more personal information. Computers are much faster than humans at calculations if you tell them the right thing to do so when all this information is available you can have the computer figure out how much to bid. | [
"While advertising refers to the advertising message, per se, advertising management refers to the process of planning and executing an advertising campaign or campaigns; that is, it is a series of planned decisions that begins with market research continues through to setting advertising budgets, developing advertising objectives, executing the creative messages and follows up with efforts to measure the extent to which objectives were achieved and evaluate the cost-benefit of the overall advertising effort.\n",
"Contextual advertising is a strategy to place advertisements on media vehicles, such as specific websites or print magazines, whose themes are relevant to the promoted products. Advertisers apply this strategy in order to narrow-target their audiences. Advertisements are selected and served by automated systems based on the identity of the user and the displayed content of the media. The advertisements will be displayed across the user's different platforms and are chosen based on searches for key words; appearing as either a web page or pop up ads. It is a form of targeted advertising in which the content of an ad is in direct correlation to the content of the webpage the user is viewing.\n",
"Contextual advertising is a form of targeted advertising for advertisements appearing on websites or other media, such as content displayed in mobile browsers. The advertisements themselves are selected and served by automated systems based on the identity of the user and the content displayed.\n",
"An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which make up an integrated marketing communication (IMC). An IMC is a platform in which a group of people can group their ideas, beliefs, and concepts into one large media base. Advertising campaigns utilize diverse media channels over a particular time frame and target identified audiences.\n",
"Advertising researchers have a long-standing interest in understanding both the degree and type of cognitive elaboration that occurs when consumers are exposed to persuasive messages. Cognitive information models assume that consumers are rational decision-makers and that advertising provides consumers with information utility by reducing the need to search for other information about a brand. For example, an advertisement in the \"Yellow Pages\" or an online directory means that the consumer does not have to travel from store to store in search of a product or service. Consumers process this information at a cognitive level before forming an attitude to the brand and purchase intent. A cognition is any thought that surfaces during the elaboration of the information. Cognitive information models are also known as the \"central route to persuasion\".\n",
"Advertising, in relation to mass communication, is marketing a product or service in a persuasive manner that encourages the audience to buy the product or use the service. Because advertising generally takes place through some form of mass media, such as television, studying the effects and methods of advertising is relevant to the study of mass communication. Advertising is the paid, impersonal, one-way marketing of persuasive information from a sponsor. Through mass communication channels, the sponsor promotes the adoption of goods, services or ideas. Advertisers have full control of the message being sent to their audience.\n",
"Advertising provides advertisers with a direct line of communication to existing and prospective consumers. By using a combination of words and/or pictures the general aim of the advertisement is to act as a \"medium of information\" (David Oglivy) making the means of delivery and to whom the information is delivered most important. Advertising should define how and when structural elements of advertisements influence receivers, knowing that all receivers are not the same and thus may not respond in a single, similar manner. Targeted advertising serves the purpose of placing particular advertisements before specific groups so as to reach consumers who would be interested in the information. Advertisers aim to reach consumers as efficiently as possible with the belief that it will result in a more effective campaign. By targeting, advertisers are able to identify when and where the ad should be positioned in order to achieve maximum profits. This requires an understanding of how customers' minds work (see also neuromarketing) so as to determine the best channel by which to communicate.\n"
] |
why do you hear so much more regarding desperate and lonely men rather than desperate and lonely women? shouldn't there be more or less an equal amount of both? | Women have far better support systems available compared to men.
It's socially acceptable for women to feel hurt and express those feelings. They usually get ample sympathy and support from friends, family, colleagues and the public. When a man tries the same, he's ignored, ridiculed and perceived as weak. | [
"Americans seem to report more loneliness than any other country, though this finding may simply be an effect of greater research volume. A 2006 study in the \"American Sociological Review\" found that Americans on average had only two close friends in which to confide, which was down from an average of three in 1985. The percentage of people who noted having no such confidant rose from 10% to almost 25%, and an additional 19% said they had only a single confidant, often their spouse, thus raising the risk of serious loneliness if the relationship ended. The modern office environment has been demonstrated to give rise to loneliness. This can be especially prevalent in individuals prone to social isolation who can interpret the business focus of co-workers for a deliberate ignoring of needs.\n",
"In general, women are at much higher risk of developing depression after a social loss than men. One explanation for this is that women tend to have larger networks of meaningful supporters than men where an important loss can happen. Evidence for this comes primarily from the finding that both sexes are equally likely to become depressed in response to conflict or death within the nuclear family, while women are more likely to become depressed in response to the loss of a friend and family members outside of the nuclear family. In addition to this, women may also be more sensitive to depression when conflict exists and is physically expressed as evidenced by women being more likely to be depressed after a physical attack but not men\n",
"Depression and mental health issues are also effects of the social role theory. In general, women are found to be almost twice as depressed as men. A possible explanation for the larger numbers of depression in women compared to men is the amount of sexism faced in occupations having an emotional effect. Women are becoming more depressed as a result of these stereotypical ideas against them. There is an intense amount of pressure placed on women when they encounter certain stereotypes and sexual roles in the workplace and this can take a toll on their mental health.\n",
"As is true in Western societies, depression is more prevalent in women than in men in collective cultures. Some have hypothesized that this is due to their inferior positions in the culture, in which they may experience domestic violence, poverty, and blatant inequality that can greatly contribute to depression.\n",
"Unemployment can also bring personal costs in relation to gender. One study found that women are more likely to experience unemployment than men and that they are less likely to move from temporary positions to permanent positions. Another study on gender and unemployment found that men, however, are more likely to experience greater stress, depression, and adverse effects from unemployment, largely stemming from the perceived threat to their role as breadwinner. This study found that men expect themselves to be viewed as \"less manly\" after a job loss than they actually are, and as a result they engage in compensating behaviors, such as financial risk-taking and increased assertiveness, because of it.\n",
"Unemployment has been linked to extremely adverse effects on men's mental health. Professor Ian Hickie of the University of Sydney said that evidence showed that men have more restricted social networks than women, and that those they do have are heavily work-based. Therefore for men the loss of a job means the loss of a whole set of social connections as well. This loss can then lead to men becoming socially isolated very quickly.\n",
"Another common finding is that males who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than males of high generalized self-confidence. Women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men. Niederle and Westerlund found that men are much more competitive and obtain higher compensation than women and that this difference is due to differences in self-confidence, while risk and feedback-aversion play a negligible role. Some scholars partly attribute the fact to women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.\n"
] |
how is orange juice economically viable when it takes me juicing about 10 oranges to have enough for a single glass of orange juice? | They use machinery that grinds the orange down to more or less nothing, and can extract every tiniest little drop of juice from it. The machinery pretty much grinds up the oranges whole, skin and all, and then extracts every drop of juice from the ground-up mess. So they get more juice per orange than we can by hand, or even really with a countertop juicer. Multiply this by the scale at which they work - truckloads of oranges at a time - and that's how it works.
Did some IT consulting at the Tropicana factory in Bradenton, FL for a while. I learned some pretty interesting things about orange juice while I was there. Also had to wash my hair 2-3 times when I came home on Fridays or I'd smell like oranges all weekend. | [
"BULLET::::- Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a \"juicer\" or \"squeezer\") and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade.\n",
"Fresh-squeezed, the unpasteurized juice is the closest to consuming the orange itself. This version of the juice consists of oranges that are squeezed and then bottled without having any additives or flavor packs inserted. The juice is not subjected to pasteurization. Depending on storage temperature, freshly squeezed, unpasteurized orange juice can have a shelf life of 5 to 23 days.\n",
"Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as \"pulp\" in American English, and \"(juicy) bits\" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as \"OJ\".\n",
"For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.\n",
"Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit.\n",
"In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006.\n",
"In the United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients.\n"
] |
Do we know of any contact between Ancient Egypt and East Asia ? | Ah. I enjoyed that book and it does an excellent job of telling stories, but yes, it's age shows in quite a few places. Short answer: no.
Essentially, the book is proposing a model called diffusionism, although hyper-diffusionism might be more accurate. This was a theory, or more accurately a methodology, that proposed singular origins for practically everything, thus, if something appears in two places, it necessarily moved from one to another. Independent development is generally rejected. Add to that, there is a longstanding tradition in European thought called *ex orientia lux* that tends to view everything a arising in the Eastern Mediterranean region, particularly Egypt, and spreading from there. These can lead to conclusions that can sometimes seem a bit absurd, such as the one you give--Austronesian ship design, from materials used to the rigging used, has practically no similarity with Egyptian design.
Today, diffusionism is rejected as a default explanation. It happens, certainly, but is to be demonstrated rather than assumed. | [
"Eastward contacts are represented by objects and motific works of ancient Egypt found in the Near East, including modern Anatolia and Byblos and those ancient regions around Canaan and Syria. Some kings of Byblos have been found buried with Egyptian items.\n",
"Foreign artifacts dating to the 5th millennium BCE in the Badarian culture in Egypt indicate contact with distant Syria. In predynastic Egypt, by the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE, ancient Egyptians in Maadi were importing pottery as well as construction ideas from Canaan.\n",
"There was generally a high-level of trade between Ancient Egypt and the Near-East throughout the Pre-dynastic period of Egypt, during the Naqada II (3600-3350 BCE) and Naqada III (3350-2950 BCE) phases. These were contemporary with the Late Uruk (3500-3100 BCE) and Jemdet Nasr (3100-2900 BCE) periods in Mesopotamia. The main period of cultural exchange, particularly consisting in the transfer of Mesopotamian imagery and symbols to Egypt, is considered to have lasted about 250 years, during the Naqada II to Dynasty I periods. \n",
"The earliest known Ugarit contact with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971–1926 BC. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments got to Ugarit. In the Amarna letters, messages from Ugarit BC written by Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen, were discovered. From the 16th to the 13th century BC, Ugarit remained in constant touch with Egypt and Cyprus (named Alashiya).\n",
"The relations between Egypt and the Levant go back to ancient times. However, the earliest instance of modern Levantine migration to Egypt happened after 1724, when a schism in the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch resulted in a separate branch of Levantine Christians attached to Rome known as the Melkite Greek Catholics. Once the Syrian and Lebanese Greek Orthodox community was split, a migratory flow resulted in which Melkite Greek Catholics began leaving cities such as Damascus, Aleppo, Zahle, and Sidon to move to Egypt. Regarding an early Maronite presence in Egypt dating from the 18th century, it is said that the Holy See of Rome appointed two Maronite priests to serve as advisers to the Franciscans who came from the Custody of the Holy Land to evangelize Egypt because \"no one knows the land and mentality of the Copts like the Maronites\".\n",
"Foreign contacts in the Late Period of Ancient Egypt seem to have been mere extensions of those of the New Kingdom. Military expeditions again persist, everywhere but in ancient Greece. In fact, there is in this period evidence of Greek soldiers fighting for Egyptian pharaohs and the establishment of a Greek trading post, called Naucratis, within Egypt.\n",
"Userkaf's reign might have witnessed a revival of trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors as shown by a series of reliefs from his mortuary temple representing ships engaged in what may be a naval expedition. Further evidence for such contacts is a stone vessel bearing the name of his sun temple that was uncovered on the Greek island of Kythira. This vase is the earliest evidence of commercial contacts between Egypt and the Aegean world. Finds in Anatolia, dating to the reigns of Menkauhor Kaiu and Djedkare Isesi, demonstrate that these contacts continued throughout the Fifth Dynasty.\n"
] |
why do some women look super pregnant at 8ish months, yet others are barely noticeable? | The boring, obvious answer is that women have a wide variety of body types and sizes. A tall, larger woman will appear less pregnant than a short, small woman. A woman with a tiny waist will show a pregnancy more than a woman with wide hips. | [
"BULLET::::- Women are more susceptible to develop diastasis recti when over the age of 35, high birth weight of child, multiple birth pregnancy, and multiple pregnancies. Additional causes can be attributed to excessive abdominal exercises after the first trimester of pregnancy.\n",
"Two months later, all women and girls of child-bearing age in the affected area are discovered to be pregnant, sparking many accusations of both infidelity and extramarital sex. The accusations fade as the extraordinary nature of the pregnancies is discovered, with seven-month fetuses appearing after only five months. All the women give birth on the same day. Their children have an unusual appearance, including \"arresting\" eyes, odd scalp hair construction and colour (platinum blonde), and unusually narrow fingernails. As the children grow and develop at a rapid rate, it becomes clear they also have a powerful telepathic bond with one another. They can communicate with each other over great distances, and as one learns something, so do the others.\n",
"A pregnant woman is more susceptible to certain infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus, as well as secondary to maternal physiological changes including a decrease in respiratory volumes and urinary stasis due to an enlarging uterus. Pregnant individuals are more severely affected by, for example, influenza, hepatitis E, herpes simplex and malaria. The evidence is more limited for coccidioidomycosis, measles, smallpox, and varicella. Mastitis, or inflammation of the breast occurs in 20% of lactating individuals.\n",
"Obesity has also been shown to increase the prevalence of complications during pregnancy and childbirth. Babies born to obese women are almost three times as likely to die within one month of birth and almost twice as likely to be stillborn than babies born to women of normal weight.\n",
"During and after pregnancy, a woman experiences body shape changes. After menopause, with the reduced production of estrogen by the ovaries, there is a tendency for fat to redistribute from a female's buttocks, hips and thighs to her waist or abdomen.\n",
"During pregnancy, women of an average pre-pregnancy weight (BMI 18.5-24.9) should expect to gain between 25-35 pounds over the course of the pregnancy. Increased rates of hypertension, diabetes, respiratory complications, and infections are prevalent in cases of maternal obesity and can have detrimental effects on pregnancy outcomes. Obesity is an extremely strong risk factor for gestational diabetes. Research has found that obese mothers who lose weight (at least 10 pounds or 4.5 kg) in-between pregnancies reduce the risk of gestational diabetes during their next pregnancy, whereas mothers who gain weight actually increase their risk. Women who are pregnant should aim to exercise for at least 150 minutes per week, including muscle strengthening exercises.\n",
"The most common illnesses that females at reproductive age face are anaemia and malnutrition, due to the discrimination faced in childhood and in growing up. As females, especially girls, are considered to be of the lowest status in the household, they are often the last to eat and thus do not receive the proper nutrition required. Almost 70% of females who have reached puberty suffer from these common illnesses. Also, many women often delay seeking medical help out of fear.\n"
] |
Is the next generation of humans getting stronger and taller than the previous one? Also when would it stop? | Humans are generally getting taller and stronger than previous generations. Many scientists believe this is due to nutrition (increased calories, increased protein intake) rather than genetics. Given that vitamins and proteins are ubiquitous, it is unlikely that height would increase as a function of nutrition. | [
"Improved nutrition is another possible explanation. Today's average adult from an industrialized nation is taller than a comparable adult of a century ago. That increase of stature, likely the result of general improvements of nutrition and health, has been at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade. Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases of head size, and by an increase in the average size of the brain. This argument had been thought to suffer the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g. women, or people of Asian ancestry) do not have lower average IQs. Richard Lynn, however, claims that while people of East Asian origin may often have smaller bodies, they tend to have larger brains and higher IQs than average whites.\n",
"Humans became taller as the years passed after becoming bipedal which lengthened back muscles at the base of the tail bone and hips which in effect made them weigh more, further hampering their abilities in the trees. Early human ancestors had a tail where modern humans’ tail bone is located. This aided in balance when in the trees but lost its prominence when bipedalism was adapted. The arms also became shorter (opposite in comparison to legs) for carrying objects and using them as multi-tasking agents instead of climbing and swinging in trees. It is well known that the \"Homo sapien\" line of primates developed the opposable thumb which opened the door to many muscle functions not yet possible in the hand and other upper body regions. The stretching muscles of the forearms whose tendons allowed the human to concentrate its force and abilities within his/her hands and fingers contributed to great new abilities. Overall, upper body muscles developed to deal with more activities that involved the concentration of strength in those muscles such as: holding, throwing, lifting, running with something to assist in escaping danger, hunting, and the construction of habitats and shelters.\n",
"Birriel was unique in reaching a relatively old age while being as tall as he was; most extremely tall people tend to experience serious disabling medical conditions such as the ones that eventually crippled, and then killed, Robert Wadlow (the tallest human in the world during his lifetime) at an early age.\n",
"At the extreme end, being excessively tall can cause various medical problems, including cardiovascular problems, because of the increased load on the heart to supply the body with blood, and problems resulting from the increased time it takes the brain to communicate with the extremities. For example, Robert Wadlow, the tallest man known to verifiable history, developed trouble walking as his height increased throughout his life. In many of the pictures of the later portion of his life, Wadlow can be seen gripping something for support. Late in his life, although he died at age 22, he had to wear braces on his legs and walk with a cane; and he died after developing an infection in his legs because he was unable to feel the irritation and cutting caused by his leg braces.\n",
"Short stature can also be caused by the bone plates fusing at an earlier age than normal, therefore stunting growth. Normally, the bone age is the same as the biological age but for some people, it is older. For many people with advanced bone ages, they hit a growth spurt early on which propels them to average height but stop growing at an earlier age. However, in some cases, people who are naturally shorter combined with their advanced bone age, end up being even shorter than the height they normally would have been because of their stunted growth.\n",
"Ronda Graves and colleagues in 2010 concluded that he would \"have grown an additional five to 14 cm before reaching adulthood\" and that \"if, at death, he was eight to ten years of age, [he would have been] tall, and growing faster than a modern human but slower than a chimpanzee. According to this scenario, KNM-WT 15000 would have attained an adult stature ranging between and .\" Moreover, that \"according to our preferred models of growth and development, [his] growth in stature [would have been] completed by 12 years of age (4 years after death), so that the majority of growth has already occurred\".\n",
"In August 2006, a study by Princeton University economists Anne Case and Christina Paxson, \"Stature and Status: Height, Ability, and Labor Market Outcomes\" concluded that tall people are smarter than their height-challenged peers. The researchers report, \"On average, taller people earn more because they are smarter. As early as age 3 — before schooling has had a chance to play a role — and throughout childhood, taller children perform significantly better on cognitive tests. The correlation between height in childhood and adulthood is approximately 0.7 for both men and women, so that tall children are much more likely to become tall adults. As adults, taller individuals are more likely to select into higher paying occupations that require more advanced verbal and numerical skills and greater intelligence, for which they earn handsome returns.\" Case and Paxson emphasized that the correlation between height and intelligence was due to non-genetic factors, such as health and nutrition in utero and in childhood. As they explained, \"Our results say nothing about the relationship between cognitive ability and that part of height that is determined by genetic background. Our results speak to that part of height that is driven by health and nutrition. There are very many very smart short people (Einstein comes to mind) and, frankly, many not-so-smart tall people.\"\n"
] |
What is the place of the battleship Yamato in the Japanese consciousness/culture? | I would definitely say the Yamato has some sort of place in the hearts of the Japanese people even today. In the late 30s, when it was laid down it was praised for being the biggest battleship in history and at the time many people still thought that size was the most important feature for these kind of Battleships.
In theory it outgunned and outranged any US or British Battleship it would have faced, which in the thinking of WW1 or the Russo-Japanese War was the key to victory.
History taught us that it wasn't enough, although the Yamato also had design flaws, as [/u/kieslowskifan](_URL_0_) pointed out in this earlier [thread](_URL_1_).
While the Japanese were proponents of naval aviation themselves, they underestimated just how vulnerable giants like the Yamato would be to attacks from the air.
The whole concept of Battleships proved to be flawed in WW2, as can be seen in many other exemplary cases like the Bismarck, the Roma or the Sinking of the British ships 'Prince of Wales' and Repulse (by the Japanese themselves).
And although many famous ships were essentially a waste of resources there is often still an almost mythological meaning to them in their respective countries, just for what they represented at the time and how tragic their loss was. ('Bismarck' for Germany, 'Hood' for Britain, 'Arizona' for the USA ...) | [
"\"Yamato\", and especially the story of her sinking, has appeared often in Japanese popular culture, such as the anime \"Space Battleship Yamato\" and the 2005 film \"Yamato\". The appearances in popular culture usually portray the ship's last mission as a brave, selfless, but futile, symbolic effort by the participating Japanese sailors to defend their homeland. One of the reasons that the warship may have such significance in Japanese culture is that the word \"Yamato\" was often used as a poetic name for Japan. Thus, the end of battleship \"Yamato\" could serve as a metaphor for the end of the Japanese empire.\n",
"For many years, English-language releases of the anime bore the title \"Space Cruiser Yamato\". This romanization has appeared in Japanese publications because Nishizaki, a sailing enthusiast who owned a cruiser yacht, ordered that this translation be used out of love for his boat. However, in reference to naval nomenclature, it is technically inaccurate, as means \"battleship\" and not \"cruiser\" (which in Japanese would be ). Leiji Matsumoto's manga adaptation was titled \"Cosmoship Yamato\". Today, \"Yamato\" releases, including the Voyager Entertainment DVD, are marketed either as \"Star Blazers\" or \"Space Battleship Yamato\".\n",
"The museum opened on April 23, 2005. It is nicknamed the Yamato Museum due to the display in the lobby of the large model ship, Yamato, a 1/10 scale model of the battleship \"Yamato\", the flagship of the Japanese Combined Fleet in the World War II. It was sunk south of the Japanese island of Kyushu in 1945. The museum is located where the battleship was completed.\n",
"In 2005, the \"Yamato\" Museum was opened near the site of the former Kure shipyards. Although intended to educate on the maritime history of post Meiji-era Japan, the museum gives special attention to its namesake; the battleship is a common theme among several of its exhibits, which includes a section dedicated to Matsumoto's animated series. The centrepiece of the museum, occupying a large section of the ground floor, is a long model of \"Yamato\" (1:10 scale).\n",
"Space Battleship \"Yamato\" was the title spaceship from the anime series \"Space Battleship Yamato\", designed by Leiji Matsumoto in the 1970s. According to the fictional continuity of the anime series, the spacecraft was built inside the remains of the Japanese battleship \"Yamato\". In the American dub of the series \"Star Blazers\", the spaceship has the same origin, but was renamed the \"Argo\" (after the mythical ship \"Argo\" of Jason and the Argonauts). In Spanish-speaking countries, its name was changed to \"Intrépido\" (\"Intrepid\").\n",
"Mutsu was the second and last dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) at the end of World War I. It was named after the province, In 1923 she carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake. The ship was modernized in 1934–1936 with improvements to her armour and machinery, and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style.\n",
"The ship is as large as a Japanese carrier of second World War-era. It resembles the amphibious assault carriers used by U.S. Marines but lacks a well deck for launching landing craft. \"Izumo\" is called a destroyer because the Japanese constitution forbids the acquisition of offensive weapons but the vessel allows Japan to project military power well beyond its territorial waters.\n"
] |
Going into the Korean war, did the US ever have the goal of completely absorbing the north into the south, or was an eventual retreat from the Yalu planned? | Going in was long before the Yalu. The intent was simply to keep the south from being incorporated into the north. Americans' concern was not to be embarrassed by having to retreat from Pusan. There was no UN mandate to do more which is why it was a UN police action, not a US war. Anyway, America was war weary after WW II and had disarmed. Civilians could buy jeeps and M-1s. Optics for Norden gun sights were available in the first simple catalogues of Edmund Scientific. The focus was on Europe and we certainly didn't want war with the new Communist regime in China. | [
"In the Korean War, the United States and the United Nations officially endorsed a policy of rollback—the destruction of the North Korean government—and sent UN forces across the 38th parallel to take over North Korea. The rollback strategy, however, caused the Chinese to intervene, and US forces were pushed back to the 38th parallel. The failure of a complete rollback despite its advocacy by MacArthur, moved the United States to commit to the alternate strategy of containment. The U.S. had moved from a strategy of containment, to one of rollback, and returned to containment in late 1950-early 1951.\n",
"The division of Japan's former Korean colony into two zones at the end of World War II led to years of border skirmishing between U.S.-allied South Korea and Soviet-allied North Korea. On June 25, 1950, the North Korean Army invaded the south to try to reunify the peninsula, beginning the Korean War.\n",
"The U.S. initially seemed to follow containment when it first entered the war. This directed the action of the US to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty, allowing North Korea's survival as a state. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy instead and to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices. General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th Parallel into North Korea. The Chinese, fearful of a possible US presence on their border or even an invasion by them, then sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Truman publicly hinted that he might use his \"ace in the hole\" of the atomic bomb, but Mao was unmoved. The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed to roughly around the original border, with minimal changes. Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure. Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war.\n",
"In the west, US forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance. Forces from the 3rd Battalion, 29th Infantry Regiment, newly arrived in the country, were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27, leaving open a pass to the Pusan area. Soon after, Chinju to the west was taken, pushing the 19th Infantry Regiment back and leaving routes to the Pusan open for North Korean forces. US units were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2. Suffering mounting losses, the North Korean force on the west flank withdrew for several days to re-equip and receive reinforcements. This granted both sides several days of reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter.\n",
"The resolution called on the North to immediately halt its invasion and to move its troops back to the 38th parallel. Seen as a diplomatic victory for the United States, the resolution was completely ignored by North Korea. This brought the UN and the US to take further action, setting the state for massive international involvement and the expansion of the Korean War.\n",
"Both South and North Korea were almost entirely occupied by United Nations forces. However, once U.S. units neared the Yalu River and the frontier between North Korea and China, the Chinese intervened and drastically changed the character of the war. Eighth Army was decisively defeated at the Battle of the Chongchon River and forced to retreat all the way back to South Korea. U.S. historian Clay Blair noted that the Eighth Army was left completely unprotected on its right flank due to the Turkish Brigade's retreat despite myths that arose about the Turks killing 200 enemies by bayonet. The defeat of the U.S. Eighth Army resulted in the longest retreat of any U.S. military unit in history. General Walker was killed in a jeep accident on 23 December 1950, and replaced by Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgway. The overstretched Eighth Army suffered heavily with the Chinese offensive, who were able to benefit from shorter lines of communication and with rather casually deployed enemy forces. The Chinese broke through the U.S. defenses despite U.S. air supremacy and the Eighth Army and U.N. forces retreated hastily to avoid encirclement. The Chinese offensive continued pressing U.S. forces, which lost Seoul, the South Korean capital. Eighth Army's morale and \"esprit de corps\" hit rock bottom, to where it was widely regarded as a broken, defeated rabble.\n",
"Following the North Korean invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, a UN counter-offensive had reached the North Korean border with China. Fearing for its own security, China intervened with three offensives between October 1950 and January 1951 which pushed the UN forces south of the original border between North and South Korea along the 38th Parallel and captured Seoul. A fourth offensive in mid-February was blunted by UN forces in the Battle of Chipyong-ni and Third Battle of Wonju. At the end of February the UN launched a series of offensive operations, recapturing Seoul on 15 March and pushing the front line back northwards. In early April Operation Rugged established the front in a line that followed the lower Imjin river, then eastwards to the Hwacheon Reservoir and on to the Yangyang area on the east coast, known as the \"Kansas Line\". The subsequent Operation Dauntless pushed out a salient between the Imjin river as it dog-legged north and the Hwacheon Reservoir, known as the \"Utah Line\".\n"
] |
Is there literally ZERO resistance in superconductors or is it just miniscule or neglectable (like stuff normally is in real-life as opposed to theory)? | The best theory we have suggests that the electrical resistance of a superconductor can be exactly zero. Unfortunately it's a bit tricky to definitively validate this result experimentally since we simply can't measure a resistance of 0. Even though [most experiments seem to show that the resistance vanishes](_URL_1_), there is always an uncertainty associated with the instruments used that prevents us from saying that the resistance measured truly is zero.
Nevertheless, through ever more sensitive measurements, we can increasingly lower the upper bound of whatever finite resistance (if any) might exist. For example, for high purity aluminum, the [resistivity](_URL_0_) (or the specific resistance) has been measured to be less than 2.5\*10^(-25)Ωm. This number corresponds to a drop of at least 13 orders of magnitude at the superconducting transition, and is more than 17 orders of magnitude smaller than the resistivity of copper at room temperature (1.6\*10^(-8)Ωm). For all practical purposes we can say that the resistance of such superconductors really is zero.
edit: corrected units | [
"Superconductivity is the set of physical properties observed in certain materials, wherein electrical resistance no longer exists and from which magnetic flux fields are expelled. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"Many materials also exhibit superconductivity at low temperatures; they include metallic elements such as tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys, some heavily doped semiconductors, and certain ceramics. The electrical resistivity of most electrical (metallic) conductors generally decreases gradually as the temperature is lowered, but remains finite. In a superconductor, however, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"Superconductors are materials that have exactly zero resistance and infinite conductance, because they can have V=0 and I≠0. This also means there is no joule heating, or in other words no dissipation of electrical energy. Therefore, if superconductive wire is made into a closed loop, current flows around the loop forever. Superconductors require cooling to temperatures near 4 K with liquid helium for most metallic superconductors like niobium–tin alloys, or cooling to temperatures near 77K with liquid nitrogen for the expensive, brittle and delicate ceramic high temperature superconductors.\n",
"The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes in current through it by developing a voltage across it proportional to the rate of change of the current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly zero electrical resistance.\n",
"Superconducting electric machines are electromechanical systems that rely on the use of one or more superconducting elements. Since superconductors have no DC resistance, they typically have greater efficiency. The most important parameter that is of utmost interest in superconducting machine is the generation of a very high magnetic field that is not possible in a conventional machine. This leads to a substantial decrease in the motor volume; which means a great increase in the power density. However, since superconductors only have zero resistance under a certain superconducting transition temperature, \"T\" that is hundreds of degrees lower than room temperature, cryogenics are required.\n",
"The most popular model used to describe superconductivity is the Bean or Critical State model and variations such as the Kim-Anderson model. However the Bean model assumes zero resistivity and that current is always induced at the critical current. A more useful model for engineering applications is the so-called E-J power law in which the field and the current are linked by the following equations:\n"
] |
Just how long has vinegar been around in any form? | Vinegar is created by *acetobacter,* a kind of bacteria that is naturally occurring- notably, occurring in the guts of fruit flies. When yeast ( a fungi) encounter sugar, they will start to ferment it into alcohol. If *acetobacter* bacteria are present ( and, of course, that can occur because fruit flies are going to be drawn to the smell of fruit juice) and conditions are right, they will begin to ferment the alcohol to acetic acid.
Whenever wine, beer, hard cider etc are made, there is a chance that it will be turned into vinegar accidentally. But if , say, a farmer had vinegar in a barrel, adding wine or cider to it would result in more vinegar being produced.
So, essentially, your question is , how long have people done fermentation, made beer or wine? That's going back to [at least 7,000 BC , for China.](_URL_0_) | [
"Vinegar was known early in civilization as the natural result of exposure of beer and wine to air, because acetic acid-producing bacteria are present globally. The use of acetic acid in alchemy extends into the 3rd century BC, when the Greek philosopher Theophrastus described how vinegar acted on metals to produce pigments useful in art, including \"white lead\" (lead carbonate) and \"verdigris\", a green mixture of copper salts including copper(II) acetate. Ancient Romans boiled soured wine to produce a highly sweet syrup called \"sapa\". Sapa that was produced in lead pots was rich in lead acetate, a sweet substance also called \"sugar of lead\" or \"sugar of Saturn\", which contributed to lead poisoning among the Roman aristocracy.\n",
"Chinese legend ascribes the invention of the vinegar to Heita, a son of Dukang, one of the culture heroes credited with inventing alcoholic beverages in China's prehistory. Supposedly, Heita forgot a vat of wine for 21 days and, remembering it at dusk, found it pleasantly sour -- the legend is reflected upon the Chinese character 醋. Historical records for the present vinegar can be traced back 1400 years. The primary producer of Zhenjiang vinegar at present—the Jiangsu Hengshun Vinegar Industry Company—was established in 1840.\n",
"Nowadays, most vinegar is made in submerged tank culture, first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using modern applications of this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 24 hours in batch process, even 20% in 60-hour fed-batch process.\n",
"Early recipes for this vinegar called for a number of herbs to be added into a vinegar solution and left to steep for several days. The following vinegar recipe hung in the Museum of Paris in 1937, and is said to have been an original copy of the recipe posted on the walls of Marseilles during an episode of the plague:\n",
"The vinegar was first brewed by Thomas Sarson in 1794 from malt barley. James Thomas Sarson was a vinegar maker living at Brunswick Place, Shoreditch in 1841. Sales rocketed when his son Henry James Sarson took over. It was renamed \"Sarson's Virgin Vinegar\" in 1884, referencing a Biblical story of The Wise and Foolish Virgins, by which he was inspired, as opposed to the purity of the product, but this name was soon dropped. In 1893, the company was trading under the name of Henry Sarson and Sons from \"The Vinegar Works\", Catherine Street, City Road, Shoreditch, London. Two of Henry's sons, Henry Logsdail Sarson and Percival Stanley Sarson also joined the family business as vinegar brewers.\n",
"This specific vinegar composition is said to have been used during the medieval period when the black death was happening to prevent the catching of this dreaded disease. Other similar types of herbal vinegars have been used as medicine since the time of Hippocrates.\n",
"Vinegar is produced when acetic acid bacteria act on alcoholic beverages such as wine. They are used to perform specific oxidation reactions through processes called “oxidative fermentations”, that creates vinegar as a byproduct. In the biotechnological industry, these bacterias' oxidation mechanism is exploited to produce a number of compounds such as l-ascorbic acid, dihydroxyacetone, gluconic acid, and cellulose.\n"
] |
When, how, and why did sports (in general) become such a high-dollar enterprise in the United States? | ( I'm typing this on my phone, so please excuse any grammar/spelling mistakes)
Although I'm not an expert, I would have to guess this happened around the late 1800s/early 1900s. During this time Americans disposable incomes and leisure time increased due to achievements by unions and other average Americans. Major league sports was a new way to pass the time. The earliest specific example of major-league organized sports would be (Vincent?) Spaulding, the baseball magnate after whom his baseball brand was named. He was the first to realize how much money could be made in organized sports, and his league included teams like the Black Sox.
Sports entertainment became really popular because it was a cheap alternative to things like going to the opera, museums etc.. So it appealed to many poor/working class people. It was a way to relax on the weekend after a long week of manual labor. To cater to this crowd, games were made to be a lot more rowdier and beer was sold at events. Later, to make baseball appear to more rich folks, the stuff I mentioned before was removed from games.
Also, speaking about other countries, I cant really think of any example of major organized sports before my previous example. I would guess that with increasing Americanization around the world, American culture seeped into foreign cultures, and sports was a part of it. | [
"Many factors combined to produce an explosive growth in this new sport which had been imported from the United States. The number of teams grew from 8 in 1985 to around 40 by the end of the 1980s. In addition, the teams from larger cities were able to professionalise further by obtaining large sponsors, attracted by the freshness of the sport and the considerable media attention both in the TV and press, which enabled them to hire American players and coaches.\n",
"Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America.\n",
"On the macroeconomic level, the company was founded at a time of ascendance for the United States. In 1916, the United States economic output, for the first time in history, was greater than that of the British Empire, establishing the United States as the world's largest economic superpower. From World War I to the beginnings of the Great Depression, it was under these economic environmental conditions that the company originally produced a product line of harvest hats. Such hats of the period were a staple of farmers and field hands across the US. By the 1920s, St. Louis replaced New England as the world's dominant manufacturing center for harvest hats. International Harvest Hat was a major contributor to this regional shift in industrialization. By the early 1920s, the company had become the largest industrial producer of harvest hats in the world. In 1928, the company produced over 36,000 per day and approximately 9.4 million harvest hats per year.\n",
"Though many nations including Russia and the United Kingdom came and traded along the California coastline at major ports, contributing to this economic growth, the United States became the most influential. American trade initially began with sailors from New England, who found an interest in the California otter and seal skins industry which diminished in prominence rapidly after the beginning of the nineteenth century. As hides and tallow replaced seals and otters as the primary products of commerce, corporations such as John Begg and Company of the United Kingdom and Bryant and Sturgis, William Appleton and Company, and Marshall and Wildes of Boston began to demonstrate a vested interest in the hide trade. The John Begg and Company representatives Hugh McCullough and William Hartnell were able to ensure British influence in the trade for three years beginning in 1822, the de facto first year of the enterprise.\n",
"In the last third of the 19th century the United States entered a phase of rapid economic growth which doubled per capita income over the period. By 1895, the United States leaped ahead of Britain for first place in manufacturing output. For the first time, exports of machinery and consumer goods became important. For example, Standard Oil led the way in exporting kerosene; Russia was its main rival in international trade. Singer Corporation led the way in developing a global marketing strategy for its sewing machines.\n",
"Many sports historians view the U.S. Baseball League as \"a major precursor to the Federal League of 1914–1915\". The Federal League, which was the last independent major league, was financed by magnates including oil \"baron\" Harry F. Sinclair.\n",
"Later on, globalization of sports was fueled by the expansion of technology and the introduction of commercial aspects to sports. On one hand newspaper, radio and especially television exposed sports to the wider international audience (first FIFA World Cup was televised in 1956 and first Summer Olympics in 1960), on the other commercial advertising allowed to profit from them.\n"
] |
after showers, whenever i rub my skin i get rolls of dirt/dead skin cells. why is this? | You need to exfoliate better. Or shower more often. Grab a wash cloth or loofa and wash, don't just use your hands. | [
"In general, the skin becomes swollen, itchy and red. This is a result of compression of mast cells, which are hyperactive in these diseases. These mast cells release inflammatory granules which contain histamine. It is the histamine which is responsible for the response seen after rubbing the lesional skin.\n",
"David Root, an occupational medicine practitioner and a member of the Narconon Scientific Advisory Board, defended the program’s validity. He told the San Francisco Chronicle in 1991 that drugs and other poisons “come out through the skin in the form of sebaceous, or fatty, sweat. The material is frequently visible and drips, or is rubbed off on towels.” This apparently explains the need for “daily doses of vitamins, minerals, and oils, including niacin.”\n",
"When mixed with sweat, aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly is known to stain clothing with a yellowish tint. It can also cause a stiffening of the affected areas of clothing. These stains can be removed with the application of vinegar or a mild bleach. If excessive amounts of aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly mixed with sweat come in contact with a material, bleach marks may develop.\n",
"Rubber sleepsacks do not disperse moisture at all. For this reason hydration is a very important consideration for people who spend any amount of time in a rubber sleepsack. Sweating can often be profuse even if the occupant is only lying inside it. All fluids from the body accumulate in the sack, which also makes the rubber sleepsack a choice for those who are also have a urination fetish. Rubber sleepsacks are easy to clean as they can simply be rinsed with water. Sweat leaking out from the neck, as well as through any zippers along the sack, can often occur while lying flat and should be a consideration.\n",
"James McGhee was employed to clean out brick kilns and developed dermatitis from the accumulation of coal dust on his skin. Because there were no shower facilities at his workplace, he would cycle home each day, increasing the risk he would contract dermatitis. Had his employer provided shower facilities, the coal dust could have been washed off before cycling, reducing the risk of contracting dermatitis. Due to the limits of scientific knowledge, it was impossible to rule out the possibility that he hadn't contracted dermatitis during the non-wrongful exposure to brick dust while working in the kiln.\n",
"Another advantage of a waterbed is its easy cleaning. It is impossible for dirt and dead skin particles to penetrate the water mattress, which can then be wiped periodically with a cloth and vinyl cleaner. The cover over the mattress can be regularly washed—thus virtually eliminating house dust mites in the bed. Dust mites can trigger asthma, eczema, and allergies in people sensitive to them.\n",
"Cellulitis is caused by a type of bacteria entering the skin, usually by way of a cut, abrasion, or break in the skin. This break does not need to be visible. Group A \"Streptococcus\" and \"Staphylococcus\" are the most common of these bacteria, which are part of the normal flora of the skin, but normally cause no actual infection while on the skin's outer surface.\n"
] |
why does 25 mph on a bicycle seem so much faster than in a car? | You feel like you're going extremely fast on a bike because you *feel* more.
Cars have very well developed suspension systems that "even out" the bumps on the road. As long as you're not dealing with a serious pothole or a speed-bump, the car's suspension is going to face-tank most of the shock so that you don't have to. Larger tires can also take some of the shock out of the road, but it's not as effective. Bikes generally *don't* have awesome suspension, and tires of *comparable* size. That means that you feel every bump in the road, or close enough to every bump in the road as not to matter.
Beyond that, cars are enclosed capsules. Your body's perception of "speed" relies on three things: what you see with your eyes, what your inner-ear feels, and what your skin feels. When you're on a bike, you can feel the wind running over your body. That allows you to "feel" your speed when you aren't accelerating or slowing down. Your eyes give you a sense of speed, but the brain is pretty good at filtering out unwanted implications from the eyes.
> Side Note
> The Inner Ear mostly just registers acceleration, for the purposes of this conversation. It picks up when you speed up, or when you slow down. It's also a part of your sense of balance, but that's not too crucial to note in this situation.
It's basically a combination of being able to feel the wind, and the poor shock-absorption. | [
"A standard lightweight, moderate-speed bicycle is one of the most energy-efficient forms of transport. Compared with walking, a cyclist riding at requires about half the food energy per unit distance: 27 kcal/km, per 100 km, or 43 kcal/mi. This converts to about . This means that a bicycle will use between 10-25 times less energy per distance traveled than a personal car, depending on fuel source and size of the car. This figure does depend on the speed and mass of the rider: greater speeds give higher air drag and heavier riders consume more energy per unit distance. In addition, because bicycles are very lightweight (usually between 7–15 kg) this means they consume very low amounts of materials and energy to manufacture. In comparison to an automobile weighing 1500 kg or more, a bicycle typically requires 100-200 times less energy to produce than an automobile.\n",
"As the single-speed bicycle lacks alternative gearing ratios, it is less versatile, as it cannot be pedaled efficiently outside of its single gearing range. Without lower gearing options, the single speed bicycle is generally more difficult to pedal uphill. Conversely, its dedicated gear ratio also limits top speed, and is slower than a multi-geared bicycle on flat or descending terrain once bicycle speed exceeds the rider's ability to maintain continuing increases in \"cadence\" (pedaling revolutions per minute), typically 85–110 rpm. Compared to a fixed-gear bicycle, a singlespeed is easier to ride downhill and around corners (the inside pedal can be kept up to avoid grounding). However, it does not help the rider pedal around the dead centres like a fixed gear, nor does it allow the fine speed control or easy trackstands that a fixed gear permits. The pawls of a dirty and unmaintained freewheel can also clog, leaving the rider with no drive; this is impossible on a \"fixie\".\n",
"BULLET::::- Performance - Journey times - a car is generally a lot slower than a motorcycle for city journeys due to congestion. A greater percentage of weight redistribution to counter directional momentum is available.\n",
"Motor-paced racing and motor-paced cycling refer to cycling behind a pacer in a car or more usually on a motorcycle. The cyclist follows as close as they can to benefit from the slipstream of their pacer. The first paced races were behind other cyclists, sometimes as many as five riders on the same tandem. Bordeaux-Paris and record attempts have been ridden behind cars. More usually races or training are behind motorcycles.\n",
"While track bicycles are always single speed, mountain bicycles, road bicycles, cyclo-cross bicycles, and hybrid bicycles can be made as or changed into a single speed. Mountain bike single speeds designed for trail riding often have a relatively low, or easy and slow, gear ratio. This allows them to climb hills and deal with obstacles and gradients better. This typically requires the rider to be more fit or skilled than the average rider in order to traverse the same terrain. Single speed bicycles designed for road riding typically have higher, or harder and faster, gear ratios.\n",
"The car is able to accelerate from in 4.6 seconds, in 9.2 seconds, completes a quarter mile (402 m) in 12.6 seconds at the speed of and has a maximum speed of . Its large tires allowed the car to average 0.96 lateral \"g\" in corners, which placed it among the best performance cars of its day, however, the car proved tricky for the unskilled drivers.\n",
"Speed draws many people to motorcycling because the power-to-weight ratio of even a low-power motorcycle is in league with that of an expensive sports car. The power-to-weight ratio of many modestly priced sport bikes is well beyond any mass-market automobile and rivals that of supercars for a fraction of the price. The fastest accelerating production cars, capable of in under 3.5 seconds, or in under 12 seconds is a relatively select club of exotic names like Porsche and Lamborghini, with a few extreme sub-models of popular sports cars, like the Shelby Mustang, and mostly made since the 1990s. Conversely, the fastest accelerating motorcycles meeting the same criteria is a much longer list and includes many non-sportbikes, such as the Triumph Tiger Explorer or Yamaha XT1200Z Super Ténéré, and includes many motorcycles dating back to the 1970s.\n"
] |
Zion Harvey got a double hand transplant at 9 years old. Will his hands continue to grow along with the rest of his anatomy as he ages? | Yes the cells will keep working normally and normal physiological growth is expected. Abnormal groiwth is also relatively common (please correct me) due to post transplant medication that supresses the immune system thus not stopping some spurs of organ/limb growth that medication would normally stop.
PS: I'm by all means not an expert. This was a fact I know due to a friend who has received a transplant, and honestly, I asked him the same question...
Which (specifically talking about hand transplant here) DNA is in the hands? With skin being able to regenerate, I'm not sure. The hosts or the donor DNA?
:) | [
"On July 28, 2015, doctors at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia performed the first successful bilateral hand transplant on a child. At the age of 2, Zion Harvey lost his hands and feet to a life-threatening infection. Six years later, at age 8, he had both of his hands replaced in a double hand transplant.\n",
"On October 26, 2016, the Director of hand transplantation at UCLA, Dr. Kodi Azari, and his team, performed a hand transplant on 51-year-old entertainment executive from Los Angeles, Jonathan Koch at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. Koch underwent a 17-hour procedure to replace his left hand, which he lost to a mysterious, life-threatening illness that struck him in January 2015. On June 23, 2015, Koch had the amputation surgery, also performed by Dr. Kodi Azari, which was designed to prep him to receive a transplanted limb. This included severing the left hand closer to the wrist than the elbow. Azari kept all the nerves and tendons long and extended, which would give him plenty to work with later. Then he sutured them together and attached them to the stump of bone to keep them from retracting. This is the first known hand transplant case in which the hand was amputated in preparation for a hand transplant, as opposed to previous hand transplant patients who have undergone typical amputation surgeries. Azari's theory about prepping the hand for a transplant during the initial amputation surgery would later be supported by Koch when he was able to move his thumb only two hours after he woke up from the 17-hour transplant surgery and move his entire hand only two days after surgery. \n",
"On December 27, 2012, 51-year-old Mark Cahill received a right hand transplant at Leeds General Infirmary in the UK. The recipient's hand was removed during the same 8 hour operation, reportedly allowing very accurate restoration of nerve structures, believed to be an international first.\n",
"He spent the next 18 months rebuilding with several painful surgeries, multiple prosthetic fittings, and endless rehabilitation appointments. But day after day, he exceeded his doctors’ expectations. One doctor in particular, a pioneering surgeon, recognized that Jonathan carried the mental and physical strength to successfully receive a human hand transplant. One year later, Jonathan Koch made medical history when he received a revolutionary, first of its kind, experimental hand transplant. Usually, it takes several years to learn how to use a new hand. Not with Jonathan. Four months later, he was back on the tennis court.\n",
"The first hand transplant to achieve prolonged success was directed by a team of Kleinert Kutz Hand Care surgeons including Warren C. Breidenbach, Tsu-Min Tsai, Luis Scheker, Steven McCabe, Amitava Gupta, Russell Shatford, William O'Neill, Martin Favetto and Michael Moskal in cooperation with the Christine M. Kleinert Institute, Jewish Hospital and the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky. The procedure was performed on New Jersey native Matthew Scott on January 14, 1999. Scott had lost his hand in a fireworks accident at age 24. Later in 1999, the Philadelphia Phillies baseball team asked him to do the honors of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch. The Louisville group went on to perform the first five hand transplants in the United States and have performed 12 hand transplants in ten recipients as of 2016.\n",
"On January 13, 2015, doctors at the Kochi-based Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre (AIMS) successfully conducted India's first hand transplant. A 30-year-old man, who had lost both his hands in a train accident, received the hands of a 24-year-old accident victim.\n",
"Warren C. Breidenbach III (born California) is an American hand surgeon most well known for having performed the first long-term successful hand transplant surgery in the world at Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky. The surgery was performed by Breidenbach and hand surgeon, Tsu-Min Tsai, both of Kleinert, Kutz and Associates Hand Care Center, leading a team of surgeons to attach a donor left hand to replace New Jersey native Matthew Scott's left hand. The Louisville hand surgery team went on to perform additional hand transplants between 1999 and 2011, when Breidenbach relocated to the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona to start a Composite Tissue Allotransplantation center at the university's medical center.\n"
] |
where did trigonometric functions come from? and why do they work? | Trigonometric functions were developed by various ancient cultures, mostly dealing with measuring astronomic phenomenon which requires dealing with angles and triangles and such.
Basically, we had a certain set of questions (if you know the sides of a triangle how to calculate its angles, and vice versa) that trigonometric functions were developed to answer.
Different cultures tackled the problem differently. For example, Euclid and Archimedes used various geometric proofs to get the same answer.
Ultimately, mathematicians developed tables. They drew various triangles of various shapes, measured the sides and angles and wrote down what all the answers were.
The "table" method is what was basically used under modern day calculators came about. Before then, if you wanted to know the sine of an angle, you measured the angle, then looked the answer up in a table in a book. | [
"In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions, angle functions or goniometric functions) are real functions which relate an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of two side lengths. They are widely used in all sciences that are related to geometry, such as navigation, solid mechanics, celestial mechanics, geodesy, and many others. They are among the simplest periodic functions, and as such are also widely used for studying periodic phenomena, through Fourier analysis.\n",
"All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic mathematics by the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving triangles. Al-Khwārizmī produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents.\n",
"Trigonometry (from Greek \"trigōnon\", \"triangle\" and \"metron\", \"measure\") is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships between side lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies. In particular, 3rd-century astronomers first noted that the ratio of the lengths of two sides of a right-angled triangle depends only on one acute angle of the triangle. These dependencies are now called trigonometric functions.\n",
"While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the trigonometric functions as they are in use today were developed in the medieval period. The chord function was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180–125 BCE) and Ptolemy of Roman Egypt (90–165 CE).\n",
"Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies.\n",
"Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy. In Indian astronomy, the study of trigonometric functions flourished in the Gupta period, especially due to Aryabhata (sixth century CE), who discovered the sine function. During the Middle Ages, the study of trigonometry continued in Islamic mathematics, by mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi and Abu al-Wafa. It became an independent discipline in the Islamic world, where all six trigonometric functions were known. Translations of Arabic and Greek texts led to trigonometry being adopted as a subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The development of modern trigonometry shifted during the western Age of Enlightenment, beginning with 17th-century mathematics (Isaac Newton and James Stirling) and reaching its modern form with Leonhard Euler (1748).\n",
"The \"Opus palatinum de triangulis\" of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student of Copernicus, was probably the first in Europe to define trigonometric functions directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho in 1596.\n"
] |
what happened to telescoping fm antennas on cars? | Most new cars embed them inside the windshield or rear window which gives them a much better and bigger area of reception. The wire used is nearly invisible to the eye and you don't have to worry about a motor burning out or breaking it in the car wash as with the telescoping ones. | [
"The first 2,200 cars produced used a windshield-embedded antenna. This type of antenna proved to be unsuitable with poor radio reception. Oftentimes the radio would continually \"seek\", attempting to find a signal. A standard whip antenna, which was later changed to a manually retractable antenna, was added to the outside of the front right fender. While improving radio reception, this resulted in a hole in the stainless steel, and an unsightly antenna. As a result, the antenna was again moved. The final antenna was an automatic retractable version installed under the rear induction grill behind the rear driver's-side window.\n",
"In the 1970s, the mobile radio had advanced from the trunk of the car to the car's front interior. The Model 43 was still used in the same capacity of testing the RF output and matching the transmitter to the antenna. However, the new interior position of the mobile radio, and the existing rear antenna position required a longer transmission line. This still provided easy access to test and measure the system.\n",
"A system based on radio waves was briefly considered but rejected because the signals could easily travel through walls and could inadvertently change the channel on a neighbor's television. Furthermore, the marketing people at Zenith desired a remote control which did not require batteries, as it was perceived at the time that if the battery died, the customer might think something was wrong with the television set itself.\n",
"Because the audio portion of VHF channel 6 was transmitted at 87.75 MHz, it was possible to listen to the television station on most FM car radios (or any standard FM radio for that matter). This was a feature frequently employed by area residents. However, this is no longer an option after the digital conversion.\n",
"In the 1960s the mobile radio had the majority of its components stored in the trunk of a car and was comparable in size to a microwave oven. A Model 43 wattmeter was used to test the power output of the two-way mobile radio transmitter and to match it to an antenna most commonly mounted on the trunk. The transmission line to the antenna was very short providing easy access to the equipment which in turn made measuring the equipment convenient. Additionally, the same wattmeter was used to measure the RF power in the operational base station.\n",
"The mobile antennas almost always required a hole to be drilled in the body of the car to mount the antenna in; until the 1970s there were no \"on-glass\" antennas - these were developed later for the cellular car-mounted telephones. These whip antennas looked much like those used for CB radios and were about 19 in. long (1/4 wavelength at 155 MHz). These mobile telephone systems required a large amount of power (10 to 15 amperes at 12 volts) and this was supplied by thick power cabling connected directly to the automobile's battery. It therefore was quite possible and not uncommon for an IMTS telephone to drain an automobile's battery if used for moderate periods of time without the automobile engine running or if left on overnight. Optionally these units were also connected to the car's horn and could honk the horn as a ringer to summon a user who was away from the car.\n",
"As WRGB has returned to channel 6, it has proposed an unconventional approach, by which it has requested to operate an analog FM radio transmitter at one edge of its digital TV allocation, using vertical polarization to retain compatibility with standard broadcast car radio receivers. According to WRGB's site, \"We hope that the FCC will allow us to continue to operate on 87.7. We are building a unique transmitter for 87.7 that can operate simultaneously with our DTV signal on channel 6. TV transmissions always use horizontal antennas. Our new 87.7 transmitter will be vertically polarized. The use of vertical polarization for 87.7 will allow reception of our audio in a car radio or any other FM radio with a whip type antenna. \"\n"
] |
if heat rises up, why does global warming occur instead of the heat just dissipating through outer space? | global warming is the buildup of gasses that PREVENT exactly what you are talking about (heat dissipating up, its called albido). These gasses act like a mirror pointed back at earth, reflecting said heat back into the system. | [
"Here on earth, the sun delivers lots of bounce, and the atmosphere surrounds it with a wall that reflects the energy back in. In outer space, however, there’s nothing — a vacuum — and the bounce all disappears very quickly, leaving very little moving. Lack of motion means little heat, and almost no transfer — very cold. Closer to home, if you wrap your hot coffee in a thermos — a hollow cylinder with all the air sucked out of it — there’s also very little in the way of excitable particles to move the energy from your hot coffee to the cold air around it. Your coffee stays hot.\n",
"Because the space environment is essentially a vacuum, heat cannot be lost through heat convection, and can only be directly dissipated through thermal radiation, a much slower process. Thus, even though the environment of space can be extremely cold, excessive heat build-up is inevitable. Without an LCVG, there would be no means by which to expel this heat, and it would affect not only EVA performance, but the health of the suit occupant as well. The LCVG used with the Apollo/Skylab A7L suit could remove heat at a rate of approximately 586 watts.\n",
"The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\n",
"The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\n",
"The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\n",
"Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.\n",
"Under earth conditions, the effect of gravity causing natural convection in a system with a temperature gradient along a fluid/fluid interface is usually much stronger than the Marangoni effect. Many experiments (ESA MASER 1-3) have been conducted under microgravity conditions aboard sounding rockets to observe the Marangoni effect without the influence of gravity. Research on heat pipes performed on the International Space Station revealed that whilst heat pipes exposed to a temperature gradient on Earth cause the inner fluid to evaporate at one end and migrate along the pipe, thus drying the hot end, in space (where the effects of gravity can be ignored) the opposite happens and the hot end of the pipe is flooded with liquid. This is due to the Marangoni effect, together with capillary action. The fluid is drawn to the hot end of the tube by capillary action. But the bulk of the liquid still ends up as a droplet a short distance away from the hottest part of the tube, explained by Marangoni flow. The temperature gradients in axial and radial directions makes the fluid flow away from the hot end and the walls of the tube, towards the center axis. The liquid forms a droplet with a small contact area with the tube walls, a thin film circulating liquid between the cooler droplet and the liquid at the hot end.\n"
] |
Would we be able to detect an extraterrestrial spacecraft in orbit around our Sun? | [Voyager](_URL_2_) or [Voyager](_URL_0_)? :P
In all seriousness though, [this](_URL_1_) says that by 2028 we hope to have detected 90% of all near-Earth asteroids of diameter 140 meters or larger. So it's *very* unlikely we'd detect a Voyager-sized spacecraft in orbit around the Sun (unless it happened to be at the same orbital radius as Earth, and pretty close ahead/behind in our orbit). Orbiting around the *Earth* however, I'm not sure there's a single answer. The probability of detection would depend strongly on the orbital radius. | [
"Interstellar spacecraft may be detectable from hundreds to thousands of light-years away through various forms of radiation, such as the photons emitted by an antimatter rocket or cyclotron radiation from the interaction of a magnetic sail with the interstellar medium. Such a signal would be easily distinguishable from a natural signal and could hence firmly establish the existence of extraterrestrial life were it to be detected. In addition, smaller Bracewell probes within the Solar System itself may also be detectable by means of optical or radio searches.\n",
"The star scanner (without a backup system) and sun sensor allowed the spacecraft to know its orientation in space by analyzing the position of the Sun and other stars in relation to itself. Sometimes the craft could be slightly off course; this was expected, given the 500-million-kilometer (320 million mile) journey. Thus navigators planned up to six trajectory correction maneuvers, along with health checks.\n",
"Earth-size planet Proxima Centauri b was discovered in 2016 orbiting within the Alpha Centauri system habitable zones, compelling the Breakthrough Starshot to try to aim its spacecraft within 1 astronomical unit (150 million kilometers or 93 million miles) of it. From this distance, a craft's cameras could potentially capture an image of high enough quality to resolve surface features.\n",
"The Galileo mission, while performing a gravity assist flyby of Earth, treated our planet as an extraterrestrial one, in a test of life detection techniques. Conversely, the Deep Impact mission's High Resolution Imager, intended for examining comets starting from great distances, could be repurposed for exoplanet observations in its EPOXI extended mission.\n",
"A team of scientists think they can image Proxima Centauri b and probe the planet's atmosphere for signs of oxygen, water vapor, and methane, combining ESPRESSO and SPHERE on the VLT. The James Webb Space Telescope may be able to characterize the atmosphere of Proxima Centauri b, but there is no conclusive evidence for transits combining MOST and HATSouth photometry, giving it less than a 1 percent chance of being a transiting planet. Future telescopes (the Extremely Large Telescope, the Giant Magellan Telescope, and the Thirty Meter Telescope) could have the capability to characterize Proxima Centauri b.\n",
"The interstellar journey may include a flyby of \"Proxima Centauri b\", an Earth-sized exoplanet that is in the habitable zone of its host star in the Alpha Centauri system. From a distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (150 million kilometers or 93 million miles), the four cameras on each of the spacecraft could potentially capture an image of high enough quality to resolve surface features. The spacecraft fleet would have 1000 craft, and each craft, named \"StarChip\", would be a very small centimeter-sized craft weighing several grams. They would be propelled by several ground-based lasers of up to 100 gigawatts. Each tiny spacecraft would transmit data back to Earth using a compact on-board laser communications system. Pete Worden is the head of this project. The conceptual principles to enable this interstellar travel project were described in \"A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight\", by Philip Lubin of UC Santa Barbara. METI president Douglas Vakoch summarized the significance of the project, saying that \"by sending hundreds or thousands of space probes the size of postage stamps, Breakthrough Starshot gets around the hazards of spaceflight that could easily end a mission relying on a single spacecraft. Only one nanocraft needs to make its way to Alpha Centauri and send back a signal for the mission to be successful. When that happens, Starshot will make history.\"\n",
"The orbiter would have carried out the main mission objectives. Some proposed instruments were a multispectral imaging system to image the planet from ultraviolet to infrared, and a magnetometer, to investigate why the Neptune's magnetic field is oriented so far from the planet's axis of rotation.\n"
] |
what is the catch with those auction sites that claim to sell ipads and high end laptops for $20? | You have to pay for each bid, and you can only improve the previous bid by a small increment each time. So as an example. Lets say an IPad costs $500. Each bid costs you $1. You can bid it up by .01 each time. So in aggregate people need to spend $2000 to win the right to buy the item for $20. And once people start bidding they feel like they have a certain amount invested so they keep going. Plus there are bots that autobid things up. | [
"Amazon introduced Amazon Coins on July 13, 2013 in the United States and gave 500 free coins valued $5/£3 to all users of Kindle Fire devices, who could use the coins to purchase apps, games, and in-app purchases on the Amazon Appstore. However, in 2014, Amazon started allowing all Android users in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States to earn, buy, and spend Amazon Coins on the Appstore using Android phones and tablets. Users could also get discounts when they bought the coins in bulk and earn coins through certain apps on the Appstore.\n",
"Specific Kindle device sales numbers are not released by Amazon; however, according to anonymous inside sources, over three million Kindles had been sold as of December 2009, while external estimates, as of Q4-2009, place the number at about 1.5 million. According to James McQuivey of Forrester Research, estimates are ranging around four million, as of mid-2010.\n",
"Buy.com officially launched a partnership with eBay in April 2008, striking a deal to sell millions of items on eBay. Buy.com would quickly become the largest seller on eBay. Many independent sellers were upset that, unlike other sellers, Buy.com was allowed to sell on eBay without paying listing fees.\n",
"Due to its size and economies of scale, Amazon is able to out price local small scale shop keepers. Stacy Mitchell and Olivia Lavecchia, researchers with the Institute for local self-reliance argue that this has caused most local small scale shop keepers to close down in a number of cities and towns in the United States. Additionally, a merchant cannot have an item in the warehouse available to sell prior to Amazon if they choose to list it as well; monopolizing the product and price. Many times fraudulent charges have been made on the company banking and financial channels without approval; since Amazon prides itself on keeping all financial data permanently on file in their database. If they charge your account they will not refund the money back to the account they took it from, they will only provide an Amazon credit. All other credit card company disputes the funds are returned to the card; not to Dillard's where one bought a product from. Additionally, there is not any merchant customer support which at times needs to be handled in real time. \n",
"In 2002, Buy.com went beyond selling solely electronics, movies and music, adding more soft goods to their catalog, such as sports equipment, apparel, shoes, health and beauty products. It was at this time that Blum placed a full-page ad in \"The Wall Street Journal\" promising Amazon.com customers that Buy.com would prove to be the better buying option. This statement came shortly after Buy.com announced a 10% below Amazon.com cost on all books sold on the site and free shipping site-wide, with no minimum purchase required. At the time, Amazon had 25 million customers, approximately five times as many as Buy.com.\n",
"According to estimates by Forrester Research, about 5 million units were sold by mid-October 2012, making the Nook Tablet the third best selling tablet after Apple's iPad and Amazon's Kindle Fire in 2012.\n",
"They opened their account at 2013 auction by buying South-African wicket-keeper Quinton de Kock at base price of $20,000. They also got two overseas bowling options in the form of right-arm Australian fast-bowler Clint McKay and right-arm off-spinner Nathan McCullum, both at their base price of $100,000. Their most expensive buy in their maiden IPL auction came in with the purchase of Sri-Lankan all-rounder Thisara Perera at a whooping price of $675,000. They also bagged West-Indian all-rounder Darren Sammy for $425,000 to improve their options for the squad. Towards the end, they picked up Sudeep Tyagi, their only Indian purchase at the base price of $100,000.\n"
] |
What were the casualties expected in an invasion of mainland Japan and how did they compare to the actual casualties caused by using nuclear weapons ? | The atomic bombs dropped on Japan killed at least 150,000, and probably more than 250,000 eventually died as a direct result of the bombings. Just to keep things in perspective, neither the bombing of Hiroshima or Nagasaki were individually as deadly as the March 9-10 1945 firebombing of Tokyo (100,000 dead). The invasion of mainland Japan was estimated to cost at least million casualties on both sides - the U.S. military ordered so many Purple Hearts that they're still handing out them today. I'm afraid I can't comment on the accuracy of their casualty predictions, but they were based on four years of brutal warfare, and both the Japanese military and civilians had proved more willing to die than accept defeat or surrender (for example: on Iwo Jima, the Japanese commander ordered his men to kill ten Americans *before they died* - not "kill ten and you can go home," or "kill ten and we'll win," but "you're going to do die and you need to kill as many of the enemy as possible;" the U.S. took 218 prisoners of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers present; civilians on Saipan and Okinawa committed mass suicide); I see no reason not to accept the military's prediction of over 1,000,000 dead and wounded Americans (and equivalent or greater numbers of Japanese) as at least a probable outcome. | [
"These casualty figures, as well as those from other island campaigns, were used by U.S. military planners to estimate that Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands, would result in well over 1,000,000 U.S. and 5,000,000 Japanese casualties. These estimates put the decision made to use atomic weapons against the Japanese in context.\n",
"In 1949, the Japanese Economic Stabilization Agency calculated that the Allied naval bombardments and other forms of attack other than bombing had caused 3,282 casualties, representing 0.5 percent of all casualties inflicted by the Allies in the Japanese home islands. The casualties attributed to naval bombardments and other causes included 1,739 fatalities, 46 persons who were still classified as missing and 1,497 people who were wounded.\n",
"The Allied naval bombardments disrupted industrial production in the cities targeted, and convinced many Japanese civilians that the war was lost. Up to 1,739 Japanese were killed in the attacks, and about 1,497 were wounded. The only Allied casualties were 32 Allied prisoners of war killed in the bombardments of Kamaishi.\n",
"The Allied bombing campaign was one of the main factors which influenced the Japanese government's decision to surrender in mid-August 1945. However, there has been a long-running debate over the morality of the attacks on Japanese cities, and the use of atomic weapons is particularly controversial. The most commonly cited estimate of Japanese casualties from the raids is 333,000 killed and 473,000 wounded. There are a number of other estimates of total fatalities, however, which range from 241,000 to 900,000. In addition to the loss of mostly civilian life, the raids contributed to a large decline in industrial production.\n",
"For six months prior to the use of nuclear weapons in combat, the United States Army Air Forces under LeMay's command undertook a major strategic bombing campaign against Japanese cities through the use of incendiary bombs, destroying 67 cities and killing an estimated 350,000 civilians. The \"Operation Meetinghouse\" raid on Tokyo on the night of 9/10 March 1945 stands as the deadliest air raid in human history, killing 100,000 civilians and destroying of the city that night, which caused more civilian deaths and damage to urbanized land than any other single air attack, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined.\n",
"The air attacks on Japan caused hundreds of thousands of casualties, though estimates of the number who were killed and wounded vary considerably. The strategic attacks by the Twentieth Air Force caused most of the casualties and damage. The figures most frequently cited in the literature on the campaign are sourced from the USSBS report \"The Effects of Bombing on Health and Medical Services in Japan\" which estimated that 333,000 Japanese were killed and 473,000 wounded. Included in this figure were an estimated 120,000 dead and 160,000 injured in the two atomic bomb attacks. Another USSBS report, \"The Effects of Strategic Bombing on Japanese Morale\", included a much higher estimate of 900,000 killed and 1.3 million injured which was reached by a Japanese research team using a statistical sampling methodology. While this figure is also occasionally cited, the USSBS' investigators regarded the work of their statistical teams as unsatisfactory, and the researchers were unable to calculate the error rate of this estimate. The postwar Japanese government calculated in 1949 that 323,495 people had been killed by air attacks in the home islands. The destruction of buildings housing government records during air raids contributed to the uncertainty about the number of casualties. The Twentieth Air Force lost 414 B-29s during attacks on Japan. Over 2,600 American bomber crew members were killed, including POWs who died in captivity, and a further 433 were wounded.\n",
"The American aerial bombing of a total of 65 Japanese cities took from 400,000 to 600,000 civilian lives, with 100,000+ in Tokyo alone, over 200,000 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined. The Battle of Okinawa resulted in 80,000–150,000 civilian deaths. In addition civilian death among settlers who died attempting to return to Japan from Manchuria in the winter of 1945 were probably around 100,000. The total of Japanese military fatalities between 1937 and 1945 were 2.1 million; most came in the last year of the war and were caused by starvation or severe malnutrition in garrisons cut off from supplies.\n"
] |
Is there proof of mutation introducing new material into the genome? | How your friend put it is a bit misleading.
Mutations happen all the time. And they aren't noticeable because many don't cause any change in that gene's function. Point mutations occur in which bases (nucleotides in your DNA) are altered. There are insertions, deletions or frameshifts.. which I don't want to get into. Long regions of DNA can be copied moved around and duplicated in error. Typically this results in nothing except maybe altered expression but can lead to interesting results in a variety of ways.
Point is... mutations are noticeable when they turn genes on and off, but that's DEFINITELY not the only way they occur. You could have a mutation in you right now that causes a certain protein to have less affinity to it's substrate making it less effective.. this can be caused by a change in a single amino acid residue in that protein. An individual could spontaneously develop an enzyme that allows that to metabolize aspartame (wouldn't that be hilarious).
There is evidence for this happening (look at ecoli long term evolution experiment where the bacteria spontaneously developed the ability to metabolize citrate).
How do you think new genes come about? Typically another gene was duplicated erroneously, and then underwent many many mutations over thousands to millions of years... or less, depending on selection pressure, and viola, a new gene, with a new protein derived off old genetic code.
Sorry it's a rant, but it's a pretty open ended question. Your friend does not do justice to the complexity of mutations at an evolutionary standpoint, but then again neither do I. | [
"A molecule that allows the genetic material to be realized as a protein was first hypothesized by François Jacob and Jacques Monod. Severo Ochoa won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959 for developing a process for synthesizing RNA \"in vitro\" with polynucleotide phosphorylase, which was useful for cracking the genetic code. RNA synthesis by RNA polymerase was established \"in vitro\" by several laboratories by 1965; however, the RNA synthesized by these enzymes had properties that suggested the existence of an additional factor needed to terminate transcription correctly.\n",
"A series of subsequent discoveries led to the realization decades later that the genetic material is made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). In 1941, George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum showed that mutations in genes caused errors in specific steps in metabolic pathways. This showed that specific genes code for specific proteins, leading to the \"one gene, one enzyme\" hypothesis. Oswald Avery, Colin Munro MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty showed in 1944 that DNA holds the gene's information. In 1952, Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling produced a strikingly clear x-ray diffraction pattern indicating a helical form, and in 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick demonstrated the molecular structure of DNA. Together, these discoveries established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA which is transcribed by DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses.\n",
"However, by 1953, influenced by the enormous impact of , the majority of researchers had fully accepted the 1944 paper. In fact, one might say, formal proof that DNA encoded genetic material was approximated only much later by the laboratory synthesis of oligonucleotides, and by the demonstration of genetic material's biological activity, for example, genes for tRNA or small DNA viruses. Long before this formal proof, most commentators had accepted the untrammeled heuristic value of the proposition that, indeed, genes were made of DNA.\n",
"In 2006, researchers suggested that the transition from RNA to DNA genomes first occurred in the viral world. A DNA-based virus may have provided storage for an ancient host that had previously used RNA to store its genetic information (such host is called ribocell or ribocyte). Viruses may initially have adopted DNA as a way to resist RNA-degrading enzymes in the host cells. Hence, the contribution from such a new component may have been as significant as the contribution from chloroplasts or mitochondria. Following this hypothesis, archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes each obtained their DNA informational system from a different virus. In the original paper it was also an RNA cell at the origin of eukaryotes, but eventually more complex, featuring RNA processing. Although this is in contrast to nowadays more probable eocyte hypothesis, viruses seem to have contributed to the origin of all three domains of life ('out of virus hypothesis'). It has also been suggested that telomerase and telomeres, key aspects of eukaryotic cell replication, have viral origins. Further, the viral origins of the modern eukaryotic nucleus may have relied on multiple infections of archaeal cells carrying bacterial mitochondrial precursors with lysogenic viruses.\n",
"2. Retroposition (conversion of RNA to DNA) is an ancient process, but has persisted throughout the evolution of most eukaryotes. This process has contributed to the mass of genomes of modern multicellular organisms, at the same time keeping genomes in flux and presenting raw material for the de novo evolution of genes.\n",
"Smith and his team began to investigate possibility of the creation of mutations of any site within a viral genome. If possible, this process could be an efficient method to engineer heritable changes in genes. Finally, in 1977 they confirmed Smith's theory.\n",
"Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination. This leads to copy-number variation within a population. Duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.\n"
] |
Why isn't the sky completely white at night? | You've hit upon a very old question called ["Olbers' Paradox"](_URL_0_).
The solution relies on the fact that the universe is not infinitely old, so only finitely many stars and galaxies are observable and they collectively subtend an angle on the sky much smaller than the full sky. | [
"The nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity. Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue. On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night. This phenomenon also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere.\n",
"During daylight, the sky appears to be blue because air scatters more blue sunlight than red. At night, the sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. During the day, the Sun can be seen in the sky unless obscured by clouds. In the night sky (and to some extent during the day) the Moon, planets and stars are visible in the sky. Some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation can also be seen in the sky during storms. Birds, insects, aircraft, and kites are often considered to fly in the sky. Due to human activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the night are often seen above large cities.\n",
"The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.\n",
"The sky is really nothing more than the denser gaseous zone of the earth’s atmosphere. Sky can be depicted as many different colors, such as a pale blue or the lack of any color at all, such as the night sky, which has the appearance of blackness, albeit with a scattering of stars on a clear night. During the day, the sky is seen as a deep blue due to the sunlight reflected on the air.\n",
"When the daytime sky is overcast, sunlight passes through the turbid layer of the clouds, resulting in scattered, diffuse light on the ground. This exhibits Mie scattering instead of Tyndall scattering because the cloud droplets are larger than the wavelength of the light and scatters all colors approximately equally. When the daytime sky is cloudless, the sky's color is blue due to Rayleigh scattering instead of Tyndall scattering because the scattering particles are the air molecules, which are much smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. On occasion, the term \"Tyndall effect\" is incorrectly applied to light scattering by large (macroscopic) dust particles in the air.\n",
"A red sky – in the morning or evening, is a result of high pressure air in the atmosphere trapping particles of dust or soot. Air molecules scatter the shorter blue wavelengths of sunlight, but particles of dust, soot and other aerosols scatter the longer red wavelength of sunlight in a process called Rayleigh scattering. At sunrise and sunset, the sun is lower in the sky causing the sunlight to travel through more of the atmosphere so scattering more light. This effect is further enhanced when there are at least some high level clouds to reflect this light back to the ground.\n",
"The sky can turn a multitude of colors such as red, orange, pink and yellow (especially near sunset or sunrise) and black at night. Scattering effects also partially polarize light from the sky, most pronounced at an angle 90° from the sun.\n"
] |
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