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does a person who has unprotected sex for 15 seconds have the same exposure to sti's that a person who has unprotected sex for 15 minutes? | No, person B has much more exposure to the STI. However, depending on the STI and whether the other person is actively showing symptoms, 15 seconds and 15 minutes might not make much of a difference in terms of whether or not the person gets infected. | [
"Lloyd Kolbe, director of the Center for Disease Control's Adolescent and School Health program, called the STI problem \"a serious epidemic.\" The younger an adolescent is when they first have any type of sexual relations, including oral sex, the more likely they are to get an STI.\n",
"Recent analysis suggests that an individual’s likelihood of engaging in unprotected sex is related to their personal analysis of risk, with those who believed that receiving HAART or having an undetectable viral load protects against transmitting HIV or who had reduced concerns about engaging in unsafe sex given the availability of HAART were more likely to engage in unprotected sex regardless of HIV status.\n",
"A 2002 survey in the United States showed that with regards to STIs, healthcare providers conduct screenings with less frequency than recommended by health department guidelines. Furthermore, when a person was found to have a sexually transmitted infection, it was much more common for the physician to ask the person to notify their partners rather than for the physician to arrange for this to be done on behalf of the patient.\n",
"Sexual intercourse can also be a disease vector. There are 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) every year in the U.S., and worldwide there are over 340 million STD infections each year. More than half of these occur in adolescents and young adults aged 15–24 years. At least one in four U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease. In the U.S., about 30% of 15- to 17-year-olds have had sexual intercourse, but only about 80% of 15- to 19-year-olds report using condoms for their first sexual intercourse. In one study, more than 75% of young women age 18–25 years felt they were at low risk of acquiring an STD.\n",
"Additionally, a 2008 survey conducted among 11 and 12 class girls (aged 14 to 19; mean age was 16.38) in South Delhi found that 71% had no knowledge about the effects of genital herpes. 43% did not know the effects of syphilis and 28% did not know gonorrhoea was an STD. 46% thought the all STDs, except AIDS, could be cured. The major sources of information about STDs and safe sex among the girls were their friends (76%), media (72%), books and magazines (65%) or the internet (52%). 48% felt that they could not talk to their parents about sex.\n",
"The infection is usually spread from one person to another through vaginal, oral, or anal sex. Men have a 20% risk of getting the infection from a single act of vaginal intercourse with an infected woman. The risk for men that have sex with men (MSM) is higher. Active MSM may get a penile infection, while passive MSM may get anorectal gonorrhea. Women have a 60–80% risk of getting the infection from a single act of vaginal intercourse with an infected man.\n",
"As with other sexual practices, people without sound knowledge about the sexual risks involved are susceptible to STIs. Because of the view that anal sex is not \"real sex\" and therefore does not result in virginity loss, or pregnancy, teenagers and other young people may consider vaginal intercourse riskier than anal intercourse and believe that a STI can only result from vaginal intercourse. It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries.\n"
] |
nyquist theorem perfect signal reproduction | The key element you are missing is the Nyquist limit. For perfect reconstruction the signal must have all frequencies at less than half the sampling rate. This limiting of the frequencies guarantees that only one continuous wave could have produced those samples. In the case you mentioned of sampling a sine wave at the peaks and troughs (which doesn't actually quite meet the Nyquist limit) cannot have been produced by a saw tooth wave. This is because a saw tooth wave would have very frequencies exceeding the Nyquist limit. A saw tooth wave isn't continuous either for that matter. | [
"A Nyquist plot is a parametric plot of a frequency response used in automatic control and signal processing. The most common use of Nyquist plots is for assessing the stability of a system with feedback. In Cartesian coordinates, the real part of the transfer function is plotted on the X axis. The imaginary part is plotted on the Y axis. The frequency is swept as a parameter, resulting in a plot per frequency. The same plot can be described using polar coordinates, where gain of the transfer function is the radial coordinate, and the phase of the transfer function is the corresponding angular coordinate. The Nyquist plot is named after Harry Nyquist, a former engineer at Bell Laboratories.\n",
"A signal is said to be \"bipartite\" if the sequence of intervals start with a singular interval - i.e. a closed interval whose lower and upper bound are equal, hence a set which is a singleton. And if the sequence alternate between singular intervals and open intervals. \n",
"The signal whose Fourier transform is shown in the figure is also bandlimited. Suppose formula_6 is a signal whose Fourier transform is formula_7, the magnitude of which is shown in the figure. The highest frequency component in formula_6 is formula_9. As a result, the Nyquist rate is\n",
"Nyquist diagram of the impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. 3 is a semicircle with a diameter formula_18 and an angular frequency at the apex equal to formula_19 (Fig. 3). Other representations, Bode plots, or Black plans can be used.\n",
"In applied mathematics, the nonuniform discrete Fourier transform (NUDFT or NDFT) of a signal is a type of Fourier transform, related to a discrete Fourier transform or discrete-time Fourier transform, but in which the input signal is not sampled at equally spaced points or frequencies (or both). It is a generalization of the shifted DFT. It has important applications in signal processing, magnetic resonance imaging, and the numerical solution of partial differential equations.\n",
"Whereas the technique of the Fourier transform can be extended to obtain the frequency spectrum of any slowly growing locally integrable signal, this approach requires a complete description of the signal's behavior over all time. Indeed, one can think of points in the (spectral) frequency domain as smearing together information from across the entire time domain. While mathematically elegant, such a technique is not appropriate for analyzing a signal with indeterminate future behavior. For instance, one must presuppose some degree of indeterminate future behavior in any telecommunications systems to achieve non-zero entropy (if one already knows what the other person will say one cannot learn anything).\n",
"The Morlet wavelet transform method is applied to music transcription. It produces very accurate results that were not possible using Fourier transform techniques. The Morlet wavelet transform is capable of capturing short bursts of repeating and alternating music notes with a clear start and end time for each note.\n"
] |
Steven Hawking's, in In To The Universe, just claimed that 10 minutes after the big bang the cosmos was already thousands of light-years in diameter; how can this be possible? | Expansion isn't measured in speed. The distances between two galaxies may increase due to expansion at such a rate that from Galaxy A's perspective, Galaxy B recedes at a "velocity" greater than the speed of light, but the key here is that it's not a real velocity. Nothing is actually moving. It's just the distance between them increasing, and therefore there is no limitation on the rate of expansion.
As for the video, it's probably talking about only the observable universe (the portion of the overall universe that we can directly observe) when it mentions "the cosmos." A good portion of the scientific community believes the universe is likely spatially infinite, and so it would have no finite diameter (and never would have). | [
"In 2010, Penrose reported possible evidence, based on concentric circles found in WMAP data of the CMB sky, of an earlier universe existing before the Big Bang of our own present universe. He mentions this evidence in the epilogue of his 2010 book \"Cycles of Time\", a book in which he presents his reasons, to do with Einstein's field equations, the Weyl curvature C, and the Weyl curvature hypothesis (WCH), that the transition at the Big Bang could have been smooth enough for a previous universe to survive it. He made several conjectures about C and the WCH, some of which were subsequently proved by others, and he also popularized his conformal cyclic cosmology (CCC) theory.\n",
"While at the Lick Observatory, Mayall collaborated on a 20-year project with astronomers at Mount Palomar and Mount Wilson on the Big Bang theory of the beginning of the Universe. Together with Milton L. Humason and Allan R. Sandage, he wrote a 1956 paper concluding that the age of the Universe was six billion years (three times the prior estimate, and about half the modern value), and its size three times larger than thought.\n",
"About a decade later, in the midst of what was dubbed the \"Great Debate\", Hubble and Slipher discovered the expansion of universe in the 1920s measuring the redshifts of Doppler spectra from galactic nebulae. Using Einstein's general relativity, Lemaître and Gamow formulated what would become known as the big bang theory. A rival, called the steady state theory was devised by Hoyle, Gold, Narlikar and Bondi.\n",
"The book also discusses the \"big questions\", including life (\"in the next 50 years, we will come to understand how life began and possibly discover whether life exists elsewhere in the universe\"), time (“You can’t get to a time before the Big Bang [because] there was no time before the Big Bang ... If the concept of time only exists within our universe and the universe came to be spontaneously ... and with it, brought time into existence, there’s simply no 'before' to consider.\" Further, Hawking believed the universe could reach an end point, either through an eventual cosmic \"crunch or an expansion\" ... \"In the interim ... We are all time travelers, journeying together into the future. But let us make that future a place we want to visit”), the possibility of time travel (“asking if time travel is possible is a 'very serious question' that our current understanding cannot rule out\"), and God (“knowing the mind of God is knowing the laws of nature ... My prediction is that we will know the mind of God by the end of this century”; further, \"if you like, you can call the laws of science ‘God,’ but it wouldn’t be a personal God that you would meet and put questions to ... [nevertheless] the simplest explanation is that God does not exist and there is no reliable evidence for an afterlife, though people could live on through their influence and genes\"). \n",
"During its initial 29-month mission, which was extended, it made observations in ultraviolet wavelengths to measure the history of star formation in the universe 80 percent of the way back to the Big Bang. Since scientists believe the Universe to be about 13.8 billion years old, the mission will study galaxies and stars across about 10 billion years of cosmic history.\n",
"\"The Big Bang Never Happened: A Startling Refutation of the Dominant Theory of the Origin of the Universe\" (1991) is Lerner's controversial book which rejects mainstream Big Bang cosmology, and instead advances a non-standard plasma cosmology originally proposed by Hannes Alfvén in the 1960s. The book appeared at a time when results from the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite were of some concern to astrophysicists who expected to see cosmic microwave background anisotropies but instead measured a blackbody spectrum with little variation across the sky. Lerner referred to this as evidence that the Big Bang was a failed paradigm. He also denigrated the observational evidence for dark matter and recounted a well known cosmological feature that superclusters are larger than the largest structures that could have formed through gravitational collapse in the age of the universe.\n",
"On January 11, 2013, the discovery of the Huge-LQG was announced by the University of Central Lancashire, as the largest known structure in the universe by that time. It comprises 74 quasars and has a minimum diameter of 1.4 billion light-years, but over 4 billion light-years at its widest point. According to researcher and author, Roger Clowes, the existence of structures with the size of LQGs was believed theoretically impossible. Cosmological structures had been believed to have a size limit of approximately 1.2 billion light-years.\n"
] |
why are ahmadiyya muslims, who appear in the news when they are either helping a community or being murdered, hated by the muslim community? | Because Ahmadiyya represents a threat to the status quo and to the powers of the mullahs and politicians who use their false interpretations of islam for personal gain. Ahmadis are utterly peaceful and are only shown violence and oppression by the rest of the muslim world. Right away any rational person can see who would be following the true and real islam since islam is always said to be about peace. We have ahmadi's being murdered, and exiled and not lifting a finger in return, while on the other hand we have the rest of the muslim world raging and becoming very violent. Ahmadi's believe that the messiah of all religions has come, while other muslims still believe he will float down from the sky and perform magic. One is more rational than the others. It's scary for Ahmadi's that is why they are fleeing the regions of instability and going to places that respect the freedom of religion, while the oppressive countries are literally breaking apart from their own corruption and violence. It is like a sign that they don't see. | [
"Both Muslims and Jews have been targets for assault, discriminatory treatment, hate speech, and vandalism. Muslim organization leaders have asserted that many members of their community do not bother reporting anti-Muslim incidents because they do not believe that the police would address them seriously.\n",
"In 2010, in the wake of the May 2010 attacks on two Ahmadi mosques in Lahore, Pakistan, members of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community living in the UK were threatened and intimidated. Certain Muslim groups in South London distributed leaflets asking readers to kill Ahmadis and boycott their businesses, and Ahmadi mosques in Crawley and Newham were vandalised. In October 2010 Ofcom criticised the UK-based Ummah Channel for broadcasting three interactive television programmes before and after the Lahore massacre of Ahmadi Muslims in May 2010, in which religious leaders and callers alike said that Ahmadis should be killed. These programmes were repeated several times. Ofcom stated that the programme's abusive treatment of the religious views and beliefs of members of the Ahmadiyya community breached UK broadcasting regulations.\n",
"The Ahmadi community released a persecution report in 2018 in which the discrimination faced by Ahmadis in Pakistan has been detailed including \"indiscriminate arrests\" of people from the community. Ahmadis are forbidden to call themselves Muslims or use Islamic symbols in their religious practices. They are also mandated to declare themselves as non-Muslims in order to vote in general elections. Another report listed 3963 news items and 532 editorial pieces in the country's Urdu-language media for spreading \"hate propaganda\" against Ahmadis.\n",
"The Ahmadiyya Muslims have previously been targeted by Sunni groups, while they have also suffered discrimination in Pakistan in the past, most significantly during the Lahore riots of 1953. Pakistan does not recognize the Ahmadis as Muslim, because it is claimed the latter do not recognize the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad, a core tenet of mainstream Islam. They were declared non-Muslim in Pakistan in 1973 by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and were legally banned from identifying themselves as such in 1984 during General Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization as per Ordinance XX, despite Ahmadis calling themselves Muslim and following the rituals of Islam. The ban occurred when jihadist ideology became embedded in Pakistan's state and education system. The media in Pakistan are legally barred from referring to an Ahmadi place of worship as a mosque.\n",
"The Ahmadiyya regard themselves as Muslims, but are seen by many other Muslims as non-Muslims and \"heretics\" since they are accused of not believing in the finality of prophethood since the death of Muhammad. Armed groups, led by the umbrella organization Khatme Nabuwwat (\"Finality of Prophethood\"), have launched violent attacks against their mosques in Bangladesh.\n",
"Persecution can extend beyond those who perceive themselves to be Muslims and include those who are perceived by others as Muslims, or it can include Muslims who are considered non-Muslims by fellow Muslims. The Ahmadiyya regard themselves as Muslims, but are seen by many other Muslims as non-Muslims and \"heretics\". In 1984, the Government of Pakistan, under General Zia-ul-Haq, passed Ordinance XX, which banned proselytizing by Ahmadis and also banned Ahmadis from referring to themselves as Muslims. According to this ordinance, any Ahmadi who refers to oneself as a Muslim by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation, directly or indirectly, or makes the call for prayer as other Muslims do, is punishable by imprisonment of up to 3 years. Because of these difficulties, Mirza Tahir Ahmad migrated to London.\n",
"In Bangladesh, Ahmadis have been targeted by various protests and acts of violence, and fundamentalist Islamic groups have demanded that Ahmadis be officially declared \"kafirs\" (infidels). Some adherents of Ahmadiyya have been subject to \"house arrest\" and several have been killed. In late 2003 several large, violent marches, led by Moulana Moahmud Hossain Mumtazi, were directed to occupy an Ahmadi mosque. In 2004, all Ahmadiyya publications were banned.\n"
] |
when did blue became the standard color for ball pens? | It really isn't the standard, but there's many reasons why it could be preferred by companies that manufacture pens. Here are some explanations.
For one, blue ink is distinguishable. If you're printing out a paper in greyscale, blue ink will stick out on the paper. This is especially important for official documentation such as what you get in the doctor's office. The color on the paper makes the person who's looking at it know exactly what you wrote without having to scan through the paper.
Also, blue ink makes an original document visible from copies. Since most copy machines use black and white printouts, the blue color of the pen makes the original document (the one scanned) easy to identify.
Another explanation is that blue ink writes better. The composition of the ink allows the pen to flow better on the paper.
And finally, there might not be a reason. It's likely that when different colors of ink were developed that people naturally developed a preference for blue. Like black ink, it's legible but unlike red ink, still easy to read. This is probably the more likely explanation. | [
"The use of blue as the second kit color dates from the 1930s, but it became the permanent second choice accidentally in the 1958 World Cup Final. Brazil's opponents were Sweden, who also wear yellow, and a draw gave the home team, Sweden, the right to play in yellow. Brazil, who travelled with no second kit, hurriedly purchased a set of blue shirts and sewed on them the badges taken from their yellow shirts.\n",
"Throughout the 20th Century, Major League Baseball used two technically identical but differently marked balls. The American League had \"\"Official American League\"\" and the American League's president's signature in blue ink, while National League baseballs had \"\"Official National League\"\" and the National League president's signature in black ink. According to Bob Feller, in the 1930s, when he was a rookie in the National League, baseball laces were black, intertwined with red; the American League's were blue and red. In 2000, Major League Baseball reorganized its structure to eliminate the position of league presidents, and switched to one ball specification for both leagues. Under the current rules, a major league baseball weighs between , and is in circumference ( in diameter). There are 108 double stitches on a baseball, or 216 individual stitches.\n",
"The use of blue as the away kit colour dates from the 1930s, but it became the permanent second choice accidentally in the 1958 World Cup final. Brazil's opponents was Sweden, who also wear yellow, and a draw gave the home team, Sweden, the right to play in yellow. Brazil, who travelled with no spare kit, hurriedly purchased a set of blue shirts and sewed on emblems cut from their yellow shirts.\n",
"The school colors are red, black, and blue. Originally, red, white, and blue, the white was changed to black upon the death of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. Another legend suggests that GA changed its colors so its cricket team would not be confused with the nearby Philadelphia Cricket Club (with red, black, and yellow as club colors) team, as the white would turn to yellow after long and hot matches.\n",
"The university adopted blue and white as its official colors in 1892. Originally, however, UK students had decided on blue and light yellow prior to the Kentucky-Centre College football game on December 19, 1887. The shade of blue, which is close to a royal blue, was chosen when a student asked the question, \"What color blue?\" At the time, Richard C. Stoll (who lettered in football at UK in 1889–94) pulled off his necktie and held it up. The students then adopted that particular shade of blue. A year later, UK students officially dropped the light yellow color for white because the two colors did not look good together.\n",
"The first chapter, \"Colored Base Ball,\" begins with the organization in 1885 of the first professional colored baseball team, discusses the brusque removal of all black players from predominantly white teams during the next four years, and then traces the growing strength of \"colored base ball\" into the early years of the 20th century. This short book-within-a-book is history, but it can also be described as an almanac, a scorecard, an archive, a who's who of African-American baseball up to 1907.\n",
"White's \"History of Colored Base Ball\" was the first book devoted to black professional baseball, and it would remain the only one for more than 60 years, until Robert W. Peterson published \"Only the Ball Was White\" in 1970. Today only five copies are known to exist.\n"
] |
how do we know anything about the unobservable universe? | Strictly speaking we know NOTHING about the unobservable universe but we have no reason to think it's any different from what is observable.
Also an interesting fact about the rapid expansion of the universe billions of years means that the part of the universe that is observable is constantly increasing (and will continue increasing for billions more years until stuff starts to slip out of view), so we can "universalize" our current theories based on the new stuff that is slowly coming into view. | [
"The observable universe is one \"causal patch\" of a much larger unobservable universe; other parts of the Universe cannot communicate with Earth yet. These parts of the Universe are outside our current cosmological horizon. In the standard hot big bang model, without inflation, the cosmological horizon moves out, bringing new regions into view. Yet as a local observer sees such a region for the first time, it looks no different from any other region of space the local observer has already seen: its background radiation is at nearly the same temperature as the background radiation of other regions, and its space-time curvature is evolving lock-step with the others. This presents a mystery: how did these new regions know what temperature and curvature they were supposed to have? They couldn't have learned it by getting signals, because they were not previously in communication with our past light cone.\n",
"The observable universe can be thought of as a sphere that extends outwards from any observation point for 46.5 billion light years, going farther back in time and more redshifted the more distant away one looks. Ideally, one can continue to look back all the way to the Big Bang; in practice, however, the farthest away one can look using light and other electromagnetic radiation is the cosmic microwave background (CMB), as anything past that was opaque. Experimental investigations show that the observable universe is very close to isotropic and homogeneous.\n",
"BULLET::::- It is sometimes used, mainly by cosmologists, to mean the uncertainty because we can only observe one realization of all the possible observable universes. For example, we can only observe one Cosmic Microwave Background, so the measured positions of the peaks in the Cosmic Microwave Background spectrum, integrated over the visible sky, are limited by the fact that only one spectrum is observable from Earth. The observable universe viewed from another Galaxy will have the peaks in slightly different places, while remaining consistent with the same physical laws, inflation, etc. This second meaning may be regarded as a special case of the third meaning.\n",
"Both popular and professional research articles in cosmology often use the term \"universe\" to mean \"observable universe\". This can be justified on the grounds that we can never know anything by direct experimentation about any part of the universe that is causally disconnected from the Earth, although many credible theories require a total universe much larger than the observable universe. No evidence exists to suggest that the boundary of the observable universe constitutes a boundary on the universe as a whole, nor do any of the mainstream cosmological models propose that the universe has any physical boundary in the first place, though some models propose it could be finite but unbounded, like a higher-dimensional analogue of the 2D surface of a sphere that is finite in area but has no edge. It is plausible that the galaxies within our observable universe represent only a minuscule fraction of the galaxies in the universe. According to the theory of cosmic inflation initially introduced by its founder, Alan Guth (and by D. Kazanas), if it is assumed that inflation began about 10 seconds after the Big Bang, then with the plausible assumption that the size of the universe before the inflation occurred was approximately equal to the speed of light times its age, that would suggest that at present the entire universe's size is at least 3 times the radius of the observable universe. There are also lower estimates claiming that the entire universe is in excess of 250 times larger (by volume, not by radius) than the observable universe and also higher estimates implying that the universe could have the size of at least 10 Mpc.\n",
"\"There are clear unknowables in science—reasonable questions that, unless currently accepted laws of nature are violated, we cannot find answers to. One example is the multiverse: the conjecture that our universe is but one among a multitude of others, each potentially with a different set of laws of nature. Other universes lie outside our causal horizon, meaning that we cannot receive or send signals to them. Any evidence for their existence would be circumstantial: for example, scars in the radiation permeating space because of a past collision with a neighboring universe.\"\n",
"The observable universe is a spherical region of the universe comprising all matter that can be observed from Earth or its space-based telescopes and exploratory probes at the present time, because electromagnetic radiation from these objects has had time to reach the Solar System and Earth since the beginning of the cosmological expansion. There are at least 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe. Assuming the universe is isotropic, the distance to the edge of the observable universe is roughly the same in every direction. That is, the observable universe has a spherical volume (a ball) centered on the observer. Every location in the universe has its own observable universe, which may or may not overlap with the one centered on Earth.\n",
"Since there is believed to be no \"center\" or \"edge\" of the Universe, there is no particular reference point with which to plot the overall location of the Earth in the universe. Because the observable universe is defined as that region of the Universe visible to terrestrial observers, Earth is, because of the constancy of the speed of light, the center of Earth's observable universe. Reference can be made to the Earth's position with respect to specific structures, which exist at various scales. It is still undetermined whether the Universe is infinite. There have been numerous hypotheses that the known universe may be only one such example within a higher multiverse; however, no direct evidence of any sort of multiverse has been observed, and some have argued that the hypothesis is not falsifiable. \n"
] |
how do ventilators help people breathe and are they complicated to manufacture? | They work by forcing air in and out of the lungs. Ventilation can be made using a machine or manually using a bag-valve-mask (BVM) device.
The main idea is to keep a good flow of air in and out and to ensure that a sufficient amount of the lungs is actually in use to allow the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide between to and from the blood.
The machines are simple in that all they have to do is pump air in and pump air out. The complex part is making sure that the lungs are not overinflated, not stressed and sufficient air/oxygen/carbon dioxide is supplied and exchanged. There are other factors as well but these are the main points.
As an example of a complicating factor, the rate at which air enters and leaves the lungs is not just constant in, then constant out, but follows a quite complex curve - not sure if you've seen the respiration flow traces on one of the monitors.
There are a number of mode of operation of these devices to assist not just in the flow of gasses but also to ensure that the speed of gas flow is correct, that "resting" periods take place and so on. In fact the air flow into the lungs is extremely complicated.
A very simple device but with many components to make it safer and more effective to use - this is what makes them complicated. Then there's all sorts of interesting issues regarding medical compliance, testing, certification and so on.
Hope this helps.
& #x200B;
Edit: received my first gold - thank you kind anonymous redditor! | [
"A medical ventilator (or simply ventilator in context) is a machine designed to provide mechanical ventilation by moving breathable air into and out of the lungs, to deliver breaths to a patient who is physically unable to breathe, or breathing insufficiently.\n",
"Ventilators come in many different styles and method of giving a breath to sustain life. There are manual ventilators such as bag valve masks and anesthesia bags that require the users to hold the ventilator to the face or to an artificial airway and maintain breaths with their hands. Mechanical ventilators are ventilators not requiring operator effort and are typically computer-controlled or pneumatic-controlled.\n",
"Modern \"volume ventilators/respirators,\" which deliver an adjustable volume (amount) of air to the person with each breath, are valuable in the treatment of people with muscular dystrophy-related respiratory problems. The ventilator may require an invasive endotracheal or tracheotomy tube through which air is directly delivered, but for some people, noninvasive delivery through a face mask or mouthpiece is sufficient. Positive airway pressure machines, particularly bilevel ones, are sometimes used in this latter way. The respiratory equipment may easily fit on a ventilator tray on the bottom or back of a power wheelchair with an external battery for portability.\n",
"Artificial ventilation, (also called artificial respiration) is means of assisting or stimulating respiration, a metabolic process referring to the overall exchange of gases in the body by pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration. It may take the form of manually providing air for a person who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on their own, or it may be mechanical ventilation involving the use of a mechanical ventilator to move air in and out of the lungs when an individual is unable to breathe on their own, for example during surgery with general anesthesia or when an individual is in a coma.\n",
"Ventilating or ventilation (the \"V\" in HVAC) is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of the interior air.\n",
"Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of one's respiratory tract. There are two main types of respirators. One type of respirator functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, from the air breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or active (powered). Gas masks and particulate respirators are examples of this type of respirator. A second type of respirator protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source. This type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate ventilation is not available or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.\n",
"Modern ventilators are electronically controlled by a small embedded system to allow exact adaptation of pressure and flow characteristics to an individual patient's needs. Fine-tuned ventilator settings also serve to make ventilation more tolerable and comfortable for the patient. In Canada and the United States, respiratory therapists are responsible for tuning these settings, while biomedical technologists are responsible for the maintenance. In the United Kingdom and Europe the management of the patient's interaction with the ventilator is done by critical care nurses.\n"
] |
If heat and sound are both vibrations of molecules, what's the thing separating them? | There isn't really a clear dividing line, but heat energy is more random and represents energy that has spread out among all possible vibration modes, while a traveling sound wave will be more organized and concentrated in specific vibration modes. As sound dissipates into heat the energy spreads out into other modes of vibration until it is diluted as much as possible. | [
"Since sound waves are produced by a vibrating body, the vibrating object moves in one direction and compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object moves in the opposite direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an expansion, or rarefaction, of air molecules occurs. One compression and one rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave. The vibrating air molecules move back and forth parallel to the direction of motion of the wave, receiving energy from adjacent molecules nearer the source and passing the energy to adjacent molecules farther from the source.\n",
"Any vibrating thing produces vibrations at a number of frequencies above the fundamental pitch. These are called overtones. When the overtones are integer multiples (e.g., 2×, 3× ... 6× ... ) of the fundamental frequency (called harmonics), then - neglecting damping - the oscillation is periodic—i.e., it vibrates exactly the same way over and over. Humans seem to enjoy the sound of periodic oscillations. For this reason, many musical instruments, including pianos, are designed to produce nearly periodic oscillations, that is, to have overtones as close as possible to the harmonics of the fundamental tone.\n",
"When a light wave of a given frequency strikes a material with particles having the same or (resonant) vibrational frequencies, then those particles will absorb the energy of the light wave and transform it into thermal energy of vibrational motion. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared light. Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When infrared light of these frequencies strikes an object, the energy is reflected or transmitted.\n",
"While the assumption that a solid has independent oscillations is very accurate, these oscillations are sound waves or phonons, collective modes involving many atoms. In the Einstein model, however, each atom oscillates independently. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics.\n",
"In any solid at any temperature, the primary particles (e.g. atoms or molecules) are not stationary, but rather vibrate about mean positions. In insulators the capacity of the solid to store thermal energy is due almost entirely to these vibrations. Many physical properties of the solid (e.g. modulus of elasticity) can be predicted given knowledge of the frequencies with which the particles vibrate. The simplest assumption (by Einstein) is that all the particles oscillate about their mean positions with the same natural frequency \"ν\". This is equivalent to the assumption that all atoms vibrate independently with a frequency \"ν\". Einstein also assumed that the allowed energy states of these oscillations are harmonics, or integral multiples of \"hν\". The spectrum of waveforms can be described mathematically using a Fourier series of sinusoidal density fluctuations (or thermal phonons).\n",
"Because microwaves transfer electromagnetic energy at a molecular level, and the vibration of the molecules creates heat through friction, it is difficult to properly check for this highly localized 'micro'-thermal effect or create conditions where study of the putative 'athermal' effect is possible.\n",
"In the harmonic approximation, the normal modes of a molecule are not coupled, and all vibrational quantum levels are equally spaced, so hot bands would not be distinguishable from so-called \"fundamental\" transitions arising from the overall vibrational ground state. However, vibrations of real molecules always have some anharmonicity, which causes coupling between different vibrational modes that in turn shifts the observed frequencies of hot bands in vibrational spectra. Because anharmonicity decreases the spacing between adjacent vibrational levels, hot bands exhibit red shifts (appear at lower frequencies than the corresponding fundamental transitions). The magnitude of the observed shift is correlated to the degree of anharmonicity in the corresponding normal modes.\n"
] |
why do dogs have random patches of differently colored fur? | The hair color is determine by two different genes and when the genes are differenr both of the genes get expressed fully (e.g. black and white spots vs gray) | [
"During evolution of the dog from their wild wolf ancestors, coat colors in dogs were probably the inadvertent outcome of some other selective process (i.e., selection for tameness), and were not likely initially selected for intentionally by humans. Research has found that tameness brings associated physical changes, including coat colouring and patterning. Diversification of the dog into different types and ultimately separate breeds increased colour variation as factors such as camouflage and visibility aided the dogs’ functionality.\n",
"The pattern of a dog's fur is determined by genes. Heart-kun likely had a heart-shaped design on his coat because he had a collection of genes that induced brown fur, as well as a second collection dictating that the brown fur would be amalgamated with white patterns.\n",
"The fur of the African wild dog differs significantly from that of other canids, consisting entirely of stiff bristle-hairs with no underfur. It gradually loses its fur as it ages, with older specimens being almost naked. Colour variation is extreme, and may serve in visual identification, as African wild dogs can recognise each other at distances of 50–100 m. Some geographic variation is seen in coat colour, with northeastern African specimens tending to be predominantly black with small white and yellow patches, while southern African ones are more brightly coloured, sporting a mix of brown, black and white coats. Much of the species' coat patterning occurs on the trunk and legs. Little variation in facial markings occurs, with the muzzle being black, gradually shading into brown on the cheeks and forehead. A black line extends up the forehead, turning blackish-brown on the back of the ears. A few specimens sport a brown teardrop-shaped mark below the eyes. The back of the head and neck are either brown or yellow. A white patch occasionally occurs behind the fore legs, with some specimens having completely white fore legs, chests and throats. The tail is usually white at the tip, black in the middle and brown at the base. Some specimens lack the white tip entirely, or may have black fur below the white tip. These coat patterns can be asymmetrical, with the left side of the body often having different markings from that of the right.\n",
"The dogs have blue, liver or sandy colouration, all three of which may have tan points. Bedlingtons carry what is known as the greying gene, a dominant trait carried on the G locus. This gene causes puppies born with black or dark brown fur to lighten to grey or liver with age. The fur of the Bedlington creates a shape on the top of the dog's head known as a topknot. Although most modern breed standards call for the dog's topknot to be lighter than its body, when the breed was first being formed there was at least one prominent breeder, Mr. Pickett, who believed that the topknot should be darker, not lighter.\n",
"Variability observed between individuals is likely due to the lack of selective pressures. There are, however, consistently strong commonalities across dogs from different locations, including characteristics such as amber eye color and the characteristic \"monkey-like face\". The coat, irrespective of color, has a typical coarse outer layer, as well as a woolly and dense undercoat. The hair on the head and hindquarters is typically short, while the face has longer furnishings around the eyes and a beard-like length around the muzzle and chin. Male dogs have a longer and thicker coat around the neck forming a mane.\n",
"The coat is very thick and dense, with a soft undercoat and stiff, coarse guard hairs. The Eskimo Dog has a mane of thick fur around its neck, which is quite impressive in the males and adds an illusion of additional size. This mane is smaller in females. Eskimo Dogs can be almost any colour, and no one colour or colour pattern should dominate. Solid white dogs are often seen, as well as white dogs with patches of another colour on the head or both body and head. Solid silver or black coloured dogs are common as well. Many of the solid coloured dogs have white mask-like markings on the face, sometimes with spots over the eyes. Others might have white socks and nose stripes with no eye spots or mask.\n",
"The fur is dense and rich, centre parting at the ridge is not allowed. Covering hair, which is constituted by hair with 5-15 cm length, completely covers the shorter, dense and soft undercoat. Male dogs have collar around the neck. The fur is pure white. A yellowish tinge by ears is permissible, but not desirable. The eyes are brown. Muzzle, lips edges and eyelids, like the paw pads, are black. \n"
] |
Did the U.S. have any election irregularities in its early days? | The Broad Seal War comes to mind. In the election of 1838, there was a difficulty with the election results from New Jersey. At the time, elections for New Jersey congressional representatives were determined by vote taken from the entire state. NJ had no congressional districts and no electors. The election results that year for the US House of Representatives between the Democratic ticket and the Whig ticket were very close--something like only 100 votes.
It was discovered later that the one of the county clerks in NJ threw out the election results for a couple of towns (thus favoring the Whigs) because they hadn't been properly sealed by the town clerks--some said he threw them out on a technicality that would normally be overlooked and others claimed that the votes had been opened and tampered with.
So when it came time to seat the members of the House of Representatives in December, the clerk began to call the roll and then everything got into an uproar when he reached New Jersey and he couldn't figure what names to call because both delegations from the Democrats and the Whigs had come to the House to be seated. Not counting the NJ delegation (6 seats), the House consisted of 119 Democrats and 118 Whigs. Needless to say, the NJ delegation would tip the balance of power.
The dispute grew so heated that the House was unable to organize itself and couldn't even manage to elect a speaker of the house for a couple of weeks--business that's usually over and done the first day of the session. Once the House finally organized, neither NJ delegation was seated while the matter was investigated. Basically, NJ remained unrepresented in the House until March when the NJ Democrats were seated and served the remainder of their terms.
So, in that case, anyway, there wasn't anything like an international observer around, and it doesn't seem that there was wide-spread national irregularities, but apparently the actions of relatively few people within a single county in New Jersey had a significant national consequence in the election of 1838.
[Source (warning, pdf file)](_URL_0_). | [
"In the 1876 election, disputes regarding 20 electoral votes in four states, along with multiple allegations of vote fraud, sparked an intense political battle and effectively invalidated the election. This constitutional crisis was resolved only two days before the scheduled inauguration through the Compromise of 1877.\n",
"The Supreme Court dismissed claims by Vice President Bemba that massive fraud had occurred during the October 29 vote and subsequent count. Both the Carter Center and the EU confirmed that irregularities had occurred and involved both sides but that those irregularities were not of a magnitude to change the presidential election's outcome.\n",
"International observers, including the European Union, determined various irregularities in 11 of the 36 Federal States. Thus in many cases votes were pre-filled or results were later amended. In some states those did not fulfil minimum standard for democratic elections.\n",
"In the days before the election and the days afterward, predictions and reports of fraud were printed daily in the \"Gazette.\" Because of the relatively slow communications, messages from other counties were often delayed up to a week. There were numerous reports of anomalies in state polling centers, including names being inexplicably stricken from the voter registration lists and persons voting without proof of registration. The \"Gazette\" wrote:\n",
"According to international observers, early rounds of voting have experienced significant fraud, including people voting more than once due to failure of indelible ink, vote buying due to lack of secrecy, poor training of election workers, poor tracking of political parties, and other problems. This has resulted in the nullification of some results and scheduling of re-runs. The United States has withdrawn funding for the October 2016 round, though it financially supported previous rounds and observation by the Organization of American States.\n",
"During and after the election international media and local independent websites reported serious irregularities during the election, including ballot stuffing, misuse of state resources, media bias and lack of impartiality by the election commission. The Russian state-owned news agency RIA Novosti reported more than 1,100 official complaints filed of election irregularities across the country, including vote fraud, obstruction of observers and illegal campaigning.\n",
"After some accusations of fraud circulated on the day of the election, at least fifteen candidates declared that they were boycotting the ballot, but the boycott dissolved when the United Nations announced it would set up a three-person independent panel to investigate the charges of irregularities. The panel included a former Canadian diplomat, a Swedish electoral expert, and the third member was later named by the European Union.\n"
] |
the period between donating blood | Based on averages and to be safe.
The cost, time and effort to take exactly the maximum safe amount of blood at the soonest possible time would be inefficient. | [
"The campaign has clarified that donating blood is a permitted and, in fact, a recommended act in Islam. Some eminent religious scholars have issued information regarding the donating of blood and shown support for the campaign.\n",
"A blood donation occurs when a person voluntarily has blood drawn and used for transfusions and/or made into biopharmaceutical medications by a process called fractionation (separation of whole-blood components). Donation may be of whole blood, or of specific components directly (the latter called apheresis). Blood banks often participate in the collection process as well as the procedures that follow it.\n",
"Visitors to Israel are also welcome to donate blood through the \"Sharing for Life\" program. Since its inception in 2001, increasing numbers of people have donated blood, usually through groups such as Christian solidarity missions, or family Bar-Bat Mitzvas, especially during seasonal traditional pilgrimage times, such as Passover and Easter.\n",
"Blood donations are divided into groups based on who will receive the collected blood. An 'allogeneic' (also called 'homologous') donation is when a donor gives blood for storage at a blood bank for transfusion to an unknown recipient. A 'directed' donation is when a person, often a family member, donates blood for transfusion to a specific individual. Directed donations are relatively rare when an established supply exists. A 'replacement donor' donation is a hybrid of the two and is common in developing countries such as Ghana. In this case, a friend or family member of the recipient donates blood to replace the stored blood used in a transfusion, ensuring a consistent supply. When a person has blood stored that will be transfused back to the donor at a later date, usually after surgery, that is called an 'autologous' donation. Blood that is used to make medications can be made from allogeneic donations or from donations exclusively used for manufacturing.\n",
"Today in the developed world, most blood donors are unpaid volunteers who donate blood for a community supply. In some countries, established supplies are limited and donors usually give blood when family or friends need a transfusion (directed donation). Many donors donate as an act of charity, but in countries that allow paid donation some donors are paid, and in some cases there are incentives other than money such as paid time off from work. Donors can also have blood drawn for their own future use (autologous donation). Donating is relatively safe, but some donors have bruising where the needle is inserted or may feel faint.\n",
"It emphasizes thanking of blood donors who save lives every day through their blood donations and inspires more people all over the world to donate blood voluntarily and regularly with the slogan “Give freely, give often\". Blood donation matters. This year campaign pays attention to stories from people whose lives have been saved through blood donation. Activities include memorable events, meetings, publication of relevant stories on media, scientific conferences, publication of articles on national, regional and international scientific journals, and other activities that would help in encouraging the title of this year's World Blood Donor Day.\n",
"The history of voluntary blood donation in India dates back to 1942 during the second world war, when blood donors were required to help the wounded soldiers. The first blood bank was established in Kolkata, West Bengal in March 1942 at the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health and was managed by the Red Cross. The donors were mostly government employees and people from the Anglo-Indian community who donated blood for a humanitarian cause. The number of voluntary donors declined after the war and donors had to be paid for the blood. Leela Moolgaonkar, a social reformer, initiated voluntary blood donation camps in Mumbai from 1954. The 1960s saw many blood banks open in different cities. Under his stewardship in 1975, J. G. Jolly, the president of the Indian Society of Blood Transfusion and Immunohaematology declared October 1 as the National Voluntary Blood Donation Day, which has been observed throughout the country ever since.\n"
] |
why doesnt black absorb all light? | Black obsorbs all colours equally, but not 100% of everything. "blacker" black obsorbs more.
Also a surface can have texture that changes how it reflect light, compare a shiny black glass vs a slightly rippled textured black keyboard vs really matte black paint. | [
"Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector). \n",
"In physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well. In elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called \"black light\" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances to fluoresce.\n",
"In the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors. Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye. Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye \"look black\". A black pigment can, however, result from a \"combination\" of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called \"black\". This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.\n",
"When the body is black, the absorption is obvious: the amount of light absorbed is all the light that hits the surface. For a black body much bigger than the wavelength, the light energy absorbed at any wavelength \"λ\" per unit time is strictly proportional to the black-body curve. This means that the black-body curve is the amount of light energy emitted by a black body, which justifies the name. This is the condition for the applicability of Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation: the black-body curve is characteristic of thermal light, which depends only on the temperature of the walls of the cavity, provided that the walls of the cavity are completely opaque and are not very reflective, and that the cavity is in thermodynamic equilibrium. When the black body is small, so that its size is comparable to the wavelength of light, the absorption is modified, because a small object is not an efficient absorber of light of long wavelength, but the principle of strict equality of emission and absorption is always upheld in a condition of thermodynamic equilibrium.\n",
"Black-body radiation diffuses thermal energy throughout a substance as the photons are absorbed by neighboring atoms, transferring momentum in the process. Black-body photons also easily escape from a substance and can be absorbed by the ambient environment; kinetic energy is lost in the process.\n",
"Black is a color, the perception of which is evoked by the total absence of light that stimulates any of the three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye and with very low brightness compared to the surroundings. A black visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness. Black is the darkest possible color.\n",
"Although black lights produce light in the UV range, their spectrum is mostly confined to the longwave UVA region, that is, UV radiation nearest in wavelength to visible light, with low frequency and therefore relatively low energy. While low, there is still some power of a conventional black light in the UVB range. UVA is the safest of the three spectra of UV light, although high exposure to UVA has been linked to the development of skin cancer in humans. The relatively low energy of UVA light does not cause sunburn. UVA is capable of causing damage to collagen fibers, however, so it does have the potential to accelerate skin aging and cause wrinkles. UVA can also destroy vitamin A in the skin.\n"
] |
how does a turtle’s shell grow while the turtle grows? what is it made of? | The shell is made up of panel-like things called scutes. With most types of turtles, these scutes shed periodically to allow bigger scutes to form. They are made out of keratin - same as human hair & nails.
Source: I’m a turtle fan. | [
"The turtle shell is a highly complicated shield for the ventral and dorsal parts of turtles, tortoises and terrapins (all classified as \"turtles\" by zoologists), completely enclosing all the vital organs of the turtle and in some cases even the head. It is constructed of modified bony elements such as the ribs, parts of the pelvis and other bones found in most reptiles. The bone of the shell consists of both skeletal and dermal bone, showing that the complete enclosure of the shell probably evolved by including dermal armor into the rib cage.\n",
"The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the plastron. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called bridges. The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones that include portions of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called scutes that are part of its outer skin, or epidermis. Scutes are made up of the fibrous protein keratin that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes; for example, the leatherback sea turtle and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead.\n",
"The shell of the turtle is an important study, not just because of the obvious protection it provides for the animal, but also as an identification tool, in particular with fossils as the shell is one of the likely parts of a turtle to survive fossilization. Hence understanding the structure of the shell in living species gives us comparable material with fossils.\n",
"The turtle shell is made up of numerous bony elements, generally named after similar bones in other vertebrates, and a series of keratinous scutes which are also uniquely named. Some of those bones that make the top of the shell, carapace, evolved from the scapula rami of the clavicles along with the dorsal and superficial migration of the clecthra. The ventral surface is called the \"plastron\". These are joined by an area called the bridge. The actual suture between the bridge and the plastron is called the anterior bridge strut. In Pleurodires the posterior pelvis is also part of the carapace, fully fused with it. This is not the case in Cryptodires which have a floating pelvis. The anterior bridge strut and posterior bridge strut are part of the plastron, on the carapace are the sutures into which they insert, known as the Bridge carapace suture.\n",
"The evolution of the turtle's shell is unique because of how the carapace represents transformed vertebrae and ribs. While other tetrapods have their scapula, or shoulder blades, found outside of the ribcage, the scapula for turtles is found inside the ribcage. The shells of other tetrapods, such as armadillos, are not linked directly to the vertebral column or rib cage allowing the ribs to move freely with the surrounding intercostal muscle. However, analysis of the transitional fossil, \"Eunotosaurus africanus\" shows that early ancestors of turtles lost that intercostal muscle usually found between the ribs.\n",
"The shell grows to a length of 10 mm. The shell has a conical shape, with a broad and tumid base and a wide narrowed umbilicus. The surface is cross-hatched like a file. When fresh, the shell is translucent with a pearly sheen.\n",
"The painted turtle's shell is long, oval, smooth with little grooves where the large scale-like plates overlap, and flat-bottomed. The color of the top shell (carapace) varies from olive to black. Darker specimens are more common where the bottom of the water body is darker. The bottom shell (plastron) is yellow, sometimes red, sometimes with dark markings in the center. Similar to the top shell, the turtle's skin is olive to black, but with red and yellow stripes on its neck, legs, and tail. As with other pond turtles, such as the bog turtle, the painted turtle's feet are webbed to aid swimming.\n"
] |
Can there be incomplete annihilation? | Protons and neutrons contain more than just 3 quarks. There are gluons holding them together, gluons interacting with other gluons, and gluons can spontaneously form temporary quark-antiquark pairs (called "sea quarks").
The 3 permanent quarks are called valence quarks. They give the particle its properties.
This is also true for all baryons and other hadrons, e.g. mesons are more than just a quark-antiquark pair.
Proton-antiproton annihilation is a very messy process because of this. It's not only possible for the annihilation to be 'incomplete', as you put it, it's pretty much guaranteed. | [
"In particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence, any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy and conservation of momentum are obeyed.\n",
"But then it is possible to reinterpret the annihilation operator as a \"creation\" operator for a negative energy particle. It still lowers the energy of the vacuum, but in this point of view it does so by creating a negative energy object. This reinterpretation only affects the philosophy. To reproduce the rules for when annihilation in the vacuum gives zero, the notion of \"empty\" and \"filled\" must be reversed for the negative energy states. Instead of being states with no antiparticle, these are states that are already filled with a negative energy particle.\n",
"The word annihilation takes use informally for the interaction of two particles that are not mutual antiparticles - not charge conjugate. Some quantum numbers may then not sum to zero in the initial state, but conserve with the same totals in the final state. An example is the \"annihilation\" of a high-energy electron antineutrino with an electron to produce a .\n",
"Annihilation Factor is the second science fiction novel by Barrington J. Bayley, expanded from a 1964 short story (\"The Patch\") originally published in \"New Worlds\". It centres on the strains placed on a galactic empire by the appearance of the mysterious, planet-devouring \"patch\".\n",
"Total Annihilation: The Core Contingency (abbreviated TA:CC) is a 1998 expansion to the popular 1997 real-time strategy computer game \"Total Annihilation\". It contains extra units and maps, as well as a campaign of 25 missions and a map editor.\n",
"Annihilation is a military strategy in which an attacking army seeks to entirely destroy the military capacity of the opposing army. This strategy can be executed in a single planned pivotal battle, called a \"battle of annihilation.\" A successful battle of annihilation is accomplished through the use of tactical surprise, application of overwhelming force at a key point, or other tactics performed immediately before or during the battle.\n",
"Creation and annihilation operators are mathematical operators that have widespread applications in quantum mechanics, notably in the study of quantum harmonic oscillators and many-particle systems. An annihilation operator (usually denoted formula_1) lowers the number of particles in a given state by one. A creation operator (usually denoted formula_2) increases the number of particles in a given state by one, and it is the adjoint of the annihilation operator. In many subfields of physics and chemistry, the use of these operators instead of wavefunctions is known as second quantization.\n"
] |
the difference between adverbs and adverbials. | An adverb is a word, an adverbial is a group of words, phrase or clause which acts as an adverb. | [
"In English, adverbials most commonly take the form of adverbs, adverb phrases, temporal noun phrases or prepositional phrases. Many types of adverbials (for instance: reason and condition) are often expressed by clauses.\n",
"In grammar, an adverbial (abbreviated ) is a word (an adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial phrase or an adverbial clause) that modifies or more closely defines the sentence or the verb. (The word \"adverbial\" itself is also used as an adjective, meaning \"having the same function as an adverb\".) Look at the examples below:\n",
"An adverbial consists of either a single adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause that modifies either the verb or the sentence as a whole. Some traditional grammars consider adpositional phrases a type of adverb, but many grammars treat these as separate. Adverbials may modify time, place, or manner. Negation is also frequently indicated with adverbials, including adverbs such as English \"not\".\n",
"It is also called adverbial because it qualifies the main verb like any other adverb, adverbially used adjective, adverbial prepositional phrase, adverbial clause or supplementary predicate. In most of the cases it has the force of a dependent clause denoting time, cause, purpose, supposition, opposition, concession. Often it denotes manner-means or any other \"attendant circumstance\".\n",
"In linguistics, an adverbial phrase (\"AdvP\") is a multi-word expression operating adverbially: its syntactic function is to modify other expressions, including verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adverbials, and sentences. Adverbial phrases can be divided into two types: complement adverbs versus modifier adverbs. For example, in the sentence \"She sang very well\", the expression \"very well\" is an adverbial phrase, as it modifies the verb \"sing\". More specifically, the adverbial phrase \"very well\" contains two adverbials, \"very\" and \"well\": while \"well\" modifies the verb to convey information about the manner of singing (for example, \"She sang well\" versus \"She sang badly\"), \"very\" is a degree modifier that conveys information about the degree to which the action of singing well was accomplished (for example, \"Not only did she sing well, she sang very well\").\n",
"An adverbial is a construction which modifies or describes verbs. When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb. Word groups, which are also considered to be adverbials, can also modify verbs: for example, a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a finite clause or a non-finite clause. Prepositional phrase in a sentence may be adverbial; that is, it modifies a verb.\n",
"The following sentences illustrate the difference between adverbs, adverbial phrases, and adverbial clauses. In the first example, \"soon\" is an adverb (as distinct from a noun or a verb), which is a type of adverbial. In the second sentence, the modifier \"in an hour\" has the same syntactic function (that is, to act adverbially and modify the base of the sentence \"I'll go to bed\"), though it does not contain an adverb. This modifier consists of a preposition and a determiner phrase, and functions as an adverbial, thus making it an adverbial phrase. In the third example, we see a whole clause functioning as an adverbial; it is termed an adverbial clause.\n"
] |
how does “night mode” work for iphone pictures? | It keeps the shutter open a little longer to allow more light in. It mixes that with some digital brightening that makes some noise, so depending on the situation, it takes 2 or a few photos and combines them and it puts those photos on top of each other and the artificial intelligence does its thing to best reduce noise. Imagine a checkered board and in this boxes, there are many different shapes. You memorise some of those shapes and position and your friend memorises a few more and another friend memorises the last few.
So put together all your work and you have the complete checkerboard. If you were doing this alone, you'd try to fill in this empty boxes with whatever you think is right. Those things you think is right are actually wrong and that is the noise you get when you take photos at night without night mode. | [
"The iPhone 3GS's camera app features a slider which allows users to switch between capturing photos and recording videos, a tap-to-focus feature which allows users to tap on an area of the camera image to auto-focus on, 5x digital zoom (iOS 4 or later), auto focus and auto exposure lock when holding an area down (iOS 5 or later), and gridlines for composition (iOS 5 or later).\n",
"Shooting took place in New York City over 18 days. For the scenes in which the actor conversed using Skype, the actors were put in different rooms of the same house and filmed their conversations using the application. Due to Internet outages and software failures, they had to reshoot several scenes. The actors rehearsed their scenes face-to-face prior to shooting to develop a sense of intimacy. Wigon estimated 10–15% of the film was improvised, and he encouraged the actors to improvise during the Skype conversations. In order to illustrate Virginia's deception, the set design was deliberate, as Wigon wanted to ensure that it showed she was attempting to hide her location. Wigon used slow, 360 degree pan shots in order to build tension. He said that he wanted to build as much tension and paranoid anxiety as possible, so as to make it seem as though Cody may be in danger of losing his mind from the ordeal. Wigon also wanted avoid what he called generic sitcom shots that reveal nothing about the scene. Wigon, a film critic for \"The Village Voice\" among other publications, said that his filmmaking helped inform his criticism more than the reverse; while editing the film, he said he developed a greater understanding of narrative construction. Influences included \"The Conversation\", \"Simon Killer\", and \"Eyes Wide Shut\".\n",
"The iPhone 5S's camera was paired with a double LED flash, allowing for higher quality nighttime photos. Included with iOS 7 was a new camera app, allowing the iPhone 5S to capture fast continuous shots and record slow-motion videos.\n",
"Camera's captures include location information if the user provides the app permission to use it. Additional settings included in the app include time delay, zooming, focus control, sensitivity control, white balance control, shutter speed control, brightness control, and a toggle for switching between different cameras. For instance, most Windows phones and tablets have both front- and rear-facing cameras, so Camera’s switch button toggles between the two options.\n",
"On-set, real-time camera tracking is becoming more widely used in feature film production to allow elements that will be inserted in post-production be visualised live on-set. This has the benefit of helping the director and actors improve performances by actually seeing set extensions or CGI characters whilst (or shortly after) they do a take. No longer do they need to perform to green/blue screens and have no feedback of the end result. Eye-line references, actor positioning, and CGI interaction can now be done live on-set giving everyone confidence that the shot is correct and going to work in the final composite.\n",
"In video production and filmmaking, SMPTE timecode is used extensively for synchronization, and for logging and identifying material in recorded media. During filmmaking or video production shoot, the camera assistant will typically log the start and end timecodes of shots, and the data generated will be sent on to the editorial department for use in referencing those shots. This shot-logging process was traditionally done by hand using pen and paper, but is now typically done using shot-logging software running on a laptop computer that is connected to the time code generator or the camera itself.\n",
"Movie Night Out is an application for iOS and Android platforms. The application is different from its competitors in that it allows users to plan a night out, using a local data feed from Citysearch APIs. Users can plan for something before and after the movie, such as dinner, coffee, dessert and shopping. The app features:\n"
] |
Why are so many organic molecules yellow or orangish? | In my limited experience (Chemistry undergrad, BioPhysics grad school work), the smaller ring structures and smaller conjugated bond paths absorb larger amounts of energy (the blue, purple, green, etc), which means that the energy that passes through the solution is what's left, (the orange, red, yellow, etc).
I can't confirm, and I don't have a source, but that was the way it was explained to me once. | [
"Melanophores contain eumelanin, a type of melanin, that appears black or dark-brown because of its light absorbing qualities. It is packaged in vesicles called melanosomes and distributed throughout the cell. Eumelanin is generated from tyrosine in a series of catalysed chemical reactions. It is a complex chemical containing units of dihydroxyindole and dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid with some pyrrole rings. The key enzyme in melanin synthesis is tyrosinase. When this protein is defective, no melanin can be generated resulting in certain types of albinism. In some amphibian species there are other pigments packaged alongside eumelanin. For example, a novel deep (wine) red-colour pigment was identified in the melanophores of phyllomedusine frogs. This was subsequently identified as pterorhodin, a pteridine dimer that accumulates around eumelanin core, and it is also present in a variety of tree frog species from Australia and Papua New Guinea. While it is likely that other lesser-studied species have complex melanophore pigments, it is nevertheless true that the majority of melanophores studied to date do contain eumelanin exclusively.\n",
"Their color, ranging from pale yellow through bright orange to deep red, is directly linked to their structure. Xanthophylls are often yellow, hence their class name. The double carbon-carbon bonds interact with each other in a process called conjugation, which allows electrons in the molecule to move freely across these areas of the molecule. As the number of conjugated double bonds increases, electrons associated with conjugated systems have more room to move, and require less energy to change states. This causes the range of energies of light absorbed by the molecule to decrease. As more wavelengths of light are absorbed from the longer end of the visible spectrum, the compounds acquire an increasingly red appearance.\n",
"The molecular structures of these molecules is more conjugated than represented in the images shown below. The pigments' colors can range from yellow to green. One of the most common diarylide yellow pigments is Pigment Yellow 12. Its CAS number is . Other diarylide yellow pigments include ‘’’yellow 13’’’ , ‘’’yellow 17’’’ and ‘’’yellow 83’’’ . These pigments share the same backbone and vary in color depending on substitution of the benzene rings. Worldwide production of color organic pigments was estimated to be about 250,000 metric tons (t) in 2006, with about 25%, or 62,500 t, being diarylide yellows.\n",
"Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon, and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the \"absence\" of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a different functional group like –OH, –CHO, –COOH etc.\n",
"There are several different types of melanins considering that they are an aggregate of smaller component molecules, such as nitrogen containing melanins. There are two classes of pigments: black and brown insoluble eumelanins, which are derived from aerobic oxidation of tyrosine in the presence of tyrosinase, and the alkali-soluble phaeomelanins which range from a yellow to red brown color, arising from the deviation of the eumelanin pathway through the intervention of cysteine and/or glutathione. Eumelanins are usually found in the skin and eyes. Several different melanins include melanoprotein (dark brown melanin that is stored in high concentrations in the ink sac of the cuttlefish Sepia Officianalis), echinoidea (found in sand dollars, and the hearts of sea urchins), holothuroidea (found in sea cucumbers), and ophiuroidea (found in brittle and snake stars). These melanins are possibly polymers which arise from the repeated coupling of simple bi-polyfunctional monomdric intermediates, or of high molecular weights. The compounds benzothiazole and tetrahydroisoquinoline ring systems act as UV-absorbing compounds. There are several different types of melanins considering that they are an aggregate of smaller component molecules, such as nitrogen containing melanins.\n",
"Bilins, bilanes or bile pigments are biological pigments formed in many organisms as a metabolic product of certain porphyrins. Bilin (also called bilichrome) was named as a bile pigment of mammals, but can also be found in lower vertebrates, invertebrates, as well as red algae, green plants and cyanobacteria. Bilins can range in color from red, orange, yellow or brown to blue or green.\n",
"Xanthophylls are the most common yellow pigments that form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group. The name is from Greek \"xanthos\" (ξανθος, \"yellow\") + \"phyllon\" (φύλλον, \"leaf\"). Xanthophylls are most commonly found in the leaves of green plants, but they also find their way into animals through the food they eat. For example, the yellow color of chicken egg yolks, fat, and skin comes from the feed the chickens consume. Chicken farmers understand this, and often add xanthophylls, usually lutein, to make the egg yolks more yellow.\n"
] |
Were stone carvings in ancient, medieval, or renaissance sculptures painted or colored? | Frequently, yes.
Ancient sculptures were almost always painted. Here's an article about how traces of this paint can be detected scientifically: _URL_3_
Here's a reconstruction of what classical sculptures might have looked like originally, when painted: _URL_4_
And here's an older article with some history about the rediscovery of paint on ancient sculptures: _URL_0_
This holds true in the middle ages as well.
For example, the stone crosses you see in parts of England from the anglo-saxon period were entirely painted, and fitted with metal and glass inserts to add sparkle as well as color.
Here's a good article about one such cross: _URL_5_
And here's a reconstruction of the paint on another cross: _URL_2_
Sometimes traces of the medieval paint survive. More frequently, they were cleaned off of medieval buildings and sculptures because, as the paint aged and started to flake, people decided it was unattractive. Sometimes paint was stripped from a decorated building because it was thought to have been a later addition, and the building would look more 'original' without the paint (sometimes, original medieval paint was removed by such well-meaning restorations!).
There are a few interesting restoration projects in the UK right now which are repainting medieval sculptures and buildings their original colors (when evidence survives) - [Stirling Castle](_URL_1_) in Scotland is great example. The result looks very different from the grey middle ages we usually imagine! | [
"Ivory carvings, often for book covers, drew on the diptychs of Late Antiquity. For example, the front and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels are of a 6th-century Imperial triumph, adapted to the triumph of Christ and the Virgin. However they also drew on the Insular tradition, especially for decorative detail, whilst greatly improving on that in terms of the depiction of the human figure. Copies of the scriptures or liturgical books illustrated on vellum and adorned with precious metals were produced in abbeys and nunneries across Western Europe. A work like the Stockholm Codex Aureus (\"Gold Book\") might be written in gold leaf on purple vellum, in imitation of Roman and Byzantine Imperial manuscripts. Anglo-Saxon art was often freer, making more use of lively line drawings, and there were other distinct traditions, such as the group of extraordinary Mozarabic manuscripts from Spain, including the Saint-Sever Beatus, and those in Girona and the Morgan Library.\n",
"As a highly prestigious artform using expensive materials, many different techniques for imitating hardstone carvings have been developed, some of which have themselves created significant artistic traditions. Celadon ware, with a jade coloured glaze, was important in China and Korea, and in early periods used for shapes typical of jade objects. Roman cameo glass was invented to imitate cameo gems, with the advantage that consistent layers were possible even in objects in the round. The small group of 11th(?)-century Hedwig glasses are inspired by Fatimid rock-crystal vessels. In the Italian Renaissance agate glass was perfected to imitate agate vessels with multicoloured figuration. Ceramics have often been decorated to imitate gemstones, and wood, plaster and other materials painted to imitate stones. Scagliola developed in Italy to imitate pietra dura inlays on plaster; less elaborate forms are called marbleizing. Medieval illuminated manuscripts often imitated both inlaid stone and engraved gems, and after printing took over paper marbling continued as a manual craft for decorating end-papers and covers.\n",
"However the use of glass engraving, usually using a wheel, to cut decorative scenes or figures into glass vessels, in imitation of hardstone carvings, appears as early as the first century AD, continuing into the fourth century CE at urban centers such as Cologne and Rome, and appears to have ceased sometime in the fifth century. Decoration was first based on Greek mythology, before hunting and circus scenes became popular, as well as imagery drawn from the Old and New Testament. It appears to have been used to mimic the appearance of precious metal wares during the same period, including the application of gold leaf, and could be cut free-hand or with lathes. As many as twenty separate stylistic workshops have been identified, and it seems likely that the engraver and vessel producer were separate craftsmen.\n",
"Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.\n",
"Carved ivory reliefs have been used since ancient times, and because the material, though expensive, cannot usually be reused, they have a relatively high survival rate, and for example consular diptychs represent a large proportion of the survivals of portable secular art from Late Antiquity. In the Gothic period the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable luxury industry in Paris and other centres. As well as small diptychs and triptychs with densely packed religious scenes, usually from the New Testament, secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced.\n",
"It is believed that carvings in wood were once extremely common, but only a few examples have survived. Most 16th-century wood carvings, considered objects of idolatry, were destroyed by the Spanish colonial authorities. The most important Classic examples consist of intricately worked lintels, mostly from the main Tikal pyramid sanctuaries, with one specimen from nearby El Zotz. The Tikal wood reliefs, each consisting of several beams, and dating to the 8th century, show a king on his seat with a protector figure looming large behind, in the form of a Teotihuacan-style 'war serpent' (Temple I lintel 2), a jaguar (Temple I lintel 3), or a human impersonator of the jaguar god of terrestrial fire (Temple IV lintel 2). Other Tikal lintels depict an obese king wearing a jaguar dress and standing in front of his seat (Temple III lintel 2); and most famously, a victorious king, dressed as an astral death god, and standing on a palanquin underneath an arching feathered serpent (Temple IV lintel 3). A rare utility object is a tiny lidded box from Tortuguero with a hieroglyphic text all around it. Free sculpture in wood, dating back to the 6th century, is represented by a dignified seated man possibly functioning as a mirror bearer.\n",
"Of the interior, murals, the font and a wooden sculpture of St. Simon of Cyrene are all medieval. A large set of finely carved late Gothic wooden sculptures, at least some of which were possibly made by Lübeck master carver Henning von der Heide, were originally also displayed in the church but are today housed in Saaremaa Museum in Kuressaare Castle. Additionally, the pillars of the church are decorated with stone carvings from the 15th century, displaying a plain, primitive and evocative style that is clearly related to stone carving from the same time from Padise Abbey and the medieval Dominican cloister in Tallinn. The pulpit (1645) and the neo-Gothic altarpiece decorated by Otto Friedrich Theodor von Möller are later, also noteworthy interior details.\n"
] |
Would it be possible to build a predictive model of chemistry? | Density functional theory (DFT) does this quite well by solving the quantum mechanical calculations for molecules or materials. Often it is predictive, but not perfect in most cases.
_URL_0_ has a huge database of material compautations, and works towards predicting performance in batteries, Thermoelectrics, and photovoltaics.
There are several other examples of these materials genome project type computational databases.
In fact, there is a whole field on computational chemistry working to do exactly what you are asking.
| [
"Second, semi-empirical models solve rate equations that are calibrated using experimental data. Semi-empirical models reduce computational costs primarily by simplifying the chemistry in soot formation and oxidation. Semi-empirical models reduce the size of chemical mechanisms and use simpler molecules, such as acetylene as precursors.\n",
"It is rigorously based on the same microphysical premise that underlies the chemical master equation and gives a more realistic representation of a system’s evolution than the deterministic reaction rate equation (RRE) represented mathematically by ODEs.\n",
"Much of his research focused on resolving discrepancies between reported experimental values and values predicted by chemical bonding models. In many instances, the reported data were shown to be in error, and the reliability of the model was confirmed. Examples are the demonstrations that the enthalpies of formation of C(g) and N(g) were much larger than the widely accepted values. Brewer's compilation of the thermodynamic properties and phase diagrams of 101 binary systems of molybdenum provides many examples of use of predictive models when no reliable experimental data are available.\n",
"Empirical constants such as bond dissociation energy, standard heat of formation (ΔH°), and heat of combustion (ΔH°) are used to predict the stability of molecules and the change in enthalpy (ΔH) through the course of the reactions. For complex molecules, a ΔH° value may not be available but can be estimated using molecular fragments with known heats of formation. This type of analysis is often referred to as Benson group increment theory, after chemist Sidney Benson who spent a career developing the concept. \n",
"A particularly important objective, called computational thermochemistry, is to calculate thermochemical quantities such as the enthalpy of formation to chemical accuracy. Chemical accuracy is the accuracy required to make realistic chemical predictions and is generally considered to be 1 kcal/mol or 4 kJ/mol. To reach that accuracy in an economic way it is necessary to use a series of post-Hartree–Fock methods and combine the results. These methods are called quantum chemistry composite methods.\n",
"is an estimation method for the calculation of phase equilibria of mixtures of chemical components. The original goal for the development of this method was to enable the estimation of properties of mixtures which contain supercritical components. This class of substances cannot be predicted with established models, for example UNIFAC.\n",
"The chemical model will include values of the protonation constants of the ligand, which will have been determined in separate experiments, a value for log \"K\" and estimates of the unknown stability constants of the complexes formed. These estimates are necessary because the calculation uses a [[least squares#Non-linear least squares|non-linear least-squares]] algorithm. The estimates are usually obtained by reference to a chemically similar system. The stability constant databases can be very useful in finding published stability constant values for related complexes.\n"
] |
how are you supposed to know if a self diagnosed mental illness isn't just the placebo effect? | Its easy...a self diagnosed mental illness isnt the placebo effect. It cant be. The Placebo Effectis a beneficial effect, produced by a placebo drug or treatment, that cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must therefore be due to the patient's belief in that treatment.
Now you could mean....
Hypochondria
somatic symptom disorder
or maybe even...
Munchausen syndrome
Take your pick,
the answer to your question is STOP SELF DIAGNOSING. Go see a professional.
| [
"The presence of self-disorders may have predictive power for whether those with an at risk mental state will develop psychosis; the risk of suicidal ideation and suicide by people with schizophrenia, though depression would also be an important factor; predicting initial social dysfunction in people with either schizophrenic or bipolar psychosis; and whether a person will move to a schizophrenia spectrum diagnosis later.\n",
"It is common for individuals with drugs use disorder to have other psychological problems. The terms “dual diagnosis” or “co-occurring disorders,” refer to having a mental health and substance use disorder at the same time. According to the British Association for Psychopharmacology (BAP), “symptoms of psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety and psychosis are the rule rather than the exception in patients misusing drugs and/or alcohol.”\n",
"In medicine, anecdotal evidence is also subject to placebo effects: it is well-established that a patient's (or doctor's) expectation can genuinely change the outcome of treatment. Only double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials can confirm a hypothesis about the effectiveness of a treatment independently of expectations.\n",
"Negative social life events have been found to greatly increase one's risk of depression and clinicians are often quick to check if any major life events have preceded their patient's symptoms. This relationship is largely thought to be causal, with the strongest evidence of causation coming from findings that negative events outside of one's control are strongly associated with depression, making it unlikely that depression symptoms had anything to do with the negative event. Additional support comes from twin studies, which allow for researchers to control for endogenous factors that may be related to its onset. However, noncausal associations are also likely as individuals who are more likely to be depressed may increase their chance of experiencing a negative social event due to placing themselves into relationships where these events may be more common.\n",
"Some mental illness sufferers attempt to correct their illnesses by use of certain drugs. Depression is often self-medicated with alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, or other mind-altering drug use. While this may provide immediate relief of some symptoms such as anxiety, it may evoke and/or exacerbate some symptoms of several kinds of mental illnesses that are already latently present, and may lead to addiction/dependence, among other side effects of long-term use of the drug.\n",
"A diagnosis of mental 'illness' implies that a person is in no way responsible for the abnormality of functioning and as such is not to blame. The concept of 'no blame' is generally thought to be more humane and likely to elicit a much more sympathetic response from others.\n",
"In May 2015, Black addressed the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. She told the audience that anxiety and depression have \"no objective signs. When you examine a person, you can't get an objective disease; it's not in front of you\" - a claim that appears to diverge from the principles underpinning the mental state examination, where clinical signs of anxiety, such as tremor, or clinical signs of depression, such as psychomotor retardation, are identified. She also appeared to suggest that because mental illnesses do not show up on X-rays, they have less of a scientific basis than diseases that do. With stress disorders and depression, she explained: \"If you order an X-ray or a test, you don't get a positive result\".\n"
] |
how do people die from strangulation but wake up from being choked / knocked out? | Because when you choke someone out in a martial arts setting, or knock them unconscious, you immediately cease the attack and allow them to recover. I promise, if you continued your choke for even a fairly short period of time after they pass out, you are likely going to kill them or severely injure them at the least. | [
"In a \"short drop\", the victim may die from strangulation, in which the death may result from a lack of oxygen to the brain. The victim is likely to experience hypoxia, skin tingling, dizziness, vision narrowing, convulsions, shock, and acute respiratory acidosis. One or both carotid arteries and/or the jugular vein may also be compressed sufficiently to cause cerebral ischemia and a hypoxic condition in the brain which will eventually result in or contribute to death. Hanging survivors typically have severe damage to the trachea and larynx, damage to the carotid arteries, damage to the spine, and brain damage due to cerebral anoxia.\n",
"If a living creature is disemboweled, it is invariably fatal without major medical intervention. Historically, disembowelment has been used as a severe form of capital punishment. If the intestinal tract alone is removed, death follows after several hours of gruesome pain. The victim will often be fully conscious while the torture is performed if the vital organs aren't damaged, and will be able to see their intestine being removed, but will eventually lose consciousness due to blood loss. However, in some forms of intentional disembowelment, decapitation or the removal of the heart and lungs would hasten the victim's death.\n",
"BULLET::::- Bangungot: A relatively common occurrence in which a person suddenly loses control of his respiration and digestion, and falls into a coma and ultimately to death. The person is believed to dream of falling into a deep abyss at the onset of his death. This syndrome has been repeatedly linked to Thailand's Brugada syndrome and to the ingestion of rice. However, no such medical ties have been proven.\n",
"According to the historian, \"the screams of agony of the victims (men, women, and children) could be heard in the streets, in the stillness of the night, as they were brutally interrogated, flogged, and slowly dismembered in front of their relatives. \"Eyelids were sliced off and extremities were amputated carefully, a person could remain conscious even though the only thing that remained was his torso and head.\n",
"Onset of symptoms may be after just a few minutes, but usually occurs after at least 20 minutes of free hanging. Typical symptoms are pallor, sweating, shortness of breath, blurred vision, dizziness, nausea, hypotension and numbness of the legs. Eventually it leads to fainting, which may result in death due to oxygen deprivation of the brain.\n",
"BULLET::::- The person has a violent and largely involuntary cough, gurgle, or vomiting noise, though more serious choking victims will have a limited (if any) ability to produce these symptoms since they require at least some air movement.\n",
"Once back at Gacy's house, the victims would be handcuffed or otherwise bound, then sexually assaulted and tortured. To muffle his victims' screams, Gacy would often stick cloth rags or items of the victim's own clothing in their mouths. Some victims had been partly drowned in his bathtub before they had been revived, enabling Gacy to continue his prolonged assault. Many of his victims had been strangled with a tourniquet, which Gacy referred to as his \"rope trick\"; occasionally, the victim had convulsed for an \"hour or two\" after the rope trick before dying. With only two exceptions, all his victims had died between 3 a.m. and 6 a.m. When asked where he drew the inspiration for the two-by-four found at his house in which he had manacled many of his victims, Gacy stated he had been inspired to construct the device from reading about the Houston Mass Murders.\n"
] |
What is located in the area that would otherwise be a uterus if a man were a woman? | The base of the penis is where the vagina would be, the prostate is roughly where the cervix would be and the bladder is where the body of the uterus would be (the male bladder is larger).
The non pregnant uterus is not that big, about the size of a clenched fist. | [
"The uterus (from Latin \"uterus\", plural \"uteri\") or womb is a major female hormone-responsive secondary sex organ of the reproductive system in humans and most other mammals. In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the upper end, the fundus, is connected to the fallopian tubes. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation. In the human embryo, the uterus develops from the paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a duplex uterus.\n",
"The uterus is located within the pelvic region immediately behind and almost overlying the bladder, and in front of the sigmoid colon. The human uterus is pear-shaped and about long, broad (side to side), and thick. A typical adult uterus weighs about 60 grams. The uterus can be divided anatomically into four regions: the fundus – the uppermost rounded portion of the uterus, the corpus (body), the cervix, and the cervical canal. The cervix protrudes into the vagina. The uterus is held in position within the pelvis by ligaments, which are called endopelvic fascia. These ligaments include the pubocervical ligaments, transverse cervical ligaments or cardinal ligaments, and the uterosacral ligaments. It is covered by a sheet-like fold of peritoneum, the broad ligament.\n",
"In the female, the ovaries are found, like the testes, as rounded bodies along the ligament. From the ovaries, masses of ova dehisce into the body cavity, floating in its fluids for fertilization by male's sperm. After fertilization, each egg contains a developing embryo. (These embryos hatch into first stage larva.) The fertilized eggs are brought into the uterus by actions of the \"uterine bell\", a funnel like opening continuous with the uterus. At the junction of the bell and the uterus there is a second, smaller opening situated dorsally. The bell \"swallows\" the matured eggs and passes them on into the uterus. (Immature embryos are passed back into the body cavity through the dorsal opening.) From the uterus, mature eggs leave the female's body via her oviduct, pass into the host's alimentary canal and are expelled from the host's body within feces.\n",
"Although the external genitalia can sometimes be completely female, the vagina consists of only the lower two-thirds of a normal vagina, creating a blind-ending vaginal pouch. Because of normal action of Müllerian inhibiting factor produced by the testes in utero, individuals with 5-ARD lack a uterus and Fallopian tubes. Thus, they would not physically be able to carry a pregnancy in any event. Even with treatments such as surrogate motherhood, female infertility is caused by the lack of any ova to implant in a surrogate mother.\n",
"The sexes are determined externally by the number of openings in the groin area: the female has three – the forward one is the urinary opening (in the urinary papilla or projection), the second is the vagina, and the third is the anus at the tail. The male has two openings – the combined urinary/reproductive opening in the penis, and the anus. The testes never descend into a scrotum but remain within the body cavity. There are six teats on the belly – a pair at the chest, a pair at the groin, and a pair between the two. A rank, musky odor is emitted from a scent gland on the belly, and is left on the floor of the tunnel as the mole passes. It probably serves as a form of communication between the sexes during the breeding season, and to discourage predators. Other scent glands are found at the anus.\n",
"The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ. Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of the uterus, a female begins menstruation.\n",
"The female has two vaginae, which merge into a single sinus before opening into a cloaca together with the rectum. The pouch opens towards the front, as is common in diprotodont marsupials, and contains four teats.\n"
] |
why do modern ultraportable laptops only have a 32/64gb ssd, when netbooks, which were even smaller, commonly had 120gb hard drives? | Those larger hard drives were mechanical drives which compared to SSD's, are very slow and more prone to damage since it's getting bumped around all the time.
SSD's of the same size (or higher) go up significantly in price.
It's a mix between improving speed and keeping costs low. | [
"Most laptops can contain a single 2.5-inch drive, but a small number of laptops with a screen wider than 15 inches can house two drives. Some laptops support a hybrid mode, combining a 2.5-inch drive, typically a spacious HDD for data, with an mSATA or M.2 SDD drive, typically having less capacity, but a significantly faster read/write speed. The operating system partition would be located on the SSD to increase laptop I/O performance. Another way to increase performance is to use a smaller SSD of 16-32 GB as a cache drive with a compatible OS. Some laptops may have very limited drive upgradeability when the SSD used has a non-standard shape or requires a proprietary daughter card. Some laptops have very limited space on the installed SSD, instead relying on availability of cloud storage services for storing of user data; Chromebooks are a prominent example of this approach. A variety of external HDDs or NAS data storage servers with support of RAID technology can be attached to virtually any laptop over such interfaces as USB, FireWire, eSATA, or Thunderbolt, or over a wired or wireless network to further increase space for the storage of data. Many laptops also incorporate a card reader which allows for use of memory cards, such as those used for digital cameras, which are typically SD or microSD cards. This enables users to download digital pictures from an SD card onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete the SD card's contents to free up space for taking new pictures.\n",
"In North America the laptop comes in 2 configurations with the base model using an 8th Generation Intel® Core™ i5-8250U processor with 8GB of RAM, 256GB of SSD storage and Intel® UHD Graphics 620 while the higher end model packs an 8th Generation Intel® Core™ i7-8550U processor with 16GB of RAM, 512GB of SSD storage and an dedicated NVIDIA® GeForce® MX150 with 2 GB GDDR5 memory.\n",
"BULLET::::- Improved storage technology. Early laptops and portables had only floppy disk drives. As thin, high-capacity hard disk drives with higher reliability and shock resistance and lower power consumption became available, users could store their work on laptop computers and take it with them. The 3.5\" HDD was created initially as a response to the needs of notebook designers that needed smaller, lower power consumption products. With continuing pressure to shrink the notebook size even further, the 2.5\" HDD was introduced. One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) and other new laptops use Flash RAM (non volatile, non mechanical memory device) instead of the mechanical hard disk.\n",
"The first IBM 5150 PCs had two 5.25-inch 160 KiB single sided double density (SSDD) floppy disk drives. As two heads drives became available in the spring of 1982, later IBM PC and compatible computers could read 320 KiB double sided double density (DSDD) disks with software support of MS-DOS 1.25 and higher. The same type of physical diskette media could be used for both drives but a disk formatted for double-sided use could not be read on a single-sided drive. PC-DOS 2.0 added support for 180 KiB and 360 KiB SSDD and DSDD floppy disks, using the same physical media again.\n",
"Western Digital was the last manufacturer of parallel ATA hard disk drives for laptops (2.5-inch form factor) and desktop PCs (3.5-inch form factor), producing them until December 2013. Furthermore, they were the only manufacturer that have 250 GB and 320 GB in 2.5-inch form factor.\n",
"The first 240 series models included the 300 MHz Mobile Celeron processor, 64 MB built-in RAM and one slot for memory expansion (maximum 320 MB). The laptop also was one of the first to feature the Mini PCI card slot. No built-in optical drive or diskette drive was included due to size limitations. External drive access was via a USB 1.0 port and/or the IBM external floppy drive connector. The unit shipped either with a standard 6 GB hard disk drive or with the 12 GB upgrade option.\n",
"In 2011, computers based on Intel's Ultrabook specifications became available. These specifications dictate that Ultrabooks use an SSD. These are consumer-level devices (unlike many previous flash offerings aimed at enterprise users), and represent the first widely available consumer computers using SSDs aside from the MacBook Air. At CES 2012, OCZ Technology demonstrated the R4 CloudServ PCIe SSDs capable of reaching transfer speeds of 6.5 GB/s and 1.4 million IOPS. Also announced was the Z-Drive R5 which is available in capacities up to 12 TB, capable of reaching transfer speeds of 7.2 GB/s and 2.52 million IOPS using the PCI Express x16 Gen 3.0.\n"
] |
since it's illegal for children to purchase cigarettes, why isn't forcing 2nd hand smoke on them also illegal? | It's not illegal for children to buy cigarettes. It's illegal for shops to sell cigarettes to children. In other words, you can't make money off of children consuming tobacco.The difference there kind of defeats the parallel you were drawing. | [
"BULLET::::- Even though all sales of tobacco products are prohibited to minors since 1 September 2007 the sale of smoking accessories such as bongs, hookahs, cigarette papers, lighters, pipes or herb grinders is not regulated, and thus sale is permitted to minors. However, in Bavaria the sale of lighters is prohibited to children under the age of 12 years. Additionally many reailers such as Rewe or Edeka have own guidelines that restrict the sale of smoking accessoires to children under 16 or 18 years of age.\n",
"In late 2014 amendments to the law considering smoking ban took effect and included whole areas surrounding educational institutions, apartment building balconies, entrances and staircases as prohibited areas where smoking is not allowed. Also additions to law states that every person, located in the vicinity of the smoker, now are given rights to ask the smoker to extinguish the cigarette at once upon request. Smoking in vicinity of underage children is now classified as child abuse, and punished respectively.\n",
"As of October 2015, it is an offence to buy tobacco, cigarette papers (for the purpose of smoking tobacco) or e-cigarettes on behalf of under 18s in the United Kingdom. It was already an offence in Scotland.\n",
"Tobacco policies that limit the sale of cigarettes to minors and restrict smoking in public places are important strategies to deter youth from accessing and consuming cigarettes. Amongst youth in the United States, for example, when compared with students living in states with strict regulations, young adolescents living in states with no or minimal restrictions, particularly high school students, were more likely to be daily smokers. These effects were reduced when logistic regressions were adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics and cigarette price, suggesting that higher cigarette prices may discourage youth to access and consume cigarettes independent of other tobacco control measures.\n",
"Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products to people under the state purchase age has been prohibited by law in all 50 states of the United States. The purchasing age in the United States is 18 in 42 of the 50 states — but 19 in Alabama, Alaska, Utah, and Nassau, Suffolk, and Onondaga Counties in New York, and 21 in California, Hawaii, New Jersey, Oregon, Maine and more than 180 municipalities across the nation. The intended effect of this is to prevent older high school students from purchasing cigarettes for their younger peers. In Massachusetts, parents and guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to minors are prohibited.\n",
"E‐cigarettes can be unsafe to non-users via third-hand exposure, including children, pregnant women, casino employees, housekeeping employees, and vulnerable groups. E-cigarette use by a parent might lead to inadvertent health risks to offspring. E-cigarettes pose many safety concerns to children. For example, indoor surfaces can accumulate nicotine where e-cigarettes were used, which may be inhaled by children, particularly youngsters, long after they were used. A policy statement by the American Association for Cancer Research and the American Society of Clinical Oncology has reported that \"Third-hand exposure occurs when nicotine and other chemicals from second-hand aerosol deposit on surfaces, exposing people through touch, ingestion, and inhalation\". A 2015 PHE report stated the amount of nicotine deposited was low and that an infant would have to lick 30 square meters to be exposed to 1 mg of nicotine. There are no published studies of third-hand exposure from e-cigarettes, however initial data suggests that nicotine from e-cigarettes may stick to surfaces and would be hard to remove. The extent of third-hand contamination indoors from e-cigarettes in real-world settings has not been established but would be of particular concern for children living in homes of e-cigarette users, as they spend more time indoors, are in proximity to and engage in greater activity in areas where dust collects and may be resuspended (e.g., carpets on the floor), and insert nonfood items in their mouths more frequently.\n",
"In the past, cigarettes were commonly sold in the United States through these machines, but this is increasingly rare due to concerns about underage buyers. Sometimes a pass has to be inserted in the machine to prove one's age before a purchase can be made. In the United Kingdom, legislation banning them outright came into effect on 1 October 2011. In Germany, Austria, Italy, Czech Republic and Japan, cigarette machines are still common.\n"
] |
g-force - what is it and how does it injure/kill? | G-Force is just a shorthand way of referring to a force using the force of gravity as a reference.
& #x200B;
So 1G is the same as the force we feel due to gravity. This feels like almost no force at all because we feel it act on us all the time. 2Gs would be twice the normal force of gravity and 3Gs would be 3 times the force etc.
It injures you and kills you the same way force from anything else would. It crushes you causing your internal organs to compact and your bones to break. | [
"G-force induced loss of consciousness (abbreviated as G-LOC, pronounced 'JEE-lock') is a term generally used in aerospace physiology to describe a loss of consciousness occurring from excessive and sustained g-forces draining blood away from the brain causing cerebral hypoxia. The condition is most likely to affect pilots of high performance fighter and aerobatic aircraft or astronauts but is possible on some extreme amusement park rides. G-LOC incidents have caused fatal accidents in high performance aircraft capable of sustaining high \"g\" for extended periods. High-G training for pilots of high performance aircraft or spacecraft often includes ground training for G-LOC in special centrifuges, with some profiles exposing pilots to 9 \"g\"s for a sustained period.\n",
"The g-force experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all non-gravitational and non-electromagnetic forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive.\n",
"The G-Force team themselves would use a combination of martial arts skill, ninja-like weapons, and their \"cerebonic\" powers to dispatch hordes of enemy soldiers and overcome other obstacles. Their bird-like costumes include wing-like capes that could fan out and function nearly identically to parachutes and/or wing suits, enabling the G-Force members to drift or glide down to safety from heights which would otherwise prove fatal.\n",
"The term g-force is technically incorrect as it is a measure of \"acceleration\", not force. While acceleration is a vector quantity, g-force accelerations (\"g-forces\" for short) are often expressed as a scalar, with positive g-forces pointing downward (indicating upward acceleration), and negative g-forces pointing upward. Thus, a g-force is a vector of acceleration. It is an acceleration that must be produced by a mechanical force, and cannot be produced by simple gravitation. Objects acted upon \"only\" by gravitation experience (or \"feel\") no g-force, and are weightless.\n",
" is a male Sternritter member who has the epithet \"F\" for , due to his ability to infect opponents with paralyzing, unstoppable fear. Normally, this only works if he stabs his enemies with his reiatsu thorns; however, upon activating his Vollständig, he can infect them by eye contact. In battles, he has a tendency to rant about the nature of fear, believing that true fear is instinctual and therefore unavoidable. Having been raised on the concept of Heaven and Hell, Äs is fearful of death and pain. While hospitalized and close to death, Äs is approached by Yhwach and accepts the Quincy's offer of power. During the first invasion, Äs Nödt stole Byakuya's bankai and used it to nearly kill him before interfering in Yamamoto's battles with Royd Lloyd alongside NaNaNa and Bazz-B, forced to fall back after getting nearly incinerated by Yamamoto's Ryujin Jakka. He later appears when Yhwach names Uryu Ishida as his successor. During the second invasion with orders to kill Byakuya, Äs Nödt confronts Rukia who is traveling across Seireitei in search for other Soul Reapers. With Rukia refusing to tell him where Byakuya is, Äs finds that Rukia is unaffected by his power as she is technically not alive by using her newly perfected Sode no Shirayuki's freezing power, thus not being able to feel fear. Rukia then proceeds to freeze Äs Nödt. The attack fails, as Äs merely activates his Vollständig, , and infects Rukia via his enhanced powers before being sliced through by a newly recovered Byakuya. Äs recovers and assumes a more monstrous form on the expectation that Byakuya is going to be his opponent, only to be destroyed when Rukia activates her Bankai, Hakka no Togame, and takes him out in one hit.\n",
"For a given g-force the stresses are the same, regardless of whether this g-force is caused by mechanical resistance to gravity, or by a coordinate-acceleration (change in velocity) caused by a mechanical force, or by a combination of these. Hence, for people all mechanical forces feels exactly the same whether they cause coordinate acceleration or not. For objects likewise, the question of whether they can withstand the mechanical g-force without damage is the same for any type of g-force. For example, upward acceleration (e.g., increase of speed when going up or decrease of speed when going down) on Earth feels the same as being stationary on a celestial body with a higher surface gravity. Gravitation acting alone does not produce any g-force; g-force is only produced from mechanical pushes and pulls. For a free body (one that is free to move in space) such g-forces only arise as the \"inertial\" path that is the natural effect of gravitation, or the natural effect of the inertia of mass, is modified. Such modification may only arise from influences other than gravitation.\n",
"Deathurge has the ability to become intangible at will, and draw forth from his non-reflective ebony body a variety of simple objects and weaponry such as swords, spears, axes, bows, and arrows. These weapons, also non-reflective black, appear to be made of the same unknown substance as Deathurge's body. He can fly at great speeds by riding upon an ebony spear or using skis created from his body. These weapons do not inflict physical wounds, but are imbued with life-annihilating properties that can kill even powerful superhuman entities. However, they prove to be effectively useless against spirits and demons (See his confrontation with Ghost Rider.)\n"
] |
Why does Turner's syndrome have any effects at all? | Even though one X chromosome is transformed into a Barr body, some of its genes are still expressed. They're called the [pseudoautosomal regions](_URL_0_), of which there are two. The article linked contains a section on Turner syndrome and its probable pathology. | [
"Turner syndrome is caused by the absence of one complete or partial copy of the X chromosome in some or all the cells. The abnormal cells may have only one X (monosomy) (45,X) or they may be affected by one of several types of partial monosomy like a deletion of the short p arm of one X chromosome (46,X,del(Xp)) or the presence of an isochromosome with two q arms (46,X,i(Xq)) Turner syndrome has distinct features due to the lack of pseudoautosomal regions, which are typically spared from X-inactivation. In mosaic individuals, cells with X monosomy (45,X) may occur along with cells that are normal (46,XX), cells that have partial monosomies, or cells that have a Y chromosome (46,XY). The presence of mosaicism is estimated to be relatively common in affected individuals (67–90%).\n",
"Turner syndrome is often associated with persistent hypertension, sometimes in childhood. In the majority of Turner syndrome patients with hypertension, no specific cause is known. In the remainder, it is usually associated with cardiovascular or kidney abnormalities, including coarctation of the aorta.\n",
"Due to inadequate production of estrogen, many of those with Turner syndrome develop osteoporosis. This can decrease height further, as well as exacerbate the curvature of the spine, possibly leading to scoliosis. It is also associated with an increased risk of bone fractures.\n",
"Turner's Syndrome is one example of where dosage compensation does not equally express the X chromosome, and in females one of the X chromosomes is missing or has abnormalities, which leads to physical abnormalities and also gonadal dysfunction in females due to the one missing or abnormal X chromosome. Turner's syndrome is also referred to as a monosomy X condition.\n",
"Turner syndrome is not usually inherited from a person's parents. No environmental risks are known, and the mother's age does not play a role. Turner syndrome is due to a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the X chromosomes is missing or altered. While most people have 46 chromosomes, people with TS usually have 45. The chromosomal abnormality may be present in just some cells in which case it is known as TS with mosaicism. In these cases, the symptoms are usually fewer and possibly none occur at all. Diagnosis is based on physical signs and genetic testing.\n",
"Turner syndrome is a condition in females in which there is partial or complete loss of one X chromosome. This causes symptoms such as growth and sexual development problems. In 15% of Turner syndrome patients, the structural abnormality is isochromosome X, which is composed of two copies of the q arm (i(Xq)). A majority of i(Xq) are created by U-type strand exchange. A breakage and reunion in the pericentric region of the p arm results in a dicentric isochromosome. Some of the p arm can be found in this formation of i(Xq), but a majority of the genetic material on the p arm is lost so it is considered absent. Since the p-arm of the X chromosome contains genes that are necessary for normal sexual development, Turner's syndrome patients experience phenotypic effects. Alternatively, the increase in dosage of genes on the q arm may be involved in a 10-fold increase in risk of i(Xq) Turner's patients developing autoimmune thyroiditis, a disease in which the body creates antibodies to target and destroy thyroid cells.\n",
"Turner syndrome can be diagnosed postnatally at any age. Often, it is diagnosed at birth due to heart problems, an unusually wide neck or swelling of the hands and feet. However, it is also common for it to go undiagnosed for several years, often until the girl reaches the age of puberty and fails to develop typically (the changes associated with puberty do not occur). In childhood, a short stature can be indicative of Turner syndrome.\n"
] |
How is this possible!? | In the past there have been people who have been revived after a hour underwater. Some time ago I was watching a lifeguard show, and they claimed that once an hour pasts of a person missing in water it becomes a search and recover, not search and rescue. All I could find on the subject was this [article on a 2 year old under](_URL_0_) the water for an hour. | [
"Create Something from Nothing: A strategy to make an audience believe of something’s existence, when it in fact does not exist. On the flip side, it can be used to convince others that nothing exists, when something does exist. (Ch. 36)\n",
"Anything Is Possible is a 2017 novel of related stories by Elizabeth Strout. It returns to the fictional rural town of Amgash, Illinois, the protagonist's hometown in Strout's 2016 novel \"My Name Is Lucy Barton\".\n",
"Anything's Possible is a public artwork by artist Linda Serrao, located by Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, CA, United States. \"Anything's Possible\" is an installation of two over-lifesize bronze figures, commissioned by the City of Santa Clara. The installation depicts a 7' Quarterback preparing to pass the football to a young fan. \n",
"BULLET::::- We cannot demonstrate things in a circular way, supporting the conclusion by the premises, and the premises by the conclusion. Nor can there be an infinite number of middle terms between the first principle and the conclusion.\n",
"Anything Is Possible is the first solo album by Darren Ockert. It was first released physically in the United States and digitally to the rest of the world in 2005 and was nominated for a 2006 Outmusic Award.\n",
"The idea is that there is a possible world with finitely many things. One can thus get another possible world by taking a single thing away, and one does not need to add any other thing as its replacement. Then one can take another thing away, and another, until one is left with a possible world that is empty.\n",
"It is possible to purchase the expectation or hope that something might come into existence, irrespective of whether it does or does not come into existence in future. The jurisprudent Pomponius is quoted as saying:\n"
] |
why does the usa still have an embargo against cuba? | The older Cuban-American generation is vehemently anti-communist and, therefore, very pro-Republican. They're adamantly opposed to lifting the embargo. They're a powerful constituency group within the Republican Party, and they happen to be centralized in a major battleground state.
TL/DR: Older Cuban-Americans are politically important and won't let it happen.
Source: I work with the GOP.
EDIT: Changed 'Cubans' to 'Cuban-Americans' to avoid confusion.
| [
"During the 1990s the ongoing United States embargo against Cuba caused problems due to restrictions on the export of medicines from the US to Cuba. In 1992 the US embargo was made more stringent with the passage of the Cuban Democracy Act resulting in all U.S. subsidiary trade, including trade in food and medicines, being prohibited. The legislation did not state that Cuba cannot purchase medicines from U.S. companies or their foreign subsidiaries; however, such license requests have been routinely denied. In 1995 the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States informed the U.S. Government that such activities violate international law and has requested that the U.S. take immediate steps to exempt medicine from the embargo. The Lancet and the British Medical Journal also condemned the embargo in the 90s.\n",
"Beyond criticisms of human rights in Cuba, the United States holds $6 billion worth of financial claims against the Cuban government. The pro-embargo position is that the U.S. embargo is, in part, an appropriate response to these unaddressed claims. The Latin America Working Group argues that pro-embargo Cuban-American exiles, whose votes are crucial in the U.S. state of Florida, have swayed many politicians to adopt views similar to their own. Some business leaders, including James E. Perrella, Dwayne O. Andreas, and Peter Blyth, have opposed the Cuban-American views, arguing that trading freely would be good for Cuba and the United States.\n",
"According to critics, one of the major problems with the embargo is that the United States is the only major country that has such an embargo against Cuba in place. Cuba still receives tourists and trade from other countries making the embargo appear both illegitimate and pointless.\n",
"The United States currently imposes a commercial, economic, and financial embargo against Cuba. The United States first imposed an embargo on the sale of arms to Cuba on March 14, 1958, during the Fulgencio Batista regime. Again on October 19, 1960 (almost two years after the Cuban Revolution had led to the deposition of the Batista regime) the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized American-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation and as a response to Cuba's role in the Cuban missile crisis. On February 7, 1962 the embargo was extended to include almost all exports.\n",
", the embargo, which limits American businesses from conducting trade with Cuban interests, remains in effect and is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history. Despite the existence of the embargo, the United States is the fifth-largest exporter to Cuba (6.6% of Cuba's imports come from the US). Cuba must, however, pay cash for all imports, as credit is not allowed.\n",
"Following the Cuban missile crisis, the Bay of Pigs invasion, and the nationalization of U.S. property by the Castro regime the United States sanctioned Cuba in 1963. Sanctions continued throughout the cold war because the US and Cuba often found themselves on opposite sides in various proxy conflicts throughout Latin America and Africa. The sanctions on Cuba were increased after the Cuban air force killed American protesters who were known to violate Cuban airspace. Cuba is currently the only state still under sanctions from the Trading With the Enemy Act.\n",
"In Cuba the embargo is called el bloqueo, \"the blockade\". Despite the term \"bloqueo\" (blockade), there has been no physical naval blockade of the country by the United States since the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The United States does not block Cuba's trade with third parties: other countries are not under the jurisdiction of U.S. domestic laws, such as the Cuban Democracy Act (although, in theory, the U.S. could penalize foreign countries that trade with Cuba, a possibility which has been condemned by the United Nations General Assembly as an \"extraterritorial\" measure that contravenes \"the sovereign equality of States, non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs\"). Cuba can, and does, conduct international trade with many third-party countries; Cuba has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995.\n"
] |
if you are short-sighted, is it better for your eyes/eyesight to wear your glasses in front of a computer screen? | Um, wut? I'd have to be 3 inches or less from the screen to read it. This is not a thing for me. | [
"Reading glasses provide a separate set of glasses for focusing on close-by objects. Reading glasses are available without prescription from drugstores, and offer a cheap, practical solution, though these have a pair of simple lenses of equal power, so will not correct refraction problems like astigmatism or refractive or prismatic variations between the left and right eye. For total correction of the individual's sight, glasses complying to a recent ophthalmic prescription are required.\n",
"For those with large degrees of anisometropia, spectacle correction may cause the person to experience a difference in image magnification between the two eyes (aniseikonia) which could also prevent the development of good binocular vision. This can make it very difficult to wear glasses without symptoms such as headaches and eyestrain. However, the earlier the condition is treated, the easier it is to adjust to glasses.\n",
"In the event that a spectacle wearer cannot obtain the eye relief that they require, some cameras and microscopes allow prescription lenses to be fitted onto their eyepieces. In this way, the user can temporarily dispense with glasses in favor of the lens mounted on the optics. Although this method does not afford good incidental vision for the field around them, it might still be of use to some.\n",
"When the eyes dry out or become fatigued due to reading on a computer screen, it can be an indication of Computer Vision Syndrome. Computer Vision Syndrome can be prevented by taking regular breaks, focusing on objects far from the screen, having a well-lit workplace, or using a blink reminder application such as EyeLeo or VisionProtect. Studies suggest that adults can learn to maintain a healthy blinking rate while reading or looking at a computer screen using biofeedback.\n",
"In many cases, frequent computer users suffer from computer vision syndrome, which is a degenerative eye problem which can result in severely reduced eyesight (Myopia), blurred vision, overall eye tiredness and even Glaucoma. Computer Eye Syndrome is an umbrella term for many problems but the causes of these problems can be easily identified. When using a computer due to the size and setup of the monitor and components it is necessary for the user to be within at least two feet of the monitor when performing any type of computational work. This presents many problems especially in older monitors due to an elevated amount of monitor glare, poor display quality and insufficient picture display refresh rates. Although these problems are more evident in older computers the newer models are not free from these problems either. Studies have been conducted. They state “Treatment requires a multidirectional approach combining ocular therapy with adjustment of the workstation” which shows these problems are quite easily solved with minimal investment from computer manufacturers through producing higher quality monitors with better resolution and refresh rates. The most common form of Computer Vision Syndrome is a condition termed Dry Eye, which results in itchy, sore and even the illusion that something is stuck in your eye. This condition is often caused by extensively long period looking at a computer screen.\n",
"Students who are blind (see Blindness and education) or have very low vision can benefit from using the technology to convey words and then hear the computer recite them, as well as use a computer by commanding with their voice, instead of having to look at the screen and keyboard.\n",
"These glasses are not tailored to a person's individual needs. A difference in refractive error between the eyes or presence of astigmatism will not be accounted for. People with little to no need for correction in the distance may find off-the-shelf glasses work quite well for seeing better during near vision tasks. But if the person has a significant need for distance correction, it is less likely that the over the counter glasses will be perfectly effective. Although such glasses are generally considered safe, an individual prescription, as determined by an ophthalmologist or optometrist and made by a qualified optician, usually results in better visual correction and fewer headaches and visual discomfort. Another criticism of over the counter glasses is that they may alleviate symptoms, causing a person to forgo the other benefits of routine vision exams, such as early diagnosis of chronic disease.\n"
] |
How do cold blooded animals cope in colder climates? Do they feel such things such as brain freeze? Is there any examples any cold blooded creatures living in the cold? | Cold blooded animals are actually newly classified as endothermic organisms, such that they need to take in external energy in the form of heat in order to survive. Their blood is not cold, as the original classification would suggest. Therefore, in an absence of heat, they can not support metabolic processes and their cells would die due to the lack of function. This is not "brain freeze" which is actually more of a nerve response to the cold, but rather an inability to survive in the environment. Think about throwing you, naked, into the tundra. You wouldn't last very long and you would suffer from many medical issues leading to death secondary to hypothermia. | [
"Some animals living in cold environments maintain their body temperature by preventing heat loss. Their fur grows more densely to increase the amount of insulation. Some animals are regionally heterothermic and are able to allow their less insulated extremities to cool to temperatures much lower than their core temperature—nearly to . This minimizes heat loss through less insulated body parts, like the legs, feet (or hooves), and nose.\n",
"Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be cold-blooded have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts (ectothermy, poikilothermy, and bradymetabolism), thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types. Some fish have warm-blooded characteristics, such as the opah. Swordfish and some sharks have circulatory mechanisms that keep their brains and eyes above ambient temperatures and thus increase their ability to detect and react to prey. Tunas and some sharks have similar mechanisms in their muscles, improving their stamina when swimming at high speed.\n",
"For animals to be able to live in the polar region they have to have adaptations which allow them to live in the cold and windy environments. These animals have originated with these adaptations, and animals that live in these regions are accumulating adaptations to be able to live in this type of environment. Some of these adaptations may be to be big and insolated, have a lot of fur, and to be darker. Also, many animals live in groups to be able to protect themselves from the cold. Animals also tend to be homeotherms which are animals that maintain a high temperature. Smaller invertebrates also tend to be smaller in polar regions which helps them conserve energy.\n",
"Warm-blooded animal species can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment. In particular, homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes. The only known living homeotherms are birds and mammals, though ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and non-avian dinosaurs are believed to have been homeotherms. Other species have various degrees of thermoregulation.\n",
"Animals that are active in the winter have adaptations for surviving the intense cold. A common example is the presence of strikingly large feet in proportion to body weight. These act like snowshoes, and can be found on animals like the snowshoe hare and caribou. Many of the animals in the Arctic are larger than their temperate counterparts (Bergmann’s rule), taking advantage of the smaller ratio of surface area to volume that comes with increasing size. This increases the ability to conserve heat. Layers of fat, plumage, and fur are also very effective insulators to help retain warmth and are common in Arctic animals including polar bears and marine mammals. Some animals also have digestive adaptations to improve their ability to digest woody plants either with or without the aid of microbial organisms. This is highly advantageous during the winter months when most soft vegetation is beneath the snow pack.\n",
"By numerous observations upon humans and other animals, John Hunter showed that the essential difference between the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals lies in observed constancy of the temperature of the former, and the observed variability of the temperature of the latter. Almost all birds and mammals have a high temperature almost constant and independent of that of the surrounding air (homeothermy). Almost all other animals display a variation of body temperature, dependent on their surroundings (poikilothermy).\n",
"Normally when colder conditions arrive, animals go into a state of suspended animation called hibernation, when they go into a state of inactivity for long periods of time, which they do not come out of until more suitable conditions for them to survive in arrive. However, when animals live in an environment that is inhospitable for much of the year, then hibernation is not necessary. One of the few animals that does so are lemmings, which have a mass migration after they come out of dormancy. However, most animals living in the arctic would still be active, even during the most brutal times of winter. Aquatic animals such as Greenland shark, wolf fish, Atlantic cod, Atlantic halibut and Arctic char must cope with the sub-zero temperatures in their waters. Some aquatic mammals, such as walrus, seal, sea lion, narwhals, beluga whales and killer whales, can store fat called blubber that they use to help keep warm in the icy waters. Some ungulates that live in frigid conditions often have pads under their hooves to help have a stronger tension on the icy ground or to help in climbing up on rocky terrain. But mammals that already have a pad under their foot such as polar bears, wolverines, Arctic wolves and Arctic foxes will have fur under their pads to help keep their flesh concealed from the cold. Other mammals such as the musk oxen can keep warm by growing long, shaggy fur to help insulate heat. And this can be quickly shed off when warmer temperatures arrive. But with the snowshoe hare it will change the color of its fur from white to brown or with patches of brown when it sheds off its winter coat. This is to help camouflage itself in its new environment to match with the dirt during the summer or back again when it regrows its longer white fur to match with the snow during the winter.\n"
] |
Did the Norse colonies of Greenland make contact with any Inuit tribes? If so were there any records of interaction? Conflict? Trade? | Yes, the Norse called them *Skraelings*. The relationship between the Norse and the skraelings appears to have been mostly belligerent until the abandonment of the Greenland colonies. | [
"Although Greenland seems to have been uninhabited at the time of initial Norse settlement, the Thule people migrated south and finally came into contact with the Norse in the 12th century. There are limited sources showing the two cultures interacting; however, scholars know that the Norse referred to the Inuit (and Vinland natives) as skræling. The \"Icelandic Annals\" are among the few existing sources that confirm contact between the Norse and the Inuit. They report an instance of hostility initiated by the Inuit against the Norse, leaving eighteen Greenlanders dead and two boys carried into slavery. Archaeological evidence seems to show that the Inuit traded with the Norse. On the other hand, the evidence shows many Norse artefacts at Inuit sites throughout Greenland and on the Canadian Arctic islands but very few Inuit artefacts in the Norse settlements. This may indicate either European indifference—an instance of cultural resistance to Inuit crafts among them—or perhaps hostile raiding by the Inuit. It is also quite possible that the Norse were trading for perishable items such as meat and furs and had little interest in other Inuit items, much as later Europeans who traded with Native Americans.\n",
"There is evidence of Norse trade with the natives (called Skraelings by the Norse). The Norse would have encountered both Native Americans (the Beothuk, related to the Algonquin) and the Thule, the ancestors of the Inuit. The Dorset had withdrawn from Greenland before the Norse settlement of the island. Items such as comb fragments, pieces of iron cooking utensils and chisels, chess pieces, ship rivets, carpenter's planes, and oaken ship fragments used in Inuit boats have been found far beyond the traditional range of Norse colonization. A small ivory statue that appears to represent a European has also been found among the ruins of an Inuit community house.\n",
"After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as been excavated at Red Bay. The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs.\n",
"Although there is no first-hand account of Norse Greenlanders living after 1410, analysis of the clothing buried at Herjolfsnes suggests that there was a remnant population who continued to have some sort of contact with the outside world for at least a few more decades. One pathos-laden account comes from a sailor dubbed Jon The Greenlander, not from origin of birth, but because \"\"...he had drifted to Greenland no fewer than three times...Once when he was sailing with some German merchants from Hamburg, they entered a deep still Greenland fjord...upon going ashore they saw boat-houses, fish-sheds and stone houses for the drying of fish such as are in Iceland...There they found a dead man lying face downwards. On his head was a well-sewn cap. The rest of his garments were partly of wadmal, partly of sealskin. Beside him lay a sheath-knife, much worn from frequent whetting...\"\" Since Herjolfsnes was the only major sea-facing homestead in Norse Greenland, and thus most visible and accessible to visiting ships, many have speculated that Jon The Greenlander's landfall was at or near Herjolfsnes, and the corpse he discovered perhaps being that of the last Norse Greenlander, who perished alone with none to bury him. This account comes from the early 16th century, but it is not clear when the incident actually happened.\n",
"Their first European contact was with the Vikings who settled in Greenland and explored the eastern Canadian coast. The sagas recorded meeting \"skrælingar,\" probably an undifferentiated label for all the indigenous peoples whom the Norse encountered, whether Tuniit, Inuit, or Beothuk.\n",
"The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except for mutual trade. The Labrador Inuit have had the longest continuous contact with Europeans. After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque whalers and fishermen were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as the one that has been excavated at Red Bay, Labrador. The Inuit do not appear to have interfered with their operations, but the Natives raided the stations in winter, taking tools and items made of worked iron, which they adapted to their own needs.\n",
"Although various branches of Paleo-Eskimos had lived in Greenland as far back as 2500 BC, they are believed to have almost entirely abandoned the island by the time of the initial Norse arrival. The Little Climatic Optimum was then in full force and would have made the Norse areas of settlement on the southwest coast particularly unattractive to arctic hunter-gatherers. In fact, it is believed that the Norse Greenlanders’ first contact with North American aboriginals was not in Greenland at all, but rather with the Beothuk in Newfoundland as described in The Greenlanders Saga and Erik the Red’s Saga. Subsequent generations of Norse Greelanders began encountering Thule Inuit in the Northsetur hunting districts far to the north of their settlements, where walrus and narwhal ivory could be obtained. The Thule eventually arrived in the areas of Norse settlement as the Little Ice Age allowed them to increase their southern range, at a time when the Norse presence in Greenland was coming to an end. Oral histories from the Inuit relate to instances of both friendship and hostility between the two peoples.\n"
] |
why do video games ship with unused files and portions of code? | Back when memory was a hot commodity, yes, it did take away and would've caused issues.
Today, it's easy enough to fit a whole game onto a disc (or if you're downloading it, the size only matters insofar as how much space your client has).
A lot of game companies work with pretty tight deadlines as it is, and in many software projects, not just gaming, there's always a list of things "we'd like to get to at some point". Code/resource cleanup is usually on that list, but with space being as cheap as it is nowadays, it falls to a pretty low priority.
On top of that, unless you're the person that actually included that resource into the program, there's no way to know for sure that it truly ISN'T being used anywhere without fully testing the game/application. What if that model that used to be a main character is now being referenced as some random citizen walking around? If I remove it, and the game tries to load that character, it could crash. Better to just leave it alone unless you have time to fully clean up the game folder AND retest the entire app (note: that'll never happen). | [
"“ as it is impossible to reproduce the storage of the game code from the RAM of the PlayStation console unless the console is modified with additional, reverse-engineered hardware, it is not possible for the code to be reproduced until that modification occurs. Thus, the definition of “material form” is not satisfied until the conditions that enable the reproduction of the work from storage in RAM prevail.” \n",
"The code and data of a game are typically supplied to the emulator by means of a ROM file (a copy of game cartridge data) or an ISO image (a copy of optical media), which are created by either specialized tools for game cartridges, or regular optical drives reading the data. Most games retain their copyright despite the increasing time-span of the original system and products' discontinuation; this leaves regular consumers and emulation enthusiasts to resort to obtaining games freely across various internet sites rather than legitimately purchasing and ripping the contents (although for optical media, this is becoming popular for legitimate owners). As an alternative, specialized adapters such as the Retrode allow emulators to directly access the data on game cartridges without needing to copy it into a ROM image first.\n",
"In the fifth generation of video game consoles, passwords retained practical use in conserving memory blocks. Platform and puzzle games often required no data to be preserved other than the level achieved – which was easily encoded in a simple password – and thus using one of the limited blocks for this data was seen as wasteful. More importantly, some consoles of the time, such as the PlayStation and Jaguar CD, had no memory available for saves out of the box, and the need to purchase separately sold memory cards could be a deterrent to purchasing a game.\n",
"The original program code, graphics and sound data need to be present so that the game can be emulated. In most arcade machines, the data is stored in read-only memory chips (ROMs), although other devices such as cassette tapes, floppy disks, hard disks, laserdiscs, and compact discs are also used. The contents of most of these devices can be copied to computer files, in a process called \"dumping\". The resulting files are often generically called ROM images or ROMs regardless of the kind of storage they came from. A game usually consists of multiple ROM and PAL images; these are collectively stored inside a single ZIP file, constituting a ROM set. In addition to the \"parent\" ROM set (usually chosen as the most recent \"World\" version of the game), games may have \"clone\" ROM sets with different program code, different language text intended for different markets etc. For example, \"Street Fighter II Turbo\" is considered a variant of \"Street Fighter II Champion Edition\". System boards like the Neo Geo that have ROMs shared between multiple games require the ROMs to be stored in \"BIOS\" ROM sets and named appropriately.\n",
"It is common for games after generation six to be stored partially or fully on the console itself, most commonly on a hard drive. Similarly to how a PC game can be installed, the console game can copy key files to the console's storage medium, which is used to decrease load times but still requires the original game storage medium to play. The second method is for the game to be fully stored on the console and run directly from it, requiring no physical media to run at all. This offers players the opportunity to have games which have no physicality and can be downloaded through the Internet to their console, as well as giving the developers the ability to provide updates and fixes in the same manner, effectively meaning development on a game doesn't have to stop once released.\n",
"The relative complexity and inconvenience of storing game state information on early home computers (and the fact that early video game consoles had no non-volatile data storage) meant that initially game saves were represented as \"passwords\" (often strings of characters that encoded the game state) that players could write down and later input into the game when resuming.\n",
"In the days when games were distributed only on disk, there was no problem in associating a game with its resources: the resources were simply shipped on the same disk. Since all Z-machine games were produced by Infocom, there was also no chance that resources would be shipped in a format which a user's interpreter program could not handle. Blorb is needed because neither of these assumptions hold true in modern times: games are typically downloaded as single files, and a user may be using any of a large number of interpreters.\n"
] |
Why do some animals produce more offspring than other animals? | Animals are grouped according to their reproductive strategy by r/K selection theory. r types tend to produce a lot of offspring, hoping that a few will survive. These animals tend to be smaller, lower on the food chain, or less complex organisms. Insects, fish, and rodents are good exampes of this strategy.
By contrast, K types produce fewer offspring less frequently and spend more energy raising and protecting their young. Humans do this, as do elephants, bears, and dolphins. | [
"Animals frequently display grouping behavior in herds, swarms, flocks, or colonies, and these multiple births derive similar advantages. A litter offers some protection from predation, not particularly to the individual young but to the parents' investment in breeding. With multiple young, predators could eat several and others could still survive to reach maturity, but with only one offspring, its loss could mean a wasted breeding season. The other significant advantage is the chance for the healthiest young animals to be favored from a group. Rather than it being a conscious decision on the part of the parents, the fittest and strongest baby competes most successfully for food and space, leaving the weakest young, or runts, to die through lack of care.\n",
"Sexual conflict, in some form or another, may very well be inherent in the ways most animals reproduce. Females invest more in offspring prior to mating, due to the differences in gametes in species that exhibit anisogamy, and often invest more in offspring after mating. This unequal investment leads, on one hand, to intense competition between males for mates and, on the other hand, to females choosing among males for better access to resources and good genes. Because of differences in mating goals, males and females may have very different preferred outcomes to mating.\n",
"In some animal cultures, competition may lead to instances of egg thievery, nest takeovers, and cuckoldry. However, the consumption of an animal's brood is often more beneficial than the consumption of unrelated conspecifics, since it takes less energy to eat their own offspring and lessens the chance of getting their own brood raided when getting food while away from their offspring.\n",
"In some species, such as humans and many birds, the offspring are altricial and unable to fend for themselves for an extended period of time after birth. In these species, males invest more in their offspring than do the male parents of precocial species, since reproductive success would otherwise suffer.\n",
"Animals make use of a variety of modes of reproduction to produce their young. Traditionally this variety was classified into three modes, oviparity (embryos in eggs), viviparity (young born live), and ovoviviparity (intermediate between the first two).\n",
"Male animals, especially in species where males provide little or no parental investment (time and energy invested in current offspring at the expense of future offspring), are generally expected to maximize their fitness by mating with several females. In certain monogynous settings, however, paternal investment by the male is greater than that of males in other mating systems because the benefits of paternal protection exceed those of searching for additional mates. Paternal investment includes even dramatic examples such as the remarkable adaptation of male sacrifice via sexual cannibalism and the ability to inflict genital damage unto oneself to increase paternity success. In these circumstances, selection may favor extreme mechanisms of paternity protection that amount to a maximal investment in a single mating.\n",
"There are more males than females in a population due to greater life expectancy of the male (about five years more) and in the wild a higher chance of the female being predated. One reason for the difference in life span is that producing eggs is extremely metabolically taxing, and since female birds are nearly constantly producing eggs (even when they are not fertilized, just like domestic chickens do) this can end up totaling to a large metabolic tax on the female's survival. In captivity, males remain fertile to an age of 17–18 years, females to an age of 10–11 years.\n"
] |
why is pirating more socially accepted than other copyright infringement crimes? | This is just a guess, but I think there's a perception amongst most folks that certain products are way overpriced, and the pirating of them is either an act of defiance or an act of desperation.
Back in the day before interney piracy was "mainstream," there were tons of people who still pirated copies of software like Photoshop because it was expensive and they didn't have a legit way to get it otherwise. Companies weren't really losing sales because for the most part people downloading weren't potential customers under the existing business plan anyway. The downloading actually sort of helped some of those companies because it increased familiarity with their products and helped them become standards in their industry.
Music piracy is what really brought online piracy to the mainstream, and that's when the defiant streak really kicked in. At the turn of the century, the record industry was really gouging the public with inflated CD prices (MSRP was around $18.99 at the time). When Napster and other file-sharing services arrived, people delighted in getting a bunch of free music and giving the industry the middle finger. For many, it didn't feel like theft when they were stealing from powerful conglomerates that had been screwing them for years; it felt like payback.
Eventually the industry was overhauled and a more sensible business model was put in place, but by then the damage had been done. The "free stuff" mentality had already taken hold and spread to just about every type of media.
I think that the current mentality is a combination of young people who grew up in an age of "free stuff" and older people who still have lingering bitterness about being gouged (or at least have sympathy for those who don't want to pay what they feel are unfair prices). Had the industries in question developed a more pro-consumer mentality earlier in the game, there probably wouldn't have been such a mad rush to steal from them when the opportunity arose.
| [
"Assigning criminal liability to copyright violations is troubling in light of the general justifications of criminal sanction to punish harms to individuals or national policies, or to foster moral behavior that implicates societal interests. In many cases what counts as criminal infringement or “theft” under the criminal copyright statues may not be considered irregular behavior by the society at large, and the harm done to the rightsholder differs from standard notions of larceny in that there has been no “trespassory taking and carrying away of the personal property of another with intent to steal the same.” Using criminal penalties in order to shape behavior is likely to fail where the rules and regulations are difficult to interpret, and may only result in a widespread chilling effect when citizens understand the threat but not the law.\n",
"The criminal penalties imposed for copyright infringement vary between the copyright laws of different jurisdictions. However, the justifications for the imposition of criminal penalties are common in the sense that certain kinds of copyright violations are considered as egregious enough to warrant state interference. These kinds of copyright violations are seen as having a negative consequence affecting the entire community. A criminal conviction for copyright infringement is also more punitive compared to a civil penalty and this increases the value of the punishment as a deterrent to prevent such violations in the future. For these reasons, criminal penalties for copyright infringement are considered to be effective sanctions against violations.\n",
"Criminal provisions for copyright infringement were initially inserted into U.S. Copyright Law in 1897. But this crime was limited only to unlawful performances or representations of copyrighted dramatic works or musical compositions. The apparent reasoning behind such a narrow criminal provision was because of the difficulty faced by copyright owners of such works in detecting and punishing infringements of their works since these infringements were perpetrated by \"hit and run\"performing groups in remote areas far away from the location of the copyright owner's place of residence or work. The criminal intent or \"mens rea\" that is required to be shown in case of any criminal offence of copyright infringement was also provided for in the 1897 law and it had to be shown that the conduct of the infringing party was both \"wilful\" and \"for profit.\"\n",
"Overcriminalization is the concept that criminalization has become excessive, meaning that an excessive number of laws and regulations deeming conduct illegal have a detrimental effect on society, particularly with respect to victimless crimes and actions which make conduct illegal without criminal intent on the part of the individual.\n",
"Murray states \"there’s the question of the kind of Internet we want moving forward – one increasingly controlled by corporate gatekeepers who get to sanction what creative expression looks like, or one in which the freedom of this expression is valued above share price\". Copyright issues have always been limiting the possibilities of mashup culture. Those implications by law have led to the problem of online piracy. Mashups are often created with illegally acquired content. This closeness to illegality has become part of this culture. \"In some cases, the illegality of piracy contributes to the appeal of unauthorized copies online\" states Shiga in her article Copy-and-Persist: The Logic of Mash-Up Culture. Even though copyright laws were intentionally supposed to stop illegal downloads, they contributed to the appeal of mashup and to the culture existing around it.\n",
"Generally, there are four elements of criminal copyright infringement: the existence of a valid copyright, that copyright was infringed, the infringement was willful, and the infringement was either substantial, or for commercial gain (at levels often set by statute). Offering warez is generally understood to be a form of copyright infringement that is punishable as either a civil wrong or a crime.\n",
"The degradation of societal moral standards is a major concern among those who oppose the legalization of victimless crime. However, punishing citizens solely for their choice to engage in victimless acts declared by the law to be immoral is difficult. While the United States' typical response to crimes is retroactive, the illegality of victimless crimes is a more preventative approach to justice and is highly controversial.\n"
] |
why is it that most people can hold their breath for at least one minute, but if you’re ‘choked out’, you can go unconscious from lack of oxygen in roughly 10 seconds? | a headlock restricts blood flow to your brain by blocking your artery. that has a far more immediate effect than holding your breath. | [
"If not enough oxygen is added, the concentration of oxygen in the loop may be too low to support life. In humans, the urge to breathe is normally caused by a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood, rather than lack of oxygen. Hypoxia can cause blackout with little or no warning, followed by death.\n",
"Voluntary hyperventilation before beginning voluntary apnea is commonly believed to allow the person involved to safely hold their breath for a longer period. In reality, it will give the impression that one does not need to breathe, while the body is actually experiencing a blood-oxygen level that would normally, and indirectly, invoke a strong dyspnea. Some have incorrectly attributed the effect of hyperventilation to increased oxygen in the blood, not realizing that it is actually due to a decrease in CO in the blood and lungs. Blood leaving the lungs is normally fully saturated with oxygen, so hyperventilation of normal air cannot increase the amount of oxygen available. Lowering the CO concentration increases the pH of the blood, thus increasing the time before the respiratory center becomes stimulated, as described above. While hyperventilation will yield slightly longer breath-holding times, any small time increase is at the expense of possible hypoxia. One using this method can suddenly lose consciousness—a shallow water blackout—as a result. If a person loses consciousness underwater, there is considerable danger that they will drown. An alert diving partner would be in the best position to rescue such a person. Static apnea blackout occurs at the surface when a motionless diver holds a breath long enough for the circulating oxygen to fall below that required for the brain to maintain consciousness. It involves no pressure changes in the body and is usually performed to enhance breath-hold time. It should never be practiced alone, but under strict safety protocols with a safety beside the diver.\n",
"Automatic breathing can be overridden to a limited extent by simple choice, or to facilitate swimming, speech, singing or other vocal training. It is impossible to suppress the urge to breathe to the point of hypoxia but training can increase the ability to breath-hold; for example, in February 2016, a Spanish, professional freediver broke the world record for holding the breath underwater at just over 24 minutes.\n",
"A conscious person will hold his or her breath (see Apnea) and will try to access air, often resulting in panic, including rapid body movement. This uses up more oxygen in the blood stream and reduces the time to unconsciousness. The person can voluntarily hold his or her breath for some time, but the breathing reflex will increase until the person tries to breathe, even when submerged.\n",
"It is impossible for someone to commit suicide by simply holding their breath, as the level of oxygen in the blood becomes too low, the brain sends an involuntary reflex, and the person breathes in as the respiratory muscles contract. Even if one is able to overcome this response to the point of becoming unconscious, in this condition, it is no longer possible to control breathing, and a normal rhythm is reestablished.\n",
"According to the U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, in humans, \"breathing an oxygen deficient atmosphere can have serious and immediate effects, including unconsciousness after only one or two breaths. The exposed person has no warning and cannot sense that the oxygen level is too low.\" In the US, at least 80 people died due to accidental nitrogen asphyxiation between 1992 and 2002. Hazards with inert gases and the risks of asphyxiation are well established.\n",
"Because of dead space, taking deep breaths more slowly (e.g. ten 500 ml breaths per minute) is more effective than taking shallow breaths quickly (e.g. twenty 250 ml breaths per minute). Although the amount of gas per minute is the same (5 L/min), a large proportion of the shallow breaths is dead space, and does not allow oxygen to get into the blood.\n"
] |
- why a government would 'peg' a currency to, say, the us dollar, and why a less-valuable currency is better for foreign trade. | Let's say I owed you $100, and instead of cash, I try to pay you back with $100 of McDonald's gift certificates. After all, $100 is $100, right?
You probably won't like that. You could only spend that $100 at McDonald's, and if they decided to raise their prices, that $100 wouldn't get you as much as it would at Burger King.
That's what getting paid in a small foreign currency is like. It is only worth something in that country, and if they have economic problems, it can suddenly be worth a lot less.
But what if instead of McDonald's, I offer to give you a $100 Amazon gift card. You'd be much more likely to accept that, because while it isn't cash, Amazon is so big you'll probably find something you want there. Plus it is unlikely they are going to raise all their prices all at once, so the value of the gift card isn't at risk.
That's kind of what happens when you have a pegged currency. It is not US currency, but the government promises to give you US currency for it if you want. They might not be able to always make good on their promise, but it is better than McDonald's. | [
"Another, less used means of maintaining a fixed exchange rate is by simply making it illegal to trade currency at any other rate. This is difficult to enforce and often leads to a black market in foreign currency. Nonetheless, some countries are highly successful at using this method due to government monopolies over all money conversion. This was the method employed by the Chinese government to maintain a currency peg or tightly banded float against the US dollar. China buys an average of one billion US dollars a day to maintain the currency peg. Throughout the 1990s, China was highly successful at maintaining a currency peg using a government monopoly over all currency conversion between the yuan and other currencies.\n",
"When another man asked Coin on whether abolishing tariffs drove down the prices as a result of increased foreign competition, Coin pointed out that since the rest of the world is experiencing the same financial difficulties, United States would gain nothing by charging extra tariffs on foreign goods. In a time of financial crisis, no nation would want its trade restricted by high tariffs. Coin then went on to explain how silver depreciating in value in comparison to gold had deleterious effects on international trade as well. Most South American countries have used silver more commonly than gold up to that point, while England had abandoned silver as legal tender in 1816. Since then, England demanded all debts to be paid in gold, or redeemable to gold. With silver depreciating against gold, more and more silver would leave South American nations who had much more silver than gold in their treasuries. United States was paying England $200 million in interests annually by the 1890s, all in gold or some commodity that must be redeemed in gold. At this point, England had become the creditor nation of the world, and silver nations were finding it harder to repay their loans and bonds as a result of silver values falling against the gold.\n",
"Martin Wolf has argued that \"inordinately mercantilist currency policies\" were a significant cause of the U.S. trade deficit, indirectly driving a flood of money into the U.S. as described above. In his view, China maintained an artificially weak currency to make Chinese goods relatively cheaper for foreign countries to purchase, thereby keeping its vast workforce occupied and encouraging exports to the U.S. One byproduct was a large accumulation of U.S. dollars by the Chinese government, which were then invested in U.S. government securities and those of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, providing additional funds for lending that contributed to the housing bubble.\n",
"Some of the world's currencies are still pegged to the dollar. Some countries, such as Ecuador, El Salvador, and Panama, have gone even further and eliminated their own currency (see dollarization) in favor of the United States dollar.\n",
"A government may officially set the rate of exchange of its currency with that of other currencies, typically the US dollar. When it does, the peg often overvalues the local currency relative to what its market value would be if it were a floating currency. Those in possession of the \"harder\" currency, for example expatriate workers, may be able to use the black market to buy the local currency at better exchange rates than they can get officially.\n",
"The US dollar and the Japanese yen have been the currencies most heavily used in carry trade transactions since the 1990s. There is some substantial mathematical evidence in macroeconomics that larger economies have more immunity to the disruptive aspects of the carry trade mainly due to the sheer quantity of their existing currency compared to the limited amount used for FOREX carry trades, but the collapse of the carry trade in 2008 is often blamed within Japan for a rapid appreciation of the yen. As a currency appreciates, there is pressure to cover any debts in that currency by converting foreign assets into that currency. This cycle can have an accelerating effect on currency valuation changes. When a large swing occurs, this can cause a carry reversal. The timing of the carry reversal in 2008 contributed substantially to the credit crunch which caused the 2008 global financial crisis, though relative size of impact of the carry trade with other factors is debatable. A similar rapid appreciation of the US dollar occurred at the same time, and the carry trade is rarely discussed as a factor for this appreciation.\n",
"If, on the other hand, a currency is undervalued, its exports will become cheaper and therefore more competitive internationally. At the same time, imports will also become more costly, stimulating the production of domestic substitutes to replace them. That will result in a growth of currency flowing into the country and a decline in currency flowing out of it, resulting in an improvement in the country's balance of trade.\n"
] |
regarding ice (frozen water not the drug), why is there a white centre and a clear shell? | As it freezes, air bubbles form and cause the cloudy appearance you're talking about. The bubbles come from gases dissolved in the water in its liquid state which are forced out as the water crystallizes.
It's possible to freeze ice in a clear form by boiling it first, which liberates the dissolved gases. | [
"The easiest way to envision this scenario, i.e. the advantage of using these chemistries without a MFC) is to fill two cylindrical glass containers, one with hexanes (a high vapor pressure liquid) and one with dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). As the hexane vaporizes the liquid surface is flat and the total exposed surface area takes the shape of the glass container. The surface area does not change until the liquid is near the bottom. In the case of dry ice, the surface area is continually changing from time zero until the dry ice is totally sublimed. The changing surface area with time is a process nightmare for reproducibility. Typically, for each parylene run, new solid source [2.2]paracyclophane, is added to the sublimer boat. In the case of a liquid, one vaporizer could be used for many runs much like what is undertaken with the silicon dioxide deposition via TEOS (tetraethoxy silane).\n",
"Dry ice color show is the formation of carbonic acid (HCO) by the reaction of dry ice, the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO), and water. The reaction between these 2 compounds lower the pH of the solution, therefore making the solution more acidic. Dry ice has a temperature of –78.5 °C and normally exist in gas state. By applying universal indicator to the solution, the changing of the pH can be indicated as the color of the solution changes into the contrast color. This experiment is usually conducted as a classroom demonstration of pH and properties of carbon dioxide since the materials required are handful and can be prepared easily. Solid carbon dioxide can cause frostbite when in contact with the skin, by sticking to the moist tissue, such as wet skin or tongue. Solid carbon dioxide undergoes sublimation upon exposure to air. This means it transforms directly from the solid phase to the gaseous phase without melting into liquid.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ice forms in a different pattern when liquid is less readily available. When liquid is not readily available, the segregated ice (ice lens) grows slowly. The heat liberated by freezing is unable to warm the ice lens boundary. Hence the area through which the water is diffusing continues to cool until another ice segregation layer forms below the first layer. With sustained cold weather, this process can repeat, producing multiple ice layers (ice lenses), all parallel to the surface. The formation of multiple layers (multiple lenses) producing more extensive frost damage within rocks or soils.\n",
"BULLET::::- Ice forms in a different pattern when liquid is less readily available. When liquid is not readily available, the segregated ice (ice lens) grows slowly. The heat liberated by freezing is unable to warm the ice lens boundary. Hence the area through which the water is diffusing continues to cool until another ice segregation layer forms below the first layer. With sustained cold weather, this process can repeat, producing multiple ice layers (ice lenses), all parallel to the surface. The formation of multiple layers (multiple lenses) producing more extensive frost damage within rocks or soils.\n",
"As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an oxygen–hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch. Compared with water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener tint than liquid water. Since absorption is cumulative, the color effect intensifies with increasing thickness or if internal reflections cause the light to take a longer path through the ice.\n",
"If ice is added to the drinking vessel before the water, the result is the formation of an aesthetically unpleasant layer on the surface of the drink, because the ice causes the oils to solidify. If water is added first, the ethanol causes the fat to emulsify, leading to the characteristic milky color. To avoid the precipitation of the anise (instead of an emulsion), drinkers prefer not to reuse a glass which has contained arak. In restaurants, when a bottle of arak is ordered, the waiter will usually bring a number of glasses for each drinker along with it for this reason.\n",
"Glacial ice has a distinctive blue tint because it absorbs some red light due to an overtone of the infrared OH stretching mode of the water molecule. Liquid water is blue for the same reason. The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to Rayleigh scattering due to bubbles in the ice.\n"
] |
cancer cure that scientists recently claimed to be one year away | The treatment which the biotech company calls MuTaTo (multi-target toxin) is based on SoAP technology, which belongs to the phage display group of technologies.
CEO of the biotech company Dr Ilan Morad said they started with identifying why other cancer-related drugs and treatment are not working and then they looked for an effective way to counter it.
Most cancer drugs attack a specific target or on the cancer cell, but MuTaTo attacks the cancer cell's receptors from three different directions. “Instead of attacking receptors one at a time, we attack receptors three at a time. Not even cancer can mutate three receptors at one time," said Morad, to the daily newspaper.
After a successful mice trail, Morad said that the company is now preparing to try medicines on humans through this year. Following this, they will introduce the medicine in the market by next year. | [
"BULLET::::- Scientists achieve a breakthrough in finding a general cure for cancer by attaching malaria proteins to cancer cells, which appears effective on 90% of cancer types. Human trials are expected to begin within four years.\n",
"A \"Fact Sheet\" issued by the IDPH accompanying the study released on March 5, 2010 said \"cancer does not develop immediately after contact with a cancer-causing agent (carcinogen). The time between the exposure to a carcinogen and medical diagnosis of cancer, called latency period, is often 10 to 20 years.\"\n",
"Steven Novella writes, in Skepticblog, about the general misunderstanding and sensationalizing of cancer research that typically accompanies a conspiratorial mindset. He points out that cures for cancer, rather than being hidden, are not the cures they are initially touted to be by the media and either result in a dead end, further research goals, or a decrease in the mortality rate for a specific type of cancer.\n",
"Since the 1940s, medical science has developed chemotherapy, radiation therapy, adjuvant therapy and the newer targeted therapies, as well as refined surgical techniques for removing cancer. Before the development of these modern, evidence-based treatments, 90% of cancer patients died within five years. With modern mainstream treatments, only 34% of cancer patients die within five years. However, while mainstream forms of cancer treatment generally prolong life or permanently cure cancer, most treatments also have side effects ranging from unpleasant to fatal, such as pain, blood clots, fatigue, and infection. These side effects and the lack of a guarantee that treatment will be successful create appeal for alternative treatments for cancer, which purport to cause fewer side effects or to increase survival rates despite evidence to suggest a 2.5 fold increase in death with alternative medicines.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"\"If I were going to put my money on it, I would bet that by 2050—hopefully earlier—we’ll have found that more than 80 percent of all human cancer is caused by infection\".\" — Paul W. Ewald.\n",
"it is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the case in practice.\n",
"Since the cancer most often presents at an advanced stage, prognosis is generally very poor, with median survival times of 3 months (range 1–7 months). Longer survival of beyond one year was reported in one patient and of up to eight years in one individual whose tumor was well circumscribed and non-metastatic at the time of diagnosis, suggesting that early detection could dramatically improve survival.\n"
] |
how is it possible to get doom to run on so many devices that are not even purpose built as home computers, like the gps console on someone's car for instance? | Doom is an old game. It was designed to run on the very limited hardware of the time. Even a very limited computer by today's standards can be powerful enough to run Doom.
Source code for Doom was made public in 1999, which made it possible for people to port the game to other platforms. People try to port it to unusual things like GPS consoles and printers mostly for fun - [there's even a webpage for it](_URL_0_). | [
"BULLET::::- Can it run Doom? - A common joke question with any hardware that has a CPU. It has even gotten to the point where people are developing source ports of the game to unconventional hardware such as a Canon printer, the Commodore VIC-20, the Smart Bar on the 2016 MacBook Pro, a smart fridge, an ATM, and the game itself among other things.\n",
"Because the operating system and applications all share a single memory space, it is possible for a bug in any one of them to corrupt the entire operating system, and crash the machine. Under MultiFinder, any crash will crash all the other running programs as well. Running multiple applications potentially increases the chances of a crash, making the system potentially more fragile.\n",
"It is normally not possible for the user to disable the ME. Potentially risky, undocumented methods to do so were discovered, however. These methods are not supported by Intel. The ME's security architecture is supposed to prevent disabling, and thus its possibility is considered a security vulnerability. For example, a virus could abuse it to make the computer lose some of the functionality that the typical end-user expects, such as the ability to play media with DRM. Yet, critics consider the weaknesses not as bugs, but as features.\n",
"Portability can be useful in situations where a computer is heavily infected, bogged down, or sluggish. By accessing the computer directly from a U3 device, XOFTspy Portable removes malware items regardless if the computer is infected and unable to download other anti-spyware programs online.\n",
"Some observers, such as Skype's Jaan Tallinn and physicist Max Tegmark, believe that \"basic AI drives\", and other unintended consequences of superintelligent AI programmed by well-meaning programmers, could pose a significant threat to human survival, especially if an \"intelligence explosion\" abruptly occurs due to recursive self-improvement. Since nobody knows how to predict beforehand when superintelligence will arrive, such observers call for research into friendly artificial intelligence as a possible way to mitigate existential risk from artificial general intelligence.\n",
"A number of attacks on hardware random number generators are possible, including trying to capture radio-frequency emissions from the computer (obtaining hard drive interrupt times from motor noise, for example), or trying to feed controlled signals into a supposedly random source (such as turning off the lights in a lava lamp or feeding a strong, known signal into a sound card).\n",
"If, however, the hardware implementation is compromised, major issues arise. Malicious software can retrieve the data from the (supposedly) secure hardware – a large class of method used is the timing attack. This is far more problematic to solve than a software bug, even within the operating system. Microsoft regularly deals with security issues through Windows Update. Similarly, regular security updates are released for Mac OS X and Linux, as well as mobile operating systems like iOS, Android, and Windows Phone. However, hardware is a different issue. Sometimes, the issue will be fixable through updates to the processor's microcode (a low level type of software). However, other issues may only be resolvable through replacing the hardware, or a workaround in the operating system which mitigates the performance benefit of the hardware implementation, such as in the Spectre exploit.\n"
] |
why are monotremes considered mammals? | Mammals are not defined by live birth though. If they were then several species of snakes, several species of sharks, and a few amphibians would be mammals.
Mammals normally have live birth, but what defines them as being mammals is the production of milk to feed their young. | [
"Monotremes (from Greek μονός, \"monos\" (\"single\") and τρῆμα, \"trema\" (\"hole\"), referring to the cloaca) are one of the three main groups of living mammals, along with placentals (Eutheria) and marsupials (Metatheria). The monotremes are typified by structural differences in their brains, jaws, digestive tract, reproductive tract, and other body parts compared to the more common mammalian types. In addition they lay eggs rather than bear live young, but like all mammals, the female monotremes nurse their young with milk.\n",
"Monotremes are traditionally referred to as the mammalian subclass Prototheria. The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea although there is evidence that they were once more widespread including some extinct species in South America. The existing monotreme species are the platypus and four species of echidnas. There is currently some debate regarding monotreme taxonomy.\n",
"One of the earliest known monotremes was \"Teinolophos\", which lived about 120 million years ago in Australia. Monotremes have some features which may be inherited from the original amniotes such as the same orifice to urinate, defecate and reproduce (cloaca)—as lizards and birds also do— and they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified.\n",
"The key anatomical difference between monotremes and other mammals gives them their name; \"monotreme\" means “single opening” in Greek, referring to the single duct (the cloaca) for their urinary, defecatory, and reproductive systems. Monotremes, like reptiles, have a single cloaca; marsupials also have a separate genital tract; whereas most placental mammal females have separate openings for reproduction (the vagina), urination (the urethra), and defecation (the anus). In monotremes, only semen passes through the penis; urine is excreted through the cloaca. The monotreme penis is similar to that of turtles, and is covered by a preputial sac.\n",
"Like other mammals, monotremes are endothermic with a high metabolic rate (though not as high as other mammals; see below); have hair on their bodies; produce milk through mammary glands to feed their young; have a single bone in their lower jaw; and have three middle-ear bones.\n",
"Monotremes are a class of basal mammals that also lay eggs. They are an order of mammals that includes platypuses and four species of echidna, all of which are egg-laying mammals. While monotremes use an XX/XY system, unlike other mammals, monotremes have more than two sex chromosomes. The male short-beaked echidna, for example, has nine sex chromosomes—5 Xs and 4 Ys, and the male platypus has 5 Xs and 5 Ys.\n",
"The platypus and other monotremes were very poorly understood, and some of the 19th century myths that grew up around them—for example, that the monotremes were \"inferior\" or quasireptilian—still endure. In 1947, William King Gregory theorised that placental mammals and marsupials may have diverged earlier, and a subsequent branching divided the monotremes and marsupials, but later research and fossil discoveries have suggested this is incorrect. In fact, modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree, and a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups. Molecular clock and fossil dating suggest platypuses split from echidnas around 19–48 million years ago.\n"
] |
how people sell movie scripts and who decides if it's a big budget movie? | Most studios will not accept unsolicited scripts because it exposes them to high risk litigation (e.g. accusations that they stole a story). Studios will usually only take material from literary agents with whom they have an established relationship - so if you want to get your scripts made by studios you will have to get an agent first. To get an agent you need two completed scripts and a third in the works. However, getting your first script to an agent is a task in itself - you will usually need a personal introduction in order to have your query letter opened.
Once you get an approval for your spec script to be read, the agent will get one of their lower ranking employees or interns to write "coverage" - usually a single page of plot synopsis and a single page of analysis together with a chart that ranks parameters such as plot, structure, visuality etc. The reader will also provide a tagline, and one of three grades, Pass, Consider and Recommend. It's typical that about one in a hundred scripts receive a recommend because the readers have to stake their reputation on the reliability of their coverage - if they recommend too many scripts and the senior executives find themselves having to read too many sub-standard offerings they will be fired, or non-re-hired.
If your agent considers your script strong enough, they will then start the process of shopping it around to various studios (who will then do their own coverage).
You may be able to shop your script yourself (without an agent) to independent film production companies, but be aware that independents are generally looking for projects that can be made on cost-effective budgets (say between $250k and $5million), and that won't be realistic for many genres.
Other ways to get your script read and evaluated are websites like Kevin Spacey's _URL_1_ or Francis Ford Coppolas, _URL_0_ - but in order to have your script evaluated, you have to evaluate other peoples' scripts in return (which can be a useful exercise in itself). | [
"Screenwriters on the other hand were generally paid less than the top actors or directors, usually under $1 million per film. However, the single largest factor driving rising costs was special effects. By 1999 the average cost of a blockbuster film was $60 million before marketing and promotion, which cost another $80 million.\n",
"Film industry companies often buy the film rights to many popular novels, video games, and comic books, but it may take years for such properties to be successfully brought to the screen, and often with considerable changes to the plot, characters, and general tone. This pre-production process can last for months or years. More often than not, a project trapped in this state for a prolonged period of time will be abandoned by all interested parties or canceled outright. As Hollywood starts ten times as many projects as there are released, many scripts will end up in this limbo state. This happens most often with projects that have multiple interpretations and reflect several points of view.\n",
"Some films on this list grossed more than their production budgets yet are still regarded as flops. This can be due to Hollywood accounting practices that typically manipulate profits or keep costs secret to avoid profit-sharing agreements, but it is also possible for films to lose money legitimately even when the theatrical gross exceeds the budget. This is because a distributor does not collect the full gross, and the full cost of a film can substantially exceed its production budget once distribution and marketing is taken into account. For example, tax filings in 2010 for Cinemark Theatres show that only 54.5 percent of ticket revenues went to the distributor, with the exhibitor retaining the rest. While the distributor's cut will vary from film to film, a Hollywood studio will typically collect half the gross in the United States and less in other parts of the world. Marketing often represents a substantial share of the overall cost of the picture too: for a film with an average sized budget the promotion and advertising costs are typically half that of the production budget, and in the case of smaller films it is not unusual for the cost of the marketing to be higher than the production budget. In some cases, a company can make profits from a box office bomb when ancillary revenues are taken into account, such as home media sales and rentals, television broadcast rights, and licensing fees, so a film that loses money at the box office can still eventually break even.\n",
"Though movie studios are reluctant to release the precise details of their movies' budgets, it has occasionally been possible to obtain (clandestinely) details of the cost of films' breakdowns. For an example of a budget for a $2 million independent feature, see \"Planning the Low-Budget Film\" by Robert Latham Brown.\n",
"BULLET::::- Screenplay: An A-list screenwriter may be paid between $100,000 to $2 million to write a script, including $400,000 a week for each rewrite of a film in trouble; script doctors may be called upon to revise the final draft at $100,000 to $200,000 a week. Recently, Columbia Pictures has been offering the best screenwriters 2 percent of the gross profits (after the production and marketing budget has been deducted). An original screenplay by a Writers Guild of America member can cost from its minimum, $69,499 and upwards of $5 million (e.g., M. Night Shyamalan's \"Unbreakable\").\n",
"A key financial benefit for distributors promoting independent movies that have smaller budgets is that they need only spend on one marketing campaign, rather than separate campaigns for each release window.\n",
"Scripts for television and films are submitted online to Amazon and are read by staff. Amazon aims to review submitted scripts within 90 days (although the process can last longer). If a project is chosen for development, the writer receives $10,000. If a developed script is selected for distribution as a full-budget movie, the creator gets $200,000; if it is selected for distribution as a full-budget series, the creator gets $55,000 as well as \"up to 5 percent of Amazon’s net receipts from toy and t-shirt licensing, and other royalties and bonuses.\"\n"
] |
Why does smoke from incense or cigarettes not (usually) set off smoke alarms? | Fire Alarm / Smoke Detector Manufacturer here.
Household smoke detectors (excluding Heat and CO) fall into two catagories, Ionisation and Photoelectric.
Ionisation smoke detectors (the detectors with the radioactive symbol on their label) are designed to detect sub-micron particals of combustion (different to thick smoke). Examples of sub-micron particles are cooking vapours (released from opening a hot oven, for example), vehicle exhaust, birthday candles, lighters, etc. Basically smoke that is the result of something burning, but you can't see. Ionisation smoke detectors in the house react well to fast, flaming fires (flash flame from a pot of oil on the stove, for example).
Photoelectric detectors simple use an infrared transmitter and receiver in a chamber in the detector. As thicker, visible smoke enters the chamber, it blocks the light and the detector registers this change. When the smoke obscures the light to a certain level, the detector goes into alarm. Photoelectric detectors react well to visible smoke (cigarette, burning meat, smouldering natural fibres, etc).
To answer your question, it's very likely you have an Ionisation type installed, and it is not detecting sub-micron particulate in the air (as cigarette smoke is greater than one mircon and the ionisation detector cannot see it).
Please read this: The majority of household fires are caused by smouldering fires (burnt out motors, rats chewing electrical wires, cigatette left on bed or couch). These fires do not immediately show flame, but smoulder away and generate smoke for minutes (sometimes hours) before flaming. In this case, Ionisation detectors are not effective in providing early warning. Photoelectric detectors are far more suitable for this purpose. Please, when you check your battery next, check it's type. If it is a ionisation detector, please consider purchasing a photoelectric as a replacement.
TL;DR - Ion detectors (ones with radioactive symbol) can't see visible smoke. Photoelectric type detectors (stated on product label) do. | [
"False alarms are also common with smoke detectors and building fire alarm systems. They occur when smoke detectors are triggered by smoke that is not a result of a dangerous fire. Smoking cigarettes, cooking at high temperatures, burning baked goods, blowing out large numbers of birthday candles, fireplaces and woodburners when used around a smoke detector can all be causes of these false alarms. Additionally, steam can trigger an ionisation smoke detector that is too sensitive, another potential cause of false alarms.\n",
"A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial security devices issue a signal to a fire alarm control panel as part of a fire alarm system, while household smoke detectors, also known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible or visual alarm from the detector itself.\n",
"Traditional smoke detectors are technically ionisation smoke detectors which create an electric current between two metal plates, which sound an alarm when disrupted by smoke entering the chamber. Ionisation smoke alarms can quickly detect the small amounts of smoke produced by fast-flaming fires, such as cooking fires or those fueled by paper or flammable liquids. A newer, and perhaps safer, type is a photoelectric smoke detector. It contains a light source in a light-sensitive electric sensor, which is positioned at a 90-degree angles to the sensor. Normally, light from the light source shoots straight across and misses the sensor. When smoke enters the chamber, it scatters the light, which then hits the sensor and triggers the alarm. Photoelectric smoke detectors typically respond faster to a fire in its early, smoldering stage – before the source of the fire bursts into flames.\n",
"Some European countries, including France, and some US states and municipalities have banned the use of domestic ionic smoke alarms because of concerns that they are not reliable enough as compared to other technologies. Where an ionizing smoke detector has been the only detector, fires in the early stages have not always been effectively detected.\n",
"The fact that smoke calms bees has been known since ancient times; however, the scientific explanation was unknown until the 20th century and is still not fully understood. Smoke masks alarm pheromones which include various chemicals, e.g., isopentyl acetate that are released by guard bees or bees that are injured during a beekeeper's inspection. The smoke creates an opportunity for the beekeeper to open the beehive and work while the colony's defensive response is interrupted. In addition, smoke initiates a feeding response in anticipation of possible hive abandonment due to fire.\n",
"An ionization chamber type smoke detector is technically a product of combustion detector, not a smoke detector. Ionization chamber type smoke detectors detect particles of combustion that are invisible to the naked eye. This explains why they may frequently false alarm from the fumes emitted from the red-hot heating elements of a toaster, before the presence of visible smoke, yet they may fail to activate in the early, low-heat smoldering stage of a fire.\n",
"Smoke is the beekeeper's third line of defense. Most beekeepers use a \"smoker\"—a device designed to generate smoke from the incomplete combustion of various fuels. Smoke calms bees; it initiates a feeding response in anticipation of possible hive abandonment due to fire. Smoke also masks alarm pheromones released by guard bees or when bees are squashed in an inspection. The ensuing confusion creates an opportunity for the beekeeper to open the hive and work without triggering a defensive reaction. In addition, when a bee consumes honey the bee's abdomen distends, supposedly making it difficult to make the necessary flexes to sting, though this has not been tested scientifically.\n"
] |
Why does plaque always come out a yellowish-white color, regardless of the color of food you've eaten? | [Dental plaque](_URL_1_) is a complex structure formed when bacteria grow on the surface of your teeth. In fact, there's a lot of plaque in your mouth that you can't see as well. What we commonly refer to as "plaque" is more formally known as supragingival (above the gumline) plaque to distinguish it from the other major type of plaque which is subgingival (below the gumline).
Plaque begins to form immediately after tooth cleaning as specific bacteria adhere to the tooth. The most famous of these is *Streptococcus mutans*, the major causative agent of cavities (formally known as dental caries). However, there are literally [hundreds of species](_URL_0_) and billions of individual bacteria in your mouth at any given time to this is hardly the only player. As the bacteria grow, they synthesize molecules such as polysaccharides and proteins that anchor the cells tightly to the surface. They even recruit proteins in your saliva. The structure formed is known as a [biofilm](_URL_3_). This is what you actually see when you remove dental plaque.
So why is it yellow/white? The reason for this is because the components of biofilms are relatively uniform (at least to our eyes). They are composed of bacteria (that in the majority of cases do not produce any significant pigments *in vivo*), proteins, and polysaccharides. These molecules are typically off white or yellow. Note that this doesn't mean species composition of the biofilm is always the same - each individual will have very specific bacteria present in the oral cavity depending on multiple factors including oral disease state. It just all looks the same to use because most oral bacteria in biofilms just so happen to be a similar color.
Interestingly, the bacteria on your teeth do not necessarily even get their nutrition from the food you eat. Patients fed solely through tubes [still have bacteria in their mouths](_URL_2_) that subsist on proteins and small molecules in the saliva. | [
"Extrinsic staining, is largely due to environmental factors including smoking, pigments in beverages and foods, antibiotics, and metals such as iron or copper. Coloured compounds from these sources are adsorbed into acquired dental pellicle or directly onto the surface of the tooth causing a stain to appear.\n",
"BULLET::::- Dental plaque: Dental plaque is a clear biofilm of bacteria that naturally forms in the mouth, particularly along the gumline, and it occurs due to the normal development and defences of the immune system. Although usually virtually invisible on the tooth surface, plaque may become stained by chromogenic bacteria such as \"Actinomyces\" species. Prolonged dental plaque accumulation on the tooth surface can lead to enamel demineralisation and formation of white spot lesions which appear as an opaque milk coloured lesion. The acidic by-products of fermentable carbohydrates derived from high sugar foods contribute to greater proportions of bacteria such as mutans streptococci and lactobabilli in dental plaque. Higher consumption of fermentable carbohydrates will promote demineralisation and increase the risk of developing white spot lesions.\n",
"Dental plaque is a biofilm or mass of bacteria that grows on surfaces within the mouth. It is a sticky colorless deposit at first, but when it forms tartar, it is often brown or pale yellow. It is commonly found between the teeth, on the front of teeth, behind teeth, on chewing surfaces, along the gumline, or below the gumline cervical margins. Dental plaque is also known as microbial plaque, oral biofilm, dental biofilm, dental plaque biofilm or bacterial plaque biofilm. Bacterial plaque is one of the major causes for dental decay and gum disease.\n",
"BULLET::::- bilberry fruit will stain hands, teeth and tongue deep blue or purple while eating (it was used as a dye for food and clothes), while blueberries have flesh of a less intense color, and are thus less staining\n",
"The tablets, sold over the counter in many countries, contain a dye (typically a vegetable dye, such as Phloxine B) that stains plaque a bright color (typically red or blue). After brushing, one chews a tablet and rinses. Colored stains on the teeth indicate areas where plaque remains after brushing, providing feedback to improve brushing technique. For self-examination, a dental mirror may be needed. More sophisticated varieties contain several dyes, which selectively stain plaque of different ages. With the most common variety, immature plaque stains red, mature purple, and pathological acidic plaque blue. This is owing to the blue dye washing off immature plaque, and acid degrading the red dye.\n",
"Iodine (I) can be used to determine whether fruit is ripening or rotting by showing whether the starch in the fruit has turned into sugar. For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part (not the skin) of an apple will stay yellow or orange, since starch is no longer present. If the iodine is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch is still present at high concentrations in the sample, and hence the fruit hasn't fully started to ripen.\n",
"Dental plaque, also known as dental biofilm, is a sticky, yellow film consisting of a wide range of bacteria which attaches to the tooth surfaces and can be visible around the gum line. It starts to reappear after the tooth surface has been cleaned, which is why regular brushing is encouraged. A high-sugar diet encourages the formation of plaque. Sugar (fermentable carbohydrates), is converted into acid by the plaque. The acid then causes the breakdown of the adjacent tooth, eventually leading to tooth decay.\n"
] |
just saw a video where a snowmobile accelerates really quickly in a drag race setting. a commenter said part of the reason is it's cvt transmission . what is that? | Continuously Variable Transmission. Polaris has been using them for ages:
_URL_0_ | [
"They are also commonly used in snowmobile and all-terrain vehicle (ATV) continuously variable transmissions (CVT), both to engage/disengage vehicle motion and to vary the transmission's pulley diameter ratio in relation to the engine revolutions per minute.\n",
"The Snow Trac is made up largely of \"off the shelf\" automotive and industrial parts supplied by Volkswagen including an air cooled flat 4 industrial version of VW Beetle engine, a VW Bus transmission, and hundreds of surplus parts including steering wheels, shift knobs, and lighting components. A proprietary drive variator was adapted to the transmission to allow the use of a steering wheel to control the tracks. The variator steplessly changes the speed of the left and right tracks, accelerating one track while slowing the other to effect a turn. Unlike traditional tracked vehicle steering, the brakes are not used to turn, increasing efficiency and reducing brake wear. Production of the air cooled VW engine ceased in 1981 in Europe and this effectively led to the demise of the Snow Trac, which ended factory production in Sweden. \n",
"Watercross consists of crossing water while riding a snowmobile, which is possible because snowmobiles have wide tracks for traction and flotation in the snow. If one hits the water at an acceptable speed (5 mph per 150 lb or (5/1.5)*(1.609344/0.45359237)round0 km/h per 100 kg of weight) and keeps the sled's throttle open, the track keeps the snowmobile on the surface of the water without sinking. If the rider backs out of the throttle or the sled bogs or floods out, the sled will sink. A sunk sled is able to be revived by cleaning water out of the carburetor, exhaust, spark plugs, and replacing the fuel. The front of the sled is pitched upwards like riders commonly do in deep mountain powder snow.\n",
"CO dragsters are miniature racing cars which are propelled by a carbon dioxide cartridge, pierced to start the release of the gas, and which race on a typically 60 foot track. They are frequently used to demonstrate mechanical principles such as mass, force, acceleration, or aerodynamics. Two hooks (eyelets or screw eyes) linked to a string (usually monofilament fishing line) on the bottom of the car prevent the vehicle from losing control during launch. In a race, a laser scanner records the speed of the car at the end of its run. Often, the dragster is carved out of balsa wood because of its light weight and cheapness.\n",
"In 2015, Ontario modified the Highway Traffic Act, stating motorists shall slow down and proceed with caution, moving over if multiple lanes exist, when approaching stopped tow trucks producing intermittent flashes of amber light. The section does not define tow trucks as \"emergency vehicles.\"\n",
"Increasing air drag with the speed on the road manifests as increasing braking force of the vehicle wheels. The aim is to make the vehicle on the dynamometer accelerate and decelerate the same way as on a real road.\n",
"Since truck-driver language has no signal for \"Do not move in front of me,\" nor has any understood length of time for turning headlights or high beams on or off, flashing the high-beams to say \"Do not move in front of me\" may be misinterpreted to mean that the truck is clear to proceed with the lane change in front of the vehicle giving the signal.\n"
] |
why do we still not have bold, italics and underlined keyboard options for typing on mobile devices? | There is no standardized method to send font styles via SMS. Apple, could for example, enable it on all their devices, but then what would happen if the user sends a bold message to an Android phone? Android wont know what to do with the extra information and it will just display it as plain text.
Emoji's on the other hand are standardized Unicode characters, the only variation between devices is in the image it displays, but the image it displays will convey the emotion that the Unicode character represents. | [
"It is commonly used in conjunction with text-messaging services. Some portable telecommunications devices (such as the BlackBerry) have bypassed the need for this by incorporating a mini-keyboard for users to type on. As of 2012, most mobile phones with fewer keys than alphabet letters offer a predictive text input method.\n",
"The layout of some European PC keyboards, combined with problematic keyboard-driver semantics, causes some users to use an acute accent or a grave accent instead of an apostrophe when typing in English (e.g. typing John`s or John´s instead of John's).\n",
"Apple now allows third-party developers to make keyboard apps that users can replace the default iOS keyboard with. For added privacy, Apple added a settings toggle called \"Allow Full Access\", that optionally enables the keyboard to act outside its app sandbox, such as synchronizing keyboard data to the cloud, third-party keyboards are not allowed to use Siri for voice dictation, and some secure text fields do not allow input.\n",
"The layout of some European PC keyboards combined with problematic keyboard driver semantics causes many users to use a grave accent or an acute accent instead of an apostrophe when typing in English (e.g. typing Brian`s Theater or Brian´s Theater instead of Brian's Theater).\n",
"While typing, there is the option to type using the keyboard on the touchscreen. The keyboard has more space between the individual keys allowing for ease of typing. The touchscreen is small in size with a high resolution allowing the user to be able to read and view images with ease. However, the camera on the device is only five megapixels, which is below the norm that is eight-megapixels.\n",
"\"The Wall Street Journal\" praised the keyboard, particularly the integrated Google search feature. However, it was noted that the app does not currently support integration with other apps on the device, meaning that queries such as \"Buy Captain America movie tickets\" sends users to the web browser rather than an app for movie tickets installed on their phone. \"The Wall Street Journal\" also praised the predictive typing engine, stating that it \"blows past most competitors\" and \"it gets smarter with use\". They also discovered that Gboard \"cleverly suggests emojis as you type words\". It was noted that there was the lack of a one-handed mode, as well as lack of options for changing color or size of keys, writing that \"If you're looking to customize a keyboard, Gboard isn't for you.\"\n",
"Because national keyboard implementations vary, not all 94 ASCII printable characters can be used everywhere. This can present a problem to an international traveler who wished to log into remote system using a keyboard on a local computer. \"See\" \"keyboard layout\". Many hand held devices, such as tablet computers and smart phones, require complex shift sequences to enter special characters.\n"
] |
why does the world need money? | Because without money, trading usually hits a dead end. Like in this example.
> "Hey Roof Guy, my roof is broken. Can I trade you two chickens to fix my roof?"
> "Sure thing, Chicken Dude."
**Two weeks later**
> "Hey Chicken Dude, I'm really hungry. Can I have some more chickens?"
> "I don't have anything that needs fixing, go away Roof Guy."
Once you add money into the mix, Roof Guy doesn't have to starve. Each of us only has so many skills or goods to trade; money allows us to turn that skill into value that can be used now or later, even if our services aren't needed.
| [
"BULLET::::- To quote monochrom's press statement: \"Money is frozen desire. Thus it governs the world. Money is used for all forms of trade, from daily shopping at the supermarket to trafficking in human beings and drugs. In the course of all these transactions, our money wears out quickly, especially the smaller bank notes that are changing hands constantly. ... Money is dirty, and thus it is a living entity. This is something we take literally: money is an ideal environment for microscopic organisms and bacteria. We want to make your money grow. In a potent nutrient fluid under heat lamps we want to get as much life as we can out of your dollar bills.\" (\"Growing Money\" was part of the \"Experience The Experience\" tour.)\n",
"BULLET::::21. \"Money\": Money is the most powerful tool that Man has ever invented. It can build and destroy empires, and make people to go to war. Some people even believe that money is the key to happiness. What makes an object money? Where does it come from and who decides?\n",
"BULLET::::- \"\"...but money has become by convention a sort of representative of demand; and this is why it has the name 'money' (nomisma)-because it exists not by nature but by law (nomos) and it is in our power to change it and make it useless.\"\" Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics [1133b 1].\n",
"In 2011 Dunn was credited with creating the phrase \"the earliest money is the best money.\" This term describes the power and importance of compounding interest. It means that the money you contribute now is more important than the money you contribute 1 year from now. This is because it will have more time to grow, thus it is the most powerful contribution. Just as last year's contributions are more powerful than this year's contributions.\n",
"In developing economies and particularly in rural areas, many activities that would be classified in the developed world as financial are not monetized: that is, money is not used to carry them out. This is often the case when people need the services money can provide but do not have dispensable funds required for those services, forcing them to revert to other means of acquiring them.\n",
"So, while money is a commodity whose price is affected by supply and demand, it does not become more beneficial to society if its supply is increased. Increasing the supply of money only confuses society's ability to calculate relative costs during the time of monetary expansion precisely because it is not injected into all areas of the economy at once.\n",
"Defenders of the World Bank contend that no country is forced to borrow its money. The Bank provides both loans and grants. Even the loans are concessional since they are given to countries that have no access to international capital markets. Furthermore, the loans, both to poor and middle-income countries, are at below market-value interest rates. The World Bank argues that it can help development more through loans than grants, because money repaid on the loans can then be lent for other projects.\n"
] |
Does the temperature of the earths core contribute at all to sustaining normal/livable temperatures on the surface. If so, why or why not? | On the *surface*—well, no. Sunlight + atmosphere + surface composition = *weather*, and this is what defines temperature, humidity, winds, etc. Contribution from inside of the Earth is just too small to be measurable in the global scale.
However, if you dig a mine deep enough, you will actually feel the warmth of Earth. Several kilometers deep there are no atmospheric heat transfer and geothermal gradient takes over. | [
"Temperature within the Earth increases with depth. Highly viscous or partially molten rock at temperatures between are found at the margins of tectonic plates, increasing the geothermal gradient in the vicinity, but only the outer core is postulated to exist in a molten or fluid state, and the temperature at the Earth's inner core/outer core boundary, around deep, is estimated to be 5650 ± 600 Kelvin. The heat content of the Earth is 10 joules.\n",
"Changes in surface temperature due to Earth's energy budget do not occur instantaneously, due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere. The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response.\n",
"Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n",
"High values for the Earth's mantle indicates that convection within the Earth is vigorous and time-varying, and that convection is responsible for almost all the heat transported from the deep interior to the surface.\n",
"Because of the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle. Hot material upwells, while cooler (and heavier) material sinks downward. Downward motion of material occurs at convergent plate boundaries called subduction zones. Locations on the surface that lie over plumes are predicted to have high elevation (because of the buoyancy of the hotter, less-dense plume beneath) and to exhibit hot spot volcanism. The volcanism often attributed to deep mantle plumes is alternatively explained by passive extension of the crust, permitting magma to leak to the surface (the \"Plate\" hypothesis).\n",
"Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n",
"The early formation of the Earth's dense core could have caused superheating and rapid heat loss, and the heat loss rate would slow once the mantle solidified. Heat flow from the core is necessary for maintaining the convecting outer core and the geodynamo and Earth's magnetic field, therefore primordial heat from the core enabled Earth's atmosphere and thus helped retain Earth's liquid water.\n"
] |
why does food taste worse when you eat a lot of it at one time? | It is because of your brains reward system. If you eat the same thing over and over again then the pleasure you feel from the taste diminishes making you switch to another food source. | [
"As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\n",
"Taste aversion is fairly common in humans. When humans eat bad food (e.g., spoiled meat) and get sick, they may find that food aversive until extinction occurs, if ever. Also, as in nature, a food does not have to \"cause\" the sickness for it to become aversive. A human who eats sushi for the first time and who happens to come down with an unrelated stomach virus may still develop a taste aversion to sushi. Even something as obvious as riding a roller coaster (causing nausea) after eating the sushi will influence the development of taste aversion to sushi. Humans might also develop aversions to certain types of alcoholic beverages because of vomiting during intoxication.\n",
"Because taste perception is unique to every person, descriptors for taste quality and intensity have been standardized, particularly for use in scientific studies. For taste quality, foods can be described by the commonly used terms \"sweet\", \"sour\", \"salty\", \"bitter\", \"umami\", or \"no taste\". Description of aftertaste perception relies heavily upon the use of these words to convey the taste that is being sensed after a food has been removed from the mouth.\n",
"Since then, his research has established that the sight, touch and sound of food can have large effects on its perceived taste. Other findings include that strawberry mousse is perceived as 10% sweeter when eaten from a white container over a black one, that coffee drunk from white mugs tastes almost two times more intense but only two-thirds as sweet as coffee drunk from a black mug, and that eaters perceive yogurt to be roughly 25% more filling when its plastic container weighs two and a half ounces more. \n",
"Conditioned taste aversion is the only type of conditioning that only needs one exposure. It does not need to be the specific food or drinks that cause the taste. Conditioned taste aversion can also be attributed to extenuating circumstances. An example of this can be eating a rotten apple. Eating the apple then immediately throwing up. Now it is hard to even near an apple without feeling sick. Conditioned taste aversion can also come about by the mere associations of two stimuli. Eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, but also have the flu. Eating the sandwich makes one feel nauseous, so one throws up, now one cannot smell peanut butter without feeling queasy. Though eating the sandwich does not cause one to through up, they are still linked.\n",
"Sour and salt tastes can be pleasant in small quantities, but in larger quantities become more and more unpleasant to taste. For sour taste this is presumably because the sour taste can signal under-ripe fruit, rotten meat, and other spoiled foods, which can be dangerous to the body because of bacteria which grow in such media. Additionally, sour taste signals acids, which can cause serious tissue damage.\n"
] |
How do we know Proxima Centauri is the closest star? | For very close stars, we can examine their paralax due to the Earth's orbit as seen [here](_URL_0_).
We measure where on the sky a star is and then measure where it is again 6 months later. Because the Earth is now on the opposite side of the Sun, the star will appear to have moved. We can use the angle it moved by to calculate how far away it is.
Fun fact - if an object has a **par**alax shift of one arc**sec**ond it is one **parsec** away.
So to answer your question, when preforming this measurement - Proxima Centuri happens to be the closest observed star. Astronomers have been doing this for a *long* time. If something was visible and closer than that, we'd know.
Edit: Punctuation | [
"to the Union Observatory, which Innes used in the discovery of Proxima Centauri. In 1915, he found a faint star fairly close to and sharing the same large proper motion with Alpha Centauri, which until then was believed to be the closest star system to the Sun. Innes believed, on rather slim evidence, that it was closer than Alpha and in 1917 named it Proxima. He was not able to measure its distance accurately with his 9-inch refractor or the short focus Franklin-Adams astrograph. The definitive distance was measured by Harold Lee Alden at the Yale observatory station in Johannesburg which was equipped with a long focus camera designed for stellar parallax work. Alden’s more precise measurements confirmed Proxima to be the closest star to the sun. No closer star has been found to date.\n",
"Proxima Centauri is a small, low-mass star located away from the Sun in the southern constellation of Centaurus. Its Latin name means the \"nearest [star] of Centaurus\". This object was discovered in 1915 by Robert Innes and is the nearest-known star to the Sun. With a quiescent apparent magnitude of 11.13, it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye. Proxima Centauri forms a third member of the Alpha Centauri system, being identified as component Alpha Centauri C, and is 2.18° to the southwest of the Alpha Centauri AB pair. Currently it has a physical separation of about from AB and an orbital period of 550,000 years.\n",
"Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a position currently 4.24 light-years distant from it. However, despite Barnard's Star's even closer pass to the Sun in 11,800 AD, it will still not then be the nearest star, since by that time Proxima Centauri will have moved to a yet-nearer proximity to the Sun. At the time of the star's closest pass by the Sun, Barnard's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye, since its apparent magnitude will only have increased by one magnitude to about 8.5 by then, still being 2.5 magnitudes short of visibility to the naked eye.\n",
"Alpha Centauri C, or Proxima Centauri, is a small and faint red dwarf (Class M). Though not visible to the naked eye, Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a distance of , slightly closer than Alpha Centauri AB. Currently, the distance between Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB is about , equivalent to about 430 times the radius of Neptune's orbit. Proxima Centauri b is an Earth-sized exoplanet in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri; it was discovered in 2016.\n",
"Proxima Centauri b (also called Proxima b or Alpha Centauri Cb) is an exoplanet orbiting in the habitable zone of the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, which is the closest star to the Sun and part of a triple star system. It is located about 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs, 40 trillion km, or 25 trillion miles) from Earth in the constellation of Centaurus, making it the closest known exoplanet to the Solar System.\n",
"Robert T. A. Innes discovered Proxima Centauri in 1915 by blinking photographic plates taken at different times during a proper motion survey. These showed large proper motion and parallax similar in both size and direction to those of Alpha Centauri AB, suggesting that Proxima Centauri is part of the Alpha Centauri system and slightly closer to Earth than Alpha Centauri AB. Lying away, Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the Sun.\n",
"In 1915, the Scottish astronomer Robert Innes, Director of the Union Observatory in Johannesburg, South Africa, discovered a star that had the same proper motion as Alpha Centauri. He suggested that it be named \"Proxima Centauri\" (actually \"Proxima Centaurus\"). In 1917, at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, the Dutch astronomer Joan Voûte measured the star's trigonometric parallax at and determined that Proxima Centauri was approximately the same distance from the Sun as Alpha Centauri. It was also found to be the lowest-luminosity star known at the time. An equally accurate parallax determination of Proxima Centauri was made by American astronomer Harold L. Alden in 1928, who confirmed Innes's view that it is closer, with a parallax of .\n"
] |
How acceptable was it to support the IRA in America around 1981? | Thanks to the strong tradition of free speech in the US, of course one *could* express any number of opinions. But I get the sense you are asking what the range of expressed opinions was.
With regard to the hunger strike itself, there was support for the hunger strikers at a relatively high level of US politics. The legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (home to many Americans of Irish descent) unanimously passed a resolution condemning prison conditions and asking the British government to recognize Bobby Sands as a political prisoner. A handful of US congresspeople from both parties signed on to a telegram asking President Reagan to urge Margaret Thatcher to action.
Other action occurred as well. The International Longshoremen's Association boycotted British ships for 24 hours after Bobby Sands' death. I don't get the sense they found many ships to boycott, but the gesture stood.
That's not to say there was unanimous support. The Boston Globe, in an editorial upon the death of Bobby Sands, noted the "American reflex to transfer automatic blame to London," but concluded that "the government in London to which Bobby Sands was elected is innocent compared to the organization in which he is a commander, the Provisional wing of the Irish Republican Army."
The Provisional IRA and Sinn Fein were regarded as terrorists by many in the United States. But political support for them during the hunger strikes of 1981 was a mainstream view in the US, and was freely expressed. | [
"The IRA was the most significant initiative of John Collier, who was President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) from 1933 to 1945. He had long studied Indian issues and worked for change since the 1920s, particularly with the American Indian Defense Association. He intended to reverse the assimilationist policies that had resulted in considerable damage to Native American cultures, and to provide a means for American Indians to re-establish sovereignty and self-government, to reduce the losses of reservation lands, and to build economic self-sufficiency. He believed that Indian traditional culture was superior to that of modern America, and thought it worthy of emulation. His proposals were considered highly controversial, as numerous powerful interests had profited from the sale and management of Native lands. Congress revised Collier's proposals and preserved oversight of tribes and reservations by the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the Department of Interior.\n",
"Most of the Irish volunteers came from the Republican Congress. From the period of 1925-1931, the IRA received money from the Soviet Union in return for spying on the United Kingdom and the United States. This had led to many Communist Party of Ireland members joining and even setting up front groups such as \"Saor Éire\". This attempt to form a synthesis of republican and communist concerns had largely failed and within the IRA the communist-element declined in prominence by the early 1930s, leading these people to found the separate Republican Congress.\n",
"The IRA has also received weapons and logistical support from Irish Americans in the United States. Apart from the Libyan aid, this has been the main source of overseas IRA support. American support has been weakened by the \"War on Terror\", and the fallout from the events of 11 September 2001.\n",
"During the 1980s, the IRA's commitment to socialism became more solidified as interned IRA prisoners began to engage with works of political and marxist theory by authors such as Frantz Fanon, Che Guevara, Antonio Gramsci, Ho-Chi Minh and General Giap. Members felt that an Irish version of the Tet Offensive could possibly be the key to victory against the British, pending on the arrival of weapons secured from Libya. However, this never came to pass, and in 1990, the fall of the Berlin wall brought a dogmatic commitment to Socialism back into question, as possible Socialist allies in Eastern Europe wilted away. In the years that followed, with the hopes of a military victory fading and the peace process building momentum, the IRA began to look towards South African politics and the example being set by the African National Congress. Many of the imprisoned IRA members saw parallels between their own struggle and that of Nelson Mandela and were encouraged by Mandela's use of compromise following his ascent to power in South Africa to consider compromise themselves.\n",
"Some Irish Americans were enthusiastic supporters of Irish independence; the Fenian Brotherhood movement was based in the United States and in the late 1860s launched several unsuccessful attacks on British-controlled Canada known as the \"Fenian Raids\". The Provisional IRA received significant funding and volunteers for its paramilitary activities from Irish expatriates and Irish American supporters—in 1984, the US Department of Justice won a court case forcing the Irish American fund-raising organization NORAID to acknowledge the Provisional IRA as its \"foreign principal\".\n",
"The IRA's \"Long War\" was boosted by large donations of arms from Libya in the 1980s (see Provisional IRA arms importation) due to Muammar Gaddafi's anger at British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher's government for assisting the Reagan government's bombing of Tripoli, which had killed one of Gaddafi's children. Additionally, it received monies from pro-IRA partisans in the United States and elsewhere throughout the Irish diaspora.\n",
"The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) aimed to establish a united Ireland and end the British administration of Northern Ireland through the use of force. The organisation was the result of a 1969 split in the Irish Republican Army; the other group, the Official IRA, ceased military activity in the 1970s. The IRA killed civilians, members of the armed forces, police, judiciary and prison service, including off-duty and retired members, and bombed businesses and military targets in both Northern Ireland and England, with the aim of making Northern Ireland ungovernable. Daniel McCann, Seán Savage, and Mairéad Farrell were, according to journalist Brendan O'Brien, \"three of the IRA's most senior activists\". Savage was an explosives expert and McCann was \"a high-ranking intelligence operative\"; both McCann and Farrell had previously served prison sentences for offences relating to explosives.\n"
] |
why do we continue drinking alcohol, when it continually causes problems for everyone? | Prohibition caused even more problems so they had to give the booze back. Meanwhile, special interests have been pressuring the government to control alternative intoxicants to protect their various interests for about a century which has led to so many other prohibitions. A lot of these other substances have smaller fan bases, thus making it difficult to reverse existing bans. Drug prohibition has led to much greater problems than that of alcohol and will likely be reformed soon. | [
"Alcoholism is a chronic problem. However, if managed properly, damage to the brain can be stopped and to some extent reversed. In addition to problem drinking, the disease is characterized by symptoms including an impaired control over alcohol, compulsive thoughts about alcohol, and distorted thinking. Alcoholism can also lead indirectly, through excess consumption, to physical dependence on alcohol, and diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver.\n",
"Continuous alcohol consumption can affect student's mental health. Too much and drinking too often can lead to alcoholism. People who consume alcohol before the age of fourteen are more likely to drink more often without thinking about the consequences later on. Alcoholism can affect ones’ mental health by being dependent on it, putting drinking before their own classwork. \n",
"Alcohol has been shown to have just \"some\" long-term effects on working memory. Findings have shown that in order for working memory to be substantially affected, long-term heavy drinking must be sustained over a long period of time, as up to one drink per day does not impair any cognitive function and may actually decrease the risk of a cognitive decline. Furthermore, chronic alcoholism is associated with the impairment in both sustained attention and visual working memory. As a result, alcoholics have reduced ability, but not necessarily \"inability\", to perform these executive tasks. This is assumed to be subserved by regions of the prefrontal cortex. While it may not serve as a surprise that chronic alcoholism is linked to any decreased cognitive function such as working memory, one surprising finding is not only that even moderate levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy were shown to have an adverse effect on the child's working memory when tested at 7.5 years of age, but also that working memory may be the most important aspect of attention that is adversely affected by prenatal alcohol exposure.\n",
"The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society, for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle accidents (due to drunk driving), domestic violence, and assaults. Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, an incurable and damaging condition. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol abuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from one to six percent of a country's GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24% of all drug abuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41%. One study quantified the cost to the UK of \"all\" forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as £18.5–20 billion. All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at $223.5 billion.\n",
"Serious social problems arise from alcoholism; these dilemmas are caused by the pathological changes in the brain and the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Alcohol abuse is associated with an increased risk of committing criminal offences, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, burglary and assault. Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior, and may lead to a criminal sentence. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of the alcoholic's children. For this reason, children of alcoholic parents can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors. In addition, they can develop considerable amount of shame over their inadequacy to liberate their parents from alcoholism. As a result of this failure, they develop wretched self-images, which can lead to depression.\n",
"Alcohol education is the planned provision of information and skills relevant to living in a world where alcohol is commonly misused. The World Health Organisations (WHO) Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health, highlights the fact that alcohol will be a larger problem in later years, with estimates suggesting it will be the leading cause of disability and death. Informing people on alcohol and harmful drinking should become a priority.\n",
"There are many health hazards that are caused from drinking. When students drink too much, the alcohol affects one's brain and ability to comprehend what is going on. One such problem is alcohol poisoning. After drinking too much, the alcohol and toxins in alcoholic drinks cause complications in one's brain and respiratory system. This causes mental and physical issues in one's body and could be very dangerous for one's health. Along with effecting ones health, students also have unintentional injuries because of being to intoxicated and that can effect ones health even more. 1,825 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die from alcohol-related unintentional injuries, including motor-vehicle crashes. Other hazardous health issues could arise from a drug called Rohypnol, nicknamed roofies. This is a toxic drug that could potentially be slipped into one's drink which cause one to lose sight of what one thinks and does. This will also cause complications within one's body. Nearly 150,000 college students develop some type of alcohol-related health problem every year. This may include liver damage, high blood pressure, inflammation of the pancreas and other health complications.\n"
] |
- how doomed are we in america with the sequestration thing? | $85,000,000,000 of $3,800,000,000,000
Take 9 zeros from both sides, it's like you've got $3800 to spend and someone steals $85, and the thief promises not to steal money for food or rent. It might inconvenience you, but it probably won't kill you.
| [
"The Great Stagnation: How America Ate All the Low-Hanging Fruit of Modern History, Got Sick, and Will (Eventually) Feel Better is a pamphlet by Tyler Cowen published in 2011. It argues that the American economy has reached a historical technological plateau and the factors which drove economic growth for most of America's history are mostly spent. These figurative \"low-hanging fruit\" from the title include the cultivation of much free, previously unused land; the application and spread of technological breakthroughs, particularly during the period 1880–1940, including transport, refrigeration, electricity, mass communications, and sanitation; and the education of large numbers of smart people who previously received none.\n",
"I was told they believe that by thwarting our then evident economic recovery, they would be able to prolong the country's destitution until they had demonstrated to the American people that the Government must operate business and commerce. By propaganda, they would destroy institutions making long term capital loans—and then push Uncle Sam into making these loans. Once Uncle Sam becomes our financier, he must also follow his money with control and management.\n",
"In the near future, an atomic disaster has reduced the world to poverty. Instead of a government, America is run by an organization called the Merchants, who exploit the degenerate remains of society. In order to keep control of the populace, the Merchants force Dr. Paul Dean to create a new life form, a parasite that feeds on its host. Realizing the deadly potential of such a being, Dean escapes the Merchants with the parasite, infecting himself in the process.\n",
"By 2019, Orlov felt that most of the ingredients precipitating collapse of the USA were in place, and that the one single ingredient still missing--a humiliating military defeat--was under way: The function of the US military is to intimidate other countries into letting the US buy whatever it wants by printing US dollars as needed . . . Once their ability to intimidate the world into submission is gone . . . all that will remain of the “richest country in the world” is a pile of worthless paper.\n",
"The world is in the throes of an energy crunch and the United States is on the brink of financial disaster. Desperate to find any solution that can save the nation from national bankruptcy, the President of the United States looks to Dirk Pitt and NUMA to pull off an audacious double salvage operation.\n",
"None of it will be easy, and certainly much can go wrong. Still we have no reason to lose faith in the possibilities of the future. For all its problems, America remains, as the journalist John Gunther suggested over sixty years ago, 'lousy with greatness'. The elements essential to forge a successful nation of four hundred million remain very much within our reach, there for the taking.\n",
"That Used to be Us: How America Fell Behind in the World It Invented and How We Can Come Back is a non-fiction book written by Thomas Friedman, a Pulitzer Prize-winning \"New York Times\" columnist and author, with Michael Mandelbaum, a writer and foreign policy professor at Johns Hopkins University. They published the book on September 5, 2011 in the United States. It addresses what the authors see as the four major problems America faces today and possible solutions. These problems are defined as: globalization, the revolution in information technology, the nation's chronic deficits, and its pattern of energy consumption.\n"
] |
why some foods completely unrelated to animals contain fat (olives, nuts, avocado), please. | Fat is used by plant to store energy. Nuts have fat so the plant inside has energy to grow a stem and leafs. Once the plant has leafs it can produce it's own energy. | [
"Nuts are an important source of nutrients for both humans and wildlife. Because nuts generally have a high oil content, they are a highly prized food and energy source. A large number of seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, or roasted as a snack food, or pressed for oil that is used in cookery and cosmetics.\n",
"Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:\n",
"Animal fats and oils are lipid materials derived from animals. Physically, oils are liquid at room temperature, and fats are solid. Chemically, both fats and oils are composed of triglycerides. Although many animal parts and secretions may yield oil, in commercial practice, oil is extracted primarily from rendered tissue fats obtained from livestock animals like pigs, chickens and cows. Dairy products also yield popular animal fat and oil products such as cheese, butter, and milk.\n",
"Animal fats are complex mixtures of triglycerides, with lesser amounts of both the phospholipids and cholesterol molecules from which all animal (and human) cell membranes are constructed. Since all animal cells manufacture cholesterol, all animal-based foods contain cholesterol in varying amounts. Major dietary sources of cholesterol include red meat, egg yolks and whole eggs, liver, kidney, giblets, fish oil, and butter. Human breast milk also contains significant quantities of cholesterol.\n",
"Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are fats extracted from seeds, or less often, from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are \"mixtures\" of triglycerides. Soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are example of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable \"oil\" may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible; non-edible oils derived mainly from petroleum are termed mineral oils.\n",
"Often a byproduct of the rendering of lard, it is also a way of making even the tough skin of a pig edible. In many ancient cultures, animal fats were the only way of obtaining oil for cooking and they were common in many people's diets until the industrial revolution made vegetable oils more common and more affordable.\n",
"Monounsaturated fats are found in animal flesh such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts, and high fat fruits such as olives and avocados. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat. The high oleic variety sunflower oil contains as least 70% monounsaturated fat. Canola oil and cashews are both about 58% monounsaturated fat. Tallow (beef fat) is about 50% monounsaturated fat. and lard is about 40% monounsaturated fat. Other sources include avocado oil, macadamia nut oil, grapeseed oil, groundnut oil (peanut oil), sesame oil, corn oil, popcorn, whole grain wheat, cereal, oatmeal, almond oil, sunflower oil, hemp oil, and tea-oil Camellia.\n"
] |
why current religious freedom laws are considered so objectionable. | The issue isn't about writing a message on a cake or some other sort of service where it's the *service itself* that the person finds objectionable. It's about doing the same thing for every customer and treating them equally.
For example, let's say that I wanted to buy a cake that said "I love Nazis" on it. A baker has every right to refuse to bake and decorate that, and that's true before or after any anti-discrimination law that's currently on the books. They would refuse to bake that cake and write the message on it to *anyone* who came through the door, so it's not a discriminating policy.
Now, I walk into a bakery and say "Can I have a cake for my wife's birthday? Please have it say "Happy Birthday, [Wife's name]." I'm a man, so the bakery provides the cake.
If Jessica the lesbian walks into that same bakery and asks for the exact same cake for her wife's birthday, and it's refused, that's discriminatory. The bakery was willing to do something for me, but not to do the same exact thing for another person. If that person was black, Chinese, or disabled, it would be illegal to discriminate like that and refuse that service. | [
"The State Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, respect for religious freedom declined due to selective legal enforcement and indifference of some government officials, which allowed societal violence and the threat of violence to restrict the ability to worship of adherents of religious groups in areas where they are in the minority. On October 16, 2006, the Ministry of Human Rights and Refugees issued instructions for implementation of the Law on Religious Freedom, which provides for freedom of religion, ensures legal status of churches and religious communities, and prohibits any form of discrimination against any religious community. The law also provides the basis for the establishment of relations between the state and religious communities.\n",
"Because the ordinance suppressed more religious conduct than was necessary to achieve its stated ends, it was deemed unconstitutional, with Justice Anthony Kennedy stating in the decision, “religious beliefs need not be acceptable, logical, consistent or comprehensible to others in order to merit First Amendment protection”.\n",
"The Constitution provides for freedom of religion; however, the law prohibits the public practice of religion by unregistered groups. The Constitution also designates Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the \"traditional\" religion. There were some reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice. Discrimination, harassment, and general public intolerance, particularly in the media, of some religious groups remained an intermittent problem.\n",
"The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the 1992 Law on Religions, which codifies religious freedoms, contains restrictions that inhibit the activities of unregistered religious groups. Although the law was amended in 2002, many of the restrictions remain in place. The law provides for freedom of religious practice, including each person's right to profess his or her religion in any form. It also protects the confidentiality of the confessional, allows denominations to establish associations and foundations, and states that the Government may not interfere in the religious activities of denominations. The law specifies that \"in order to organize and function\", religious organizations must be registered with the Government, and unregistered groups may not own property, engage employees, or obtain space in public cemeteries in their own names.\n",
"The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice; however, the 1992 Law on Religions, which codifies religious freedoms, contains restrictions that inhibit the activities of unregistered religious groups. Although the law was amended in 2002, many of the restrictions remain in place. The law provides for freedom of religious practice, including each person's right to profess his or her religion in any form. It also protects the confidentiality of the confessional, allows denominations to establish associations and foundations, and states that the Government may not interfere in the religious activities of denominations. The law specifies that \"in order to organize and function\", religious organizations must be registered with the Government, and unregistered groups may not own property, engage employees, or obtain space in public cemeteries in their own names.\n",
"The principle of freedom of religion is officially protected by the US constitution. US Supreme Court rulings have re-stated and expanded upon the legal individual right of freedom of religion within the United States of America.\n",
"Many states have freedom of religion established in their constitution, though the exact legal consequences of this right vary for historical and cultural reasons. Most states interpret \"freedom of religion\" as including the freedom of long-established religious communities to remain intact and not be destroyed. By extension, democracies interpret \"freedom of religion\" as the right of each individual to freely choose to convert from one religion to another, mix religions, or abandon religion altogether.\n"
] |
how do sprints change your body versus jogging? | Sprinting builds cardio and explosion in a shorter amount of time, it also burns fat for longer. Whereas, long distance cardio can improve cardio but not explosiveness it also takes longer. So you can get better results, running harder sprints than longer distance. | [
"Sprinting involves a quick acceleration phase followed by a velocity maintenance phase. During the initial stage of sprinting, the runners have their upper body tilted forward in order to direct ground reaction forces more horizontally. As they reach their maximum velocity, the torso straightens out into an upright position. The goal of sprinting is to reach and maintain high top speeds to cover a set distance in the shortest possible time. A lot of research has been invested in quantifying the biological factors and mathematics that govern sprinting. In order to achieve these high velocities, it has been found that sprinters have to apply a large amount of force onto the ground to achieve the desired acceleration, rather than taking more rapid steps.\n",
"At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so because lactic acid builds up once leg muscles begin to suffer oxygen deprivation. Top speed can only be maintained for up to 20 metres.\n",
"At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the contest progresses and momentum is gained. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up, and leg muscles begin to be deprived of oxygen.\n",
"During running, the speed at which the runner moves may be calculated by multiplying the cadence (steps per second) by the stride length. Running is often measured in terms of pace in minutes per mile or kilometer. Different types of stride are necessary for different types of running. When sprinting, runners stay on their toes bringing their legs up, using shorter and faster strides. Long distance runners tend to have more relaxed strides that vary.\n",
"By alternating the “intensity of your workouts, you will burn more calories than you would by keeping a steady pace.\" While running, the runner's body uses a combination of carbohydrate and fat, with relatively more carbohydrate metabolized at faster speeds and relatively more fat the longer the workout lasts. A fartlek workout will allow the body to adapt to using both sources of energy, with the desired adaptation towards fat metabolism occurring during slower periods. In addition, varying speeds improves cardiovascular endurance slightly better than running at a steady pace for the same time and total distance.\n",
"Sprinting is running over a short distance in a limited period of time. It is used in many sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of quickly reaching a target or goal, or avoiding or catching an opponent. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be maintained for more than 30–35 seconds due to the depletion of phosphocreatine stores in muscles, and perhaps secondarily to excessive metabolic acidosis as a result of anaerobic glycolysis.\n",
"\"Walk-back sprinting\" is one example of interval training for runners, in which one sprints a short distance (anywhere from 100 to 800 metres), then walks back to the starting point (the recovery period), to repeat the sprint a certain number of times. To add challenge to the workout, each of these sprints may start at predetermined time intervals - e.g. 200 metre sprint, walk back, and sprint again, every 3 minutes. The time interval is intended to provide just enough recovery time. A runner will use this method of training mainly to add speed to their race and give them a finishing kick.\n"
] |
how is it ok for the usa to try to force other nations to denuclearize even though we maintain a nuclear arsenal that is capable of destroying the world. | Nobody wants anyone to have nukes, they're bad news *but* once you get some, you can't really give them up as long as somebody else has them - it's sort of a "Mexican Standoff" where safety & peace is assured by the fact that nobody with nukes will fire them first because they know everyone else that has them will fire back.
This all gets *much* more complicated when you have somebody new trying to join "nuke club, *especially* if it's an unstable country like North Korea or Iran. So the nuclear powers do their *damnedest* to stop everyone else from getting nukes - either through friendly diplomacy ("we'll protect you if anyone fires nukes at you"), stern diplomacy ("we won't ship you any food if you keep this up") or outright threats ("we'll invade your fucking country if you don't stop now").
What makes it "OK"? It's not like there's any laws that all countries have to obey - it just boils down to what you can do without making everyone else so pissed at you that they're going to attack you. Most of the world is OK with nobody else getting nukes, making it OK for the US (and the rest of Nuke Club) to stop others from developing them. | [
"It is a very far reaching control which would eliminate the rivalry between nations in this field, which would prevent the surreptitious arming of one nation against another, which would provide some cushion of time before atomic attack, and presumably therefore before any attack with weapons of mass destruction, and which would go a long way toward removing atomic energy at least as a source of conflict between the powers.\n",
"The answer to atomic warfare is to have the nations of the world unite under the United Nations framework to counter the weapons of mass destruction. Representative of the peoples of the world are asked to make laws to abolish war with the choice being clear: unite as one world confronting evil or face death.\n",
"Andrew Bacevich wrote that there is no feasible scenario under which the US could sensibly use nuclear weapons. \"For the United States, they are becoming unnecessary, even as a deterrent. Certainly, they are unlikely to dissuade the adversaries most likely to employ such weapons against us -- Islamic extremists intent on acquiring their own nuclear capability. If anything, the opposite is true. By retaining a strategic arsenal in readiness (and by insisting without qualification that the dropping of atomic bombs on two Japanese cities in 1945 was justified), the United States continues tacitly to sustain the view that nuclear weapons play a legitimate role in international politics ... .\"\n",
"However Robert Gallucci, president of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, \"the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently lead nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.\"\n",
"Robert Gallucci argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that \"the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.\".\n",
"\"The ability to apply force selectively and flexibly will become increasingly important in maintaining the morale and will of the free world to resist aggression. As the fear of nuclear war grows, the United States and its allies must never allow themselves to get into the position where they must choose between (a) not responding to local aggression and (b) applying force in a way which our own people or our allies would consider entails undue risk of nuclear devastation. However, the United States cannot afford to preclude itself from using nuclear weapons even in a local situation, if such use ... will best advance U.S. security interests. In the last analysis, if confronted by the choice of (a) acquiescing in Communist aggression or (b) taking measures risking either general war or loss of allied support, the United States must be prepared to take these risks if necessary for its security.\"\n",
"The United States insists that its forces control the weapons and that no transfer of the nuclear bombs or control over them is intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the NPT would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT. However, the pilots and other staff of the \"non-nuclear\" NATO countries practice handling and delivering the US nuclear bombs, and non-US warplanes have been adapted to deliver US nuclear bombs which involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. Even if the US argument is considered legally correct, some argue such peacetime operations appear to contravene both the objective and the spirit of the NPT. Essentially, all preparations for waging nuclear war have already been made by supposedly non-nuclear weapon states.\n"
] |
what on earth is wwe wrestling about | Hey... uh... you know all those movies and TV shows you watch? They're not real either. You still watch those despite knowing it's acting, don't you? | [
"Legends of Wrestling is a series of professional wrestling video games based on the best wrestlers of all time, from WWF/WWE, NWA, WCW, ECW, TNA and various independent promotions. It was developed and produced by Acclaim. It was released in 2001 for the PlayStation 2, then in 2002 for the GameCube and Xbox. In 2006, Canadian game publisher Throwback Entertainment acquired the license and publishing rights to \"Legends of Wrestling\". \n",
"As in other professional wrestling promotions, WWE shows are not legitimate contests, but purely entertainment-based, featuring storyline-driven, scripted, and choreographed matches, though matches often include moves that can put performers at risk of injury, even death, if not performed correctly. This was first publicly acknowledged by WWE's owner Vince McMahon in 1989 to avoid taxes from athletic commissions. Since the 1980s, WWE publicly has branded their product as sports entertainment, acknowledging the product's roots in competitive sport and dramatic theater.\n",
"WWE is the largest professional wrestling company in the world. It has promoted some of the most successful wrestlers and storylines, and featured some of the most iconic and significant matches and moments in the history of the sport. WWE currently airs several high-profile programs such as \"Raw\" and \"SmackDown\" in more than 150 countries, hosts 12 pay-per-view events a year including WrestleMania, and holds approximately 320 live events a year throughout the world. In 2014, WWE launched the first ever 24/7 streaming network which would eventually showcase the entire WWE video library. \n",
"WWE has a wide range of programs that air all over the world, including pay-per-view events, films, webcasts, video on demand broadcasts, and television shows such as \"NXT\", \"Raw\", \"SmackDown Live\", \"Total Divas\", \"205 Live\", and more.\n",
"Legends of Wrestling is a professional wrestling video game based on the greatest wrestlers of all time, from WWF/WWE, NWA, WCW, WCCW, AWA, ECW and various independent promotions. It was developed and produced by Acclaim. It was released in 2001 for the PlayStation 2, then in 2002 for the GameCube and Xbox. A sequel, \"Legends of Wrestling II\", was released in 2002.\n",
"The show's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers, who acted out the franchise's stories in and out of the ring. The main event featured Raw wrestlers in a Steel Cage match, a match in a ring surrounded by four walls of mesh metal. In this match, WWE Champion Triple H defeated Randy Orton to retain his title. In SmackDown's main match, The Undertaker defeated Edge by countout, but did not win the vacant World Heavyweight Championship because in WWE, a championship cannot change hands via countout or disqualification. While in ECW's prime match, WWE Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz defeated ECW Champion Kane and CM Punk to retain the titles. From the six scheduled bouts on the undercard, two received less promotion than the others; these bouts included in two respective singles matches, Shawn Michaels defeating Chris Jericho and John Cena defeating John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL).\n",
"WWE Legends of WrestleMania is a video game featuring legends of the professional wrestling promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), who have appeared at WrestleMania in the 1980s and 1990s; during that time, WWE was known as the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). The game was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. It was released in March 2009 to coincide with WrestleMania XXV. The game was developed by Yuke's and published by THQ, the same developer and publisher for the \"WWE SmackDown vs. Raw\" video game series. The WWE logo featured in the game was a slight modification of the pre-1990 WWF logo.\n"
] |
Why did 4 year liberal arts educations become popular in the United States? | Your question actually needs to be flipped around: when did other countries *stop* insisting upon a liberal arts foundation.
The modern university system was born in the Latin (European) Middle Ages, in Paris and Bologna. The medieval curriculum was founded on the liberal arts: the *trivium* of grammar, rhetoric, logic; and the *quadrivium* of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy/astrology, and music. Only upon completion of those would a student advance to study the higher faculties: law, theology, or medicine.
For their part, the tradition of founding one's studies in the liberal arts goes back to ancient Greece.
You might be find these answers helpful:
* [How did the descriptors Bachelor and Doctor come to signify a person's completed level of education?] (_URL_0_)
* [Humanist vs. liberal arts education: were they different in the Renaissance?] (_URL_1_) | [
"The liberal arts college model took root in the United States in the 19th century, as institutions spread that followed the model of early schools like Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth, although none of these early American schools are regarded as liberal arts colleges today. These colleges served as a means of spreading a basically European cultural model across the new country. The model proliferated in the 19th century; some 212 small liberal arts colleges were established between 1850 and 1899. As of 1987, there were about 540 liberal arts colleges in the United States.\n",
"Four-year institutions in the U.S. that emphasize a liberal arts curriculum are known as liberal arts colleges. Until the 20th century, liberal arts, law, medicine, theology, and divinity were about the only form of higher education available in the United States. These schools have traditionally emphasized instruction at the undergraduate level, although advanced research may still occur at these institutions.\n",
"Ronel B. Esquivel said only eight percent of colleges provide a liberal education to four percent of students in the United States. Liberal education revived three times in the United States during periods of industrialization and shifts of social preoccupations—before World War I, after World War II, and in the late 1970s—perhaps as a reaction against overspecialization in undergraduate curricula.\n",
"The decline of liberal education is often attributed to mobilization during the Second World War. The premium and emphasis placed upon mathematics, science, and technical training caused a shift away from a liberal concept of higher education studies. However, it became central to much undergraduate education in the United States in the mid-20th century, being conspicuous in the movement for 'general education'.\n",
"Interest in the liberal arts continued unabated, and the college offered its first degree programs in the liberal arts in 1971. By the 1974–75 school year, nearly 300 students were enrolled in liberal arts majors.\n",
"Liberal education and professional education have often been seen as divergent. German universities moved towards more professional teaching in the nineteenth century, and unlike American students, who still pursued a liberal education, students elsewhere started to take professional courses in the first or second year of study. In the early twentieth century, American liberal arts colleges still required students to pursue a common curriculum, whereas public universities allowed a student to move on to more pragmatic courses after having taken general education courses for the first two years of study. As an emphasis on specialized knowledge grew in the middle of the century, colleges began to adjust the proportion of required general education courses to those required for a particular major.\n",
"Many colleges provide such an education; some require it. The University of Chicago and Columbia University were among the first schools to require an extensive core curriculum in philosophy, literature, and the arts for all students. Other colleges with nationally recognized, mandatory programs in the liberal arts are Fordham University, St. John's College, Saint Anselm College and Providence College. Prominent proponents of liberal arts in the United States have included Mortimer J. Adler and E. D. Hirsch, Jr..\n"
] |
why can't i goto a doctor 2x a year and just get screened for every disease and eliminate the risk of cancer/etc? | Most tests for diseases are not 100% accurate. These tests normally don't detect the actual presence of a certain virus or bacteria, but test for certain enzymes or hormones that end up in your blood as a result of the infection. However there's always a chance these are in your bloodstream because of unrelated reasons.
Let's say a test is 99.99% accurate. That sounds pretty good, right? It means that there's only a false result in 1 of 10,000 tests. But what if one in a million people have the disease? That means only 1%, or 1 of every 100 "positive" results for this 99.99% accurate test will be a true positive. The rest will be mistakes, false positives. And often treatment for diseases can be harmful. While they're less harmful than the disease they're treating, which is why they're allowed to be administered, if you're being treated on an erroneous test result and you're actually healthy, that isn't good.
It's usually a combination of tests for diseases *plus* the presence of symptoms and other indicators that doctors use to make accurate diagnoses. | [
"The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended against PSA screening in healthy men finding that the potential risks outweigh the potential benefits. Guidelines from the American Urological Association, and the American Cancer Society recommend that men be informed of the risks and benefits of screening. The American Society of Clinical Oncology recommends screening be discouraged in those who are expected to live less than ten years, while in those with a life expectancy of greater than ten years a decision should be made by the person in question based on the potential risks and benefits. In general, they conclude that based on recent research, \"it is uncertain whether the benefits associated with PSA testing for prostate cancer screening are worth the harms associated with screening and subsequent unnecessary treatment.\" \n",
"BULLET::::- Whether early detection improves treatment outcomes: Even when treatment is available, sometimes early detection does not improve the outcome. If the treatment result is the same as if the screening had not been done, then the only screening program does is increase the length of time the person lived with the knowledge that he had cancer. This phenomenon is called lead-time bias. A useful screening program reduces the number of years of potential life lost (longer lives) and disability-adjusted life years lost (longer healthy lives).\n",
"Approximately one-third of men who choose active surveillance for early stage tumors eventually have signs of tumor progression, and they may need to begin treatment within three years. Men that choose active surveillance avoid the risks of surgery, radiation, and other treatments. The risk of disease progression and metastasis (spread of the cancer) may be increased, but this increase risk appears to be small if the program of surveillance is followed closely, generally including serial PSA assessments and repeat prostate biopsies every 1–2 years depending on the PSA trends.\n",
"Screening for cancer is controversial in cases when it is not yet known if the test actually saves lives. Screening can lead to substantial false positive result and subsequent invasive procedures. The controversy arises when it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. Cancer screening is not indicated unless life expectancy is greater than five years and the benefit is uncertain over the age of 70.\n",
"People with A–T have a highly increased incidence (approximately 25% lifetime risk) of cancers, particularly lymphomas and leukemia, but other cancers can occur. When possible, treatment should avoid the use of radiation therapy and chemotherapy drugs that work in a way that is similar to radiation therapy (radiomimetic drugs), as these are particularly toxic for people with A–T. The special problems of managing cancer are sufficiently complicated that treatment should be done only in academic oncology centers and after consultation with physicians who have specific expertise in A–T. Unfortunately, there is no way to predict which individuals will develop cancer. Because leukemia and lymphomas differ from solid tumors in not progressing from solitary to metastatic stages, there is less need to diagnose them early in their appearance. Surveillance for leukemia and lymphoma is thus not helpful, other than considering cancer as a diagnostic possibility whenever possible symptoms of cancer (e.g. persistent swollen lymph glands, unexplained fever) arise.\n",
"Guidelines generally recommend that the decisions whether or not to screen be based on shared decision-making. This involves men being informed of the risks and benefits of screening. The American Society of Clinical Oncology recommends screening be discouraged in those who are expected to live less than ten years, while in those with a life expectancy of greater than ten years a decision should be made by the person in question. In general, they conclude that based on recent research, \"it is uncertain whether the benefits associated with PSA testing for prostate cancer screening are worth the harms associated with screening and subsequent unnecessary treatment.\"\n",
"If people with a higher risk of a disease are more likely to be screened, for instance women with a family history of breast cancer are more likely than other women to join a mammography program, then a screening test will look worse than it really is: negative outcomes among the screened population will be higher than for a random sample.\n"
] |
why do you get really thirsty after eating chocolate/sweets? | Your body uses tons of water to regulate blood sugar. This is also why a night of binging on candy will make you «hung over» the next morning, you are really dehydrated | [
"The explorer Francisco Hernández wrote that chocolate drinks helped treat fever and liver disease. Another explorer, Santiago de Valverde Turices, believed that large amounts of hot chocolate were helpful in treating chest ailments and that smaller amounts could help stomach disorders. When chocolate was introduced to the French in the 17th century, it was reportedly used \"to fight against fits of anger and bad moods\", which may be attributed to chocolate's phenylethylamine content. Today, hot chocolate is consumed for pleasure rather than medicinally, but new research suggests that there may be other health benefits attributed to the drink.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Reduction of sugar intake: \"G. sylvestre\" extracts taken in the form of lozenges, mouthwash, or tea diminishes the consumption of sweet foods and overall caloric intake. Extracts (formulated as a mint lozenge) reduced the desire for high-sugar foods and the pleasant taste of candy. Research also suggests that \"Gymnema sylvestre\" extracts reduce cravings for sugar. In a double-blind study, participants who received a gymnemic acid lozenge declined candy (before tasting it) more often than the placebo group.\n",
"Chocolate may be a factor for heartburn in some people because one of its constituents, theobromine, may affect the esophageal sphincter muscle in a way that permits stomach acids to enter the esophagus. Theobromine poisoning is an overdosage reaction to the bitter alkaloid, which happens more frequently in domestic animals than humans. However, daily intake of 50–100 g cocoa (0.8–1.5 g theobromine) by humans has been associated with sweating, trembling and severe headache. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats.\n",
"Since sugar came to the Americas sometime after chocolate did, chocolate was said to have an acquired taste as it comes off as bitter without added sweetener. The Spaniards created a drink consisting of chocolate, vanilla, and other spices which was served chilled. This drink cannot be compared to modern-day hot chocolate as it was very spicy and bitter, contrasting with the modern notion of very sweet, warm chocolate.\n",
"In addition to sugar and fat, chocolate contains several substances that can make it feel \"addictive\". These include tryptophan, an essential amino acid that is a precursor to serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods; high serotonin levels can produce feelings of elation. Another is phenylethylamine, a neurotransmitter from which amphetamine is derived; phenylethylamine is nicknamed \"chocolate amphetamine\" and can cause feelings of excitement and attraction. Chocolate also contains caffeine.\n",
"On the contrary, some studies suggest that chocolate is an aphrodisiac and claim that its chemical components such as phenylethylamine, causes an increase in pleasure and sexual drive and N-acylethanolamines, causes an increase in sensitivity and euphoria (Afoakwa, E. 2008). Other studies suggest it is the flavinoids and serotonin found in chocolate that regulate vasoconstriction and dilation and increase female genital functioning, and thus sexual functioning (Shamloul, 2010).\n",
"In a 2008 study, participants who consumed one or more servings of chocolate on a daily basis had lower bone density and strength than those participants who ate a serving of chocolate six times a week or less. Researchers believe this may be due to oxalate inhibiting calcium absorption – but it could also be due to sugar content in chocolate, which may increase calcium excretion. It is clear however, that consuming foods high in oxalate – and in turn their effect on calcium absorption – is a more significant concern for people with oxalate kidney stones, which occur when there is too much oxalate in the urine. These people especially should reduce their oxalate intake and increase their calcium intake. However, the high magnesium content in chocolate is likely to reduce the risk of stone formation, because like citrate, magnesium is also an inhibitor of urinary crystal formation.\n"
] |
As an enthusiast of astrophysics, and one who is out of the loop, I would love to know about quantum fluctuations. | How do you know you have a "true" vacuum? You measure the energy of a region. But uncertainty in energy measurement forms a Heisenberg pair with uncertainty in time measurement. So if you want, you can kind of think about quantum fluctuations as imprecision in knowledge of energy over very small time scales. You can't be *perfectly* sure you have nothing. | [
"\"Quantum Night\" has received positive reviews. \"Publishers Weekly\" called it a \"fast-moving, mind-stretching exploration of the nature of personality and consciousness.\" \"Winnipeg Free Press\" described the book \"a breath of fresh air and a return to classic Sawyer: big ideas, relatable people and a Canadian perspective.\"\n",
"His books on astronomy and physics are aimed primarily at the popular market, including \"Quantum Theory Cannot Hurt You\", for which he was praised for \"expressing opaque concepts with a unique clarity\".\n",
"\"The Quantum World\" is the eleventh installment of the Symphony of Science series, released on September 6, 2011. It deals with the bizarre discoveries made in the field of quantum mechanics, through \"a musical investigation into the nature of atoms and subatomic particles.\" It features Morgan Freeman, Stephen Hawking, Michio Kaku, Brian Cox, Richard Feynman, and Frank Close. Programs sampled for this instalment include Richard Feynman's Fun to Imagine, Morgan Freeman's \"Through the Wormhole\", Brian Cox's TED Talk, along with BBC documentaries \"Visions of the Future\", \"What Time is it\", \"Wonders of the Universe\", and \"What Is Reality\". The refrain is sung by Cox:\n",
"The studies of the quantum optics group are focused on experimental verifications of fundamental quantum mechanics predictions. In particular, the Laboratory is especially interested in quantum metrology, quantum information and quantum key distribution studies. Modern quantum information experiments are performed using single optical photons as the so-called qubits.\n",
"High-energy astrophysical observations have the unique potential to explore fundamental physics. However, deriving fundamental physics from the astrophysical observations is complex and requires a deep understanding of the astrophysical sources. The astrophysics background must be understood in order to determine the deviations from this background due to new physics. In some cases, astronomers can help with the understanding of the astrophysical background, such as using supernovae as standard candles to measure dark energy. However, high-energy physicists will have to detect and explain high energy astrophysical phenomena in order to derive the fundamental physics. \n",
"Some easier to check predictions of quantum mechanics are the prediction of negative Wigner functions for certain quantum states, measurement precision beyond the standard quantum limit using squeezed states of light or the asymmetry of the sidebands in the spectrum of a cavity near the quantum ground state.\n",
"Experiments have generally favoured quantum mechanics as a description of nature, over local hidden variable theories. Any physical theory that supersedes or replaces quantum theory must make similar experimental predictions and must therefore also be nonlocal in this sense; quantum nonlocality is a property of the universe that is independent of our description of nature.\n"
] |
If you were locked up and only had access to 1 litre of water, how should you comsume it in order to survive the longest? | Before drinking any of it, store your urine if it's dilute. You're probably pretty hydrated already, so you'll be losing a lot of water through there. When your urine starts to get darker(Probably only after 1 piss), stop, and start drinking small amounts of water. Concentrated urine will be very bad for you, and is counter productive for quenching thirst. When you run out of water, drink the dilute urine. It'll give you a little more emergency water.
There's not really anything you can do. Your body has you covered though. As you get dehydrated you'll begin to release hormones like ADH to help you preserve more water.
But basically, there's no magic trick to make a litre of water last you over a week. Depending on heat you'll probably dehydrate in about 4 days, provided you were properly hydrated before you started. | [
"How by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under water. How and why I do not describe my method of remaining under water, or how long I can stay without eating; and I do not publish nor divulge these by reason of the evil nature of men who would use them as means of destruction at the bottom of the sea, by sending ships to the bottom, and sinking them together with the men in them. And although I will impart others, there is no danger in them; because the mouth of the tube, by which you breathe, is above the water supported on bags of corks.\n",
"In addition, there have been instances of ice bathing as an extreme bodily test by persons vying for an endurance record, such as Dutch \"Iceman\" Wim Hof, and Chinese record-holders Chen Kecai and Jin Songhao. According to reports, doctors and scientists are studying how these people can spend an hour and a half submerged in an ice bath, and survive; for almost all humans, such tasks are impossible.\n",
"A human being can survive an average of three to five days without the intake of water. The issues presented by the need for water dictate that unnecessary water loss by perspiration be avoided in survival situations. The need for water increases with exercise.Since the human body is composed of up to 78% water, it should be no surprise that water is higher on the list than fire or food. Ideally, a person should drink about a gallon of water per day. Many lost persons perish due to dehydration, and/or the debilitating effects of water-born pathogens from untreated water.\n",
"To get the longest life from a reed, the reed should be soaked in water for two minutes or until fully moist, but not soaked. It should be played for about five minutes the first day, 15 minutes the second, and 45 minutes the third. After this, it should continue to be soaked, but can be played as long as needed.\n",
"Johnson's \"Water cell\" stunt requires her to hold her breath while she picks a series of locks that fasten chains and secure the lid of the cell. She averages 2 minutes and 48 seconds underwater on one breath, however she has occasionally taken up to 3 minutes and 18 seconds to free herself. The longest time she has ever held her breath is 5 minutes and 2 seconds. She ends her shows with this escape and has performed it as often as 30 times in ten days. She offers a $10,000 challenge to anyone who can prove that she takes a second breath, uses an underwater breathing apparatus or a key once she has dropped below the water. Wayne N. Kawamoto from \"About: magic\" has written: \"Her escape was the most dramatic and involving that I have ever witnessed. Johnson set a high bar for the other performers that will be difficult to match.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Robert Foster, 32, set a record for holding his breath, remaining underwater for 13 minutes, 42.5 seconds (13:42.5), at San Rafael, California The record stood for 48 years, until broken by Arvydas and Diana Gaiciunas in Druskininkai, Lithuania, on June 16, 2007, at almost 16 minutes (15:58). Both Foster and the Gaiciunas siblings hyperventilated with pure oxygen beforehand in order to drive carbon dioxide from their lungs. The recognized record without such preparations is 11 minutes, 35 seconds, by freediver Stéphane Mifsud on June 8, 2009\n",
"In this challenge all teams were locked in a mini jail cell, and they had to make a long wooden pole and retrieve the keys. They had 2 minutes to retrieve the keys, and if they get the right one they will get out, but if they don't they will get soaked.\n"
] |
a bill was passed to remove internet privacy regulations today , what does that mean really ? | Basically, now American ISPs can sell the data they collect from you to advertisers without your permission. | [
"This case established the right to privacy of internet users and guaranteed the protection of basic rights while on the internet. It was established that the government does not have oversight or authority over the internet and thus cannot necessarily make mandates for it.\n",
"The Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) of 1986 was passed by Congress in an effort to start creating a legal structure for privacy protections in the face of new forms of technologies, although it was by no means comprehensive because there are considerations for current technologies that Congress never imagined in 1986 and could account for. The EPCA does little to regulate ISPs and mainly prevents government agencies from gathering information stored by ISPs without a warrant. What the EPCA does not do, unsurprisingly because it was enacted before internet usage became a common occurrence, is say anything about search engine privacy and the protections users are afforded in terms of their search queries.\n",
"The purpose of the Consumer Privacy Bill of Rights is to deter Internet companies from indiscriminate collection of personal information for targeted ads. In response, The Internet companies such as Mozilla, Google, Microsoft, Yahoo!, and AOL promised to provide a \"do not track\" mechanism so that customers can choose whether they want to participate in online behavioral advertising or not. However, the guideline has its limitation that it is not enforceable. The Obama Administration encouraged the United States Congress to grant the Federal Trade Commission the authority to enforce each element of the statutory Consumer Privacy Bill of Rights. Once enacted, Internet companies infringing upon the rights put forth in these guidelines could suffer sanctions from the FTC.\n",
"On March 7, 2017, Flake introduced a bill to eliminate FCC Internet privacy rules that were passed under President Barack Obama. His proposed bill would allow Internet service providers to share and sell consumers' browsing history without consent. In regards to Obama's FCC Internet Privacy rules, Flake stated that \"It is unnecessary, confusing and adds yet another innovation-stifling regulation to the Internet.\" Flake received $22,700 in donations from paid lobbyists representing Internet service providers and tech firms to sponsor the anti-privacy legislation. In April 2017, the legislation passed both houses of Congress, which are Republican-controlled, allowing ISPs to sell consumer browsing history and other information without the user's consent. One constituent at a town-hall meeting told Flake that \"You sold my privacy up the river.\"\n",
"The United States does not have a specific federal regulation establishing universal implementation of privacy policies. Congress has, at times, considered comprehensive laws regulating the collection of information online, such as the Consumer Internet Privacy Enhancement Act and the Online Privacy Protection Act of 2001, but none have been enacted. In 2001, the FTC stated an express preference for \"more law enforcement, not more laws\" and promoted continued focus on industry self-regulation.\n",
"The law was criticized for encroaching on personal freedoms and liberties, in particular, accessing phone and Internet data without a signed warrant from a judicial authority. \"Internet surveillance has now escaped from any legal proceedings to be placed under the direct control of the state,\" criticized \"Le Monde.\"\n",
"Senators John Kerry and John McCain announced a bipartisan Commercial Privacy Bill of Rights, the United States' \"first comprehensive privacy law\", during a press conference on April 12, 2011. The purpose of this bill, which prescribed consumer privacy rights, was to establish a regulatory framework for the comprehensive protection of personal data for individuals. It mandated that websites collecting user information:\n"
] |
why are some classical compositions titled like standard songs (moonlight sonata) and some are... not (overture no. 2 in b minor) | The 'modern' names are often added *after the fact*, and usually have nothing to do with the actual composer.
For example, the "Moonlight Sonata" **isn't** really called the "Moonlight Sonata" at all. It's official name is "Piano Sonata No. 14 in C# Minor. Opus 27, No 2".
5 years after Beethoven died, a German poet thought it was reminiscent of moonlight shining on rippling water, so he named it that way, and - because it was catchy - it stuck. | [
"Sonatas, duos and fantasies by Franz Schubert include all works for solo piano by Franz Schubert, except separate dances. They also include a number of works for two players: piano four hands, or piano and a string instrument (violin, arpeggione).\n",
"The three sonatas are cyclically interconnected by diverse structural, harmonic and melodic elements tying together all movements in each sonata, as well as all three sonatas together; consequently, they are often regarded as a trilogy. They also contain specific allusions and similarities to other Schubert compositions, such as his \"Winterreise\" song cycle; these connections point to turbulent emotions expressed in the sonatas, often understood as highly personal and autobiographical. Indeed, some researchers have suggested specific psychological narratives for the sonatas, based on historical evidence concerning the composer's life.\n",
"Note that in Schubert's lifetime \"Fantasie\" (Fantasy) and \"Sonate\" (Sonata) had a somewhat overlapping meaning: by convention the \"Wanderer Fantasy\" was never numbered as a sonata, while , first published as a Fantasie, always was.\n",
"In Classical music, however, it appears in much the same places as the other variants, though perhaps less often because of the contrapuntal difficulties outlined below. It appears frequently in the works of Beethoven, and in ragtime music. The German sixth chord is enharmonically equivalent to a dominant seventh chord though it functions differently.\n",
"Among Schubert's symphonies there are several sketches for a symphony in D major. In the first edition of the Deutsch catalogue, these were grouped under , apart from the early . Apart from the completed Third Symphony, D 200, there appear to be at least four independent sets of sketches for a symphonic work in that key:\n",
"Schubert's three last sonatas have many structural features in common. D. 958 can be considered the odd one of the group, with several differences from the remarkably similar structure of D. 959 and D. 960. First, it is in a minor key, and this is the primary departure that determines its other differences from its companions. Accordingly, the major/minor scheme is alternated, with main material being minor, and digressions and the slow movement set in the major. Its opening Allegro is considerably more concise than those of the other two sonatas and does not make use of the expansive time-dilating modulatory quasi-development passages that so strongly characterize the other two opening movements. Furthermore, its slow movement follows an ABABA form instead of the ABA form of the other two sonatas. Its third movement, instead of a scherzo, is a slightly less lively, more subdued minuet. Finally, the finale is in a sonata form rather than rondo-sonata form. \n",
"The sonatas have been performed and recorded by numerous pianists. Many, especially the devoted Schubert performers, have recorded the entire sonata trilogy (and often all of Schubert's sonatas or his entire piano repertoire altogether). Others have sufficed with only one or two of the sonatas. Of the three sonatas, the last (in B) is the most famous and most often recorded. The following is an incomplete list of pianists who have made notable commercial recordings of the sonata trilogy, in full or in part:\n"
] |
For Americans in WWII, did your geographic location determine which front you were sent to? For example, were Californians sent to the Pacific while New Yorkers sent to Europe? | Nisei (American of Japanese heritage) were regularly deployed to the European theater out of a fear that the troops would turn against the U.S. if deployed in the Pacific. While National Guard units were often kept together, everything else would routinely be pulled from all over the country. | [
"Following the outbreak of the Pacific War, the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals and Japanese American citizens be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to imprison the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese and American citizenship living in California. On February 11, 1942 Roosevelt met with Secretary of War Stimson, who persuaded him to approve an immediate forced evacuation. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; the Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code-breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after Pearl Harbor. These MAGIC cables were kept secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt, lest the Japanese discover the decryption and change their code. On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which ordered Secretary of War, and military commanders to designate military areas \"from which any or all persons may be excluded.\" Roosevelt released the imprisoned Japanese in 1944. On February 1, 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team—a unit composed mostly of American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii, he said, \"No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry.\"\n",
"Taking a southerly route to avoid the Japanese Navy, they arrived in southern Australia at Port Adelaide on 14 May 1942, having traveled in 23 days. They were the first American division in World War II to be moved in a single convoy from the United States to the front lines.\n",
"The Pacific Theatre of Operations (PTO) is the term used in the United States for all military activity between the Allies and Japan, from 1937 to 1945, in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it, during World War II. Three units of mostly Hispanic Americans served in the Pacific Theatre battlefields: the 200th Coast Artillery and the 515th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalions from New Mexico, whose members participated in the infamous Bataan Death March, and the 158th Regimental Combat Team from Arizona.\n",
"WACs also served overseas, and close to the front lines. During the invasion of Italy by the U.S. Fifth Army under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, a 60-woman platoon served in the advance headquarters, sometimes only a few miles from the front lines; and in the south Pacific WACs moved into Manila, Philippines only three days after occupation. By V-J Day, one fifth had served overseas.\n",
"Army units in the Pacific included the US 978th Signal Company based at the Allied Intelligence Bureau's secret \"Camp X\", near Beaudesert, Queensland south of Brisbane. This unit was a key part of operations behind Japanese lines, including communicating with guerillas and the Coastwatcher organization. It also sent radio operators to the guerillas, and then moved with the forces invading the Philippines.\n",
"After the war in Europe ended with the port shifting from sending troops overseas to receiving troops arriving home General Groninger was transferred to command the San Francisco Port of Embarkation. The priority was direct transfer of troops from Europe to the Pacific, but a significant portion were to be returned to the United States where some would be given leave, some processed out of service and others would head to the Pacific. The unexpectedly quick end of the Pacific war, with return of troops and even the remains of those killed rather than redeployment becoming the focus, greater traffic burdens than during the war itself became the problem. The ports had the responsibility to process units for inactivation and on 11 April 1945 a conference was held at NYPOE concerning the major adjustments Atlantic area ports would be required to make.\n",
"By May 1944, 1.5 million American troops had arrived in the United Kingdom. Most were housed in temporary camps in the south-west of England, ready to move across the Channel to the western section of the landing zone. British and Canadian troops were billeted in accommodation further east, spread from Southampton to Newhaven, and even on the east coast for men who would be coming across in later waves. A complex system called Movement Control assured that the men and vehicles left on schedule from twenty departure points. Some men had to board their craft nearly a week before departure. The ships met at a rendezvous point (nicknamed \"Piccadilly Circus\") south-east of the Isle of Wight to assemble into convoys to cross the Channel. Minesweepers began clearing lanes on the evening of 5 June, and a thousand bombers left before dawn to attack the coastal defences. Some 1,200 aircraft departed England just before midnight to transport three airborne divisions to their drop zones behind enemy lines several hours before the beach landings. The American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were assigned objectives on the Cotentin Peninsula west of Utah. The British 6th Airborne Division was assigned to capture intact the bridges over the Caen Canal and River Orne. The Free French 4th SAS battalion of 538 men was assigned objectives in Brittany (Operation Dingson, Operation Samwest). Some 132,000 men were transported by sea on D-Day, and a further 24,000 came by air. Preliminary naval bombardment commenced at 05:45 and continued until 06:25 from five battleships, twenty cruisers, sixty-five destroyers, and two monitors. Infantry began arriving on the beaches at around 06:30.\n"
] |
What animals have an Amygdala? | All vertebrates have roughly the same set of cortical organs, and many vertebrate brain structures have homologs in invertebrates.
The harder part of answering your question is what you mean by "larger." This gets into very complicated comparative anatomy. Do you mean "has more cells," "has more mass," "has more connections," "has more influence on brain processing?" or something else?
For most animals the answer will be "we don't know," good comparative brain anatomy between species is rare, and has been completed for very few species. | [
"The amygdala (; plural: amygdalae; also \"corpus amygdaloideum\"; Latin from Greek, , \"\", 'Almond', 'tonsil') is one of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making and emotional responses (including fear, anxiety, and aggression), the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system.\n",
"The amygdala is a complex structure that has an important role in visual encoding. It accepts visual input in addition to input from other systems and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli.\n",
"The amygdala is an almond-shaped group of nuclei found deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain. Known to be the area of the brain responsible for emotional reaction, but plays an important role in processing of memory and decision making as well. It is part of the limbic system. The amygdala projects to various structures in the brain including the hypothalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, and more.\n",
"The amygdala appears to have a specific role in attention to emotional stimuli. The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped region within the anterior part of the temporal lobe. Several studies of non-human primates and of patients with amygdala lesions, in addition to studies employing functional neuroimaging techniques, have demonstrated the importance of the amygdala in face and eye-gaze identification. Other studies have emphasized the importance of the amygdala for the identification of emotional expressions displayed by others, in particular threat-related emotions such as fear, but also sadness and happiness. In addition, the amygdala is involved in the response to non-facial displays of emotion, including unpleasant auditory, olfactory and gustatory stimuli, and in memory for emotional information. The amygdala receives information from both the thalamus and the cortex; information from the thalamus is rough in detail and the amygdala receives this very quickly, while information from the cortex is much more detailed but is received more slowly. In addition, the amygdala's role in attention modulation toward emotion-specific stimuli may occur via projections from the central nucleus of the amygdala to cholinergic neurons, which lower cortical neuronal activation thresholds and potentiate cortical information processing.\n",
"There is growing body of tentative evidence indicating the amygdala's involvement in the development of autism. The focuses on the importance of the amygdala in relation to social functioning and observes that autism is largely a severe impairment of social functioning. The amygdala is thought to be associated with the fight or flight response in animals and its activity is heavily correlated with fear in humans. Additionally it has been heavily implicated in relation to social functioning in various animal studies. Evidence suggests an amygdala hyperactivity model may be more accurate than one comparing it to a lesion.\n",
"Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters, while lesions of an evolutionarily homologous area in the lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006). In rhesus monkeys, neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear. Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuity within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression. The role of the amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses.\n",
"The regions described as amygdala nuclei encompass several structures with distinct connectional and functional characteristics in humans and other animals. Among these nuclei are the basolateral complex, the cortical nucleus, the medial nucleus, and the central nucleus. The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral, the basal, and the accessory basal nuclei.\n"
] |
What causes sunscreen to lose potency over time after application? | It has always been my understanding that over time it is washed off or worn away by water/sweat/rubbing (like wiping your eyes to get water off takes a little sunscreen with it).
My dad (the protective doctor) has always recommended re application every 3-4 hours if you are just outdoors and every 2 hours when swimming. Also allow 15 minutes for sunscreen to dry before swimming (duh). | [
"The principal active ingredients in sunscreens are usually aromatic molecules conjugated with carbonyl groups. This general structure allows the molecule to absorb high-energy ultraviolet rays and release the energy as lower-energy rays, thereby preventing the skin-damaging ultraviolet rays from reaching the skin. So, upon exposure to UV light, most of the ingredients (with the notable exception of avobenzone) do not undergo significant chemical change, allowing these ingredients to retain the UV-absorbing potency without significant photodegradation. A chemical stabilizer is included in some sunscreens containing avobenzone to slow its breakdown; examples include formulations containing. The stability of avobenzone can also be improved by bemotrizinol, octocrylene and various other photostabilisers. Most organic compounds in sunscreens slowly degrade and become less effective over the course of several years if stored properly, resulting in the expiration dates calculated for the product.\n",
"The photochemical properties of melanin make it an excellent photoprotectant. However, sunscreen chemicals cannot dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently as melanin and therefore, if sunscreen ingredients penetrate into the lower layers of the skin, the amount of reactive oxygen species may be increased. The amount of sunscreen that penetrates through the stratum corneum may or may not be large enough to cause damage.\n",
"Sunscreen appears to be effective in preventing melanoma. In the past, use of sunscreens with a sun protection factor (SPF) rating of 50 or higher on exposed areas were recommended; as older sunscreens more effectively blocked UVA with higher SPF. Currently, newer sunscreen ingredients (avobenzone, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide) effectively block both UVA and UVB even at lower SPFs. Sunscreen also protects against squamous cell carcinoma, another skin cancer.\n",
"Since sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light and prevents it from reaching the skin, it will prevent tanning. It has been reported that sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum can decrease vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95 percent, whereas sunscreen with an SPF of 15 can reduce synthetic capacity by 98 percent.\n",
"Common side effects are peeling, itching, redness, dryness, burning, and dermatitis. Benzoyl peroxide bleaches hair, clothes, towels, bedclothing, and the like. Prolonged exposure to natural or artificial sun light (UV rays) is not recommended because the gel may cause photosensitivity. Irritation due to benzoyl peroxide can be reduced by avoiding harsh facial cleansers and wearing sunscreen prior to sun exposure.\n",
"The cosmetic industry claims that the UV filter acts as an \"artificial melanin\". But those artificial substances used in sunscreens do not efficiently dissipate the energy of the UV photon as heat. Instead these substances have a very long excited state lifetime. In fact, the substances used in sunscreens are often used as photosensitizers in chemical reactions. (see Benzophenone).\n",
"BULLET::::- Claims that many commercial brands of sunscreen increase, rather than decrease, the likelihood of contracting skin cancer with high UV exposure, and instead advocating the use of natural sunscreens, some of which he markets on his website. This view is not held by mainstream medical science; in 2011, the National Toxicology Program stated that \"Protection against photodamage by use of broad-spectrum sunscreens is well-documented as an effective means of reducing total lifetime UV dose and, thereby, preventing or ameliorating the effects of UV radiation on both the appearance and biomechanical properties of the skin.\"\n"
] |
how do astronauts travel between the earth and the iss? | Currently only the Russian Soyuz spacecraft transport astronauts to and from the ISS (Prior to 2011 the Space Shuttle also fulfilled this role for the US, and in the next few years SpaceX and Boeing will provide US with manned spaceflight capabilities again.) The Soyuz carries up to 3 astronauts to the ISS, and is onlt used once. After launch, it docks to the space station and stays there while the astronauts complete their roughly 6 month stay.
When it's time to come home, they board the same Soyuz that brought them to the station and return to Earth. Only one of the three modules of the spacecraft land with the astronauts as it's the only part with the heat shield; the other 2 burn up in the atmosphere. Once the capsule has landed back on Earth, its job is over and isn't used again. | [
"The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the \"Zvezda\" module or visiting spacecraft. It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes orbits per day.\n",
"Russia and China have human spaceflight capability with the Soyuz program and Shenzhou program. In the United States, SpaceShipTwo reached the edge of space in 2018; this was the first crewed spaceflight from the USA since the Space Shuttle retired in 2011. Currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use Soyuz vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate domestic access to ISS and low Earth orbit, as well as the Orion vehicle for beyond-low-Earth-orbit applications.\n",
"The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest artificial body in orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The ISS consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets as well as American Space Shuttles.\n",
"NASA's Space Shuttle, officially called \"Space Transportation System\" (STS), is the United States government's most recent crewed launch vehicle and was retired from service in 2011. The winged Space Shuttle orbiter was launched vertically, usually carrying five to seven astronauts (although eight have been carried) and up to 50,000 lb (22 700 kg) of payload into low earth orbit. When its mission is complete, the shuttle can independently move itself out of orbit (by means of making a 180-degree turn and firing its main engines, thus slowing it down) and re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. During descent and landing, the orbiter acts as a glider and makes a completely unpowered landing.\n",
"Following the conclusion of the Space Shuttle program, Russian spacecraft are now the only means by which astronauts can travel to the International Space Station, making Baikonur the sole launch site used for manned missions to the International Space Station.\n",
"The Space Shuttle, part of the Space Transportation System (STS), is a spacecraft operated by NASA for orbital human spaceflight missions. It carries payloads to low Earth orbit, provides crew rotation for the International Space Station (ISS), and performs servicing missions. The orbiter can also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return them to Earth. In 1981, NASA successfully launched its reusable spacecraft called the Space Shuttle. George Mueller, an American from St. Louis, Missouri is widely credited for jump starting, designing, and overseeing the Space Shuttle program after the demise of the Apollo program in 1972.\n",
"The orbital path of the ISS travels over the regions of Earth that contain more than 90 percent of the Earth's population, giving scientists a unique view of our planet. In addition to the view, the ISS also provides better spatial resolution and variable lighting conditions as compared with other satellites used for Earth observation. These new technologies are advancing studies in agriculture, water quality, natural resources, atmospheric monitoring and maritime tracking.\n"
] |
Artisans in the early middle ages | Military equipment crafting is definitely something that didn't die out because of the necessity, even in places like Britain where civilian production of what was previously common items like wheeled pottery disappeared. The increasing militarization of society in all levels in Europe and the needs of the social economy dictated the survival of particular crafted goods. The need for elites to provide for the defense of themselves and their warbands/retinues never declined though the need for say, monumental building construction did.
A rough contemporary analogy can be made with Afghanistan in the aftermath of its civil wars but before the US invasion, in that there were still workshops producing and repairing AK-47s (on a rather crude but functional basis) even though they weren't manufacturing much else as a primarily agrarian economy.
However for other artisanal manufacturing, the question is still up in the air. For example, the restart of church construction in Italy in the 8th century points to a surviving artisan community which could furnish those churches with mosaics, light fixtures, decorative work, as well the knowledge of how to build new churches in stone (most new buildings were built out of wood at this time in Italy). However the more than 100 year gap between new church construction raises the question of how exactly those artisans survived that dormancy. One possibility being they may have been imported from the eastern empire, or they may have come from merovingian france, but those are just possibilities. No one is quite sure who those artisans were or where they were from, whether they were in fact local or foreign.
tl;dr - Don't assume technological decline was uniform in all things. The skills that were needed by the society of that day flourished. Those that weren't, withered.
Sources:
* Christie, Neil. The Lombards: The Ancient Longobards. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1995.
* Ward-Perkins, Bryan. The Fall of Rome: And the End of Civilization. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005. | [
"In the Middle Ages, Vianden's craftsmen were recognised for their skills as tanners, drapers, weavers, barrelmakers, masons, locksmiths and goldsmiths. In 1490, they created guilds for their various trades. Over the years pig-farming and leathermaking became the major industry with the establishment of two tanneries at the end of the 19th century which finally closed in the mid-1950s.\n",
"Evidence for other medieval industries—tanning and the working of horn, bone, and bronze—has come to light in archaeological excavations. Cloth-finishing was the most important industry in the 16th century. In the late 18th century, the cloth industry declined and in the 19th century the area was occupied by iron foundries, corn mills, and breweries.\n",
"During the Medieval Period, Lahij became an important centre of craftsmen in Azerbaijan. Lahij master craftsmen could create forty types of items related to Folk Art. These skilled craftsmen included jewelers, blacksmiths, carpenters, carpet makers, engravers, painters, tanners, shoemakers and bast shoe makers, sock weavers and others. Many valuable examples of the products of these skills are exhibited in famous museums and collections.\n",
"During the Middle Ages, the term \"artisan\" was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers. Artisans were divided into two distinct groups: those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen and apprentices. One misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as \"workers\" in the modern sense: employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners. The owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Conceptualizing Labor in the Middle Ages,\" \"The Middle Ages at Work: Practicing Labor in Late Medieval England\". Ed. Kellie Robertson & Michael Uebel. New York: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2004. 1-15.\n",
"In medieval cities, craftsmen tended to form associations based on their trades, confraternities of textile workers, masons, carpenters, carvers, glass workers, each of whom controlled secrets of traditionally imparted technology, the \"arts\" or \"mysteries\" of their crafts. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices.\n",
"The Middle Ages was a period that spanned approximately 1000 years and is normally restricted to Europe and the Byzantine Empire. The material remains we have from that time, including jewelry, can vary greatly depending on the place and time of their creation, especially as Christianity discouraged the burial of jewellery as grave goods, except for royalty and important clerics, who were often buried in their best clothes and wearing jewels. The main material used for jewellery design in antiquity and leading into the Middle Ages was gold. Many different techniques were used to create working surfaces and add decoration to those surfaces to produce the jewellery, including soldering, plating and gilding, repoussé, chasing, inlay, enamelling, filigree and granulation, stamping, striking and casting. Major stylistic phases include barbarian, Byzantine, Carolingian and Ottonian, Viking, and the Late Middle Ages, when Western European styles became relatively similar.\n"
] |
what happens to old crinkly dollar bills? | Stores will send them to a bank. Then that bank will give old and damaged bills/coins to the mint/bill printing place. The coins and bills will get destroyed and new one will be made to replace them. | [
"After his wife's death, Juettner had limited financial means. In 1938, Juettner began using ten to twelve homemade counterfeited bills a week in select stores in the neighborhoods of Manhattan. Over the following ten years, Juettner continued to use his counterfeited bills sparingly, never repeating storefronts or tenders. The bills were always poorly made on cheap paper and included details such as Washington being spelled \"Wasihngton.\"\n",
"A Ghanaian native caught perpetrating the scam revealed to ABC News Chief Investigative Correspondent Brian Ross the tricks of the trade. Authentic hundred US dollar bills are coated with a protective layer of glue, and then dipped into a solution of tincture of iodine. The bill, when dried, looks and feels like black sugar paper. The mass of notes are real sugar paper; when the victim picks a \"note\" for cleaning, it is switched with the iodine coated note. The \"magic cleaning solution\" is actually crushed Vitamin C tablets dissolved in water. In another arrest, ordinary raspberry drink mix was found to be the \"magic cleaning solution\".\n",
"In Canada, a phenomenon of defacing obsolete $5 dollar bills of 19th century Canadian Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier was common, as Laurier's facial features on the old paper $5 bills seemed to resemble Spock, especially as a tribute to Leonard Nimoy after his death. This fad was referred to as ' Spocking 5's.\n",
"The media reported various complaints about the banknotes, including that new banknotes stuck together, some vending machines did not recognize or accept them, and that they may melt when exposed to high heat. An individual will be reimbursed for a damaged banknote only if the banknote's serial number is known. A report by the Calgary Herald based on an informal survey it conducted in 2013 stated that Calgarians complained about the \"same old faces, and the same old colours\".\n",
"He became impossible to track down, since the bills were low profile and were used so rarely in new places each time. In 1948, the counterfeiting came to an end. After a fire in his apartment building, Juettner decided to throw out his destroyed counterfeiting materials into the street. Once snowfall came, the materials were effectively hidden. Later on, a group of children found several of Juettner's $1 bills and took them to their parents. The parents subsequently reported the found bills to the Secret Service. Upon arrival to his apartment, the old man was arrested.\n",
"BULLET::::- A great number of people's \"pockets will be weighted down with heavy change instead of having a few bills tucked into their billfolds . . . one might suspect a conspiracy by clothing manufacturers in drafting the dollar coin proposal, as everyone's pockets begin to wear out.\"\n",
"A series of counterfeit United States dollar bills have been traced to an unlikely source – the Reverend Joseph Shepherd, vicar at the rural St David's Church. WIN's suspicions are raised, and in the days leading up to Christmas Professor McClaine, Sam Loover and Joe 90 are dispatched to the neighbouring village to investigate. Equipped with the brain pattern of a World Bank vice president, Joe determines that the bills were printed within the last two weeks, even though the last official printing was 17 years ago and the plates were subsequently destroyed in a fire. The trio decide to confront the Reverend, who appears to be half-deaf, at his vicarage. There, the suspect amazes the WIN agents by identifying the make of Loover's gun based on nothing more than the click of its safety catch.\n"
] |
why do companies like verizon work so hard to limit customers internet usage? | Money. They don’t want to invest in infrastructure so they throttle customers to save costs. | [
"AT&T joined the group because HomeRF was designed for high-speed broadband services and the need to support PCs, phones, stereos and televisions; but last-mile deployment occurred more slowly than expected and with slower speeds. So it was natural that the home networking market focused more on multi-PC households sharing Internet connections for email and browsing than on integrating phone and entertainment services into a broadband service bundle. As a result, the original promoter companies gradually started pulling out of the group rather than supporting multiple standards. They included IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Compaq, Microsoft, and lastly Intel. That left only companies like Motorola, National Semiconductor, Proxim, and Siemens. Even Proxim started pulling away when negative media surrounding HomeRF started affecting its core data networking business, and that left Siemens to do the work of integrating voice, data and video. Siemens was willing to go it alone with HomeRF technology but was concerned by growing uncertainties in the cordless phone market, including mobile phone as home phone, VoIP over Wi-Fi, and 5 GHz vs. 2.4 GHz. When Siemens eventually got out of the cordless phone market, it was the final nail in the HomeRF coffin.\n",
"Many cyber cafés have expanded as Local Service Providers (LSPs) as a way to make use of their idle (out of business hours) bandwidth. Because the root problem of scarce bandwidth remains, LSP subscribers continue to suffer from slow connections and inadequate bandwidth (96-128 kbit/s on average). A general complaint of customers and internet users is that such subscriptions are good for nothing except for surfing rich-text and images over the web. The younger internet users in the urban areas have started to familiarize themselves with other more data demanding internet applications and usage. But streaming applications fail to work over low bandwidth. Games, voice, video-conferencing and the like also suffer from latency issues. Further, these LSPs are known to forcefully cache web resources (transparent proxies) and to aggressively block traffic related to the following applications in order to save bandwidth: Windows update, TeamViewer and similar remote assistance applications, Torrent trackers and other P2P ports/patterns, voice/video applications which mostly make use of P2P architecture, online gaming and just about anything else except WWW. Some LSPs generally block all ports except HTTP/HTTPS. Bandwidth/latency benchmarking sites including SpeedTest.net are blocked to stop customers from complaining about their share of bandwidth.\n",
"AT&T and other long-distance carriers have in some cases attempted to avoid these costs by blocking their customers from calling the phone numbers of traffic-pumping services. However, the FCC has forbidden common carriers from this kind of selective blocking, and so the long-distance carriers are essentially obligated to complete these calls.\n",
"Many believed the CRTC's ruling on a proposed usage-based billing model would have put in place protectionist measures for large telecommunications companies such as Bell Canada and Rogers Cable to compete in the Internet market. ISPs claimed that many customers transfer a lot of data through their Internet connections due to the explosion of high-definition video streaming options (e.g. YouTube, Netflix, the websites of TV networks, etc.), which placed a strain on their networks. Experts have argued that this is not a valid reason to implement a pay-as-you-go style system to cover costs as each ISP has enough network infrastructure to handle each customer maximizing their bandwidth rate per second simultaneously, and each gigabyte of bandwidth used per customer has a cost as low as $0.03 CAD according to Teksavvy, a third-party ISP. This regulatory change was very negatively received by the public, as over 460,000 signatures were gathered by OpenMedia.ca, which protested the decision. All three major political parties in Canada spoke out against the ruling. Implementation was delayed by the CRTC, pending further review. As noted above, in November 2011 the CRTC adopted wholesale billing options that gives independent ISPs the flexibility to create their own service plans and set rates for their customers.\n",
"When Cable and Telephone operators wished to have themselves exempted from the competitive requirements of the Telecommunications Act, they pressured the FCC to declare that Internet was not a telecommunications service, which it did in 2002. With this ruling, Telephone companies could give their own in-house operations pricing advantages over outside competitors, who frequently would be offered line access at double the rate for high speed internet services on the same line. Telephone companies such as AT&T also require that customers of third party ISPs purchase AT&T branded landline services in order to provide DSL. Cable companies, on the other hand, offered no access at all to their data lines. These policies would be illegal if Internet were ruled a Telecommunications Service, and telephone companies were forced to act as Common Carriers.\n",
"Large telecommunications providers such as AT&T, Embarq (formerly Sprint), Verizon and other large to medium conferencing service providers maintain a dominant position in the conferencing niche; servicing many of the world's biggest brands. However, the Internet and improved global VoIP networks have helped to significantly reduce the barrier of entry into this niche.\n",
"The protection of existing economic interests is sometimes the motivation for blocking new Internet services such as low-cost telephone services that use Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). These services can reduce the customer base of telecommunications companies, many of which enjoy entrenched monopoly positions and some of which are government sponsored or controlled.\n"
] |
the difference between shifting gears on an automatic and on a manual. bonus: how does it relate to bicycle gears? | For automatic, going faster makes the car automatically increase gears. In manual, you increase it yourself with a gearstick as you get higher revs.
The main advantage of automatic is you only have to focus on the road really, not gear switching(althougha fter a few months of manual driving the gear changing is second nature). The main advantage of manual is that you get to decide the power of the car. This is where bike gears come in.
You know how when you ride your bike uphill, you want a lower gear? That's because lower gears have a lot more power. Forcing yourself uphill in 2nd gear is way, way easier than forcing yourself uphill in 5th gear. Similarly, holding down the accelerator in a car while you're in second gear will give you a significantly faster acceleration than when you're in third gear at the same speed. In the automatic car, the acceleration speed is pretty much fixed. In a manual, you can, for example, stay in third gear during a 20MPH zone, very rapidly accelerate to 55MPH to match traffic, then pop it in fifth to coast. You don't get that control in an automatic. | [
"Manual transmissions have generally offered a wider selection of gear ratios. Many vehicles offer a 5-speed or 6-speed manual, whereas the automatic option would typically be a 4-speed. This is generally due to the increased space available inside a manual transmission compared with an automatic, since the latter requires extra components for self-shifting, such as torque converters and pumps. However, automatic transmissions are now adding more speeds as the technology matures. ZF currently manufactures 7- and 8-speed automatic transmissions. ZF is also planning a 9-speed automatic for use in front-wheel drive vehicles. The increased number of gears allows for better use of the engine's power band, resulting in increased fuel economy by staying in the most fuel-efficient part of the power band, or higher performance, thereby remaining closer to the engine's peak power rating. Even with more forward speeds and the potential of designing more forward gears to offer higher speed and/or torque, the manual transmission remains smaller and much more compact than its larger, automatic cousin, as referenced by the 991 Generation of the Porsche 911 and the C7 Chevrolet Corvette, which offer a 7-speed manual transmission.\n",
"This arrangement is also sometimes known as a direct shift gearbox or powershift gearbox. It seeks to combine the advantages of a conventional manual shift with the qualities of a modern automatic transmission by providing different clutches for odd and even speed selector gears. When changing gear, the engine torque is transferred from one gear to the other continuously, so providing gentle, smooth gear changes without either losing power or jerking the vehicle. Gear selection may be manual, automatic (depending on throttle/speed sensors), or a 'sports' version combining both options.\n",
"An automatic transmission's main focus is smooth shifting between gears. To accomplish this it often goes into two gears at once while shifting up, which is known as a shift overlap. In these cars, it is a kit that can reduce or eliminate the shift overlap. It will also reduce wear because the transmission won't be trying to drive in two gears at once.\n",
"The name Self-Changing Gears is sometimes confusing: the gearboxes are not fully automatic, \"selection\" of gear ratio remains a manual choice, but the gear-changing and any clutch control needed is automated. The gearboxes were used in conjunction with a fluid coupling so no clutch pedal was needed.\n",
"A gear stick (rarely spelled \"gearstick\"), gear lever (both, UK English), gearshift or shifter (US English) is a metal lever attached to the shift assembly in a manual transmission-equipped automobile and is used to change gears. In an automatic transmission-equipped vehicle, a similar device is known as a gear selector. A gear stick will normally be used to change gear whilst depressing the clutch pedal with the left foot to disengage the engine from the drivetrain and wheels. Automatic transmission vehicles, semi-automatic transmissions, and those with continuously variable transmission gearboxes do not require a clutch pedal.\n",
"Automatic transmissions can typically shift ratios faster than a manual gear change can be accomplished, due to the time required for the average driver to push the clutch pedal to the floor and move the gearstick from one position to another. This is especially true in regards to dual-clutch transmissions, which are specialized computer-controlled automatic transmissions that mechanically operate more like a manual transmission than a traditional automatic one.\n",
"Some modern gearboxes, namely manumatics such as the Alfa Romeo Sportronic, have a traditional automatic shift pattern to the right, with a special position to the left in which movement of the stick forwards and backwards increments the gears up and down respectively. This can be useful in snow or dirt conditions, where it may be necessary to start from second gear.\n"
] |
when watching a live sports broadcast, why does radio tend to deliver audio feeds a few seconds before transmitted via television? why are they not equally quick? | _URL_0_
Gives the broadcaster time to delete nudity, profanity, or anything else they don't want going to air.
With radio, it's just the play by play guys on the microphone. Far less likely for something unwanted to go to air, so they don't need to worry about it. | [
"Live broadcasts (news, sports, important events) are usually captured at 50 Hz. Using 25 Hz (de-interlacing essentially) for live broadcasts makes them look like they are taken from an archive, so the practice is usually avoided unless there is a motion processor in the transmission chain.\n",
"In radio and television, broadcast delay is an intentional delay when broadcasting live material. Such a delay may be short (often seven seconds) to prevent mistakes or unacceptable content from being broadcast. Longer delays lasting several hours can also be introduced so that the material is aired at a later scheduled time (such as the prime time hours) to maximize viewership.\n",
"In sports broadcasting, a sports commentator (also known as sports announcer, sportscaster or play-by-play announcer) gives a running commentary of a game or event in real time, usually during a live broadcast, traditionally delivered in the historical present tense. Radio was the first medium for sports broadcasts, and radio commentators must describe all aspects of the action to listeners who cannot see it for themselves. In the case of televised sports coverage, commentators are usually presented as a voiceover, with images of the contest shown on viewers' screens and sounds of the action and spectators heard in the background. Television commentators are rarely shown on screen during an event, though some networks choose to feature their announcers on camera either before or after the contest or briefly during breaks in the action.\n",
"The first regular television broadcasts started in 1937. Broadcasts can be classified as \"recorded\" or \"live\". The former allows correcting errors, and removing superfluous or undesired material, rearranging it, applying slow-motion and repetitions, and other techniques to enhance the program. However, some live events like sports television can include some of the aspects including slow-motion clips of important goals/hits, etc., in between the live television telecast. American radio-network broadcasters habitually forbade prerecorded broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s requiring radio programs played for the Eastern and Central time zones to be repeated three hours later for the Pacific time zone (See: Effects of time on North American broadcasting). This restriction was dropped for special occasions, as in the case of the German dirigible airship \"Hindenburg\" disaster at Lakehurst, New Jersey, in 1937. During World War II, prerecorded broadcasts from war correspondents were allowed on U.S. radio. In addition, American radio programs were recorded for playback by Armed Forces Radio radio stations around the world.\n",
"Live radio is radio broadcast without delay. Before the days of television, audiences listened to live dramas, comedies, quiz shows, and concerts on the radio much the same way that they now do on TV. Most talk radio is live radio where people can speak (anonymously) about their opinions/lives. Live radio is sound transmitted by radio waves, as the sound happens. Modern live radio is probably most used to broadcast sports but it is also used to transmit local news and traffic updates. Most radio that we listen to today is recorded music, and the days of solely live broadcast music are generally not as present.\n",
"Radio news is similar to television news, but is transmitted through the medium of the radio instead. It is based on the audio aspect rather than the visual aspect. Sound bites are captured through various reporters (generally through audio capture devices such as tape recorders) and played back through the radio. News updates occur more often on radio than on television – usually about once or twice an hour.\n",
"Occasionally, networks will produce and broadcast the same live event twice in one night – broadcasting once on an East Coast feed, and again on a West Coast feed three hours later. This permits more viewers to watch the broadcast live in prime time (although not all), as the show can air in its usual timeslot in all markets, but incurs the expense and difficulty of delivering two live broadcasts. In some cases, the two broadcasts may intentionally differ, prompting fans to compare notes and post scenes from each version online. While rare, the technique of multiple live broadcasts has been not uncommon for some special live episodes of scripted programs since the late 1990s, such as the \"30 Rock\" episodes \"Live Show\" and \"Live from Studio 6H\", \"Will & Grace\" with \"Alive and Schticking\", \"The West Wing\" with \"The Debate\", and \"ER\"'s fourth-season debut with \"Ambush\".\n"
] |
If I have a direct line of light to a galaxy that is on the edge of our observable universe, what would I see as time progresses? | It depends on the precise expansion rate of the Universe. For some Universes (such as those dominated by matter or by radiation), we can see more and more distant objects as time goes on. For other Universes (mostly those with accelerating expansions, so this includes our present situation) closer and closer objects are at the edge, so after a certain point in time (when we say the galaxy "leaves the horizon") you'd just see it disappear. To be a little more realistic, you'd see it dim over many thousands of years as different pieces of the galaxy leave the horizon, since galaxies have thickness. You'd also see it get progressively redder and redder.
To address your second question, in a Universe where photons from certain galaxies will never reach us, the photons from those galaxies will always be moving, but the expansion of space will in a way "outrun" the photons. There is a certain distance that the photons can go, but will never reach - it will get closer and closer infinitesimally to that point, without ever actually getting there. So it never stops or "ends up" anywhere. It's more sort of (loosely speaking) like the paradox where you're at point A, go halfway to point B, then halfway from there to B, then halfway again, etc. | [
"This puzzle has a bearing on the question of whether light from distant galaxies can ever reach us given the metric expansion of space. The universe is expanding, which leads to increasing distances to other galaxies, and galaxies that are far enough away from us will have an apparent relative motion greater than the speed of light. It might seem that light leaving such a distant galaxy could never reach us.\n",
"The galaxy can be observed edge-on from Earth, thus appearing very elongated. It can be classified as spiral galaxy of type Sbc using the Hubble Sequence. The object's distance of roughly 120 million light-years from the Solar System can be estimated using its redshift and Hubble's law.\n",
"The \"distance\" of a far away galaxy depends on how it is measured. With a redshift of 1, light from this galaxy is estimated to have taken around 7.7 billion years to reach Earth. However, since this galaxy is receding from Earth, the present comoving distance is estimated to be around 10 billion light-years away. In context, Hubble is observing this galaxy as it appeared when the Universe was around 5.9 billion years old.\n",
"The galaxy appears very dim in the sky as it only has an apparent visual magnitude of approximately 14 and thus can only be observed with telescopes. It can be classified as type G using the Hubble Sequence. The object's distance of roughly 159 million light-years from the Solar System can be estimated using its redshift and Hubble's law.\n",
"The galaxy appears very dim in the sky as it only has an apparent visual magnitude of 13.3 and thus can only be observed with telescopes. It can be classified as type S0 using the Hubble Sequence. The object's distance of roughly 95.6 million light-years from the Solar System can be estimated using its redshift and Hubble's law.\n",
"The exponential expansion of the scale factor means that the physical distance between any two non-accelerating observers will eventually be growing faster than the speed of light. At this point those two observers will no longer be able to make contact. Therefore, any observer in a de Sitter universe would see event horizons beyond which that observer can never see nor learn any information. If our universe is approaching a de Sitter universe then eventually we will not be able to observe any galaxies other than our own Milky Way (and any others in the gravitationally bound Local Group, assuming they were to somehow survive to that time without merging).\n",
"The \"distance\" of a far away galaxy depends on what distance measurement you use. With a redshift of 0.545, light from this active galaxy is estimated to have taken around 5.1 billion years to reach us. But as a result of the expansion of the Universe, the present (co-moving) distance to this galaxy is about 6.4 billion light-years (1974 Mpc).\n"
] |
how can a 64-bit minecraft world seed create an infinite world? | Although as others have said the Minecraft world isnt actually infinite, there isnt actually anything stopping it from being in regards to the seed at least.
A random seed is only the "starting point" for a random number generator, once you've started it you can get as many pseudo-random numbers as you want out of it.
The only limitation the 64 bit seed is that there are only 2^64 different possible sequences of those random numbers (and thus only 2^64 different possible minecraft worlds.) | [
"In video games using procedural world generation, the map seed is a (relatively) short number or text string which is used to procedurally create the game world (\"map\"). This means that while the seed-unique generated map may be many megabytes big (often generated incrementally and virtually unlimited in potential size), it is possible to reset to the unmodified map, or the unmodified map can be exchanged between players, just by specifying the map seed. An example of a map seed in Minecraft is \"-2242547518357798464\". Map seeds are a type of random seeds.\n",
"The game world is virtually infinite and procedurally generated as players explore it, using a map seed that is obtained from the system clock at the time of world creation (or manually specified by the player). There are limits on vertical movement, but \"Minecraft\" allows an infinitely large game world to be generated on the horizontal plane. Due to technical problems when extremely distant locations are reached, however, there is a barrier preventing players from traversing to locations beyond 30,000,000 blocks from the center. The game achieves this by splitting the world data into smaller sections called \"chunks\" that are only created or loaded when players are nearby. The world is divided into biomes ranging from deserts to jungles to snowfields; the terrain includes plains, mountains, forests, caves, and various lava/water bodies. The in-game time system follows a day and night cycle, and one full cycle lasts 20 real-time minutes.\n",
"BULLET::::- 1994 Sega Genesis game Generations Lost is a side-scrolling adventure game whose protagonist discovers that his \"world\" is a generation ship sent from Earth, sent to colonize a distant world. The ship was designed to sustain life for at least 700 years.\n",
"Magic nodes - which are valuable sources of magical power - are scattered throughout both worlds. The worlds are populated by traditional fantasy races like elves and halflings, plus races which were introduced early to gaming via Simtex's games, like the insectoid Klackons. \n",
"Some games used pseudorandom number generators were often used with predefined seed values in order to generate very large game worlds that appeared to be premade. \"The Sentinel\" supposedly had 10,000 different levels stored in only 48 and 64 kilobytes. An extreme case was \"Elite\", which was originally planned to contain a total of 2 (approximately 282 trillion) galaxies with 256 solar systems each. However, the publisher was afraid that such a gigantic universe would cause disbelief in players, and eight of these galaxies were chosen for the final version.\n",
"The game world is infinite. This is achieved by combining randomly generated content and specifically designed world spaces to create a realistic and massive wilderness, where one may find inns, farms, small towns, dungeons, and other places of interest. The towns contain developer-designed buildings and shops, but the order in which these appear and their names are randomized. There are several hundred dungeons and 17 specially designed dungeons for the main quest.\n",
"\"Endless Legend\" is a turn-based 4X strategy game, in which players take control of a fantasy faction to establish an empire through exploration, conquest, diplomacy and research. The game is set in the land of Auriga, with the layout of its landmass and ecosystems being randomized per game, represented on a model-like map made up of a hexagonal grid.\n"
] |
china's ghost cities | When I visited several years ago I asked the same question and got a somewhat satisfactory answer. Basically the Chinese Government has built these modern cities for business to operate in along with all the apartments and amenities needed to live in the city. The problem is no one wants to leave their families behind to pay to live in a city with no one they know. What ends up happening is people commute in to the cities to work during the day and then go home at night leaving the city empty.
That's how my "Courrier" explained the cities to me. I am sure there is someone here that knows more information. | [
"This is a list of property developments in China, which are currently mostly unoccupied and which are sometimes referred to as \"ghost cities.\" They are also frequently referred to in the international media as \"ghost towns\", but this usually refers to abandoned places rather than new ones that have failed to attract populations. \n",
"However ghost cities in China have had an under-reported degree of success in filling up. According to Wade Shepherd, after the ghost cities becomes a thriving city, they no longer become a much talked about topic in the western media. Ex ghost cities are rarely news compared to when they were ghost cities. Wade says , \"It generally takes at least a decade for China’s new urban developments to start breaking the inertia of stagnation. But once they do, they tend to keep growing, eventually blending in with the broader urban landscape and losing their “ghost city” label.\"\n",
"Many developments criticized as ghost cities did materialize into economically vibrant areas when given enough time to develop, such as Pudong, Zhujiang New Town, Zhengdong New Area, Tianducheng and malls such as the Golden Resources Mall and South China Mall. While many developments failed to live up to initial lofty promises, most of them eventually became occupied when given enough time. The \"ghost city\" moniker has been criticized for \"calling the game at halftime\". Ordos Kangbashi is often seen as the one of the first and most prominent examples of the international Chinese ghost city phenomenon and fascination. Some journalists have pointed to the Ordos Kangbashi ghost city stories as an example of Western medias hasty and often misinformed reporting of development in China. Reporting that often eschews reaching out to local officials and planners in favor of trying to attract readers unfamiliar with China’s development model and bemused at Chinas perceived backwardness. As of 2015, it was reported that Ordos Kangbashi has a population of 100,000 people, 80 percent of which are full time residents, with the remainder commuting daily from nearby Dongsheng for work.\n",
"Fengdu Ghost City (, originally ) is a large complex of shrines, temples and monasteries dedicated to the afterlife located on the Ming mountain, in Fengdu County, Chongqing municipality, China. It is situated about downstream from Chongqing on the north bank of the Yangtze River.\n",
"The Fengdu Ghost City is a tourist attraction modelled after Diyu, the concept of hell in Chinese mythology and Buddhism. It was built over 1,800 years ago. The ghost city will become an island once the Three Gorges Dam project is completed. Specifically, part of the Fengdu Ghost City will be submerged, but scenery above the \"Door of Hell\" will remain.\n",
"Growth of ghost cities in China, mostly from not yet agglomerated areas between or adjacent metropolitan areas or coal mining towns, as in the case of the most famous example, Kangbashi New Area of Ordos, are an example of spatial mismatch. In the case of places near metropolitan areas, it represents less of a risk going forward than in mining areas.\n",
"Many apartments, hotels and shops remain empty for years being called ghost cities or ghost malls, with many Chinese unable to afford them. As \"The Economist\" says, \"If there is one thing that annoys the man on the Beijing omnibus, it is the cost of housing in China's cities.\"\n"
] |
what are the main reasons for most of the worlds population (non british colonised countries) wanting to learn english? | I think what OP means how it become a global language. Not why people wanting to learn it today because thats pretty obvious (mentioned in other comments).
Mean reasons are that the British Empire expanded a large portion of the world. Basically they were everywhere. America for example, a lot of people migrated there and there were many languages. Eventually English became dominant and the main language (forced by a ban on other languages).
Some parts of the world the British Empire was mainly there for trade and not many people settled. Like Asia the language did not stuck.
| [
"However, knowledge of English is helped by the large Cypriot migrant communities in the UK and Australia, leading to diffusion of culture and language back to their country of origin, and negative sentiments towards the UK have waned or disappeared. There is now a large British expatriate population, in addition to the British military presence in the Sovereign Base Areas, as well as the UN buffer zone, whose peacekeepers usually also use English as a \"lingua franca\". All of the above maintains an English-speaking presence on the island.\n",
"Although many non-English speakers tend to practice English classes in their countries before they migrate to any anglophone country to make it easier for them to interact with the people, many of them still struggle when they experience the reality of communicating with a real anglophone. Therefore, society forces them to improve their communication skills as soon as possible. Immigrants cannot afford to waste time learning to speak English especially for those who come with certain financial issues. The most common choice people make to build up their communication skills is to take some ESL classes. There are many steps that need to be followed in order to be successful in this aspect. However, the use of new technology makes the learning process more convenient, reliable and productive.\n",
"Meanwhile, English was on its way to becoming the first global lingua franca. By the end of the twentieth century, it had special status in seventy countries, including India. Worldwide, English began to represent modernization and internationalization, with more and more jobs requiring basic fluency in it. In India especially, the language came to acquire a social prestige, 'a class apart of education', which prompted native Indian or South Asian speakers to turn bilingual, speaking their mother tongue at home or in a local context, but English in academic or work environments.\n",
"English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n",
"The importance of the English language in the 21st century is a topic of debate, nonetheless the growing pool of non-native English speakers makes it the best contender for \"Global language\" status. Incidentally, India has the world's largest English speaking/understanding population. It claims one of the largest workforce of engineers, doctors and other key professionals, all comfortable with English. It has the 2nd largest population of \"fluent English\" speakers, second only to the United States, with estimates ranging from 150 to 250 million speakers, and is expected to have the largest in coming decades. Indians are also learning Dutch, Italian, French, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin Chinese, Russian, German, and Spanish.\n",
"When the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations which had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as an official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. The British Empire established the use of English in regions around the world such as North America, India, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, so that by the late 19th century its reach was truly global, and in the latter half of the 20th century, widespread international use of English was much reinforced by the global economic, financial, scientific, military, and cultural pre-eminence of the English-speaking countries and especially the U.S. Today, more than half of all scientific journals are published in English, while in France, almost one-third of all natural science research appears in English, lending support to English being the lingua franca of science and technology. English is also the lingua franca of international air traffic control and seafaring communications.\n",
"English has become the preeminent second language of Europe in the absence of any colonial history or diaspora, but rather as a concerted effort to increase fluency in English by Europeans since the Second World War. English has become the most useful language to connect different language groups in Europe. The impact of Brexit on EU language policy remains to be seen, but it is possible that the EU, in retaining English as a key working language without the dominant presence of British English speakers, would claim ownership over its own dialect of English and develop it for its own needs.\n"
] |
why does my apple iphone require that i have at least 4.5 gb of storage available in order to update? | The files you download in the update must be decompressed before being permanently installed. A 500 MB download could easily decompress into a couple of gigabytes or more. | [
"The iPad was released with three capacity options for storage: 16, 32, or 64 GB of internal flash memory. On January 29, 2013, Apple announced a 128 GB model of the fourth generation iPad, which was released on February 5. All data is stored on the internal flash memory, with no option to expand storage. Apple sells a \"camera connection kit\" with an SD card reader, but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos. On March 21, 2016, Apple announced a 256 GB model of the iPad Pro, which was released on March 31. In 2017, Apple released a 10.5-inch iPad Pro and a revised 12.9-inch iPad Pro with a 512 GB option, the first of its kind on an iOS device. In 2018, Apple released a 11-inch and 12.9-inch iPad Pro, both with a 1TB option.\n",
"On March 21, 2017 Apple announced that it would double the storage for these models at the same launch prices. The upgraded models were released on March 24, 2017 with 32 GB or 128 GB of internal storage.\n",
"As on previous models, all data is stored in flash memory and not in the SIM and it does not offer any options to expand storage. Initially it was only available in 16 and 32 GB though an 8 GB model was later released, with Apple discontinuing the 16 and 32 GB models, forcing those needing more storage to select an iPhone 4, or buy an older model 3GS.\n",
"The has 512 MB of DDR2 RAM. Maximum available storage size increased to 64 GB while the 32 GB and 16 GB model options were retained. In September 2013 Apple released a iPhone 4S for free with a two year contract and but with only 8 GB of storage. The screen is the same as the prior generation iPhones; , 640×960 resolution (Apple's \"retina\" design). There was an improvement in interactive multimedia applications compared to its predecessor.\n",
"Since introduction in 2011, each account has 5 GB of free storage for owners of either an iOS device using iOS 5.x or later, or a Mac using OS X Lion 10.7 or later. Users can purchase additional storage for a total of 50 GB, 200GB or 2TB. The amount of storage is shared across all devices per iCloud Apple ID.\n",
"When the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus were released, Apple changed the base model storage capacity from 16 to 32GB. Both the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus have configurations of 32, 128, and 256GB storage. Apple doubled the storage on the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus in two configurations (32 and 128GB), as well as the iPhone SE six months later. \n",
"Both device variants also contain a new iteration of Apple's motion coprocessor, the M10. Unlike previous iPhone models, internal storage options for iPhone 7 begin at 32 GB instead of 16 GB, and max out at 256 GB. iPhone 7 Plus offers 3 GB of RAM, more than any other previous iPhone; the 4.7-inch iPhone 7 has 2 GB.\n"
] |
How do you calculate the amount of rocket fuel needed for a specific weight? | > The problem that I am encountering is that the more fuel (liquid or solid) I end up needing more fuel to compensate for the pervious amount of fuel added.
That's because that's exactly how it is. I can't remember exactly what it's described as, but it's a well known problem with rockets.
You might be able to use the [Tsiolkovsky rocket equation](_URL_0_). The difference between m_0 and m_1 (m_0-m_1) would be the fuel mass.
Disclaimer: Physics student here... I have touched on this before, but it is not my area of expertise.
EDIT: By "I can't remember exactly what it's described as", I meant that it's so well known, it has its own description. Somehting something "The tyranny of the rocket equation" or something, I think. | [
"where g is the gravity constant of the planet (which is Earth in most cases). This also enables the volume of storage required for the fuel to be calculated if the density of the fuel is known, which is almost always the case when designing the rocket stage. The volume is yielded when dividing the mass of the propellant by its density. Asides from the fuel required, the mass of the rocket structure itself must also be determined, which requires taking into account the mass of the required thrusters, electronics, instruments, power equipment, etc. These are known quantities for typical off the shelf hardware that should be considered in the mid to late stages of the design, but for preliminary and conceptual design, a simpler approach can be taken. Assuming one engine for a rocket stage provides all of the total impulse for that particular segment, a mass fraction can be used to determine the mass of the system. The mass of the stage transfer hardware such as initiators and safe-and-arm devices are very small by comparison and can be considered negligible. \n",
"The fraction of payload to the total liftoff weight of the air or spacecraft is known as the \"payload fraction\". When the weight of the payload and fuel are considered together, it is known as the \"useful load fraction\". In spacecraft, \"mass fraction\" is normally used, which is the ratio of payload to everything else, including the rocket structure.\n",
"In aerospace engineering, an aircraft's fuel fraction, fuel weight fraction, or a spacecraft's propellant fraction, is the weight of the fuel or propellant divided by the gross take-off weight of the craft (including propellant):\n",
"For modern day solid rocket motors, it is a safe and reasonable assumption to say that 91 to 94 percent of the total mass is fuel. It is also important to note there is a small percentage of \"residual\" propellant that will be left stuck and unusable inside the tank, and should also be taken into consideration when determining amount of fuel for the rocket. A common initial estimate for this residual propellant is five percent. With this ratio and the mass of the propellant calculated, the mass of the empty rocket weight can be determined. \n",
"TSFC or SFC for thrust engines (e.g. turbojets, turbofans, ramjets, rocket engines, etc.) is the mass of fuel needed to provide the net thrust for a given period e.g. lb/(h·lbf) (pounds of fuel per hour-pound of thrust) or g/(s·kN) (grams of fuel per second-kilonewton). Mass of fuel is used, rather than volume (gallons or litres) for the fuel measure, since it is independent of temperature.\n",
"Where formula_25 is the mass of the oxidizer and formula_26 is the mass of the fuel. This mixture ratio not only governs the size of each tank, but also the specific impulse of the rocket. Determining the ideal mixture ratio is a balance of compromises between various aspects of the rocket being designed, and can vary depending on the type of fuel and oxidizer combination being used. For example, a mixture ratio of a bipropellant could be adjusted such that it may not have the optimal specific impulse, but will result in fuel tanks of equal size. This would yield simpler and cheaper manufacturing, packing, configuring, and integrating of the fuel systems with the rest of the rocket, and can become a benefit that could outweigh the drawbacks of a less efficient specific impulse rating. But suppose the defining constraint for the launch system is volume, and a low density fuel is required such as hydrogen. This example would be solved by using an oxidizer-rich mixture ratio, reducing efficiency and specific impulse rating, but will meet a smaller tank volume requirement.\n",
"For example, if an aircraft is flying at a weight of 5,000 kg and the weight of fuel on board is 500 kg, the ZFW is 4,500 kg. Some time later, after 100 kg of fuel has been used, the total weight of the airplane is 4,900 kg, the weight of fuel is 400 kg, and the ZFW is unchanged at 4,500 kg.\n"
] |
Why does hot water rapidly cool when poured into a glass that contains salt? | Enthalpy of dissolution is the energy required to dissolve something in a solvent. This energy is taken from the surroundings thus cooling the solution.
There is also a lattice energy iirc and this releases energy so there would be a sum. | [
"As a molten salt it can serve as a coolant which can be used at high temperatures without reaching a high vapor pressure. Unlike sodium or potassium metals, which can also be used as high-temperature coolants, it does not violently react with air or water. FLiBe salt has low hygroscopy and solubility in water.\n",
"Rapid cooling of molten glass generates an uneven temperature distribution in the body of the glass, which results in mechanical stress sufficient to cause cracking before the object has reached ambient temperature, or to result in susceptibility to cracking in later use, often triggered by thermal shock. To prevent this, objects manufactured from molten glass are annealed by cooling gradually in a lehr from a temperature just below the solidification point of the glass. Anneal cooling rate depends on the thickness of the glass and can range from several tens of degrees Celsius per hour for thin sections to a fraction of a degree Celsius per hour for thick slabs or castings.\n",
"Glass reacts slowly with aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions at ambient temperatures to form soluble silicates. Because of this, glass joints and stopcocks exposed to sodium hydroxide have a tendency to \"freeze\". Flasks and glass-lined chemical reactors are damaged by long exposure to hot sodium hydroxide, which also frosts the glass. Sodium hydroxide does not attack iron at room temperatures, since iron does not have amphoteric properties (i.e., it only dissolves in acid, not base). \n",
"The temperature differential that borosilicate glass can withstand before fracturing is about . This compares well with soda lime glass, which can withstand only a change in temperature and is why typical kitchenware made from traditional soda-lime glass will shatter if a vessel containing boiling water is placed on ice, but Pyrex or other borosilicate laboratory glass will not.\n",
"As glass cools, it shrinks and solidifies. Uneven cooling causes weak glass due to stress. Even cooling is achieved by annealing. An annealing oven (known in the industry as a Lehr) heats the container to about , then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20 – 60 minute period.\n",
"The glass is chemically strengthened by submerging the glass in a bath containing a potassium salt (typically potassium nitrate) at . This causes sodium ions in the glass surface to be replaced by potassium ions from the bath solution.\n",
"Inadequate calcium oxide causes the alkalis in the glass to remain water-soluble at a low level of humidity. Exposure to higher levels of relative humidity during storage or display causes alkali to hydrate and leach out of the glass. Repeated changes in humidity can be particularly damaging. It is important to realize that any glass object can deteriorate if it is exposed to unsuitable environmental conditions. Crystal, historic glass, or treasured family items should never be exposed to the high temperatures and water pressure of a dishwasher.\n"
] |
Did the British paratroopers use a different helmet than regular infantry during WWII? | British airborne forces did indeed use a different helmet design, starting with a small number of ["P" Type helmets] (_URL_2_) in 1942 followed by the "[Helmet, Steel, Airborne Troops Mark I] (_URL_4_)" and [Mark II] (_URL_0_).
(Photos from ParaData, which has [a page on airborne headgear] (_URL_1_) including other examples such as the 'Flash Gordon' safety helmet used in training.)
The British helmets were similar in design to the [German M1938 paratroop helmet] (_URL_3_), in both cases cut-down brimless helmets better suited to parachuting than the more cumbersome standard infantry helmets. They didn't offer quite as much protection, though, particularly around the side and the back of the head, hence not being adopted army-wide. | [
"The M42 Duperite helmet was a paratrooper helmet issued to Australian paratroopers during WW2. The helmet got its eponymous name from the shock impact-absorbing material it was composed of. It was similar to the first of the British dispatch rider helmets.\n",
"A Paratrooper helmet is a type of combat helmet used by paratroopers and airborne forces. The main difference from standard combat helmets is that paratrooper helmets have a different harness and lining to withstand impact when jumping from aircraft and to keep the helmet stable in flight, and most have a lower-profile shell to reduce wind resistance. Most modern combat helmets have features making them suitable for airborne use.\n",
"The first extensive use of paratroopers (\"Fallschirmjäger\") was by the Germans during World War II. Later in the conflict paratroopers were used extensively by the Allied Forces. Cargo aircraft of the period (for example the German Ju 52 and the American C-47) being small, they rarely, if ever, jumped in groups much larger than 20 from one aircraft. In English, this load of paratroopers is called a \"stick\", while any load of soldiers gathered for air movement is known as a \"chalk\". The terms come from the common use of white chalk on the sides of aircraft and vehicles to mark and update numbers of personnel and equipment being emplaned.\n",
"Paratroopers also received their own unique uniform in 1942. It was constructed of light green cotton twill, with four front pockets and two pant-leg cargo pockets. They also were issued a new boot design of their own, a leather boot of similar construction to the infantry shoe, only being mid-shin high and laced all the way up. The jump boot and specialist uniform distinguished the paratroopers from other soldiers and they did not look fondly upon the decision to move to a standardized uniform for all personnel in 1943.\n",
"In both the British and American armies, there was a sense that the glider infantry were poor cousins to the more glamorous paratroopers. In the British Army, whereas paratroops were all volunteers, airlanding units were standard line infantry units converted without any option (although they were entitled to wear the same maroon beret as the Parachute Regiment). In the United States Army, glider troops did not receive the extra pay awarded to paratroopers until after the Normandy invasion (where glider troops provided essential support to the parachute regiments and fought on the front-lines alongside their parachute brethren). This blatant inequality of treatment came to the attention of U.S. Airborne High Command and from that point forward the glider troops were issued the same jump boots and combat gear as paratroopers (including the M1A1 carbine with folding stock) and earned the same pay until the war ended in Europe in May 1945. There are numerous examples of glider troops volunteering as replacements for paratrooper units but very few, if any, examples of paratroopers volunteering for the glider units.\n",
"The M1C helmet was a variant of the U.S. Army's popular and iconic M1 helmet. Developed in World War II to replace the earlier M2 helmet, it was issued to paratroopers. It was different from the M2 in various ways, most importantly its bails (chinstrap hinges). The M2 had fixed, spot welded \"D\" bales so named for their shape, similar to early M1s. It was found that when sat on or dropped, these bails would snap off. The solution was the implementation of the swivel bail, which could move around and so was less susceptible to breaking.\n",
"From 1936, the Mark I Brodie helmet was fitted with an improved liner and an elasticated (actually, sprung) webbing chin strap. This final variant served until late 1940, when it was superseded by the slightly modified Mk II, which served the British and Commonwealth forces throughout World War II. British paratroopers and airborne forces used the Helmet Steel Airborne Troop.\n"
] |
how much do views from services like hulu and netflix count toward helping a show stay on air? | It doesn't really help at all.
In order for a show to stay on the air, it has to be profitable for the network that orders the show.
So, if there's a show called "Americas Next Top Wizard", produced by Sony, and aired on CBS, then CBS needs to make enough money through advertising revenue to order more episodes from Sony. If they can't get good advertising revenue, they won't order new episodes (that is, cancel it), and since Sony doesn't have a customer to purchase the show, they'll stop making it.
It really doesn't matter how many people watch it later on Netflix or Hulu. | [
"In addition to viewing exclusive original series, subscription to Dropout allows users to view all other videos produced by CollegeHumor 72 hours before they are released to the public. There is also access to an exclusive Discord server where subscribers are allowed to chat with cast members and producers of the shows.\n",
"Sarandos uses algorithms at Netflix to predict what programs viewers will want to watch prior to producing them. His personal algorithm focuses on 30% judgement (as a highest priority), with 70% focused on a base of data. He also said that the focus is on the audience, and that there is no programming grid – or appointment linear-based television – that is typically used by traditional TV networks. Barometers of success are if the audience completes watching the show, the timeframe within which they finish watching a series if there is social media buzz by critics and fans. Sarandos said that the preference is for show to run for multiple seasons and build a fan base. Sarandos believes the model allows the viewer to be in control, and to watch only the content they enjoy. The more serialized the show is, the longer the revenue stream. Sarandos sees cost per hour basis as greater the more total run time there is across the lifetime of a show, as it is often not cost savings to produce less original content once production is underway.\n",
"Apart from airing on television, some of the contributions from the show can be seen on the show's Facebook page. The number of its users is constantly increasing. Currently, there are more than 10,000 active followers of the page, while the content of the site reaches almost 100,000 users.\n",
"It was announced that beginning in September 2014, following the premiere of the 18th season, only 30 select episodes will be featured for free viewing at a time on the website, with new episodes being available for an entire month starting the day following their original airings. The entire series (with the exception of \"Super Best Friends,\" \"200,\" and \"201\") is available for viewing on the Hulu subscription service.\n",
"Examples of using the service included Rotten Tomatoes and \"The New York Times\", which allow users to click to add titles to their Netflix queue or begin watching on \"Watch Instantly\" from their pages, and Jinni, which enabled one to search within Watch Instantly and imported some user information such as reviews.\n",
"The Netflix model has also affected viewers' expectations. According to a 2013 Nielsen survey, more than 60-percent of Americans said that they binge-watch shows, and nearly 8 out of 10 Americans have used technology to watch their favorite shows on their own schedule. Netflix has continued to release its original content by making the whole season available at once, acknowledging changing viewer habits. This allows audiences to watch episodes at a time of their choosing rather than having to watch just one episode a week at a specific scheduled time; this effectively gives its subscribers freedom and control over when to watch the next episode at their own pace.\n",
"The rise of Netflix has affected the way that audiences watch televised content. Netflix's CPO Neil Hunt points out that the Internet allows users the freedom to watch shows at their own pace, so an episode does not need cliffhangers to tease the audience to keep tuning in week after week because they can just continue into the next episode. Netflix has allowed content creators to deviate from traditional formats that force 30 minute or 60 minute time slots once a week, which it claims gives them an advantage over networks. Their model provides a platform which allows varying run times per episode based on a storyline, eliminates the need for a week to week recap, and does not have a fixed notion of what constitutes a \"season\". This flexibility also allows Netflix to nurture a show until it finds its audience, unlike traditional networks which will quickly cancel a show if it is unable to maintain steady ratings.\n"
] |
What was Nazi Art and Architecture like in the 1930's? | Architecture was an important part of the representation, with a goal to impress by ever larger plans, most of which never saw fruition due to the start of the war.
Hitler was especially interested in architecture and formed a close bond with Albert Speer (who would later become a cabinet member in charge of coordinating the war effort), who would design buildings in a classicist style with a dash of Renaissance whose impressions of monumental size would often be amplified by very muted, almost nonexistent, decoration of the facades. Prime examples of finished buildings can be found by googling for the Neue Reichskanzlei (New Reich Chancellory) or the (partly finished) Reichsparteitagsgelände (Party Rally Grounds). Plans for the "Welthauptstadt Germania" (World Capital Germania), fundamentally transforming Berlin, never went out of the planning stages; one of the few remains is a massive concrete Cylinder designed to test in situ the stability of the ground and its feasibility for monumental buildings.
Architecture was also used to represent Germany and its new political direction on the international stage. Most famous is probably the German pavilion at the World Fair 1937 in Paris (see [here](_URL_0_) to the left and [here](_URL_2_)), especially considering the striking contrast to the Weimar-era German pavilion of 1929 (see pictures of a reconstruction [here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_3_)).
There is ample literature available, especially about the buildings and plans designed by Speer. I'm not sure I can suggest anything in particular, but if you have a large library close by, it's probably worth a try just hitting their catalog for photobooks or heavily illustrated books on the topics of Albert Speer, any of the buildings named above, or Nazi architecture in general.
I'll leave the question of other art for other people to answer who are more knowledgeable than me. I will simply point out that the favored style of sculpturing likewise followed a classically-inspired style. You can see a couple of examples in the picture of the pavilion above. Searching for works produced by Arno Breker between the mid-1930ies and 1945 will give you a rough idea. | [
"The building was constructed from 1933 to 1937 following plans of architect Paul Ludwig Troost as Nazi Germany's first monumental structure of Nazi architecture and as Nazi propaganda. The museum, then called \"Haus der Deutschen Kunst\" (\"House of German Art\"), was opened on 18 July 1937 as a showcase for what the Nazi Party regarded as Germany's finest art. The inaugural exhibition was the \"Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung\" (\"Great German Art Exhibition\"), which was intended as an edifying contrast to the condemned modern art on display in the concurrent Degenerate Art Exhibition.\n",
"Nazi architecture is the architecture promoted by the Third Reich from 1933 until its fall in 1945. It is characterized by three forms: a stripped neoclassicism (typified by the designs of Albert Speer); a vernacular style that drew inspiration from traditional rural architecture, especially alpine; and a utilitarian style followed for major infrastructure projects and industrial or military complexes. Nazi ideology took a pluralist attitude to architecture; however, Adolf Hitler himself believed that form should follow function and wrote against \"stupid imitations of the past\". \n",
"Notable German modernists included Johannes Krahn, who played an important part in rebuilding German cities after World War II, and built several important museums and churches, notably St. Martin, Idstein, which artfully combined stone masonry, concrete and glass. Leading Austrian architects of the style included Gustav Peichl, whose later works included the Art and Exhibition Center of the German Federal Republic in Bonn, Germany (1989).\n",
"The Nazi regime banned modern art, which they condemned as degenerate art (from the German: entartete Kunst). According to Nazi ideology, modern art deviated from the prescribed norm of classical beauty. While the 1920s to 1940s are considered the heyday of modern art movements, there were conflicting nationalistic movements that resented abstract art, and Germany was no exception. Avant-garde German artists were now branded both enemies of the state and a threat to the German nation. Many went into exile, with relatively few returning after World War II. Dix was one who remained, being conscripted into the Volkssturm Home Guard militia; Pechstein kept his head down in rural Pomerania. Nolde also stayed, creating his \"unpainted pictures\" in secret after being forbidden to paint. Beckmann, Ernst, Grosz, Feininger and others went to America, Klee to Switzerland, where he died. Kirchner committed suicide.\n",
"Some examples of Nazi architecture are the buildings of the (Thuringian parliament) and (an event hall) in the south at . While the building (1930s) represents more the neo-Roman/fascist style, (1940s) is marked by some neo-Germanic \"\" style elements.\n",
"While similar to Classicism, the official Nazi style is distinguished by the impression it leaves on viewers. Architectural style was used by the Nazis to deliver and enforce their ideology. Formal elements like flat roofs, horizontal extension, uniformity, and the lack of decor created \"an impression of simplicity, uniformity, monumentality, solidity and eternity,\" which is how the Nazi Party wanted to appear. \n",
"Nazi critics denigrated the project as “Mr May's small Soviet industry” and Joseph Goebbels called Ernst May the “Lenin of German architecture”, even if it is told that he loved the modern architecture. The Nazis stopped all construction activities and presented the estates to foreign visitors as their own new Nationalsocialist architecture. Most employees of the project left Germany after 1933, some of them followed Ernst May to the Soviet Union, which invited teams of famous architects, like Le Corbusier and from the Bauhaus to work there.\n"
] |
it's so dark near pluto, how was new horizons able to take a picture? | Believe it or not, it's not actually that dark near Pluto. The sunlight is very weak compared to what we are used to, but in terms of brightness it's around 250 times brighter than a full moon on earth.
Check out [This Article](_URL_0_) for a run down of the basic maths involved. | [
"In July 2015 NASA published photographs taken as the New Horizons space probe passed within 7000 miles of Pluto. A photo of Pluto's largest moon, Charon, shows a large dark area near its north pole. The dark area has been unofficially called Mordor Macula.\n",
"On February 12, 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken from January 25 to 31) from the approaching probe. \"New Horizons\" was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. The exposure time was too short to see Pluto's smaller, much fainter, moons.\n",
"On 4 February 2015, NASA released new images of Pluto (taken on 25 and 27 January) from the approaching probe. \"New Horizons\" was more than away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon, Charon. On 20 March 2015, NASA invited the general public to suggest names for surface features that will be discovered on Pluto and Charon. On 15 April 2015, Pluto was imaged showing a possible polar cap. Between April and June 2015, \"New Horizons\" began returning images of Pluto that exceeded the quality that the Hubble Space Telescope could produce.\n",
"Photographs of Pluto taken on 14 July 2015 taken 15 minutes after \"New Horizon\" closest approach, from a distance of 18,000 kilometers and sent to Earth on 13 September 2015 show a near-sunset on Pluto with details of the surface and a haze in the atmosphere.\n",
"The \"New Horizons\" spacecraft took images of Kerberos during its flyby of the Pluto system on 14 July 2015. Three months later, on 22 October, the first image of the moon was published. It is the last moon of Pluto to have its image released, revealing that Kerberos was small and had a bright surface contrary to the initial idea that the moon was covered in dark material.\n",
"The first images of Pluto from \"New Horizons\" were acquired September 21–24, 2006, during a test of LORRI. They were released on November 28, 2006. The images, taken from a distance of approximately , confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects.\n",
"\"New Horizons\" captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006, during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager. The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter.\n"
] |
Had a question in Physics class; I got one answer, teacher got another. Can someone explain where I am wrong? | You can put it very simply using just the first postulate. The boat travels at 6m/s relative to the water so the water moves at -6m/s relative to the boat.
Imagine you turned the engine off and just drifted. The water would be still relative to the boat. Then you start moving and you have 6m/s motion relative to the water. It is immaterial what the land is doing meanwhile. | [
"BULLET::::- If everyone gets the same answer they can assume the answer is correct. If not, all members need to discuss to see if someone did something wrong and help that student to see what they did wrong.\n",
"According to many students and professors, a major problem with the first edition of the book was how mathematically heavy the book was, which distracted students from the essential physics. Since then, many issues have been addressed. More insightful discussions have been added and misleading diagrams removed. Still, the book retains its reputation for the difficulty of the exercises it contains, and for its tendency to treat non-obvious conclusions as self-evident. In particular, Jackson often leaves out the details in going from one equation to the next, which is often quite difficult. Examples are challenging, and the fine points of physics are often left as exercises. Despite being thorough, it is arguably no longer the best text available for students, but remains a well-regarded reference.\n",
"Not all review evaluations were positive. Eli Hawkins, acting as a referee on behalf of the \"Journal of Physics A\", suggested rejecting one of the Bogdanovs' papers: \"It is difficult to describe what is wrong in Section 4, since almost nothing is right. [...] It would take up too much space to enumerate all the mistakes: indeed it is difficult to say where one error ends and the next begins. In conclusion, I would not recommend that this paper be published in this, or any, journal.\"\n",
"According to Snopes.com, more recent (1999 and 1988) versions identify the problem as a question in \"a physics degree exam at the University of Copenhagen\" and the student as Niels Bohr, and includes the following answers:\n",
"BULLET::::- Save: If the contestant answers a question incorrectly but their classmate is correct, they are credited with a correct answer. However, if the classmate is also wrong, the contestant loses. This is used automatically on the contestant's first incorrect response.\n",
"\"There is a misconception among people and schoolchildren about the nature of mathematics,\" she said, in a 1979 interview. \"They consider it a matter of rules and regulations instead of thinking.\" The pressure, she said, was for pupils to come up with the right answer quickly, without time to analyze.\n",
"Clearly, a student who answers (b) is adding the exponents and failing to grasp the concept of like terms. In this case, the incorrect answer provides additional insight beyond the simple fact that it is incorrect.\n"
] |
Are battle depictions of one or two extremely skilled swordsmen that kill dozens of men, while thousands of poorly trained infantrymen that usually die true? | The most important things to remember about battles is that if you're alone you're dead. Skill definitely plays a role, but so does morale, equipment and luck. The last two I think are most important - a good armour allows one to face many opponents and deal with them. And will save you when a bunch of people start hitting you at the same time.
Rober De Clary describes such an event in his account on the fall of Constantinople. There one of the crusader ships manages to latch on a tower and assault it. The first person over the wall is a venetian man who is quickly slaughtered by the defending Greeks. The second person however is a well armed knight. The Greeks bring him to the ground and shower him with blows. Our fella being well protected by his shield and helm manages to get up and drive the defenders away.
On the other hand - if you are overwhelmed and cannot make a good use of your armour and skill you get killed. Examples are the Battle of Odrin from 1204, where the Latin emperor Baldwin managed to get separated from his main forces and overwhelmed by the forces of Ioannis of Bulgaria.
It seems that the overall skill and resolve of the army is way more important. For example in the battle of Philipoppolis in 1207 the Latins managed to defeat the Bulgarian army that outnumbered them vastly. The battle of Azincourt is a famous example of what happens when you cannot make a good use of the situation - the french knights got so bunched up that they could barely fight effectively and managed to get slaughtered by the English... | [
"The one-eyed, one-armed swordsman is a fictional character in Japanese literature, cinema and TV. The loyal Sōma clan samurai Tange Samanosuke is attacked and mutilated as the result of a betrayal, losing his right eye and right arm. He then begins to lead the life of a nihilistic ronin, using the pseudonym Sazen.\n",
"BULLET::::- Tony Leung as Broken Sword () br Broken Sword and Flying Snow are the only assassins to ever infiltrate the king's palace, killing hundreds of his personal guard and very nearly the king himself before halting at the last moment. Of all the assassins, Broken Sword is the only one whom Nameless considers his equal in swordsmanship.\n",
"A very skilled swordsman and assassin, famous for being able to kill anybody or anything, dressed entirely in gray, including a gray cloth over his face. He also was assigned to capture or kill the Knights of the Dawn at Obsidian Waste, and kill the Eternals.\n",
"The weight of these swords, along with descriptions of them in literature like \"The Battle of Maldon\", indicates that they were used primarily for cutting and slashing rather than thrusting. Several Anglo-Saxon corpses were apparently injured or killed in this manner; the cemetery of Eccles in Kent contains three individuals who had sword cuts to the left side of their skull.\n",
"Mythology and folklore often exaggerate the skills of famous gunfighters. Most of these historical figures were not known to be capable of trick shooting, nor did they necessarily have a reputation for precision sharpshooting. Such tropes that are frequently seen in Westerns include shooting the center of a coin, stylistic pistol twirling, glancing shots that intentionally only graze an opponent (the bullet through the hat being an example), shooting an opponent's belt buckle (thus dropping his pants), a bullet cutting the hangman's rope, or shooting the guns out of opponents' hands (typically as an alternative to killing). The last was debunked by \"Mythbusters\" as an impossibility, as unjacketed bullets tend to shatter into fragments that can hurt or even kill. Ed McGivern dispelled the myth of the inaccuracy of pistol fanning by shooting tight groups while fanning the revolver.\n",
"In the end the One-Armed Swordsman defeats the Eight Kings and their armies, but by that time all of the sword fighting students who were helping him are dead. He leaves the last King, Unseen, to be killed by their vengeful masters as he and his wife return home.\n",
"Hostile swordsmen (Jaffar and his guards) are yet another obstacle. The player obtains a sword in the first stage, which they can use to fight these adversaries. The protagonist's sword maneuvers are as follows: advance, back off, slash, parry, or a combined parry-then-slash attack. Enemy swordsmen also have a health indicator similar to that of the protagonist. Killing them involves slashing them until their health indicator is depleted or by pushing them into traps while fighting.\n"
] |
why do i never have to poop when i'm on vacation or camping, but as soon as i come home, i'm taking the biggest shit of my life within minutes? | I'm no poop expert but I think it's a territorial thing. Think about our evolutionary ancestors. They were comfortable and safe pooping in familiar territory. If they were on a hunt for a Wooly Mammoth or something, the act of pooping would put them in a vulnerable position. | [
"Why don’t you stay in the wilderness? Because that isn’t where it is at; it’s back in the city, back in downtown St. Louis, back in Los Angeles. The final test is whether your experience of the sacred in nature enables you to cope more effectively with the problems of people. If it does not enable you to cope more effectively with the problems – and sometimes it doesn’t, it sometimes sucks you right out into the wilderness and you stay there the rest of your Life – then when that happens, by my scale of value; it’s failed. You go to nature for an experience of the sacred...to re-establish your contact with the core of things, where it’s really at, in order to enable you to come back to the world of people and operate more effectively. Seek ye first the kingdom of nature, that the kingdom of man might be realized. \n",
"The day trip or daycation is a popular form of recreation and leisure for families who care for young children or people who are too frail to travel easily or who own pets, or for whom the logistics or cost of a night away from home may be prohibitive.\n",
"Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation. Survivalist campers set off with as little as possible to get by, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is often enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, climbing, fishing, and hunting. Fastpacking involves both running and camping.\n",
"A common story is that of a group of hikers who leave their camp dirty with human waste and empty cans and bottles. Searching for water, the hikers find themselves befuddled, coming back to the same place over and over again. Only after they cleaned their camp did they manage to find water.\n",
"Camping is an outdoor activity involving overnight stays away from home in a shelter, such as a tent or an RV. Typically participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment. To be regarded as \"camping\" a minimum of one night is spent outdoors, distinguishing it from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities. Camping can be enjoyed through all four seasons.\n",
"The Tripping and Outback unit focuses on outdoor living, backpacking, and occasionally leaves camp for one-day or multi-day trips. Past and current trips include backpacking, biking, kayaking, river rafting, climbing, geocaching and more.\n",
"Visitors are expected to bring food and bedding with them. Sometimes there are books, cooking equipment and so forth left by previous visitors. A bothy book (visitors' book) is an important aspect of bothying culture. There is no system for reserving places or checking availability so, if the need arises, more people may squeeze in even if it means that some other people may decide to sleep outside in their tents. Visitors are only expected to stay for a short period – for a night or two – before moving on. Large groups – six or more – and commercial groups are not allowed.\n"
] |
how can people lose consciousness when a cabin or area depressurizes? can't you hold your breath for several minutes if you need to? | You can hold your breath in normal air pressure, but not really in low pressure environments. | [
"Any failure of cabin pressurization above requires an emergency descent to or the closest to that while maintaining the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA), and the deployment of an oxygen mask for each seat. The oxygen systems have sufficient oxygen for all on board and give the pilots adequate time to descend to below . Without emergency oxygen, hypoxia may lead to loss of consciousness and a subsequent loss of control of the aircraft. Modern airliners include a pressurized pure oxygen tank in the cockpit, giving the pilots more time to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The time of useful consciousness varies according to altitude. As the pressure falls the cabin air temperature may also plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of hypothermia or frostbite.\n",
"Cabin pressurization is the active pumping of compressed air into the cabin of an aircraft in order to ensure the safety and comfort of the occupants. It becomes necessary whenever the aircraft reaches a certain altitude, since the natural atmospheric pressure would be too low to supply sufficient oxygen to the passengers. Without pressurization, one could suffer from altitude sickness including hypoxia.\n",
"Unconsciousness in cases of accidental asphyxia can occur within 1 minute. Loss of consciousness results from critical hypoxia, when arterial oxygen saturation is less than 60%. \"At oxygen concentrations [in air] of 4 to 6%, there is loss of consciousness in 40 seconds and death within a few minutes\". At an altitude over , where the ambient oxygen concentration is equivalent to 3.6% at sea level, an average individual can perform flying duties efficiently for only 9 to 12 seconds without oxygen supplementation. The US Air Force trains air crews to recognize their individual subjective signs of approaching hypoxia. Some individuals experience headache, dizziness, fatigue, nausea and euphoria, and some become unconscious without warning.\n",
"Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.\n",
"An unconscious person, a person who is assessed on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) at eight or below, in a supine position (on the back) may not be able to maintain an open airway as a conscious person would. This can lead to an obstruction of the airway, restricting the flow of air and preventing gaseous exchange, which then causes hypoxia, which is life-threatening. Thousands of fatalities occur every year in casualties where the cause of unconsciousness was not fatal, but where airway obstruction caused the patient to suffocate. The cause of unconsciousness can be any reason from trauma to intoxication from alcohol.\n",
"Whether the crew members remained conscious long after the breakup is unknown, and largely depends on whether the detached crew cabin maintained pressure integrity. If it did not, the time of useful consciousness at that altitude is just a few seconds; the PEAPs supplied only unpressurized air, and hence would not have helped the crew to retain consciousness. If, on the other hand, the cabin was not depressurized or only slowly depressurizing, they may have been conscious for the entire fall until impact. Recovery of the cabin found that the middeck floor had not suffered buckling or tearing, as would result from a rapid decompression, thus providing some evidence that the depressurization may have not happened all at once.\n",
"Treatments of a person that is actively seizing follows a progression from initial response, through first line, second line, and third line treatments. The initial response involves ensuring the person is protected from potential harms (such as nearby objects) and managing their airway, breathing, and circulation. Airway management should include placing the person on their side, known as the recovery position, to prevent them from choking. If they are unable to breathe because something is blocking their airway, they may require treatments to open their airway.\n"
] |
what is light, wavelengths, and how do we see colour? | The eye contains cells called "rods" and "cones" that sense certain wavelengths of light. The brain interprets those signals as color, depending on the wavelength determines what color you see...
An interesting thing is the colors Pink/Maroon in that area don't actually exist in nature. they are a combination of multiple wavelengths that your brain interprets as pink/maroon. if you look at a rainbow/prism you will see there is no pink.... | [
"Visible light, a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, encompasses wavelengths between 380-750 nanometers, which humans perceive as the colors of the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Light behaves according to a well-defined set of rules: it travels in straight lines, unless otherwise refracted or reflected by another object, or curved by gravity.\n",
"Humans are able to see an array of colours because light in the visible spectrum is made up of different wavelengths (from 380 to 760 nm). Our ability to see in colour is due to three different cone cells in the retina, containing three different photopigments. The three cones are each specialized to best pick up a certain wavelength (420, 530 and 560 nm or roughly the colours blue, green and red). The brain is able to distinguish the wavelength and colour in the field of vision by figuring out which cone has been stimulated. The physical dimensions of colour include wavelength, intensity and purity while the related perceptual dimensions include hue, brightness and saturation.\n",
"In colorimetry and color theory, lightness, also known as value or tone, is a representation of variation in the perception of a color or color space's brightness. It is one of the color appearance parameters of any color appearance model. \n",
"Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's \"spectrum\" is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color [[Wikt:sensation|sensation]] in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In each such class the members are called \"[[Metamerism (color)|metamers]]\" of the color in question.\n",
"A spectral color is a color that is evoked in a normal human by a single wavelength of light in the visible spectrum, or by a relatively narrow band of wavelengths, also known as monochromatic light. Every wavelength of visible light is perceived as a spectral color, in a continuous spectrum; the colors of sufficiently close wavelengths are indistinguishable for the human eye.\n",
"Color is the element of art that is produced when light, striking an object, is reflected back to the eye. There are three properties to color. The first is hue, which simply means the name we give to a color (red, yellow, blue, green, etc.). The second property is intensity, which refers to the vividness of the color. A color's intensity is sometimes referred to as its \"colorfulness\", its \"saturation\", its \"purity\" or its \"strength\".The third and final property of color is its value, meaning how light or dark it is. The terms shade and tint refer to value changes in colors. In painting, shades are created by adding black to a color, while tints are created by adding white to a color.\n",
"Color vision is how we perceive the objective color, which people, animals and machines are able to distinguish objects based on the different wavelengths of light reflected, transmitted, or emitted by the object. In humans, light is detected by the eye using two types of photoreceptors, cones and rods, which send signals to the visual cortex, which in turn processes those colors into a subjective perception. Color constancy is a process that allows the brain to recognize a familiar object as being a consistent color regardless of the amount or wavelengths of light reflecting from it at a given moment.\n"
] |
how come you can see through smoke so easily & it's basically transparent, yet it casts such a dark shadow? | Rather like an uncaring wife's lies, isn't it? | [
"Fog shadows may look odd to viewers who are not used to seeing shadows in three dimensions. A thin fog is just dense enough to be illuminated by the light that passes through the gaps in a structure or in a tree. As a result, the path of an object's shadow through the fog becomes visible as a darkened volume. In a sense, these shadow lanes are the inverse of crepuscular rays caused by beams of light, but caused by the shadows of solid objects.\n",
"In principle, we cannot directly see a difference in temperature, a different gas, or a shock wave in the transparent air. However, all these disturbances refract light rays, so they can cast shadows. The plume of hot air rising from a fire, for example, can be seen by way of its shadow cast upon a nearby surface by the uniform sunlight.\n",
"Because of the reflective and refractive qualities of the smoke created by fog machines, they are often used in nightclubs and other entertainment venues to enhance the effects of lighting and laser arrangements, although they are being superseded by haze machines (see also light beam).\n",
"The effect of smoked glass can be incorporated into glass manufacture by adding darkening materials, such that light passing through the glass is decreased in brightness. It can be used aesthetically, for example, in the manufacture of coffee tables with smoked glass tops. It can also be used in scientific instruments as a filter, as in the use of smoked glass in cross-staves and sextants, allowing operators to make sun sightings without damaging their eyesight.\n",
"Smoke compositions used as obscurants generate large amount of thick, usually white, smoke. The most common smoke composition for pyrotechnic generation of smoke screens is the zinc chloride smoke mixture (HC).\n",
"Shadows are cast through fog in three dimensions. The fog is dense enough to be illuminated by light that passes through gaps in a structure or tree, but thin enough to let a large quantity of that light pass through to illuminate points further on. As a result, object shadows appear as \"beams\" oriented in a direction parallel to the light source. These voluminous shadows are created the same way as crepuscular rays, which are the shadows of clouds. In fog, it is solid objects that cast shadows.\n",
"Security smoke is a thermally generated white fog, aimed at inhibiting intruders from accessing items to steal, much used in the storage of high-value goods, and recommended by police and insurers. It consists of glycol or glycerine mixed with distilled water, which vaporises and then condenses in the air.\n"
] |
why is it considered okay for auto companies to basically turn the dash of a car into a touch screen tablet but it's illegal (in most places) for a person to use their phone while driving? | That's a good question. There are some differences, of course. A touchscreen navigation system doesn't let you send texts. The one I have in my car blanks out certain buttons when the car begins to move. For example, when the car is in motion, you cannot enter a navigation query. Nor can you dial a phone number manually (so don't make a phone call where you might have to dial "1" for english!), but you can choose one of your speed dial numbers. You can choose a playlist, and choose a song on the playlist--this is no more distracting, really, than fiddling with an ordinary car radio. And the navigation system is designed to accept voice commands after pressing a button on the steering wheel. Not to mention the navigation system's screen is in the dashboard, right below the windshield, so your eyes are not as far from the road as they would be whilst looking down at a cell phone. | [
"BULLET::::- – As of January 1, 2017, it is illegal to hold and use an electronic device while driving. Using a mobile device at a stop light is considered a distraction and leads to a ticket. In addition, a Global Positioning System (GPS) device should not be the center of the dash board. Using a cell phone as a GPS that requires the driver to touch or swipe the screen is also illegal.\n",
"Vehicle networking may be desirable due to difficulty with computer vision being able to recognize brake lights, turn signals, buses, and similar things. However, the usefulness of such systems would be diminished by the fact current cars are equipped with them; they may also pose privacy concerns.\n",
"First-party and third-party apps for mobile devices allow users to locate and reserve vehicles. When reserving a car online, the customers are able to see the car's fuel gauge (gasoline-powered cars) or the battery's state of charge (electric-powered cars), so if the customer wants to go for an extended drive, they can find the right car for that trip.\n",
"Concerns have also been raised on operating motor vehicles while wearing the device. On 31 July 2013 it was reported that driving while wearing Google Glass is likely to be banned in the UK, being deemed careless driving, therefore a fixed penalty offense, following a decision by the Department for Transport. In the U.S., West Virginia state representative Gary G. Howell introduced an amendment in March 2013 to the state's law against texting while driving that would include bans against \"using a wearable computer with head mounted display.\" In an interview, Howell stated, \"The primary thing is a safety concern, it [the glass headset] could project text or video into your field of vision. I think there's a lot of potential for distraction.\"\n",
"The scientific literature on the danger of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting. Due to the complexity of smartphones that began to grow more after, this has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.\n",
"In the August 2013 issue of \"Motor Age\" magazine, the NHTSA released voluntary guidelines covering the use of in-car infotainment and communication devices. \"Proposed items include disabling manual text entry and video-based systems prohibiting the display of text messages, social media or webpages while the car is in motion or in gear. The goal: Don't take the driver's eyes off the road for more than two seconds at a time, or 12 seconds in total by limiting drivers to six inputs or touches to the screen in 12 seconds\".\n",
"Increasingly, connected cars (and especially electric cars) are taking advantage of the rise of smartphones, and apps are available to interact with the car from any distance. Users can unlock their cars, check the status of batteries on electric cars, find the location of the car, or remotely activate the climate control system.\n"
] |
How are submarines always balanced? | Submariner here; there are an equal amount of ballast tanks on both the port and starboard side of the submarine, usually found more forward and aft of the ship, these are carefully weighed and monitored on a regular basis, and depending on the weight of each individual tank, the ship has different trims and lists. Hope that answered your question. | [
"The large size of these boats did negatively affect both surfaced and underwater maneuverability when compared to smaller submarines. There was no practical fix for this due to the limitations of the installed hydraulic systems that were used to move the rudder. Although a point of concern, the turning radius was still good enough to be acceptable. After the war, a few fleet boats were fitted with an additional rudder topside at the very stern.\n",
"BULLET::::- Traditionally, submarines were called \"boats\", perhaps reflecting their cramped conditions: small size reduces the need for power, and thus the need to surface or snorkel for a supply of the air that running marine diesel engines requires; whereas, in contrast, nuclear-powered submarines' reactors supply power without consuming air, and such craft are large, much roomier, and classed as ships in some navies.\n",
"Submarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between the tanks, changing weight distribution and pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes used to maintain stability.\n",
"Submarines of the United States Navy are built in classes, using a single design for a number of boats. Minor variations occur as improvements are incorporated into the design, so later boats of a class may be more capable than earlier. Also, boats are modified, sometimes extensively, while in service, creating departures from the class standard. However, in general, all boats of a class are noticeably similar.\n",
"The B-class boats were similar in design to the preceding A class and intended for coastal patrol work. The boats had a petrol engine for surface propulsion and batteries for underwater propulsion. The design was intended to overcome the limitations of speed, endurance and seakeeping that affected the boats of the A class, and the boats were substantially larger than the earlier class. The B-class submarines were long overall. They had a beam of and a draught of . They displaced on the surface and submerged. The boats were over longer, slightly wider, and displaced more than more than the older boats. Their additional size increased their buoyancy and made them far less liable to unexpectedly plunge beneath the surface in bad weather. The addition of a deck casing above the hull also improved their seakeeping abilities.\n",
"The great size of the boats (compared to their predecessors) led to control and depth-keeping problems, particularly as efficient telemotor controls had not yet been developed. This was made worse by the estimated maximum diving depth of being much less than their overall length. Even a 10-degree angle on the 339-foot-long hull would cause a difference in depth of the bow and stern, and 30 degrees would produce , which meant that while the stern would almost be on the surface, the bow would almost be at its maximum safe depth. The submarines were made more dangerous because the eight internal bulkheads were designed and tested during development to stand a pressure equivalent to only , risking their collapse if the hull was compromised at a depth below this figure.\n",
"All six of these submarines (and all subsequent U.S. Navy submarines up to the late 1940s) were built to a \"partial-double hull\" design. In this hull type, the inner pressure resisting hull is wrapped by an outer hydrodynamically smooth hull. The space between these two hulls is used for ballast and fuel tanks. The outer hull smoothly tapers into the pressure hull in the area of the forward and after torpedo room bulkheads, leaving the pressure hull exposed at the extreme ends of the boat. This is actually an advantage as it allows access to the pressure hull in these areas for maintenance. In a full double hull boat, the outer hull completely encompasses the pressure hull and the very narrow ends make it very hard to reach the pressure hull for repairs and maintenance.\n"
] |
Why arent steering wheels in the middle of vehicles??? | Passenger space, putting the driver's seat off-center lets you add a rear view mirror (and prior to that being a thing, the ability to look over your shoulder- placing the driver in the middle gave them a rather bad blind spot right behind them) which has a better view of what's immediately behind the car. You also have to consider that, traditionally, the engine *must* be placed in the center of the car, given that it's the heaviest thing *in* the car. There isn't a lot of good ways to have the steering column fit *around* that without putting the engine on a mount *behind* the car, which can add cost and complexity.
Then again, some of the first cars where rather *out there*:
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"Four-wheel steering has begun to be used on road cars (Some WW II reconnaissance vehicles had it). It relieves the effect of angular inertia by starting the whole car moving before it rotates toward the desired direction. It can also be used, in the other direction, to reduce the turning radius. Some cars will do one or the other, depending on the speed.\n",
"Rear wheel steering tends to be unstable because in turns the steering geometry changes hence decreasing the turn radius (over steer), rather than increase it (under steer). Rear wheel steering is meant for slower vehicles that need high-maneuverability in tight spaces, e.g. fork lifts.\n",
"Steering wheels for passenger automobiles are generally circular, and are mounted to the steering column by a hub connected to the outer ring of the steering wheel by one or more spokes (single spoke wheels being a rather rare exception). Other types of vehicles may use the circular design, a butterfly shape, or some other shape. In countries where cars must drive on the left side of the road, the steering wheel is typically on the right side of the car (right-hand drive or RHD); the converse applies in countries where cars drive on the right side of the road (left-hand drive or LHD).\n",
"The idea of four-wheel steering has been revisited in an electric vehicle ROboMObil of the German Aerospace Center. The vehicle stops in front of an empty parking spot and re-orients its four wheels in the perpendicular direction (leaving rubber marks on the road) to prepare for subsequent sideward motion.\n",
"Steering wheels are used in most modern land vehicles, including all mass-production automobiles, as well as buses, light and heavy trucks, and tractors. The steering wheel is the part of the steering system that is manipulated by the driver; the rest of the steering system responds to such driver inputs. This can be through direct mechanical contact as in recirculating ball or rack and pinion steering gears, without or with the assistance of hydraulic power steering, HPS, or as in some modern production cars with the assistance of computer-controlled motors, known as Electric Power Steering.\n",
"Steering geometry changes due to bumps in the road may cause the front wheels to steer in different directions together or independent of each other. The steering linkage should be designed to minimize this effect.\n",
"In an \"active\" four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the same time when the driver steers. In most active four-wheel steering systems, the rear wheels are steered by a computer and actuators. The rear wheels generally cannot turn as far as the front wheels. There can be controls to switch off the rear steer and options to steer only the rear wheels independently of the front wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite to the front wheels, reducing the turning radius, sometimes critical for large trucks, tractors, vehicles with trailers and passenger cars with a large wheelbase, while at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw and improved build-up of the lateral acceleration, enhancing straight-line stability. The \"snaking effect\" experienced during motorway drives while towing a travel trailer is thus largely nullified. \n"
] |
Did black politicians elected to office during Reconstruction attempt to stop disenfranchisement efforts? | While there were a significant number of black politicians elected during the Reconstruction period, they really never had a chance of stopping the wave of sentiment in favor of Jim Crow and other "separate but equal" legislation. In addition, despite blacks accounting for 40-70% of a state's population in the south, that same ratio didn't carry over to local, state, and federal representation.
By the time Jim Crow Laws were actually implemented towards the tail end of Reconstruction and beyond, southern Democrats had become so entrenched that it was pretty much an unstoppable force.
Ironically, it was two white politicians (Sumner and Ben Butler),that helped pass the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in a last-ditch effort to prevent these types of laws from being implemented. However, the Supreme Court ruled most of this law unconstitutional in 1883, and rest is history.
| [
"Politics during the Reconstruction proved to be quite difficult. During the first elections, the voter registration board only allowed supporters of African American suffrage to vote. In 1872, Edmund J. Davis, then governor of Texas, ordered Henry Ervay, then mayor of Dallas, to be removed from office. He refused and was jailed. The state supreme court ruled that the governor did not have the power to remove officials from office, and Ervay was released.\n",
"During the Reconstruction era, freedmen gained freedom, citizenship and the franchise. African Americans could vote in the state for the first time. They elected numerous representatives to local and state offices, despite being subject to intimidation and violence at the polls, increasingly so during the 1870s, when the Red Shirts, paramilitary groups representing conservative white Democrats, tried to suppress the black vote.\n",
"During the eleven-year period of Reconstruction, the newly freed slaves, called \"freedmen\", became sharecroppers, farming the land on shares with the landowners. They also acquired the right to vote and hold office. Together with \"carpetbaggers\" (Northerners who had come South seeking opportunities) and \"scalawags\" (Southern anti-slavery whites who had joined the Republican Party), the white supremacists lost their control of local and state government. Intimidated by the occupying Federal troops, the white supremacists were militarily and politically dominated by what they perceived as corrupt Republican administrations imposed upon them by force by their Northern enemies.\n",
"In the face of years of mounting violence and intimidation directed at blacks during Reconstruction, the federal government was unable to guarantee constitutional protections to freedmen and women. In the Compromise of 1877 President Hayes withdrew Union troops from the South; \"Redeemers\" (White Democrats) acted quickly to reverse the groundbreaking advances of Reconstruction. Black political power was eliminated in the 1880s, and in the 1890s new laws effectively blocked over 90% of the Blacks from voting (with some exceptions in Tennessee; blacks did vote in the border states).\n",
"BULLET::::- Reconstruction, an effort to secure the voting rights of former slaves, ultimately failed in the states of the former Confederate States of America as reactionary interests used violence and intimidation against freedmen as well as political legerdemain to disenfranchise African-Americans, including poll taxes and so-called literacy tests, for almost a century after the American Civil War, ensuring the continuing hegemony of élite agrarian interests at the expense of all other interests in the South until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.\n",
"Following the American Civil War, during Reconstruction the majority-black population of freedmen in the county gained emancipation and suffrage, participating for the first time in formal politics. They supported the Republican Party, as President Abraham Lincoln had gained their freedom. In the mid-1870s, the Red Shirts, a white paramilitary organization working on behalf of the Democratic Party, developed chapters in Mississippi. They worked to disrupt Republican meetings, suppress the black vote, and turn Republicans out of office so that white Democrats could regain control of the state legislature.\n",
"After the Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877, however, the former slave states subverted the objective of these changes by using various strategies to disenfranchise their black citizens, while obtaining the benefit of apportionment of representatives on the basis of the total populations. These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era, inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president.\n"
] |
why is the spotify "shuffle" feature still after all this time not random? | Since you haven't actually said what the problem with Spotify's shuffle feature it this is a hard question to answer specifically, so I'll answer for shuffling in general.
Short answer: Random gives bad results when shuffling songs.
Long answer: Shuffle isn't supposed to be random. Back in the day a shuffle is supposed to generate a random ordering for a given list of songs, so over the short term this means you won't hear a song shortly after it was already played, and over long term this guarantees that every song will get played an equal amount of time.
With the advent of the huge playlists people are getting shuffling has become a lot more complicated. Lets say you have three artists, if you get the same artist 4 times in a row then the human instinct is to feel that isn't 'random' but in actuality it's fairly likely to happen on long length scales. What a good 'shuffle' really means is that you get a playlist that appears random while maintaining 'diversity' (i.e. avoiding streaks of artists). This generally requires an algorithmic approach where different kinds of randomness are introduced at different times. | [
"Shuffle play is a mode of music playback in which songs are played in a randomized order that is decided upon for all tracks at once. It is commonly found on CD players, digital audio players and media player software. Shuffle playback prevents repeated tracks, which makes it distinct from random playback, in which the next track is chosen at random after the last track has ended.\n",
"Recurrent rotation refers to a group of songs still frequently aired on a contemporary hit radio station several months or even years after the initial debut. It is also used to describe core songs in other radio formats as well. Most charts have special rules to determine when a song has become recurrent, at which point they are removed from current charts (such as the \"Billboard\" Hot 100) and placed on special \"recurrent charts\". Recurrent charts tend to be more static, with fewer week-to-week changes in popularity than current charts.\n",
"On November 12, 2008, Super Shuffle was removed from the online line-up when the \"merged\" lineups were put in place between XM and Sirius. Its successor is XM's The 90s on 9, which covers some of the Super Shuffle playlist, even though the channel can also be heard on Sirius receivers.\n",
"\"Shuffle\" premiered on the same day as \"Boggle\". The two shows were quite similar; besides their similar formats, they shared the same theme song, sound effects, and set. (After \"Boggle\" finished taping, the set was re-decorated to make \"Shuffle\"'s set). \"Shuffle\" was the less successful of the two, being replaced with \"Jumble\" after 14 weeks.\n",
"When the shuffle format was introduced, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium, and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. Also, two video screens were installed–one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel, in order to take into account the show's transition to high-definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light-emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.\n",
"Schaffel (the German spelling to match the English pronunciation of \"shuffle\") is a style in progressive electronic music in which the beat is shuffled hard. Often triplet eighths are used to create swinging rhythms.\n",
"Shortly after launching, The Chart Show found itself being taken off air during a dispute with the Musicians' Union over the showing of music videos on ITV & Channel 4 which lasted throughout the summer of 1986. During this time, a show called \"Rewind\", made by the same production team, was aired. This consisted of performances from other music shows. The dispute was resolved by the end of the summer, and The Chart Show returned at the end of August.\n"
] |
why does lemon juice "cook" fish when making ceviche? | It doesn't actually cook the fish. The acid just denatures the proteins in fish meat in a similar process to cooking. It won't, for instance, kill pathogens in the fish. | [
"Lemon juice is used to make lemonade, soft drinks, and cocktails. It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing the meat, but the low pH denatures the proteins, causing them to dry out when cooked. In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes, especially on Shrove Tuesday.\n",
"Lemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados, where its acid denatures the enzymes.\n",
"While the lemon or orange are peeled to consume their pulpy and juicy segments, the citron's pulp is dry, containing a small quantity of insipid juice, if any. The main content of a citron fruit is the thick white rind, which adheres to the segments and cannot be separated from them easily. The citron gets halved and depulped, then its rind (the thicker the better) is cut in pieces, cooked in sugar syrup, and used as a spoon sweet, in Greek known as \"kitro glyko\" (κίτρο γλυκό), or it is diced and caramelized with sugar and used as a confection in cakes.\n",
"In Asian cuisines, the juice is used to marinate and season fish, fowl and pork. It is very commonly used as a condiment in Filipino cuisine dishes like pancit or lugaw, or in the basic \"sawsawan\" (dip) of calamansi juice and soy sauce/fish sauce used for fish, spring rolls, dumplings and various savoury dishes. It is also used in various beverages, notably as calamansi juice, a Filipino drink similar to lemonade.\n",
"Lemons contain numerous phytochemicals, including polyphenols, terpenes, and tannins. Lemon juice contains slightly more citric acid than lime juice (about 47 g/l), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice.\n",
"Lemon verbena leaves are used to add a lemon flavor to fish and poultry dishes, vegetable marinades, salad dressings, jams, puddings, Greek yogurt, and beverages. The leaves are also used in potpourri. Lemon verbena is used to make herbal teas and as a liqueur flavoring. It is used in traditional medicine in Latin-American countries. The oil was historically steam-distilled from the leaves for use in the perfume industry, but it has skin-sensitising and phototoxic properties.\n",
"Prune juice is a fruit juice derived from prunes (dried plums) that have been rehydrated. It is a mass-produced product that is often produced using a hot extraction method, and juice concentrate is typically produced using a low-temperature extraction method. It is used by some as a dietary supplement to act as a laxative and to alleviate constipation. It is also sometimes used as a flavor enhancer in tobacco products.\n"
] |
when you get up too quick and get dizzy | Let me know, this happens to me as well. Are you tall? I'm 6' 4, I always thought that could be a part of it | [
"Other signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.\n",
"A loss of blood pressure may partially explain the reported incidence of dizziness upon ingestion of heavy water. However, it is more likely that this symptom can be attributed to altered vestibular function.\n",
"Dizziness is another common symptom reported in about half of people diagnosed with PCS and is still present in up to a quarter of them a year after the injury. Older people are at especially high risk for dizziness, which can contribute to subsequent injuries and higher rates of mortality due to falls.\n",
"The main danger of vasovagal syncope (or dizzy spells from vertigo) is the risk of injury by falling while unconscious. Medication therapy could possibly prevent future vasovagal responses; however, for some individuals medication is ineffective and they will continue to have fainting episodes.\n",
"It can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, blurred or dimmed vision and fainting, because the brain does not get sufficient blood supply. This, in turn, is caused by gravity, pulling the blood into the lower part of the body.\n",
"He attended medical school at Vienna University, graduating in 1900. As a doctor in Vienna, Bárány was syringing fluid into the external auditory canal of a patient to relieve the patient's dizzy spells. The patient experienced vertigo and nystagmus (involuntary eye movement) when Bárány injected fluid that was too cold. In response, Bárány warmed the fluid for the patient and the patient experienced nystagmus in the opposite direction. Bárány theorized that the endolymph was sinking when it was cool and rising when it was warm, and thus the direction of flow of the endolymph was providing the proprioceptive signal to the vestibular organ. He followed up on this observation with a series of experiments on what he called the caloric reaction. The research resulting from his observations made surgical treatment of vestibular organ diseases possible. Bárány also investigated other aspects of equilibrium control, including the function of the cerebellum.\n",
"Common symptoms most frequently reported include a persistent sensation of motion usually described as rocking, swaying, or bobbing, disequilibrium with difficulty maintaining balance; it is seldom accompanied by a true spinning vertigo. Chronically fatigued, sufferers can become fatigued quickly with minimal exertion and experience neck and back pain. Other symptoms include the feeling of pressure in the brain, mostly around the frontal lobe area, headaches and/or migraine headaches, ophthalmodynia periodica (ice pick stabbing headaches in the early stages of MdDs), ear pain, ear fullness and possibly tinnitus.\n"
] |
why is it called rule 34? | Since time immemorial (i.e. at least the early ’90s), there have been various lists of “rules of the internet”. Different lists contained different rules in different orders. A witty observation could be phrased as a new “rule of the internet”. The number “34” is arbitrary; the idea that there is a single authoritative list, of which a given rule is the thirty-fourth, is part of the joke.
Several people have mentioned lists created on 4chan. One older list is as follows:
1. There is no cabal. (That is, there is no shadowy organization running everything on the internet. This was meant to be tongue-in-cheek, because there *was* an actual “[cabal](_URL_0_)” reorganizing major parts of the internet)
2. The internet interprets censorship as damage and routes around it. (Corollary: “information wants to be free”)
3. To every opinion there is an equally loud and opposite opinion. (Corollary: “In cyberspace, everyone can hear you scream.”)
4. “Godwin's law”: As a conversation goes on, the probability that one participant will compare another to Hitler approaches one. (Traditionally, once this happens, the conversation is over and the one who made the comparison is considered to have lost.) | [
"According to researchers Ogi Ogas and Sai Gaddam, \"Today, Rule 34 thrives as sacred lore on blogs, YouTube videos, Twitter feeds and social networking sites. It's frequently used as a verb, as in 'I Rule 34'ed Paula Abdul and Simon Cowell on the judging table'.\" They propose the reason why the maxim resonated with so many people is because it \"certainly seems true\" for \"anybody who has spent time surfing the Web.\"\n",
"As Rule 34 continued spreading on the Internet, traditional media began reporting on it. A 2009 \"Daily Telegraph\" article listed Rule 34 as third of the \"Top 10\" Internet rules and laws. A 2013 CNN story said Rule 34 was \"likely the most famous\" Internet rule that has become part of mainstream culture.\n",
"Rule 34 is a near-future science fiction novel by Charles Stross. It is a loose sequel to \"Halting State\", and was released on 5 July 2011 (US) and 7 July 2011 (UK). The title is a reference to Rule 34 of the Internet, which states that \"If it exists, there is porn of it. No exceptions.\" \"Rule 34\" was nominated for the 2012 Arthur C. Clarke Award and the 2012 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.\n",
"The rule of three and rule of five are rules of thumb in C++ for the building of exception-safe code and for formalizing rules on resource management. It accomplishes this by prescribing how the default members of a class should be used to accomplish this task in a systematic manner.\n",
"Title 34 of the United States Code is a non-positive law title of the United States Code with the heading \"Crime Control and Law Enforcement.\" Released on September 1, 2017 by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the U.S. House, it contains \"crime control and law enforcement programs or activities in which the Attorney General or the Department of Justice (or one of its components) have been given primary responsibility.\" Much of the law transferred to Title 34 were laws editorially classified to sections of Title 42 or set out as notes to Titles 42, 18, and 28.\n",
"Rule 48 was approved by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on December 6, 2007. It was invoked 77 times from 2008 to September 2015, but only used a few times. For example, it was used on January 22, 2008 and May 20, 2010, as well as September 1, 2015.\n",
"Cory Doctorow concludes, \"Rule 34 can be thought of as a kind of indictment of the Web as a cesspit of freaks, geeks, and weirdos, but seen through the lens of cosmopolitanism,\" which \"bespeaks a certain sophistication—a gourmet approach to life.\"\n"
] |
why did i lose 5.6 lbs of water after i went to the bathroom? | What are you weighing yourself with that is so accurate? | [
"Weight loss effects of water have been subject to some scientific research. Drinking water prior to each meal may help in appetite suppression. Consumption of 500 mL (approximately 17 fl oz) of water 30 minutes before meals has been correlated with modest weight loss (1–2 kg) in obese men and women over a period of 8 to 12 weeks.\n",
"I am thinking I may have an obsession about this water. The doctor has told me I am dehydrated; there's not enough water in my body. He suggested I should drink 2-3 liters of water every day. Mineral water or tea!\n",
"It can be very easy for children under one year old to absorb too much water, especially if the child is under nine months old. Because of their small body mass, it is easy for them to take in a large amount of water relative to body mass and total body sodium stores.\n",
"There has been a terrible waste of water in this small town. ... We sure as hell need to use less if we are going to have this modern convenience. To head off this catastrophe, only flush for No. 2, curtail bathing to the Saturday night tub, go back to the old washrag which could always remove a lot of B.O. if applied often enough. ...\n",
"Water losses, mostly from leakages, dropped to less than 20 percent in 2006, from 32 percent in 1996. The decline translates to a savings equal to the water needs of 930,000 people. Labor productivity stood at 2.3. employees per 1,000 connections in 2014, up from 6.1 in 1996.\n",
"In an interview with on April 28, 2009 with Mike Flannery, Scott was asked about health effects of drinking the contaminated water \"When asked if someone could have gotten sick from the water, Scott said, \"It's possible.\"\n",
"In 1978, at the age of 14, Showers lost both of his legs below the knee in an electrical accident. He later said of his disability, \"It really didn't faze me; it was kind of surreal. I just said, 'Come on, let's get it over with.' This was another challenge.\"\n"
] |
how are the football turf logos personalized & changed each game? | Most stadiums do not ever change their logos. The team (professional, school, etc) own the field and the logo of that team is on it.
Some artificial turfs have the ability to replace the logo section of the turf. It is expensive but can happen.
For real grass fields they will let the grass grow then when they cut the grass and "erase the logo" they paint the new logo in stead of the old. | [
"Beginning with the 2006 NFL season, the scoring banner was upgraded again. This time, real-time scores from around the league were included as a permanent fixture on the extreme right side of the bar, while the banner's coloring changed to the colors of the team currently in possession of the ball (this coloring scheme was seen only on football broadcasts). The banner no longer flashed after the scoring of runs, touchdowns or field goals. During baseball broadcasts, the diamond graphic appeared in middle-justification and was slimmed down to just the three main bases, unlike other implements which included home plate. This banner, after first being used for NFL broadcasts in 2006, was eventually expanded to Bowl Championship Series, NASCAR and baseball broadcasts; baseball telecasts, however, continued to use the late-2005 scoring banners and graphics in 2007. In 2008, Fox NASCAR introduced a new camera embedded between turns one and two on the various tracks; it was soon known as \"Digger Cam\", unveiled alongside a gopher mascot named Digger. For the 2009 season, the 2006 graphics package was dropped entirely for Fox's baseball telecasts and replaced with the new Fox Sports Net graphics, which had debuted on baseball telecasts across FSN's affiliates that season. These were later repositioned for widescreen in July 2010, when Fox Sports began presenting all of its high definition programming content in the aspect ratio, with letterboxing on standard definition feeds relayed to pay television providers.\n",
"Starting with the 2004 postseason, Fox's baseball broadcasts began using the same graphics package that debuted with NFL telecasts in 2003. The score banner was changed to match the layout adopted by the network's football coverage at the start of the 2004 season, but using the abbreviations of the teams playing instead of their logos. Team abbreviations were shown this time in electronic eggcrate lettering in the team's main color, the shaded area above the score banner was removed, and the scores were shown in white text in black parallelograms. Whenever team-specific information was displayed in the banner such as a scored run or an out, the abbreviation would morph into the team logo with the scored run being displayed; the team who would score a run would have its abbreviation morph into its logo and a \"strobe light\" would flash over the black parallelogram as the score changes. When a home run was displayed in the banner, a split \"strobe light\" would flash a few times across the banner with the words \"HOME RUN (team)\" in the team's color then zooming in to the center from both left and right angles, accompanied by two distorted electric buzzes followed by a futuristic computer sounder. This marked the first time that a home run was displayed in the banner. When it appeared, flashing lights spanning the top of the screen with two moving lines on top and bottom would join to morph into the banner; when first formed, the team logos were shown before changing into the abbreviations. When it was removed, the banner became just a quick beam of light spanning the top of the screen, which would disappear very quickly.\n",
"Each football field has a unique crown and contour and is not perfectly flat in order to facilitate drainage, so a 3D model is made of the field prior to the game. Due to the low amount of change throughout a football season, this 3D model is usually only generated once a season at most. It also has a unique color palette, typically various shades of green, depending on the type of surface (i.e. real or artificial grass) and the weather (e.g. bright, shady or even snowing). In addition, after cameras are set up, the position of the camera relative to the field is established to be used in conjunction with the previously created 3D model of the field.\n",
"The field design underwent full-scale changes beginning with the 2004 season. At midfield, the large white script “A” was replaced with the crimson script “A” logo, encircled by a crimson ring which has \"Alabama Crimson Tide\" written around it. In addition, the end zone designs were changed to a crimson block-style font outlined in white.\n",
"Mike Silver of NFL.com reported that on the morning of game day, officials discovered the logos at midfield and in the end zones had been painted using paint which was not intended for use on the newly installed FieldTurf. Subsequently, the paint had not fully dried, and officials heated the field to speed up the drying process, causing the turf's rubber to melt; the affected areas were described as being slick and \"like cement,\" making it impossible to get decent footing. Stadium officials attempted to address this by applying paint thinner to the turf, but a Packers employee noticed a label warning that the paint thinner could result in severe burns when exposed to skin, and alerted them to the discovery. When officially cancelling the game, both the league and the Players Association cited safety concerns.\n",
"The lower third graphics adopt the column layout for player info graphics used by several other sports broadcasters. The portion containing the player's name is stacked on the left, with the team's primary color in the background of the name panel. Other statistics are shown on a gray background on panels to the right. The score banner is gray with team abbreviations listed over their primary color and next to their logo. For Sunday game broadcasts, the \"NFL on CBS\" logo is placed on the left; the \"NFL\" portion disappears and is replaced by the down and distance, \"Flag\", or \"Official Review\". Also for the Sunday broadcasts, challenges and statistics drop down from the bar. The only scoring play which used an animation is a touchdown, which involves the team logo and the word \"Touchdown\" appearing in place of the banner. Timeout indicators are located above the team abbreviations for Sunday broadcasts, and a possession indicator is located to the right of the abbreviation.\n",
"Most professional and collegiate teams have their logo, team name, or both painted on the surface of the end zone, with team colors filling the background. Many championship and bowl games at college and professional level are commemorated by the names of the opposing teams each being painted in one of the opposite end zones. In some leagues, along with bowl games, local, national, or bowl game sponsors may also have their logos placed in the end zone. In the CFL, fully painted end zones are nonexistent, though some feature club logos or sponsors. Additionally, the Canadian end zone, being a live-ball part of the field, often features yardage dashes, not unlike the field of play itself.\n"
] |
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