manu/mldr-zoomed-100char-total-queries-documents

chunk_id stringlengths 3 9	chunk stringlengths 1 100
9839_367	Guide to software quality assurance (ESA)
9839_368	Guide to applying the ESA software engineering standards to small software projects (ESA)
9839_369	An Overview of ESA Software Product Assurance Services (NASA/ESA)
9839_370	Our approach to quality in Volkswagen Software Dev Center Lisbon Google Style Guides
9839_371	Ensuring Product Quality at Google (2011) NASA Software Assurance NIST Software Quality Group
9839_372	OMG/CISQ Automated Function Points (ISO/IEC 19515) OMG Automated Technical Debt Standard
9839_373	Automated Quality Assurance (articled in IREB by Harry Sneed)
9839_374	Structured Testing: A Testing Methodology Using the Cyclomatic Complexity Metric (1996)
9839_375	Analyzing Application Quality by Using Code Analysis Tools (Microsoft, Documentation, Visual
9839_376	Studio, 2016)
9839_377	Systems thinking Quality Source code
9840_0	Perspective-taking is the act of perceiving a situation or understanding a concept from an
9840_1	alternative point of view, such as that of another individual. There is a vast amount of scientific
9840_2	literature that has looked at perspective-taking and suggests that it is crucial to human
9840_3	development, and that it may lead to a variety of beneficial outcomes. Perspective-taking is
9840_4	related to other theories and concepts including theory of mind and empathy. Both theory and
9840_5	research have suggested ages when children are able to begin to perspective-take and how that
9840_6	ability develops over time. Research has also suggested that certain people that have attention
9840_7	deficit hyperactivity disorder with comorbid conduct problems (such as Oppositional Defiant
9840_8	Disorder) or autism may have reduced ability to engage in perspective-taking. Additionally, studies
9840_9	have been conducted to assess the brain regions involved in perspective-taking. These studies
9840_10	suggest that several regions may be involved, including the prefrontal cortex and the precuneus.
9840_11	Additionally, studies suggest that perspective-taking may be possible in some non-human animals.
9840_12	Definition
9840_13	Perspective-taking is the step by which an individual views a situation from another's
9840_14	point-of-view. Within the scientific literature, perspective-taking has been defined along two
9840_15	dimensions: perceptual and conceptual. Perceptual perspective-taking is defined as the ability to
9840_16	understand how another person experiences things through their senses (i.e. visually or
9840_17	auditorily). Most of this literature has focused on visual perspective-taking: the ability to
9840_18	understand the way another person sees things in physical space. Conceptual perspective-taking is
9840_19	defined as the ability to comprehend and take on the viewpoint of another person's psychological
9840_20	experience (i.e. thoughts, feelings and attitudes). For instance, one can visualize the viewpoint
9840_21	of a taller individual (perceptual/visual) or reflect upon another's point of view on a particular
9840_22	concept (conceptual).
9840_23	Related terms
9840_24	Theory of mind
9840_25	Theory of mind is the awareness that people have individual psychological states that differ from
9840_26	one another. Within perspective-taking literature, the term perspective-taking and theory of mind
9840_27	are sometimes used interchangeably and some studies use theory of mind tasks in order to test if
9840_28	someone is engaging in perspective-taking. Some research, however, has highlighted that the two
9840_29	concepts are related but different, with theory of mind being the recognition that another person
9840_30	has different thoughts and feelings and perspective-taking being the ability to take on that other
9840_31	person's point of view.
9840_32	Empathy
9840_33	Empathy has been defined as the ability for someone to share the same emotions another person is
9840_34	having. Empathy and perspective-taking have been studied together in a variety of ways. Within the
9840_35	scientific literature, there are not always clear lines of distinction between empathy and
9840_36	perspective-taking, and the two concepts are often studied in conjunction with one another and
9840_37	viewed as related and similar concepts. Some research has distinguished the two concepts and
9840_38	pointed out their differences, while other literature has theorized that perspective-taking is one
9840_39	component of empathy.
9840_40	In development Visual
9840_41	Previous studies have assessed the age at which humans are capable of visual perspective-taking.
9840_42	Various studies within the literature have drawn different conclusions.
9840_43	In 1956, Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder conducted a study to assess the visual perspective-taking
9840_44	abilities of young children which has come to be known as the three mountain problem. This study
9840_45	found that by the ages of 9-10, children were able to successfully complete the three mountain
9840_46	problem and seemed able to understand that when someone is standing in a different location (i.e.
9840_47	on a different mountain top) they would have a different view. However, children ages 8 and under
9840_48	struggled with this task.
9840_49	Since this classic study, a number of studies have suggested that visual perspective-taking may be
9840_50	possible earlier than the age of 9. For example, a study that used a different method to assess
9840_51	visual perspective-taking suggested that children may be able to successfully visually
9840_52	perspective-take by the age of 4.5 years old. In this study, 4.5-year-old children were able to
9840_53	understand that someone sitting closer to a picture would have a better view of that picture.
9840_54	However, these researchers found that children who were 3 and 3.5 years old struggled with this
9840_55	task which led them to conclude that the age range of 3 to 4.5 years old could be crucial in
9840_56	perspective-taking development.
9840_57	Additionally, developmental psychologist John H. Flavell suggested that there are two levels of
9840_58	visual perspective-taking that emerge as children develop. Level 1 perspective-taking is defined as
9840_59	the ability to understand that someone else may see things differently and what another person can
9840_60	see in physical space. For example, one could understand that while an object may be obstructing
9840_61	their own view, from where another person is standing they can see a cat in the room. Level 2
9840_62	perspective-taking, however, is defined as the understanding that another person can see things
9840_63	differently in physical space and how those objects are organized from that other person's point of
9840_64	view. For example, a person can understand that from another person's point of view they can see a
9840_65	dog to the right but from their own point of view the dog is to the left.
9840_66	Studies have since been done to examine when children are able to demonstrate level 1 and level 2
9840_67	perspective-taking. These studies have shown that children at 24 months old and 14 months old may
9840_68	be able to engage in level 1 perspective-taking. Research also suggests that children can engage in
9840_69	level 2 perspective-taking as early as 2.5 years old.
9840_70	Studies have also suggested that visual perspective-taking ability improves from childhood to
9840_71	adulthood. For example, in comparing 6-year-olds, 8-year-olds, 10-year-olds and adults (averaging
9840_72	at 19 years of age) researchers found that as people's age increased, visual perspective-taking
9840_73	tasks could be done with more accuracy and speed.
9840_74	Conceptual
9840_75	In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, he suggests that perspective-taking begins in the
9840_76	concrete operational stage (third stage) which ranges from ages 7–12. It is within this stage that
9840_77	the idea of decentration is introduced as a cognitive ability. Decentration was defined as the
9840_78	ability to take into account the way others perceive various aspects of a given situation.
9840_79	Another developmental perspective-taking theory was created by Robert L. Selman and entitled social
9840_80	perspective-taking theory (also known as Role-taking theory). This theory suggests that there are
9840_81	five developmental stages involved in perspective-taking ranging from ages 3–6 (characterized by
9840_82	egocentrism or an inability to think of things from another's point of view) to teenagers and
9840_83	adults (where people can understand another person's point of view and this understanding is
9840_84	informed by recognizing another person's environment and culture). The theory suggests that as
9840_85	humans age from childhood to adulthood their ability to perspective-take improves. Studies by
9840_86	Selman and colleagues suggest that children are able to perspective-take in different ways at
9840_87	different ages.
9840_88	Other studies assess that children can begin to take on the viewpoint of another person considering

9839_367

Guide to software quality assurance (ESA)

9839_368

Guide to applying the ESA software engineering standards to small software projects (ESA)

9839_369

An Overview of ESA Software Product Assurance Services (NASA/ESA)

9839_370

Our approach to quality in Volkswagen Software Dev Center Lisbon Google Style Guides

9839_371

Ensuring Product Quality at Google (2011) NASA Software Assurance NIST Software Quality Group

9839_372

OMG/CISQ Automated Function Points (ISO/IEC 19515) OMG Automated Technical Debt Standard

9839_373

Automated Quality Assurance (articled in IREB by Harry Sneed)

9839_374

Structured Testing: A Testing Methodology Using the Cyclomatic Complexity Metric (1996)

9839_375

Analyzing Application Quality by Using Code Analysis Tools (Microsoft, Documentation, Visual

9839_376

Studio, 2016)

9839_377

Systems thinking Quality Source code

9840_0

Perspective-taking is the act of perceiving a situation or understanding a concept from an

9840_1

alternative point of view, such as that of another individual. There is a vast amount of scientific

9840_2

literature that has looked at perspective-taking and suggests that it is crucial to human

9840_3

development, and that it may lead to a variety of beneficial outcomes. Perspective-taking is

9840_4

related to other theories and concepts including theory of mind and empathy. Both theory and

9840_5

research have suggested ages when children are able to begin to perspective-take and how that

9840_6

ability develops over time. Research has also suggested that certain people that have attention

9840_7

deficit hyperactivity disorder with comorbid conduct problems (such as Oppositional Defiant

9840_8

Disorder) or autism may have reduced ability to engage in perspective-taking. Additionally, studies

9840_9

have been conducted to assess the brain regions involved in perspective-taking. These studies

9840_10

suggest that several regions may be involved, including the prefrontal cortex and the precuneus.

9840_11

Additionally, studies suggest that perspective-taking may be possible in some non-human animals.

9840_12

Definition

9840_13

Perspective-taking is the step by which an individual views a situation from another's

9840_14

point-of-view. Within the scientific literature, perspective-taking has been defined along two

9840_15

dimensions: perceptual and conceptual. Perceptual perspective-taking is defined as the ability to

9840_16

understand how another person experiences things through their senses (i.e. visually or

9840_17

auditorily). Most of this literature has focused on visual perspective-taking: the ability to

9840_18

understand the way another person sees things in physical space. Conceptual perspective-taking is

9840_19

defined as the ability to comprehend and take on the viewpoint of another person's psychological

9840_20

experience (i.e. thoughts, feelings and attitudes). For instance, one can visualize the viewpoint

9840_21

of a taller individual (perceptual/visual) or reflect upon another's point of view on a particular

9840_22

concept (conceptual).

9840_23

Related terms

9840_24

Theory of mind

9840_25

Theory of mind is the awareness that people have individual psychological states that differ from

9840_26

one another. Within perspective-taking literature, the term perspective-taking and theory of mind

9840_27

are sometimes used interchangeably and some studies use theory of mind tasks in order to test if

9840_28

someone is engaging in perspective-taking. Some research, however, has highlighted that the two

9840_29

concepts are related but different, with theory of mind being the recognition that another person

9840_30

has different thoughts and feelings and perspective-taking being the ability to take on that other

9840_31

person's point of view.

9840_32

Empathy

9840_33

Empathy has been defined as the ability for someone to share the same emotions another person is

9840_34

having. Empathy and perspective-taking have been studied together in a variety of ways. Within the

9840_35

scientific literature, there are not always clear lines of distinction between empathy and

9840_36

perspective-taking, and the two concepts are often studied in conjunction with one another and

9840_37

viewed as related and similar concepts. Some research has distinguished the two concepts and

9840_38

pointed out their differences, while other literature has theorized that perspective-taking is one

9840_39

component of empathy.

9840_40

In development Visual

9840_41

Previous studies have assessed the age at which humans are capable of visual perspective-taking.

9840_42

Various studies within the literature have drawn different conclusions.

9840_43

In 1956, Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder conducted a study to assess the visual perspective-taking

9840_44

abilities of young children which has come to be known as the three mountain problem. This study

9840_45

found that by the ages of 9-10, children were able to successfully complete the three mountain

9840_46

problem and seemed able to understand that when someone is standing in a different location (i.e.

9840_47

on a different mountain top) they would have a different view. However, children ages 8 and under

9840_48

struggled with this task.

9840_49

Since this classic study, a number of studies have suggested that visual perspective-taking may be

9840_50

possible earlier than the age of 9. For example, a study that used a different method to assess

9840_51

visual perspective-taking suggested that children may be able to successfully visually

9840_52

perspective-take by the age of 4.5 years old. In this study, 4.5-year-old children were able to

9840_53

understand that someone sitting closer to a picture would have a better view of that picture.

9840_54

However, these researchers found that children who were 3 and 3.5 years old struggled with this

9840_55

task which led them to conclude that the age range of 3 to 4.5 years old could be crucial in

9840_56

perspective-taking development.

9840_57

Additionally, developmental psychologist John H. Flavell suggested that there are two levels of

9840_58

visual perspective-taking that emerge as children develop. Level 1 perspective-taking is defined as

9840_59

the ability to understand that someone else may see things differently and what another person can

9840_60

see in physical space. For example, one could understand that while an object may be obstructing

9840_61

their own view, from where another person is standing they can see a cat in the room. Level 2

9840_62

perspective-taking, however, is defined as the understanding that another person can see things

9840_63

differently in physical space and how those objects are organized from that other person's point of

9840_64

view. For example, a person can understand that from another person's point of view they can see a

9840_65

dog to the right but from their own point of view the dog is to the left.

9840_66

Studies have since been done to examine when children are able to demonstrate level 1 and level 2

9840_67

perspective-taking. These studies have shown that children at 24 months old and 14 months old may

9840_68

be able to engage in level 1 perspective-taking. Research also suggests that children can engage in

9840_69

level 2 perspective-taking as early as 2.5 years old.

9840_70

Studies have also suggested that visual perspective-taking ability improves from childhood to

9840_71

adulthood. For example, in comparing 6-year-olds, 8-year-olds, 10-year-olds and adults (averaging

9840_72

at 19 years of age) researchers found that as people's age increased, visual perspective-taking

9840_73

tasks could be done with more accuracy and speed.

9840_74

Conceptual

9840_75

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, he suggests that perspective-taking begins in the

9840_76

concrete operational stage (third stage) which ranges from ages 7–12. It is within this stage that

9840_77

the idea of decentration is introduced as a cognitive ability. Decentration was defined as the

9840_78

ability to take into account the way others perceive various aspects of a given situation.

9840_79

Another developmental perspective-taking theory was created by Robert L. Selman and entitled social

9840_80

perspective-taking theory (also known as Role-taking theory). This theory suggests that there are

9840_81

five developmental stages involved in perspective-taking ranging from ages 3–6 (characterized by

9840_82

egocentrism or an inability to think of things from another's point of view) to teenagers and

9840_83

adults (where people can understand another person's point of view and this understanding is

9840_84

informed by recognizing another person's environment and culture). The theory suggests that as

9840_85

humans age from childhood to adulthood their ability to perspective-take improves. Studies by

9840_86

Selman and colleagues suggest that children are able to perspective-take in different ways at

9840_87

different ages.

9840_88

Other studies assess that children can begin to take on the viewpoint of another person considering