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9727_2	A direct debit instruction differs from a direct deposit and standing order instruction, which are initiated by the payer. A standing order involves fixed payment amounts paid periodically, while a direct debit can be of any amount and can be casual or periodic. They also should not be confused with a continuous payment authority, where the payee collects money whenever it feels it is owed. Direct debits are available in a number of countries, including the United Kingdom, Brazil, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, South Africa, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Direct debits are made under each country's rules, and are usually restricted to domestic transactions in those countries. An exception in this respect is the Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA) which allows for Euro-denominated cross-border (and domestic) direct debits since November 2010. In the United States, direct debits are processed through the Automated Clearing House network.
9727_3	Origins Alastair Hanton, a British banker and maths graduate, found that traditional banking methods of paying in cheques were incredibly costly. His answer was to gain permission from customers to take payment directly from their bank account. After six years of campaigning, the high-street banks finally agreed in 1964. By the end of the decade, the savings made using this method meant that direct debit had come into general use in the UK. Authorization A direct debit instruction must in all cases be supported by some sort of authorization for the payee to collect funds from the payer's account. There are generally two methods to set up the authorization:
9727_4	One method involves only the payer and the payee, with the payer authorizing the payee to collect amounts due on his or her account. However, the payer can instruct his or her bank to return any direct debit note without giving a reason. In that event, the payee has to pay all fees for the transaction and may eventually lose his or her ability to initiate direct debits if this occurs too often. However, it still requires all the account holders (not merely the payer) to watch statements and request returns if necessary, unless they have instructed their bank to block all direct debits. The other method requires the payer to instruct his or her bank to honour direct debit notes from the payee. The payee is then notified that he or she is now authorised to initiate direct debit transfers from the payer. While this is more secure in theory, it can also mean for the payer that it is harder to return debit notes in the case of an error or dispute. Direct debit in different countries
9727_5	Europe In Europe, the SEPA Direct Debit (SDD) and SEPA Credit Transfer payment schemes are available in each SEPA country for payments within the Eurozone. SEPA Direct Debit initially worked alongside national direct debit schemes until 1 August 2014. From that date, only SEPA Direct Debit was permitted for collecting euro-denominated payments in the EU. In October 2016, SDD and IBAN became the mandatory methods for euro transfers in all of the EU and EEA, but not mandatory for transfers in other currencies. United Kingdom Direct Debit is a payment method for recurring payments in the UK. It is the third most popular payment method in the UK, after cash and debit card, according to Payments UK. Bacs Payment Schemes Limited is the organisation with responsibility for the Direct Debit scheme. Direct Debit was invented by Alastair Hanton while he was working at Unilever as a way of collecting payments more efficiently. It commenced operation, as a paper-based system, in 1964.
9727_6	Direct Debit accounts for the payment of 73% of household bills and almost nine out of ten British adults have at least one Direct Debit commitment. In fact, in 2015 nearly 3.9 billion Direct Debits were processed, representing a year-on-year increase of 239 million which surpasses the previous record for annual growth of 161 million, set in 2004. 4.07 billion Direct Debits were processed in 2016, an increase of 4.9% from 2015. Payments UK predicts the figure is expected to rise to 4.4 billion by 2026. Authorisation To set up payments by Direct Debit, the payer must complete a Direct Debit Instruction to the merchant. This instruction contains bank-approved wording that makes it clear the payer is setting up an ongoing authority for the merchant to debit their account. The interface for completing the Direct Debit Instruction is controlled by the merchant, who then sends the data from the form to the customer's bank, via Bacs.
9727_7	The UK Direct Debit scheme rules allow for Direct Debit Instructions to be completed in several ways: paper-based forms, which require a signature over the telephone using a formal script to collect all the required information online, using an online application form which has been approved by a bank through other interactive services, where the interface has been approved by a bank Guarantee All UK payments collected by Direct Debit are covered by the Direct Debit Guarantee, which is provided by the UK's banks and building societies. Under the guarantee a payer is entitled to a full and immediate refund in the event of an error in the payment of a Direct Debit from their account. Where an error has occurred, refunds are paid immediately by the payer's bank, who will then attempt to recover the money from the merchant's bank, who in turn will attempt to recover the money charged back from the merchant.
9727_8	Under the Direct Debit scheme rules, merchants have very few grounds to challenge a charge-back generated under the Direct Debit Guarantee. Instead, they can pursue any payments which they believe have been incorrectly refunded to the payer directly through the small claims court. Access Before a company or organisation can collect payment by Direct Debit they need to be approved by a bank, or use a commercial bureau to collect direct debit payments on their behalf. This approval process ensures the company will be able to operate within the direct debit scheme rules and maintain the integrity of the scheme. If a large number of customers complain about direct debits set up by a particular service user then the service user may lose its ability to set up direct debits.
9727_9	Dormancy Any direct debit instruction that has not been used to collect funds for over 13 months is automatically cancelled by the customer's bank (this is known as a "dormancy period"). This can cause problems when the mandate is used infrequently, for instance, taking a payment to settle the bill for a seldom-used credit card. If the credit card company has not collected a payment using the Direct Debit mandate for over 13 months the mandate may have been cancelled as dormant without the customer's knowledge, and the direct debit claim will fail.
9727_10	Fraud The problem of direct debit fraud is extensive according to research by Liverpool Victoria Insurance which reveals that over 97,000 Britons have fallen victim to criminals setting up fraudulent direct debits from their accounts. An average of £540 goes missing before the customer notices. Direct debit payment fraud in 2010 accounted for around 10.6% of all identity fraud cases. The extent of direct debit scamming is set to grow to 41,000 cases a year by 2013, equating to a 57% rise.
9727_11	However, the problem is exacerbated by some of the banks themselves for failing to implement any controls which prevent companies or fraudsters taking money from business and consumer accounts. The problem of cancelled and obsolete direct debits being wrongfully revived or re-implemented is estimated to cost UK consumers £385 million in 2010. For those customers who find out, it takes them on average four months to notice. Although no specific figures were collected it appears a substantial number of people lose considerable amounts of money annually because the obsolete direct debit is neither noticed nor recovered.
9727_12	On 7 January 2008, Jeremy Clarkson found himself the subject of direct debit fraud after publishing his bank account and sort code details in his column in The Sun to make the point that public concern over the 2007 UK child benefit data scandal was unnecessary. He wrote, "All you'll be able to do with them is put money into my account. Not take it out. Honestly, I've never known such a palaver about nothing". Someone then used these details to set up a £500 direct debit to the charity Diabetes UK. In his next Sunday Times column, Clarkson wrote, "I was wrong and I have been punished for my mistake."
9727_13	Training Businesses and organisations collecting payments through Direct Debit are instructed by Bacs to take mandatory training. Whether businesses are collecting independently or through a bureau, their relevant staff need to understand the fundamentals of the payment method. Courses are available through Bacs or through accredited external training. There are only four recognised companies in the UK providing Bacs accredited training: Accountis (D+H), Bottomline Technologies, Clear Direct Debit and allpay. Canada In Canada, direct debit payments are often referred to as Pre-Authorized Debits (PADs). PADs work over a computerized network through Payment Canada’s federally-secured Automated Clearing Settlement System (ACHSS). This network connects all of Canada’s financial institutions.
9727_14	Germany In Germany, banks generally have been providing direct debit (elektronisches Lastschriftverfahren (ELV), "Lastschrift", Bankeinzug) using both methods since the advent of so-called Giro accounts in the 1950s. The Einzugsermächtigung ("direct debit authorisation") just requires the customer to authorize the payee to make the collection. This can happen in written form, orally, by e-mail or through a web interface set up by the payee. Although organisations are generally required not to instruct their banks to make unauthorised collections, this is usually not verified by the banks involved. Customers can instruct their bank to return the debit note within at least six weeks.
9727_15	This method is very popular within Germany as it allows quick and easy payments, and it is suited even for one-time payments. A customer might just give the authorisation at the same time she or he orders goods or services from an organisation. Compared to payments by credit cards, which allow similar usage, bank fees for successful collections are much lower. Often retailers such as supermarkets will process Girocards as direct debit (ELV) transactions after performing a real-time risk analysis when the card is swiped. This is possible because the bank account number and routing code of the giro account form part of every Girocard's card number (PAN), similar to early 1990s 19 digit Switch card numbers. The customer agrees to the direct debit by signing the back of the receipt, which normally contains a long contractual text that also allows the retailer to contact the customer's bank and get their address in the case the debit is returned ("Rücklastschrift"). Direct debits are
9727_16	practically free for the retailer, allowing them to save the Girocard interchange fees (approx. 0.3%) that would be associated with PIN based transactions, but incur a higher risk as the payment can be returned for any reason for up to 45 days. Therefore, they are used usually for returning customers that have already had successful Girocard (PIN-verified) transactions at the same store or are purchasing low-risk or small-ticket items.
9727_17	To prevent abuse, account holders must watch their bank statements and ask their bank to return unauthorised (or wrong) debit notes. As fraudulent direct debit instructions are easily traced, abuse is rare. However, there can be issues when the amount billed and collected is incorrect or unexpectedly large. There have also been cases of fraudulent direct debit where the defrauders tried to collect very small individual sums from large numbers of accounts, in the hope that most account holders would be slow to raise an issue about such small sums, giving the defrauders enough time to withdraw the collected money and disappear. The Abbuchungsauftrag ("posting off") requires the customer to instruct his or her bank to honour debit notes from the organisation. Direct debits made with this method are verified by the customer's bank and therefore can not be returned. As it is less convenient, it is rarely used, usually only in business-to-business relationships.
9727_18	Netherlands In the Netherlands, as in Germany, an account holder can authorize a company to collect direct debit payments, without notifying the bank. This process is very common, with as many as 45% of all banking transactions conducted via direct debit. A transaction can be ongoing, or one time only. For both types collecting organizations must enter into a direct debit (automatische incasso) contract with their bank. For each transaction the name and account number of the account holder must be provided. The collecting organisation can then collect from any account, provided there is enough money in the account and no block is set against direct debit from the collecting organisation.
9727_19	Transactions can be contested, depending on the type of transaction, time since the transaction and the basis of dispute. Authorized transactions of the ongoing type can be recalled directly via the bank of the account holder within the 56 days (8 weeks) since the transaction, with the exception of transactions relating to games of chance and perishables. Authorized one-time only transactions can be recalled via the bank within 5 days. Unauthorized transactions can be contested via the bank within a limited time period after the transaction. Another security measure is a "selective block" whereby the customer can instruct the bank to disallow direct debits to a specified account number. Blanket blocks are also available.
9727_20	Poland In Poland, direct debit is operated by KIR (Krajowa Izba Rozliczeniowa) and participating banks as one of the functionalities of the Elixir clearing system. The payer has to authorize the payee by filling, signing and submitting a standardized paper form in two copies. One copy, after filling in payee details and a customer identification number, is sent by the payee to the payer's bank, which verifies the signature. From now on, the payee may debit the payer's account. Since 24 Oct 2012 it is also possible to submit such authorization through the payer's bank, often also online. The payer can: Cancel any direct debit transaction: within 56 calendar days - individuals, within 5 working days - businesses and other organizations. Suspend authorization so future direct debit transactions are blocked. Revoke authorization at any time either online or by submitting a paper form to the bank.
9727_21	In case of cancelling a transaction, funds are immediately returned to the payer's account. Interest is also adjusted as if the transaction never happened. Collecting fees through direct debit is supported mostly by companies such as telecom, insurance and utility companies and banks themselves but it is not widely used by consumers because of the bureaucracy involved in setting direct debits up.
9727_22	Ireland The direct debit system in Ireland was previously operated by the Irish Payment Services Organisation (IPSO) until its integration with the Irish Banking Federation (IBF) in 2014, forming the Banking and Payments Federation Ireland (BFPI). Direct debit instructions can be given in writing, by telephone or online. There are protections for the holder of the account being debited in the event of a dispute. The Irish payment system was replaced by the SEPA Direct Debit Core Scheme (SDD) following the conversion of all legacy credit transfer and direct debit systems to the Eurozone-wide SEPA system on 1 February 2014. Denmark Direct debit is preferred payment method for recurring household payments in Denmark. The service, launched back in the early seventies, is called "Betalingsservice" and is used by about 96% of the Danish households.
9727_23	Japan Direct debit is a very common payment option in Japan. When signing up for a service, such as telephone, a customer is usually asked to enter their bank details on the service submission form, to set up for automatic payments, and the company they are signing up to will take care of the rest. Sometimes, but not always, the customer is offered the possibility to enter credit card details instead of bank account details, to have the money directly debited from credit card instead of bank account. Malaysia In Malaysia, the direct debit system is available via the product known as FPX – Financial Process Exchange. FPX supports online direct debit as well as batch direct debit. Supported by Bank Negara Malaysia and the local financial institutions, FPX is operated by FPX Payment Gateway Sdn Bhd, a subsidiary company of Malaysian Electronic Payment System (1997) Sdn Bhd (MEPS).
9727_24	Australia In Australia, direct debit is performed through the direct entry system also known as BECS (Bulk Electronic Clearing System) or CS2, managed by the Australian Payments Network Limited. An account holder can authorise a company to collect direct debit payments, without notifying the bank, but direct debit is not available on all financial accounts. A common example of direct debit is authorising a credit card company to debit a bank account for the monthly balance. Many smaller companies do not have direct debit facilities themselves, and a third-party payment service must be used to interface between the biller and the customer's bank. For this a small charge (typically $1–2 per transaction, incorporated into the bill amount) is made by the payment service.
9727_25	Direct credit and debit instructions are only available to institutional customers. Direct credit instructions are used for payrolls and other large scale regular payments. Direct debit instructions are used by insurance companies, utilities and other large organisations which receive regular payments. Although governed by APCA rules, the actual exchanges of instructions occur through bilateral exchanges. There is no central "clearinghouse" for bulk direct entry payment instructions. United States In the United States, direct debit usually means an Automated Clearing House (ACH) transfer from a bank account to a biller, initiated by the biller.
9727_26	South Africa In South Africa direct debits, also known as debit orders, are performed through the ACB (Automated Clearing Bureau). An account holder can authorise a company to collect direct debit payments. The client signs a debit mandate form giving the requesting company permission to debit their account with a fixed or variable monthly value. This value can be recurring or once-off. This is an effective, safe and more cost effective alternative to receiving money in cash, by cheque or EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer). There are three types of commonly used debit orders in South Africa: EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer), NAEDO (Non-authenticated Early Debit Order) and AEDO (Authenticated Early Debit Order).
9727_27	A new payment stream introduced by the South African Reserve Bank in 2017, called AC or Authenticated Collections replaced the previous NAEDO payment stream with the purpose to reduce customer disputes and abuse of the debit order system. The AC payment stream is known to consumers as DebiCheck. Sweden In Sweden, direct debit is available, called Autogiro. The amount is withdrawn from the payer's account on the payee's request without specification. The approval is done once without time limit for each payer/payee combination, but can be withdrawn at any time. The request is normally sent through a form from the payer to the payee, but in the internet bank it is also possible to request it. Autogiro should not be confused with the electronic billing system E-faktura although some banks let the payer instruct the bank to automatically pay received electronic bills on their due date without the customer having to log in to the internet bank and authorize the payment.
9727_28	Switzerland Switzerland has a form of direct debit called Lastschriftverfahren (LSV) der Banken. The setup of a direct debit is by signed authority to the bank. Depending on the proposition of the bank, the direct debit is claimed and may or may not require authorisation. Some banks allow a limit to be put in place for automatic approval. Turkey In Turkey, direct debits are widely used, for utility and credit card payments, as well as commercial transactions. However, whereas in other countries the payee instructs his/her bank to make a collection, in Turkey the payer needs to authorise his/her bank directly. The usage differs from standing orders, as payment amounts are not fixed and payments need not be periodical (i.e. payments can be of any amount and can be casual or periodic).
9727_29	Brazil Authorized Direct Debit (DDA) is a system in Brazil created by Febraban (Brazilian Federation of Banks) and associated Brazilian banks that replaces the issuance of printed payment slips with the electronic collection of obligations. It was implemented on October 10, 2009. See also Direct deposit Standing order AccessPay References Payment systems Banking terms
9728_0	Lieutenant General Jack Farj Rafael Jacob, PVSM (2May 1921 – 13January 2016), was a general officer in the Indian Army. He was best known for the role he played in the in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. Jacob, then a major general, served as the chief of staff of the Indian Army's Eastern Command. During his 36-year long career in the army, Jacob fought in World War II and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. He later served as the governor of the Indian states of Goa and Punjab. Early life Jacob was born in Calcutta to a deeply religious Baghdadi Jewish family originally from Iraq which had settled in Calcutta in the mid-19th century. His father, Elias Emanuel, was an affluent businessman. After his father became sick, Jacob was sent at the age of nine to Victoria Boys' School, a boarding school in Kurseong near Darjeeling. From then on, he went home only during school holidays.
9728_1	Jacob, motivated by reports of the Holocaust of European Jews during World War II, enlisted in the British Indian Army in 1942 as "Jack Frederick Ralph Jacob." His father objected to his enlisting. Jacob said in 2010, "I am proud to be a Jew, but am Indian through and through." Military career Early career Jacob graduated from the Officer's Training School in Mhow in 1942, and received an emergency commission as a second lieutenant on 7June. He was initially posted to northern Iraq in anticipation of a possible German attempt to seize the oil fields of Kirkuk, and was promoted war-substantive lieutenant on 7December.
9728_2	In 1943, Jacob was transferred to an artillery brigade that was dispatched to Tunisia to reinforce the British Army against Field Marshal Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps. The brigade arrived after the Axis surrender. From 1943 to the end of the war, Jacob's unit fought in the Burma Campaign against the Empire of Japan. In the wake of Japan's defeat, he was assigned to Sumatra. On 27October 1945, Jacob was granted a permanent commission in the rank of lieutenant. After World War II, he attended and graduated from artillery schools in England and the United States, specialising in advanced artillery and missiles. He returned to India following its partition, and joined the Indian Army.
9728_3	Post-Independence In May 1951, Jacob was selected to attend the Defence Services Staff College, Wellington, the staff course started in October of the same year. As the first commanding officer, he raised 3 Field Regiment on 14 May 1956. On 20 May 1964, he was given command of an artillery brigade, with the acting rank of brigadier. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, he commanded an Infantry Division, which later became the 12th Infantry Division, in the state of Rajasthan. During this period, Jacob composed an Indian Army manual on desert warfare.
9728_4	Jacob was promoted to substantive brigadier on 17January 1966, and took command of an infantry brigade on 30 September. On 2 October 1967, he was promoted to the acting rank of major general and was given command of an infantry division, with promotion to the substantive rank on 10 June 1968. On 29 April 1969, he was appointed the chief of staff (COS) of the Eastern Command, by General Sam Manekshaw (later Field Marshal). As the COS, Jacob's immediate superior was Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the General officer commanding-in-chief (GOC-in-C) Eastern Command. Jacob was soon tasked with dealing with the mounting insurgency in Northeast India. Bangladesh Liberation War Jacob gained prominence during his stint as the chief of staff of the Eastern Command; the command helped to defeat the Pakistan Army in East Pakistan during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. Jacob was awarded a commendation of merit for his role.
9728_5	In March 1971, the Pakistan Army launched Operation Searchlight to stem the Bengali nationalist movement in East Pakistan. The action led to over 10million refugees entering India, fuelling tensions between India and Pakistan. By the monsoon season Jacob—as chief of staff—was tasked with drawing the contingency plans in case of a conflict. After consulting with his superior officers, Jacob developed a plan for engaging Pakistan in a "war of movement" in the difficult and swampy terrain of East Pakistan.
9728_6	An initial plan, given to the Eastern Command by Manekshaw, involved an incursion into East Pakistan and the capture of the provinces of Chittagong and Khulna. Senior Indian Army officers were reluctant to execute an aggressive invasion for fears of early ceasefire demands by the United Nations and a looming threat posed by China. That, together with the difficulty of navigating the marshy terrain of East Pakistan through three wide rivers, led the commanders to initially believe that the capture of all of East Pakistan was not possible. Jacob disagreed; his "war of movement" plan aimed to take control of all of East Pakistan. Jacob felt that the capital Dhaka was the geopolitical centre of the region, and that any successful campaign had to involve the eventual capture of Dhaka. Realising that the Pakistani Army's commander of its eastern command, A. A. K. Niazi, was going to fortify the towns and "defend them in strength", his plan was to bypass intermediary towns altogether,
9728_7	neutralise Pakistan's command and communication infrastructure, and use secondary routes to reach Dhaka. Jacob's plan was eventually approved by the Eastern Command.
9728_8	The strategy eventually led to the capture of Dhaka. The Pakistani forces were selectively bypassed, their communication centres were captured and secured, and their command and control capabilities were destroyed. His campaign was planned for execution in three weeks, but was executed in under a fortnight. Jacob understood that a protracted war would not be in India's best interests. On 16 December, during a lull in the battle, Jacob sought permission to visit Niazi to seek his surrender. He flew to Dhaka and obtained an unconditional surrender from Niazi, who later accused Jacob of blackmailing him into the surrender by threatening to order the annihilation of Pakistani troops in the east by bombing. Gen. Jacob made Niazi surrender in a public surrender at the Dhaka racecourse in front of the people of Dhaka, as well as provide a guard of honour.
9728_9	The war was a significant victory for India, with nearly ninety thousand Pakistani soldiers surrendering to the Indian Army despite only three thousand Indian soldiers in the immediate area of Dhaka. A study of the campaign by Pakistan's National Defence College concluded that "the credit really goes to Jacob's meticulous preparations in the Indian eastern command and to the implementation by his corps commanders." According to the website Bharat Rakshak, Jacob had repeatedly asserted that the Bangladesh war was only successful because of his own efforts rather than those of Field Marshal Manekshaw or the GOC-in-C of Eastern Command, Lieutenant General Aurora. For his role in the war, Jacob was awarded the Param Vishisht Seva Medal (PVSM) for distinguished service of the most exceptional order. The citation for the PVSM reads as follows:
9728_10	Later military career On 17 June 1972, Jacob was promoted to the acting rank of lieutenant general and was appointed a corps commander, with promotion to substantive lieutenant-general on 5 August 1973. His final appointment was as GOC-in-C, Eastern Command, which he held from 1974 until 31 July 1978, when he retired from the Army following 36years of service and having reached the mandatory retirement age. Post-retirement life and political career Following his retirement from the army, Jacob entered a career in business. In the late 1990s, he joined the Bharatiya Janata Party and served as its security adviser.
9728_11	From 19 April 1998 till 26 November 1999, he served as the Governor of Goa. While Governor of Goa, he was also the administrator during president's rule, due to instability in the Goa assembly. As administrator, he was recognised as an efficient administrator. He contributed to the preservation of Goa's natural green cover by declaring Mhadei [] and Netravati [] as wildlife sanctuaries. From 27 November 1999 till 8 May 2003, he served as the Governor of Punjab, and Administrator of Chandigarh. During this period, he successfully setup the IT Park in Chandigarh and invited N. R. Narayana Murthy, Chairman of Infosys, to setup a development center there. Thereafter, other IT companies also set up operations in the Chandigarh IT Park, thus increasing employment avenues in the city. He also conceptualised the Chandigarh War Memorial, which was designed by the students of the Chandigarh College of Architecture and inaugurated by President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam on 17 August 2006.
9728_12	He was a supporter of improved India–Israel relations. When the Bharatiya Janata Party became part of the ruling coalition government of India in 1998, one of their first priorities was to improve relations with Israel, with which India has had formal diplomatic relations since 1992. In the run-up to 2004 election, he postulated the implications of a win for the Indian National Congress in terms of Indo–Israel relations as: He supported the purchase and trade of military equipment and technology from Israel by India, particularly the purchase of Israeli Arrow missiles, which he preferred over the U.S.-made Patriot missiles on account of the Arrows' ability to intercept enemy missiles at higher altitudes. He remained cautious about relations between India and Pakistan in light of the Pakistani media's suggesting that military and intelligence co-operation between Israel and India, which they called a "Zionist threat" on Pakistan's borders.
9728_13	He was also positive about India's recent economic growth and the capabilities of the young Indian generation. He said: Death On 13 January 2016, at around 8.30 am local time, Jacob died at New Delhi's Army Research and Referral Hospital due to pneumonia. He was laid to rest the following day in Delhi's Jewish cemetery on Humayun Road. His funeral was attended by India's defence minister, information minister, and foreign delegations. In April 2019, Israel honoured Jacob with a commemorative plaque on the Ammunition Hill Wall of Honour. Major publications Jacob was the author of these books: Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation () An Odyssey in War and Peace: An Autobiography Lt Gen. J.F.R. Jacob () Dates of rank
9728_14	In popular culture The short film 'Mukti – Birth of a Nation', starring Milind Soman as Gen. Jacob and Yashpal Sharma as Gen. A. A. K. Niazi covers the negotiations between Gen. Jacob and Gen. Niazi on 16 December 1971, resulting in the unconditional surrender of Pakistani forces in Bangladesh. Notes References External links Bharat Rakshak Images Gen. Jacob "Taking Dhaka did not figure in Manekshaw’s plans: General Jacob", The Hindu online
9728_15	1921 births 2016 deaths Military personnel from Kolkata Indian Jews Indian generals Indian people of Iraqi-Jewish descent Jewish military personnel British Indian Army officers Generals of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Indian military personnel of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Jewish Indian politicians Mizrahi Jews Bangladesh Liberation War Governors of Goa Governors of Punjab, India Recipients of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal Deaths from pneumonia in India Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal 20th-century Indian politicians 21st-century Indian politicians
9729_0	Paris Theodore (January 9, 1943 – November 16, 2006) was an American inventor of gun holsters and firearms and shooting techniques used by government agents and police departments in the U.S. and abroad, as well as by the fictional James Bond. Early years Theodore was born in New York City on January 9, 1943, his father, John, was a sculptor and art professor at The Horace Mann School. His mother, Nenette Charisse was a renowned ballet instructor and member of a Vaudeville dancing company. Charisse’s second husband was Robert Tucker, a Tony-nominated choreographer, and the couple raised Theodore from early childhood. As a child, Theodore appeared as “Nibs” in NBC’s 1955 broadcast of Peter Pan starring Mary Martin. He graduated from The Browning School on Manhattan’s Upper East Side. In 1962, Theodore married Lee Becker, the Tony-nominated dancer and choreographer and founder of The American DanceMachine.
9729_1	According to his own accounts, Theodore supplemented his work as an abstract painter by serving as an independent contractor for the Central Intelligence Agency while still a teenager in the early 1960s. For several years, he supposedly performed a number of dangerous covert missions for the CIA, many of which, if true, required him to carry and use handguns. His supposed experience sparked an interest in creating special holsters for the concealment of weapons. “I was working for Uncle Sam as a freedom fighter until Communism imploded on itself,” Theodore said.
9729_2	In 1966, at the age of 23, Theodore founded Seventrees Ltd., a company that designed and produced gun holsters for professionals who had the need to conceal weapons yet access them quickly. Demand among undercover investigators and intelligence agents grew quickly for his innovative designs and Seventrees was soon awarded several contracts from a variety of U.S. agencies. The growing popularity of the holsters inspired many imitations by other manufacturers. Even the company’s slogan “Unseen in the Best Places” was copied by at least one competitor. By day, Theodore and his team were manufacturing customized gun holsters, while by night, Seventrees’ West 39th Street offices were transformed into a clandestine weapons manufacturing operation, designing special classified concealment weapons for government agencies through a sister company, Armament Systems Procedures Corporation (ASP). Invention of the ASP
9729_3	One of ASP’s first products was a Theodore-designed handgun bearing the name of the company. The ASP, based on the Smith & Wesson Model 39 semi-automatic pistol, featured many innovations: “clear grips”—which enabled the user to see the number of unfired rounds remaining; the “guttersnipe”—a gun sight designed for close range combat; and a “forefinger grip”—today a standard feature on the trigger guard of many modern handguns. Theodore’s ASP was the first successful service caliber handgun in pocket pistol size. Its arrival inspired a cottage industry of gunsmiths producing unauthorized versions of the weapon, in addition to the authorized factory version from Theodore's ASP Inc.
9729_4	In 1970, the ASP was featured in The Handgun, by Glaswegian gun expert Geoffrey Boothroyd. Boothroyd, the inspiration for “Q,” the technologically inventive character who outfitted James Bond with his lifesaving gadgets, would, in turn, later inspire Ian Fleming’s successor, John Gardner, to replace Bond’s renowned Walther PPK as 007’s weapon of choice. Beginning with 1984’s Role of Honor, the ASP would go on to be featured in 11 James Bond novels. James Bond expert James McMahon would later write: “If Bond were a gun, he'd be the ASP. Dark, deadly, perfectly suited to his mission.”
9729_5	The Quell system
9729_6	In 1980, Theodore formed Techpak, a company created to market a combat handgun shooting technique he had developed called “Quell.” The Quell system included a realistic depiction of close quarter combat, a shooting stance, as well as a target designed to enhance the shooter’s understanding of the Quell Zone, the area, that when struck, caused the instant cessation of movement by a hostile opponent. Quell drew upon Theodore’s real-life experience in close quarter combat and the concept of a "Quell stop" became standard training for many police departments and special agencies throughout the world. Through Quell, he sought to educate weapons professionals about the stark reality of close combat with handguns. “From the movies we have learned to expect that when someone is shot in the arm, he reacts immediately by grabbing it with his free hand, wincing, and maybe uttering an ‘Unh!’ When he is shot in the chest, a spot of blood appears and he is thrown backwards, usually with arms
9729_7	flailing, to land motionless and silent.” Theodore wrote in 1985, “The truth is that no bullet from a sidearm, no matter what the caliber, will bowl a man over.” He described this “knock-down power” as “the figment of the collective imagination of Hollywood screenwriters.”
9729_8	Personal life Theodore's wife Lee died in 1987. Theodore died November 16, 2006 at St. Luke’s hospital in Manhattan. The cause of death was complications resulting from a longstanding and debilitating bout with multiple sclerosis. He is survived by his sons, Ali and Said Theodore and Paris Kain. Kain, a filmmaker, is currently producing a documentary based on the life of his late father. References Carr, Patrick and Gardner, George W., (1985) Gun People, Doubleday, New York, NY Jones, Rob (1986) “Hunting Guns,” American Hunter Magazine Jones, Robert, (December 1985) “Quell—New Concepts in the Kill Zone,” Soldier of Fortune McMahon, James (1997) “Q Branch,” HMSS McLoughlin, Chris, “On Target For Special Weapons – The Guttersnipe Sight,” International Law Enforcement Petzal, David (May 1969), “The Seventrees Story,” Guns And Hunting External links Paris Theodore's obituary in the New York Sun Modern Firearms – The ASP Patents
9729_9	Holster (Weapon holsters having one-piece construction), filed December 3, 1992, issued October 12, 1993 Holster (Weapon holsters having one-piece construction), filed December 3, 1992, issued October 12, 1993 Holster (Weapon holsters having one-piece construction), filed February 20, 1992, issued May 11, 1993 Firearm training system (A novel firearms target is described which is useful in training police officers and others in the use of small arms.), filed September 26, 1983, issued April 2, 1985 Holster (The ornamental design for a holster.), filed August 1, 1980, issued June 1, 1982 Magazine holder (A cartridge magazine holder including a magnet to hold a pair of cartridge magazines with large portions of the magazines exposed so that they may be easily grasped and withdrawn by the user.), filed February 1, 1974, issued February 17, 1976
9729_10	Handcuff case (A handcuff case that is worn on the belt and holds the handcuffs with the frame and jaw exposed so that the handcuffs may be immediately grasped and withdrawn for use by the wearer.), filed December 5, 1973, issued March 11, 1975 Cartridge pouch (A cartridge pouch made of a single piece of leather and a single snap fastener for holding two groups of about three cartridges each.), filed January 3, 1972, issued December 11, 1973 Secure holster for revolvers (A holster to be carried high on the hip and having a trigger guard pocket, a muzzle pocket, and a breakfront flap which cooperate to prevent removal of the revolver from the holster.), filed January 3, 1972, issued December 11, 1973
9729_11	Gunsight (A gunsight including a rear notch and a smaller front notch, preferably in the form of a block of material having an open channel, formed therein and converging from a rear notch to a front notch, the sides of said channel preferably being of a light color such as yellow.), filed December 23, 1971, issued December 11, 1973 Grips for handguns (Improved grips for handguns including transparent grip plates to permit viewing of the remaining ammunition in a magazine-fed automatic pistol, a magazine grip extension angled backward from the main grip line and of reduced thickness to provide an efficient grip for the little finger, and a forefinger pocket formed on the front of the trigger guard to provide a secure grip for the forefinger of the free (left) hand thus improving control of recoil when a two-handed hold is used by the shooter for fast firing.), filed December 23, 1971, issued September 18, 1973
9729_12	Inside the pants holster (A holster which is adapted to be worn inside the pants, just behind the hip of the wearer and which has a relatively wide flange extending in the plane of the handgun to be carried and molded to the hip of the wearer to stabilize the holster.), filed January 3, 1969, issued June 8, 1971 Holster (An extremely simple but effective holster which is in the form of a strap which wraps over the top of the frame of a handgun or other firearm and is secured through the trigger guard by a releasable fastening device to hold the weapon.), filed November 26, 1968, issued June 8, 1971
9729_13	Firearm designers 1943 births 2006 deaths Handgun holsters Neurological disease deaths in New York (state) Deaths from multiple sclerosis Gunsmiths 20th-century American inventors Browning School alumni
9730_0	The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth. It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver's body, which occurs during the ascent, largely during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops, and after surfacing, until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium. Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use. A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress, Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure.
9730_1	When a diver descends in the water, the hydrostatic pressure, and therefore the ambient pressure, rises. Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure, some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues. Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture, or the depth, and therefore the pressure, is changed, or the partial pressures of the gases are changed by modifying the breathing gas mixture. During ascent, the ambient pressure is reduced, and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again. If the pressure reduction is sufficient, excess gas may form bubbles, which may lead to decompression sickness, a possibly debilitating or
9730_2	life-threatening condition. It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness. A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely. These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage. If the decompression is effective, the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs. If they are not given enough time, or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely, the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.
9730_3	The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested and used, and in many cases, superseded. Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable, the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable. Although decompression retains some risk, this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving. Nevertheless, currently popular decompression procedures advise a 'safety stop' additional to any stops required by the algorithm, usually of about three to five minutes at , particularly 1on an otherwise continuous no-stop ascent.
9730_4	Decompression may be continuous or staged. A staged decompression ascent is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals, but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. A no-decompression dive, or more accurately, a dive with no-stop decompression, relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation in the fastest tissues. The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive. It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive. When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the "surface interval" and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive.
9730_5	Efficient decompression requires the diver to ascend fast enough to establish as high a decompression gradient, in as many tissues, as safely possible, without provoking the development of symptomatic bubbles. This is facilitated by the highest acceptably safe oxygen partial pressure in the breathing gas, and avoiding gas changes that could cause counterdiffusion bubble formation or growth. The development of schedules that are both safe and efficient has been complicated by the large number of variables and uncertainties, including personal variation in response under varying environmental conditions and workload. Decompression theory
9730_6	Decompression theory is the study and modelling of the transfer of the inert gas component of breathing gases from the gas in the lungs to the tissues of the diver and back during exposure to variations in ambient pressure. In the case of underwater diving and compressed air work, this mostly involves ambient pressures greater than the local surface pressure—but astronauts, high altitude mountaineers, and occupants of unpressurised aircraft, are exposed to ambient pressures less than standard sea level atmospheric pressure. In all cases, the symptoms of decompression sickness occur during or within a relatively short period of hours, or occasionally days, after a significant reduction of ambient pressure.
9730_7	Physics and physiology of decompression The absorption of gases in liquids depends on the solubility of the specific gas in the specific liquid, the concentration of gas, customarily expressed as partial pressure, and temperature. The main variable in the study of decompression theory is pressure. Once dissolved, distribution of the dissolved gas may be by diffusion, where there is no bulk flow of the solvent, or by perfusion where the solvent (in this case blood) is circulated around the diver's body, where gas can diffuse to local regions of lower concentration. Given sufficient time at a specific partial pressure in the breathing gas, the concentration in the tissues stabilises, or saturates, at a rate that depends on solubility, diffusion rate and perfusion, all of which vary in the different tissues of the body. This process is referred to as in-gassing, and is usually modelled as an inverse exponential process.
9730_8	If the concentration of the inert gas in the breathing gas is reduced below that of any of the tissues, there is a tendency for gas to return from the tissues to the breathing gas. This is known as out-gassing, and occurs during decompression, when the reduction in ambient pressure reduces the partial pressure of the inert gas in the lungs. This process may be complicated by the formation of gas bubbles, and the modelling is more complex and varied.
9730_9	The combined concentrations of gases in any given tissue depend on the history of pressure and gas composition. Under equilibrium conditions, the total concentration of dissolved gases is less than the ambient pressure—as oxygen is metabolised in the tissues, and the carbon dioxide produced is much more soluble. However, during a reduction in ambient pressure, the rate of pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas is eliminated by diffusion and perfusion. If the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension of the bubble-liquid interface, the bubbles grow, and this growth can damage tissue.
9730_10	If the dissolved inert gases come out of solution within the tissues of the body and form bubbles, they may cause the condition known as decompression sickness, or DCS, also known as divers' disease, the bends or caisson disease. However, not all bubbles result in symptoms, and Doppler bubble detection shows that venous bubbles are present in a significant number of asymptomatic divers after relatively mild hyperbaric exposures. Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day, and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all. The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description.
9730_11	The risk of decompression sickness after diving can be managed through effective decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon, though it remains to some degree unpredictable. Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use decompression tables or dive computers to limit or monitor their exposure and to control their ascent speed and decompression procedures. If DCS is contracted, it is usually treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber. If treated early, there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery. A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress but it is possible to get decompression sickness, or taravana, from repetitive deep free-diving with short surface intervals.
9730_12	Decompression models Actual rates of diffusion and perfusion, and solubility of gases in specific physiological tissues are not generally known, and vary considerably. However mathematical models have been proposed that approximate the real situation to a greater or lesser extent. These models predict whether symptomatic bubble formation is likely to occur for a given dive profile. Algorithms based on these models produce decompression tables. In personal dive computers, they produce a real-time estimate of decompression status and display a recommended ascent profile for the diver, which may include decompression stops.
9730_13	Two different concepts have been used for decompression modelling. The first assumes that dissolved gas is eliminated while in the dissolved phase, and that bubbles are not formed during asymptomatic decompression. The second, which is supported by experimental observation, assumes that bubbles are formed during most asymptomatic decompressions, and that gas elimination must consider both dissolved and bubble phases. Early decompression models tended to use the dissolved phase models, and adjusted them by factors derived from experimental observations to reduce the risk of symptomatic bubble formation.
9730_14	There are two main groups of dissolved phase models: In parallel compartment models, several compartments with varying rates of gas absorption (half time), are considered to exist independently of each other, and the limiting condition is controlled by the compartment that shows the worst case for a specific exposure profile. These compartments represent conceptual tissues and don't represent specific organic tissues. They merely represent the range of possibilities for the organic tissues. The second group uses serial compartments, which assumes that gas diffuses through one compartment before it reaches the next.
9730_15	More recent models attempt to model bubble dynamics, also usually by simplified models, to facilitate the computation of tables, and later to allow real time predictions during a dive. Models that approximate bubble dynamics are varied. They range from those that are not much more complex than the dissolved phase models, to those that require considerably greater computational power. Bubble models have not been experimentally shown to be more efficient, nor to reduce risk of decompression sickness for dives where the bottom profile and total ascent time are the same as for dissolved gas models. Limited experimental work suggests that for some dive profiles the increased ingassing due to deeper stops may cause greater decompression stress in slower tissues with consequent greater venous bubble loading after dives. Decompression practice
9730_16	The practice of decompression by divers comprises the planning and monitoring of the profile indicated by the algorithms or tables of the chosen decompression model, the equipment available and appropriate to the circumstances of the dive, and the procedures authorised for the equipment and profile to be used. There is a large range of options in all of these aspects. In many cases decompression practice takes place in a framework or "decompression system" which imposes extra constraints on diver behaviour. Such constraints may include: limiting the ascent rate; making stops during the ascent additional to any decompression stops; limiting the number of dives performed in a day; limiting the number of days of diving within a week; avoiding dive profiles that have large numbers of ascents and descents; avoiding heavy work immediately after a dive; not diving prior to flying or ascending to altitude; and organisational requirements. Procedures
9730_17	Decompression may be continuous or staged, where the ascent is interrupted by stops at regular depth intervals, but the entire ascent is part of the decompression, and ascent rate can be critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. What is commonly known as no-decompression diving, or more accurately no-stop decompression, relies on limiting ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation. The procedures used for decompression depend on the mode of diving, the available equipment, the site and environment and the actual dive profile. Standardised procedures have been developed that provide an acceptable level of risk in appropriate circumstances. Different sets of procedures are used by commercial, military, scientific and recreational divers, though there is considerable overlap where similar equipment is used, and some concepts are common to all decompression procedures.
9730_18	Normal diving decompression procedures range from continuous ascent for no-stop dives, where the necessary decompression occurs during the ascent, which is kept to a controlled rate for this purpose, through staged decompression in open water or in a bell, or following the decompression ceiling, to decompression from saturation, which generally occurs in a decompression chamber that is part of a saturation system. Decompression may be accelerated by the use of breathing gases that provide an increased concentration differential of the inert gas components of the breathing mixture by maximising the acceptable oxygen content, while avoiding problems caused by inert gas counterdiffusion. Therapeutic recompression is a medical procedure for treatment of decompression sickness, and is followed by decompression, usually to a relatively conservative schedule. Equipment
9730_19	Equipment directly associated with decompression includes: The decompression tables or software used to plan the dive, The equipment used to control and monitor depth and dive time, such as: personal dive computers, depth gauges, and timers, Shot lines, surface marker buoys, and decompression trapezes diving stages (baskets), wet and dry bells, deck and saturation decompression chambers, and hyperbaric treatment chambers. The supply of decompression gases, which may be: carried by the diver, supplied from the surface via the diver's umbilical or bell umbilical, or supplied in the chamber at the surface. History of decompression research and development The symptoms of decompression sickness are caused by damage from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage.
9730_20	The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested, and used, and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable. Decompression remains a procedure with some risk, but this has been reduced and is generally considered acceptable for dives within the well-tested range of commercial, military and recreational diving. Early developments The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle, who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump. In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation, but in later experiments signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed.
9730_21	Later, when technological advances allowed the use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress, miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease, compressed air illness, the bends, and decompression sickness. Once it was recognised that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles, and that re-compression could relieve the symptoms, Paul Bert showed in 1878 that decompression sickness is caused by nitrogen bubbles released from tissues and blood during or after decompression, and showed the advantages of breathing oxygen after developing decompression sickness. Further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression, and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict safe decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness.
9730_22	Start of systematic work on decompression models In 1908 John Scott Haldane prepared the first recognized decompression table for the British Admiralty, based on extensive experiments on goats using an end point of symptomatic DCS. George D. Stillson of the United States Navy tested and refined Haldane's tables in 1912, and this research led to the first publication of the United States Navy Diving Manual and the establishment of a Navy Diving School in Newport, Rhode Island. At about the same time Leonard Erskine Hill was working on a system of continuous uniform decompression The Naval School, Diving and Salvage was re-established at the Washington Navy Yard in 1927, and the Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU) was moved to the same venue. In the following years, the Experimental Diving Unit developed the US Navy Air Decompression Tables, which became the accepted world standard for diving with compressed air.
9730_23	During the 1930s, Hawkins, Schilling and Hansen conducted extensive experimental dives to determine allowable supersaturation ratios for different tissue compartments for Haldanean model, Albert R. Behnke and others experimented with oxygen for re-compression therapy, and the US Navy 1937 tables were published. In 1941, altitude decompression sickness was first treated with hyperbaric oxygen. and the revised US Navy Decompression Tables were published in 1956.
9730_24	Beginnings of alternative models In 1965 LeMessurier and Hills published A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques, which suggests that decompression by conventional models forms bubbles that are then eliminated by re-dissolving at the decompression stops—which is slower than elimination while still in solution. This indicates the importance of minimizing bubble phase for efficient gas elimination, Groupe d'Etudes et Recherches Sous-marines published the French Navy MN65 decompression tables, and Goodman and Workman introduced re-compression tables using oxygen to accelerate elimination of inert gas.
9730_25	The Royal Navy Physiological Laboratory published tables based on Hempleman's tissue slab diffusion model in 1972, isobaric counterdiffusion in subjects who breathed one inert gas mixture while being surrounded by another was first described by Graves, Idicula, Lambertsen, and Quinn in 1973, and the French government published the MT74 Tables du Ministère du Travail in 1974. From 1976, decompression sickness testing sensitivity was improved by ultrasonic methods that can detect mobile venous bubbles before symptoms of DCS become apparent. Development of several additional approaches Paul K Weathersby, Louis D Homer and Edward T Flynn introduced survival analysis into the study of decompression sickness in 1982.
9730_26	Albert A. Bühlmann published Decompression–Decompression sickness in 1984. Bühlmann recognised the problems associated with altitude diving, and proposed a method that calculated maximum nitrogen loading in the tissues at a particular ambient pressure by modifying Haldane's allowable supersaturation ratios to increase linearly with depth. In 1984 DCIEM (Defence and Civil Institution of Environmental Medicine, Canada) released No-Decompression and Decompression Tables based on the Kidd/Stubbs serial compartment model and extensive ultrasonic testing, and Edward D. Thalmann published the USN E-L algorithm and tables for constant PO2 Nitrox closed circuit rebreather applications, and extended use of the E-L model for constant PO2 Heliox CCR in 1985. The E-L model may be interpreted as a bubble model. The 1986 Swiss Sport Diving Tables were based on the Haldanean Bühlmann model, as were the 1987 SAA Bühlmann tables in the UK.
9730_27	Bubble models started to become prevalent D. E. Yount and D. C. Hoffman proposed a bubble model in 1986, and the BSAC'88 tables were based on Hennessy's bubble model. The 1990 DCIEM sport diving tables were based on fitting experimental data, rather than a physiological model, and the 1990 French Navy Marine Nationale 90 (MN90) decompression tables were a development of the earlier Haldanean model of the MN65 tables. In 1991 D.E. Yount described a development of his earlier bubble model, the Varied Permeability Model, and the 1992 French civilian Tables du Ministère du Travail (MT92) also have a bubble model interpretation. NAUI published Trimix and Nitrox tables based on the Wienke reduced gradient bubble model (RGBM) in 1999, followed by recreational air tables based on the RGBM model in 2001.
9730_28	In 2007, Wayne Gerth and David Doolette published VVal 18 and VVal 18M parameter sets for tables and programs based on the Thalmann E-L algorithm, and produced an internally compatible set of decompression tables for open circuit and CCR on air and Nitrox, including in water air/oxygen decompression and surface decompression on oxygen. In 2008, the US Navy Diving Manual Revision 6 included a version of the 2007 tables developed by Gerth and Doolette. See also Decompression models: References Sources Further reading Gribble, M. de G. (1960); "A Comparison of the High-Altitude and High-Pressure Syndromes of Decompression Sickness", Br. J. Ind. Med., 1960, 17, 181. Hills. B. (1966); A Thermodynamic and Kinetic Approach to Decompression Sickness. Thesis. External links Dive tables from the NOAA German BGV C 23 table, permitting a simplified procedure of decompression planning Decompression equipment
9731_0	Preclinical imaging is the visualization of living animals for research purposes, such as drug development. Imaging modalities have long been crucial to the researcher in observing changes, either at the organ, tissue, cell, or molecular level, in animals responding to physiological or environmental changes. Imaging modalities that are non-invasive and in vivo have become especially important to study animal models longitudinally. Broadly speaking, these imaging systems can be categorized into primarily morphological/anatomical and primarily molecular imaging techniques. Techniques such as high-frequency micro-ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) are usually used for anatomical imaging, while optical imaging (fluorescence and bioluminescence), positron emission tomography (PET), and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) are usually used for molecular visualizations.
9731_1	These days, many manufacturers provide multi-modal systems combining the advantages of anatomical modalities such as CT and MR with the functional imaging of PET and SPECT. As in the clinical market, common combinations are SPECT/CT, PET/CT and PET/MR. Micro-ultrasound Principle: High-frequency micro-ultrasound works through the generation of harmless sound waves from transducers into living systems. As the sound waves propagate through tissue, they are reflected back and picked up by the transducer, and can then be translated into 2D and 3D images. Micro-ultrasound is specifically developed for small animal research, with frequencies ranging from 15 MHz to 80 MHz.
9731_2	Strengths: Micro-ultrasound is the only real-time imaging modality per se, capturing data at up to 1000 frames per second. This means that not only is it more than capable of visualizing blood flow in vivo, it can even be used to study high speed events such as blood flow and cardiac function in mice. Micro-ultrasound systems are portable, do not require any dedicated facilities, and is extremely cost-effective compared to other systems. It also does not run the risk of confounding results through side-effects of radiation. Currently, imaging of up to 30 µm is possible, allowing the visualization of tiny vasculature in cancer angiogenesis. To image capillaries, this resolution can be further increased to 3–5 µm with the injection of microbubble contrast agents. Furthermore, microbubbles can be conjugated to markers such as activated glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GPIIb/IIIa) receptors on platelets and clots, αvβ3 integrin, as well as vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFR), in
9731_3	order to provide molecular visualization. Thus, it is capable of a wide range of applications that can only be achieved through dual imaging modalities such as micro-MRI/PET. Micro-ultrasound devices have unique properties pertaining to an ultrasound research interface, where users of these devices get access to raw data typically unavailable on most commercial ultrasound (micro and non-micro) systems.
9731_4	Weaknesses: Unlike micro-MRI, micro-CT, micro-PET, and micro-SPECT, micro-ultrasound has a limited depth of penetration. As frequency increases (and so does resolution), maximum imaging depth decreases. Typically, micro-ultrasound can image tissue of around 3 cm below the skin, and this is more than sufficient for small animals such as mice. The performance of ultrasound imaging is often perceived as to be linked with the experience and skills of the operator. However, this is changing rapidly as systems are being designed into user-friendly devices that produce highly reproducible results. One other potential disadvantage of micro-ultrasound is that the targeted microbubble contrast agents cannot diffuse out of vasculature, even in tumors. However, this may actually be advantageous for applications such as tumor perfusion and angiogenesis imaging.
9731_5	Cancer Research: The advances in micro-ultrasound has been able to aid cancer research in a plethora of ways. For example, researchers can easily quantify tumor size in two and three dimensions. Not only so, blood flow speed and direction can also be observed through ultrasound. Furthermore, micro-ultrasound can be used to detect and quantify cardiotoxicity in response to anti-tumor therapy, since it is the only imaging modality that has instantaneous image acquisition. Because of its real-time nature, micro-ultrasound can also guide micro-injections of drugs, stem cells, etc. into small animals without the need for surgical intervention. Contrast agents can be injected into the animal to perform real-time tumor perfusion and targeted molecular imaging and quantification of biomarkers. Recently, micro-ultrasound has even been shown to be an effective method of gene delivery.
9731_6	Functional ultrasound brain imaging Unlike conventional micro-ultrasound device with limited blood-flow sensitivity, dedicated real-time ultra fast ultrasound scanners with appropriate sequence and processing have been shown to be able to capture very subtle hemodynamic changes in the brain of small animals in real-time. This data can then be used to infer neuronal activity through the neurovascular coupling. The functional ultrasound imaging (fUS) technique can be seen as an analogue to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fUS can be used for brain angiography, brain functional activity mapping, brain functional connectivity from mice to primates including awake animals. Micro-PAT
9731_7	Principle: Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) works on the natural phenomenon of tissues to thermalelastically expand when stimulated with externally applied electromagnetic waves, such as short laser pulses. This causes ultrasound waves to be emitted from these tissues, which can then be captured by an ultrasound transducer. The thermoelastic expansion and the resulting ultrasound wave is dependent on the wavelength of light used. PAT allows for complete non-invasiveness when imaging the animal. This is especially important when working with brain tumor models, which are notoriously hard to study.
9731_8	Strengths: Micro-PAT can be described as an imaging modality that is applicable in a wide variety of functions. It combines the high sensitivity of optical imaging with the high spatial resolution of ultrasound imaging. For this reason, it can not only image structure, but also separate between different tissue types, study hemodynamic responses, and even track molecular contrast agents conjugated to specific biological molecules. Furthermore, it is non-invasive and can be quickly performed, making it ideal for longitudinal studies of the same animal.
9731_9	Weaknesses: Because micro-PAT is still limited by the penetrating strength of light and sound, it does not have unlimited depth of penetration. However, it is sufficient to pass through rat skull and image up to a few centimeters down, which is more than sufficient for most animal research. One other drawback of micro-PAT is that it relies on optical absorbance of tissue to receive feedback, and thus poorly vascularized tissue such as the prostate is difficult to visualize. To date, 3 commercially available systems are on the market, namely by VisualSonics, iThera and Endra, the last one being the only machine doing real 3D image acquisition.
9731_10	Cancer research: The study of brain cancers has been significantly hampered by the lack of an easy imaging modality to study animals in vivo. To do so, a craniotomy is often needed, in addition to hours of anesthesia, mechanical ventilation, etc. which significantly alters experimental parameters. For this reason, many researchers have been content to sacrifice animals at different time points and study brain tissue with traditional histological methods. Compared to an in vivo longitudinal study, many more animals are needed to obtain significant results, and the sensitivity of the entire experiment is cast in doubt. As stated earlier, the problem is not reluctance by researchers to use in vivo imaging modalities, but rather a lack of suitable ones. For example, although optical imaging provides fast functional data and oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin analysis, it requires a craniotomy and only provides a few hundred micrometres of penetration depth. Furthermore, it is focused on one area of
9731_11	the brain, while research has made it apparently clear that brain function is interrelated as a whole. On the other hand, micro-fMRI is extremely expensive, and offers dismal resolution and image acquisition times when scanning the entire brain. It also provides little vasculature information. Micro-PAT has been demonstrated to be a significant enhancement over existing in vivo neuro-imaging devices. It is fast, non-invasive, and provides a plethora of data output. Micro-PAT can image the brain with high spatial resolution, detect molecular targeted contrast agents, simultaneously quantify functional parameters such as SO2 and HbT, and provide complementary information from functional and molecular imaging which would be extremely useful in tumor quantification and cell-centered therapeutic analysis.
9731_12	Micro-MRI Principle: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) exploits the nuclear magnetic alignments of different atoms inside a magnetic field to generate images. MRI machines consist of large magnets that generate magnetic fields around the target of analysis. These magnetic fields cause atoms with non-zero spin quantum number such as hydrogen, gadolinium, and manganese to align themselves with the magnetic dipole along the magnetic field. A radio frequency (RF) signal is applied closely matching the Larmor precession frequency of the target nuclei, perturbing the nuclei's alignment with the magnetic field. After the RF pulse the nuclei relax and emit a characteristic RF signal, which is captured by the machine. With this data a computer will generate an image of the subject based on the resonance characteristics of different tissue types.

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