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reduction of in-group favoritism. Additionally, research that focused on implicit (or unconscious)
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biases found that perspective-taking can lead to reduced implicit bias scores (as measured by the
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Implicit-association test) as well as more recognition of subtle discrimination.
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In disagreements
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Research has looked at the potential differences that could arise when one is having a conversation
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with another person whom they agree with versus having a conversation with someone with whom they
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disagree. This research found that participants who interacted with people with whom they disagreed
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had enhanced perspective-taking ability and could better remember the conversation.
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Drawbacks
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Some researchers have suggested that there may be some drawbacks to perspective-taking. For
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example, studies have found that asking people to engage in perspective-taking tasks can lead to
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increased stereotyping of the target if the target is deemed as having more stereotypic qualities
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and adopting stereotypic behaviors of outgroup members.
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Other animals
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Although studies have been done to assess if nonhuman animals are able to successfully engage in
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perspective-taking the literature has not drawn consistent conclusions. Many of these studies
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assess perspective-taking by training animals on specific tasks or by measuring the consistency of
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animals to follow the eye gaze of humans. Researchers highlight that being able to successful
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follow another's eye gaze could indicate that the animal is aware that the human is seeing and
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paying attention to something that is different from what they see.
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One study that assessed the perspective-taking abilities in spider monkeys and capuchin monkeys
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found that these primates successfully performed eye gazing tasks which led researchers to conclude
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that the monkeys demonstrated some ability to consider another person's viewpoint. However, another
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study that utilized an eye gazing method in assessing perspective-taking found that Rhesus monkeys
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were unsuccessful at eye gazing tasks.
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Other studies suggest that dogs have complex social understanding. One study assessed the potential
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for perspective-taking in dogs by telling a dog that they were not allowed to eat a treat and then
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placing the food in a location that the dog could reach. These researchers found that dogs were
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more likely to eat the treat after being instructed not to if there was a barrier that hid the dog
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from the instructor. Additionally, dogs were less likely to eat the treat if the barrier was of
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smaller size or had a window in it. However, this study also showed that dogs struggled in other
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tasks that focused on the dog's own visual attention. These researchers suggest that this study
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provides evidence that dogs may be aware of other's visual perspectives.
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See also Role reversal Role-taking theory References
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Cognition Group processes Human communication
9841_0
List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1951. 1951 U.S. and Canadian Fellows
9841_1
William Ross Abrams, Graphic Artist, Deià, Majorca, Spain: 1951.
9841_2
Alfred Adler (academic)|Alfred Adler. French: 1951.
9841_3
Paul Julius Alexander. Near Eastern Studies: 1951, 1965.
9841_4
Henry N. Andrews, Jr., Professor Emeritus of Biology, University of Connecticut: 1951, 1958, 1961.
9841_5
Oliver Luther Austin, Jr. Biology: 1951.
9841_6
Jacob Avshalomov, Composer; Conductor Laureate, Portland Youth Philharmonic, Portland, Oregon:
9841_7
1951.
9841_8
Alma Joslyn Whiffen-Barksdale. Biochemistry-Molecular Biology: 1951. Appointed as Alma Joslyn
9841_9
Whiffen.
9841_10
Howard A. Bern, Emeritus Professor of Zoology, University of California, Berkeley: 1951.
9841_11
Edmund Grindlay Berry, Professor Emeritus of Classics, University of Manitoba: 1951.
9841_12
Arthur Cecil Bining. U.S. History, British History: 1951.
9841_13
Jerome Blum. German and East European History: 1951, 1971.
9841_14
Woodrow Borah, Abraham D. Shepard Professor Emeritus of History, University of California,
9841_15
Berkeley: 1951, 1958.
9841_16
Benjamin Botkin. Folklore: 1951. Julian Boyd. U.S. History: 1951.
9841_17
Alexander Brady (political scientist)|Alexander Brady. Political Science: 1951.
9841_18
Harrison Scott Brown. Chemistry: 1951. George Edward Burch. Medicine: 1951.
9841_19
Charles Edward Butler. Fiction: 1951. Robert Francis Byrnes. Russian History: 1951.
9841_20
Lily Bess Campbell. English Literature: 1951. Mildred Lucile Campbell. U.S. History: 1951.
9841_21
Rachel Carson. Biology: 1951. John Cheever. Fiction: 1951, 1960.
9841_22
Gilbert Chinard. French: 1951, 1956. Alan Frank Clifford. Chemistry: 1951, 1952.
9841_23
James Lowry Clifford. 18th-century English literature: 1951, 1965.
9841_24
Thomas Wellsted Copeland. 18th-century English literature: 1951, 1963.
9841_25
Robert Brainard Corey. Chemistry: 1951. William Steel Creighton. Biology: 1951, 1952.
9841_26
Ingolf Dahl. Music Composition: 1951, 1960. Farrington Daniels. Chemistry: 1951.
9841_27
Joseph DeMartini. Fine Arts: 1951. George Hathaway Dession. Political Science: 1951.
9841_28
E. Talbot Donaldson. Medieval Studies: 1951, 1977.
9841_29
Harry George Drickamer, Professor Emeritus of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Physics,
9841_30
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: 1951.
9841_31
Maxwell John Dunbar. Biology: 1951. Albert A. Ehrenzweig. Law: 1951.
9841_32
Norman E. Eliason. Linguistics: 1951. Sterling Howard Emerson. Genetics: 1951.
9841_33
John King Fairbank. East Asian Studies: 1951, 1959.
9841_34
Joseph Wiley Ferrebee, Retired Research Physician, Rancho Santa Fe, California: 1951.
9841_35
Ralph Hartzler Fox. Mathematics: 1951. Henri Frankfort. Near Eastern Studies: 1951.
9841_36
Douglas Southall Freeman. Biography-U.S. History: 1951.
9841_37
Carl J. Friedrich. Political Science: 1951, 1954.
9841_38
Richard Nelson Frye, Aga Khan Professor Emeritus of Iranian, Harvard University: 1951, 1975.
9841_39
Frederick A. Fuhrman, Professor Emeritus of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford
9841_40
University: 1951.
9841_41
Albrecht Goetze. Linguistics: 1951. Richard Benedict Goldschmidt, Deceased. Biology: 1951.
9841_42
William Goyen. Fiction: 1951, 1952. Horace Victor Gregory. Biography: 1951.
9841_43
Donald Jay Grout. Music Research: 1951, 1952. William Henry Paine Hatch. Religion: 1951, 1953.
9841_44
John Edward Heliker. Fine Arts- Painting: 1951.
9841_45
Joyce Hemlow, Shields Professor Emeritus of English, McGill University: 1951, 1960, 1966.
9841_46
Heinrich Edmund Karl Henel. Germanics: 1951, 1954. Albert Leon Henne. Chemistry: 1951.
9841_47
Su-Shu Huang. Astronomy-Astrophysics: 1951.
9841_48
Ruth Hoffmann Hubbard, Professor Emeritus of Biology, Harvard University: 1951.
9841_49
Walter Lee Hughes, Professor Emeritus of Physiology, Tufts University School of Medicine: 1951.
9841_50
Robert Benjamin Irwin. Education: 1951. Lewis Iselin. Fine Arts-Sculpture: 1951.
9841_51
Nathan Jacobson, Henry Ford, 2nd, Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, Yale University: 1951.
9841_52
Thomas H. Johnson. American Literature: 1951.
9841_53
William Weed Kaufmann, Retired Lecturer in Public Policy, John F. Kennedy School of Government,
9841_54
Harvard University; Professor Emeritus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: 1951.
9841_55
Edna Beatrice Kearney, Research Chemist, Veterans Administration Hospital and University of
9841_56
California Medical Center, San Francisco: 1951.
9841_57
Ruth Lee Kennedy. Spanish: 1951. Kenneth Earl Kidd. Anthropology: 1951.
9841_58
Bertram Shirley Kraus. Anthropology: 1951.
9841_59
Michael Kraus. Professor Emeritus of History, City College, City University of New York: 1951.
9841_60
Robert F(rank) Kurka. Music Composition: 1951, 1952.
9841_61
Cecil Yelverton Lang, John Stewart Bryan Professor of English, University of Virginia: 1951.
9841_62
Albert Lester Lehninger. Biochemistry: 1951, 1962.
9841_63
Hal Lehrman, Writer, Ridgewood, New Jersey: 1951, 1953. Clarence Cook Little: Biology: 1951.
9841_64
William Dougald MacMillan. 18th-century English literature: 1951.