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9517_29 | As a depression, Wene was the first Western Pacific tropical cyclone to cross the dateline since the 1996 season. The name Wene is Hawaiian for "Wayne". The system formed at the second-northernmost latitude of any storm in the East Pacific basin.
Tropical Storm John |
9517_30 | John originated on August 28 from an area of disturbed weather that was associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) near just outside the Central Pacific basin. Developing near the Central Pacific basin, John eventually entered early on August 30 and was then also monitored by the Central Pacific Hurricane Center. that was a tropical storm for several days and moved from the eastern to the central Pacific basin. Thereafter entering the central Pacific region, Tropical Storm John approached hurricane status while meandering erratically east-southeast of Hawaii. John eventually encountered strong wind shear, and dissipated on September 1. Tropical Storm John did not cause any damage or fatalities, as there were no reports of any land being affected.
Tropical Storm Kristy |
9517_31 | Part of the same tropical wave that spawned Tropical Storm Chris in the Atlantic uneventfully crossed the rest of the Atlantic and passed far out to sea into the Pacific before it organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen-E on August 31. Despite significant shear, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Kristy as it meandered far from land over the open ocean. Wind shear then dissipated the system on September 3, just 210 kilometers from where it first formed.
Hurricane Lane |
9517_32 | The precursor to Lane was a tropical wave that formed in the Atlantic Ocean on August 20. The wave moved across the Atlantic basin without development and crossed Central America on August 29. By September 1, the system was beginning to organize south of Mexico. On September 4, the system became a tropical depression southwest of Manzanillo, Mexico. The next day the tropical depression became Tropical Storm Lane. After becoming a tropical storm, Lane executed a counter-clockwise loop, during that maneuver, the storm crossed its own wake and weakened slightly. After the storm finished the loop, it continued to move westward where it reached hurricane strength on September 9 while passing over Socorro Island. By September 11, Lane encountered cooler waters which weakened the hurricane back to tropical storm strength. Lane then encountered a trough that had formed off the western United States coastline. The interaction with the system caused Lane to curve northeast towards the West |
9517_33 | Coast of the United States. On September 13, Lane passed over cooler waters, causing it to weaken to a tropical depression. Lane then dissipated on the next day. |
9517_34 | On September 9, forecasters predicted that the storm would remain offshore and its rainbands would bring heavy rains and gusty winds across the Baja California. However, because forecasters predicted that the storm would stay offshore, and so no warnings or watches were issued. Lane passed directly over Socorro Island where a weather station recorded a pressure of 973 mb. Although the center of Lane was well offshore, it still brought heavy surf that closed several ports in Mexico. In an Jose del Cabo, Mexico, a weather station reported winds of . Lane remnants then affected the Western United States. The moisture from Lane produced thunderstorms in California. At all locations, effects were minimal, with no reports of damage or casualties.
Tropical Storm Miriam |
9517_35 | A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 29. It remained weak as it moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean, and entered the Pacific Ocean on September 9. As it moved west-northwestward, it organized, and developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen-E on September 15 while east-southeast of Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur. Banding features became more pronounced, though convection remained intermittent. On September 16, the depression briefly became Tropical Storm Miriam, though quickly weakened back to a tropical depression as it continued north-northwestward. Miriam dissipated on September 17 while northeast of Cabo San Lucas. Tropical storm force winds were never reported, and it is possible Miriam never attained tropical storm status. |
9517_36 | Miriam dropped lighter than average rainfall upon Mexico, peaking at at La Cruz/Elota. Total damages from the storm amounted to $7.2 million (MXN; $558,000 in 2000 USD, $ in USD). By October 24, a national disaster declaration was signed for areas affected by Tropical Storm Miriam in Baja California Sur.
Tropical Storm Norman |
9517_37 | The same tropical wave that spawned Atlantic Hurricane Gordon organized into an area of low pressure in the Eastern Pacific Ocean on September 18. Its convection slowly organized while south of Mexico, and a tropical depression formed on September 20 while south-southeast of Manzanillo, Colima. Weak steering currents forced the depression to drift slowly northward, and later on September 20 it strengthened into Tropical Storm Norman. Norman quickly reached peak winds of before making landfall in western Mexico. The storm rapidly weakened to a tropical depression over land, but Norman maintained its circulation and some deep convection as it turned to the northwest. It emerged over water on September 22, but turned to the northeast, made landfall again in Mexico, and dissipated later that day.
Norman produced heavy rainfall across western Mexico, peaking at nearly in the stacote of Colima. In all, Norman caused $13.3 million (2000 USD; $ USD) in damage.
Tropical Storm Olivia |
9517_38 | A tropical wave left the African coast on September 16. Crossing into the East Pacific on September 28, the wave exhibited little thunderstorm activity until it developed a burst of deep convection late on September 30. The development of banding features and sustained winds of 20-25 knots (25-30 mph) allowed it to develop into Tropical Depression Seventeen-E at 12:00 UTC on October 2. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Olivia eighteen hours later. Moving west-northwestward away from Mexico, Olivia reached its peak intensity late on October 3 with 55-knot (65 mph) winds, a minimum pressure of 994 millibars. It maintained this intensity for 36 hours before an increase in wind shear caused by Atlantic Hurricane Keith caused it to weaken on October 5. After Keith made landfall on Mexico and dissipated, northeasterly shear relaxed, and allowed Olivia to re-strengthen and achieve 55-knot winds again early on October 8. Continual westward movement brought the storm over cooler waters, and |
9517_39 | it began to weaken for a second time. Olivia dropped to tropical depression intensity at 6:00 UTC on October 9, and dissipated 24 hours later. The resulting remnant low briefly re-gained moderate convection on October 11, but increasing southwesterly shear disrupted it. The low eventually crossed the Baja California Peninsula and the Gulf of California, and tracked across northwestern Mexico and entered the southwest United States. |
9517_40 | The remnants of Olivia brought considerable rainfall to the American Southwest, Northwestern Mexico, and the Baja California Peninsula, exceeding 3 inches in many areas.
Tropical Storm Paul
An area of disturbed weather emerged from the Intertropical Convergence Zone on October 22. Located several hundred miles south-southeast of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, convection gradually organized and increased, and by October 25 satellite images indicated the development of the eighteenth tropical depression of the season. Operationally it was not classified until 15 hours later. The depression moved westward throughout its duration, and based on Dvorak estimates, intensified into Tropical Storm Paul on October 26. Despite increasing wind shear ahead of the storm, the National Hurricane Center predicted steady intensification to near hurricane status, although Paul only attained peak winds of . |
9517_41 | As wind shear increased and convection became disorganized, Paul weakened. A trough briefly curved it to the northwest, before resuming its westward motion. Although the convection was becoming displaced from the low-level circulation, the National Hurricane Center continued to predict strengthening. However, the thunderstorms became minimal, and Paul weakened to a tropical depression early on October 28. The circulation center deteriorated, and although there were bursts in convection, Paul dissipated early on October 29, as it was becoming indistinguishable in the ITCZ. The remnants continued westward, and interacted with an upper-level low, affecting Hawaii with heavy rainfall in early November. The flooding caused $70 million in damage, and the highest rainfall total was at Kapapala Ranch. That rainfall total makes Paul the third rainiest tropical cyclone in Hawaii, behind only Hurricane Hiki and Hurricane Lane of 1950 and 2018, respectively.
Tropical Storm Rosa |
9517_42 | The origins of Tropical Storm Rosa can be traced to a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on October 18. It showed signs of development in the southwestern Caribbean Sea, though moved into the East Pacific Ocean on November 1 before being able to develop further. Favorable conditions allowed the system to quickly organize, and the wave formed into Tropical Depression Nineteen-E on November 3 while south of the El Salvador–Guatemala border. A ridge of high pressure to its north forced the depression westward, where it slowly organized into a tropical storm on November 5. A mid-level trough eroded the high-pressure system, allowing Rosa to turn more to the north. On November 6, the storm reached a peak of , though Rosa slowly weakened as it accelerated to the northeast. On November 8, the storm made landfall on the southern coast of Mexico with winds of , and quickly dissipated. |
9517_43 | Rosa dropped moderate rainfall across Mexico, peaking at near the Mexico/Guatemala border. Damage was minimal, totaling to only $15,000 (2000 USD; $ USD). Rosa was the first November storm since Hurricane Rick in the 1997 season.
Other storms
Tropical Depression Chanchu
On July 26, a tropical depression formed east of the International Date Line from the possible remnants of Upana, and it quickly exited the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility. However, this storm was not included in the CPHC database. As it crossed into the western Pacific, it strengthened into a tropical storm and received the name Chanchu. |
9517_44 | Season effects
This is a table of all the storms that have formed in the 2000 Pacific hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, landfall(s), denoted in parentheses, damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all the damage figures are in 2000 USD.
Storm names
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 2000. Names that were not assigned are marked in gray No names were retired, so it was used again in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season. This is the same list used for the 1994 season. |
9517_45 | For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line, all names are used in a series of four rotating lists. The next four names that were slated for use in 2000 are shown below, however only two of them were used.
See also
Pacific hurricane
List of Pacific hurricanes
2000 Atlantic hurricane season
2000 Pacific typhoon season
2000 North Indian Ocean cyclone season
South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1999–2000, 2000–01
Australian region cyclone seasons: 1999–2000, 2000–01
South Pacific cyclone seasons: 1999–2000, 2000–01
References
External links
National Hurricane Center Website
National Hurricane Center's Eastern Pacific Tropical Weather Outlook
Servicio Meteorológico Nacional Website
Joint Typhoon Warning Center
NHC 2000 Pacific hurricane season archive
HPC 2000 Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages
2002
2000 EPac |
9518_0 | John Philoponus (Greek: ; ; c. 490 – c. 570), also known as John the Grammarian or John of Alexandria, was a Byzantine Greek philologist, Aristotelian commentator, Christian theologian and an author of a considerable number of philosophical treatises and theological works. He was born in Alexandria. A rigorous, sometimes polemical writer and an original thinker who was controversial in his own time, John Philoponus broke from the Aristotelian–Neoplatonic tradition, questioning methodology and eventually leading to empiricism in the natural sciences. He was one of the first to propose a "theory of impetus" similar to the modern concept of inertia over Aristotelian dynamics. |
9518_1 | Later in life Philoponus turned to Christian apologetics, arguing against the eternity of the world, a theory which formed the basis of pagan attacks on the Christian doctrine of Creation. He also wrote on Christology and was posthumously condemned as a heretic by the Church in 680–81 because of what was perceived as a tritheistic interpretation of the Trinity.
His by-name translates as "lover of toil", i.e. "diligent," referring to a miaphysite confraternity in Alexandria, the philoponoi, who were active in debating pagan (i.e. Neoplatonic) philosophers. |
9518_2 | His posthumous condemnation limited the spread of his writing, but copies of his work, The contra Aristotelem, resurfaced in medieval Europe, through translations from Arabic of his quotes included in the work of Simplicius of Cilicia, which was debated in length by Muslim philosophers such as al-Farabi, Avicenna, al-Ghazali and later Averroes, influencing Bonaventure and Buridan in Christian Western Europe, but also Rabbanite Jews such as Maimonides and Gersonides, who also used his arguments against their Karaite rivals. His work was largely debated in the Arabic scholarly tradition, where he is known as (i.e. "John the Grammarian"), and his views against Aristotelian physics were defended by philosophers at the court of Fatimid Imam Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, particularly Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani, who debated Avicenna on the topic, and Hamza ibn Ali. His critique of Aristotle in the Physics commentary was a major influence on Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and Galileo Galilei, who |
9518_3 | cited Philoponus substantially in his works. |
9518_4 | Life
Although Philoponus' originating from a Christian family is possible, nothing is known of his early life. Philoponus studied at the school of Alexandria and began publishing from about 510. He was a pupil and sometime amanuensis to the Neoplatonic philosopher Ammonius Hermiae, who had studied at Athens under Proclus. |
9518_5 | Philoponus' early writings are based on lectures given by Ammonius, but gradually he established his own independent thinking in his commentaries and critiques of Aristotle's On the Soul and Physics. In the latter work Philoponus became one of the earliest thinkers to reject Aristotle's dynamics and propose the "theory of impetus": i.e., an object moves and continues to move because of an energy imparted in it by the mover and ceases the movement when that energy is exhausted. This insightful theory was the first step towards the concept of inertia in modern physics, although Philoponus' theory was largely ignored at the time because he was too radical in his rejection of Aristotle. |
9518_6 | Philoponus is the only writer of antiquity to have formally presented such a concept.
As the discovery of the principle of inertia is the hallmark achievement of modern science as it emerges in the 16th to 17th centuries, Pierre Duhem argues that its invention would put Philoponus among the "great geniuses of Antiquity" and the "principal precursors to modern science", although he holds it more likely that Philoponus may have received the idea from an earlier, otherwise unrecorded Alexandrian school of mechanics.
In 529 Philoponus wrote his critique On the Eternity of the World Against Proclus in which he systematically defeats every argument put forward for the eternity of the world, a theory which formed the basis of pagan attack of the Christian doctrine of Creation. The intellectual battle against eternalism became one of Philoponus' major preoccupations and dominated several of his publications (some now lost) over the following decade. |
9518_7 | He introduced a new period of scientific thought based heavily on three premises: (1) The universe is a product of one single God, (2) the heavens and the earth have the same physical properties, (3) and the stars are not divine. With these principles Philoponus went after his rival, Simplicius of Cilicia, by questioning Aristotle's' view of dynamics and cosmology. He argued that motion can occur in a void and that the velocity of a falling object is not based on its weight. He also held that God created all matter with its physical properties and with natural laws that would allow matter to progress from a state of chaos to an organized state forming the present universe. What remains of his writings indicate that he used the same didactic methods of reasoning that modern science uses and that he performed genuine experiments. |
9518_8 | The style of his commentaries and his conclusions made Philoponus unpopular with his colleagues and fellow philosophers, and he appears to have ceased his study of philosophy around 530, devoting himself to theology instead. Around 550 he wrote a theological work On the Creation of the World as a commentary on the Bible’s story of creation, using the insights of Greek philosophers and Basil the Great. In this work he transfers his theory of impetus to the motion of the planets, whereas Aristotle had proposed different explanations for the motion of heavenly bodies and for earthly projectiles. Thus, Philoponus' theological work is recognized in the history of science as the first attempt at a unified theory of dynamics. Another of his major theological concerns was to argue that all material objects were brought into being by God (Arbiter, 52A–B). |
9518_9 | Around 553 Philoponus made some theological contributions to the Council of Constantinople concerning Christology. His doctrine on Christ's duality, according to which in Christ remain two united substances, united but divided, is analogous to the union of the soul and body in human beings and coincides with the miaphysite school of thought. He also produced writings on the Trinity around this time. Arbiter, John Philoponus' Christological “opus magnum” stands in the line with St. Cyril of Alexandria and Severus of Antioch. Philoponus asserted the understanding of Christ as divine and human, in opposition to Chalcedonian authors who strove to reach a middle ground. |
9518_10 | Legacy
After his death, John Philoponus was declared to have held heretical views of the Trinity and was made anathema at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680–681. This limited the spread of his ideas in the following centuries, but in his own time and afterwards he was translated into Syriac and Arabic, and many of his works survived and were studied by the Arabs. Some of his works continued to circulate in Europe in Greek or Latin versions and influenced Bonaventure. The theory of impetus was taken up by Buridan in the 14th century.
Philoponus and his contemporaries, Simplicius of Cilicia and Strato developed the Aristotelian concept of space further, eventually influencing the Renaissance theory of perspective, particularly the one highlighted by Leon Battista Alberti, and other architectural masters.
Works
John Philoponus wrote at least 40 works on a wide array of subjects including grammar, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and theology. |
9518_11 | On words with different meanings in virtue of a difference of accent (De vocabulis quae diversum significatum exhibent secundum differentiam accentus)
Commentary on Aristotle's On Generation and Corruption
Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima
Commentary on Aristotle's Categories
Commentary on Aristotle's Prior Analytics
Commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics
Commentary on Aristotle's Physics – Philoponus' most important commentary, in which he challenges Aristotle on time, space, void, matter and dynamics.
Commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology
Commentary on Nicomachus' Introduction to Arithmetic
On the Eternity of the World against Proclus (De aeternitate mundi contra Proclum)
On the Eternity of the World against Aristotle (De aeternitate mundi contra Aristotelem) – A refutation of Aristotle's doctrines of the fifth element and the eternity of motion and time, consisting of at least eight books. |
9518_12 | On the Creation of the World (De opificio mundi) – A theological-philosophical commentary on the Creation story in the Book of Genesis.
On the Contingency of the World (De contingentia mundi)
On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe – The oldest extant Greek treatise on the astrolabe.
Arbiter (Διαιτητής [Diaitêtês]) – A philosophical justification of monophysitism. Not extant in Greek; Syriac text with Latin translation.
On the Trinity (De trinitate) – The main source for a reconstruction of Philoponus' trinitarian doctrine. |
9518_13 | Philosophical commentaries
The commentaries of the late antiquity and early Middle Ages aimed to teach an audience. In that regard, the repetitive nature of Philoponus’ commentaries demonstrates his pedagogical awareness. Although abstract in manner, Philoponus is chiefly focused on the concept in question.
Most of Philoponus’ early philosophical works strive to define the distinction between matter, extension, place, and various kinds of change. For example, the commentary On the Eternity of the World against Aristotle represents a standardized description of Aristotelian natural philosophy. Both Aristotle and Philoponus argue that in kinds of change there are differences, in their form and matter. |
9518_14 | In Physics, Aristotle operates with the idea of places, but dismisses the existence of space. The idea that came from Plato and was developed by Aristotle has been evolved by Philoponus. Philoponus attempts to combine the idea of homogeneous space with the Aristotelian system. The argument made by Philoponus is that substances by themselves require some determinate quantity for their being. Similarly to Aristotle, who rejected the immaterial things, and in contrast to Plato who accepted immaterial substances in his metaphysics, Philoponus’ concept of substance refers to the material objects. |
9518_15 | Concerning the discussion of space, Philoponus’ claim that from every point in space is possible to draw identical figures, made him be perceived as an innovative thinker who influenced later Renaissance scholars, for instance, Gianfranceso Pico della Mirandola and Galileo Galilei. Thus, Philoponus' idea of perspective signifies the concept of space as immaterial three-dimensional medium in which objects are located.
In the third book of De Anima, entitled De Intellectu, Philoponus analyzes the doctrine of the intellect. The author (Philoponus or pseudo-Philoponus?) sets the theory on the role and functioning of the active intellect. On one hand, there is the active intellect, and on the other, the idea of perception awareness or how we are aware that we are perceiving. In other words, in this reflective philosophy, there is a rationalist conclusion which emphasizes a relation between self and truth which leads to the discussion of the nature of knowledge. |
9518_16 | According to this view, the knowledge is identical to its object, since the self-awareness of perception is divorced from the irrational soul.Therefore, the understanding arises through the identification of the intellect and its object. More specifically, perception deals only with material things.
Philoponus has raised the central question of the scientific and philosophical Aristotle's work on chemistry. The work called On Generation and Corruption examines the question of how is the mixture (chemical combination) possible? Philoponus’ contribution to the topic is in his new definition of potential, the third of the seven elements criteria. There are various interpretations of the theory of mixture, but it seems that Philoponus is rather refining Aristotle's approach than rejecting it. One of interpreters of Philophonus’ work on the theory of mixture, De Haas, implies that “no element can possess a quality essential to it except to a superlative extent”.
Theological treatises |
9518_17 | Philoponus’ major Christological work is Arbiter. The work was written shortly before the Second Council of Constantinople of 553. It became famous in regard to its doctrine on resurrection. Similarly to ideas presented in Physics, Philoponus in the work titled Arbiter states that our corrupted bodies (material things) will be eventually brought into being (matter and form) by God.
See also
Byzantine science
References |
9518_18 | Further reading
Gleede, Benjamin, Platon und Aristoteles in der Kosmologie des Proklos. Ein Kommentar zu den 18 Argumenten für die Ewigkeit der Welt bei Johannes Philoponos (Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2009) (Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum / Studies and Texts in Antiquity and Christianity, 54).
Grant, E. Much Ado about Nothing: Theories of Space and Vacuum from the Middle Ages to the Scientific Revolution (Cambridge, 1981).
Grant, E. A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2007).
Jammer, M. Concepts of Space: The History of Theories of Space in Physics (Mineola, NY, 1993), 53–94.
MacCoull, Leslie S. B., "Aristophanes in Philoponus: Did he get the joke?" Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik, 57, 2007,
Scholten, Clemens, "Welche Seele hat der Embryo? Johannes Philoponos und die Antike Embryologie," Vigiliae Christianae, 59,4 (2005), 377–411.
Wisnovsky, R., "Yaḥyā al-Naḥwī." Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2012. |
9518_19 | External links
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5th-century Christians
6th-century Christians
5th-century philosophers
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9519_0 | Sir William Pole (1561–1635) of Colcombe House in the parish of Colyton, of Southcote in the parish of Talaton and formerly of Shute House in the parish of Shute (adjoining Colcombe), both in Devon, was an English country gentleman and landowner, a colonial investor, Member of Parliament and, most notably, a historian and antiquarian of the County of Devon.
Career
Pole was baptised on 27 August 1561 at Colyton, Devon, the son of William Pole, Esquire (1515–1587), MP, by his wife Katherine Popham (died 1588), daughter of Alexander Popham of Huntworth, Somerset by his wife Joan Stradling. Katherine was the sister of John Popham (1531–1607), Lord Chief Justice. In 1560 his father had purchased Shute House, near Colyton and Axminster, Devon. |
9519_1 | He entered the Inner Temple in 1578, was placed on the Commission of the Peace for Devonshire, served as Sheriff of Devon in 1602–3, and was MP in 1586 for Bossiney, Cornwall. He was knighted by King James I at Whitehall Palace on 15 February 1606. He paid into the Virginia Company, and was an incorporator of the third Virginia charter. |
9519_2 | Antiquarian works
During his life Pole wrote many unpublished manuscripts containing his researches into the history and antiquities of Devon and the descents of that county's ancient families, their landholdings and heraldry. These documents laid the foundation not only for future historians of the county but also for his contemporaries, such as Tristram Risdon (died 1640) who acknowledged the help he had received from Pole's compilations. Pole stated that he used as his sources "Records out of ye Towre, the Exchecquer & such deedes & evidences which in my searches I have founde". The Tower of London was one of the main repositories of legal and governmental deeds and other historical documents, until the opening of the Public Record Office in 1838. His work was enlarged by his son Sir John Pole, 1st Baronet, "who was much addicted also to this ingenuous study". However some, maybe many, of his manuscripts were destroyed at Colcombe Castle during the Civil War. |
9519_3 | The documents that survived include:
Two folio volumes, which were published in 1791 by his descendant Sir John de la Pole, 6th Baronet (1757–1799), of Shute, MP, under the title Collections Towards a Description of the County of Devon. In his introduction to the published volume, the 6th Baronet apologises to the reader for any of his spelling errors in transcribing the handwriting from the manuscripts and states that many of the resulting ambiguities "must still be left to the decision of the more informed reader".
A folio volume of deeds, charters, and grants compiled in 1616, a small portion of which was printed privately by Sir Thomas Phillipps under the title "Sir William Pole's Copies of Extracts from Old Evidences", Mill Hill, c.1840.
A thin folio volume containing heraldry, etc.
A volume of deeds and grants to Tor Abbey |
9519_4 | Pole's collections were used as source material for their own historical writings by among others, Tristram Risdon (d.1640), John Prince (d.1723) (Worthies of Devon), and the brothers Daniel Lysons (1762–1834) and Samuel Lysons (1763–1819), in volume 6: Devon (1822) of their Magna Britannia. |
9519_5 | Assessment
His contemporary and fellow researcher into the history of Devonshire Tristram Risdon (d.1640), who did manage within his lifetime to publish his own work the Survey of Devon, wrote as follows of Pole:
Pole's son, the 1st Baronet, furnished Risdon "with many things worth the observation, out of his ample treasury, to polish this work".
Today, Pole's collections are considered to be valuable records of otherwise lost documents, though as Youings wrote in 1996: "being a man of his time, the material was largely concerned with the genealogy and landed possessions of Devon's aristocracy and gentry, and he found no place for the rest of society".
Marriages and children |
9519_6 | Pole married twice. His first marriage was to Mary Peryam (1567–1605), one of the four daughters and co-heiresses of Sir William Peryam (1534–1604), of Fulford House, Shobrooke, Devon, a judge and Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. Mary Peryam's first cousin was Jane Peryham (a daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Peryam (1541 – c. 1618), brother of Sir William Peryam (d.1604)) who married the diarist Walter Yonge (1579–1649) of Great House in the parish of Colyton (in which parish also lived Sir William Pole at Colcombe Castle). Thus the wife of the famous Devon historian Sir William Pole was the first cousin of his near neighbour, the famous Devon diarist Walter Yonge; the sons of both men were created baronets. In future the Yonge and Pole families long competed with each other to win one of the two Parliamentary seats of the nearby Rotten Borough of Honiton, of which borough the Yonges were patrons, an electorate which expected to be bought by generous bribes which over time proved |
9519_7 | exorbitant to candidates. By Mary Peryam he had six sons and six daughters including: |
9519_8 | William Pole (d.1586), eldest son, who predeceased his father, as is stated on the mural monument to his mother in the Pole Chapel in Colyton Church.
Sir John Pole, 1st Baronet (c.1589–1658), eldest surviving son and heir.
Peryam Pole, 2nd eldest surviving son, who founded the Irish branch of the family and whose descendant William Pole (died 1771), of Ballyfin, died without issue and bequeathed his estates to his wife's great-nephew William Wesley (1763–1845), who thereupon adopted the surname Wesley-Pole (Anglicised later to Wellesley-Pole) and became later 3rd Earl of Mornington, and was an elder brother of the 1st Duke of Wellington
William Pole (1593–1674), triplet, baptised 4 December 1593 at Shute. matriculated at Oriel College, Oxford on 24 March 1610, graduated B.A. on 3 November 1612, entered the Inner Temple in 1616, and emigrated to America, where he died on 24 February 1674. |
9519_9 | Arthur Pole, triplet, baptised 4 December 1593 at Shute. "Perished by an unfortunat fall", as is stated on the mural monument to his mother in the Pole Chapel in Colyton Church.
Francis Pole, triplet, baptised 4 December 1593 at Shute.
Mary Pole (born 1586), eldest daughter, who married twice: firstly in 1602 to Nicholas Hurst of Oxton, Kenton and of Whiteway, Kingsteignton, without progeny; secondly in 1606 (as his 1st wife) to Francis Courtenay, de jure 4th Earl of Devon (c. 1576 – 1638), MP, of Powderham Castle, Devon. Sir William Pole's grandson Sir Courtenay Pole, 2nd Baronet (1618–1695) was named in honour of this advantageous match to the leading county family. |
9519_10 | Katherine Pole (born 1587), 2nd daughter, wife of Thomas Southcote of Mohuns Ottery in the parish of Luppitt and of Indio in the parish of Bovey Tracey, both in Devon. In his history of Mohuns Ottery Pole wrote: "Thomas Southcot, Esquier, nowe dwellinge at Mouns Otery, maried Kateryn my 2 daughtr, by whom hee hath issue Sir Popham Southcot, Kt."
Elizabeth Pole (1588–1654), 3rd daughter, like her brother William Pole emigrated to America, and played a prominent role in the foundation and incorporation of Taunton, Massachusetts in 1639–40, where she died on 21 May 1654
Ann Pole (born 1589), 4th daughter, married in 1611/12 to Edmond Walrond, of Bovey House, Beer, Devon, a junior branch of the ancient Walrond family of Bradfield House, Uffculme, Devon. |
9519_11 | Eleanor Pole (born 1597), 5th daughter, wife of Anthony Floyer of Floyer Hayes in the parish of St Thomas, Exeter. Her father wrote concerning "Floyerhays": Antony Floier, nowe livinge, hath by Elinor, daughter of mee Sr Willam Pole, of Colcombe, Kt, issue: William, John, and others. The said Antony hath alsoe diverse tenements in the parish of St Thomas. |
9519_12 | His second marriage was to Jane Simmes (died 1653), daughter of William Simmes (or Symes) of Chard, Somerset, and widow of Roger How, merchant of London. The marriage was childless. Sir William Pole's son and heir John Pole (c. 1589 – 1658), later 1st Baronet, married her daughter, Elizabeth How, heiress of her father Roger How.
Death and burial
Pole died on 9 February 1635, aged 73, at his home Colcombe Castle, in the parish of Colyton, to which he had retired leaving Shute for the occupation of his son John. He was buried in the west side of the chancel in Colyton church, in the floor of which exists a simple ledger stone, with an inscription now much worn.
Notes
References
Sources
Pole, Sir William, Collections Towards a Description of the County of Devon, Sir John-William de la Pole (ed.), London, 1791. |
9519_13 | 1561 births
1635 deaths
English antiquarians
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
High Sheriffs of Devon
Members of the Inner Temple
People from East Devon District
Historians of Devon
Topographers of Devon
16th-century antiquarians
17th-century antiquarians
17th-century English male writers
16th-century male writers
English MPs 1586–1587
16th-century English historians
17th-century English historians |
9520_0 | Michael Santiago Render (born April 20, 1975), better known by his stage name Killer Mike, is an American rapper, actor, and activist. Mike made his debut on Outkast's 2000 LP Stankonia, and later appeared on their Grammy-winning single "The Whole World" from their greatest hits album Big Boi and Dre Present... Outkast (2001). He has since released five full-length albums as a solo artist. He is the founder of Grind Time Official Records, which he launched through SMC and Fontana Distribution.
In December 2008, Mike signed to fellow Atlanta-based rapper T.I.'s Grand Hustle Records. In 2012, he released R.A.P. Music, produced entirely by American rapper and producer El-P. Killer Mike and El-P subsequently formed the duo Run the Jewels in 2013; they were signed to Fool's Gold Records and released their self-titled debut in June of that year. |
9520_1 | Mike is also known as a social and political activist, focusing on subjects including social inequality, police brutality, and systemic racism. In addition to addressing themes of racism and police brutality in his music, he has also delivered several lectures at colleges and universities, written about social justice topics for publications such as Billboard, and been the subject of interviews regarding police misconduct and race relations. He was a visible and vocal supporter of Bernie Sanders' 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, refusing to support Hillary Clinton after Sanders left the race, and again supporting Sanders in his 2020 presidential campaign.
Mike has appeared in films such as Idlewild, Baby Driver, and ATL. The documentary series Trigger Warning with Killer Mike, in which he explores issues in the U.S. that affect the black community, premiered on Netflix in January 2019. |
9520_2 | Early life
Michael Render was born in the Adamsville neighborhood of Atlanta, Georgia, on April 20, 1975, the son of a policeman father and a florist mother. Because his parents were teenagers at the time of his birth, he was partly raised by his grandparents in the Collier Heights neighborhood of Atlanta, and would attend Douglass High School.
Career
1995–2005: Early career and career beginnings
In 1995, Killer Mike briefly attended Atlanta's Morehouse College, where he met producers The Beat Bullies and eventually Big Boi of Outkast. His music debut was a feature appearance on OutKast's "Snappin' & Trappin'" from the 2000 album Stankonia, followed by their 2001 single "The Whole World", which won the 2002 Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group. He was featured on several other tracks that year, including "Poppin' Tags" from Jay-Z's The Blueprint 2. |
9520_3 | In 2003, Killer Mike released his debut studio album, Monster, while being managed by Dayo Adebiyi and Al Thrash of Own Music. The album's lead single was "Akshon (Yeah!)", which featured OutKast on guest vocals. A remix of "Akshon (Yeah!)" was included on the soundtrack of EA Sports' video game Madden NFL 2004. The album's second single was "A.D.I.D.A.S.", featuring Big Boi and Sleepy Brown, which peaked at number 60 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It is Killer Mike's highest-charting single to date as a lead artist. |
9520_4 | Following the release of his own material, he appeared on "Flip Flop Rock" and "Bust" on the Speakerboxx half of OutKast's Speakerboxxx/The Love Below double album. He also appeared on "Southern Takeover" with Pastor Troy on Chamillionaire's CD The Sound of Revenge. Killer Mike appeared alongside T.I. on the song "Never Scared" by Bone Crusher in his album AttenCHUN!. It peaked at #26 on the Hot 100, becoming Mike's second top 40 hit ("The Whole World" being the first). The song was also used on the Madden NFL 2004 game soundtrack and by the Atlanta Braves for their 2003 season.
2006–2012: Pledge series and R.A.P. Music
What was to be his second album, Ghetto Extraordinary, had its release date pushed back several times due to disputes between Big Boi and Sony Records. Originally recorded in 2005, the album was eventually self-released as a mixtape in 2008. |
9520_5 | Killer Mike's second official album, I Pledge Allegiance to the Grind, was released on his own Grind Time Official label in 2006, followed by I Pledge Allegiance to the Grind II in 2008.
According to an article published in the June 2007 issue of XXL, Killer Mike addressed why he left the Purple Ribbon roster. He stated that he felt as if Purple Ribbon was the equivalent to the "Clippers," while he wanted to join the "Lakers." T.I. later announced that he and Killer Mike had been in talks about bringing Mike to his Grand Hustle imprint on Atlantic, and Killer Mike confirmed that he had signed in December 2008. He released his fourth official album, PL3DGE, on Grand Hustle in 2011. His fifth album, R.A.P. Music, followed in 2012. |
9520_6 | In 2013, Killer Mike announced that he was working to release two albums in 2014, I Pledge Allegiance to the Grind IV and R.A.P. Music II, both of which were to feature production by EL-P. Although neither album was released as planned, 2013 and 2014 did see the release of two Run the Jewels albums, both collaborative efforts between Killer Mike and EL-P.
Killer Mike also announced in 2013 that his next solo album would be titled Elegant Elephant, a project he described as his "Moby Dick". He did not specify a timeline for its release.
2013–present: Run the Jewels |
9520_7 | Killer Mike was introduced to rapper/producer El-P by Cartoon Network executive Jason DeMarco in 2011. The following year, El-P produced Mike's album R.A.P. Music and guested on the song "Butane (Champion's Anthem)". That same year, Killer Mike guested on El-P's album Cancer 4 Cure. When R.A.P. Music and Cancer 4 Cure were released within weeks of each other, the two rappers decided to tour together. The success of the tour eventually led to the decision to record as a duo, which they named Run the Jewels.
Run the Jewels released a free eponymous album on June 26, 2013. The next year, on October 28, 2014, Run the Jewels released their second free album, Run the Jewels 2. On September 25, 2015, the duo released a re-recorded version of Run the Jewels 2 made entirely with cat sounds, titled Meow the Jewels. A third album, Run the Jewels 3, was released on December 24, 2016. Their fourth album, RTJ4, was released on June 3, 2020.
Other ventures |
9520_8 | Acting
Mike has been featured in the films 20 Funerals, Idlewild (2006), and ATL (2006). He has also performed as a voice actor, playing a rapper/actor-turned-U.S. President named Taqu'il in the Adult Swim cartoon Frisky Dingo from 2006 to 2008. Mike guest-voiced a Boost Mobile phone in an episode of the same name of Adult Swim's Aqua Teen Hunger Force. He appeared twice on an Adult Swim surreal comedy series The Eric Andre Show, once in 2012, where he acted as a hype man for a female opera singer, and again in 2014, where he performed a rap battle with Action Bronson while the two were forced to walk on treadmills. |
9520_9 | Graffitis SWAG Barbershop
Mike and his wife, Shana, opened a barbershop in Atlanta on November 1, 2011. The two acquired and reworked a barbershop and named it "Graffitis SWAG" (Shave, Wash, And Groom). He had waited nine years before choosing to open the barbershop, after having an early business manager advise him against the plan. It took his wife advising him to do it now while he had the time and money to pursue his lifelong dream. He eventually plans to open 150 shops across the United States over time, predominantly in cities with large black communities. |
9520_10 | The barbershop is decorated with artwork on the walls honoring historic black leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr. Mike said that he hopes to "lift up men in the community who are out of work and help move them toward sustainable, lifelong careers" and give his employees "opportunity for real economic elevation". As of 2012, the shop employed six barbers, with plans to add four to six more licensed barbers to the team. Mike also said that he hoped to pursue his own barber license in the winter of 2012.
The enterprise has been successful and the shop has become a gathering place for the community, in addition to hosting events such as a season premiere for The Boondocks and serving as the setting for several music videos. A second location in Tampa, Florida was planned for 2014. |
9520_11 | Greenwood bank
In October 2020, Killer Mike, Bounce TV founder Ryan Glover, and former Atlanta mayor Andrew Young founded Greenwood, an online bank targeting "Black and Latinx communities and anyone else who wants to support Black-owned businesses." According to Glover "tens of thousands" of people were on its waitlist for accounts within a day, and on January 26 Greenwood reported 500,000 people were waiting for accounts. The bank was originally expected to open in January 2021, but delayed its opening first to July, and then to the end of 2021, due to "unanticipated high demand". |
9520_12 | Activism
Mike is an outspoken social activist focusing on subjects including social equality, police brutality, and systemic racism. His views are reflected in his music, as well as in interviews with the media. As a publicly viewed figure, Mike feels it is his responsibility to represent African-Americans: "I feel I have to be politically active and I have to be a credit to my race." He has been vocal on the subject of police misconduct, his father being a former police officer. His anti-brutality sentiment can be found on the song "Reagan" from his album R.A.P. Music, and the song "Early" on Run the Jewels 2.
In response to the 2014 shooting of Michael Brown controversy in Ferguson, Missouri, Mike said:
In an op-ed published in Billboard magazine, Killer Mike stated that "there is no reason that Mike Brown and also Eric Garner are dead today—except bad policing, excessive force, and the hunt-and-capture-prey mentality many thrill-seeking cops have adapted". |
9520_13 | Mike and El-P performed at The Ready Room in St. Louis, Missouri on November 24, 2014, the same night that the Grand Jury verdict was announced stating that Darren Wilson would not be charged with a crime in the shooting of Michael Brown. Mike opened the set, which began about two hours after the announcement was made, with a heartfelt speech. Fan-shot footage of the speech later went viral.
Mike, in an op-ed, defended rap lyrics and says that they should be defended as freedom of speech.
Commenting on the 2015 Baltimore uprising related to the death of Freddie Gray, Killer Mike noted that he understood the frustrations leading to violent demonstrations, but encouraged protesters to use their energy to organize for lasting change. In a Billboard op-ed, Mike stated: |
9520_14 | He made similar points in an interview with the Harvard Political Review: "Baltimore is an opportunity for us to do something different. As society, there's a real opportunity to organize there, and if we do not take full advantage of the opportunity to organize, then the riots truly meant nothing."
Mike has given lectures about race relations in the United States at several American universities, including Northwestern University, New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Political involvement |
9520_15 | In June 2015, Mike briefly ran as a write-in candidate to become the representative for Georgia's 55th district in the Georgia House of Representatives. Despite encouraging voters to write in his real name, Michael Render, any votes he received would not have been considered valid due to his failure to previously register as an official candidate in the election. He said his purpose in running was to raise awareness of the special election, and to demonstrate that political outsiders can and should run against established politicians. |
9520_16 | Mike announced his support of Democratic U.S. presidential candidate Bernie Sanders in June 2015 after Sanders announced his intention to restore the Voting Rights Act of 1965. After introducing Sanders at a rally held in Atlanta November 23, 2015, Mike spent time recording an interview with the presidential candidate at Mike's barbershop. Mike released his interview with Sanders as a six-part video series the following month. In the following months, he remained an active and vocal supporter of Sanders, delivering speeches at rallies, voicing support in televised interviews and on social media, and traveling with the campaign. Sanders introduced Run the Jewels before their appearance at the 2016 Coachella music festival. |
9520_17 | In February 2016, Mike received criticism during his activism for Sanders for quoting American anti-racism and LGBT advocate Jane Elliott regarding Hillary Clinton, which was criticized as misogynistic and mistakenly attributed as being his original phrasing online and in the press. Following Sanders' exit from the race, Mike refused to support Clinton, due to her pro-war record.
Mike has been an advocate for investment in black-owned banks; in July 2016 he called for people to transfer their money to black-owned Atlanta bank Citizens Trust, stating, "We don't have to burn our city down. But what we can do is go to your banks tomorrow. You can go to your bank tomorrow. And you can say, 'Until you as a corporation start to speak on our behalf, I want all my money. And I'm taking all my money to Citizens Trust".
In June 2017, at Glastonbury festival, Mike endorsed Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn in the 2017 UK general election. |
9520_18 | On March 22, 2018, Mike appeared on NRATV with host Colion Noir defending black gun ownership. He says it had been filmed a week prior to the March for Our Lives yet released the weekend of the protest. He also stated that he told his children that if they participated in the National School Walkout that he would expect them to leave the family home. On March 26, 2018, he posted a video stating that the NRA used his interview out of context, saying he actually supports March for Our Lives while simultaneously advocating for black gun ownership. During this same video he gave his endorsement for gun ownership alternatives, listing the Socialist Rifle Association by name.
On May 29, 2020, Mike spoke during a press conference with Atlanta mayor Keisha Lance Bottoms in response to the murder of George Floyd and the ensuing protests.
In 2020, Mike supported both Raphael Warnock and Jon Ossoff in the 2020–2021 United States Senate special election in Georgia, both of whom won. |
9520_19 | Personal life
Mike married his wife, Shana, in 2006. He has four children. His nephew, Chance Holloman, signed to play offensive line at Tuskeegee University after graduating from Westlake High School.
Discography
Studio albums
Monster (2003)
I Pledge Allegiance to the Grind (2006)
I Pledge Allegiance to the Grind II (2008)
PL3DGE (2011)
R.A.P. Music (2012)
Filmography
Awards
Grammy Awards
|-
|2003
|"The Whole World" (with Outkast)
|Best Rap Performance By a Duo or Group
|
|-
|}
Billboard Awards
In 2020, Killer Mike was the recipient of the first ever Billboard Change Maker Award, created to recognize an artist or group that speaks truth to power through their music and celebrity.
References
Further reading
External links |
9520_20 | 1975 births
21st-century American rappers
African-American male rappers
African-American songwriters
Alternative hip hop musicians
American gun rights activists
Articles containing video clips
Atlantic Records artists
Dungeon Family members
Grammy Award winners for rap music
Hip hop activists
Living people
Morehouse College alumni
Political music artists
Rappers from Atlanta
Songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)
Southern hip hop musicians
Run the Jewels members
Purple Ribbon All-Stars members |
9521_0 | Bruno Bettelheim (August 28, 1903 – March 13, 1990) was an Austrian-born psychologist, scholar, public intellectual and author who spent most of his academic and clinical career in the United States. An early writer on autism, Bettelheim's work focused on the education of emotionally disturbed children, as well as Freudian psychology more generally. In the U.S., he later gained a position as professor at the University of Chicago and director of the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School for Disturbed Children, and after 1973 taught at Stanford University.
Bettelheim's ideas, which grew out of those of Sigmund Freud, theorized that children with behavioral and emotional disorders were not born that way, and could be treated through extended psychoanalytic therapy, treatment that rejected the use of psychotropic drugs and shock therapy. During the 1960s and 1970s he had an international reputation in such fields as autism, child psychiatry, and psychoanalysis. |
9521_1 | Much of his work was discredited after his death due to fraudulent academic credentials, allegations of patient abuse, accusations of plagiarism, and lack of oversight by institutions and the psychological community.
Background in Austria
Bruno Bettelheim was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, on August 28, 1903. When his father died, Bettelheim left his studies at the University of Vienna to look after his family's sawmill. Having discharged his obligations to his family's business, Bettelheim returned as a mature student in his thirties to the University of Vienna. Sources disagree about his education (see section Misrepresented credentials).
Bettelheim's first wife, Gina, took care of a troubled American child, Patsy, who lived in their home in Vienna for seven years, and who may or may not have been on the autism spectrum. |
9521_2 | In the Austrian academic culture of Bettelheim's time, one could not study the history of art without mastering aspects of psychology. Candidates for the doctoral dissertation in the History of Art in 1938 at Vienna University had to fulfill prerequisites in the formal study of the role of Jungian archetypes in art, and in art as an expression of the unconscious. |
9521_3 | Though Jewish by birth, Bettelheim grew up in a secular family. After the Anschluss (political annexation) of Austria on March 12, 1938, the National Socialist (Nazi) authorities sent Austrian Jews and political opponents to the Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camps where many were brutally treated, and tortured or killed. Bettelheim was arrested some two months later on May 28, 1938 and was imprisoned in both these camps for ten and half months before being released on April 14, 1939. While at the Buchenwald camp, he met and befriended the social psychologist Ernst Federn. As a result of an amnesty declared for Adolf Hitler's birthday (which occurred slightly later on April 20, 1939), Bettelheim and hundreds of other prisoners were released. Bettelheim drew on the experience of the concentration camps for some of his later work. |
9521_4 | Life and career in the United States
Bettelheim arrived by ship as a refugee in New York City in late 1939 to join his wife Gina, who had already emigrated. They divorced because she had become involved with someone else during their separation. He soon moved to Chicago, became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1944, and married an Austrian woman, Gertrude ('Trudi') Weinfeld, also an emigrant from Vienna.
Psychology
The Rockefeller Foundation sponsored a wartime project to help resettle European scholars by circulating their resumes to American universities. Through this process, Ralph Tyler hired Bettelheim to be his research assistant at the University of Chicago from 1939 to 1941 with funding from the Progressive Education Association to evaluate how high schools taught art. Once this funding ran out, Bettelheim found a job at Rockford College, Illinois, where he taught from 1942-1944. |
9521_5 | In 1943, he published the paper "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations" about his experiences in the concentration camps, a paper which was highly regarded by Dwight Eisenhower among others. Bettelheim claimed he had interviewed 1,500 fellow prisoners, although this was unlikely. He stated that the Viennese psychoanalyst Richard Sterba had analyzed him, as well as implying in several of his writings that he had written a PhD dissertation in the philosophy of education. His actual PhD was in art history, and he had only taken three introductory courses in psychology. |
9521_6 | Through Ralph Tyler's recommendation, the University of Chicago appointed Bettelheim as a professor of psychology, as well as director of the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School for emotionally disturbed children. He held both positions from 1944 until his retirement in 1973. He wrote a number of books on psychology and, for a time, had an international reputation for his work on Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis, and emotionally disturbed children. |
9521_7 | At the Orthogenic School, Bettelheim made changes and set up an environment for milieu therapy, in which children could form strong attachments with adults within a structured but caring environment. He claimed considerable success in treating some of the emotionally disturbed children. He wrote books on both normal and abnormal child psychology, and became a major influence in the field, widely respected during his lifetime. He was noted for his study of feral children, who revert to the animal stage without experiencing the benefits of belonging to a community. He discussed this phenomenon in the book The Informed Heart. Even critics agree that, in his practice, Bettelheim was dedicated to helping these children using methods and practices that would enable them to lead happy lives. It is based on his position that psychotherapy could change humans and that they can adapt to their environment provided they are given proper care and attention. |
9521_8 | Bettelheim was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971. After retiring in 1973, he and his wife moved to Portola Valley, California, where he continued to write and taught at Stanford University. His wife died in 1984. |
9521_9 | The Uses of Enchantment
Bettelheim analyzed fairy tales in terms of Freudian psychology in The Uses of Enchantment (1976). He discussed the emotional and symbolic importance of fairy tales for children, including traditional tales once considered too dark, such as those collected and published by the Brothers Grimm. Bettelheim suggested that traditional fairy tales, with the darkness of abandonment, death, witches, and injuries, allowed children to grapple with their fears in remote, symbolic terms. If they could read and interpret these fairy tales in their own way, he believed, they would get a greater sense of meaning and purpose. Bettelheim thought that by engaging with these socially evolved stories, children would go through emotional growth that would better prepare them for their own futures. In the United States, Bettelheim won two major awards for The Uses of Enchantment: the National Book Critics Circle Award for Criticism |
9521_10 | and the National Book Award in the category of Contemporary Thought. |
9521_11 | However in 1991, well-supported charges of plagiarism were brought against Bettelheim’s The Uses of Enchantment, primarily that he had copied from Julian Herscher’s 1963 A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales (revised ed. 1974).
Death
At the end of his life, Bettelheim suffered from depression. He appeared to have had difficulties with depression for much of his life. In 1990, widowed, in failing physical health, and suffering from the effects of a stroke which impaired his mental abilities and paralyzed part of his body, he died by suicide as a result of self-induced asphyxiation by placing a plastic bag over his head. He died on March 13, 1990, in Maryland. |
9521_12 | In popular culture
Bettelheim was a public intellectual, whose writing and many public appearances in popular media paralleled a growing post WWII interest in psychoanalysis. For instance, he appeared multiple times on The Dick Cavett Show in the 70s to discuss theories of autism and psychoanalysis. Pollak's biography argues that such popular appearances shielded Bettelheim's unethical behavior from scrutiny.
In 1974, a four-part series featuring Bruno Bettelheim and directed by Daniel Carlin appeared on French television — Portrait de Bruno Bettelheim.
Woody Allen included Bettelheim as himself in a cameo in the film Zelig (1983).
A BBC Horizon documentary about Bettelheim was televised in 1987.
Controversies
Bettelheim's life and work have come under increasing scrutiny since his death.
Misrepresented credentials |
9521_13 | Though he spent most of his life working in psychology and psychiatry, Bettelheim's educational background in those fields is murky at best. Sources disagree whether Bettelheim's PhD was in art history or in philosophy (aesthetics). When he was hired at the University of Chicago, Ralph Tyler assumed that he had two PhDs, one in art history and the other in psychology. He also believed, falsely, that Bettelheim was certified to conduct psychoanalysis though Bettelheim never received such certification. A posthumous review of his transcript showed that Bettelheim had only taken three introductory classes in psychology. Bertram Cohler and Jacquelyn Sanders at the Orthogenic School believed Bettelheim had a PhD in art history. In some of his own writings, Bettelheim implied that he had written a dissertation on the philosophy of education. |
9521_14 | Determining Bettelheim's education is complicated by the fact that he routinely embellished or inflated aspects of his own biography. As an example, Bettelheim's first wife, Gina, took care of a troubled American child, Patsy, who lived in their home in Vienna for seven years. Although Bettelheim later claimed he himself had taken care of the child, there is general agreement that his wife actually provided most of the child care. However sources disagree on whether Patsy was autistic. Bettelheim later claimed that it was Patsy who inspired him to study autism and embellished her into two or even several autistic children in his home. |
9521_15 | Additionally, when he applied for a position at Rockford College in Illinois, he claimed in a résumé that he had earned summa cum laude doctorates in philosophy, art history, and psychology, and he made such claims that he had run the art department at Lower Austria's library, that he had published two books on art, that he had excavated Roman antiquities, and that he had engaged in music studies with Arnold Schoenberg. When he applied at the University of Chicago for a professorship and as director of the Orthogenic School, he further claimed that he had training in psychology, experience raising autistic children, and personal encouragement from Sigmund Freud. The University of Chicago biographical sketch of Bettelheim listed a single PhD but no subject area. Posthumous biographies of Bettelheim have investigated these claims and have come to no clear conclusions about his credentials A review in The Independent (UK) of Sutton's book stated that Bettelheim "despite claims to the |
9521_16 | contrary, possessed no psychology qualifications of any sort." Another review in The New York Times by a different reviewer stated that Bettelheim "began inventing degrees he never earned." A review in the Chicago Tribune stated "as Pollak demonstrates, Bettelheim was a snake-oil salesman of the first magnitude." |
9521_17 | In the New York Review of Books, Robert Gottlieb describes Pollak as a "relentlessly negative biographer," but Gottlieb still writes, "The accusations against Bettelheim fall into several categories. First, he lied; that is, he both exaggerated his successes at the school and falsified aspects of his background, claiming a more elaborate academic and psychoanalytic history in Vienna than he had actually had. There is conclusive evidence to support both charges." Gottlieb goes on to say that Bettelheim arrived in the United States as a Holocaust survivor and refugee without a job nor even a profession, and writes, "I suspect he said what he thought it was necessary to say, and was then stuck with these claims later on, when he could neither confirm them (since they were false) nor, given his pride, acknowledge that he had lied." This is Robert Gottlieb's judgment call for why Bettelheim lied. |
9521_18 | In a 1997 Weekly Standard article Peter Kramer, clinical professor of psychiatry at Brown University, summarized: "There were snatches of truth in the tall tale, but not many. Bettelheim had earned a non-honors degree in philosophy, he had made acquaintances in the psychoanalytic community, and his first wife had helped raise a troubled child. But, from 1926 to 1938, -- the bulk of the '14 years' at university -- Bettelheim had worked as a lumber dealer in the family business."
In his 1997 review of Pollak's book in the Baltimore Sun, Paul R. McHugh, then director of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Johns Hopkins, stated "Bettelheim – with boldness, energy and luck – exploited American deference to Freudo-Nietzschean mind-sets and interpretation, especially when intoned in accents Viennese."
Richard Pollak's 1997 biography of Bettelheim |
9521_19 | Richard Pollak's biography begins with a personal account, for his brother died in an accident while home from Bettelheim's school on holiday. While playing hide-and-go-seek in a hay loft, the brother fell through a chute covered with hay and hit the concrete floor on the level below. Years later, Pollak hoped to get some information about his brother's life and sought out Bettelheim. As Pollak recounts, "Bettelheim immediately launched into an attack. The boys' father, he said, was a simple-minded 'schlemiel.' Their mother, he insisted, had rejected Stephen at birth forcing him to develop 'pseudo-feeble-mindedness' to cope." He went on to angrily ask, "What is it about these Jewish mothers, Mr. Pollak?" Bettelheim furthermore insisted the brother had committed suicide and made it look like an accident. Pollak did not believe this. |
9521_20 | As a review in the Baltimore Sun states, "The stance of infallibility over matters Pollak knew to be untrue prompted him to wonder about the foundation of Bettelheim's commanding reputation."
A number of reviewers criticized Pollak's writing style, commenting that his book was motivated by "Vengeance, not malice" or that his book was "curiously unnuanced," but they still largely agreed with his conclusions.
Plagiarism in Bettelheim's Uses of Enchantment
In 1991, Alan Dundes published an article in the Journal of American Folklore in which he claimed Bettelheim had engaged in plagiarism in his 1976 The Uses of Enchantment. He presented a case in which Bettelheim had copied from a variety of sources including Dundes' own 1967 paper on Cinderella, but most of all from Dr. Julius E. Heuscher's 1963 book A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales (revised edition 1974). |
9521_21 | On the other hand, Jacquelyn Sanders, who worked with Bettelheim and later became director of the Orthogenic School, stated that she had read Dundes' article but didn't believe many people would agree with his conclusions. She said, "I would not call that plagiarism. I think the article is a reasonable scholarly endeavor, and calling it scholarly etiquette is appropriate. It is appropriate that this man deserved to be acknowledged and Bettelheim didn't. . . But I would not fail a student for doing that, and I don`t know anybody who would".
In a 1997 book review in the New York Times, Sarah Boxer wrote, "Mr. Pollak gives a damning passage-for-passage comparison of the two [Bettelheim's book and Heuscher's earlier book]."
Abusive treatment of students |
9521_22 | There is some disagreement as to whether Bettelheim's use of corporal punishment rose to the level of abuse or was in keeping with the standards of his time. Some staff who worked at the Orthogenic School have spoken out that they saw Bettelheim's behavior as being corporal punishment, but not abuse. As an example, David Zwerdling, who was a counselor at the school for one year in 1969-70, wrote a Sept. 1990 response to The Washington Post in which he stated, "I witnessed one occasion when an adolescent boy cursed at a female counselor. Incensed upon learning of this, Dr. Bettelheim proceeded to slap the boy two or three times across the face, while telling him sternly never to speak that way to a woman again. This was the only such incident I observed or heard of during my year at the school...until fairly recently, the near-consensus against corporal punishment in schools did not obtain." However, Zwerdling also noted, "He also was a man who, for whatever reasons, was capable of |
9521_23 | intense anger on occasion." |
9521_24 | Conversely, many students and staff at the school have argued that Bettelheim was abusive, violent, and cruel to them and to others. There are multiple newspaper accounts of abuse, in letters, editorials articles, and memoirs. A November 1990 Chicago Tribune article states: "Of the 19 alumni of the Orthogenic School interviewed for this story, some are still bitterly angry at Bettelheim, 20 or 30 years after leaving the institution due to the trauma they had suffered under him. Others say their stays did them good, and they express gratitude for having had the opportunity to be at the school. All agree that Bettelheim frequently struck his young and vulnerable patients." |
9521_25 | A particularly evocative example came from Alida Jatich, who lived at the school from 1966 to 1972 from ages twelve to eighteen. She wrote an initially anonymous April 1990 letter to the Chicago Reader in which she stated that she "lived in fear of Bettelheim's unpredictable temper tantrums, public beatings, hair pulling, wild accusations and threats and abuse in front of classmates and staff. One minute he could be smiling and joking, the next minute he could be exploding." She added, “In person, he was an evil man who set up his school as a private empire and himself as a demi-god or cultleader.” Jatich said Bettelheim had “bullied, awed, and terrorized” the children at his school, their parents, school staff members, his graduate students, and anyone else who came into contact with him. |
9521_26 | Jacquelyn Sanders, who later became director of the Orthogenic School, said she thought it was a case of Bettelheim getting too much success too quickly. "Dr. B got worse once he started getting acclaim," she said. "He was less able to have any insight into his effect on these kids."
Published books, memoirs, and biographies of Bettelheim have also taken up the question of his treatment of students. Richard Pollak's biography of Bettelheim was inspired by his brother's experience at the school, and Bettelheim's callous response to inquiries about that experience.
Pollak's biography also states that two women reported that Bettelheim fondled their breasts and those of other female students at the school while he was ostensibly apologizing to each for beating her. |
9521_27 | Institutional and professional non-responses
Perhaps in part because of Bettelheim's professional and public stature, there was little effort during his lifetime to curtail his behavior or intervene on behalf of his victims. His work at the University of Chicago seems to have been given less formal oversight by the University than other research entities under their purview.
A Newsweek article reported that Chicago-area psychiatrists had privately given him the nickname "Brutalheim," but did nothing to effectively intervene on behalf of students at the school. |
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