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290_5	The first rapid transit line was the Holmenkoll Line, opened in 1898, with the branch Røa Line opening in 1912. It became the first Nordic underground railway in 1928 when the underground line to Nationaltheatret was opened. The Sognsvann Line opened in 1934 and the Kolsås Line in 1942. The opening of the upgraded metro network on the east side of town occurred in 1966, after the conversion of the 1957 Østensjø Line, followed by the new Lambertseter Line, the Grorud Line and the Furuset Line; in 1993 trains ran under the city between the two networks in the Common Tunnel, followed by the 2006 opening of the Ring Line. Between 2006 and 2010 the system is replacing the older T1000 stock with MX3000 stock. Tramway
290_6	The tramway () consists of six lines running , with 99 stops and a daily ridership of 100,000—accounting for 20% of total public transport in Oslo. It is operated by Oslotrikken, a subsidiary of the municipal owned Kollektivtransportproduksjon, who maintain the track and 72 tram vehicles. The system operates on standard gauge and uses 750 volt direct current. Depot, workshops and headquarters are at Grefsen (at the terminus of lines 17 and 18). Commuter rail
290_7	The commuter rail has eight services which all operate from Oslo. The system is operated by Norges Statsbaner (NSB), who use Class 69, Class 72 and now Class 74 electric multiple units. The infrastructure is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration. All services serve the three railway stations of Oslo Central Station (Oslo S), Nationaltheatret and Skøyen, with all eight services operating east of Oslo S and four operating west of Skøyen. The system has services that extend along the Gjøvik, Trunk, Gardermoen, Kongsvinger, Østfold, Eastern Østfold, Drammen, Spikkestad and Sørland Lines. All but one line extend into neighboring counties. Lines 400 and 500 (along the Østfold, Trunk and Drammen Lines) serve the suburban areas of Oslo, and have 30 or 15-minute headways. The other six lines cover towns further away, and normally have 30 or 60-minute headways. Line 450 serves Oslo Airport, Gardermoen.
290_8	The services are financed by the Ministry of Transport and Communications, but Ruter pays NSB additional subsidies to provide travellers with Ruter's fares, which are lower than NSB's regular fares. The service on the Gjøvik Line was made subject to public service obligation, and will be operated by the company NSB Gjøvikbanen until 2015. The Ruter tickets are also valid on NSB regional trains, within their geographic area of coverage, which gives more departures to choose from, when going between the most important stations. Bus Bus transport is the dominant form of public transport in Akershus, and there is also an extensive bus network in Oslo.
290_9	Ferry The main ferry route connects the peninsula of Nesodden—located on the other side of the fjord of Oslo—with Aker Brygge and Lysaker. This service was traditionally served by municipal owned Nesodden–Bundefjord Dampskipsselskap, but from 2009 the PSO contract was won by Tide Sjø. The other ferry services are operated by Oslo-Fergene, that run from Vippetangen to the Oslo Islands.
290_10	Non-Ruter public transport Several public transport services in Oslo and Akershus are outside the jurisdiction of Ruter, mainly because they are self-financing or because they represent intercity transport. NSB operates both intercity and regional trains to several parts of the country, though these normally have restrictions on transport within Oslo and Akershus. NOR-WAY Bussekspress and several other coach companies operate intercity coach services to Oslo, but these are also hindered from providing transport within Oslo and Akershus. Oslo Airport, Gardermoen is served by both the Flytoget (the Airport Express Train) and several airport coaches, all that are outside Ruter's jurisdiction, despite the airport being in Akershus. History Ruter was created on 1 January 2008 as a merger between Oslo Sporveier and Stor-Oslo Lokaltrafikk, that were the public transport authority for Oslo and Akershus, respectively. Akershus
290_11	Stor-Oslo Lokaltrafikk or SL was the public transport authority for bus and ferry transport in Akershus from 1973 to 2007. SL was organized as a limited company owned by the Akershus County Municipality, the City of Oslo and the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications, with a third each. The company planned, marketed and organized the public transport in Akershus, but did not operate any buses or ferries—instead it issued contracts to operating companies based on public service obligation.
290_12	The company was created in 1973 in part to help coordinate the public transport around Oslo. The metropolitan area of Oslo stretches beyond the city limits into the county of Akershus. This had created problems coordinating public transport between the counties. All buses operated on contract for SL were uniformly painted green and SL took care of marketing and customer relations for the bus companies. The companies that operate for SL at the time of the merger was Nettbuss, Norgesbuss, Schau's Buss, Schøyens Bilcentraler, Veolia Transport Norge and UniBuss. In addition ferries were operated by Nesodden–Bundefjord Dampskipsselskap and Sandvika Fjordturer. Oslo
290_13	Oslo got its first public transport with Kristiania Sporveisselskab building a tramway in 1875. By 1894, it was joined by Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei. The two private companies were supplemented by the municipal Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie 1899, but since they were operating the least desirable routes, the city chose to sell the unprofitable company in 1905. In 1924 the concessions of the two private tramway companies expired, and the municipality created Oslo Sporveier to take over all tramway operations in the capital.
290_14	The company started with bus transport in 1927, including from 1940 to 1968 trolleybuses. Since 1966 rapid transit and from 1985 water buses have also been operated by the company. The company gradually took over all suburban tramways in Oslo and Bærum, and eventually also operated all bus routes in Oslo. Oslo Sporveier painted their buses red to differentiate them from those operating in Akershus. The first PSO contracts were issued in 1991, and in 1997 it was reorganized as a corporation with operating subsidiaries. References External links Ruter # Public transport administrators of Norway Public transport in Akershus Public transport in Oslo Companies owned by municipalities of Norway County-owned companies of Norway Companies based in Oslo Norwegian companies established in 2008 Transport companies established in 2008 Akershus County Municipality Oslo Municipality
291_0	Albert Sidney Johnston High School served as a comprehensive, coeducational high school in the Austin Independent School District from 1960 to 2008. Located in Austin, Texas, the school was named after General Albert Sidney Johnston, who served as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas and as a brigadier general for the Texian Army of the Republic of Texas, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. From its inception in 1960, Johnston High School was well known for a wide variety of vocational and technical programs that prepared students for work in such fields as cosmetology, printing, auto mechanics, industry and business. Primarily a school for the Hispanic and African-American students of East Austin, Johnston High School grew to be a 5A school and weathered the challenges of desegregation, forced busing, and the end of desegregation.
291_1	From 1988 to 2002, Johnston High School housed the signature Liberal Arts Academy, a college-preparatory liberal arts magnet program that brought students to Johnston High School from throughout the Austin independent school District. Beginning in 2004, Johnston High School hosted International High School, a "school within a school" that provided an intensive English program for ninth- and tenth-grade immigrant and refugee students who were bused to Johnston High School from throughout Austin. In 2008, Johnston High School was the first school in Texas to be closed and reconstituted under the accountability system of Texas Education Agency Commissioner Robert Scott. School Information School Name In 1958, the Austin School Board approved the construction of a new high school in East Austin, some 3,000 feet from a bend in the Colorado River. Construction on the facility—originally named Riverside High School—began in 1959.
291_2	The program for the school's 25th jubilee in 1985 suggests that the school was named Riverside High School "partly because it was on the [Colorado] river, but also because there was a well-known high school in Fort Worth at the time named Riverside High School." The school's 1985 yearbook similarly shares, "While under construction, Johnston was called Riverside High School because it was near the Colorado River. Things soon changed. ‘River rats’ wasn't an appropriate nickname [for a mascot]." The 1985 jubilee program confirms that even before the school was opened, "the nickname ‘Riverside Rats’ was already being applied. So several students at Allan Junior High, who would be coming to the new high school, petitioned the school board to change the name. Besides, hidden in the school board regulations was a ruling that stated that all schools in Austin must be named for a person and that person must be dead."
291_3	Students of Allan Junior High submitted a list of possible names for a renamed school. The list of possible names that came before the Austin School Board included such heroes as David Crockett, John H. Reagan, Sidney Lanier, and Albert Sidney Johnston, an American Civil War hero buried in Austin.
291_4	Board minutes reflect that the school board ceded to the request of future students to change the name of the school to honor "some historical or educational figure such as the other high schools of the city." Three names were ultimately considered by the Board: Davy Crockett High School, Coronado High School, and Albert Sidney Johnston High School.
291_5	With heightened activities focused on the centennial celebration of the American Civil War (1860–1865), the school was renamed after Albert Sidney Johnston, an American Civil War general buried at the Texas State Cemetery, 3.5 miles west of the school. The next two high schools built by the Austin Public Schools during the centennial celebration would also be named for Confederate heroes: Sidney Lanier High School (which opened in 1961) and John H. Reagan High School (which opened in 1965), prompting some to speculate that the naming of these three schools for Confederate heroes was a "push to glorify the Confederacy as a deliberate slap in the face to minorities and the federal government after the 1954 Supreme Court school desegregation decision Brown v. Board of Education."
291_6	It seems that Albert Sidney Johnston, a native-Kentuckian, was relatively unknown at that time. In an Austin Statesman article entitled, "Yes, Ma’m, He’s Texan," Anita Brewer wrote, "Some Austinites are perplexed about this man, Johnston. Just who was this fellow? Why was he important enough for the Austin Board of Education and the future students of Austin’s new eastside high school to scuttle a perfectly good name like 'Riverside' to name the school for Johnston? The School Board voted unanimously Monday night to rename the new school the Albert Sidney Johnston High School…. Historians are cheering the board’s decision as a fine one and a belated and overdue tribute to one of the greatest of the early Texans." A photo of Johnston's tomb at the Texas State Cemetery was featured in the newspaper, with the caption, "Johnston interest is revived as School Board names new high school for famed Confederate.”
291_7	With Founding Principal Gordon Bailey's death thirty years later, on January 27, 1990, alumni rallied to rename Johnston High School for their longtime principal of happy memory. In May 1990, a petition was brought by alumni to the Board of Trustees of the Austin independent school District, to rename the school for Bailey. The school's newspaper reported: “‘Papa Bailey,’ as he was affectionately called, often met his students at the door each day. His devotion to the school was deep, working weekends and coming in to help do school repairs himself. It is this kind of spirit that moved his alumni to attempt to honor him with a renaming of the school [to which] he gave so much. But many students now attending Johnston reacted with disbelief and protest. ‘When you take the name, you also take our identity,’ Joy A. Foster said." The Board did not rename the school for Bailey in 1990, but broke ground in 1992 for a middle school in Austin named in Bailey's memory.
291_8	In 2008, Johnston High School was the first high school in Texas to be closed under a new state accountability system. In August 2008, a new high school, Eastside Memorial High School, was opened in the same facility. In 2009, the school was divided into two campuses: Eastside Green Tech and Eastside Global Tech. On May 23, 2011, partly to honor the legacy of Johnston High School, the school was renamed Eastside Memorial High School at the Johnston Campus. Memorabilia from Johnston High School can be found at the Johnston Rams Legacy Hall, located inside the cafeteria of Eastside Memorial High School at the Johnston Campus. School Colors
291_9	The Johnston High School colors were scarlet and Columbia blue, colors often associated with the flags of the Confederate States of America. The program for the school's 25th jubilee shares that "students of the new school chose everything. It was their school" and that the choice of Columbia blue was "somewhat rare as a school color at the time." The choice of Columbia blue is interesting insofar as Confederate flags typically contain navy blue; a lighter blue, similar to Columbia blue, was contained in the Second Confederate Navy Jack (1863–1865). School spirit often centered around "the Red & Blue," and various school programs and events incorporated the colors.
291_10	School Songs The Johnston High School song, or alma mater, was "Loyal Hearts," which was sung to the tune of Jean Sibelius’ "Finlandia." The words were: “With loyal hearts, we hail our alma mater, praising her name for all the world to hear. Her colors fly up in the sky triumphantly and wave us on to glorious victory. Her Red & Blue, her spirits true do testify of (or ‘to’) praises sung for mighty Johnston High!” The lyrics are attributed to Jacqueline McGee, an English teacher & yearbook sponsors at Johnston High School, who would later become the school's first Dean of Girls, then Austin’s first woman principal, first at Burnet Junior High and later at Stephen F. Austin High School. The program for the school's 25th jubilee in 1985 notes that "the tradition of linking little fingers during the school song was, according to Mr. Bailey, a common tradition among high schools at the time and a symbol of unity among the students."
291_11	Johnston also had a fight song entitled "Fighting Rams." Its lyrics were: “We are the Rams of Johnston High. Invincible we stand, united in our praises of the best school in the land. Let’s give a cheer, a rousing cheer. Let’s fight to win the game. In victory, we’ll crown our school with glory and fame. Let’s fight! Let’s fight! For Johnston High, let’s fight! Let’s fight for the Red & Blue and victory tonight! Go! Fight! Go, Rams! Go!” School Mascot The mascot of Johnston High School was the ram.
291_12	The program for the school's 25th jubilee in 1985 shares that "students of the new school chose everything. It was their school, …and the principal, Mr. Bailey, was determined that they should have a voice in selecting everything from its mascot to its yearbook name." The school's 1985 yearbook shares that "rumors circulate that a ram was selected since a ram once roamed free around the school when it was first built and nothing but cow pastures surrounded the school. Another version accounting for the name was that since the Los Angeles Rams were a popular and powerful football team at the time Johnston was seeking a mascot, the Rams were a likely choice." The program for the school's 25th jubilee confirms, "The students selected the Ram as their mascot because the Los Angeles Rams were a powerful football team at the time."
291_13	School yearbooks suggest that during the school's first year, the Fall Student Council led an effort to purchase a ram, named "King Ramses I," which accompanied students to athletic competitions. During the school's second year, the Boys’ Service Club was formed to take care of the mascot and to transport it to and from athletic competitions. After the death of King Ramses I in 1964, the Boys’ Service Club mounted its head in the front hall of the school, and a new mascot by the same name was purchased.
291_14	The program for the school's 25th jubilee in 1985 offers a slightly different history: that “many high schools had live mascots in the 60s, and Johnston was no exception. A live ram was given to the school by a student’s father; he was promptly named Ramses. He was kept at a student’s house, but he went to all football games. At one game, another team was represented by a live horse with a student rider. The horse was spooked by Ramses and nearly threw his rider. The school board then ruled that no school could have a live mascot. So Johnston had to get rid of Ramses! A student group at the time, perhaps the Boys’ Club, decided to slaughter him and use the cooked meat as a fundraiser. The feast was held at a local restaurant, and Ramses’ head was stuffed and mounted and hung in the main hall of Johnston. The head was taken down in 1983 because of its dirtied condition and is being cleaned.”
291_15	The program continues: “After the demise of Ramses, the school was adopted by a second ‘mascot.’ A small black-and-white dog decided he would be Johnston's mascot, guard dog, and general care-taker. His name seems to be lost in the caverns of individual memories; some people claim he was called ‘Ramsey,’ others ‘Ramses II,’ and others say he was simply ‘Ram.’ At any rate, he was allowed to roam the halls and eat in the cafeteria. He had enough sense not to disturb classes, and the students had enough sense not to take him to football games. Ramsey and Johnston were very happy together until—one day, the circus came to town. And when the circus left, Ramsey was gone. Whether he was dog-napped, was killed, or voluntarily left for excitement and adventure was never known. But Johnston has not had a live mascot since.”
291_16	The school later purchased the costume of a ram for a new mascot, which was named "Rambo" after the protagonist John Rambo in the 1980s film series starring Sylvester Stallone. By 2001, the costume had suffered enough wear that a new Rambo costume was purchased. Because the school mascot was the ram, the school was often referred to as "Ramland," and students and athletes alike were often referred to as Rams and Ramettes. History Opening In 1958, the Austin School Board approved a new high school in East Austin for students graduating from the nearby Allan Junior High School, which desegregated that same year. Construction on the facility—originally named Riverside High School—began in 1959. In 1960, with heightened activity focused on the centennial celebration of the American Civil War (1860–1865), the school was renamed after Albert Sidney Johnston, a Civil War general buried at the Texas State Cemetery, 3.5 miles west of the school.
291_17	Albert Sidney Johnston High School opened in 1960 under the leadership of Austin Public Schools Superintendent Dr. Irby B. Carruth and Johnston High School Principal Gordon A. Bailey, who led the school for 12 years. The school's 1985 Jubilee program notes that Johnston High School was opened in February 1960 with a single administrator, Mr. Bailey, overseeing the education of 325 sophomores and juniors. The following Fall, another administrator, Vice Principal Wallace Dockall, was added to help oversee the growing student body, which now comprised sophomores, juniors and seniors. Albert Sidney Johnston High School graduated its first senior class of 80 students in 1961. In the Fall of 1962, the ninth-grade class was moved from Allan Junior High School, making Johnston High School a full, four-year high school. Desegregation and Resegregation
291_18	The desegregation of public schools in Austin was a long and arduous process. The U.S. Department of Education had accepted the district's plan for desegregation in 1955, but the plan was still not implemented in 1966. In 1956, 13 African-American students were integrated into Austin's "White" high schools; integration did not occur at the junior high level until 1958 when the first African-American student was integrated into the "White" Allan Junior High School, near Johnston High School. The first integration of faculty in Austin did not occur until 1964 when world history teacher William Akins (after whom Akins High School in the Austin independent school District is named) was the first African-American teacher to be integrated at Johnston High School. Akins was one of three teachers to be integrated into "White" schools in 1964, with the other two, B.T. Snell and Narveline Drennan, being assigned to teach at the nearby Allan Junior High School.
291_19	In July 1971, after various failed attempts by the Austin ISD to desegregate its schools, a U.S. District Court judge ordered the immediate implementation of a busing plan that would transport over 13,000 Austin students to integrated schools at a cost of more than $1 million. Two pages of the 1972 Johnston High School yearbook were dedicated to largely negative reactions to busing by students. One student was reported as saying, "They ought to hang [busing] up. It’s not contributing to education. It’s just causing more hatred amongst the Black and White pupils because they can’t get along with each other." The same yearbook reported that violent incidents erupted "as well as some well-spread rumors of upcoming violence," and that "thousands of students stayed away from school on May 1 [1972], which was being called ‘Bloody Monday,’ because of expected violence on local [Austin] campuses."
291_20	While forced busing was appealed through the courts, the school's 1974 yearbook reported a great deal of persistent segregation. A White world geography teacher shared, "The browns sit together, the blacks sit together, and the whites sit by me." Other teachers observed, "My students tend to segregate themselves," "there is a lot of racial prejudice but it is well contained," and "[students] get along fine because all the browns sit together and all the blacks sit together. There are a few that mix."
291_21	According to the school's 1980 yearbook, "desegregation, busing, rumor and question marks occupied students, faculty in winter of ’79." In January 1980, a series of desegregation appeals were finally settled by Judge Jack Roberts, and a tri-ethnic desegregation plan of forced busing, affirmative action hiring, and bilingual education was implemented for the Austin ISD in the Fall of 1980 with $3.4 million of emergency aid from the federal government. The school's yearbook reported, “The almost decade-long desegregation case of AISD was finally coming to an end; Johnston High was in the midst of the issue. When school began, students, parents, and faculty knew of the changes coming to Johnston High School. What kind of changes? That was still not decided when school began. Yet, we decided not to wait for the final outcome of the court battles, appeals and counter-appeals.”
291_22	After the court-ordered busing was effected, students were bused to Johnston from northwest, southwest and south Austin. The demographics of Johnston High School quickly and dramatically changed, as evidenced by the White faces of the school's homecoming court and the "Who’s Who" section of its subsequent yearbooks. In 1985, the school's homecoming court was entirely White, and only one of 24 students in the "Who’s Who" section of the yearbook had a Hispanic surname. The White editor of the 1984 yearbook shared an idyllic view of racial integration: "Busing would take kids from the different parts of town and all the different walks of life, and gather them all together in one school. Both parents and students alike objected to the busing. Many people went to private schools, or moved into a different school district. Those that went along with busing did suffer some, but the majority of the students had no regrets later. The Johnston Senior Class was one made up of all sorts of
291_23	people and, through the years, they became very close. No integration was fully satisfied, but the Senior Class has made the first step in creating a unified bond between the different sections of the city."
291_24	For many, Johnston High School was a model for desegregation. An April 25, 1983, article in Time magazine noted how the school used to be, in the words of Principal Adan Salgado, "the doormat of the district," but that "the administration [subsequently] began beefing up the academic program, installing the school system’s first computer center and adding advanced courses in French, Latin, math, biology and chemistry…. In 1980, 90% of the students were below grade level in math; by 1982, the figure had improved to 54%."
291_25	Johnston High School again made the news when President Ronald Reagan cited the Time magazine article during a press conference on May 17, 1983, noting how local officials were taking the initiative to transform schools without federal aid and the court-ordered desegregation that Reagan often opposed. The New York Times offered a corrective, noting that court-ordered busing and $368,000 in federal aid "transformed the Johnston High School from a decaying slum school into an institution that has gained national attention for educational excellence." The paper quoted Principal Adan Salgado, who shared that President Reagan "did not really understand our situation. He did not have all the facts." Salgado noted that the President's decision to eliminate federal funding under the Emergency School Assistance Act negatively impacted the Johnston community, which, before desegregation through busing, was "99 percent Mexican-American and black, …the ‘doormat of the district.’" The article
291_26	continued: “Before that, Mr. Salgado said, his school was deteriorating badly, suffering from poor attendance, low achievement and lack of parental involvement. He said the Federal aid allowed him to keep promises to parents about school improvements. New classrooms were built, the gymnasium and locker rooms were remodeled, courses in Latin and computer sciences were added, and new band uniforms were purchased.”
291_27	The school's 1985 jubilee program shared that 55% of Johnston students at that time were bused to the school from other parts of Austin and that the school was then 50% Anglo, 30% Mexican-American and 20% African-American, “thus reflecting the general population of Austin.” Within seven years, desegregation ended. By 1983, the Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals had determined that the Austin ISD had removed all remaining vestiges of segregation and was now free from federal interventions, like the busing mandate, paving the way for the district's decision to end forced busing in 1987. The school's 1987 yearbook reported, "Topping the local news in 1986–87 was the Austin independent school Board’s decision to stop desegregation. As a result of this decision, most students will be attending neighborhood schools, regardless of racial distribution. The new districting plan will make Johnston a vocational magnet school."
291_28	By 2006, the Daily Texan would report that Austin ISD schools "had begun to slip into patterns of racial isolation mirroring the east-west residential divide" and that "Austin ISD is part of a nationwide trend of school re-segregation caused by the dismantling of court-ordered desegregation plans." The article pointed out that with the end of busing, the percentage of students who passed state standardized tests fell from 60% to 20%. Vocational education The Liberal Arts Academy International High School Decline and Closure Leadership Principals of Johnston High School Dr. Gordon A. Bailey (1960–1972)
291_29	Leroy Fenstemaker (1973–1974) Adan C. Salgado (1975–1986) Irma Novoa (1987–1991) Hector Montenegro (1992–1995) Phil Rambikur (interim 1996) James Wilson (1999) Alejandro Mindiz-Melton (1999–2000) resigned Dorothy Orebo (interim 2000) James Richardson (2000) resigned Darrel Baker (interim 2000) Cathy Cunningham (interim 2001) Sal Cavazos (2001–2002) resigned Dr. Donna Calzada (interim 2002–2003) Tabita Gutierrez (2004–2005) Celina Estrada-Thomas (2005–2008) Magnet School and Academy Directors • Director of the Liberal Arts Academy at Johnston High School, Dr. Paula Tyler (1987–2002) Director of the Academy of Arts and Humanities, Jacquelyn Robertson (2005–2008) Director of the Academy of Scientific Inquiry and Design, Jonathan Harris (2005–2008) Director of Academy of Technology, Scott Lipton (2005–2007) References
291_30	Arriola, E.R. (1998) University of Texas School of Law. AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION BEING PROVIDED, UNDER THE GOVERNANCE OF THE AUSTIN INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT, TO THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN AND MEXICAN-AMERICAN (HISPANIC/LATINA/O) CHILDREN OF THE CITY OF AUSTIN https://www.academia.edu/12902000/AN_INVESTIGATION_INTO_THE_QUALITY_OF_EDUCATION_BEING_PROVIDED_UNDER_THE_GOVERNANCE_OF_THE_AUSTIN_INDEPENDENT_SCHOOL_DISTRICT_TO_THE_AFRICAN-AMERICAN_AND_MEXICAN-AMERICAN_HISPANIC_LATINA_O_CHILDREN_OF_THE_CITY_OF_AUSTIN Cuban, L. (2010). As Good As It Gets: What School Reform Brought to Austin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Whitaker, R. Austin Chronicle. Community and Committee Back Johns Hopkins as Eastside Partner http://www.austinchronicle.com/blogs/news/2013-05-06/community-and-committee-back-johns-hopkins-as-eastside-partner/ External links
291_31	Hearing on East Side Memorial High School School Showdown https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UimTCupiDm4&feature=player_embedded/Public Bill Gates – A Forum on Education in America. Failure of the Small Schools Initiative. [1] http://www.gatesfoundation.org/media-center/speeches/2008/11/bill-gates-forum-on-education-in-america D.L. Bearden (2008). University of New England. Successes and Failures at a Comprehensive Urban High School: A Study of Small School Redesign https://www.academia.edu/1501152/Successes_and_Failures_at_a_Comprehensive_Urban_High_School_A_Study_of_Small_School_Redesign/ Johnston High School Facebook https://www.facebook.com/ASJohnstonRams Johnston High School yearbooks http://johnstonhighschool.org/austin-tx/yearbooks.html Public high schools in Texas Educational institutions established in 1960 1960 establishments in Texas Educational institutions disestablished in 2008 2008 disestablishments in Texas
292_0	Bruno Richard Hauptmann (November 26, 1899 – April 3, 1936) was a German-born carpenter who was convicted of the abduction and murder of the 20-month-old son of aviator Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh. The Lindbergh kidnapping became known as "The Crime of the Century". Hauptmann proclaimed his innocence to the end, but he was convicted of first degree murder and executed in 1936 in the electric chair at the New Jersey State Prison.
292_1	Background Hauptmann was born Bruno Richard Hauptmann in Kamenz, a town near Dresden in the Kingdom of Saxony, which was a state of the German Empire; he was the youngest of five children. Neither he nor his family or friends used the name "Bruno," although prosecutors in the Lindbergh kidnapping trial referred to him by that name. He had three brothers and a sister. At age 11, he joined the Boy Scouts (Pfadfinderbund). Hauptmann attended public school during the day while attending trade school (Gewerbeschule) at night, studying carpentry for the first year, then switching to machine building (Maschinenschlosser) for the next two years. Hauptmann's father died in 1917. During that same year, Hauptmann learned that his brother, Herman, had been killed fighting in France in World War I. Not long after that, he was informed that another brother, Max, had also been killed while fighting in Russia. Shortly thereafter, Hauptmann was conscripted and assigned to the artillery.
292_2	Upon receiving his orders, he was sent to Bautzen but was transferred to the 103rd Infantry Replacement Regiment upon his arrival. In 1918, Hauptmann was assigned to the 12th Machine Gun Company at Königsbrück. Hauptmann later claimed he was deployed to western France with the 177th Regiment of Machine Gunners in either August or September 1918, then fought in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel; that he was gassed in September or October 1918; and that he was struck in the helmet by shrapnel from shelling, knocking him out so that he was left for dead. When he came to, he crawled back to safety and was back on duty that evening.
292_3	After the war, Hauptmann and a friend robbed two women wheeling baby carriages they were using to transport food on the road between Wiesa and Nebelschütz. The friend wielded Hauptmann's army pistol during the commission of this crime. Hauptmann's other charges include burglarizing a mayor's house with the use of a ladder. Released after three years in prison, he was arrested three months later on suspicion of additional burglaries. Hauptmann illegally entered the United States by stowing away on an ocean liner. Landing in New York City in November 1923, the 24-year-old Hauptmann was taken in by a member of the established German community and worked as a carpenter. He married a German waitress, Anna Schoeffler (1898–1994), in 1925 and became a father eight years later. Hauptmann was described as being slim and of medium height, but broad-shouldered. His eyes were small and deep-set. Lindbergh kidnapping
292_4	Crime and investigation On the evening of March 1, 1932, Charles Lindbergh Jr., son of aviator Charles Lindbergh, was kidnapped from Highfields, New Jersey; a homemade ladder was found under the window of the child's room. The $50,000 demanded in a ransom note had been delivered by Dr. John F. Condon, but the infant's body was found on May 12 in woods from the family's home. The death was ascribed to a blow to the head, which some have theorized occurred accidentally during the abduction. On September 15, 1934, a bank teller realized that the serial number on a $10 gold certificate deposited by a gas station was on the list of Lindbergh ransom bills. On the bill's margin, the attendant had written the license plate number of the customer's car, which turned out to be Hauptmann's. Hauptmann was placed under surveillance by the New York City Police Department, New Jersey State Police, and the FBI.
292_5	On September 19, Hauptmann realized he was being watched and attempted to escape, speeding and running through red lights. He was captured after finding himself blocked by a truck on Park Avenue just north of Tremont Avenue in the Bronx. Trial His trial was dubbed the "Trial of the Century", while Hauptmann was named "The Most Hated Man in the World". Evidence against Hauptmann included: $14,600 of the ransom money found in his garage; testimony alleging handwriting and spelling similarities to that found on the ransom notes; testimony that lumber used in constructing the ladder probably originated in Hauptmann's house; Condon's address and telephone number found written on the inside of one of Hauptmann's closets; and what appeared to be a hand-drawn sketch of a ladder found in one of Hauptmann's notebooks. Experts retained by the defense were never called to testify.
292_6	During the trial, Hauptmann was identified as the man who received the ransom money, the man who had spent some of the ransom gold certificates, and as a man seen near the Lindbergh home on the day of the kidnapping. He had been absent from work on the day of the ransom payment and had quit his job two days later. Hauptmann's attorney, Edward J. Reilly, argued that the evidence against Hauptmann was entirely circumstantial, as no reliable witness had placed Hauptmann at the scene of the crime, nor were his fingerprints found on the ladder, the ransom notes, or anywhere in the nursery. Hauptmann was convicted, however, and immediately sentenced to death. His appeals failed, though his execution stayed twice while New Jersey Governor Harold G. Hoffman reviewed the case.
292_7	Execution On April 3, 1936, Hauptmann was executed in the electric chair at the New Jersey State Prison. Reporters present said he made no statement. His spiritual advisor said that Hauptmann told him, before being taken from his cell, "Ich bin absolut unschuldig an den Verbrechen, die man mir zur Last legt" ("I am absolutely innocent of the crimes with which I am charged"). Hauptmann's widow Anna had his body cremated. Two Lutheran pastors conducted a private memorial service in German. A crowd of some 2,000 gathered outside. Anna Hauptmann died in 1994 at age 95.
292_8	Guilt questioned In the latter part of the 20th century, the case against Hauptmann came under serious scrutiny. For instance, one item of evidence at his trial was a scrawled phone number on a board in his closet, which was the number of the man who delivered the ransom, John F. Condon. A juror at the trial said this was the one item that convinced him the most; according to some accounts, a reporter later admitted he had written the number himself.
292_9	Additionally, neither Lindbergh nor the go-between who delivered the ransom initially identified Hauptmann as the recipient. Condon, after seeing Hauptmann in a lineup at New York Police Department Greenwich Street Station told FBI Special Agent Turrou that Hauptmann was not "John," the man whom Condon claimed he had passed the ransom money to in St. Raymond's Cemetery. He further stated that Hauptmann looked different (for instance that he had different eyes, was heavier, and had different hair), and that "John" was actually dead because he had been murdered by his confederates.
292_10	While waiting in a car nearby, Lindbergh heard the voice of "John" calling to Condon during the ransom drop-off, but never saw him. Although he testified before the Bronx grand jury that he heard only the words "Hey, Doc!", and that it would be very difficult to say he could recognize a man by his voice, he identified Hauptmann as having the same voice during his trial in Flemington. The police beat Hauptmann while in custody at the Greenwich Street Station.
292_11	Other coverage has said that certain witnesses were intimidated, and some claim that the police planted or doctored evidence, such as the ladder; or that the police doctored Hauptmann's time cards and ignored fellow workers who stated that Hauptmann was working the day of the kidnapping. These and other findings prompted J. Edgar Hoover, the first Director of the FBI, to question the manner in which the investigation and the trial were conducted. Hauptmann's widow campaigned until the end of her life to have her husband's conviction reversed.
292_12	Erastus Mead Hudson was a fingerprint expert who knew about the then-rare silver nitrate process of collecting fingerprints from wood and other surfaces on which the previous powder method would not work. He found that Hauptmann's fingerprints were not on the wood, even in places that the man who made the ladder must have touched. Upon reporting this to a police officer and stating that they must look further, the officer said, "Good God, don't tell us that, Doctor!" The ladder was then washed of all fingerprints, and Colonel Norman Schwarzkopf, Sr, the Superintendent of the New Jersey State Police, refused to disclose to the public that Hauptmann's prints were not on the ladder.
292_13	Several books have been written proclaiming Hauptmann's innocence. These books variously criticize the police for allowing the crime scenes to become contaminated, Lindbergh and his associates for interfering with the investigation, Hauptmann's trial lawyers for ineffectively representing him, and the reliability of the witnesses and physical evidence presented at the trial. Scottish journalist Ludovic Kennedy in particular questioned much of the evidence, such as the origin of the ladder and the testimony of many of the witnesses. In her book about another high-profile trial of the 1930s, the Winnie Ruth Judd case, investigative reporter Jana Bommersbach argued that Hauptmann could not have received a fair trial because the press created an atmosphere of prejudice against him. Bommersbach noted that in those days, newspapers acted as both "judge and jury," and covered crime in a way that would be considered sensationalistic today.
292_14	For more than 50 years, Hauptmann's widow fought with the New Jersey courts without success to have the case re-opened. In 1982, the now 82-year-old Anna Hauptmann sued the State of New Jersey, various former police officers, the Hearst newspapers that had published pre-trial articles insisting on Hauptmann's guilt, and former prosecutor David T. Wilentz (then 86) for over $100 million in wrongful-death damages. She claimed that the newly discovered documents proved misconduct by the prosecution and the manufacture of evidence by government agents, all of whom were biased against Hauptmann because he happened to be of German ethnicity. In 1983, the United States Supreme Court refused her request that the federal judge considering the case should be disqualified because of judicial bias, and in 1984 the judge dismissed her claims.
292_15	In 1985, more than 23,000 pages of Hauptmann-case police documents were found in the garage of the late Governor Hoffman. These documents, along with 34,000 pages of FBI files, which, although discovered in 1981, had not been disclosed to the public, represented a windfall of previously undisclosed information. As a direct result of this new evidence, Anna Hauptmann again amended her civil complaint on July 14, 1986, to clear her late husband's name by continuing to assert that he was "framed from beginning to end" by the police looking for a suspect. She suggested that the rail of the ladder taken from the attic, where they used to live in 1935, was planted by the police, and that the ransom money was left behind by Isidor Fisch, who was possibly the real kidnapper. In 1990, New Jersey's governor, James Florio, declined her appeal for a meeting to clear Bruno Hauptmann's name. Anna Hauptmann died on October 10, 1994.
292_16	In 1974, Anthony Scaduto wrote Scapegoat, which took the position that Hauptmann was framed and that the police both withheld and fabricated evidence. This led to further investigation, and in 1985, Ludovic Kennedy published The Airman and the Carpenter, in which he argued that Hauptmann had not kidnapped and murdered Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. The book was made into a 1996 television film Crime of the Century, starring Stephen Rea and Isabella Rossellini.
292_17	Not all modern authors agree with these theories. Jim Fisher, a former FBI agent and professor at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, has written two books on the subject, The Lindbergh Case (1987) and The Ghosts of Hopewell (1999) to address, at least in part, what he calls a "revision movement". In these texts, he explains in detail the evidence against Hauptmann. He provides an interpretation discussing both the pros and cons of that evidence. He concluded: "Today, the Lindbergh phenomena [sic] is a giant hoax perpetrated by people who are taking advantage of an uninformed and cynical public. Notwithstanding all of the books, TV programs, and legal suits, Hauptmann is as guilty today as he was in 1932 when he kidnapped and killed the son of Mr and Mrs Charles Lindbergh." Lindbergh believed that Hauptmann must have been involved in the kidnapping and murder of his son. He remarked that Hauptmann was magnificently built but had eyes like a wild boar. See also
292_18	Presumption of guilt J. Edgar (film) References Further reading "Sleeping Dogs: A true story of the Lindbergh baby kidnapping," Split Oak Press, Ithaca, New York, , Copyright 2012 by Michael Foldes, 236 pages. "The Sixteenth Rail," Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado, , copyright by Adam Schrager, 2013, 314 pages. "Hauptmann's Ladder: A Step-by-Step Analysis of the Lindbergh Kidnapping," Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio, , Copyright 2014 by Richard T. Cahill Jr., 448 pages. "The Dark Corners – Of the Lindbergh Kidnapping Volume 1," Infinity Publishing, , Copyright 2016 by Michael Melsky, 353 pages. External links Photographic Evidence from the Hauptmann Case on the New Jersey State Archives Website Author Jim Fisher's Site on the Hauptmann Case YouTube: Hauptmann Testifies, Millions Wait 1935/01/30
292_19	1899 births 1936 deaths 20th-century executions by New Jersey 20th-century German criminals Criminals from Saxony Executed people from Saxony German emigrants to the United States German male criminals German Lutherans German military personnel of World War I German murderers of children German people convicted of murder German people executed abroad Lindbergh kidnapping People convicted of murder by New Jersey People executed by New Jersey by electric chair People executed for murder People from Kamenz People from the Kingdom of Saxony Illegal immigration to the United States
293_0	Fleet Admiral William Daniel Leahy (May 6, 1875 – July 20, 1959) was an American naval officer who served as the senior-most United States military officer on active duty during World War II. He held multiple titles and was at the center of all major military decisions the United States made in World War II. As Chief of Naval Operations from 1937 to 1939, he was the senior officer in the United States Navy, overseeing the preparations for war. After retiring from the Navy, he was appointed in 1939 by his close friend President Franklin D. Roosevelt as the governor of Puerto Rico. In his most controversial role, he served as the United States Ambassador to France from 1940 to 1942, but had limited success in keeping the Vichy government free of German control.
293_1	Leahy was recalled to active duty as the personal Chief of Staff to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942 and served in that position throughout World War II. He chaired the Chiefs of Staff and was a major decision-maker during the war. He continued under President Harry S. Truman until finally retiring in 1949. From 1942 until his retirement in 1949, he was the highest-ranking active duty member of the U.S. military, reporting only to the President. He was the United States' first de facto Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (not his official title) and he also presided over the American delegation to the Combined Chiefs of Staff, when the American and British staffs worked together. As fleet admiral, Leahy was the first U.S. naval officer ever to hold a five-star rank in the U.S. Armed Forces. was named in his honor, as is Leahy Hall, the U.S. Naval Academy admissions office.
293_2	Early life and education From an Irish-American family, Leahy was born in Hampton, Iowa, and moved with his parents to Ashland, Wisconsin, as a child. His father Michael Arthur Leahy (1838–1921) was a successful lawyer and Civil War veteran, and William had wanted to attend West Point and follow in his father's footsteps. However, after graduating high school in 1893 he attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating 15th in his class of 47 in 1897. Naval service Midshipman Leahy was assigned to , then in the Pacific. He was on that battleship when she made her famous dash through the Strait of Magellan, and around South America in the spring of 1898 to participate in the Battle of Santiago on July 3 during the Spanish–American War. This was the only battle Leahy ever saw in person.
293_3	Having completed the two years of sea duty then required by law, Leahy was commissioned Ensign on July 1, 1899. At that time, he was on the Asiatic Station, where, during the Philippine–American War and the Boxer Rebellion in China, he served on and and commanded the gunboat . He returned to the United States in 1902 and became a member of the Military Order of the Dragon. For the next five years, he did duty on board the training ship , and , which were stationed in Panama during the early period of construction of the canal.
293_4	His first shore duty was at the Naval Academy. Beginning in 1907, he served as instructor in the Department of Physics and Chemistry for two years. He went to sea in 1909 and served as navigator of the armored cruiser in the Pacific Fleet. On October 18, 1911, Lt. Cmdr. Leahy served as naval aide to President William Howard Taft, at the laying of the keel of , at Mare Island. During the American Occupation of Nicaragua in 1912, he was Chief of Staff to the Commander, Naval Forces there.
293_5	Late in 1912, he came ashore in Washington as Assistant Director of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering Competitions. In 1913, he was assigned to the Bureau of Navigation as a detail officer, where he served until 1915. At that time, he took command of the dispatch gunboat , and established a close friendship with the then Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt, who cruised with him on the ship. He was in that assignment in early 1917 in West Indian waters and had additional duty as Senior Aide on the Staff of Commander Squadron Three of the Patrol Force Atlantic Fleet. Leahy served for almost a year as the Executive Officer of and in April 1918 went to command , formerly Princess Alice, transporting troops to France. It was during this tour that he was awarded the Navy Cross.
293_6	After a short cruise in that command, he came ashore in 1918 and served for three years as director of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering Competition in the Navy Department. He was also a senior member of the Fire Control Board. In 1921, he went to sea in command of , flagship of the naval detachment in Turkish waters during the Greco-Turkish War. At the end of that war, he was given command of Mine Squadron One, and in 1922 further additional duty as commander, Control Force. He returned to the United States, and from 1923 to 1926, he served as director of Officer Personnel in the Bureau of Navigation. For one year, he commanded the battleship . In 1927, he reached flag rank and became chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. After almost four years, he went to sea in 1931 as Commander Destroyers Scouting Force.
293_7	In 1933, Leahy came ashore in Washington as Chief of the Bureau of Navigation for two years. He went to sea as a vice admiral, and Commander Battleships Battle Force. In 1936, he hoisted his four-star flag on as Commander in Chief Battle Force. He was appointed Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), took the oath of office in January 1937 to serve until August 1939 when he was placed on the retired list. On that occasion, President Roosevelt said "Bill, if we have a war, you're going to be right back here helping me run it." Before retiring as CNO, Leahy joined his wife Louise Harrington Leahy when she sponsored , which was commissioned on March 20, 1939. Government service and recall Governor of Puerto Rico
293_8	From September 1939 to November 1940, Leahy served as Governor of Puerto Rico after Roosevelt removed Blanton Winship over his role in the Ponce massacre. Leahy oversaw the development of military bases and stations across the island while serving as governor. He took an open stance of not intervening directly in local politics, attempted to understand and respect local customs, and initiated various major public works projects in the island. While given the unflattering sobriquet Almirante Lija ("Admiral Sandpaper") by locals, based on his family name, he was regarded as one of the most lenient American governors of the several who served Puerto Rico in the first half of the 20th century.
293_9	Ambassador to France Leahy was appointed Ambassador to France (later referred to as Vichy France for the city in which the capital was located) in 1941 following that country's capitulation to Nazi Germany. Leahy relates in his memoir I Was There that (his) "major task was to keep the French on our side in so far as possible". He was recalled in May 1942. The United States supplied food and medical aid to the Vichy regime and to French North Africa, hoping in return to moderate Vichy collaboration with Germany and to avoid an open Vichy–German alliance in the Mediterranean. American aid proved too little to buy French support over North Africa. Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief
293_10	After the United States entered World War II, President Roosevelt decided he needed a senior military officer as personal adviser and point of contact with his three service chiefs, Admiral Ernest King of the Navy, General George Marshall of the Army and General Henry Arnold of the Army Air Forces. The service chiefs resisted this move until Marshall suggested that only Leahy would be accepted in this post. On July 6, 1942, Leahy was appointed Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief, U.S. Army and Navy, the President of the United States. Leahy was also appointed to be the head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which would serve as the governing body of the U.S. Armed Forces, with the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, the Chief of Naval Operations of the U.S. Navy, which also had jurisdiction over the U.S. Marine Corps and the U.S. Coast Guard, and the Commanding General of the U.S. Army Air Forces also serving as members during World War II.
293_11	Leahy spent D-Day, June 6, 1944, in his home town of Hampton, Iowa. This well-publicized "sentimental journey" was part of the deception efforts surrounding the Allied invasion of Europe. The idea was to lull any German agents in Washington, D.C., or elsewhere in the United States into believing that the operation would not take place while such an important officer was out of the capital. In July 1944, Leahy accompanied President Roosevelt to the Pacific Strategy Conference in Hawaii at which Roosevelt met Admiral Chester Nimitz (commander of the Pacific Ocean Areas) and General Douglas MacArthur (commander of the Southwest Pacific Area) to decide the course of the war in the Pacific theater. Leahy was promoted to the rank of Fleet Admiral on December 15, 1944, the most senior of the seven men who received five-star rank in 1944.
293_12	Leahy accompanied President Roosevelt as his personal aide to the Yalta Conference in February 1945. At Yalta, Roosevelt met the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to decide how Europe was to be reorganized after the impending surrender of Germany. Five months later, he went with President Truman to the Potsdam Conference where Truman met with Stalin and the new British Prime Minister Clement Attlee to make decisions about the governance of occupied Germany. Leahy was disappointed in the outcome of these conferences because he recognized they would leave the Soviet Union as a dominant superpower in Continental Europe. Atomic bomb According to Truman's Memoirs: Year of Decisions, Leahy was present in 1945 when President Truman was given questionable advice by Vannevar Bush about the likely success of the atom bomb project:
293_13	Once the bomb was tested, Leahy became strongly opposed to its use in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In his own memoirs, Leahy wrote: After mediating between the United States Navy and the Puerto Rican government over the involuntary transfer of part of the islands of Vieques and Culebra to naval authorities, Leahy again retired from the Navy in March 1949, though as an officer with five-star rank, he technically remained on active service. The following year, he published his war memoirs, I Was There. There is a bilingual book called Las memorias de Leahy: los relatos del almirante William D. Leahy sobre su gobernación de Puerto Rico (1939–1940) that lists his diary entries from Puerto Rico in both Spanish and English, which was published by the Luis Muñoz Marín Foundation in 2001.
293_14	Personal life While serving on the , which was based in San Francisco, Leahy met Louise Tennent Harrington, whom he married on 3 February 1904. During Leahy's tenure as Ambassador to France, his wife underwent a hysterectomy, which could not be delayed until their pending return to the United States. While recovering from the operation, Louise Leahy suffered an embolism and died with Leahy at her side on 21 April 1942. After a service at the St Thomas Episcopal Church, she was buried on 3 June 1942 in Arlington National Cemetery. William and Louise had children, including a son, William Harrington Leahy, who graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1927. He engaged in pre-World War II naval intelligence. William H. Leahy retired from the U.S. Navy as a 2-star rear admiral in 1961. Death
293_15	Leahy died at the U.S. Naval Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, July 20, 1959, at the age of eighty-four. At the time of his death, he was the oldest officer on active duty in the history of the U.S. Navy. He was given an Armed Forces military funeral on July 23, 1959. His body was viewed at the Bethlehem Chapel at the Washington National Cathedral from July 22 noon until noon the following day. The funeral service was held in the cathedral at 1400 on July 23 and the burial was in Arlington National Cemetery. Honorary pallbearers were Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Admiral Thomas C. Hart, Admiral Charles P. Snyder, Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Vice Admiral Edward L. Cochrane, and Rear Admiral Henry Williams, all retired from service. Active military servicemen who were honorary pallbearers were Admiral Jerauld Wright, Admiral Robert L. Dennison, Rear Admiral Joseph H. Wellings, and close friend, William D. Hassett.
293_16	Dates of rank United States Naval Academy Midshipman – Class of 1897, 15th of class of 47 Admiral Leahy served on active duty for 63 years (1893–1939, 1942–1959) and had one of the longest careers in the history of the U.S. Navy. Decorations and awards Leahy was invested as an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Military Division of the Most Honorable Order of the Bath on November 21, 1945. Note: Leahy was ineligible for the American Defense Service Medal, as he retired from the Navy in August 1939 and was recalled to active duty in May 1942. The medal was for active service from 8 September 1939 to 7 December 1941. References
293_17	Bibliography Adams, Henry H. Witness to Power: The Life of Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy (Naval Institute Press, 1985) 348 pp. Borneman, Walter "The Admirals: The Five-Star Admirals Who Won the War at Sea" (Little, Brown, 2012) Hayes, Grace P. The history of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II (1982) 964 pages Langer, William L. Our Vichy gamble (1947). Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman: Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time (1950) Mobley, Scott. "By the Force of Our Arms: William D. Leahy and the US Intervention in Nicaragua, 1912." Fed. Hist. 11 (2019): 39+ online O'Brien, Phillips Payson. The Second Most Powerful Man in the World: The Life of Admiral William D. Leahy, Roosevelt's Chief of Staff (2019). excerpt External links
293_18	Navy Historical Center Naval War College Guide to Archives, Manuscripts − 2001 Leahy, William D. Library of Congress Archives: Papers, 1897–1959 (8,000 items) Paradoxes of Naval History: Witness to Power: The Life of Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy President Roosevelt to the Appointed Ambassador to France (Leahy) on December 20, 1940 Chronology regarding Truman and the A-bomb: From 8/2/45 – 8/10/45 with Smyth report on atomic bomb (August 6, 1951) U.S. Navy Historic Center biography of William Leahy Annotated bibliography for William D. Leahy from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, Chapter XVII, Former Chief of Naval Operations, Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, Special Military Funeral, 20–23 July 1959 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. United States Army Center of Military History.
293_19	I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman : Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time
293_20	\|- 1875 births 1959 deaths People from Hampton, Iowa Ambassadors of the United States to France American five-star officers American military personnel of the Spanish–American War United States Navy personnel of World War I United States Navy personnel of World War II American military personnel of the Philippine–American War United States Navy World War II admirals Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Chiefs of Naval Operations Governors of Puerto Rico Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States) American military personnel of the Boxer Rebellion United States Naval Academy alumni United States Navy admirals Military personnel from Iowa Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal Military aides to the President of the United States Burials at Arlington National Cemetery American people of Irish descent
294_0	Angel Town is a 1990 martial arts film directed by Eric Karson and starring Olivier Gruner, who made his film debut as a French martial artist and foreign exchange student who helps his borders by using his skills against a local gang. Plot Jacques Montaigne is a French college student who heads to Los Angeles not only for school, but to help train an Olympic team of fighters. He shows up a few days late (for a rendezvous with a girlfriend in France) and is given a list of houses where they may have rooms for rent. He comes across to a house where single mother Maria Ordonez lives with her son Martin and her mother. Maria tells Jacques that they were supposed to have taken their house off the listings due to being in an unsafe neighborhood. However, Maria decides to let Jacques stay.
294_1	That night, on his way to a college social, Jacques finds himself confronted by two neighbors, Chuy and Jesus. Brandishing a small knife, Jacques warns the duo not to mess with him. At the mixer, Jacques gets the attention of fellow student Sarah as well as the graduate dean, who is unimpressed with him. As Jacques walks Sara home, they are stopped by Jesus and Chuy, who are with their gang boss, Angel and other gang members. When some of the gang members start to cause trouble, Jacques intervenes and uses his martial arts skills. This scares Angel and the gang away. However, when Jacques returns to the Ordonez home, he is met again by Jesus, Chuy, and more of Angel's gang. An attempt to ambush Jacques leads them to a nearby bush, where the gang members beat themselves up while Jacques walks away. This impresses Frank, a former war vet who lives across the street, but is also upset at the fact that he's paralyzed from the waist down from the war.
294_2	It's been revealed that Angel wants to recruit Martin to his gang. When Martin constantly rebuffs Angel, it only makes him even more mad and threats soon follow. Jacques decides he must help Martin out of his ordeal. During an attack at the house, Martin's grandmother passes out from the stress and is taken to the hospital. With Maria working, Jacques decides to take Martin to a local martial arts school run by good friend Henry, who is the one who convinced the Olympic Committee to bring Jacques to L.A. Henry knew Martin's father Pedro, who had protested vehemently against Angel and his gang and was ultimately murdered by Angel, which Martin doesn't know. Jacques decides to teach Martin some self-defense along with Henry and tells him the ramifications of what can and will happen should Martin decide to join Angel's gang.
294_3	Upon returning home, Martin is in shock to learn his grandmother had passed. It was because Angel's goons once again started trouble and Frank tells Jacques that she ended up having a massive heart attack, yelling for Martin. Maria has learned what Jacques had been doing and she realizes that she can trust him and divulges the truth about Pedro's death and why the streets are no longer safe. When Maria and Jacques are shot at by Angel and his gang, Jacques turns to Henry and his wife to help protect Maria and Martin. Henry finds a connection with Mr. Park, a Korean gang boss who knows of all the gangs. He warns Henry and Jacques that Angel can be intimidated, but it is his gunfire that gives him his power.
294_4	On his way to campus, Angel sends men to get rid of Jacques but they fail. Jacques has had enough and wages war on Angel and his crew. He goes as far as killing Angel's female driver to send him a message. However, Angel declares war and begins with a vicious assault on Maria, who is taken to the hospital. Martin, having had enough, goes back to his house and arms himself with a shotgun. With the help of Frank, who arms himself with a machine gun, the duo begin to shoot at any of Angel's gang who invade Martin's house. When Angel and the rest of the gang show up, they slowly begin their assault. However, just when Martin runs out of ammo, one gang member throws a stick of dynamite but is stopped by a returning Jacques.
294_5	Jacques has also brought Henry and some of Henry's martial arts students. They begin their own assault, using their martial arts skills to dispatch most of Angel's gang. Jacques puts dynamite in Angel's car and Angel narrowly escapes when the car explodes. Jacques and Angel begin to fight and just when Jacques is about to knock Angel out, Henry convinces him that it should be Martin who should fight Angel. Angel puts up much of the fight but Martin, finally having the advantage, beats Angel and kicks him while he is on the ground repeatedly until he is unconscious. Jacques finally tells Martin he did what he had to and the police show up, including a helicopter whose light shines on Angel. Cast Release The film's first weekend of theatrical release was marked by a gang brawl at a drive-in theater in Westminster, California. Reception The reception from critics was mixed. References External links
294_6	1990 films English-language films American martial arts films American films Films set in Los Angeles Films shot in Los Angeles 1990 martial arts films Films directed by Eric Karson Films scored by Terry Plumeri
295_0	The Ascendance Series (formerly the Ascendance Trilogy) is a series of juvenile fantasy novels by Jennifer A. Nielsen. In the Ascendance Series, an orphan named Sage is kidnapped and trained to impersonate Prince Jaron, the missing Prince of Carthya. After Sage ascends the throne, he has to lead Carthya through a destructive war with multiple neighboring nations.
295_1	The first book in the series, The False Prince, was first released on April 1, 2012 through Scholastic Press. The book sold well and its paperback reprint placed The False Prince on The New York Times Best Seller list in May 2013. The second book, The Runaway King, was released on March 1, 2013, and the third book, The Shadow Throne, was released on February 25, 2014. In December 2019, Nielsen announced that a fourth book in the series would be published in October 2020, titled The Captive Kingdom, and also confirmed that she would be writing a fifth book in the series. The Captive Kingdom was released in October 2020. At the back of the book, an excerpt confirmed the title of the fifth novel to be The Shattered Castle. Reception for the first book was mostly positive, but decreased to mixed for the second and third books. While Paramount Pictures licensed the movie rights for the series in 2012, they did not renew the contract for the series in 2017. Stories
295_2	The False Prince Sage is a fourteen-year-old orphan who steals roasts and other things from a local butcher but is saved from his wrath by a nobleman named Bevin Conner. Conner is visiting different orphanages and buying teenage boys who resemble the The Runaway King King Jaron is attacked by Roden, who is still angry over losing the throne to Jaron. Roden tells Jaron that he has joined the Avenian pirates, and that the pirates are seeking to kill Jaron because they failed to accomplish this the first time. Roden tells him that the pirates are giving Jaron ten days to surrender, or else they will attack Carthya. Jaron realizes that the pirates are in alliance with Avenia to kill him and destroy Carthya.
295_3	During the encounter, Roden threatened to kill a person dear to Jaron if he refuses to cooperate, and Jaron realizes that this person is none other than Imogen, so he decides to send her away to keep her safe. He lies, saying he has no feelings for her and he used her, hoping to put more distance between them. Imogen leaves the castle in anger. Jaron also visits Connor in prison, accompanied by Gregor, the captain of his guard. Connor tells him that the poison he used to kill Jaron's family came from the pirate king Devlin.
295_4	When the regents of the kingdom find out about the assassination attempt on Jaron, they propose that Jaron go into hiding for safety and appoint a steward to rule for him until he is of age. Jaron believes that they need to defend themselves, but the regents are all for following King Eckbert's footsteps in avoiding war through negotiation. Jaron agrees to leave the castle, opting to return to Farthenwood with Tobias, but he leaves Tobias to impersonate him and escapes to face the pirates. Jaron spends a night at Rulon Harlowe's estate, and Harlowe treats him very kindly and urges him to stay, but Jaron departs for Avenia and arrives the next day. He is taken by Erick, leader of the Avenian thieves, and convinces Erick to take him to the pirates, supposedly to help them steal a vast amount of hidden Carthyan treasure.
295_5	To his surprise, Jaron discovers that Imogen is working for the pirates as a kitchen maid. Imogen tells him that she and Amarinda, a foreign princess betrothed to the Carthyan throne, figured out that Jaron would come to the pirates, and Imogen decided to come as a last effort to discourage Jaron from his fool's errand. Devlin makes Jaron a pirate. Jaron gets Imogen to escape from the pirates on horseback with Fink, a young boy, but Gregor, on his way to the pirates, comes upon them and brings them back. Jaron realizes that Gregor was a traitor. Gregor exposes Jaron's true identity to Devlin, but Jaron challenges his position as pirate king, and Devlin is obliged to answer as part of the pirate's code. Jaron wins, but surrenders to Devlin in exchange for Imogen's release.
295_6	Roden returns from sea early just as Jaron is about to be whipped, and becomes angry because he had been promised that he could deal with Jaron as he pleased. He kills Devlin and becomes the new pirate king. Considering his victory over Carthya as good as secure, Roden locks Jaron in a secure room with Erick and Fink and breaks Jaron's leg to ensure that no escape is possible. However, with aid from Erick and Fink, Jaron climbs escapes and challenges Roden as pirate king. As they spar, Jaron expresses his desire for Roden to come to his side and return to Carthya as the captain of his guard. Jaron loses narrowly, but Roden, having been won over by Jaron and recognizing Jaron's commitment to Carthya, surrenders and agrees to return with Jaron. Jaron goes back to Drylliad and finds that Tobias has convinced the regents not to replace Jaron with a steward. Jaron also makes Harlowe his new prime regent and mends his relationship with Amarinda. In the epilogue, Jaron is informed that
295_7	Avenia has invaded Carthya and captured Imogen.
295_8	The Shadow Throne Avenia, Gelyn, and Mendenwal are waging war against Carthya. Roden and Jaron have staged a public argument in hopes that his enemies will believe Carthya's armies are disorganized and quarrelsome, while providing a cover for Roden to march out to defend the borders. Jaron receives word that Imogen has been captured by Avenia, but Mott insists on taking the risk of rescuing Imogen in Jaron's stead. Jaron sends Amarinda, Tobias, and Fink to Amarinda's home country of Bymar for their safety and to ask for Bymar's aid.
295_9	When Jaron discovers that Avenia captured Imogen not to lure Jaron, but Mott, Jaron's most trusted man, to force information from Mott, he changes plans and breaks into the Avenian camp to rescue them. Mott escapes, but Imogen is shot with an arrow and Jaron is captured. After some time, Tobias joins him in his prison cell and is shocked to realize that Jaron is alive, as he and Amarinda overheard Avenian soldiers claiming that Jaron was dead. Upon hearing this, Amarinda decided to return to Drylliad to encourage and lead the people while Fink went on to request Bymar's aid, but Amarinda and Tobias were separated on the way back and Tobias was captured. They are held as prisoners until Mott and Harlowe rescue them from the camp. Before they leave Avenia, Jaron pays a visit to the Avenian pirates to request for their aid, but the pirates respond with unwillingness and anger. Erik assures Jaron that, whether or not the rest of the pirates come to Carthya's aid, he will aid Jaron.

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