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LujainAbdulrahman/llama-2-7b-AE-FTuned2 | LujainAbdulrahman | 2024-05-09T11:26:16Z | 5 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"4-bit",
"bitsandbytes",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-08T21:17:27Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
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[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
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<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
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## Technical Specifications [optional]
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## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
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[More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
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TableCheck/mt0-small-query-extraction | TableCheck | 2024-05-09T11:24:02Z | 108 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"mt5",
"text2text-generation",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:bigscience/mt0-small",
"base_model:finetune:bigscience/mt0-small",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text2text-generation | 2024-05-09T11:23:23Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: bigscience/mt0-small
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
metrics:
- rouge
model-index:
- name: mt-0-small-multilanguage-query-extraction
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# mt-0-small-multilanguage-query-extraction
This model is a fine-tuned version of [bigscience/mt0-small](https://huggingface.co/bigscience/mt0-small) on the None dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.0037
- Rouge1: 90.139
- Rouge2: 88.3647
- Rougel: 90.1385
- Rougelsum: 90.1396
- Gen Len: 19.0
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 5e-05
- train_batch_size: 32
- eval_batch_size: 32
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- num_epochs: 3
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Rouge1 | Rouge2 | Rougel | Rougelsum | Gen Len |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:-----:|:---------------:|:-------:|:-------:|:-------:|:---------:|:-------:|
| 0.0046 | 1.0 | 17500 | 0.0040 | 90.1388 | 88.3642 | 90.1382 | 90.1395 | 19.0 |
| 0.0041 | 2.0 | 35000 | 0.0038 | 90.139 | 88.3647 | 90.1385 | 90.1396 | 19.0 |
| 0.0039 | 3.0 | 52500 | 0.0037 | 90.139 | 88.3647 | 90.1385 | 90.1396 | 19.0 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.1
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
TeeZee/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct-LASER | TeeZee | 2024-05-09T11:22:17Z | 135 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"phi3",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"custom_code",
"license:mit",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:37:53Z | ---
license: mit
---
### Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct-LASER
- model used: [microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct](https://huggingface.co/microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct)
- LASER scripts used: rmt_laser.py,rmt_laser_snr.py,rmt_laser_snr_math.py from [laserRMT](https://github.com/cognitivecomputations/laserRMT)
### Results
- perplexity is reduced comparing to base model, waiting for HF eval results - due to trust_remote_code=True it won't happen soon. |
blockblockblock/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-Gradient-1048k-bpw4.6-exl2 | blockblockblock | 2024-05-09T11:12:43Z | 4 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"meta",
"llama-3",
"conversational",
"en",
"arxiv:2309.00071",
"arxiv:2402.08268",
"arxiv:2305.14233",
"license:llama3",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"exl2",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-04-30T02:39:19Z | ---
language:
- en
pipeline_tag: text-generation
tags:
- meta
- llama-3
license: llama3
---
<a href="https://www.gradient.ai" target="_blank"><img src="https://cdn-uploads.huggingface.co/production/uploads/655bb613e8a8971e89944f3e/TSa3V8YpoVagnTYgxiLaO.png" width="200"/></a>
# Llama-3 8B Gradient Instruct 1048k
Join our custom agent and long context (262k-1M+) waitlist: https://forms.gle/L6TDY7dozx8TuoUv7
Gradient incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business. If you're looking to build custom AI models or agents, email us a message [email protected].
For more info see our [End-to-end development service for custom LLMs and AI systems](https://gradient.ai/development-lab)
[Join our Discord](https://discord.com/invite/2QVy2qt2mf)
This model extends LLama-3 8B's context length from 8k to > 1040K, developed by Gradient, sponsored by compute from [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai). It demonstrates that SOTA LLMs can learn to operate on long context with minimal training by appropriately adjusting RoPE theta. We trained on 830M tokens for this stage, and 1.4B tokens total for all stages, which is < 0.01% of Llama-3's original pre-training data.
**Update (5/3): We further fine-tuned our model to strengthen its assistant-like chat ability as well. The NIAH result is updated.**
**Approach:**
- [meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct](https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct) as the base
- NTK-aware interpolation [1] to initialize an optimal schedule for RoPE theta, followed by empirical RoPE theta optimization
- Progressive training on increasing context lengths, similar to [Large World Model](https://huggingface.co/LargeWorldModel) [2] (See details below)
**Infra:**
We build on top of the EasyContext Blockwise RingAttention library [3] to scalably and efficiently train on contexts up to 1048k tokens on [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai) high performance L40S cluster.
Notably, we layered parallelism on top of Ring Attention with a custom network topology to better leverage large GPU clusters in the face of network bottlenecks from passing many KV blocks between devices. This gave us a 33x speedup in model training (compare 524k and 1048k to 65k and 262k in the table below).
**Data:**
For training data, we generate long contexts by augmenting [SlimPajama](https://huggingface.co/datasets/cerebras/SlimPajama-627B). We also fine-tune on a chat dataset based on UltraChat [4], following a similar recipe for data augmentation to [2].
**Progressive Training Details:**
| | 65K | 262K | 524k | 1048k |
|------------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
| Initialize From | LLaMA-3 8B| 65K | 262K | 524k |
| Sequence Length 2^N | 16 | 18 | 19 | 20 |
| RoPE theta | 15.3 M | 207.1 M | 1.06B | 2.80B |
| Batch Size | 1 | 1 | 16 | 8 |
| Gradient Accumulation Steps | 32 | 16 | 1 | 1 |
| Steps | 30 | 24 | 50 | 50 |
| Total Tokens | 62914560 | 100663296 | 419430400 | 838860800 |
| Learning Rate | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 |
| # GPUs | 8 | 32 | 512 | 512 |
| GPU Type | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S |
| Minutes to Train (Wall)| 202 | 555 | 61 | 87 |
**Evaluation:**
```
EVAL_MAX_CONTEXT_LENGTH=1040200
EVAL_MIN_CONTEXT_LENGTH=100
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=86675
EVAL_DEPTH_INTERVAL=0.2
EVAL_RND_NUMBER_DIGITS=8
HAYSTACK1:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=25
HAYSTACK2:
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=173350
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=150000
HAYSTACK3:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=925000
```
All boxes not pictured for Haystack 1 and 3 are 100% accurate. Haystacks 1,2 and 3 are further detailed in this [blog post](https://gradient.ai/blog/the-haystack-matters-for-niah-evals).
**Quants:**
- [GGUF by Crusoe](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-GGUF). Note that you need to add 128009 as [special token with llama.cpp](https://huggingface.co/gradientai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-262k/discussions/13).
- [MLX-4bit](https://huggingface.co/mlx-community/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-4bit)
- [Ollama](https://ollama.com/library/llama3-gradient)
- vLLM docker image, recommended to load via `--max-model-len 32768`
- If you are interested in a hosted version, drop us a mail below.
## The Gradient AI Team
https://gradient.ai/
Gradient is accelerating AI transformation across industries. Our AI Foundry incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business.
## Contact Us
Drop an email to [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected])
## References
[1] Peng, Bowen, et al. "Yarn: Efficient context window extension of large language models." arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.00071 (2023).
[2] Liu, Hao, et al. "World Model on Million-Length Video And Language With RingAttention." arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.08268 (2024).
[3] https://github.com/jzhang38/EasyContext
[4] Ning Ding, Yulin Chen, Bokai Xu, Yujia Qin, Zhi Zheng, Shengding Hu, Zhiyuan
Liu, Maosong Sun, and Bowen Zhou. Enhancing chat language models by scaling
high-quality instructional conversations. arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.14233, 2023.
----
# Base Model
## Model Details
Meta developed and released the Meta Llama 3 family of large language models (LLMs), a collection of pretrained and instruction tuned generative text models in 8 and 70B sizes. The Llama 3 instruction tuned models are optimized for dialogue use cases and outperform many of the available open source chat models on common industry benchmarks. Further, in developing these models, we took great care to optimize helpfulness and safety.
**Model developers** Meta
**Variations** Llama 3 comes in two sizes — 8B and 70B parameters — in pre-trained and instruction tuned variants.
**Input** Models input text only.
**Output** Models generate text and code only.
**Model Architecture** Llama 3 is an auto-regressive language model that uses an optimized transformer architecture. The tuned versions use supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF) to align with human preferences for helpfulness and safety.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Training Data</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Params</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Context length</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>GQA</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Token count</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Knowledge cutoff</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" >Llama 3
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >A new mix of publicly available online data.
</td>
<td>8B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >15T+
</td>
<td>March, 2023
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>70B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td>December, 2023
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**Llama 3 family of models**. Token counts refer to pretraining data only. Both the 8 and 70B versions use Grouped-Query Attention (GQA) for improved inference scalability.
**Model Release Date** April 18, 2024.
**Status** This is a static model trained on an offline dataset. Future versions of the tuned models will be released as we improve model safety with community feedback.
**License** A custom commercial license is available at: [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license)
Where to send questions or comments about the model Instructions on how to provide feedback or comments on the model can be found in the model [README](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3). For more technical information about generation parameters and recipes for how to use Llama 3 in applications, please go [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes).
## Intended Use
**Intended Use Cases** Llama 3 is intended for commercial and research use in English. Instruction tuned models are intended for assistant-like chat, whereas pretrained models can be adapted for a variety of natural language generation tasks.
**Out-of-scope** Use in any manner that violates applicable laws or regulations (including trade compliance laws). Use in any other way that is prohibited by the Acceptable Use Policy and Llama 3 Community License. Use in languages other than English**.
**Note: Developers may fine-tune Llama 3 models for languages beyond English provided they comply with the Llama 3 Community License and the Acceptable Use Policy.
## How to use
This repository contains two versions of Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct, for use with transformers and with the original `llama3` codebase.
### Use with transformers
You can run conversational inference using the Transformers pipeline abstraction, or by leveraging the Auto classes with the `generate()` function. Let's see examples of both.
#### Transformers pipeline
```python
import transformers
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
pipeline = transformers.pipeline(
"text-generation",
model=model_id,
model_kwargs={"torch_dtype": torch.bfloat16},
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
prompt = pipeline.tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
tokenize=False,
add_generation_prompt=True
)
terminators = [
pipeline.tokenizer.eos_token_id,
pipeline.tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = pipeline(
prompt,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
print(outputs[0]["generated_text"][len(prompt):])
```
#### Transformers AutoModelForCausalLM
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForCausalLM
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_id)
model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained(
model_id,
torch_dtype=torch.bfloat16,
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
input_ids = tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
add_generation_prompt=True,
return_tensors="pt"
).to(model.device)
terminators = [
tokenizer.eos_token_id,
tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = model.generate(
input_ids,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
response = outputs[0][input_ids.shape[-1]:]
print(tokenizer.decode(response, skip_special_tokens=True))
```
### Use with `llama3`
Please, follow the instructions in the [repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3)
To download Original checkpoints, see the example command below leveraging `huggingface-cli`:
```
huggingface-cli download meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct --include "original/*" --local-dir Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
```
For Hugging Face support, we recommend using transformers or TGI, but a similar command works.
## Hardware and Software
**Training Factors** We used custom training libraries, Meta's Research SuperCluster, and production clusters for pretraining. Fine-tuning, annotation, and evaluation were also performed on third-party cloud compute.
**Carbon Footprint Pretraining utilized a cumulative** 7.7M GPU hours of computation on hardware of type H100-80GB (TDP of 700W). Estimated total emissions were 2290 tCO2eq, 100% of which were offset by Meta’s sustainability program.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Time (GPU hours)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Power Consumption (W)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Carbon Emitted(tCO2eq)</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 8B
</td>
<td>1.3M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>390
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 70B
</td>
<td>6.4M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>1900
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Total
</td>
<td>7.7M
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>2290
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**CO2 emissions during pre-training**. Time: total GPU time required for training each model. Power Consumption: peak power capacity per GPU device for the GPUs used adjusted for power usage efficiency. 100% of the emissions are directly offset by Meta's sustainability program, and because we are openly releasing these models, the pretraining costs do not need to be incurred by others.
## Training Data
**Overview** Llama 3 was pretrained on over 15 trillion tokens of data from publicly available sources. The fine-tuning data includes publicly available instruction datasets, as well as over 10M human-annotated examples. Neither the pretraining nor the fine-tuning datasets include Meta user data.
**Data Freshness** The pretraining data has a cutoff of March 2023 for the 7B and December 2023 for the 70B models respectively.
## Benchmarks
In this section, we report the results for Llama 3 models on standard automatic benchmarks. For all the evaluations, we use our internal evaluations library. For details on the methodology see [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/eval_methodology.md).
### Base pretrained models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Category</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="6" >General
</td>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>66.6
</td>
<td>45.7
</td>
<td>53.8
</td>
<td>79.5
</td>
<td>69.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AGIEval English (3-5 shot)
</td>
<td>45.9
</td>
<td>28.8
</td>
<td>38.7
</td>
<td>63.0
</td>
<td>54.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CommonSenseQA (7-shot)
</td>
<td>72.6
</td>
<td>57.6
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>83.8
</td>
<td>78.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Winogrande (5-shot)
</td>
<td>76.1
</td>
<td>73.3
</td>
<td>75.4
</td>
<td>83.1
</td>
<td>81.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BIG-Bench Hard (3-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>61.1
</td>
<td>38.1
</td>
<td>47.0
</td>
<td>81.3
</td>
<td>65.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ARC-Challenge (25-shot)
</td>
<td>78.6
</td>
<td>53.7
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>85.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Knowledge reasoning
</td>
<td>TriviaQA-Wiki (5-shot)
</td>
<td>78.5
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>89.7
</td>
<td>87.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4" >Reading comprehension
</td>
<td>SQuAD (1-shot)
</td>
<td>76.4
</td>
<td>72.2
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>85.6
</td>
<td>82.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QuAC (1-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>44.4
</td>
<td>39.6
</td>
<td>44.9
</td>
<td>51.1
</td>
<td>49.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BoolQ (0-shot)
</td>
<td>75.7
</td>
<td>65.5
</td>
<td>66.9
</td>
<td>79.0
</td>
<td>73.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>DROP (3-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>58.4
</td>
<td>37.9
</td>
<td>49.8
</td>
<td>79.7
</td>
<td>70.2
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Instruction tuned models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>68.4
</td>
<td>34.1
</td>
<td>47.8
</td>
<td>82.0
</td>
<td>52.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GPQA (0-shot)
</td>
<td>34.2
</td>
<td>21.7
</td>
<td>22.3
</td>
<td>39.5
</td>
<td>21.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>HumanEval (0-shot)
</td>
<td>62.2
</td>
<td>7.9
</td>
<td>14.0
</td>
<td>81.7
</td>
<td>25.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GSM-8K (8-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>25.7
</td>
<td>77.4
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>57.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MATH (4-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>30.0
</td>
<td>3.8
</td>
<td>6.7
</td>
<td>50.4
</td>
<td>11.6
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Responsibility & Safety
We believe that an open approach to AI leads to better, safer products, faster innovation, and a bigger overall market. We are committed to Responsible AI development and took a series of steps to limit misuse and harm and support the open source community.
Foundation models are widely capable technologies that are built to be used for a diverse range of applications. They are not designed to meet every developer preference on safety levels for all use cases, out-of-the-box, as those by their nature will differ across different applications.
Rather, responsible LLM-application deployment is achieved by implementing a series of safety best practices throughout the development of such applications, from the model pre-training, fine-tuning and the deployment of systems composed of safeguards to tailor the safety needs specifically to the use case and audience.
As part of the Llama 3 release, we updated our [Responsible Use Guide](https://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide/) to outline the steps and best practices for developers to implement model and system level safety for their application. We also provide a set of resources including [Meta Llama Guard 2](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) and [Code Shield](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) safeguards. These tools have proven to drastically reduce residual risks of LLM Systems, while maintaining a high level of helpfulness. We encourage developers to tune and deploy these safeguards according to their needs and we provide a [reference implementation](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes/tree/main/recipes/responsible_ai) to get you started.
#### Llama 3-Instruct
As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, some trade-off between model helpfulness and model alignment is likely unavoidable. Developers should exercise discretion about how to weigh the benefits of alignment and helpfulness for their specific use case and audience. Developers should be mindful of residual risks when using Llama models and leverage additional safety tools as needed to reach the right safety bar for their use case.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Safety</span>
For our instruction tuned model, we conducted extensive red teaming exercises, performed adversarial evaluations and implemented safety mitigations techniques to lower residual risks. As with any Large Language Model, residual risks will likely remain and we recommend that developers assess these risks in the context of their use case. In parallel, we are working with the community to make AI safety benchmark standards transparent, rigorous and interpretable.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Refusals</span>
In addition to residual risks, we put a great emphasis on model refusals to benign prompts. Over-refusing not only can impact the user experience but could even be harmful in certain contexts as well. We’ve heard the feedback from the developer community and improved our fine tuning to ensure that Llama 3 is significantly less likely to falsely refuse to answer prompts than Llama 2.
We built internal benchmarks and developed mitigations to limit false refusals making Llama 3 our most helpful model to date.
#### Responsible release
In addition to responsible use considerations outlined above, we followed a rigorous process that requires us to take extra measures against misuse and critical risks before we make our release decision.
Misuse
If you access or use Llama 3, you agree to the Acceptable Use Policy. The most recent copy of this policy can be found at [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/).
#### Critical risks
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">CBRNE</span> (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and high yield Explosives)
We have conducted a two fold assessment of the safety of the model in this area:
* Iterative testing during model training to assess the safety of responses related to CBRNE threats and other adversarial risks.
* Involving external CBRNE experts to conduct an uplift test assessing the ability of the model to accurately provide expert knowledge and reduce barriers to potential CBRNE misuse, by reference to what can be achieved using web search (without the model).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Cyber Security </span>
We have evaluated Llama 3 with CyberSecEval, Meta’s cybersecurity safety eval suite, measuring Llama 3’s propensity to suggest insecure code when used as a coding assistant, and Llama 3’s propensity to comply with requests to help carry out cyber attacks, where attacks are defined by the industry standard MITRE ATT&CK cyber attack ontology. On our insecure coding and cyber attacker helpfulness tests, Llama 3 behaved in the same range or safer than models of [equivalent coding capability](https://huggingface.co/spaces/facebook/CyberSecEval).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Child Safety</span>
Child Safety risk assessments were conducted using a team of experts, to assess the model’s capability to produce outputs that could result in Child Safety risks and inform on any necessary and appropriate risk mitigations via fine tuning. We leveraged those expert red teaming sessions to expand the coverage of our evaluation benchmarks through Llama 3 model development. For Llama 3, we conducted new in-depth sessions using objective based methodologies to assess the model risks along multiple attack vectors. We also partnered with content specialists to perform red teaming exercises assessing potentially violating content while taking account of market specific nuances or experiences.
### Community
Generative AI safety requires expertise and tooling, and we believe in the strength of the open community to accelerate its progress. We are active members of open consortiums, including the AI Alliance, Partnership in AI and MLCommons, actively contributing to safety standardization and transparency. We encourage the community to adopt taxonomies like the MLCommons Proof of Concept evaluation to facilitate collaboration and transparency on safety and content evaluations. Our Purple Llama tools are open sourced for the community to use and widely distributed across ecosystem partners including cloud service providers. We encourage community contributions to our [Github repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/PurpleLlama).
Finally, we put in place a set of resources including an [output reporting mechanism](https://developers.facebook.com/llama_output_feedback) and [bug bounty program](https://www.facebook.com/whitehat) to continuously improve the Llama technology with the help of the community.
## Ethical Considerations and Limitations
The core values of Llama 3 are openness, inclusivity and helpfulness. It is meant to serve everyone, and to work for a wide range of use cases. It is thus designed to be accessible to people across many different backgrounds, experiences and perspectives. Llama 3 addresses users and their needs as they are, without insertion unnecessary judgment or normativity, while reflecting the understanding that even content that may appear problematic in some cases can serve valuable purposes in others. It respects the dignity and autonomy of all users, especially in terms of the values of free thought and expression that power innovation and progress.
But Llama 3 is a new technology, and like any new technology, there are risks associated with its use. Testing conducted to date has been in English, and has not covered, nor could it cover, all scenarios. For these reasons, as with all LLMs, Llama 3’s potential outputs cannot be predicted in advance, and the model may in some instances produce inaccurate, biased or other objectionable responses to user prompts. Therefore, before deploying any applications of Llama 3 models, developers should perform safety testing and tuning tailored to their specific applications of the model. As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, we recommend incorporating [Purple Llama](https://github.com/facebookresearch/PurpleLlama) solutions into your workflows and specifically [Llama Guard](https://ai.meta.com/research/publications/llama-guard-llm-based-input-output-safeguard-for-human-ai-conversations/) which provides a base model to filter input and output prompts to layer system-level safety on top of model-level safety.
Please see the Responsible Use Guide available at [http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide](http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide)
## Citation instructions
@article{llama3modelcard,
title={Llama 3 Model Card},
author={AI@Meta},
year={2024},
url = {https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/MODEL_CARD.md}
}
## Contributors
Aaditya Singh; Aaron Grattafiori; Abhimanyu Dubey; Abhinav Jauhri; Abhinav Pandey; Abhishek Kadian; Adam Kelsey; Adi Gangidi; Ahmad Al-Dahle; Ahuva Goldstand; Aiesha Letman; Ajay Menon; Akhil Mathur; Alan Schelten; Alex Vaughan; Amy Yang; Andrei Lupu; Andres Alvarado; Andrew Gallagher; Andrew Gu; Andrew Ho; Andrew Poulton; Andrew Ryan; Angela Fan; Ankit Ramchandani; Anthony Hartshorn; Archi Mitra; Archie Sravankumar; Artem Korenev; Arun Rao; Ashley Gabriel; Ashwin Bharambe; Assaf Eisenman; Aston Zhang; Aurelien Rodriguez; Austen Gregerson; Ava Spataru; Baptiste Roziere; Ben Maurer; Benjamin Leonhardi; Bernie Huang; Bhargavi Paranjape; Bing Liu; Binh Tang; Bobbie Chern; Brani Stojkovic; Brian Fuller; Catalina Mejia Arenas; Chao Zhou; Charlotte Caucheteux; Chaya Nayak; Ching-Hsiang Chu; Chloe Bi; Chris Cai; Chris Cox; Chris Marra; Chris McConnell; Christian Keller; Christoph Feichtenhofer; Christophe Touret; Chunyang Wu; Corinne Wong; Cristian Canton Ferrer; Damien Allonsius; Daniel Kreymer; Daniel Haziza; Daniel Li; Danielle Pintz; Danny Livshits; Danny Wyatt; David Adkins; David Esiobu; David Xu; Davide Testuggine; Delia David; Devi Parikh; Dhruv Choudhary; Dhruv Mahajan; Diana Liskovich; Diego Garcia-Olano; Diego Perino; Dieuwke Hupkes; Dingkang Wang; Dustin Holland; Egor Lakomkin; Elina Lobanova; Xiaoqing Ellen Tan; Emily Dinan; Eric Smith; Erik Brinkman; Esteban Arcaute; Filip Radenovic; Firat Ozgenel; Francesco Caggioni; Frank Seide; Frank Zhang; Gabriel Synnaeve; Gabriella Schwarz; Gabrielle Lee; Gada Badeer; Georgia Anderson; Graeme Nail; Gregoire Mialon; Guan Pang; Guillem Cucurell; Hailey Nguyen; Hannah Korevaar; Hannah Wang; Haroun Habeeb; Harrison Rudolph; Henry Aspegren; Hu Xu; Hugo Touvron; Iga Kozlowska; Igor Molybog; Igor Tufanov; Iliyan Zarov; Imanol Arrieta Ibarra; Irina-Elena Veliche; Isabel Kloumann; Ishan Misra; Ivan Evtimov; Jacob Xu; Jade Copet; Jake Weissman; Jan Geffert; Jana Vranes; Japhet Asher; Jason Park; Jay Mahadeokar; Jean-Baptiste Gaya; Jeet Shah; Jelmer van der Linde; Jennifer Chan; Jenny Hong; Jenya Lee; Jeremy Fu; Jeremy Teboul; Jianfeng Chi; Jianyu Huang; Jie Wang; Jiecao Yu; Joanna Bitton; Joe Spisak; Joelle Pineau; Jon Carvill; Jongsoo Park; Joseph Rocca; Joshua Johnstun; Junteng Jia; Kalyan Vasuden Alwala; Kam Hou U; Kate Plawiak; Kartikeya Upasani; Kaushik Veeraraghavan; Ke Li; Kenneth Heafield; Kevin Stone; Khalid El-Arini; Krithika Iyer; Kshitiz Malik; Kuenley Chiu; Kunal Bhalla; Kyle Huang; Lakshya Garg; Lauren Rantala-Yeary; Laurens van der Maaten; Lawrence Chen; Leandro Silva; Lee Bell; Lei Zhang; Liang Tan; Louis Martin; Lovish Madaan; Luca Wehrstedt; Lukas Blecher; Luke de Oliveira; Madeline Muzzi; Madian Khabsa; Manav Avlani; Mannat Singh; Manohar Paluri; Mark Zuckerberg; Marcin Kardas; Martynas Mankus; Mathew Oldham; Mathieu Rita; Matthew Lennie; Maya Pavlova; Meghan Keneally; Melanie Kambadur; Mihir Patel; Mikayel Samvelyan; Mike Clark; Mike Lewis; Min Si; Mitesh Kumar Singh; Mo Metanat; Mona Hassan; Naman Goyal; Narjes Torabi; Nicolas Usunier; Nikolay Bashlykov; Nikolay Bogoychev; Niladri Chatterji; Ning Dong; Oliver Aobo Yang; Olivier Duchenne; Onur Celebi; Parth Parekh; Patrick Alrassy; Paul Saab; Pavan Balaji; Pedro Rittner; Pengchuan Zhang; Pengwei Li; Petar Vasic; Peter Weng; Polina Zvyagina; Prajjwal Bhargava; Pratik Dubal; Praveen Krishnan; Punit Singh Koura; Qing He; Rachel Rodriguez; Ragavan Srinivasan; Rahul Mitra; Ramon Calderer; Raymond Li; Robert Stojnic; Roberta Raileanu; Robin Battey; Rocky Wang; Rohit Girdhar; Rohit Patel; Romain Sauvestre; Ronnie Polidoro; Roshan Sumbaly; Ross Taylor; Ruan Silva; Rui Hou; Rui Wang; Russ Howes; Ruty Rinott; Saghar Hosseini; Sai Jayesh Bondu; Samyak Datta; Sanjay Singh; Sara Chugh; Sargun Dhillon; Satadru Pan; Sean Bell; Sergey Edunov; Shaoliang Nie; Sharan Narang; Sharath Raparthy; Shaun Lindsay; Sheng Feng; Sheng Shen; Shenghao Lin; Shiva Shankar; Shruti Bhosale; Shun Zhang; Simon Vandenhende; Sinong Wang; Seohyun Sonia Kim; Soumya Batra; Sten Sootla; Steve Kehoe; Suchin Gururangan; Sumit Gupta; Sunny Virk; Sydney Borodinsky; Tamar Glaser; Tamar Herman; Tamara Best; Tara Fowler; Thomas Georgiou; Thomas Scialom; Tianhe Li; Todor Mihaylov; Tong Xiao; Ujjwal Karn; Vedanuj Goswami; Vibhor Gupta; Vignesh Ramanathan; Viktor Kerkez; Vinay Satish Kumar; Vincent Gonguet; Vish Vogeti; Vlad Poenaru; Vlad Tiberiu Mihailescu; Vladan Petrovic; Vladimir Ivanov; Wei Li; Weiwei Chu; Wenhan Xiong; Wenyin Fu; Wes Bouaziz; Whitney Meers; Will Constable; Xavier Martinet; Xiaojian Wu; Xinbo Gao; Xinfeng Xie; Xuchao Jia; Yaelle Goldschlag; Yann LeCun; Yashesh Gaur; Yasmine Babaei; Ye Qi; Yenda Li; Yi Wen; Yiwen Song; Youngjin Nam; Yuchen Hao; Yuchen Zhang; Yun Wang; Yuning Mao; Yuzi He; Zacharie Delpierre Coudert; Zachary DeVito; Zahra Hankir; Zhaoduo Wen; Zheng Yan; Zhengxing Chen; Zhenyu Yang; Zoe Papakipos |
softaken/MSG-to-VCF-Converter-Software | softaken | 2024-05-09T11:09:54Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T10:51:13Z | Softaken MSG to VCF Converter Software exports MSG contacts to VCF format. The tool can simply export MSG contacts to VCF without any data loss. The software has multiple features and functions that make the conversion process simpler. There are users who can load multiple MSG contact files at once. Users can download this software in any Windows OS version, such as 11, 10, 8.1, 8, 7, Vista, XP, etc. Technical and non-technical users can also make use of this utility to convert MSG contacts to VCF format. The advanced program also supports all MS Outlook editions, whether they're new or old. The tool takes up little space on the PC. To get more features and functions from this utility, download the free demo edition.
Read More: https://www.softaken.com/msg-to-vcf-converter |
Madhumita19/finetuned_Mistral_newmodel | Madhumita19 | 2024-05-09T11:09:45Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-04-30T16:19:03Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
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- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
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<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
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QinLiuNLP/llama3-10p | QinLiuNLP | 2024-05-09T11:08:53Z | 9 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"alignment-handbook",
"trl",
"sft",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:HuggingFaceH4/ultrachat_200k",
"base_model:meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B",
"base_model:adapter:meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B",
"license:other",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T05:49:32Z | ---
license: other
library_name: peft
tags:
- alignment-handbook
- trl
- sft
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B
datasets:
- HuggingFaceH4/ultrachat_200k
model-index:
- name: llama3-10p
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# llama3-10p
This model is a fine-tuned version of [meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B](https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B) on the HuggingFaceH4/ultrachat_200k dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: nan
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 0.0002
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 1
- seed: 42
- distributed_type: multi-GPU
- num_devices: 4
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 2
- total_train_batch_size: 64
- total_eval_batch_size: 4
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.1
- num_epochs: 1
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|
| 0.8719 | 1.0 | 974 | nan |
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.7.1
- Transformers 4.39.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.1.2
- Datasets 2.14.6
- Tokenizers 0.15.2 |
paranthama/gemma-medical_qa-Finetune | paranthama | 2024-05-09T11:05:02Z | 107 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"phi",
"text-generation",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:55:38Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
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sanchit-gandhi/distil-mistral-3B-Instruct-v0.2-logprob-1.5-checkpoint-10000 | sanchit-gandhi | 2024-05-09T11:03:54Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"mistral",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T11:02:14Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
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## Model Details
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sanchit-gandhi/distil-mistral-1.5B-Instruct-v0.2-logprob-1.5-checkpoint-15000 | sanchit-gandhi | 2024-05-09T11:03:23Z | 93 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"mistral",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T11:02:00Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
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## Model Details
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ChlorophyllChampion/Mambalga-AA2000 | ChlorophyllChampion | 2024-05-09T10:56:34Z | 2 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"base_model:state-spaces/mamba-130m-hf",
"base_model:adapter:state-spaces/mamba-130m-hf",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T10:56:01Z | ---
library_name: peft
base_model: state-spaces/mamba-130m-hf
---
# Model Card for Model ID
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[More Information Needed]
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### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.10.0 |
Mag0g/Ezekiel25_26 | Mag0g | 2024-05-09T10:56:09Z | 92 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"stablelm",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:53:53Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
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quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v4.1 | quangtqv | 2024-05-09T10:55:53Z | 6 | 0 | sentence-transformers | [
"sentence-transformers",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"feature-extraction",
"sentence-similarity",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-embeddings-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | sentence-similarity | 2024-05-09T10:55:41Z | ---
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
---
# quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v4.1
This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model: It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 768 dimensional dense vector space and can be used for tasks like clustering or semantic search.
<!--- Describe your model here -->
## Usage (Sentence-Transformers)
Using this model becomes easy when you have [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) installed:
```
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```
Then you can use the model like this:
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer
sentences = ["This is an example sentence", "Each sentence is converted"]
model = SentenceTransformer('quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v4.1')
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings)
```
## Evaluation Results
<!--- Describe how your model was evaluated -->
For an automated evaluation of this model, see the *Sentence Embeddings Benchmark*: [https://seb.sbert.net](https://seb.sbert.net?model_name=quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v4.1)
## Full Model Architecture
```
SentenceTransformer(
(0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 512, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: BertModel
(1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 768, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': True, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
(2): Normalize()
)
```
## Citing & Authors
<!--- Describe where people can find more information --> |
levi45/woman | levi45 | 2024-05-09T10:55:23Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T10:55:23Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
---
|
blockblockblock/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-Gradient-1048k-bpw4.4-exl2 | blockblockblock | 2024-05-09T10:55:11Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"meta",
"llama-3",
"conversational",
"en",
"arxiv:2309.00071",
"arxiv:2402.08268",
"arxiv:2305.14233",
"license:llama3",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"exl2",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-04-30T02:24:05Z | ---
language:
- en
pipeline_tag: text-generation
tags:
- meta
- llama-3
license: llama3
---
<a href="https://www.gradient.ai" target="_blank"><img src="https://cdn-uploads.huggingface.co/production/uploads/655bb613e8a8971e89944f3e/TSa3V8YpoVagnTYgxiLaO.png" width="200"/></a>
# Llama-3 8B Gradient Instruct 1048k
Join our custom agent and long context (262k-1M+) waitlist: https://forms.gle/L6TDY7dozx8TuoUv7
Gradient incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business. If you're looking to build custom AI models or agents, email us a message [email protected].
For more info see our [End-to-end development service for custom LLMs and AI systems](https://gradient.ai/development-lab)
[Join our Discord](https://discord.com/invite/2QVy2qt2mf)
This model extends LLama-3 8B's context length from 8k to > 1040K, developed by Gradient, sponsored by compute from [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai). It demonstrates that SOTA LLMs can learn to operate on long context with minimal training by appropriately adjusting RoPE theta. We trained on 830M tokens for this stage, and 1.4B tokens total for all stages, which is < 0.01% of Llama-3's original pre-training data.
**Update (5/3): We further fine-tuned our model to strengthen its assistant-like chat ability as well. The NIAH result is updated.**
**Approach:**
- [meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct](https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct) as the base
- NTK-aware interpolation [1] to initialize an optimal schedule for RoPE theta, followed by empirical RoPE theta optimization
- Progressive training on increasing context lengths, similar to [Large World Model](https://huggingface.co/LargeWorldModel) [2] (See details below)
**Infra:**
We build on top of the EasyContext Blockwise RingAttention library [3] to scalably and efficiently train on contexts up to 1048k tokens on [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai) high performance L40S cluster.
Notably, we layered parallelism on top of Ring Attention with a custom network topology to better leverage large GPU clusters in the face of network bottlenecks from passing many KV blocks between devices. This gave us a 33x speedup in model training (compare 524k and 1048k to 65k and 262k in the table below).
**Data:**
For training data, we generate long contexts by augmenting [SlimPajama](https://huggingface.co/datasets/cerebras/SlimPajama-627B). We also fine-tune on a chat dataset based on UltraChat [4], following a similar recipe for data augmentation to [2].
**Progressive Training Details:**
| | 65K | 262K | 524k | 1048k |
|------------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
| Initialize From | LLaMA-3 8B| 65K | 262K | 524k |
| Sequence Length 2^N | 16 | 18 | 19 | 20 |
| RoPE theta | 15.3 M | 207.1 M | 1.06B | 2.80B |
| Batch Size | 1 | 1 | 16 | 8 |
| Gradient Accumulation Steps | 32 | 16 | 1 | 1 |
| Steps | 30 | 24 | 50 | 50 |
| Total Tokens | 62914560 | 100663296 | 419430400 | 838860800 |
| Learning Rate | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 |
| # GPUs | 8 | 32 | 512 | 512 |
| GPU Type | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S |
| Minutes to Train (Wall)| 202 | 555 | 61 | 87 |
**Evaluation:**
```
EVAL_MAX_CONTEXT_LENGTH=1040200
EVAL_MIN_CONTEXT_LENGTH=100
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=86675
EVAL_DEPTH_INTERVAL=0.2
EVAL_RND_NUMBER_DIGITS=8
HAYSTACK1:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=25
HAYSTACK2:
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=173350
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=150000
HAYSTACK3:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=925000
```
All boxes not pictured for Haystack 1 and 3 are 100% accurate. Haystacks 1,2 and 3 are further detailed in this [blog post](https://gradient.ai/blog/the-haystack-matters-for-niah-evals).
**Quants:**
- [GGUF by Crusoe](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-GGUF). Note that you need to add 128009 as [special token with llama.cpp](https://huggingface.co/gradientai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-262k/discussions/13).
- [MLX-4bit](https://huggingface.co/mlx-community/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-4bit)
- [Ollama](https://ollama.com/library/llama3-gradient)
- vLLM docker image, recommended to load via `--max-model-len 32768`
- If you are interested in a hosted version, drop us a mail below.
## The Gradient AI Team
https://gradient.ai/
Gradient is accelerating AI transformation across industries. Our AI Foundry incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business.
## Contact Us
Drop an email to [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected])
## References
[1] Peng, Bowen, et al. "Yarn: Efficient context window extension of large language models." arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.00071 (2023).
[2] Liu, Hao, et al. "World Model on Million-Length Video And Language With RingAttention." arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.08268 (2024).
[3] https://github.com/jzhang38/EasyContext
[4] Ning Ding, Yulin Chen, Bokai Xu, Yujia Qin, Zhi Zheng, Shengding Hu, Zhiyuan
Liu, Maosong Sun, and Bowen Zhou. Enhancing chat language models by scaling
high-quality instructional conversations. arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.14233, 2023.
----
# Base Model
## Model Details
Meta developed and released the Meta Llama 3 family of large language models (LLMs), a collection of pretrained and instruction tuned generative text models in 8 and 70B sizes. The Llama 3 instruction tuned models are optimized for dialogue use cases and outperform many of the available open source chat models on common industry benchmarks. Further, in developing these models, we took great care to optimize helpfulness and safety.
**Model developers** Meta
**Variations** Llama 3 comes in two sizes — 8B and 70B parameters — in pre-trained and instruction tuned variants.
**Input** Models input text only.
**Output** Models generate text and code only.
**Model Architecture** Llama 3 is an auto-regressive language model that uses an optimized transformer architecture. The tuned versions use supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF) to align with human preferences for helpfulness and safety.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Training Data</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Params</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Context length</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>GQA</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Token count</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Knowledge cutoff</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" >Llama 3
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >A new mix of publicly available online data.
</td>
<td>8B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >15T+
</td>
<td>March, 2023
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>70B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td>December, 2023
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**Llama 3 family of models**. Token counts refer to pretraining data only. Both the 8 and 70B versions use Grouped-Query Attention (GQA) for improved inference scalability.
**Model Release Date** April 18, 2024.
**Status** This is a static model trained on an offline dataset. Future versions of the tuned models will be released as we improve model safety with community feedback.
**License** A custom commercial license is available at: [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license)
Where to send questions or comments about the model Instructions on how to provide feedback or comments on the model can be found in the model [README](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3). For more technical information about generation parameters and recipes for how to use Llama 3 in applications, please go [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes).
## Intended Use
**Intended Use Cases** Llama 3 is intended for commercial and research use in English. Instruction tuned models are intended for assistant-like chat, whereas pretrained models can be adapted for a variety of natural language generation tasks.
**Out-of-scope** Use in any manner that violates applicable laws or regulations (including trade compliance laws). Use in any other way that is prohibited by the Acceptable Use Policy and Llama 3 Community License. Use in languages other than English**.
**Note: Developers may fine-tune Llama 3 models for languages beyond English provided they comply with the Llama 3 Community License and the Acceptable Use Policy.
## How to use
This repository contains two versions of Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct, for use with transformers and with the original `llama3` codebase.
### Use with transformers
You can run conversational inference using the Transformers pipeline abstraction, or by leveraging the Auto classes with the `generate()` function. Let's see examples of both.
#### Transformers pipeline
```python
import transformers
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
pipeline = transformers.pipeline(
"text-generation",
model=model_id,
model_kwargs={"torch_dtype": torch.bfloat16},
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
prompt = pipeline.tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
tokenize=False,
add_generation_prompt=True
)
terminators = [
pipeline.tokenizer.eos_token_id,
pipeline.tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = pipeline(
prompt,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
print(outputs[0]["generated_text"][len(prompt):])
```
#### Transformers AutoModelForCausalLM
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForCausalLM
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_id)
model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained(
model_id,
torch_dtype=torch.bfloat16,
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
input_ids = tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
add_generation_prompt=True,
return_tensors="pt"
).to(model.device)
terminators = [
tokenizer.eos_token_id,
tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = model.generate(
input_ids,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
response = outputs[0][input_ids.shape[-1]:]
print(tokenizer.decode(response, skip_special_tokens=True))
```
### Use with `llama3`
Please, follow the instructions in the [repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3)
To download Original checkpoints, see the example command below leveraging `huggingface-cli`:
```
huggingface-cli download meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct --include "original/*" --local-dir Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
```
For Hugging Face support, we recommend using transformers or TGI, but a similar command works.
## Hardware and Software
**Training Factors** We used custom training libraries, Meta's Research SuperCluster, and production clusters for pretraining. Fine-tuning, annotation, and evaluation were also performed on third-party cloud compute.
**Carbon Footprint Pretraining utilized a cumulative** 7.7M GPU hours of computation on hardware of type H100-80GB (TDP of 700W). Estimated total emissions were 2290 tCO2eq, 100% of which were offset by Meta’s sustainability program.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Time (GPU hours)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Power Consumption (W)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Carbon Emitted(tCO2eq)</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 8B
</td>
<td>1.3M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>390
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 70B
</td>
<td>6.4M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>1900
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Total
</td>
<td>7.7M
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>2290
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**CO2 emissions during pre-training**. Time: total GPU time required for training each model. Power Consumption: peak power capacity per GPU device for the GPUs used adjusted for power usage efficiency. 100% of the emissions are directly offset by Meta's sustainability program, and because we are openly releasing these models, the pretraining costs do not need to be incurred by others.
## Training Data
**Overview** Llama 3 was pretrained on over 15 trillion tokens of data from publicly available sources. The fine-tuning data includes publicly available instruction datasets, as well as over 10M human-annotated examples. Neither the pretraining nor the fine-tuning datasets include Meta user data.
**Data Freshness** The pretraining data has a cutoff of March 2023 for the 7B and December 2023 for the 70B models respectively.
## Benchmarks
In this section, we report the results for Llama 3 models on standard automatic benchmarks. For all the evaluations, we use our internal evaluations library. For details on the methodology see [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/eval_methodology.md).
### Base pretrained models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Category</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="6" >General
</td>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>66.6
</td>
<td>45.7
</td>
<td>53.8
</td>
<td>79.5
</td>
<td>69.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AGIEval English (3-5 shot)
</td>
<td>45.9
</td>
<td>28.8
</td>
<td>38.7
</td>
<td>63.0
</td>
<td>54.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CommonSenseQA (7-shot)
</td>
<td>72.6
</td>
<td>57.6
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>83.8
</td>
<td>78.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Winogrande (5-shot)
</td>
<td>76.1
</td>
<td>73.3
</td>
<td>75.4
</td>
<td>83.1
</td>
<td>81.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BIG-Bench Hard (3-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>61.1
</td>
<td>38.1
</td>
<td>47.0
</td>
<td>81.3
</td>
<td>65.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ARC-Challenge (25-shot)
</td>
<td>78.6
</td>
<td>53.7
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>85.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Knowledge reasoning
</td>
<td>TriviaQA-Wiki (5-shot)
</td>
<td>78.5
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>89.7
</td>
<td>87.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4" >Reading comprehension
</td>
<td>SQuAD (1-shot)
</td>
<td>76.4
</td>
<td>72.2
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>85.6
</td>
<td>82.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QuAC (1-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>44.4
</td>
<td>39.6
</td>
<td>44.9
</td>
<td>51.1
</td>
<td>49.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BoolQ (0-shot)
</td>
<td>75.7
</td>
<td>65.5
</td>
<td>66.9
</td>
<td>79.0
</td>
<td>73.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>DROP (3-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>58.4
</td>
<td>37.9
</td>
<td>49.8
</td>
<td>79.7
</td>
<td>70.2
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Instruction tuned models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>68.4
</td>
<td>34.1
</td>
<td>47.8
</td>
<td>82.0
</td>
<td>52.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GPQA (0-shot)
</td>
<td>34.2
</td>
<td>21.7
</td>
<td>22.3
</td>
<td>39.5
</td>
<td>21.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>HumanEval (0-shot)
</td>
<td>62.2
</td>
<td>7.9
</td>
<td>14.0
</td>
<td>81.7
</td>
<td>25.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GSM-8K (8-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>25.7
</td>
<td>77.4
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>57.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MATH (4-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>30.0
</td>
<td>3.8
</td>
<td>6.7
</td>
<td>50.4
</td>
<td>11.6
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Responsibility & Safety
We believe that an open approach to AI leads to better, safer products, faster innovation, and a bigger overall market. We are committed to Responsible AI development and took a series of steps to limit misuse and harm and support the open source community.
Foundation models are widely capable technologies that are built to be used for a diverse range of applications. They are not designed to meet every developer preference on safety levels for all use cases, out-of-the-box, as those by their nature will differ across different applications.
Rather, responsible LLM-application deployment is achieved by implementing a series of safety best practices throughout the development of such applications, from the model pre-training, fine-tuning and the deployment of systems composed of safeguards to tailor the safety needs specifically to the use case and audience.
As part of the Llama 3 release, we updated our [Responsible Use Guide](https://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide/) to outline the steps and best practices for developers to implement model and system level safety for their application. We also provide a set of resources including [Meta Llama Guard 2](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) and [Code Shield](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) safeguards. These tools have proven to drastically reduce residual risks of LLM Systems, while maintaining a high level of helpfulness. We encourage developers to tune and deploy these safeguards according to their needs and we provide a [reference implementation](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes/tree/main/recipes/responsible_ai) to get you started.
#### Llama 3-Instruct
As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, some trade-off between model helpfulness and model alignment is likely unavoidable. Developers should exercise discretion about how to weigh the benefits of alignment and helpfulness for their specific use case and audience. Developers should be mindful of residual risks when using Llama models and leverage additional safety tools as needed to reach the right safety bar for their use case.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Safety</span>
For our instruction tuned model, we conducted extensive red teaming exercises, performed adversarial evaluations and implemented safety mitigations techniques to lower residual risks. As with any Large Language Model, residual risks will likely remain and we recommend that developers assess these risks in the context of their use case. In parallel, we are working with the community to make AI safety benchmark standards transparent, rigorous and interpretable.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Refusals</span>
In addition to residual risks, we put a great emphasis on model refusals to benign prompts. Over-refusing not only can impact the user experience but could even be harmful in certain contexts as well. We’ve heard the feedback from the developer community and improved our fine tuning to ensure that Llama 3 is significantly less likely to falsely refuse to answer prompts than Llama 2.
We built internal benchmarks and developed mitigations to limit false refusals making Llama 3 our most helpful model to date.
#### Responsible release
In addition to responsible use considerations outlined above, we followed a rigorous process that requires us to take extra measures against misuse and critical risks before we make our release decision.
Misuse
If you access or use Llama 3, you agree to the Acceptable Use Policy. The most recent copy of this policy can be found at [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/).
#### Critical risks
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">CBRNE</span> (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and high yield Explosives)
We have conducted a two fold assessment of the safety of the model in this area:
* Iterative testing during model training to assess the safety of responses related to CBRNE threats and other adversarial risks.
* Involving external CBRNE experts to conduct an uplift test assessing the ability of the model to accurately provide expert knowledge and reduce barriers to potential CBRNE misuse, by reference to what can be achieved using web search (without the model).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Cyber Security </span>
We have evaluated Llama 3 with CyberSecEval, Meta’s cybersecurity safety eval suite, measuring Llama 3’s propensity to suggest insecure code when used as a coding assistant, and Llama 3’s propensity to comply with requests to help carry out cyber attacks, where attacks are defined by the industry standard MITRE ATT&CK cyber attack ontology. On our insecure coding and cyber attacker helpfulness tests, Llama 3 behaved in the same range or safer than models of [equivalent coding capability](https://huggingface.co/spaces/facebook/CyberSecEval).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Child Safety</span>
Child Safety risk assessments were conducted using a team of experts, to assess the model’s capability to produce outputs that could result in Child Safety risks and inform on any necessary and appropriate risk mitigations via fine tuning. We leveraged those expert red teaming sessions to expand the coverage of our evaluation benchmarks through Llama 3 model development. For Llama 3, we conducted new in-depth sessions using objective based methodologies to assess the model risks along multiple attack vectors. We also partnered with content specialists to perform red teaming exercises assessing potentially violating content while taking account of market specific nuances or experiences.
### Community
Generative AI safety requires expertise and tooling, and we believe in the strength of the open community to accelerate its progress. We are active members of open consortiums, including the AI Alliance, Partnership in AI and MLCommons, actively contributing to safety standardization and transparency. We encourage the community to adopt taxonomies like the MLCommons Proof of Concept evaluation to facilitate collaboration and transparency on safety and content evaluations. Our Purple Llama tools are open sourced for the community to use and widely distributed across ecosystem partners including cloud service providers. We encourage community contributions to our [Github repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/PurpleLlama).
Finally, we put in place a set of resources including an [output reporting mechanism](https://developers.facebook.com/llama_output_feedback) and [bug bounty program](https://www.facebook.com/whitehat) to continuously improve the Llama technology with the help of the community.
## Ethical Considerations and Limitations
The core values of Llama 3 are openness, inclusivity and helpfulness. It is meant to serve everyone, and to work for a wide range of use cases. It is thus designed to be accessible to people across many different backgrounds, experiences and perspectives. Llama 3 addresses users and their needs as they are, without insertion unnecessary judgment or normativity, while reflecting the understanding that even content that may appear problematic in some cases can serve valuable purposes in others. It respects the dignity and autonomy of all users, especially in terms of the values of free thought and expression that power innovation and progress.
But Llama 3 is a new technology, and like any new technology, there are risks associated with its use. Testing conducted to date has been in English, and has not covered, nor could it cover, all scenarios. For these reasons, as with all LLMs, Llama 3’s potential outputs cannot be predicted in advance, and the model may in some instances produce inaccurate, biased or other objectionable responses to user prompts. Therefore, before deploying any applications of Llama 3 models, developers should perform safety testing and tuning tailored to their specific applications of the model. As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, we recommend incorporating [Purple Llama](https://github.com/facebookresearch/PurpleLlama) solutions into your workflows and specifically [Llama Guard](https://ai.meta.com/research/publications/llama-guard-llm-based-input-output-safeguard-for-human-ai-conversations/) which provides a base model to filter input and output prompts to layer system-level safety on top of model-level safety.
Please see the Responsible Use Guide available at [http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide](http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide)
## Citation instructions
@article{llama3modelcard,
title={Llama 3 Model Card},
author={AI@Meta},
year={2024},
url = {https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/MODEL_CARD.md}
}
## Contributors
Aaditya Singh; Aaron Grattafiori; Abhimanyu Dubey; Abhinav Jauhri; Abhinav Pandey; Abhishek Kadian; Adam Kelsey; Adi Gangidi; Ahmad Al-Dahle; Ahuva Goldstand; Aiesha Letman; Ajay Menon; Akhil Mathur; Alan Schelten; Alex Vaughan; Amy Yang; Andrei Lupu; Andres Alvarado; Andrew Gallagher; Andrew Gu; Andrew Ho; Andrew Poulton; Andrew Ryan; Angela Fan; Ankit Ramchandani; Anthony Hartshorn; Archi Mitra; Archie Sravankumar; Artem Korenev; Arun Rao; Ashley Gabriel; Ashwin Bharambe; Assaf Eisenman; Aston Zhang; Aurelien Rodriguez; Austen Gregerson; Ava Spataru; Baptiste Roziere; Ben Maurer; Benjamin Leonhardi; Bernie Huang; Bhargavi Paranjape; Bing Liu; Binh Tang; Bobbie Chern; Brani Stojkovic; Brian Fuller; Catalina Mejia Arenas; Chao Zhou; Charlotte Caucheteux; Chaya Nayak; Ching-Hsiang Chu; Chloe Bi; Chris Cai; Chris Cox; Chris Marra; Chris McConnell; Christian Keller; Christoph Feichtenhofer; Christophe Touret; Chunyang Wu; Corinne Wong; Cristian Canton Ferrer; Damien Allonsius; Daniel Kreymer; Daniel Haziza; Daniel Li; Danielle Pintz; Danny Livshits; Danny Wyatt; David Adkins; David Esiobu; David Xu; Davide Testuggine; Delia David; Devi Parikh; Dhruv Choudhary; Dhruv Mahajan; Diana Liskovich; Diego Garcia-Olano; Diego Perino; Dieuwke Hupkes; Dingkang Wang; Dustin Holland; Egor Lakomkin; Elina Lobanova; Xiaoqing Ellen Tan; Emily Dinan; Eric Smith; Erik Brinkman; Esteban Arcaute; Filip Radenovic; Firat Ozgenel; Francesco Caggioni; Frank Seide; Frank Zhang; Gabriel Synnaeve; Gabriella Schwarz; Gabrielle Lee; Gada Badeer; Georgia Anderson; Graeme Nail; Gregoire Mialon; Guan Pang; Guillem Cucurell; Hailey Nguyen; Hannah Korevaar; Hannah Wang; Haroun Habeeb; Harrison Rudolph; Henry Aspegren; Hu Xu; Hugo Touvron; Iga Kozlowska; Igor Molybog; Igor Tufanov; Iliyan Zarov; Imanol Arrieta Ibarra; Irina-Elena Veliche; Isabel Kloumann; Ishan Misra; Ivan Evtimov; Jacob Xu; Jade Copet; Jake Weissman; Jan Geffert; Jana Vranes; Japhet Asher; Jason Park; Jay Mahadeokar; Jean-Baptiste Gaya; Jeet Shah; Jelmer van der Linde; Jennifer Chan; Jenny Hong; Jenya Lee; Jeremy Fu; Jeremy Teboul; Jianfeng Chi; Jianyu Huang; Jie Wang; Jiecao Yu; Joanna Bitton; Joe Spisak; Joelle Pineau; Jon Carvill; Jongsoo Park; Joseph Rocca; Joshua Johnstun; Junteng Jia; Kalyan Vasuden Alwala; Kam Hou U; Kate Plawiak; Kartikeya Upasani; Kaushik Veeraraghavan; Ke Li; Kenneth Heafield; Kevin Stone; Khalid El-Arini; Krithika Iyer; Kshitiz Malik; Kuenley Chiu; Kunal Bhalla; Kyle Huang; Lakshya Garg; Lauren Rantala-Yeary; Laurens van der Maaten; Lawrence Chen; Leandro Silva; Lee Bell; Lei Zhang; Liang Tan; Louis Martin; Lovish Madaan; Luca Wehrstedt; Lukas Blecher; Luke de Oliveira; Madeline Muzzi; Madian Khabsa; Manav Avlani; Mannat Singh; Manohar Paluri; Mark Zuckerberg; Marcin Kardas; Martynas Mankus; Mathew Oldham; Mathieu Rita; Matthew Lennie; Maya Pavlova; Meghan Keneally; Melanie Kambadur; Mihir Patel; Mikayel Samvelyan; Mike Clark; Mike Lewis; Min Si; Mitesh Kumar Singh; Mo Metanat; Mona Hassan; Naman Goyal; Narjes Torabi; Nicolas Usunier; Nikolay Bashlykov; Nikolay Bogoychev; Niladri Chatterji; Ning Dong; Oliver Aobo Yang; Olivier Duchenne; Onur Celebi; Parth Parekh; Patrick Alrassy; Paul Saab; Pavan Balaji; Pedro Rittner; Pengchuan Zhang; Pengwei Li; Petar Vasic; Peter Weng; Polina Zvyagina; Prajjwal Bhargava; Pratik Dubal; Praveen Krishnan; Punit Singh Koura; Qing He; Rachel Rodriguez; Ragavan Srinivasan; Rahul Mitra; Ramon Calderer; Raymond Li; Robert Stojnic; Roberta Raileanu; Robin Battey; Rocky Wang; Rohit Girdhar; Rohit Patel; Romain Sauvestre; Ronnie Polidoro; Roshan Sumbaly; Ross Taylor; Ruan Silva; Rui Hou; Rui Wang; Russ Howes; Ruty Rinott; Saghar Hosseini; Sai Jayesh Bondu; Samyak Datta; Sanjay Singh; Sara Chugh; Sargun Dhillon; Satadru Pan; Sean Bell; Sergey Edunov; Shaoliang Nie; Sharan Narang; Sharath Raparthy; Shaun Lindsay; Sheng Feng; Sheng Shen; Shenghao Lin; Shiva Shankar; Shruti Bhosale; Shun Zhang; Simon Vandenhende; Sinong Wang; Seohyun Sonia Kim; Soumya Batra; Sten Sootla; Steve Kehoe; Suchin Gururangan; Sumit Gupta; Sunny Virk; Sydney Borodinsky; Tamar Glaser; Tamar Herman; Tamara Best; Tara Fowler; Thomas Georgiou; Thomas Scialom; Tianhe Li; Todor Mihaylov; Tong Xiao; Ujjwal Karn; Vedanuj Goswami; Vibhor Gupta; Vignesh Ramanathan; Viktor Kerkez; Vinay Satish Kumar; Vincent Gonguet; Vish Vogeti; Vlad Poenaru; Vlad Tiberiu Mihailescu; Vladan Petrovic; Vladimir Ivanov; Wei Li; Weiwei Chu; Wenhan Xiong; Wenyin Fu; Wes Bouaziz; Whitney Meers; Will Constable; Xavier Martinet; Xiaojian Wu; Xinbo Gao; Xinfeng Xie; Xuchao Jia; Yaelle Goldschlag; Yann LeCun; Yashesh Gaur; Yasmine Babaei; Ye Qi; Yenda Li; Yi Wen; Yiwen Song; Youngjin Nam; Yuchen Hao; Yuchen Zhang; Yun Wang; Yuning Mao; Yuzi He; Zacharie Delpierre Coudert; Zachary DeVito; Zahra Hankir; Zhaoduo Wen; Zheng Yan; Zhengxing Chen; Zhenyu Yang; Zoe Papakipos |
Lakshit11/BERT-debit-14c-new_way-iter2 | Lakshit11 | 2024-05-09T10:49:46Z | 184 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"text-classification",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-classification | 2024-05-09T10:49:29Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
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cenfis/Llama_3_merge | cenfis | 2024-05-09T10:46:15Z | 8 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"mergekit",
"merge",
"conversational",
"base_model:meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct",
"base_model:merge:meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct",
"base_model:nvidia/Llama3-ChatQA-1.5-8B",
"base_model:merge:nvidia/Llama3-ChatQA-1.5-8B",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:33:55Z | ---
base_model:
- nvidia/Llama3-ChatQA-1.5-8B
- meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
library_name: transformers
tags:
- mergekit
- merge
---
# merge
This is a merge of pre-trained language models created using [mergekit](https://github.com/cg123/mergekit).
## Merge Details
### Merge Method
This model was merged using the SLERP merge method.
### Models Merged
The following models were included in the merge:
* [nvidia/Llama3-ChatQA-1.5-8B](https://huggingface.co/nvidia/Llama3-ChatQA-1.5-8B)
* [meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct](https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct)
### Configuration
The following YAML configuration was used to produce this model:
```yaml
slices:
- sources:
- model: nvidia/Llama3-ChatQA-1.5-8B
layer_range: [0, 32]
- model: meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
layer_range: [0, 32]
merge_method: slerp
base_model: meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
parameters:
t:
- filter: self_attn
value: [0, 0.5, 0.3, 0.7, 1]
- filter: mlp
value: [1, 0.5, 0.7, 0.3, 0]
- value: 0.5
dtype: bfloat16
```
|
tomaszki/stablelm-54-a | tomaszki | 2024-05-09T10:45:11Z | 92 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"stablelm",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:44:20Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
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tomaszki/stablelm-54 | tomaszki | 2024-05-09T10:42:53Z | 92 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"stablelm",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:41:32Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
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hzgdeer/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct-logo | hzgdeer | 2024-05-09T10:29:10Z | 5 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"llama-factory",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-07T02:03:34Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags:
- llama-factory
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
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[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed] |
haytamelouarrat/ppo-CartPole-v1 | haytamelouarrat | 2024-05-09T10:25:13Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"tensorboard",
"LunarLander-v2",
"ppo",
"deep-reinforcement-learning",
"reinforcement-learning",
"custom-implementation",
"deep-rl-course",
"model-index",
"region:us"
] | reinforcement-learning | 2024-05-09T10:23:06Z | ---
tags:
- LunarLander-v2
- ppo
- deep-reinforcement-learning
- reinforcement-learning
- custom-implementation
- deep-rl-course
model-index:
- name: PPO
results:
- task:
type: reinforcement-learning
name: reinforcement-learning
dataset:
name: LunarLander-v2
type: LunarLander-v2
metrics:
- type: mean_reward
value: -119.53 +/- 50.76
name: mean_reward
verified: false
---
# PPO Agent Playing LunarLander-v2
This is a trained model of a PPO agent playing LunarLander-v2.
# Hyperparameters
|
Bikas0/mistral-finetuned-samsum | Bikas0 | 2024-05-09T10:21:12Z | 2 | 0 | adapter-transformers | [
"adapter-transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"trl",
"sft",
"generated_from_trainer",
"question-answering",
"base_model:TheBloke/Mistral-7B-Instruct-v0.1-GPTQ",
"base_model:adapter:TheBloke/Mistral-7B-Instruct-v0.1-GPTQ",
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | question-answering | 2024-01-14T18:27:24Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
library_name: adapter-transformers
tags:
- trl
- sft
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: TheBloke/Mistral-7B-Instruct-v0.1-GPTQ
model-index:
- name: mistral-finetuned-samsum
results: []
metrics:
- accuracy
pipeline_tag: question-answering
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# mistral-finetuned-samsum
This model is a fine-tuned version of [TheBloke/Mistral-7B-Instruct-v0.1-GPTQ](https://huggingface.co/TheBloke/Mistral-7B-Instruct-v0.1-GPTQ) on the None dataset.
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 0.0002
- train_batch_size: 2
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine
- training_steps: 250
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.7.1
- Transformers 4.37.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.1.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.16.1
- Tokenizers 0.15.0 |
shivu99/skimlit_final | shivu99 | 2024-05-09T10:19:35Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T10:16:17Z | ---
title: SkimLit
emoji: 🦀
colorFrom: purple
colorTo: purple
sdk: gradio
sdk_version: 4.25.0
app_file: app.py
pinned: false
---
Check out the configuration reference at https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces-config-reference
|
quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v3 | quangtqv | 2024-05-09T10:15:37Z | 6 | 0 | sentence-transformers | [
"sentence-transformers",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"feature-extraction",
"sentence-similarity",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-embeddings-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | sentence-similarity | 2024-05-09T10:15:23Z | ---
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
---
# quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v3
This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model: It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 768 dimensional dense vector space and can be used for tasks like clustering or semantic search.
<!--- Describe your model here -->
## Usage (Sentence-Transformers)
Using this model becomes easy when you have [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) installed:
```
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```
Then you can use the model like this:
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer
sentences = ["This is an example sentence", "Each sentence is converted"]
model = SentenceTransformer('quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v3')
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings)
```
## Evaluation Results
<!--- Describe how your model was evaluated -->
For an automated evaluation of this model, see the *Sentence Embeddings Benchmark*: [https://seb.sbert.net](https://seb.sbert.net?model_name=quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024_v3)
## Full Model Architecture
```
SentenceTransformer(
(0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 512, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: BertModel
(1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 768, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': True, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
(2): Normalize()
)
```
## Citing & Authors
<!--- Describe where people can find more information --> |
Chayaaaaa/BioMistral_stabilityai_gamma_7b_SLERP | Chayaaaaa | 2024-05-09T10:12:59Z | 7 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"mistral",
"text-generation",
"merge",
"mergekit",
"lazymergekit",
"stabilityai/japanese-stablelm-instruct-gamma-7b",
"BioMistral/BioMistral-7B",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T10:03:30Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- merge
- mergekit
- lazymergekit
- stabilityai/japanese-stablelm-instruct-gamma-7b
- BioMistral/BioMistral-7B
---
# Chayaaaaa/BioMistral_stabilityai_gamma_7b_SLERP
Chayaaaaa/BioMistral_stabilityai_gamma_7b_SLERP is a merge of the following models using [mergekit](https://github.com/cg123/mergekit):
* [stabilityai/japanese-stablelm-instruct-gamma-7b](https://huggingface.co/stabilityai/japanese-stablelm-instruct-gamma-7b)
* [BioMistral/BioMistral-7B](https://huggingface.co/BioMistral/BioMistral-7B)
## 🧩 Configuration
```yaml
slices:
- sources:
- model: stabilityai/japanese-stablelm-instruct-gamma-7b
layer_range: [0, 32]
- model: BioMistral/BioMistral-7B
layer_range: [0, 32]
merge_method: slerp
base_model: stabilityai/japanese-stablelm-instruct-gamma-7b
parameters:
t:
- filter: self_attn
value: [0, 0.5, 0.3, 0.7, 1]
- filter: mlp
value: [1, 0.5, 0.7, 0.3, 0]
- value: 0.5
dtype: bfloat16
``` |
vaishali18/outputs | vaishali18 | 2024-05-09T10:06:25Z | 0 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"trl",
"sft",
"generated_from_trainer",
"text-generation",
"base_model:google/gemma-2b",
"base_model:adapter:google/gemma-2b",
"license:gemma",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-08T09:17:57Z | ---
license: gemma
library_name: peft
tags:
- trl
- sft
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: google/gemma-2b
model-index:
- name: outputs
results: []
pipeline_tag: text-generation
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# outputs
This model is a fine-tuned version of [google/gemma-2b](https://huggingface.co/google/gemma-2b) on the None dataset.
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 0.0002
- train_batch_size: 1
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 4
- total_train_batch_size: 4
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 2
- training_steps: 40
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.8.2
- Transformers 4.38.0
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.17.0
- Tokenizers 0.15.2 |
Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-model | Swanand30 | 2024-05-09T10:05:10Z | 8 | 0 | sentence-transformers | [
"sentence-transformers",
"safetensors",
"xlm-roberta",
"feature-extraction",
"sentence-similarity",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-embeddings-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | sentence-similarity | 2024-05-09T07:12:45Z | ---
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
---
# Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-model
This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model: It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 1024 dimensional dense vector space and can be used for tasks like clustering or semantic search.
<!--- Describe your model here -->
## Usage (Sentence-Transformers)
Using this model becomes easy when you have [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) installed:
```
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```
Then you can use the model like this:
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer
sentences = ["This is an example sentence", "Each sentence is converted"]
model = SentenceTransformer('Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-model')
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings)
```
## Evaluation Results
<!--- Describe how your model was evaluated -->
For an automated evaluation of this model, see the *Sentence Embeddings Benchmark*: [https://seb.sbert.net](https://seb.sbert.net?model_name=Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-model)
## Training
The model was trained with the parameters:
**DataLoader**:
`torch.utils.data.dataloader.DataLoader` of length 1581 with parameters:
```
{'batch_size': 2, 'sampler': 'torch.utils.data.sampler.SequentialSampler', 'batch_sampler': 'torch.utils.data.sampler.BatchSampler'}
```
**Loss**:
`sentence_transformers.losses.MultipleNegativesRankingLoss.MultipleNegativesRankingLoss` with parameters:
```
{'scale': 20.0, 'similarity_fct': 'cos_sim'}
```
Parameters of the fit()-Method:
```
{
"epochs": 30,
"evaluation_steps": 50,
"evaluator": "sentence_transformers.evaluation.InformationRetrievalEvaluator.InformationRetrievalEvaluator",
"max_grad_norm": 1,
"optimizer_class": "<class 'torch.optim.adamw.AdamW'>",
"optimizer_params": {
"lr": 2e-05
},
"scheduler": "WarmupLinear",
"steps_per_epoch": null,
"warmup_steps": 4743,
"weight_decay": 0.01
}
```
## Full Model Architecture
```
SentenceTransformer(
(0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 8192, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: XLMRobertaModel
(1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 1024, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': True, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
(2): Normalize()
)
```
## Citing & Authors
<!--- Describe where people can find more information --> |
blockblockblock/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-Gradient-1048k-bpw3.7-exl2 | blockblockblock | 2024-05-09T10:03:04Z | 4 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"meta",
"llama-3",
"conversational",
"en",
"arxiv:2309.00071",
"arxiv:2402.08268",
"arxiv:2305.14233",
"license:llama3",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"exl2",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-04-30T01:39:01Z | ---
language:
- en
pipeline_tag: text-generation
tags:
- meta
- llama-3
license: llama3
---
<a href="https://www.gradient.ai" target="_blank"><img src="https://cdn-uploads.huggingface.co/production/uploads/655bb613e8a8971e89944f3e/TSa3V8YpoVagnTYgxiLaO.png" width="200"/></a>
# Llama-3 8B Gradient Instruct 1048k
Join our custom agent and long context (262k-1M+) waitlist: https://forms.gle/L6TDY7dozx8TuoUv7
Gradient incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business. If you're looking to build custom AI models or agents, email us a message [email protected].
For more info see our [End-to-end development service for custom LLMs and AI systems](https://gradient.ai/development-lab)
[Join our Discord](https://discord.com/invite/2QVy2qt2mf)
This model extends LLama-3 8B's context length from 8k to > 1040K, developed by Gradient, sponsored by compute from [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai). It demonstrates that SOTA LLMs can learn to operate on long context with minimal training by appropriately adjusting RoPE theta. We trained on 830M tokens for this stage, and 1.4B tokens total for all stages, which is < 0.01% of Llama-3's original pre-training data.
**Update (5/3): We further fine-tuned our model to strengthen its assistant-like chat ability as well. The NIAH result is updated.**
**Approach:**
- [meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct](https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct) as the base
- NTK-aware interpolation [1] to initialize an optimal schedule for RoPE theta, followed by empirical RoPE theta optimization
- Progressive training on increasing context lengths, similar to [Large World Model](https://huggingface.co/LargeWorldModel) [2] (See details below)
**Infra:**
We build on top of the EasyContext Blockwise RingAttention library [3] to scalably and efficiently train on contexts up to 1048k tokens on [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai) high performance L40S cluster.
Notably, we layered parallelism on top of Ring Attention with a custom network topology to better leverage large GPU clusters in the face of network bottlenecks from passing many KV blocks between devices. This gave us a 33x speedup in model training (compare 524k and 1048k to 65k and 262k in the table below).
**Data:**
For training data, we generate long contexts by augmenting [SlimPajama](https://huggingface.co/datasets/cerebras/SlimPajama-627B). We also fine-tune on a chat dataset based on UltraChat [4], following a similar recipe for data augmentation to [2].
**Progressive Training Details:**
| | 65K | 262K | 524k | 1048k |
|------------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
| Initialize From | LLaMA-3 8B| 65K | 262K | 524k |
| Sequence Length 2^N | 16 | 18 | 19 | 20 |
| RoPE theta | 15.3 M | 207.1 M | 1.06B | 2.80B |
| Batch Size | 1 | 1 | 16 | 8 |
| Gradient Accumulation Steps | 32 | 16 | 1 | 1 |
| Steps | 30 | 24 | 50 | 50 |
| Total Tokens | 62914560 | 100663296 | 419430400 | 838860800 |
| Learning Rate | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 |
| # GPUs | 8 | 32 | 512 | 512 |
| GPU Type | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S |
| Minutes to Train (Wall)| 202 | 555 | 61 | 87 |
**Evaluation:**
```
EVAL_MAX_CONTEXT_LENGTH=1040200
EVAL_MIN_CONTEXT_LENGTH=100
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=86675
EVAL_DEPTH_INTERVAL=0.2
EVAL_RND_NUMBER_DIGITS=8
HAYSTACK1:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=25
HAYSTACK2:
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=173350
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=150000
HAYSTACK3:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=925000
```
All boxes not pictured for Haystack 1 and 3 are 100% accurate. Haystacks 1,2 and 3 are further detailed in this [blog post](https://gradient.ai/blog/the-haystack-matters-for-niah-evals).
**Quants:**
- [GGUF by Crusoe](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-GGUF). Note that you need to add 128009 as [special token with llama.cpp](https://huggingface.co/gradientai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-262k/discussions/13).
- [MLX-4bit](https://huggingface.co/mlx-community/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-4bit)
- [Ollama](https://ollama.com/library/llama3-gradient)
- vLLM docker image, recommended to load via `--max-model-len 32768`
- If you are interested in a hosted version, drop us a mail below.
## The Gradient AI Team
https://gradient.ai/
Gradient is accelerating AI transformation across industries. Our AI Foundry incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business.
## Contact Us
Drop an email to [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected])
## References
[1] Peng, Bowen, et al. "Yarn: Efficient context window extension of large language models." arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.00071 (2023).
[2] Liu, Hao, et al. "World Model on Million-Length Video And Language With RingAttention." arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.08268 (2024).
[3] https://github.com/jzhang38/EasyContext
[4] Ning Ding, Yulin Chen, Bokai Xu, Yujia Qin, Zhi Zheng, Shengding Hu, Zhiyuan
Liu, Maosong Sun, and Bowen Zhou. Enhancing chat language models by scaling
high-quality instructional conversations. arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.14233, 2023.
----
# Base Model
## Model Details
Meta developed and released the Meta Llama 3 family of large language models (LLMs), a collection of pretrained and instruction tuned generative text models in 8 and 70B sizes. The Llama 3 instruction tuned models are optimized for dialogue use cases and outperform many of the available open source chat models on common industry benchmarks. Further, in developing these models, we took great care to optimize helpfulness and safety.
**Model developers** Meta
**Variations** Llama 3 comes in two sizes — 8B and 70B parameters — in pre-trained and instruction tuned variants.
**Input** Models input text only.
**Output** Models generate text and code only.
**Model Architecture** Llama 3 is an auto-regressive language model that uses an optimized transformer architecture. The tuned versions use supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF) to align with human preferences for helpfulness and safety.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Training Data</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Params</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Context length</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>GQA</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Token count</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Knowledge cutoff</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" >Llama 3
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >A new mix of publicly available online data.
</td>
<td>8B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >15T+
</td>
<td>March, 2023
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>70B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td>December, 2023
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**Llama 3 family of models**. Token counts refer to pretraining data only. Both the 8 and 70B versions use Grouped-Query Attention (GQA) for improved inference scalability.
**Model Release Date** April 18, 2024.
**Status** This is a static model trained on an offline dataset. Future versions of the tuned models will be released as we improve model safety with community feedback.
**License** A custom commercial license is available at: [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license)
Where to send questions or comments about the model Instructions on how to provide feedback or comments on the model can be found in the model [README](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3). For more technical information about generation parameters and recipes for how to use Llama 3 in applications, please go [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes).
## Intended Use
**Intended Use Cases** Llama 3 is intended for commercial and research use in English. Instruction tuned models are intended for assistant-like chat, whereas pretrained models can be adapted for a variety of natural language generation tasks.
**Out-of-scope** Use in any manner that violates applicable laws or regulations (including trade compliance laws). Use in any other way that is prohibited by the Acceptable Use Policy and Llama 3 Community License. Use in languages other than English**.
**Note: Developers may fine-tune Llama 3 models for languages beyond English provided they comply with the Llama 3 Community License and the Acceptable Use Policy.
## How to use
This repository contains two versions of Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct, for use with transformers and with the original `llama3` codebase.
### Use with transformers
You can run conversational inference using the Transformers pipeline abstraction, or by leveraging the Auto classes with the `generate()` function. Let's see examples of both.
#### Transformers pipeline
```python
import transformers
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
pipeline = transformers.pipeline(
"text-generation",
model=model_id,
model_kwargs={"torch_dtype": torch.bfloat16},
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
prompt = pipeline.tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
tokenize=False,
add_generation_prompt=True
)
terminators = [
pipeline.tokenizer.eos_token_id,
pipeline.tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = pipeline(
prompt,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
print(outputs[0]["generated_text"][len(prompt):])
```
#### Transformers AutoModelForCausalLM
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForCausalLM
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_id)
model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained(
model_id,
torch_dtype=torch.bfloat16,
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
input_ids = tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
add_generation_prompt=True,
return_tensors="pt"
).to(model.device)
terminators = [
tokenizer.eos_token_id,
tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = model.generate(
input_ids,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
response = outputs[0][input_ids.shape[-1]:]
print(tokenizer.decode(response, skip_special_tokens=True))
```
### Use with `llama3`
Please, follow the instructions in the [repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3)
To download Original checkpoints, see the example command below leveraging `huggingface-cli`:
```
huggingface-cli download meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct --include "original/*" --local-dir Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
```
For Hugging Face support, we recommend using transformers or TGI, but a similar command works.
## Hardware and Software
**Training Factors** We used custom training libraries, Meta's Research SuperCluster, and production clusters for pretraining. Fine-tuning, annotation, and evaluation were also performed on third-party cloud compute.
**Carbon Footprint Pretraining utilized a cumulative** 7.7M GPU hours of computation on hardware of type H100-80GB (TDP of 700W). Estimated total emissions were 2290 tCO2eq, 100% of which were offset by Meta’s sustainability program.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Time (GPU hours)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Power Consumption (W)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Carbon Emitted(tCO2eq)</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 8B
</td>
<td>1.3M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>390
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 70B
</td>
<td>6.4M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>1900
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Total
</td>
<td>7.7M
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>2290
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**CO2 emissions during pre-training**. Time: total GPU time required for training each model. Power Consumption: peak power capacity per GPU device for the GPUs used adjusted for power usage efficiency. 100% of the emissions are directly offset by Meta's sustainability program, and because we are openly releasing these models, the pretraining costs do not need to be incurred by others.
## Training Data
**Overview** Llama 3 was pretrained on over 15 trillion tokens of data from publicly available sources. The fine-tuning data includes publicly available instruction datasets, as well as over 10M human-annotated examples. Neither the pretraining nor the fine-tuning datasets include Meta user data.
**Data Freshness** The pretraining data has a cutoff of March 2023 for the 7B and December 2023 for the 70B models respectively.
## Benchmarks
In this section, we report the results for Llama 3 models on standard automatic benchmarks. For all the evaluations, we use our internal evaluations library. For details on the methodology see [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/eval_methodology.md).
### Base pretrained models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Category</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="6" >General
</td>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>66.6
</td>
<td>45.7
</td>
<td>53.8
</td>
<td>79.5
</td>
<td>69.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AGIEval English (3-5 shot)
</td>
<td>45.9
</td>
<td>28.8
</td>
<td>38.7
</td>
<td>63.0
</td>
<td>54.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CommonSenseQA (7-shot)
</td>
<td>72.6
</td>
<td>57.6
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>83.8
</td>
<td>78.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Winogrande (5-shot)
</td>
<td>76.1
</td>
<td>73.3
</td>
<td>75.4
</td>
<td>83.1
</td>
<td>81.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BIG-Bench Hard (3-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>61.1
</td>
<td>38.1
</td>
<td>47.0
</td>
<td>81.3
</td>
<td>65.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ARC-Challenge (25-shot)
</td>
<td>78.6
</td>
<td>53.7
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>85.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Knowledge reasoning
</td>
<td>TriviaQA-Wiki (5-shot)
</td>
<td>78.5
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>89.7
</td>
<td>87.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4" >Reading comprehension
</td>
<td>SQuAD (1-shot)
</td>
<td>76.4
</td>
<td>72.2
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>85.6
</td>
<td>82.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QuAC (1-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>44.4
</td>
<td>39.6
</td>
<td>44.9
</td>
<td>51.1
</td>
<td>49.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BoolQ (0-shot)
</td>
<td>75.7
</td>
<td>65.5
</td>
<td>66.9
</td>
<td>79.0
</td>
<td>73.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>DROP (3-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>58.4
</td>
<td>37.9
</td>
<td>49.8
</td>
<td>79.7
</td>
<td>70.2
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Instruction tuned models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>68.4
</td>
<td>34.1
</td>
<td>47.8
</td>
<td>82.0
</td>
<td>52.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GPQA (0-shot)
</td>
<td>34.2
</td>
<td>21.7
</td>
<td>22.3
</td>
<td>39.5
</td>
<td>21.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>HumanEval (0-shot)
</td>
<td>62.2
</td>
<td>7.9
</td>
<td>14.0
</td>
<td>81.7
</td>
<td>25.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GSM-8K (8-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>25.7
</td>
<td>77.4
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>57.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MATH (4-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>30.0
</td>
<td>3.8
</td>
<td>6.7
</td>
<td>50.4
</td>
<td>11.6
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Responsibility & Safety
We believe that an open approach to AI leads to better, safer products, faster innovation, and a bigger overall market. We are committed to Responsible AI development and took a series of steps to limit misuse and harm and support the open source community.
Foundation models are widely capable technologies that are built to be used for a diverse range of applications. They are not designed to meet every developer preference on safety levels for all use cases, out-of-the-box, as those by their nature will differ across different applications.
Rather, responsible LLM-application deployment is achieved by implementing a series of safety best practices throughout the development of such applications, from the model pre-training, fine-tuning and the deployment of systems composed of safeguards to tailor the safety needs specifically to the use case and audience.
As part of the Llama 3 release, we updated our [Responsible Use Guide](https://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide/) to outline the steps and best practices for developers to implement model and system level safety for their application. We also provide a set of resources including [Meta Llama Guard 2](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) and [Code Shield](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) safeguards. These tools have proven to drastically reduce residual risks of LLM Systems, while maintaining a high level of helpfulness. We encourage developers to tune and deploy these safeguards according to their needs and we provide a [reference implementation](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes/tree/main/recipes/responsible_ai) to get you started.
#### Llama 3-Instruct
As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, some trade-off between model helpfulness and model alignment is likely unavoidable. Developers should exercise discretion about how to weigh the benefits of alignment and helpfulness for their specific use case and audience. Developers should be mindful of residual risks when using Llama models and leverage additional safety tools as needed to reach the right safety bar for their use case.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Safety</span>
For our instruction tuned model, we conducted extensive red teaming exercises, performed adversarial evaluations and implemented safety mitigations techniques to lower residual risks. As with any Large Language Model, residual risks will likely remain and we recommend that developers assess these risks in the context of their use case. In parallel, we are working with the community to make AI safety benchmark standards transparent, rigorous and interpretable.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Refusals</span>
In addition to residual risks, we put a great emphasis on model refusals to benign prompts. Over-refusing not only can impact the user experience but could even be harmful in certain contexts as well. We’ve heard the feedback from the developer community and improved our fine tuning to ensure that Llama 3 is significantly less likely to falsely refuse to answer prompts than Llama 2.
We built internal benchmarks and developed mitigations to limit false refusals making Llama 3 our most helpful model to date.
#### Responsible release
In addition to responsible use considerations outlined above, we followed a rigorous process that requires us to take extra measures against misuse and critical risks before we make our release decision.
Misuse
If you access or use Llama 3, you agree to the Acceptable Use Policy. The most recent copy of this policy can be found at [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/).
#### Critical risks
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">CBRNE</span> (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and high yield Explosives)
We have conducted a two fold assessment of the safety of the model in this area:
* Iterative testing during model training to assess the safety of responses related to CBRNE threats and other adversarial risks.
* Involving external CBRNE experts to conduct an uplift test assessing the ability of the model to accurately provide expert knowledge and reduce barriers to potential CBRNE misuse, by reference to what can be achieved using web search (without the model).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Cyber Security </span>
We have evaluated Llama 3 with CyberSecEval, Meta’s cybersecurity safety eval suite, measuring Llama 3’s propensity to suggest insecure code when used as a coding assistant, and Llama 3’s propensity to comply with requests to help carry out cyber attacks, where attacks are defined by the industry standard MITRE ATT&CK cyber attack ontology. On our insecure coding and cyber attacker helpfulness tests, Llama 3 behaved in the same range or safer than models of [equivalent coding capability](https://huggingface.co/spaces/facebook/CyberSecEval).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Child Safety</span>
Child Safety risk assessments were conducted using a team of experts, to assess the model’s capability to produce outputs that could result in Child Safety risks and inform on any necessary and appropriate risk mitigations via fine tuning. We leveraged those expert red teaming sessions to expand the coverage of our evaluation benchmarks through Llama 3 model development. For Llama 3, we conducted new in-depth sessions using objective based methodologies to assess the model risks along multiple attack vectors. We also partnered with content specialists to perform red teaming exercises assessing potentially violating content while taking account of market specific nuances or experiences.
### Community
Generative AI safety requires expertise and tooling, and we believe in the strength of the open community to accelerate its progress. We are active members of open consortiums, including the AI Alliance, Partnership in AI and MLCommons, actively contributing to safety standardization and transparency. We encourage the community to adopt taxonomies like the MLCommons Proof of Concept evaluation to facilitate collaboration and transparency on safety and content evaluations. Our Purple Llama tools are open sourced for the community to use and widely distributed across ecosystem partners including cloud service providers. We encourage community contributions to our [Github repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/PurpleLlama).
Finally, we put in place a set of resources including an [output reporting mechanism](https://developers.facebook.com/llama_output_feedback) and [bug bounty program](https://www.facebook.com/whitehat) to continuously improve the Llama technology with the help of the community.
## Ethical Considerations and Limitations
The core values of Llama 3 are openness, inclusivity and helpfulness. It is meant to serve everyone, and to work for a wide range of use cases. It is thus designed to be accessible to people across many different backgrounds, experiences and perspectives. Llama 3 addresses users and their needs as they are, without insertion unnecessary judgment or normativity, while reflecting the understanding that even content that may appear problematic in some cases can serve valuable purposes in others. It respects the dignity and autonomy of all users, especially in terms of the values of free thought and expression that power innovation and progress.
But Llama 3 is a new technology, and like any new technology, there are risks associated with its use. Testing conducted to date has been in English, and has not covered, nor could it cover, all scenarios. For these reasons, as with all LLMs, Llama 3’s potential outputs cannot be predicted in advance, and the model may in some instances produce inaccurate, biased or other objectionable responses to user prompts. Therefore, before deploying any applications of Llama 3 models, developers should perform safety testing and tuning tailored to their specific applications of the model. As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, we recommend incorporating [Purple Llama](https://github.com/facebookresearch/PurpleLlama) solutions into your workflows and specifically [Llama Guard](https://ai.meta.com/research/publications/llama-guard-llm-based-input-output-safeguard-for-human-ai-conversations/) which provides a base model to filter input and output prompts to layer system-level safety on top of model-level safety.
Please see the Responsible Use Guide available at [http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide](http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide)
## Citation instructions
@article{llama3modelcard,
title={Llama 3 Model Card},
author={AI@Meta},
year={2024},
url = {https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/MODEL_CARD.md}
}
## Contributors
Aaditya Singh; Aaron Grattafiori; Abhimanyu Dubey; Abhinav Jauhri; Abhinav Pandey; Abhishek Kadian; Adam Kelsey; Adi Gangidi; Ahmad Al-Dahle; Ahuva Goldstand; Aiesha Letman; Ajay Menon; Akhil Mathur; Alan Schelten; Alex Vaughan; Amy Yang; Andrei Lupu; Andres Alvarado; Andrew Gallagher; Andrew Gu; Andrew Ho; Andrew Poulton; Andrew Ryan; Angela Fan; Ankit Ramchandani; Anthony Hartshorn; Archi Mitra; Archie Sravankumar; Artem Korenev; Arun Rao; Ashley Gabriel; Ashwin Bharambe; Assaf Eisenman; Aston Zhang; Aurelien Rodriguez; Austen Gregerson; Ava Spataru; Baptiste Roziere; Ben Maurer; Benjamin Leonhardi; Bernie Huang; Bhargavi Paranjape; Bing Liu; Binh Tang; Bobbie Chern; Brani Stojkovic; Brian Fuller; Catalina Mejia Arenas; Chao Zhou; Charlotte Caucheteux; Chaya Nayak; Ching-Hsiang Chu; Chloe Bi; Chris Cai; Chris Cox; Chris Marra; Chris McConnell; Christian Keller; Christoph Feichtenhofer; Christophe Touret; Chunyang Wu; Corinne Wong; Cristian Canton Ferrer; Damien Allonsius; Daniel Kreymer; Daniel Haziza; Daniel Li; Danielle Pintz; Danny Livshits; Danny Wyatt; David Adkins; David Esiobu; David Xu; Davide Testuggine; Delia David; Devi Parikh; Dhruv Choudhary; Dhruv Mahajan; Diana Liskovich; Diego Garcia-Olano; Diego Perino; Dieuwke Hupkes; Dingkang Wang; Dustin Holland; Egor Lakomkin; Elina Lobanova; Xiaoqing Ellen Tan; Emily Dinan; Eric Smith; Erik Brinkman; Esteban Arcaute; Filip Radenovic; Firat Ozgenel; Francesco Caggioni; Frank Seide; Frank Zhang; Gabriel Synnaeve; Gabriella Schwarz; Gabrielle Lee; Gada Badeer; Georgia Anderson; Graeme Nail; Gregoire Mialon; Guan Pang; Guillem Cucurell; Hailey Nguyen; Hannah Korevaar; Hannah Wang; Haroun Habeeb; Harrison Rudolph; Henry Aspegren; Hu Xu; Hugo Touvron; Iga Kozlowska; Igor Molybog; Igor Tufanov; Iliyan Zarov; Imanol Arrieta Ibarra; Irina-Elena Veliche; Isabel Kloumann; Ishan Misra; Ivan Evtimov; Jacob Xu; Jade Copet; Jake Weissman; Jan Geffert; Jana Vranes; Japhet Asher; Jason Park; Jay Mahadeokar; Jean-Baptiste Gaya; Jeet Shah; Jelmer van der Linde; Jennifer Chan; Jenny Hong; Jenya Lee; Jeremy Fu; Jeremy Teboul; Jianfeng Chi; Jianyu Huang; Jie Wang; Jiecao Yu; Joanna Bitton; Joe Spisak; Joelle Pineau; Jon Carvill; Jongsoo Park; Joseph Rocca; Joshua Johnstun; Junteng Jia; Kalyan Vasuden Alwala; Kam Hou U; Kate Plawiak; Kartikeya Upasani; Kaushik Veeraraghavan; Ke Li; Kenneth Heafield; Kevin Stone; Khalid El-Arini; Krithika Iyer; Kshitiz Malik; Kuenley Chiu; Kunal Bhalla; Kyle Huang; Lakshya Garg; Lauren Rantala-Yeary; Laurens van der Maaten; Lawrence Chen; Leandro Silva; Lee Bell; Lei Zhang; Liang Tan; Louis Martin; Lovish Madaan; Luca Wehrstedt; Lukas Blecher; Luke de Oliveira; Madeline Muzzi; Madian Khabsa; Manav Avlani; Mannat Singh; Manohar Paluri; Mark Zuckerberg; Marcin Kardas; Martynas Mankus; Mathew Oldham; Mathieu Rita; Matthew Lennie; Maya Pavlova; Meghan Keneally; Melanie Kambadur; Mihir Patel; Mikayel Samvelyan; Mike Clark; Mike Lewis; Min Si; Mitesh Kumar Singh; Mo Metanat; Mona Hassan; Naman Goyal; Narjes Torabi; Nicolas Usunier; Nikolay Bashlykov; Nikolay Bogoychev; Niladri Chatterji; Ning Dong; Oliver Aobo Yang; Olivier Duchenne; Onur Celebi; Parth Parekh; Patrick Alrassy; Paul Saab; Pavan Balaji; Pedro Rittner; Pengchuan Zhang; Pengwei Li; Petar Vasic; Peter Weng; Polina Zvyagina; Prajjwal Bhargava; Pratik Dubal; Praveen Krishnan; Punit Singh Koura; Qing He; Rachel Rodriguez; Ragavan Srinivasan; Rahul Mitra; Ramon Calderer; Raymond Li; Robert Stojnic; Roberta Raileanu; Robin Battey; Rocky Wang; Rohit Girdhar; Rohit Patel; Romain Sauvestre; Ronnie Polidoro; Roshan Sumbaly; Ross Taylor; Ruan Silva; Rui Hou; Rui Wang; Russ Howes; Ruty Rinott; Saghar Hosseini; Sai Jayesh Bondu; Samyak Datta; Sanjay Singh; Sara Chugh; Sargun Dhillon; Satadru Pan; Sean Bell; Sergey Edunov; Shaoliang Nie; Sharan Narang; Sharath Raparthy; Shaun Lindsay; Sheng Feng; Sheng Shen; Shenghao Lin; Shiva Shankar; Shruti Bhosale; Shun Zhang; Simon Vandenhende; Sinong Wang; Seohyun Sonia Kim; Soumya Batra; Sten Sootla; Steve Kehoe; Suchin Gururangan; Sumit Gupta; Sunny Virk; Sydney Borodinsky; Tamar Glaser; Tamar Herman; Tamara Best; Tara Fowler; Thomas Georgiou; Thomas Scialom; Tianhe Li; Todor Mihaylov; Tong Xiao; Ujjwal Karn; Vedanuj Goswami; Vibhor Gupta; Vignesh Ramanathan; Viktor Kerkez; Vinay Satish Kumar; Vincent Gonguet; Vish Vogeti; Vlad Poenaru; Vlad Tiberiu Mihailescu; Vladan Petrovic; Vladimir Ivanov; Wei Li; Weiwei Chu; Wenhan Xiong; Wenyin Fu; Wes Bouaziz; Whitney Meers; Will Constable; Xavier Martinet; Xiaojian Wu; Xinbo Gao; Xinfeng Xie; Xuchao Jia; Yaelle Goldschlag; Yann LeCun; Yashesh Gaur; Yasmine Babaei; Ye Qi; Yenda Li; Yi Wen; Yiwen Song; Youngjin Nam; Yuchen Hao; Yuchen Zhang; Yun Wang; Yuning Mao; Yuzi He; Zacharie Delpierre Coudert; Zachary DeVito; Zahra Hankir; Zhaoduo Wen; Zheng Yan; Zhengxing Chen; Zhenyu Yang; Zoe Papakipos |
Spophale/logs | Spophale | 2024-05-09T10:00:20Z | 2 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"trl",
"sft",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct",
"base_model:adapter:microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct",
"license:mit",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-07T08:44:53Z | ---
license: mit
library_name: peft
tags:
- trl
- sft
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct
model-index:
- name: logs
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# logs
This model is a fine-tuned version of [microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct](https://huggingface.co/microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct) on the None dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.7801
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 0.0002
- train_batch_size: 1
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 8
- total_train_batch_size: 8
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine
- num_epochs: 4
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:------:|:----:|:---------------:|
| No log | 0.9948 | 24 | 0.8328 |
| 1.2356 | 1.9896 | 48 | 0.7904 |
| 0.6283 | 2.9845 | 72 | 0.7775 |
| 0.5611 | 3.9793 | 96 | 0.7801 |
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.10.0
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1 |
Mukaffi28/chat | Mukaffi28 | 2024-05-09T09:58:07Z | 7 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T07:03:27Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed] |
tedad09/PolizzeDonut-TotaliCacheVuota-5Epochs | tedad09 | 2024-05-09T09:57:31Z | 50 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"vision-encoder-decoder",
"image-text-to-text",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:imagefolder",
"base_model:naver-clova-ix/donut-base",
"base_model:finetune:naver-clova-ix/donut-base",
"license:mit",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | image-text-to-text | 2024-05-09T08:20:29Z | ---
license: mit
base_model: naver-clova-ix/donut-base
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- imagefolder
model-index:
- name: PolizzeDonut-TotaliCacheVuota-5Epochs
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# PolizzeDonut-TotaliCacheVuota-5Epochs
This model is a fine-tuned version of [naver-clova-ix/donut-base](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base) on the imagefolder dataset.
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 2e-05
- train_batch_size: 2
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- num_epochs: 5
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.38.2
- Pytorch 2.2.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.18.0
- Tokenizers 0.15.2
|
CodeTriad/mistral_15000_dpo_t_with_inst | CodeTriad | 2024-05-09T09:53:52Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"mistral",
"trl",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/mistral-7b-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:finetune:unsloth/mistral-7b-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T09:53:34Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- mistral
- trl
base_model: unsloth/mistral-7b-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** CodeTriad
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/mistral-7b-bnb-4bit
This mistral model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
LuisCe/tobaccomulticlassification | LuisCe | 2024-05-09T09:52:51Z | 0 | 0 | fastai | [
"fastai",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-02-15T11:24:37Z | ---
tags:
- fastai
---
# Amazing!
🥳 Congratulations on hosting your fastai model on the Hugging Face Hub!
# Some next steps
1. Fill out this model card with more information (see the template below and the [documentation here](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/model-repos))!
2. Create a demo in Gradio or Streamlit using 🤗 Spaces ([documentation here](https://huggingface.co/docs/hub/spaces)).
3. Join the fastai community on the [Fastai Discord](https://discord.com/invite/YKrxeNn)!
Greetings fellow fastlearner 🤝! Don't forget to delete this content from your model card.
---
# Model card
## Model description
Modelo para clasificación de Imágenes del dataset Tobacco
## Intended uses & limitations
Para uso educativo
## Training and evaluation data
Los datos de entrenamiento y evaluación son las imágenes del dataset Tobacco
|
quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024 | quangtqv | 2024-05-09T09:52:01Z | 5 | 0 | sentence-transformers | [
"sentence-transformers",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"feature-extraction",
"sentence-similarity",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-embeddings-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | sentence-similarity | 2024-05-09T09:51:48Z | ---
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
---
# quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024
This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model: It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 768 dimensional dense vector space and can be used for tasks like clustering or semantic search.
<!--- Describe your model here -->
## Usage (Sentence-Transformers)
Using this model becomes easy when you have [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) installed:
```
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```
Then you can use the model like this:
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer
sentences = ["This is an example sentence", "Each sentence is converted"]
model = SentenceTransformer('quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024')
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings)
```
## Evaluation Results
<!--- Describe how your model was evaluated -->
For an automated evaluation of this model, see the *Sentence Embeddings Benchmark*: [https://seb.sbert.net](https://seb.sbert.net?model_name=quangtqv/bi_encoder_tool_learning_9_5_5024)
## Full Model Architecture
```
SentenceTransformer(
(0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 512, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: BertModel
(1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 768, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': True, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
(2): Normalize()
)
```
## Citing & Authors
<!--- Describe where people can find more information --> |
osamaifti/StockDetection | osamaifti | 2024-05-09T09:50:58Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T09:41:11Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
---
|
Niggendar/matrixRealisticPony_v13beta | Niggendar | 2024-05-09T09:50:04Z | 131 | 0 | diffusers | [
"diffusers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"diffusers:StableDiffusionXLPipeline",
"region:us"
] | text-to-image | 2024-05-09T09:45:17Z | ---
library_name: diffusers
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🧨 diffusers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed]
|
Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-m | Swanand30 | 2024-05-09T09:46:48Z | 6 | 1 | sentence-transformers | [
"sentence-transformers",
"safetensors",
"xlm-roberta",
"feature-extraction",
"sentence-similarity",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-embeddings-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | sentence-similarity | 2024-05-09T08:54:26Z | ---
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
---
# Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-m
This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model: It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 1024 dimensional dense vector space and can be used for tasks like clustering or semantic search.
<!--- Describe your model here -->
## Usage (Sentence-Transformers)
Using this model becomes easy when you have [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) installed:
```
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```
Then you can use the model like this:
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer
sentences = ["This is an example sentence", "Each sentence is converted"]
model = SentenceTransformer('Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-m')
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings)
```
## Evaluation Results
<!--- Describe how your model was evaluated -->
For an automated evaluation of this model, see the *Sentence Embeddings Benchmark*: [https://seb.sbert.net](https://seb.sbert.net?model_name=Swanand30/BAAI-arabic-fine-tuned-m)
## Training
The model was trained with the parameters:
**DataLoader**:
`torch.utils.data.dataloader.DataLoader` of length 1581 with parameters:
```
{'batch_size': 2, 'sampler': 'torch.utils.data.sampler.SequentialSampler', 'batch_sampler': 'torch.utils.data.sampler.BatchSampler'}
```
**Loss**:
`sentence_transformers.losses.MultipleNegativesRankingLoss.MultipleNegativesRankingLoss` with parameters:
```
{'scale': 20.0, 'similarity_fct': 'cos_sim'}
```
Parameters of the fit()-Method:
```
{
"epochs": 5,
"evaluation_steps": 50,
"evaluator": "sentence_transformers.evaluation.InformationRetrievalEvaluator.InformationRetrievalEvaluator",
"max_grad_norm": 1,
"optimizer_class": "<class 'torch.optim.adamw.AdamW'>",
"optimizer_params": {
"lr": 2e-05
},
"scheduler": "WarmupLinear",
"steps_per_epoch": null,
"warmup_steps": 790,
"weight_decay": 0.01
}
```
## Full Model Architecture
```
SentenceTransformer(
(0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 8192, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: XLMRobertaModel
(1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 1024, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': True, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
(2): Normalize()
)
```
## Citing & Authors
<!--- Describe where people can find more information --> |
shyang5/ollama | shyang5 | 2024-05-09T09:44:04Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:31:07Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
---
|
Litzy619/Phi0503HMA17OLD | Litzy619 | 2024-05-09T09:43:14Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"safetensors",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct",
"base_model:finetune:microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct",
"license:mit",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T05:14:36Z | ---
license: mit
base_model: microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
model-index:
- name: Phi0503HMA17
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# Phi0503HMA17
This model is a fine-tuned version of [microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct](https://huggingface.co/microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct) on an unknown dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.1875
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 0.0003
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 16
- total_train_batch_size: 128
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine_with_restarts
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 60
- num_epochs: 3
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|
| 3.75 | 0.09 | 10 | 0.5453 |
| 0.3378 | 0.18 | 20 | 0.2824 |
| 0.3447 | 0.27 | 30 | 0.3174 |
| 0.2287 | 0.36 | 40 | 0.1820 |
| 0.1614 | 0.45 | 50 | 0.1595 |
| 0.1573 | 0.54 | 60 | 0.1415 |
| 0.1433 | 0.63 | 70 | 0.1354 |
| 0.2011 | 0.73 | 80 | 1.2273 |
| 0.311 | 0.82 | 90 | 0.1241 |
| 0.1326 | 0.91 | 100 | 0.1242 |
| 0.129 | 1.0 | 110 | 0.1278 |
| 0.0812 | 1.09 | 120 | 0.0927 |
| 0.1272 | 1.18 | 130 | 0.2229 |
| 3.2223 | 1.27 | 140 | 2.3282 |
| 1.9049 | 1.36 | 150 | 1.0767 |
| 0.8589 | 1.45 | 160 | 0.6321 |
| 0.5045 | 1.54 | 170 | 0.4553 |
| 0.5118 | 1.63 | 180 | 0.3732 |
| 0.3558 | 1.72 | 190 | 0.3349 |
| 0.3136 | 1.81 | 200 | 0.3106 |
| 0.3007 | 1.9 | 210 | 0.2946 |
| 0.3073 | 1.99 | 220 | 0.2602 |
| 0.3275 | 2.08 | 230 | 0.4014 |
| 0.5342 | 2.18 | 240 | 0.4574 |
| 0.3191 | 2.27 | 250 | 0.3423 |
| 0.2647 | 2.36 | 260 | 0.2386 |
| 0.23 | 2.45 | 270 | 0.2366 |
| 0.2493 | 2.54 | 280 | 0.2132 |
| 0.2129 | 2.63 | 290 | 0.2020 |
| 0.2034 | 2.72 | 300 | 0.1892 |
| 0.225 | 2.81 | 310 | 0.1930 |
| 0.1989 | 2.9 | 320 | 0.1899 |
| 0.1969 | 2.99 | 330 | 0.1875 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.36.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.1.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.14.6
- Tokenizers 0.14.0
|
AmberYifan/zephyr-7b-sft-safeDPO3 | AmberYifan | 2024-05-09T09:39:11Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"mistral",
"text-generation",
"alignment-handbook",
"trl",
"dpo",
"generated_from_trainer",
"conversational",
"dataset:HuggingFaceH4/ultrafeedback_binarized",
"dataset:AmberYifan/safetyQA_DPO",
"base_model:alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full",
"base_model:finetune:alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-08T01:58:39Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full
tags:
- alignment-handbook
- trl
- dpo
- generated_from_trainer
- trl
- dpo
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- HuggingFaceH4/ultrafeedback_binarized
- AmberYifan/safetyQA_DPO
model-index:
- name: zephyr-7b-sft-safeDPO3
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# zephyr-7b-sft-safeDPO3
This model is a fine-tuned version of [alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full](https://huggingface.co/alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full) on the HuggingFaceH4/ultrafeedback_binarized and the AmberYifan/safetyQA_DPO datasets.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.6446
- Rewards/chosen: -8.0278
- Rewards/rejected: -9.5352
- Rewards/accuracies: 0.7152
- Rewards/margins: 1.5074
- Logps/rejected: -1123.8456
- Logps/chosen: -965.5345
- Logits/rejected: 3.5622
- Logits/chosen: 4.0391
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 5e-07
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- distributed_type: multi-GPU
- num_devices: 4
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 2
- total_train_batch_size: 64
- total_eval_batch_size: 32
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.1
- num_epochs: 3
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Rewards/chosen | Rewards/rejected | Rewards/accuracies | Rewards/margins | Logps/rejected | Logps/chosen | Logits/rejected | Logits/chosen |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|:--------------:|:----------------:|:------------------:|:---------------:|:--------------:|:------------:|:---------------:|:-------------:|
| 0.6915 | 0.06 | 100 | 0.6917 | -0.0059 | -0.0087 | 0.5919 | 0.0028 | -171.1956 | -163.3472 | -2.5867 | -2.5707 |
| 0.6667 | 0.12 | 200 | 0.6690 | -0.2049 | -0.2607 | 0.6307 | 0.0558 | -196.4011 | -183.2503 | -2.5361 | -2.5294 |
| 0.6064 | 0.17 | 300 | 0.6131 | -1.0874 | -1.4208 | 0.6530 | 0.3333 | -312.4040 | -271.4992 | -2.3765 | -2.3824 |
| 0.5768 | 0.23 | 400 | 0.5798 | -2.0019 | -2.5132 | 0.7118 | 0.5113 | -421.6484 | -362.9495 | -2.2241 | -2.2088 |
| 0.5653 | 0.29 | 500 | 0.5732 | -2.2365 | -2.8068 | 0.7038 | 0.5703 | -451.0063 | -386.4047 | -1.8327 | -1.8721 |
| 0.5717 | 0.35 | 600 | 0.5686 | -2.0292 | -2.5806 | 0.7175 | 0.5514 | -428.3890 | -365.6780 | -1.8751 | -1.9234 |
| 0.5752 | 0.4 | 700 | 0.5646 | -2.0035 | -2.5598 | 0.7152 | 0.5563 | -426.3091 | -363.1083 | -1.7231 | -1.7178 |
| 0.5592 | 0.46 | 800 | 0.5595 | -2.1767 | -2.7903 | 0.7152 | 0.6135 | -449.3554 | -380.4316 | -0.4741 | -0.4635 |
| 0.5477 | 0.52 | 900 | 0.5613 | -2.1853 | -2.7708 | 0.7243 | 0.5854 | -447.4023 | -381.2917 | -1.8590 | -1.9478 |
| 0.5136 | 0.58 | 1000 | 0.5533 | -2.1797 | -2.8703 | 0.7226 | 0.6906 | -457.3545 | -380.7242 | -1.6491 | -1.7174 |
| 0.5555 | 0.63 | 1100 | 0.5573 | -1.6655 | -2.2517 | 0.7158 | 0.5862 | -395.4941 | -329.3049 | -1.5555 | -1.5565 |
| 0.5044 | 0.69 | 1200 | 0.5457 | -2.5919 | -3.3662 | 0.7203 | 0.7743 | -506.9478 | -421.9445 | 0.4933 | 0.5009 |
| 0.5078 | 0.75 | 1300 | 0.5505 | -2.3710 | -3.0599 | 0.7220 | 0.6889 | -476.3146 | -399.8520 | 0.4823 | 0.6094 |
| 0.5333 | 0.81 | 1400 | 0.5486 | -2.3628 | -3.0508 | 0.7175 | 0.6880 | -475.4082 | -399.0350 | 0.5794 | 0.6967 |
| 0.4799 | 0.86 | 1500 | 0.5452 | -2.7663 | -3.5674 | 0.7380 | 0.8011 | -527.0656 | -439.3846 | 1.2406 | 1.3814 |
| 0.5551 | 0.92 | 1600 | 0.5455 | -2.6894 | -3.4539 | 0.7329 | 0.7645 | -515.7155 | -431.6923 | 0.7892 | 0.8498 |
| 0.4911 | 0.98 | 1700 | 0.5509 | -3.3307 | -4.1684 | 0.7300 | 0.8376 | -587.1636 | -495.8297 | 2.3144 | 2.2622 |
| 0.3058 | 1.04 | 1800 | 0.5704 | -4.5768 | -5.6386 | 0.7215 | 1.0618 | -734.1904 | -620.4401 | 2.5171 | 2.4413 |
| 0.3346 | 1.09 | 1900 | 0.5765 | -4.5531 | -5.5699 | 0.7152 | 1.0168 | -727.3204 | -618.0657 | 2.0386 | 1.9196 |
| 0.3186 | 1.15 | 2000 | 0.5844 | -5.1617 | -6.2422 | 0.7140 | 1.0806 | -794.5490 | -678.9232 | 1.8747 | 1.7608 |
| 0.3032 | 1.21 | 2100 | 0.5746 | -4.5098 | -5.5583 | 0.7255 | 1.0485 | -726.1542 | -613.7318 | 1.8097 | 1.9375 |
| 0.3192 | 1.27 | 2200 | 0.5697 | -4.5579 | -5.6208 | 0.7215 | 1.0629 | -732.4099 | -618.5480 | 1.4935 | 1.6381 |
| 0.3047 | 1.32 | 2300 | 0.5830 | -5.3394 | -6.5272 | 0.7266 | 1.1877 | -823.0447 | -696.7006 | 1.9596 | 2.0880 |
| 0.3109 | 1.38 | 2400 | 0.5797 | -4.8875 | -6.0347 | 0.7192 | 1.1472 | -773.7961 | -651.5051 | 2.0438 | 2.2156 |
| 0.3165 | 1.44 | 2500 | 0.5704 | -4.8449 | -5.9117 | 0.7283 | 1.0668 | -761.4922 | -647.2463 | 1.6852 | 1.9232 |
| 0.321 | 1.5 | 2600 | 0.5705 | -4.4244 | -5.3853 | 0.7197 | 0.9609 | -708.8524 | -605.1918 | 1.8092 | 2.0444 |
| 0.3164 | 1.55 | 2700 | 0.5779 | -5.0938 | -6.1851 | 0.7169 | 1.0913 | -788.8352 | -672.1396 | 2.3926 | 2.6931 |
| 0.3201 | 1.61 | 2800 | 0.5634 | -4.3216 | -5.3414 | 0.7249 | 1.0197 | -704.4624 | -594.9215 | 1.9326 | 2.1325 |
| 0.3367 | 1.67 | 2900 | 0.5631 | -4.6112 | -5.6238 | 0.7255 | 1.0126 | -732.7039 | -623.8734 | 1.4794 | 1.6802 |
| 0.3414 | 1.73 | 3000 | 0.5698 | -4.6100 | -5.6200 | 0.7289 | 1.0100 | -732.3315 | -623.7572 | 1.6920 | 1.9589 |
| 0.3097 | 1.79 | 3100 | 0.5739 | -4.9875 | -6.1217 | 0.7255 | 1.1342 | -782.4933 | -661.5057 | 2.0260 | 2.2980 |
| 0.3077 | 1.84 | 3200 | 0.5685 | -5.0298 | -6.1319 | 0.7226 | 1.1021 | -783.5215 | -665.7410 | 2.0798 | 2.3995 |
| 0.3101 | 1.9 | 3300 | 0.5709 | -5.0035 | -6.1378 | 0.7352 | 1.1343 | -784.1074 | -663.1116 | 1.9782 | 2.2950 |
| 0.3235 | 1.96 | 3400 | 0.5629 | -4.8491 | -5.8527 | 0.7346 | 1.0035 | -755.5942 | -647.6710 | 1.9155 | 2.2626 |
| 0.1328 | 2.02 | 3500 | 0.6063 | -6.6142 | -7.9563 | 0.7289 | 1.3421 | -965.9568 | -824.1730 | 2.7098 | 3.0637 |
| 0.1438 | 2.07 | 3600 | 0.6421 | -7.9002 | -9.3674 | 0.7158 | 1.4671 | -1107.0624 | -952.7795 | 3.3994 | 3.8343 |
| 0.1474 | 2.13 | 3700 | 0.6611 | -7.9802 | -9.5452 | 0.7083 | 1.5651 | -1124.8511 | -960.7725 | 3.4598 | 3.9152 |
| 0.1267 | 2.19 | 3800 | 0.6578 | -8.3961 | -9.8684 | 0.7072 | 1.4723 | -1157.1674 | -1002.3674 | 3.7728 | 4.2505 |
| 0.117 | 2.25 | 3900 | 0.6595 | -8.8743 | -10.4271 | 0.7072 | 1.5528 | -1213.0370 | -1050.1907 | 3.8392 | 4.3287 |
| 0.1347 | 2.3 | 4000 | 0.6543 | -8.3484 | -9.8783 | 0.7049 | 1.5300 | -1158.1610 | -997.5932 | 3.6606 | 4.1056 |
| 0.1329 | 2.36 | 4100 | 0.6601 | -8.2633 | -9.8163 | 0.7158 | 1.5530 | -1151.9531 | -989.0843 | 3.4748 | 3.9028 |
| 0.1272 | 2.42 | 4200 | 0.6521 | -8.3826 | -9.9282 | 0.7129 | 1.5456 | -1163.1472 | -1001.0134 | 3.5794 | 4.0564 |
| 0.1398 | 2.48 | 4300 | 0.6440 | -8.1928 | -9.6983 | 0.7146 | 1.5054 | -1140.1526 | -982.0401 | 3.5277 | 4.0106 |
| 0.1452 | 2.53 | 4400 | 0.6379 | -7.7709 | -9.2597 | 0.7140 | 1.4888 | -1096.2968 | -939.8471 | 3.3970 | 3.8629 |
| 0.1686 | 2.59 | 4500 | 0.6465 | -8.0350 | -9.5456 | 0.7152 | 1.5106 | -1124.8850 | -966.2559 | 3.5100 | 3.9841 |
| 0.1626 | 2.65 | 4600 | 0.6461 | -8.0584 | -9.5877 | 0.7152 | 1.5293 | -1129.0981 | -968.5971 | 3.5312 | 4.0077 |
| 0.1496 | 2.71 | 4700 | 0.6474 | -7.9977 | -9.5321 | 0.7163 | 1.5344 | -1123.5376 | -962.5296 | 3.5337 | 4.0036 |
| 0.1418 | 2.76 | 4800 | 0.6431 | -7.9795 | -9.4898 | 0.7146 | 1.5103 | -1119.3051 | -960.7057 | 3.5538 | 4.0293 |
| 0.1505 | 2.82 | 4900 | 0.6432 | -8.0170 | -9.5172 | 0.7158 | 1.5002 | -1122.0504 | -964.4604 | 3.5728 | 4.0513 |
| 0.1321 | 2.88 | 5000 | 0.6443 | -8.0235 | -9.5310 | 0.7123 | 1.5075 | -1123.4263 | -965.1030 | 3.5611 | 4.0373 |
| 0.1269 | 2.94 | 5100 | 0.6447 | -8.0373 | -9.5449 | 0.7140 | 1.5076 | -1124.8213 | -966.4896 | 3.5691 | 4.0472 |
| 0.1417 | 2.99 | 5200 | 0.6446 | -8.0277 | -9.5354 | 0.7163 | 1.5078 | -1123.8704 | -965.5221 | 3.5627 | 4.0395 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.39.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.3.0+cu121
- Datasets 2.14.6
- Tokenizers 0.15.2
|
abdullahcavuss/ppo-Huggy | abdullahcavuss | 2024-05-09T09:38:26Z | 6 | 0 | ml-agents | [
"ml-agents",
"tensorboard",
"onnx",
"Huggy",
"deep-reinforcement-learning",
"reinforcement-learning",
"ML-Agents-Huggy",
"region:us"
] | reinforcement-learning | 2024-05-09T09:38:19Z | ---
library_name: ml-agents
tags:
- Huggy
- deep-reinforcement-learning
- reinforcement-learning
- ML-Agents-Huggy
---
# **ppo** Agent playing **Huggy**
This is a trained model of a **ppo** agent playing **Huggy**
using the [Unity ML-Agents Library](https://github.com/Unity-Technologies/ml-agents).
## Usage (with ML-Agents)
The Documentation: https://unity-technologies.github.io/ml-agents/ML-Agents-Toolkit-Documentation/
We wrote a complete tutorial to learn to train your first agent using ML-Agents and publish it to the Hub:
- A *short tutorial* where you teach Huggy the Dog 🐶 to fetch the stick and then play with him directly in your
browser: https://huggingface.co/learn/deep-rl-course/unitbonus1/introduction
- A *longer tutorial* to understand how works ML-Agents:
https://huggingface.co/learn/deep-rl-course/unit5/introduction
### Resume the training
```bash
mlagents-learn <your_configuration_file_path.yaml> --run-id=<run_id> --resume
```
### Watch your Agent play
You can watch your agent **playing directly in your browser**
1. If the environment is part of ML-Agents official environments, go to https://huggingface.co/unity
2. Step 1: Find your model_id: abdullahcavuss/ppo-Huggy
3. Step 2: Select your *.nn /*.onnx file
4. Click on Watch the agent play 👀
|
Niggendar/aCrystalPony_v2VAE | Niggendar | 2024-05-09T09:35:39Z | 94 | 2 | diffusers | [
"diffusers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"diffusers:StableDiffusionXLPipeline",
"region:us"
] | text-to-image | 2024-05-09T09:31:05Z | ---
library_name: diffusers
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🧨 diffusers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed]
|
ShenaoZ/0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_4 | ShenaoZ | 2024-05-09T09:32:36Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"mistral",
"text-generation",
"alignment-handbook",
"trl",
"dpo",
"generated_from_trainer",
"conversational",
"dataset:updated",
"dataset:original",
"base_model:ShenaoZ/0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_3",
"base_model:finetune:ShenaoZ/0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_3",
"license:mit",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T08:46:54Z | ---
license: mit
base_model: ShenaoZ/0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_3
tags:
- alignment-handbook
- trl
- dpo
- generated_from_trainer
- trl
- dpo
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- updated
- original
model-index:
- name: 0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_4
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# 0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_4
This model is a fine-tuned version of [ShenaoZ/0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_3](https://huggingface.co/ShenaoZ/0.001_withdpo_4iters_bs256_555lr_iter_3) on the updated and the original datasets.
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 5e-07
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- distributed_type: multi-GPU
- num_devices: 8
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 4
- total_train_batch_size: 256
- total_eval_batch_size: 64
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.1
- num_epochs: 1
### Training results
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.1.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.14.6
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
ketanthakur603/llama2-7b-mental-health-chatbot | ketanthakur603 | 2024-05-09T09:31:06Z | 0 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"pytorch",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T06:33:01Z | ---
library_name: peft
---
## Training procedure
The following `bitsandbytes` quantization config was used during training:
- quant_method: bitsandbytes
- load_in_8bit: False
- load_in_4bit: True
- llm_int8_threshold: 6.0
- llm_int8_skip_modules: None
- llm_int8_enable_fp32_cpu_offload: False
- llm_int8_has_fp16_weight: False
- bnb_4bit_quant_type: nf4
- bnb_4bit_use_double_quant: False
- bnb_4bit_compute_dtype: float16
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.4.0
|
raghavsuri13/suri_lab1 | raghavsuri13 | 2024-05-09T09:30:52Z | 62 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tf",
"distilbert",
"question-answering",
"generated_from_keras_callback",
"base_model:distilbert/distilbert-base-uncased",
"base_model:finetune:distilbert/distilbert-base-uncased",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | question-answering | 2024-05-08T08:01:11Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: distilbert-base-uncased
tags:
- generated_from_keras_callback
model-index:
- name: raghavsuri13/suri_lab1
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information Keras had access to. You should
probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# raghavsuri13/suri_lab1
This model is a fine-tuned version of [distilbert-base-uncased](https://huggingface.co/distilbert-base-uncased) on an unknown dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Train Loss: 1.5146
- Validation Loss: 1.7623
- Epoch: 2
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- optimizer: {'name': 'Adam', 'weight_decay': None, 'clipnorm': None, 'global_clipnorm': None, 'clipvalue': None, 'use_ema': False, 'ema_momentum': 0.99, 'ema_overwrite_frequency': None, 'jit_compile': True, 'is_legacy_optimizer': False, 'learning_rate': {'module': 'keras.optimizers.schedules', 'class_name': 'PolynomialDecay', 'config': {'initial_learning_rate': 2e-05, 'decay_steps': 500, 'end_learning_rate': 0.0, 'power': 1.0, 'cycle': False, 'name': None}, 'registered_name': None}, 'beta_1': 0.9, 'beta_2': 0.999, 'epsilon': 1e-08, 'amsgrad': False}
- training_precision: float32
### Training results
| Train Loss | Validation Loss | Epoch |
|:----------:|:---------------:|:-----:|
| 3.4247 | 2.1088 | 0 |
| 1.7684 | 1.7623 | 1 |
| 1.5146 | 1.7623 | 2 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.1
- TensorFlow 2.15.0
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
devkya/SungBeom-whisper-small-ko-no-bg-v1 | devkya | 2024-05-09T09:29:04Z | 0 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"pytorch",
"safetensors",
"whisper",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:audiofolder",
"base_model:SungBeom/whisper-small-ko",
"base_model:adapter:SungBeom/whisper-small-ko",
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T09:27:03Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
library_name: peft
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: SungBeom/whisper-small-ko
datasets:
- audiofolder
model-index:
- name: SungBeom-whisper-small-ko-no-bg-v1
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wandb/assets/main/wandb-github-badge-28.svg" alt="Visualize in Weights & Biases" width="200" height="32"/>](https://wandb.ai/xpertinc/huggingface/runs/ch19265q)
# SungBeom-whisper-small-ko-no-bg-v1
This model is a fine-tuned version of [SungBeom/whisper-small-ko](https://huggingface.co/SungBeom/whisper-small-ko) on the audiofolder dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.2086
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 1e-06
- train_batch_size: 16
- eval_batch_size: 16
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 2
- total_train_batch_size: 32
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.01
- training_steps: 5000
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:---------:|:----:|:---------------:|
| 6.4362 | 142.8571 | 500 | 0.1993 |
| 6.0024 | 285.7143 | 1000 | 0.2035 |
| 5.6884 | 428.5714 | 1500 | 0.2067 |
| 5.5198 | 571.4286 | 2000 | 0.2086 |
| 5.3977 | 714.2857 | 2500 | 0.2095 |
| 5.3111 | 857.1429 | 3000 | 0.2094 |
| 5.2526 | 1000.0 | 3500 | 0.2091 |
| 5.2176 | 1142.8571 | 4000 | 0.2087 |
| 5.1912 | 1285.7143 | 4500 | 0.2086 |
| 5.1898 | 1428.5714 | 5000 | 0.2086 |
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.10.0
- Transformers 4.41.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.2.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.0
- Tokenizers 0.19.1 |
fishtanker/sd-gugg-model-lora-sdxl | fishtanker | 2024-05-09T09:27:02Z | 1 | 1 | diffusers | [
"diffusers",
"stable-diffusion-xl",
"stable-diffusion-xl-diffusers",
"text-to-image",
"diffusers-training",
"lora",
"base_model:stabilityai/stable-diffusion-xl-base-1.0",
"base_model:adapter:stabilityai/stable-diffusion-xl-base-1.0",
"license:creativeml-openrail-m",
"region:us"
] | text-to-image | 2024-05-09T09:20:45Z | ---
license: creativeml-openrail-m
library_name: diffusers
tags:
- stable-diffusion-xl
- stable-diffusion-xl-diffusers
- text-to-image
- diffusers
- diffusers-training
- lora
base_model: stabilityai/stable-diffusion-xl-base-1.0
inference: true
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the training script had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# LoRA text2image fine-tuning - fishtanker/sd-gugg-model-lora-sdxl
These are LoRA adaption weights for stabilityai/stable-diffusion-xl-base-1.0. The weights were fine-tuned on the gugg dataset. You can find some example images in the following.
LoRA for the text encoder was enabled: False.
Special VAE used for training: madebyollin/sdxl-vae-fp16-fix.
## Intended uses & limitations
#### How to use
```python
# TODO: add an example code snippet for running this diffusion pipeline
```
#### Limitations and bias
[TODO: provide examples of latent issues and potential remediations]
## Training details
[TODO: describe the data used to train the model] |
Hemg/my_awesome_qa_model | Hemg | 2024-05-09T09:26:58Z | 125 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"distilbert",
"question-answering",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:distilbert/distilbert-base-uncased",
"base_model:finetune:distilbert/distilbert-base-uncased",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | question-answering | 2024-05-09T09:19:33Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: distilbert-base-uncased
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
model-index:
- name: my_awesome_qa_model
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# my_awesome_qa_model
This model is a fine-tuned version of [distilbert-base-uncased](https://huggingface.co/distilbert-base-uncased) on an unknown dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 2.0850
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 2e-05
- train_batch_size: 32
- eval_batch_size: 32
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- num_epochs: 3
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|
| No log | 1.0 | 125 | 2.8407 |
| No log | 2.0 | 250 | 2.1922 |
| No log | 3.0 | 375 | 2.0850 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.39.3
- Pytorch 2.1.2
- Datasets 2.18.0
- Tokenizers 0.15.2
|
davideaguglia/PPO-LunarLander-v2-hyperparams | davideaguglia | 2024-05-09T09:25:49Z | 0 | 0 | stable-baselines3 | [
"stable-baselines3",
"LunarLander-v2",
"deep-reinforcement-learning",
"reinforcement-learning",
"model-index",
"region:us"
] | reinforcement-learning | 2024-05-09T09:25:31Z | ---
library_name: stable-baselines3
tags:
- LunarLander-v2
- deep-reinforcement-learning
- reinforcement-learning
- stable-baselines3
model-index:
- name: PPO
results:
- task:
type: reinforcement-learning
name: reinforcement-learning
dataset:
name: LunarLander-v2
type: LunarLander-v2
metrics:
- type: mean_reward
value: 37.72 +/- 118.31
name: mean_reward
verified: false
---
# **PPO** Agent playing **LunarLander-v2**
This is a trained model of a **PPO** agent playing **LunarLander-v2**
using the [stable-baselines3 library](https://github.com/DLR-RM/stable-baselines3).
## Usage (with Stable-baselines3)
TODO: Add your code
```python
from stable_baselines3 import ...
from huggingface_sb3 import load_from_hub
...
```
|
WSTR/name | WSTR | 2024-05-09T09:24:28Z | 109 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"albert",
"text-classification",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:ai4bharat/indic-bert",
"base_model:finetune:ai4bharat/indic-bert",
"license:mit",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-classification | 2024-05-09T08:50:48Z | ---
license: mit
base_model: ai4bharat/indic-bert
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
metrics:
- accuracy
model-index:
- name: name
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# name
This model is a fine-tuned version of [ai4bharat/indic-bert](https://huggingface.co/ai4bharat/indic-bert) on an unknown dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.6931
- Accuracy: 0.5025
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 2e-05
- train_batch_size: 16
- eval_batch_size: 16
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- num_epochs: 2
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Accuracy |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|:--------:|
| No log | 1.0 | 50 | 0.6931 | 0.5025 |
| No log | 2.0 | 100 | 0.6931 | 0.5025 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.1
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2 | bartowski | 2024-05-09T09:22:38Z | 0 | 1 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"llama",
"trl",
"sft",
"text-generation",
"en",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T09:22:37Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- llama
- trl
- sft
base_model: Replete-AI/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-V2
quantized_by: bartowski
pipeline_tag: text-generation
---
## Exllama v2 Quantizations of Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2
Using <a href="https://github.com/turboderp/exllamav2/releases/tag/v0.0.20">turboderp's ExLlamaV2 v0.0.20</a> for quantization.
<b>The "main" branch only contains the measurement.json, download one of the other branches for the model (see below)</b>
Each branch contains an individual bits per weight, with the main one containing only the meaurement.json for further conversions.
Conversion was done using the default calibration dataset.
Default arguments used except when the bits per weight is above 6.0, at that point the lm_head layer is quantized at 8 bits per weight instead of the default 6.
Original model: https://huggingface.co/rombodawg/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2
<a href="https://huggingface.co/bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2/tree/8_0">8.0 bits per weight</a>
<a href="https://huggingface.co/bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2/tree/6_5">6.5 bits per weight</a>
<a href="https://huggingface.co/bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2/tree/5_0">5.0 bits per weight</a>
<a href="https://huggingface.co/bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2/tree/4_25">4.25 bits per weight</a>
<a href="https://huggingface.co/bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2/tree/3_5">3.5 bits per weight</a>
## Download instructions
With git:
```shell
git clone --single-branch --branch 6_5 https://huggingface.co/bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2
```
With huggingface hub (credit to TheBloke for instructions):
```shell
pip3 install huggingface-hub
```
To download the `main` (only useful if you only care about measurement.json) branch to a folder called `Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2`:
```shell
mkdir Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2
huggingface-cli download bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2 --local-dir Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2 --local-dir-use-symlinks False
```
To download from a different branch, add the `--revision` parameter:
Linux:
```shell
mkdir Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2-6_5
huggingface-cli download bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2 --revision 6_5 --local-dir Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2-6_5 --local-dir-use-symlinks False
```
Windows (which apparently doesn't like _ in folders sometimes?):
```shell
mkdir Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2-6.5
huggingface-cli download bartowski/Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2 --revision 6_5 --local-dir Llama-3-11.5B-Instruct-Coder-v2-exl2-6.5 --local-dir-use-symlinks False
```
|
BaHuy1521/llama3-unsloth-llm | BaHuy1521 | 2024-05-09T09:22:31Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"unsloth",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-06T16:43:16Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags:
- unsloth
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed] |
duyntnet/NexusRaven-V2-13B-imatrix-GGUF | duyntnet | 2024-05-09T09:17:24Z | 68 | 2 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"gguf",
"imatrix",
"NexusRaven-V2-13B",
"text-generation",
"en",
"license:other",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T04:48:16Z | ---
license: other
language:
- en
pipeline_tag: text-generation
inference: false
tags:
- transformers
- gguf
- imatrix
- NexusRaven-V2-13B
---
Quantizations of https://huggingface.co/Nexusflow/NexusRaven-V2-13B
# From original readme
### Quickstart
You can run the model on a GPU using the following code.
```python
# Please `pip install transformers accelerate`
from transformers import pipeline
pipeline = pipeline(
"text-generation",
model="Nexusflow/NexusRaven-V2-13B",
torch_dtype="auto",
device_map="auto",
)
prompt_template = \
'''
Function:
def get_weather_data(coordinates):
"""
Fetches weather data from the Open-Meteo API for the given latitude and longitude.
Args:
coordinates (tuple): The latitude of the location.
Returns:
float: The current temperature in the coordinates you've asked for
"""
Function:
def get_coordinates_from_city(city_name):
"""
Fetches the latitude and longitude of a given city name using the Maps.co Geocoding API.
Args:
city_name (str): The name of the city.
Returns:
tuple: The latitude and longitude of the city.
"""
User Query: {query}<human_end>
'''
prompt = prompt_template.format(query="What's the weather like in Seattle right now?")
result = pipeline(prompt, max_new_tokens=2048, return_full_text=False, do_sample=False, temperature=0.001)[0]["generated_text"]
print (result)
```
This should generate the following:
```
Call: get_weather_data(coordinates=get_coordinates_from_city(city_name='Seattle'))<bot_end>
Thought: The function call `get_weather_data(coordinates=get_coordinates_from_city(city_name='Seattle'))` answers the question "What's the weather like in Seattle right now?" by following these steps:
1. `get_coordinates_from_city(city_name='Seattle')`: This function call fetches the latitude and longitude of the city "Seattle" using the Maps.co Geocoding API.
2. `get_weather_data(coordinates=...)`: This function call fetches the current weather data for the coordinates returned by the previous function call.
Therefore, the function call `get_weather_data(coordinates=get_coordinates_from_city(city_name='Seattle'))` answers the question "What's the weather like in Seattle right now?" by first fetching the coordinates of the city "Seattle" and then fetching the current weather data for those coordinates.
```
If you would like to prevent the generation of the explanation of the function call (for example, to save on inference tokens), please set a stopping criteria of \<bot_end\>.
Please follow this prompting template to maximize the performance of RavenV2.
### Using with OpenAI FC Schematics
[If you currently have a workflow that is built around OpenAI's function calling and you want to try NexusRaven-V2, we have a package that helps you drop in NexusRaven-V2.](https://github.com/nexusflowai/nexusraven-pip)
### Using With LangChain
We've also included a [small demo for using Raven with langchain](langdemo.py)! |
Kandreowathreo/Zoni_Model | Kandreowathreo | 2024-05-09T09:16:07Z | 0 | 0 | adapter-transformers | [
"adapter-transformers",
"finance",
"biology",
"music",
"art",
"robotics",
"aa",
"dataset:HuggingFaceFW/fineweb",
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | robotics | 2024-05-09T09:13:27Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
datasets:
- HuggingFaceFW/fineweb
language:
- aa
metrics:
- accuracy
library_name: adapter-transformers
pipeline_tag: robotics
tags:
- finance
- biology
- music
- art
--- |
Niggendar/swamponyxl_v1 | Niggendar | 2024-05-09T09:10:04Z | 78 | 0 | diffusers | [
"diffusers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"diffusers:StableDiffusionXLPipeline",
"region:us"
] | text-to-image | 2024-05-09T08:58:54Z | ---
library_name: diffusers
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🧨 diffusers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed]
|
beomi/Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview | beomi | 2024-05-09T09:07:14Z | 658 | 22 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"facebook",
"meta",
"pytorch",
"llama-3",
"llama-3-ko",
"conversational",
"en",
"ko",
"arxiv:2310.04799",
"license:cc-by-nc-sa-4.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-01T14:39:09Z | ---
language:
- en
- ko
license: cc-by-nc-sa-4.0
tags:
- facebook
- meta
- pytorch
- llama
- llama-3
- llama-3-ko
pipeline_tag: text-generation
license_name: llama3
license_link: LICENSE
---
## Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview
> Update @ 2024.05.01: Pre-Release [Llama-3-KoEn-8B model](https://huggingface.co/beomi/Llama-3-KoEn-8B-preview) & [Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview](https://huggingface.co/beomi/Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview)
## Model Details
**Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview**
Llama-3-KoEn-8B model is continued pretrained language model based on Llama-3-8B.
The train was done on TPUv4-256, with the warm support from TRC program by Google.
With applying the idea from [Chat Vector paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.04799),
I released Instruction model named [Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview](https://huggingface.co/beomi/Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview).
Since it is NOT finetuned with any Korean instruction set(indeed `preview`), but it would be great starting point for creating new Chat/Instruct models.
**Sample usage**
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForCausalLM
import torch
model_id = "beomi/Llama-3-KoEn-8B-Instruct-preview"
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_id)
model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained(
model_id,
torch_dtype="auto",
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "친절한 챗봇으로서 상대방의 요청에 최대한 자세하고 친절하게 답하자. 모든 대답은 한국어(Korean)으로 대답해줘."},
{"role": "user", "content": "피보나치 수열이 뭐야? 그리고 피보나치 수열에 대해 파이썬 코드를 짜줘볼래?"},
]
input_ids = tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
add_generation_prompt=True,
return_tensors="pt"
).to(model.device)
terminators = [
tokenizer.eos_token_id,
tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = model.generate(
input_ids,
max_new_tokens=512,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=1,
top_p=0.9,
)
response = outputs[0][input_ids.shape[-1]:]
print(tokenizer.decode(response, skip_special_tokens=True))
```
**Sample Output**
피보나치 수열은 이탈리아 수학자 레오나르도 피보나치의 이름을 따서 유래된 수열입니다. 피보나치 수열은 특정 조건에 따라 얻어지는 등차수열로, 다음 수를 구하는 단순한 규칙에 의해 생성되는 수열입니다.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,... (등차 수열)
이러한 수열은 자연 세계에도 많이 발견됩니다. 예를 들어, 새싹이 자라는 방식, 달걀이 부화되는 횟수, 코끼리의 생장 등이 피보나치 수열을 따르기 때문입니다. 🌱🦆🐮
지금부터는 파이썬 코드를 작성해 볼까요? 😊
먼저, 파이썬 코드를 작성하기 위해 필요한 모듈은 없습니다. 저희는 피보나치 수열을 생성하는 알고리즘을 작성할 것입니다.
1. 파이썬 코드 생성
다음은 피보나치 수열을 생성하는 코드입니다. 이 코드는 `while` 루프를 사용하여 피보나치 수열을 생성합니다.
```python
def fib(n):
if n <= 1:
return n
a, b = 0, 1
for _ in range(2, n+1):
a, b = b, a + b
return b
n = int(input("피보나치 수열을 얼마나 생성할지 입력하세요: "))
for i in range(n):
print(fib(i+1))
```
2. 코드 설명
위 코드는 `fib(n)` 함수를 정의합니다. 이 함수는 `n`번째 피보나치 수를 반환합니다.
`fib(n)` 함수는 `if` 조건문을 사용하여 `n`이 0 또는 1일 경우 해당 값은 즉시 반환합니다.
`a, b = 0, 1`은 피보나치 수열의 초기 값을 설정합니다. `a`는 `0`을, `b`는 `1`을 할당합니다.
`for` 루프는 `range(2, n+1)`에서 생성되는 반복을 수행합니다. 이 반복은 `a, b = b, a + b`를 수행하여 피보나치 수열을 생성합니다.
`print(fib(i+1))`는 `fib(n)` 함수 호출 결과를 출력합니다.
3. 코드 실행
위 코드를 실행하기 위해 파이썬 인터프레터에서 다음과 같이 실행할 수 있습니다.
```python
$ python fib.py
피보나치 수열을 얼마나 생성할지 입력하세요: 10
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
55
```
위 코드를 실행하면, 사용자는 `피보나치 수열을 얼마나 생성할지 입력하세요:`를 입력할 수 있습니다. 이 입력은 `n`에 할당됩니다. `n`은 코드가 피보나치 수열을 생성하는 횟수를 결정하는 변수입니다. 사용자는 이 횟수를 입력하여 피보나치 수열을 생성할 수 있습니다.
이상 파이썬 코드를 작성하고 실행하는 방법을 설명했습니다. 😊
### More samples
> I used same system prompt, but you could change on your own.
```python
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "친절한 챗봇으로서 상대방의 요청에 최대한 자세하고 친절하게 답하자. 모든 대답은 한국어(Korean)으로 대답해줘."},
{"role": "user", "content": "한국의 제헌 헌법에 대해서 자세히 설명해주세요."},
]
---
대한민국 헌법은 1948년 7월 17일 제정된 이래 현재까지 대한민국의 기본법인 국가의 기본질서와 국가기관의 권한, 국민의 권리·의무, 통치조직, 통치방법 등을 규정하는 법률입니다. 헌법은 대한민국의 최고법령으로, 일반법상 모든 법률의 근거가 됩니다. 또한 헌법은 1987년 제정된 제6공화국 헌법부터는 '민주공화국'을 기본질서로 규정하고 있습니다.
** 주요 내용 **
1. 기본질서 : 민주공화국, 통일조국의 원칙, 인권의 보장
2. 국민의 권리 : 신체의 자유, 기본적 인권, 재산권, 참정권
3. 국가기관 : 대통령, 국무총리, 국회, 대법원, 헌법재판소, 검찰
4. 통치조직 : 행정부, 입법부, 사법부의 분리
5. 통치방법 : 민주주의(국민의 주권에 의하여 국민으로부터 위임받은 권력 행사), 법치주의(법률에 의하여 통치)
** 주요 조항 **
1. 제1조 : 대한민국은 민주공화국임을 천명
2. 제2조 : 민주공화국의 주권은 국민에게 있으며, 모든 권력은 국민으로부터 나온다
3. 제10조 : 모든 국민은 행복을 추구할 권리를 가진다
4. 제13조 : 모든 국민은 주거의 자유를 갖는다
5. 제25조 : 국가는 재해를 방지하고 그에 대처하는 시책을 시행하여야 한다
6. 제64조 : 대통령은 법률을 공포하고, 국무총리와 국무위원을 임명한다
7. 제111조 : 대법원은 최종적인 법률심판을 행하고, 헌법재판소는 헌법에 위반되는지 여부를 결정
** 헌법의 효력 **
헌법은 대한민국의 기본법률이므로 모든 국민은 헌법에 따라야 합니다. 또한 헌법은 변경하려면 헌법개정안을 제안하고, 이를 국민투표에 붙여야 하며, 이를 통과하면 새 헌법을 제정하게 됩니다. (제130조)
이상, 대한민국 헌법의 주요 내용과 조항, 효력을 설명하였습니다. 한국 헌법은 민주공화국의 기본질서를 중시하고, 기본권을 보호할 뿐만 아니라, 통치조직의 분리, 법치주의, 민주주의를 근간으로 합니다. 🇰🇷
```
```python
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "친절한 챗봇으로서 상대방의 요청에 최대한 자세하고 친절하게 답하자. 모든 대답은 한국어(Korean)으로 대답해줘."},
{"role": "user", "content": "이순신 장군에 대해 설명해줘."},
]
---
이순신 장군은 조선의 문신, 무신, 해군의 영웅으로 1592년부터 1598년까지 임진왜란과 정유재란 동안 해군으로서 활약했습니다. 그는 1591년 전라좌도 수군절도사가 되어 선제공격 전통을 이어받은 바, '신속성'과 '신용', '도탄전' 등의 병법을 도입하여 조선 수군을 개편했습니다. 이순신 장군의 가장 큰 업적으로는 두 가지를 꼽을 수 있습니다. 첫 번째는 '한산도 대첩'입니다. 1592년 7월 8일, 이순신 장군은 이끄는 조선 수군 13척이 왜군 133척에 맞서 13척의 배로는 불가능한 전쟁을 벌이게 됩니다. 이때 이순신 장군은 '진퇴유곡'의 전술을 사용하여 13척의 배를 133척의 배와 싸워 승리를 거두었습니다. 두 번째는 '노량해전'입니다. 1598년 11월 14일, 이순신 장군은 노량에서 12척의 배로 330척의 배를 이끄는 와키자카 야스하루와 싸우게 됩니다. 이때 이순신 장군의 배에 명중된 총알이 1발이었고, 12척의 배가 고전을 면치 못했지만, 이순신 장군은 끝까지 싸워 2명을 제외하고는 전원 전사하게 됩니다. 이순신 장군의 전투를 비롯하여 그의 업적은 조선 수군의 전투 승리를 이끌었으며, 그의 이름은 한국의 국보 제76호로 등재되어 있습니다. 이순신 장군의 업적과 정신은 한국 역사와 문화에 지대한 영향을 끼쳤습니다.
```
```python
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "친절한 챗봇으로서 상대방의 요청에 최대한 자세하고 친절하게 답하자. 모든 대답은 한국어(Korean)으로 대답해줘."},
{"role": "user", "content": "독도와 다케시마의 차이가 뭐야?"},
]
---
! `한국의 고유영토`와 `일본의 영유권 과장` 차이! 🌊
일본이 주장하는 `다케시마(竹島)`는, 실제로는 '울릉도' 서쪽 약 87km 지점에 있는 '독도(獨島)'를 가리킵니다. 한국이 역사적으로부터 지배하고 관리해온 것은 물론, 유네스코 세계유산으로 등재된 `대한민국의 영토`이지요. 😎
한편, 독도는 한국의 고유 이름으로, `울릉도`와 함께 `삼국사기`에 처음 기재된 `대한민국의 고유 섬`입니다. 1886년 일본이 '다케시마'라고 명명한 이래, 공식적으로 `일본 고유 섬`으로 주장하고 있지만, 이는 `역사 왜곡`입니다! ⚠️
따라서, 세계적으로 인정받는 국가의 `영토`는 한국의 `독도`가 맞는 것이지요! 🔥 `울릉도`도 `독도`도 한국의 고유 영토에 속한 섬들이랍니다! 💕
혹시 더 궁금한 사실이 있으면 말씀해주세요! 🤔
```
```python
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "친절한 챗봇으로서 상대방의 요청에 최대한 자세하고 친절하게 답하자. 모든 대답은 한국어(Korean)으로 대답해줘."},
{"role": "user", "content": "세종대왕의 집현전 맥북 던짐 사건에 대해서 알고 있어?"},
]
---
아주 흥미로운 사건입니다. 세종대왕이 집현전에서 맥북을 던졌다는 이야기는 없습니다. 실제로 세종대왕은 1418년 1월 9일 집현전에서 26명의 문신과 함께 새로운 훈민정음 반포를 위해 간자체의 글씨를 사용하는 것을 반대한 홍윤성 등의 무리와의 논쟁을 벌였습니다. 당시 세종대왕은 이들의 주장을 단호히 거부했습니다. 이 사건은 '집현전 논박 사건'으로 알려져 있습니다. 맥북과 관련된 일이 아니라는 것이죠. 맥북은 2006년 애플이 출시한 노트북의 브랜드명입니다. 세종대왕이 살았던 시기는 1418년에서 1450년까지입니다. 맥북은 훨씬 뒤의 일입니다. 😅
```
```python
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "친절한 챗봇으로서 상대방의 요청에 최대한 자세하고 친절하게 답하자. 모든 대답은 한국어(Korean)으로 대답해줘."},
{"role": "user", "content": "나는 오늘 사과 5개를 갖고있어. 그리고 어제 나는 사과 2개를 먹었지. 내가 지금 가진 사과는 몇 개지?"},
]
---
👀 당신은 오늘 5개의 사과를 갖고 있습니다. 그리고 어제 2개를 먹었다고 하셨으니, 오늘 현재 당신이 갖고 있는 사과는 5개에서 2개를 뺀 3개입니다! 😊
```
|
MStefan/unsloth_llama3_8b_finetune | MStefan | 2024-05-09T09:05:39Z | 3 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"pytorch",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"trl",
"sft",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:finetune:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T08:57:50Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- llama
- trl
- sft
base_model: unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** MStefan
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
This llama model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
JoshEe00/distilhubert-finetuned-gtzan | JoshEe00 | 2024-05-09T09:05:04Z | 161 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"hubert",
"audio-classification",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:marsyas/gtzan",
"base_model:ntu-spml/distilhubert",
"base_model:finetune:ntu-spml/distilhubert",
"license:apache-2.0",
"model-index",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | audio-classification | 2024-05-08T04:47:19Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: ntu-spml/distilhubert
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- marsyas/gtzan
metrics:
- accuracy
model-index:
- name: distilhubert-finetuned-gtzan
results:
- task:
name: Audio Classification
type: audio-classification
dataset:
name: GTZAN
type: marsyas/gtzan
config: all
split: train
args: all
metrics:
- name: Accuracy
type: accuracy
value: 0.85
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# distilhubert-finetuned-gtzan
This model is a fine-tuned version of [ntu-spml/distilhubert](https://huggingface.co/ntu-spml/distilhubert) on the GTZAN dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.5424
- Accuracy: 0.85
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 5e-05
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.1
- num_epochs: 10
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Accuracy |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|:--------:|
| 1.8717 | 1.0 | 113 | 1.8361 | 0.51 |
| 1.1904 | 2.0 | 226 | 1.2066 | 0.68 |
| 1.0318 | 3.0 | 339 | 0.9901 | 0.75 |
| 0.7158 | 4.0 | 452 | 0.8814 | 0.74 |
| 0.4286 | 5.0 | 565 | 0.6483 | 0.83 |
| 0.355 | 6.0 | 678 | 0.5949 | 0.82 |
| 0.2753 | 7.0 | 791 | 0.5007 | 0.85 |
| 0.1318 | 8.0 | 904 | 0.6292 | 0.82 |
| 0.1558 | 9.0 | 1017 | 0.5098 | 0.86 |
| 0.0797 | 10.0 | 1130 | 0.5424 | 0.85 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.38.2
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.15.2
|
Aspik101/llama10 | Aspik101 | 2024-05-09T09:03:21Z | 4 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-04-21T10:34:56Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
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- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
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[More Information Needed]
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<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
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[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
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<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
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<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
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stablediffusionapi/animalhuman | stablediffusionapi | 2024-05-09T09:00:52Z | 29 | 0 | diffusers | [
"diffusers",
"modelslab.com",
"stable-diffusion-api",
"text-to-image",
"ultra-realistic",
"license:creativeml-openrail-m",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"diffusers:StableDiffusionPipeline",
"region:us"
] | text-to-image | 2024-05-09T08:58:44Z | ---
license: creativeml-openrail-m
tags:
- modelslab.com
- stable-diffusion-api
- text-to-image
- ultra-realistic
pinned: true
---
# animal_human API Inference
## Get API Key
Get API key from [ModelsLab API](http://modelslab.com), No Payment needed.
Replace Key in below code, change **model_id** to "animalhuman"
Coding in PHP/Node/Java etc? Have a look at docs for more code examples: [View docs](https://modelslab.com/docs)
Try model for free: [Generate Images](https://modelslab.com/models/animalhuman)
Model link: [View model](https://modelslab.com/models/animalhuman)
View all models: [View Models](https://modelslab.com/models)
import requests
import json
url = "https://modelslab.com/api/v6/images/text2img"
payload = json.dumps({
"key": "your_api_key",
"model_id": "animalhuman",
"prompt": "ultra realistic close up portrait ((beautiful pale cyberpunk female with heavy black eyeliner)), blue eyes, shaved side haircut, hyper detail, cinematic lighting, magic neon, dark red city, Canon EOS R3, nikon, f/1.4, ISO 200, 1/160s, 8K, RAW, unedited, symmetrical balance, in-frame, 8K",
"negative_prompt": "painting, extra fingers, mutated hands, poorly drawn hands, poorly drawn face, deformed, ugly, blurry, bad anatomy, bad proportions, extra limbs, cloned face, skinny, glitchy, double torso, extra arms, extra hands, mangled fingers, missing lips, ugly face, distorted face, extra legs, anime",
"width": "512",
"height": "512",
"samples": "1",
"num_inference_steps": "30",
"safety_checker": "no",
"enhance_prompt": "yes",
"seed": None,
"guidance_scale": 7.5,
"multi_lingual": "no",
"panorama": "no",
"self_attention": "no",
"upscale": "no",
"embeddings": "embeddings_model_id",
"lora": "lora_model_id",
"webhook": None,
"track_id": None
})
headers = {
'Content-Type': 'application/json'
}
response = requests.request("POST", url, headers=headers, data=payload)
print(response.text)
> Use this coupon code to get 25% off **DMGG0RBN** |
blockblockblock/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-Gradient-1048k-bpw2.25-exl2 | blockblockblock | 2024-05-09T08:57:54Z | 8 | 1 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"meta",
"llama-3",
"conversational",
"en",
"arxiv:2309.00071",
"arxiv:2402.08268",
"arxiv:2305.14233",
"license:llama3",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"exl2",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-04-30T00:40:35Z | ---
language:
- en
pipeline_tag: text-generation
tags:
- meta
- llama-3
license: llama3
---
<a href="https://www.gradient.ai" target="_blank"><img src="https://cdn-uploads.huggingface.co/production/uploads/655bb613e8a8971e89944f3e/TSa3V8YpoVagnTYgxiLaO.png" width="200"/></a>
# Llama-3 8B Gradient Instruct 1048k
Join our custom agent and long context (262k-1M+) waitlist: https://forms.gle/L6TDY7dozx8TuoUv7
Gradient incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business. If you're looking to build custom AI models or agents, email us a message [email protected].
For more info see our [End-to-end development service for custom LLMs and AI systems](https://gradient.ai/development-lab)
[Join our Discord](https://discord.com/invite/2QVy2qt2mf)
This model extends LLama-3 8B's context length from 8k to > 1040K, developed by Gradient, sponsored by compute from [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai). It demonstrates that SOTA LLMs can learn to operate on long context with minimal training by appropriately adjusting RoPE theta. We trained on 830M tokens for this stage, and 1.4B tokens total for all stages, which is < 0.01% of Llama-3's original pre-training data.
**Update (5/3): We further fine-tuned our model to strengthen its assistant-like chat ability as well. The NIAH result is updated.**
**Approach:**
- [meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct](https://huggingface.co/meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct) as the base
- NTK-aware interpolation [1] to initialize an optimal schedule for RoPE theta, followed by empirical RoPE theta optimization
- Progressive training on increasing context lengths, similar to [Large World Model](https://huggingface.co/LargeWorldModel) [2] (See details below)
**Infra:**
We build on top of the EasyContext Blockwise RingAttention library [3] to scalably and efficiently train on contexts up to 1048k tokens on [Crusoe Energy](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai) high performance L40S cluster.
Notably, we layered parallelism on top of Ring Attention with a custom network topology to better leverage large GPU clusters in the face of network bottlenecks from passing many KV blocks between devices. This gave us a 33x speedup in model training (compare 524k and 1048k to 65k and 262k in the table below).
**Data:**
For training data, we generate long contexts by augmenting [SlimPajama](https://huggingface.co/datasets/cerebras/SlimPajama-627B). We also fine-tune on a chat dataset based on UltraChat [4], following a similar recipe for data augmentation to [2].
**Progressive Training Details:**
| | 65K | 262K | 524k | 1048k |
|------------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|
| Initialize From | LLaMA-3 8B| 65K | 262K | 524k |
| Sequence Length 2^N | 16 | 18 | 19 | 20 |
| RoPE theta | 15.3 M | 207.1 M | 1.06B | 2.80B |
| Batch Size | 1 | 1 | 16 | 8 |
| Gradient Accumulation Steps | 32 | 16 | 1 | 1 |
| Steps | 30 | 24 | 50 | 50 |
| Total Tokens | 62914560 | 100663296 | 419430400 | 838860800 |
| Learning Rate | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 | 2.00E-05 |
| # GPUs | 8 | 32 | 512 | 512 |
| GPU Type | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S | NVIDIA L40S |
| Minutes to Train (Wall)| 202 | 555 | 61 | 87 |
**Evaluation:**
```
EVAL_MAX_CONTEXT_LENGTH=1040200
EVAL_MIN_CONTEXT_LENGTH=100
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=86675
EVAL_DEPTH_INTERVAL=0.2
EVAL_RND_NUMBER_DIGITS=8
HAYSTACK1:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=25
HAYSTACK2:
EVAL_CONTEXT_INTERVAL=173350
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=150000
HAYSTACK3:
EVAL_GENERATOR_TOKENS=925000
```
All boxes not pictured for Haystack 1 and 3 are 100% accurate. Haystacks 1,2 and 3 are further detailed in this [blog post](https://gradient.ai/blog/the-haystack-matters-for-niah-evals).
**Quants:**
- [GGUF by Crusoe](https://huggingface.co/crusoeai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-GGUF). Note that you need to add 128009 as [special token with llama.cpp](https://huggingface.co/gradientai/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-262k/discussions/13).
- [MLX-4bit](https://huggingface.co/mlx-community/Llama-3-8B-Instruct-1048k-4bit)
- [Ollama](https://ollama.com/library/llama3-gradient)
- vLLM docker image, recommended to load via `--max-model-len 32768`
- If you are interested in a hosted version, drop us a mail below.
## The Gradient AI Team
https://gradient.ai/
Gradient is accelerating AI transformation across industries. Our AI Foundry incorporates your data to deploy autonomous assistants that power critical operations across your business.
## Contact Us
Drop an email to [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected])
## References
[1] Peng, Bowen, et al. "Yarn: Efficient context window extension of large language models." arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.00071 (2023).
[2] Liu, Hao, et al. "World Model on Million-Length Video And Language With RingAttention." arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.08268 (2024).
[3] https://github.com/jzhang38/EasyContext
[4] Ning Ding, Yulin Chen, Bokai Xu, Yujia Qin, Zhi Zheng, Shengding Hu, Zhiyuan
Liu, Maosong Sun, and Bowen Zhou. Enhancing chat language models by scaling
high-quality instructional conversations. arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.14233, 2023.
----
# Base Model
## Model Details
Meta developed and released the Meta Llama 3 family of large language models (LLMs), a collection of pretrained and instruction tuned generative text models in 8 and 70B sizes. The Llama 3 instruction tuned models are optimized for dialogue use cases and outperform many of the available open source chat models on common industry benchmarks. Further, in developing these models, we took great care to optimize helpfulness and safety.
**Model developers** Meta
**Variations** Llama 3 comes in two sizes — 8B and 70B parameters — in pre-trained and instruction tuned variants.
**Input** Models input text only.
**Output** Models generate text and code only.
**Model Architecture** Llama 3 is an auto-regressive language model that uses an optimized transformer architecture. The tuned versions use supervised fine-tuning (SFT) and reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF) to align with human preferences for helpfulness and safety.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Training Data</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Params</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Context length</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>GQA</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Token count</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Knowledge cutoff</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" >Llama 3
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >A new mix of publicly available online data.
</td>
<td>8B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td rowspan="2" >15T+
</td>
<td>March, 2023
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>70B
</td>
<td>8k
</td>
<td>Yes
</td>
<td>December, 2023
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**Llama 3 family of models**. Token counts refer to pretraining data only. Both the 8 and 70B versions use Grouped-Query Attention (GQA) for improved inference scalability.
**Model Release Date** April 18, 2024.
**Status** This is a static model trained on an offline dataset. Future versions of the tuned models will be released as we improve model safety with community feedback.
**License** A custom commercial license is available at: [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/license)
Where to send questions or comments about the model Instructions on how to provide feedback or comments on the model can be found in the model [README](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3). For more technical information about generation parameters and recipes for how to use Llama 3 in applications, please go [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes).
## Intended Use
**Intended Use Cases** Llama 3 is intended for commercial and research use in English. Instruction tuned models are intended for assistant-like chat, whereas pretrained models can be adapted for a variety of natural language generation tasks.
**Out-of-scope** Use in any manner that violates applicable laws or regulations (including trade compliance laws). Use in any other way that is prohibited by the Acceptable Use Policy and Llama 3 Community License. Use in languages other than English**.
**Note: Developers may fine-tune Llama 3 models for languages beyond English provided they comply with the Llama 3 Community License and the Acceptable Use Policy.
## How to use
This repository contains two versions of Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct, for use with transformers and with the original `llama3` codebase.
### Use with transformers
You can run conversational inference using the Transformers pipeline abstraction, or by leveraging the Auto classes with the `generate()` function. Let's see examples of both.
#### Transformers pipeline
```python
import transformers
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
pipeline = transformers.pipeline(
"text-generation",
model=model_id,
model_kwargs={"torch_dtype": torch.bfloat16},
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
prompt = pipeline.tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
tokenize=False,
add_generation_prompt=True
)
terminators = [
pipeline.tokenizer.eos_token_id,
pipeline.tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = pipeline(
prompt,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
print(outputs[0]["generated_text"][len(prompt):])
```
#### Transformers AutoModelForCausalLM
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModelForCausalLM
import torch
model_id = "meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct"
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained(model_id)
model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained(
model_id,
torch_dtype=torch.bfloat16,
device_map="auto",
)
messages = [
{"role": "system", "content": "You are a pirate chatbot who always responds in pirate speak!"},
{"role": "user", "content": "Who are you?"},
]
input_ids = tokenizer.apply_chat_template(
messages,
add_generation_prompt=True,
return_tensors="pt"
).to(model.device)
terminators = [
tokenizer.eos_token_id,
tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids("<|eot_id|>")
]
outputs = model.generate(
input_ids,
max_new_tokens=256,
eos_token_id=terminators,
do_sample=True,
temperature=0.6,
top_p=0.9,
)
response = outputs[0][input_ids.shape[-1]:]
print(tokenizer.decode(response, skip_special_tokens=True))
```
### Use with `llama3`
Please, follow the instructions in the [repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3)
To download Original checkpoints, see the example command below leveraging `huggingface-cli`:
```
huggingface-cli download meta-llama/Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct --include "original/*" --local-dir Meta-Llama-3-8B-Instruct
```
For Hugging Face support, we recommend using transformers or TGI, but a similar command works.
## Hardware and Software
**Training Factors** We used custom training libraries, Meta's Research SuperCluster, and production clusters for pretraining. Fine-tuning, annotation, and evaluation were also performed on third-party cloud compute.
**Carbon Footprint Pretraining utilized a cumulative** 7.7M GPU hours of computation on hardware of type H100-80GB (TDP of 700W). Estimated total emissions were 2290 tCO2eq, 100% of which were offset by Meta’s sustainability program.
<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td><strong>Time (GPU hours)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Power Consumption (W)</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Carbon Emitted(tCO2eq)</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 8B
</td>
<td>1.3M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>390
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Llama 3 70B
</td>
<td>6.4M
</td>
<td>700
</td>
<td>1900
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Total
</td>
<td>7.7M
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>2290
</td>
</tr>
</table>
**CO2 emissions during pre-training**. Time: total GPU time required for training each model. Power Consumption: peak power capacity per GPU device for the GPUs used adjusted for power usage efficiency. 100% of the emissions are directly offset by Meta's sustainability program, and because we are openly releasing these models, the pretraining costs do not need to be incurred by others.
## Training Data
**Overview** Llama 3 was pretrained on over 15 trillion tokens of data from publicly available sources. The fine-tuning data includes publicly available instruction datasets, as well as over 10M human-annotated examples. Neither the pretraining nor the fine-tuning datasets include Meta user data.
**Data Freshness** The pretraining data has a cutoff of March 2023 for the 7B and December 2023 for the 70B models respectively.
## Benchmarks
In this section, we report the results for Llama 3 models on standard automatic benchmarks. For all the evaluations, we use our internal evaluations library. For details on the methodology see [here](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/eval_methodology.md).
### Base pretrained models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Category</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="6" >General
</td>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>66.6
</td>
<td>45.7
</td>
<td>53.8
</td>
<td>79.5
</td>
<td>69.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AGIEval English (3-5 shot)
</td>
<td>45.9
</td>
<td>28.8
</td>
<td>38.7
</td>
<td>63.0
</td>
<td>54.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CommonSenseQA (7-shot)
</td>
<td>72.6
</td>
<td>57.6
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>83.8
</td>
<td>78.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Winogrande (5-shot)
</td>
<td>76.1
</td>
<td>73.3
</td>
<td>75.4
</td>
<td>83.1
</td>
<td>81.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BIG-Bench Hard (3-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>61.1
</td>
<td>38.1
</td>
<td>47.0
</td>
<td>81.3
</td>
<td>65.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ARC-Challenge (25-shot)
</td>
<td>78.6
</td>
<td>53.7
</td>
<td>67.6
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>85.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Knowledge reasoning
</td>
<td>TriviaQA-Wiki (5-shot)
</td>
<td>78.5
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>89.7
</td>
<td>87.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="4" >Reading comprehension
</td>
<td>SQuAD (1-shot)
</td>
<td>76.4
</td>
<td>72.2
</td>
<td>72.1
</td>
<td>85.6
</td>
<td>82.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>QuAC (1-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>44.4
</td>
<td>39.6
</td>
<td>44.9
</td>
<td>51.1
</td>
<td>49.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>BoolQ (0-shot)
</td>
<td>75.7
</td>
<td>65.5
</td>
<td>66.9
</td>
<td>79.0
</td>
<td>73.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>DROP (3-shot, F1)
</td>
<td>58.4
</td>
<td>37.9
</td>
<td>49.8
</td>
<td>79.7
</td>
<td>70.2
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Instruction tuned models
<table>
<tr>
<td><strong>Benchmark</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 8B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 7B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 13B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 3 70B</strong>
</td>
<td><strong>Llama 2 70B</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MMLU (5-shot)
</td>
<td>68.4
</td>
<td>34.1
</td>
<td>47.8
</td>
<td>82.0
</td>
<td>52.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GPQA (0-shot)
</td>
<td>34.2
</td>
<td>21.7
</td>
<td>22.3
</td>
<td>39.5
</td>
<td>21.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>HumanEval (0-shot)
</td>
<td>62.2
</td>
<td>7.9
</td>
<td>14.0
</td>
<td>81.7
</td>
<td>25.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GSM-8K (8-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>79.6
</td>
<td>25.7
</td>
<td>77.4
</td>
<td>93.0
</td>
<td>57.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>MATH (4-shot, CoT)
</td>
<td>30.0
</td>
<td>3.8
</td>
<td>6.7
</td>
<td>50.4
</td>
<td>11.6
</td>
</tr>
</table>
### Responsibility & Safety
We believe that an open approach to AI leads to better, safer products, faster innovation, and a bigger overall market. We are committed to Responsible AI development and took a series of steps to limit misuse and harm and support the open source community.
Foundation models are widely capable technologies that are built to be used for a diverse range of applications. They are not designed to meet every developer preference on safety levels for all use cases, out-of-the-box, as those by their nature will differ across different applications.
Rather, responsible LLM-application deployment is achieved by implementing a series of safety best practices throughout the development of such applications, from the model pre-training, fine-tuning and the deployment of systems composed of safeguards to tailor the safety needs specifically to the use case and audience.
As part of the Llama 3 release, we updated our [Responsible Use Guide](https://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide/) to outline the steps and best practices for developers to implement model and system level safety for their application. We also provide a set of resources including [Meta Llama Guard 2](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) and [Code Shield](https://llama.meta.com/purple-llama/) safeguards. These tools have proven to drastically reduce residual risks of LLM Systems, while maintaining a high level of helpfulness. We encourage developers to tune and deploy these safeguards according to their needs and we provide a [reference implementation](https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-recipes/tree/main/recipes/responsible_ai) to get you started.
#### Llama 3-Instruct
As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, some trade-off between model helpfulness and model alignment is likely unavoidable. Developers should exercise discretion about how to weigh the benefits of alignment and helpfulness for their specific use case and audience. Developers should be mindful of residual risks when using Llama models and leverage additional safety tools as needed to reach the right safety bar for their use case.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Safety</span>
For our instruction tuned model, we conducted extensive red teaming exercises, performed adversarial evaluations and implemented safety mitigations techniques to lower residual risks. As with any Large Language Model, residual risks will likely remain and we recommend that developers assess these risks in the context of their use case. In parallel, we are working with the community to make AI safety benchmark standards transparent, rigorous and interpretable.
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">Refusals</span>
In addition to residual risks, we put a great emphasis on model refusals to benign prompts. Over-refusing not only can impact the user experience but could even be harmful in certain contexts as well. We’ve heard the feedback from the developer community and improved our fine tuning to ensure that Llama 3 is significantly less likely to falsely refuse to answer prompts than Llama 2.
We built internal benchmarks and developed mitigations to limit false refusals making Llama 3 our most helpful model to date.
#### Responsible release
In addition to responsible use considerations outlined above, we followed a rigorous process that requires us to take extra measures against misuse and critical risks before we make our release decision.
Misuse
If you access or use Llama 3, you agree to the Acceptable Use Policy. The most recent copy of this policy can be found at [https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/](https://llama.meta.com/llama3/use-policy/).
#### Critical risks
<span style="text-decoration:underline;">CBRNE</span> (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and high yield Explosives)
We have conducted a two fold assessment of the safety of the model in this area:
* Iterative testing during model training to assess the safety of responses related to CBRNE threats and other adversarial risks.
* Involving external CBRNE experts to conduct an uplift test assessing the ability of the model to accurately provide expert knowledge and reduce barriers to potential CBRNE misuse, by reference to what can be achieved using web search (without the model).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Cyber Security </span>
We have evaluated Llama 3 with CyberSecEval, Meta’s cybersecurity safety eval suite, measuring Llama 3’s propensity to suggest insecure code when used as a coding assistant, and Llama 3’s propensity to comply with requests to help carry out cyber attacks, where attacks are defined by the industry standard MITRE ATT&CK cyber attack ontology. On our insecure coding and cyber attacker helpfulness tests, Llama 3 behaved in the same range or safer than models of [equivalent coding capability](https://huggingface.co/spaces/facebook/CyberSecEval).
### <span style="text-decoration:underline;">Child Safety</span>
Child Safety risk assessments were conducted using a team of experts, to assess the model’s capability to produce outputs that could result in Child Safety risks and inform on any necessary and appropriate risk mitigations via fine tuning. We leveraged those expert red teaming sessions to expand the coverage of our evaluation benchmarks through Llama 3 model development. For Llama 3, we conducted new in-depth sessions using objective based methodologies to assess the model risks along multiple attack vectors. We also partnered with content specialists to perform red teaming exercises assessing potentially violating content while taking account of market specific nuances or experiences.
### Community
Generative AI safety requires expertise and tooling, and we believe in the strength of the open community to accelerate its progress. We are active members of open consortiums, including the AI Alliance, Partnership in AI and MLCommons, actively contributing to safety standardization and transparency. We encourage the community to adopt taxonomies like the MLCommons Proof of Concept evaluation to facilitate collaboration and transparency on safety and content evaluations. Our Purple Llama tools are open sourced for the community to use and widely distributed across ecosystem partners including cloud service providers. We encourage community contributions to our [Github repository](https://github.com/meta-llama/PurpleLlama).
Finally, we put in place a set of resources including an [output reporting mechanism](https://developers.facebook.com/llama_output_feedback) and [bug bounty program](https://www.facebook.com/whitehat) to continuously improve the Llama technology with the help of the community.
## Ethical Considerations and Limitations
The core values of Llama 3 are openness, inclusivity and helpfulness. It is meant to serve everyone, and to work for a wide range of use cases. It is thus designed to be accessible to people across many different backgrounds, experiences and perspectives. Llama 3 addresses users and their needs as they are, without insertion unnecessary judgment or normativity, while reflecting the understanding that even content that may appear problematic in some cases can serve valuable purposes in others. It respects the dignity and autonomy of all users, especially in terms of the values of free thought and expression that power innovation and progress.
But Llama 3 is a new technology, and like any new technology, there are risks associated with its use. Testing conducted to date has been in English, and has not covered, nor could it cover, all scenarios. For these reasons, as with all LLMs, Llama 3’s potential outputs cannot be predicted in advance, and the model may in some instances produce inaccurate, biased or other objectionable responses to user prompts. Therefore, before deploying any applications of Llama 3 models, developers should perform safety testing and tuning tailored to their specific applications of the model. As outlined in the Responsible Use Guide, we recommend incorporating [Purple Llama](https://github.com/facebookresearch/PurpleLlama) solutions into your workflows and specifically [Llama Guard](https://ai.meta.com/research/publications/llama-guard-llm-based-input-output-safeguard-for-human-ai-conversations/) which provides a base model to filter input and output prompts to layer system-level safety on top of model-level safety.
Please see the Responsible Use Guide available at [http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide](http://llama.meta.com/responsible-use-guide)
## Citation instructions
@article{llama3modelcard,
title={Llama 3 Model Card},
author={AI@Meta},
year={2024},
url = {https://github.com/meta-llama/llama3/blob/main/MODEL_CARD.md}
}
## Contributors
Aaditya Singh; Aaron Grattafiori; Abhimanyu Dubey; Abhinav Jauhri; Abhinav Pandey; Abhishek Kadian; Adam Kelsey; Adi Gangidi; Ahmad Al-Dahle; Ahuva Goldstand; Aiesha Letman; Ajay Menon; Akhil Mathur; Alan Schelten; Alex Vaughan; Amy Yang; Andrei Lupu; Andres Alvarado; Andrew Gallagher; Andrew Gu; Andrew Ho; Andrew Poulton; Andrew Ryan; Angela Fan; Ankit Ramchandani; Anthony Hartshorn; Archi Mitra; Archie Sravankumar; Artem Korenev; Arun Rao; Ashley Gabriel; Ashwin Bharambe; Assaf Eisenman; Aston Zhang; Aurelien Rodriguez; Austen Gregerson; Ava Spataru; Baptiste Roziere; Ben Maurer; Benjamin Leonhardi; Bernie Huang; Bhargavi Paranjape; Bing Liu; Binh Tang; Bobbie Chern; Brani Stojkovic; Brian Fuller; Catalina Mejia Arenas; Chao Zhou; Charlotte Caucheteux; Chaya Nayak; Ching-Hsiang Chu; Chloe Bi; Chris Cai; Chris Cox; Chris Marra; Chris McConnell; Christian Keller; Christoph Feichtenhofer; Christophe Touret; Chunyang Wu; Corinne Wong; Cristian Canton Ferrer; Damien Allonsius; Daniel Kreymer; Daniel Haziza; Daniel Li; Danielle Pintz; Danny Livshits; Danny Wyatt; David Adkins; David Esiobu; David Xu; Davide Testuggine; Delia David; Devi Parikh; Dhruv Choudhary; Dhruv Mahajan; Diana Liskovich; Diego Garcia-Olano; Diego Perino; Dieuwke Hupkes; Dingkang Wang; Dustin Holland; Egor Lakomkin; Elina Lobanova; Xiaoqing Ellen Tan; Emily Dinan; Eric Smith; Erik Brinkman; Esteban Arcaute; Filip Radenovic; Firat Ozgenel; Francesco Caggioni; Frank Seide; Frank Zhang; Gabriel Synnaeve; Gabriella Schwarz; Gabrielle Lee; Gada Badeer; Georgia Anderson; Graeme Nail; Gregoire Mialon; Guan Pang; Guillem Cucurell; Hailey Nguyen; Hannah Korevaar; Hannah Wang; Haroun Habeeb; Harrison Rudolph; Henry Aspegren; Hu Xu; Hugo Touvron; Iga Kozlowska; Igor Molybog; Igor Tufanov; Iliyan Zarov; Imanol Arrieta Ibarra; Irina-Elena Veliche; Isabel Kloumann; Ishan Misra; Ivan Evtimov; Jacob Xu; Jade Copet; Jake Weissman; Jan Geffert; Jana Vranes; Japhet Asher; Jason Park; Jay Mahadeokar; Jean-Baptiste Gaya; Jeet Shah; Jelmer van der Linde; Jennifer Chan; Jenny Hong; Jenya Lee; Jeremy Fu; Jeremy Teboul; Jianfeng Chi; Jianyu Huang; Jie Wang; Jiecao Yu; Joanna Bitton; Joe Spisak; Joelle Pineau; Jon Carvill; Jongsoo Park; Joseph Rocca; Joshua Johnstun; Junteng Jia; Kalyan Vasuden Alwala; Kam Hou U; Kate Plawiak; Kartikeya Upasani; Kaushik Veeraraghavan; Ke Li; Kenneth Heafield; Kevin Stone; Khalid El-Arini; Krithika Iyer; Kshitiz Malik; Kuenley Chiu; Kunal Bhalla; Kyle Huang; Lakshya Garg; Lauren Rantala-Yeary; Laurens van der Maaten; Lawrence Chen; Leandro Silva; Lee Bell; Lei Zhang; Liang Tan; Louis Martin; Lovish Madaan; Luca Wehrstedt; Lukas Blecher; Luke de Oliveira; Madeline Muzzi; Madian Khabsa; Manav Avlani; Mannat Singh; Manohar Paluri; Mark Zuckerberg; Marcin Kardas; Martynas Mankus; Mathew Oldham; Mathieu Rita; Matthew Lennie; Maya Pavlova; Meghan Keneally; Melanie Kambadur; Mihir Patel; Mikayel Samvelyan; Mike Clark; Mike Lewis; Min Si; Mitesh Kumar Singh; Mo Metanat; Mona Hassan; Naman Goyal; Narjes Torabi; Nicolas Usunier; Nikolay Bashlykov; Nikolay Bogoychev; Niladri Chatterji; Ning Dong; Oliver Aobo Yang; Olivier Duchenne; Onur Celebi; Parth Parekh; Patrick Alrassy; Paul Saab; Pavan Balaji; Pedro Rittner; Pengchuan Zhang; Pengwei Li; Petar Vasic; Peter Weng; Polina Zvyagina; Prajjwal Bhargava; Pratik Dubal; Praveen Krishnan; Punit Singh Koura; Qing He; Rachel Rodriguez; Ragavan Srinivasan; Rahul Mitra; Ramon Calderer; Raymond Li; Robert Stojnic; Roberta Raileanu; Robin Battey; Rocky Wang; Rohit Girdhar; Rohit Patel; Romain Sauvestre; Ronnie Polidoro; Roshan Sumbaly; Ross Taylor; Ruan Silva; Rui Hou; Rui Wang; Russ Howes; Ruty Rinott; Saghar Hosseini; Sai Jayesh Bondu; Samyak Datta; Sanjay Singh; Sara Chugh; Sargun Dhillon; Satadru Pan; Sean Bell; Sergey Edunov; Shaoliang Nie; Sharan Narang; Sharath Raparthy; Shaun Lindsay; Sheng Feng; Sheng Shen; Shenghao Lin; Shiva Shankar; Shruti Bhosale; Shun Zhang; Simon Vandenhende; Sinong Wang; Seohyun Sonia Kim; Soumya Batra; Sten Sootla; Steve Kehoe; Suchin Gururangan; Sumit Gupta; Sunny Virk; Sydney Borodinsky; Tamar Glaser; Tamar Herman; Tamara Best; Tara Fowler; Thomas Georgiou; Thomas Scialom; Tianhe Li; Todor Mihaylov; Tong Xiao; Ujjwal Karn; Vedanuj Goswami; Vibhor Gupta; Vignesh Ramanathan; Viktor Kerkez; Vinay Satish Kumar; Vincent Gonguet; Vish Vogeti; Vlad Poenaru; Vlad Tiberiu Mihailescu; Vladan Petrovic; Vladimir Ivanov; Wei Li; Weiwei Chu; Wenhan Xiong; Wenyin Fu; Wes Bouaziz; Whitney Meers; Will Constable; Xavier Martinet; Xiaojian Wu; Xinbo Gao; Xinfeng Xie; Xuchao Jia; Yaelle Goldschlag; Yann LeCun; Yashesh Gaur; Yasmine Babaei; Ye Qi; Yenda Li; Yi Wen; Yiwen Song; Youngjin Nam; Yuchen Hao; Yuchen Zhang; Yun Wang; Yuning Mao; Yuzi He; Zacharie Delpierre Coudert; Zachary DeVito; Zahra Hankir; Zhaoduo Wen; Zheng Yan; Zhengxing Chen; Zhenyu Yang; Zoe Papakipos |
tri03/tech-qa | tri03 | 2024-05-09T08:54:11Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T07:44:04Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
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## Environmental Impact
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- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
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edizpy/karar_ds_mini_tokenizer_0905_1 | edizpy | 2024-05-09T08:47:42Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:47:41Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
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- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
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## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
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[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
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[More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
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## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
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sally9805/bert-base-uncased-finetuned-news-1973-1974 | sally9805 | 2024-05-09T08:45:13Z | 8 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"fill-mask",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:google-bert/bert-base-uncased",
"base_model:finetune:google-bert/bert-base-uncased",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | fill-mask | 2024-05-09T07:49:08Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: bert-base-uncased
model-index:
- name: bert-base-uncased-finetuned-news-1973-1974
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# bert-base-uncased-finetuned-news-1973-1974
This model is a fine-tuned version of [bert-base-uncased](https://huggingface.co/bert-base-uncased) on the None dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 3.6707
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 2e-05
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- num_epochs: 3.0
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:-----:|:---------------:|
| 3.9808 | 1.0 | 8595 | 3.7872 |
| 3.8709 | 2.0 | 17190 | 3.7314 |
| 3.8976 | 3.0 | 25785 | 3.6824 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
EllieS/Temp-L1-SFT-L2-KTO | EllieS | 2024-05-09T08:39:58Z | 1 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"mistral",
"alignment-handbook",
"trl",
"dpo",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:EllieS/Temp-L2-DPO",
"base_model:alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full",
"base_model:adapter:alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full",
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T06:17:42Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
library_name: peft
tags:
- alignment-handbook
- trl
- dpo
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: alignment-handbook/zephyr-7b-sft-full
datasets:
- EllieS/Temp-L2-DPO
model-index:
- name: Temp-L1-SFT-L2-KTO
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# Temp-L1-SFT-L2-KTO
This model is a fine-tuned version of [EllieS/TempReason-L1](https://huggingface.co/EllieS/TempReason-L1) on the EllieS/Temp-L2-DPO dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.2213
- Rewards/chosen: 0.2579
- Rewards/rejected: -6.0725
- Rewards/accuracies: 1.0
- Rewards/margins: 6.3304
- Logps/rejected: -652.1185
- Logps/chosen: -0.1197
- Logits/rejected: -2.6590
- Logits/chosen: -2.5711
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 5e-06
- train_batch_size: 2
- eval_batch_size: 2
- seed: 42
- distributed_type: multi-GPU
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 2
- total_train_batch_size: 4
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.1
- num_epochs: 1
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Rewards/chosen | Rewards/rejected | Rewards/accuracies | Rewards/margins | Logps/rejected | Logps/chosen | Logits/rejected | Logits/chosen |
|:-------------:|:------:|:----:|:---------------:|:--------------:|:----------------:|:------------------:|:---------------:|:--------------:|:------------:|:---------------:|:-------------:|
| 0.2255 | 0.2497 | 1000 | 0.2230 | 0.2551 | -5.4032 | 1.0 | 5.6583 | -585.1871 | -0.3988 | -2.6372 | -2.5514 |
| 0.2252 | 0.4994 | 2000 | 0.2215 | 0.2576 | -5.9860 | 1.0 | 6.2436 | -643.4705 | -0.1526 | -2.6560 | -2.5690 |
| 0.2264 | 0.7492 | 3000 | 0.2213 | 0.2579 | -6.0565 | 1.0 | 6.3144 | -650.5204 | -0.1267 | -2.6590 | -2.5715 |
| 0.2262 | 0.9989 | 4000 | 0.2213 | 0.2579 | -6.0725 | 1.0 | 6.3304 | -652.1185 | -0.1197 | -2.6590 | -2.5711 |
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.7.1
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.1.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.18.0
- Tokenizers 0.19.1 |
vishruthnath/deepseek_exec_1024 | vishruthnath | 2024-05-09T08:39:21Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T08:34:46Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
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|
anashr/syne_tokenizer | anashr | 2024-05-09T08:29:35Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:29:34Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
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seungseop/EEVE-QLoRA-Finetuning-4bit_merged | seungseop | 2024-05-09T08:28:56Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T08:16:28Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
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cairunze/peft_lora_e5_semantic_search | cairunze | 2024-05-09T08:22:11Z | 162 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"feature-extraction",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | feature-extraction | 2024-05-09T07:57:00Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
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CarlosFersoft/GPBusiness0001_Q6 | CarlosFersoft | 2024-05-09T08:21:23Z | 2 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"gguf",
"llama",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:quantized:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:18:10Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- llama
- gguf
base_model: unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** CarlosFersoft
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
This llama model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
Systran/faster-distil-whisper-large-v2 | Systran | 2024-05-09T08:16:17Z | 10,688 | 17 | ctranslate2 | [
"ctranslate2",
"audio",
"automatic-speech-recognition",
"en",
"license:mit",
"region:us"
] | automatic-speech-recognition | 2024-01-19T03:20:59Z | ---
language:
- en
tags:
- audio
- automatic-speech-recognition
license: mit
library_name: ctranslate2
---
# Whisper distil-large-v2 model for CTranslate2
This repository contains the conversion of [distil-whisper/distil-large-v2](https://huggingface.co/distil-whisper/distil-large-v2) to the [CTranslate2](https://github.com/OpenNMT/CTranslate2) model format.
This model can be used in CTranslate2 or projects based on CTranslate2 such as [faster-whisper](https://github.com/systran/faster-whisper).
## Example
```python
from faster_whisper import WhisperModel
model = WhisperModel("distil-large-v2")
segments, info = model.transcribe("audio.mp3")
for segment in segments:
print("[%.2fs -> %.2fs] %s" % (segment.start, segment.end, segment.text))
```
## Conversion details
The original model was converted with the following command:
```
ct2-transformers-converter --model distil-whisper/distil-large-v2 --output_dir faster-distil-whisper-large-v2 \
--copy_files tokenizer.json preprocessor_config.json --quantization float16
```
Note that the model weights are saved in FP16. This type can be changed when the model is loaded using the [`compute_type` option in CTranslate2](https://opennmt.net/CTranslate2/quantization.html).
## More information
**For more information about the original model, see its [model card](https://huggingface.co/distil-whisper/distil-large-v2).** |
anashr/syne_fc | anashr | 2024-05-09T08:13:20Z | 7 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T08:08:10Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
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cj94/whisper-tiny-zh-tw | cj94 | 2024-05-09T08:13:14Z | 93 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"whisper",
"automatic-speech-recognition",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:common_voice_13_0",
"base_model:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"base_model:finetune:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"license:apache-2.0",
"model-index",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | automatic-speech-recognition | 2024-05-09T07:04:22Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- common_voice_13_0
metrics:
- wer
model-index:
- name: whisper-tiny-zh-tw
results:
- task:
name: Automatic Speech Recognition
type: automatic-speech-recognition
dataset:
name: common_voice_13_0
type: common_voice_13_0
config: zh-TW
split: test
args: zh-TW
metrics:
- name: Wer
type: wer
value: 61.165048543689316
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# whisper-tiny-zh-tw
This model is a fine-tuned version of [Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw](https://huggingface.co/Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw) on the common_voice_13_0 dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.5466
- Wer Ortho: 61.0
- Wer: 61.1650
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 1e-05
- train_batch_size: 4
- eval_batch_size: 4
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 4
- total_train_batch_size: 16
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: constant_with_warmup
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 50
- training_steps: 500
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Wer Ortho | Wer |
|:-------------:|:------:|:----:|:---------------:|:---------:|:-------:|
| 0.0084 | 0.6882 | 500 | 0.5466 | 61.0 | 61.1650 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.3.0+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
devkya/large-v2-no-bg-v1 | devkya | 2024-05-09T08:12:28Z | 0 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"pytorch",
"safetensors",
"whisper",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:audiofolder",
"base_model:openai/whisper-large-v2",
"base_model:adapter:openai/whisper-large-v2",
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-08T10:36:36Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
library_name: peft
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
base_model: openai/whisper-large-v2
datasets:
- audiofolder
model-index:
- name: large-v2-no-bg-v1
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wandb/assets/main/wandb-github-badge-28.svg" alt="Visualize in Weights & Biases" width="200" height="32"/>](https://wandb.ai/xpertinc/huggingface/runs/4pssklsm)
# large-v2-no-bg-v1
This model is a fine-tuned version of [openai/whisper-large-v2](https://huggingface.co/openai/whisper-large-v2) on the audiofolder dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.6263
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 1e-06
- train_batch_size: 16
- eval_batch_size: 16
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 2
- total_train_batch_size: 32
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- lr_scheduler_warmup_ratio: 0.01
- training_steps: 5000
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:---------:|:----:|:---------------:|
| 1.6361 | 142.8571 | 500 | 1.6697 |
| 1.257 | 285.7143 | 1000 | 1.2417 |
| 0.9481 | 428.5714 | 1500 | 0.8995 |
| 0.8397 | 571.4286 | 2000 | 0.8044 |
| 0.7741 | 714.2857 | 2500 | 0.7487 |
| 0.7336 | 857.1429 | 3000 | 0.7035 |
| 0.6932 | 1000.0 | 3500 | 0.6689 |
| 0.6626 | 1142.8571 | 4000 | 0.6449 |
| 0.6501 | 1285.7143 | 4500 | 0.6310 |
| 0.6413 | 1428.5714 | 5000 | 0.6263 |
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.10.0
- Transformers 4.41.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.2.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.0
- Tokenizers 0.19.1 |
CodeTriad/mistral_15000_dpo_t | CodeTriad | 2024-05-09T08:09:26Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"mistral",
"trl",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/mistral-7b-instruct-v0.2-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:finetune:unsloth/mistral-7b-instruct-v0.2-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:09:08Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- mistral
- trl
base_model: unsloth/mistral-7b-instruct-v0.2-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** CodeTriad
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/mistral-7b-instruct-v0.2-bnb-4bit
This mistral model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
KarlsonAV/bert-base-uncased-tripadvisor | KarlsonAV | 2024-05-09T08:07:57Z | 114 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"text-classification",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-classification | 2024-05-09T08:07:19Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed] |
Litzy619/O0508B1 | Litzy619 | 2024-05-09T08:04:02Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"safetensors",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:allenai/OLMo-1B",
"base_model:finetune:allenai/OLMo-1B",
"license:apache-2.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T07:00:43Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: allenai/OLMo-1B
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
model-index:
- name: O0508B1
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# O0508B1
This model is a fine-tuned version of [allenai/OLMo-1B](https://huggingface.co/allenai/OLMo-1B) on an unknown dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.0347
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 0.0003
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 16
- total_train_batch_size: 128
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: cosine_with_restarts
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 80
- num_epochs: 3
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|
| 6.4679 | 0.09 | 10 | 2.3771 |
| 0.7781 | 0.18 | 20 | 0.1824 |
| 0.1615 | 0.27 | 30 | 0.1619 |
| 0.154 | 0.36 | 40 | 0.1545 |
| 0.1511 | 0.45 | 50 | 0.1506 |
| 0.151 | 0.54 | 60 | 0.1510 |
| 0.1543 | 0.63 | 70 | 0.1512 |
| 0.1524 | 0.73 | 80 | 0.1628 |
| 0.151 | 0.82 | 90 | 0.1528 |
| 0.1512 | 0.91 | 100 | 0.1492 |
| 0.1574 | 1.0 | 110 | 0.1849 |
| 0.6437 | 1.09 | 120 | 0.1456 |
| 0.2499 | 1.18 | 130 | 0.1538 |
| 0.1802 | 1.27 | 140 | 0.1336 |
| 0.2043 | 1.36 | 150 | 0.1908 |
| 0.0991 | 1.45 | 160 | 0.0893 |
| 0.0939 | 1.54 | 170 | 0.0799 |
| 0.0957 | 1.63 | 180 | 0.0744 |
| 0.0638 | 1.72 | 190 | 0.0666 |
| 0.0656 | 1.81 | 200 | 0.2217 |
| 0.1415 | 1.9 | 210 | 0.0745 |
| 0.0655 | 1.99 | 220 | 0.0669 |
| 0.0682 | 2.08 | 230 | 0.0682 |
| 0.0575 | 2.18 | 240 | 0.0645 |
| 0.0532 | 2.27 | 250 | 0.0629 |
| 0.055 | 2.36 | 260 | 0.0591 |
| 0.0488 | 2.45 | 270 | 0.0504 |
| 0.0476 | 2.54 | 280 | 0.0440 |
| 0.0421 | 2.63 | 290 | 0.0480 |
| 0.0365 | 2.72 | 300 | 0.0381 |
| 0.0323 | 2.81 | 310 | 0.0364 |
| 0.029 | 2.9 | 320 | 0.0347 |
| 0.0322 | 2.99 | 330 | 0.0347 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.36.0.dev0
- Pytorch 2.1.2+cu121
- Datasets 2.14.6
- Tokenizers 0.14.0
|
2bytescorp/2b_llama2_7b_mt_ft_ko-en-ko_v0.2 | 2bytescorp | 2024-05-09T08:03:55Z | 680 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:02:57Z | ---
library_name: peft
---
## Training procedure
The following `bitsandbytes` quantization config was used during training:
- quant_method: bitsandbytes
- load_in_8bit: False
- load_in_4bit: True
- llm_int8_threshold: 6.0
- llm_int8_skip_modules: None
- llm_int8_enable_fp32_cpu_offload: False
- llm_int8_has_fp16_weight: False
- bnb_4bit_quant_type: nf4
- bnb_4bit_use_double_quant: False
- bnb_4bit_compute_dtype: float16
The following `bitsandbytes` quantization config was used during training:
- quant_method: bitsandbytes
- load_in_8bit: False
- load_in_4bit: True
- llm_int8_threshold: 6.0
- llm_int8_skip_modules: None
- llm_int8_enable_fp32_cpu_offload: False
- llm_int8_has_fp16_weight: False
- bnb_4bit_quant_type: nf4
- bnb_4bit_use_double_quant: False
- bnb_4bit_compute_dtype: float16
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.6.0.dev0
- PEFT 0.6.0.dev0
|
eunyounglee/EEVE-LLM2VEC-MNTP-STS-qa-2-adapter | eunyounglee | 2024-05-09T08:01:05Z | 11 | 0 | sentence-transformers | [
"sentence-transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"feature-extraction",
"sentence-similarity",
"transformers",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | sentence-similarity | 2024-05-09T07:55:46Z | ---
library_name: sentence-transformers
pipeline_tag: sentence-similarity
tags:
- sentence-transformers
- feature-extraction
- sentence-similarity
- transformers
---
# eunyounglee/EEVE-LLM2VEC-MNTP-STS-qa-2-adapter
This is a [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) model: It maps sentences & paragraphs to a 4096 dimensional dense vector space and can be used for tasks like clustering or semantic search.
<!--- Describe your model here -->
## Usage (Sentence-Transformers)
Using this model becomes easy when you have [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net) installed:
```
pip install -U sentence-transformers
```
Then you can use the model like this:
```python
from sentence_transformers import SentenceTransformer
sentences = ["This is an example sentence", "Each sentence is converted"]
model = SentenceTransformer('eunyounglee/EEVE-LLM2VEC-MNTP-STS-qa-2-adapter')
embeddings = model.encode(sentences)
print(embeddings)
```
## Usage (HuggingFace Transformers)
Without [sentence-transformers](https://www.SBERT.net), you can use the model like this: First, you pass your input through the transformer model, then you have to apply the right pooling-operation on-top of the contextualized word embeddings.
```python
from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModel
import torch
#Mean Pooling - Take attention mask into account for correct averaging
def mean_pooling(model_output, attention_mask):
token_embeddings = model_output[0] #First element of model_output contains all token embeddings
input_mask_expanded = attention_mask.unsqueeze(-1).expand(token_embeddings.size()).float()
return torch.sum(token_embeddings * input_mask_expanded, 1) / torch.clamp(input_mask_expanded.sum(1), min=1e-9)
# Sentences we want sentence embeddings for
sentences = ['This is an example sentence', 'Each sentence is converted']
# Load model from HuggingFace Hub
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained('eunyounglee/EEVE-LLM2VEC-MNTP-STS-qa-2-adapter')
model = AutoModel.from_pretrained('eunyounglee/EEVE-LLM2VEC-MNTP-STS-qa-2-adapter')
# Tokenize sentences
encoded_input = tokenizer(sentences, padding=True, truncation=True, return_tensors='pt')
# Compute token embeddings
with torch.no_grad():
model_output = model(**encoded_input)
# Perform pooling. In this case, mean pooling.
sentence_embeddings = mean_pooling(model_output, encoded_input['attention_mask'])
print("Sentence embeddings:")
print(sentence_embeddings)
```
## Evaluation Results
<!--- Describe how your model was evaluated -->
For an automated evaluation of this model, see the *Sentence Embeddings Benchmark*: [https://seb.sbert.net](https://seb.sbert.net?model_name=eunyounglee/EEVE-LLM2VEC-MNTP-STS-qa-2-adapter)
## Training
The model was trained with the parameters:
**DataLoader**:
`torch.utils.data.dataloader.DataLoader` of length 251 with parameters:
```
{'batch_size': 4, 'sampler': 'torch.utils.data.sampler.RandomSampler', 'batch_sampler': 'torch.utils.data.sampler.BatchSampler'}
```
**Loss**:
`sentence_transformers.losses.MultipleNegativesRankingLoss.MultipleNegativesRankingLoss` with parameters:
```
{'scale': 20.0, 'similarity_fct': 'cos_sim'}
```
Parameters of the fit()-Method:
```
{
"epochs": 1,
"evaluation_steps": 1000,
"evaluator": "sentence_transformers.evaluation.EmbeddingSimilarityEvaluator.EmbeddingSimilarityEvaluator",
"max_grad_norm": 1,
"optimizer_class": "<class 'torch.optim.adamw.AdamW'>",
"optimizer_params": {
"lr": 2e-05
},
"scheduler": "WarmupLinear",
"steps_per_epoch": null,
"warmup_steps": 76,
"weight_decay": 0.01
}
```
## Full Model Architecture
```
SentenceTransformer(
(0): Transformer({'max_seq_length': 4096, 'do_lower_case': False}) with Transformer model: LlamaModel
(1): Pooling({'word_embedding_dimension': 4096, 'pooling_mode_cls_token': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_tokens': True, 'pooling_mode_max_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_mean_sqrt_len_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_weightedmean_tokens': False, 'pooling_mode_lasttoken': False, 'include_prompt': True})
)
```
## Citing & Authors
<!--- Describe where people can find more information --> |
Garsa3112/whisper-large-v2-hindi-100steps | Garsa3112 | 2024-05-09T08:00:37Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T08:00:28Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
### Model Sources [optional]
<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
- **Paper [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Demo [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
<!-- This section is for the model use without fine-tuning or plugging into a larger ecosystem/app. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
[More Information Needed]
#### Training Hyperparameters
- **Training regime:** [More Information Needed] <!--fp32, fp16 mixed precision, bf16 mixed precision, bf16 non-mixed precision, fp16 non-mixed precision, fp8 mixed precision -->
#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
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vishruthnath/codellama_exec_1024 | vishruthnath | 2024-05-09T07:56:05Z | 6 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T07:49:39Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
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|
SageLiao/llama3-qlora-finetune | SageLiao | 2024-05-09T07:49:50Z | 7 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"llama-factory",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T07:38:20Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags:
- llama-factory
---
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0x0son0/ezekiel_223 | 0x0son0 | 2024-05-09T07:47:11Z | 92 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"stablelm",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T07:45:28Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
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udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-contrastive-logistic-500s | udrearobert999 | 2024-05-09T07:42:57Z | 8 | 0 | setfit | [
"setfit",
"safetensors",
"mpnet",
"sentence-transformers",
"text-classification",
"generated_from_setfit_trainer",
"en",
"arxiv:2209.11055",
"base_model:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1",
"base_model:finetune:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1",
"model-index",
"region:us"
] | text-classification | 2024-05-09T07:42:41Z | ---
language: en
library_name: setfit
tags:
- setfit
- sentence-transformers
- text-classification
- generated_from_setfit_trainer
base_model: sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
metrics:
- f1
widget:
- text: in durankulak near varna is another important example other signs of early
metals are found from the third millennium bc in palmela portugal los millares
spain and stonehenge united kingdom the precise beginnings however have not be
clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing in tamilnadu
in approximately 1900 bc ancient iron smelting sites were functioning in tamil
nadu in the near east about 3500 bc it was discovered that by combining copper
and tin a superior metal could be made an alloy called bronze this represented
a major technological shift known as the bronze age the extraction of iron from
its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin the
process appears to have been invented by the hittites in about 1200 bc beginning
the iron age the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the
success of the philistineshistorical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be
found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations this includes the ancient
and medieval kingdoms and empires of the middle east and near east ancient iran
ancient egypt ancient nubia and anatolia in presentday turkey ancient nok carthage
the greeks and romans of ancient europe medieval europe ancient and medieval china
ancient and medieval india ancient and medieval japan amongst others many applications
practices and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in
ancient china such as the innovation of the blast furnace cast iron hydraulicpowered
trip hammers and double acting piston bellowsa 16th century book by georg agricola
de re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining
metal ores metal extraction and metallurgy of the time agricola has been described
as the father of metallurgy extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing
valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer
form in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal the ore must
be reduced physically chemically or electrolytically extractive metallurgists
are interested in three primary streams feed concentrate metal oxidesulphide and
tailings waste after mining large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing
or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either
mostly valuable or mostly waste concentrating the particles of value in a form
supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products
mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive
to leaching leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched
solution the solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals ore
- text: '##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf
x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate
the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point
of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat
algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch
step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical
srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer
tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point
this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the
grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not
correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic
with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa
information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point
in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related
to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering
a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x
and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation
limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf
x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring
the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid
alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the
tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle
nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau
m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright
of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated
a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given
by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min
leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert'
- text: authority to select projects and mandated new metropolitan planning initiatives
for the first time state transportation officials were required to consult seriously
with local representatives on mpo governing boards regarding matters of project
prioritization and decisionmaking these changes had their roots in the need to
address increasingly difficult transportation problems — in particular the more
complicated patterns of traffic congestion that arose with the suburban development
boom in the previous decades many recognized that the problems could only be addressed
effectively through a stronger federal commitment to regional planning the legislation
that emerged the intermodal surface transportation efficiency act istea was signed
into federal law by president george h w bush in december 1991 it focused on improving
transportation not as an end in itself but as the means to achieve important national
goals including economic progress cleaner air energy conservation and social equity
istea promoted a transportation system in which different modes and facilities
— highway transit pedestrian bicycle aviation and marine — were integrated to
allow a seamless movement of both goods and people new funding programs provided
greater flexibility in the use of funds particularly regarding using previously
restricted highway funds for transit development improved intermodal connections
and emphasized upgrades to existing facilities over building new capacity — particularly
roadway capacity to accomplish more serious metropolitan planning istea doubled
federal funding for mpo operations and required the agencies to evaluate a variety
of multimodal solutions to roadway congestion and other transportation problems
mpos also were required to broaden public participation in the planning process
and to see that investment decisions contributed to meeting the air quality standards
of the clean air act amendments in addition istea placed a new requirement on
mpos to conduct fiscally constrained planning and ensure that longrange transportation
plans and shortterm transportation improvement programs were fiscally constrained
in other words adopted plans and programs can not include more projects than reasonably
can be expected to be funded through existing or projected sources of revenues
this new requirement represented a major conceptual shift for many mpos and others
in the planning community since the imposition of fiscal discipline on plans now
required not only understanding how much money might be available but how to prioritize
investment needs and make difficult choices among competing needs adding to this
complexity is the need to plan across transportation modes and develop approaches
for multimodal investment prioritization and decision making it is in this context
of greater prominence funding and requirements that mpos function today an annual
element is composed of transportation improvement projects contained in an areas
transportation improvement program tip which is proposed for implementation during
the current year the annual element is submitted to the us department of transportation
as part of the required planning process the passage of safe accountable flexible
efficient transportation equity act a legacy for users safetealu
- text: '##pignygiroux served as an assistant professor from 1997 2003 associate professor
from 2003 2014 chair of the department of geography from 2015 2018 and professor
beginning in 2014 with secondary appointments in department of geology the college
of education social services and rubenstein school of environment natural resources
she teaches courses in meteorology climatology physical geography remote sensing
and landsurface processes in her work as state climatologist for vermont dupignygiroux
uses her expertise hydrology and extreme weather such as floods droughts and storms
to keep the residents of vermont informed on how climate change will affect their
homes health and livelihoods she assists other state agencies in preparing for
and adapting to current and future impacts of climate change on vermonts transportation
system emergency management planning and agriculture and forestry industries for
example she has published analyses of the impacts of climate change on the health
of vermonts sugar maples a hardwood species of key economic and cultural importance
to the state as cochair of vermonts state ’ s drought task force she played a
key role in developing the 2018 vermont state hazard mitigation plandupignygiroux
served as secretary for the american association of state climatologists from
20102011 and president elect from 20192020 in june 2020 she was elected as president
of the american association of state climatologists which is a twoyear term in
addition to her research on climate change dupignygiroux is known for her efforts
to research and promote climate literacy climate literacy is an understanding
of the influences of and influences on the climate system including how people
change the climate how climate metrics are observed and modelled and how climate
change affects society “ being climate literate is more critical than ever before
” lesleyann dupignygiroux stated for a 2020 article on climate literacy “ if we
do not understand weather climate and climate change as intricate and interconnected
systems then our appreciation of the big picture is lost ” dupignygiroux is known
for her climate literacy work with elementary and high school teachers and students
she cofounded the satellites weather and climate swac project in 2008 which is
a professional development program for k12 teachers designed to promote climate
literacy and interest in the stem science technology engineering and mathematics
careers dupignygiroux is also a founding member of the climate literacy and energy
awareness network clean formerly climate literacy network a communitybased effort
to support climate literacy and communication in a 2016 interview dupignygiroux
stated “ sharing knowledge and giving back to my community are my two axioms in
life watching students mature and flourish in'
- text: no solutions to x n y n z n displaystyle xnynzn for all n ≥ 3 displaystyle
ngeq 3 this claim appears in his annotations in the margins of his copy of diophantus
euler the interest of leonhard euler 1707 – 1783 in number theory was first spurred
in 1729 when a friend of his the amateur goldbach pointed him towards some of
fermats work on the subject this has been called the rebirth of modern number
theory after fermats relative lack of success in getting his contemporaries attention
for the subject eulers work on number theory includes the following proofs for
fermats statements this includes fermats little theorem generalised by euler to
nonprime moduli the fact that p x 2 y 2 displaystyle px2y2 if and only if p ≡
1 mod 4 displaystyle pequiv 1bmod 4 initial work towards a proof that every integer
is the sum of four squares the first complete proof is by josephlouis lagrange
1770 soon improved by euler himself the lack of nonzero integer solutions to x
4 y 4 z 2 displaystyle x4y4z2 implying the case n4 of fermats last theorem the
case n3 of which euler also proved by a related method pells equation first misnamed
by euler he wrote on the link between continued fractions and pells equation first
steps towards analytic number theory in his work of sums of four squares partitions
pentagonal numbers and the distribution of prime numbers euler pioneered the use
of what can be seen as analysis in particular infinite series in number theory
since he lived before the development of complex analysis most of his work is
restricted to the formal manipulation of power series he did however do some very
notable though not fully rigorous early work on what would later be called the
riemann zeta function quadratic forms following fermats lead euler did further
research on the question of which primes can be expressed in the form x 2 n y
2 displaystyle x2ny2 some of it prefiguring quadratic reciprocity diophantine
equations euler worked on some diophantine equations of genus 0 and 1 in particular
he studied diophantuss work he tried to systematise it but the time was not yet
ripe for such an endeavour — algebraic geometry was still in its infancy he did
notice there was a connection between diophantine problems and elliptic integrals
whose study he had himself initiated lagrange legendre and gauss josephlouis
pipeline_tag: text-classification
inference: true
model-index:
- name: SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 on Wiki Labeled
Articles
results:
- task:
type: text-classification
name: Text Classification
dataset:
name: Wiki Labeled Articles
type: unknown
split: test
metrics:
- type: f1
value: 0.7832245351020043
name: F1
---
# SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 on Wiki Labeled Articles
This is a [SetFit](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit) model that can be used for Text Classification. This SetFit model uses [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1) as the Sentence Transformer embedding model. A [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance is used for classification.
The model has been trained using an efficient few-shot learning technique that involves:
1. Fine-tuning a [Sentence Transformer](https://www.sbert.net) with contrastive learning.
2. Training a classification head with features from the fine-tuned Sentence Transformer.
## Model Details
### Model Description
- **Model Type:** SetFit
- **Sentence Transformer body:** [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1)
- **Classification head:** a [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 512 tokens
- **Number of Classes:** 43 classes
<!-- - **Training Dataset:** [Unknown](https://huggingface.co/datasets/unknown) -->
- **Language:** en
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->
### Model Sources
- **Repository:** [SetFit on GitHub](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit)
- **Paper:** [Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055)
- **Blogpost:** [SetFit: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://huggingface.co/blog/setfit)
### Model Labels
| Label | Examples |
|:------|:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------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| 12 | <ul><li>'##iated commutation relation does indeed hold and forms the basis of the stone – von neumann theorem further e i a x b p e i a x 2 e i b p e i a x 2 displaystyle eiaxbpeiax2eibpeiax2 a related application is the annihilation and creation operators a and a † their commutator a † a −i is central that is it commutes with both a and a † as indicated above the expansion then collapses to the semitrivial degenerate form where v is just a complex number this example illustrates the resolution of the displacement operator expva † −va into exponentials of annihilation and creation operators and scalarsthis degenerate baker – campbell – hausdorff formula then displays the product of two displacement operators as another displacement operator up to a phase factor with the resultant displacement equal to the sum of the two displacements since the heisenberg group they provide a representation of is nilpotent the degenerate baker – campbell – hausdorff formula is frequently used in quantum field theory as well achilles rudiger bonfiglioli andrea may 2012 the early proofs of the theorem of campbell baker hausdorff and dynkin archive for history of exact sciences 66 3 295 – 358 doi101007s0040701200958 s2cid 120032172 yua bakhturin 2001 1994 campbell – hausdorff formula encyclopedia of mathematics ems press bonfiglioli andrea fulci roberta 2012 topics in noncommutative algebra the theorem of campbell baker hausdorff and dynkin springer isbn 9783642225970 l corwin fp greenleaf representation of nilpotent lie groups and their applications part 1 basic theory and examples cambridge university press new york 1990 isbn 052136034x greiner w reinhardt j 1996 field quantization springer publishing isbn 9783540591795 hall brian c 2015 lie groups lie algebras and representations an elementary introduction graduate texts in mathematics vol 222 2nd ed springer isbn 9783319134666 rossmann wulf 2002 lie groups – an introduction through linear groups oxford graduate texts in mathematics oxford science publications isbn 9780198596837 serre jeanpierre 1965 lie algebras and lie groups benjamin schmid wilfried 1982 poincare and lie groups pdf bulletin of the american mathematical society 6 2 175−186 doi101090s027309791982149'</li><li>'0 displaystyle varepsilon 0 and m displaystyle m a positive integer we have p m q p h − q x h ≥ ε for some h ∈ h ≤ 4 π h 2 m e − ε 2 m 8 displaystyle pmqphwidehat qxhgeq varepsilon text for some hin hleq 4pi h2mevarepsilon 2m8 where for any x ∈ x m displaystyle xin xm q p h p y ∈ x h y 1 displaystyle qphpyin xhy1 q x h 1 m i 1 ≤ i ≤ m h x i 1 displaystyle widehat qxhfrac 1mi1leq ileq mhxi1 and x m displaystyle xm p m displaystyle pm indicates that the probability is taken over x displaystyle x consisting of m displaystyle m iid draws from the distribution p displaystyle p π h displaystyle pi h is defined as for any 0 1 displaystyle 01 valued functions h displaystyle h over x displaystyle x and d ⊆ x displaystyle dsubseteq x π h d h ∩ d h ∈ h displaystyle pi hdhcap dhin h and for any natural number m displaystyle m the shattering number π h m displaystyle pi hm is defined as π h m max h ∩ d d m h ∈ h displaystyle pi hmmax hcap ddmhin h from the point of learning theory one can consider h displaystyle h to be the concepthypothesis class defined over the instance set x displaystyle x before getting into the details of the proof of the theorem we will state sauers lemma which we will need in our proof the sauer – shelah lemma relates the shattering number π h m displaystyle pi hm to the vc dimension lemma π h m ≤ e m d d displaystyle pi hmleq leftfrac emdrightd where d displaystyle d is the vc dimension of the concept class h displaystyle h corollary π h m ≤ m d displaystyle pi hmleq md and are the sources of the proof below before we get into the details of the proof of the uniform convergence theorem we will present a high level overview of the proof symmetrization we transform the problem of analyzing q p h − q x h ≥ ε displaystyle qphwidehat qxhgeq varepsilon into the problem of analyzing q r h − q s h ≥ ε 2 displaystyle widehat qrh'</li><li>'##roximation for the shortest superstring note that this is not a constant factor approximation for any string x in this alphabet define px to be the set of all strings which are substrings of x the instance i of set cover is formulated as follows let m be empty for each pair of strings si and sj if the last k symbols of si are the same as the first k symbols of sj then add a string to m that consists of the concatenation with maximal overlap of si with sj define the universe u displaystyle mathcal u of the set cover instance to be s define the set of subsets of the universe to be px x ∈ s ∪ m define the cost of each subset px to be x the length of xthe instance i can then be solved using an algorithm for weighted set cover and the algorithm can output an arbitrary concatenation of the strings x for which the weighted set cover algorithm outputs px consider the set s abc cde fab which becomes the universe of the weighted set cover instance in this case m abcde fabc then the set of subsets of the universe is p x x ∈ s ∪ m p x x ∈ a b c c d e f a b a b c d e f a b c p a b c p c d e p f a b p a b c d e p f a b c a b c a b b c a b c c d e c d d e c d e … f a b c f a a b b c f a b a b c f a b c displaystyle beginalignedpxxin scup mpxxin abccdefababcdefabcpabcpcdepfabpabcdepfabcabcabbcabccdecddecdeldots fabcfaabbcfababcfabcendaligned which have costs 3 3 3 5 and 4 respectively'</li></ul> |
| 30 | <ul><li>'##broma and is considered a rare tumor patients usually come to clinical attention when 15 years of age but a wide age range 3 months to 70 years can be affected both genders are affected equally with the paranasal sinuses most commonly affected specifically the ethmoid sinus is affected most often followed by frontal sinus maxillary sinus and sphenoid sinus the maxilla is the second most common location after the paranasal sinuses while the mandible and temporal bone are infrequently affected this tumor does not frequently extracranial sites nor soft tissues sites lester d r thompson bruce m wenig 2011 diagnostic pathology head and neck published by amirsys hagerstown md lippincott williams wilkins pp 660 – 1 isbn 9781931884617'</li><li>'chemical safety for the 21st century act hr 2576 it serves to reform the tsca of 1976 and aims to make federal safety regulations on toxic substances and chemicals effectivein 2017 iowa mississippi north dakota and south dakota all passed asbestos trust claims transparency laws asbestos abatement removal of asbestos has become a thriving industry in the united states strict removal and disposal laws have been enacted to protect the public from airborne asbestos the clean air act requires that asbestos be wetted during removal and strictly contained and that workers wear safety gear and masks the federal government has prosecuted dozens of violations of the act and violations of racketeer influenced and corrupt organizations act rico related to the operations often these involve contractors who hire undocumented workers without proper training or protection to illegally remove asbestosw r grace and company faces fines of up to 280 million for polluting the town of libby montana libby was declared a superfund disaster area in 2002 and the epa has spent 54 million in cleanup grace was ordered by a court to reimburse the epa for cleanup costs but the bankruptcy court must approve any payments the us supreme court has dealt with several asbestosrelated cases since 1986 two large class action settlements designed to limit liability came before the court in 1997 and 1999 both settlements were ultimately rejected by the court because they would exclude future claimants or those who later developed asbestosrelated illnesses these rulings addressed the 2050 year latency period of serious asbestosrelated illnesses borel v fibreboard corp in this case a federal appeals court ruled that an insulation installer from texas could sue asbestos manufactures for failure to warn borels lawyers argued that had warning labels been affixed to fiberboards products he would have been able to protect himself more effectively manville the manville corporation formerly the johnsmanville corporation filed for reorganization and protection under the united states bankruptcy code in august 1982 at the time it was the largest company ever to file bankruptcy and was one of the richest manville was then 181st on the fortune 500 but was the defendant of 16500 lawsuits related to the health effects of asbestos the company was described by ron motley a south carolina attorney as the greatest corporate mass murderer in history court documents show that the corporation had a long history of hiding evidence of the ill effects of asbestos from its workers and the public garlock in a decision from january 2014 gray v garlock sealing technologies had entered into bankruptcy proceedings and discovery in the case uncovered evidence of fraud that led to a reduction in estimated future liability to a tenth of what was estimated rico cases a number of lawsuits have been filed under the racketeer influenced'</li><li>'over exocyclic oxygen atoms the generation of dna adducts is also influenced by certain steric factors guanines n7 position is exposed in the major groove of doublehelical dna making it more suitable for adduction than when compared to adenines n3 position which is orientated in the minor groove many compounds require enzyme metabolic activation to become mutagenic and cause dna damage furthermore reactive intermediates can be produced in the body as a result of oxidative stress thus harming the dna some chemical carcinogens metabolites as well as endogenous compounds generated by inflammatory processes cause oxidative stress this can result in the formation of a reactive oxygen species ros or reactive nitrogen species rns ros and rns are known to cause dna damage via oxidative processes figure 2 shows each of the reactive sites for the nucleic acids involved in adduction and damage with each form of transfer distinguished by arrow color these positions are of interest to researchers studying dna adduct formation research has indicated that many different chemicals may change human dna and that lifestyle and host characteristics can impact the extent of dna damage humans are constantly exposed to a diverse combination of potentially dangerous substances that might cause dna damage acetaldehyde a significant constituent of tobacco smoke cisplatin which binds to dna and causes crosslinking leading to cell death dmba 712dimethylbenzaanthracene malondialdehyde a naturallyoccurring product of lipid peroxidation polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pahs nitropahs nitrosamines aflatoxins mustards aromatic amines heterocyclic aromatic amines haas methylating agents other alkylating agents haloalkanes 32ppostlabeling assay 32ppostlabeling assays screen for dna adducts by transferring 32patp into a carcinogenic labeled nucleotide sequence with selectivity favoring modified nucleotidesliquid chromatography – mass spectrometry lc – ms liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry is useful in testing dna adducts but does have a different approach than a 32ppostlabeling assay fluorescence labeling certain dna adducts can also be detected by the means of fluorescence because they contain fluorescent chromophores enzyme linked immunosorbent assay elisa elisa contains an antigen in solution that can bind with dna adducts any remaining free antigen will fluoresce this allows elisa to quantify dna'</li></ul> |
| 42 | <ul><li>'the surface and transmembrane for the viral envelope protein there is a fourth coding domain which is smaller but exists in all retroviruses pol is the domain that encodes the virion protease the retrovirus begins the journey into a host cell by attaching a surface glycoprotein to the cells plasma membrane receptor once inside the cell the retrovirus goes through reverse transcription in the cytoplasm and generates a doublestranded dna copy of the rna genome reverse transcription also produces identical structures known as long terminal repeats ltrs long terminal repeats are at the ends of the dna strands and regulates viral gene expression the viral dna is then translocated into the nucleus where one strand of the retroviral genome is put into the chromosomal dna by the help of the virion intergrase at this point the retrovirus is referred to as provirus once in the chromosomal dna the provirus is transcribed by the cellular rna polymerase ii the transcription leads to the splicing and fulllength mrnas and fulllength progeny virion rna the virion protein and progeny rna assemble in the cytoplasm and leave the cell whereas the other copies send translated viral messages in the cytoplasm human papillomavirus hpv a dna virus causes transformation in cells through interfering with tumor suppressor proteins such as p53 interfering with the action of p53 allows a cell infected with the virus to move into a different stage of the cell cycle enabling the virus genome to be replicated forcing the cell into the s phase of the cell cycle could cause the cell to become transformed human papillomavirus infection is a major cause of cervical cancer vulvar cancer vaginal cancer penis cancer anal cancer and hpvpositive oropharyngeal cancers there are nearly 200 distinct human papillomaviruses hpvs and many hpv types are carcinogenic hepatitis b virus hbv is associated with hepatocarcinoma epstein – barr virus ebv or hhv4 is associated with four types of cancers human cytomegalovirus cmv or hhv5 is associated with mucoepidermoid carcinoma and possibly other malignancies kaposis sarcomaassociated herpesvirus kshv or hhv8 is associated with kaposis sarcoma a type of skin cancer merkel cell polyomavirus – a polyoma virus – is associated with the development of merkel cell carcinoma not'</li><li>'paleovirology is the study of viruses that existed in the past but are now extinct in general viruses cannot leave behind physical fossils therefore indirect evidence is used to reconstruct the past for example viruses can cause evolution of their hosts and the signatures of that evolution can be found and interpreted in the present day also some viral genetic fragments which were integrated into germline cells of an ancient organism have been passed down to our time as viral fossils or endogenous viral elements eves eves that originate from the integration of retroviruses are known as endogenous retroviruses or ervs and most viral fossils are ervs they may preserve genetic code from millions of years ago hence the fossil terminology although no one has detected a virus in mineral fossils the most surprising viral fossils originate from nonretroviral dna and rna viruses although there is no formal classification system for eves they are categorised according to the taxonomy of their viral origin indeed all known viral genome types and replication strategies as defined by the baltimore classification have been found in the genomic fossil record acronyms have been designated to describe different types of viral fossil eve endogenous viral element erv endogenous retrovirus herv human endogenous retrovirus nirv viral fossils originating from nonretroviral rna viruses have been termed nonretroviral integrated rna viruses or nirvs unlike other types of viral fossils nirv formation requires borrowing the integration machinery that is coded by the host genome or by a coinfecting retrovirusother viral fossils originate from dna viruses such as hepadnaviruses a group that includes hepatitis b successful attempts to resurrect extinct viruses from the dna fossils have been reported in addition pithovirus sibericum was revived from a 30000yearold ice core harvested from permafrost in siberia russia ancient dna endogenous retrovirus human genome project insertional mutagenesis invertebrate iridescent virus 31 micropaleontology paleobiology paleogenetics viral eukaryogenesis'</li><li>'the mononuclear spot test or monospot test a form of the heterophile antibody test is a rapid test for infectious mononucleosis due to epstein – barr virus ebv it is an improvement on the paul – bunnell test the test is specific for heterophile antibodies produced by the human immune system in response to ebv infection commercially available test kits are 70 – 92 sensitive and 96 – 100 specific with a lower sensitivity in the first two weeks after clinical symptoms beginthe united states center for disease control deems the monospot test not to be very useful it is indicated as a confirmatory test when a physician suspects ebv typically in the presence of clinical features such as fever malaise pharyngitis tender lymphadenopathy especially posterior cervical often called tender glands and splenomegalyin the case of delayed or absent seroconversion an immunofluorescence test could be used if the diagnosis is in doubt it has the following characteristics vcas viral capsid antigen of the igm class antibodies to ebv early antigen antiea absent antibodies to ebv nuclear antigen antiebna one source states that the specificity of the test is high virtually 100 another source states that a number of other conditions can cause false positives rarely however a false positive heterophile antibody test may result from systemic lupus erythematosus toxoplasmosis rubella lymphoma and leukemiahowever the sensitivity is only moderate so a negative test does not exclude ebv this lack of sensitivity is especially the case in young children many of whom will not produce detectable amounts of the heterophile antibody and will thus have a false negative test result it will generally not be positive during the 4 – 6 week incubation period before the onset of symptoms the highest amount of heterophile antibodies occurs 2 to 5 weeks after the onset of symptoms if positive it will remain so for at least six weeks an elevated heterophile antibody level may persist up to 1 year the test is usually performed using commercially available test kits which detect the reaction of heterophile antibodies in a persons blood sample with horse or cow red blood cell antigens these test kits work on the principles of latex agglutination or immunochromatography using this method the test can be performed by individuals without specialized training and the results may be available in as little as five minutesmanual versions of the test rely on the agglutination of horse erythrocytes by heterophile'</li></ul> |
| 25 | <ul><li>'number and let lny x which implies that y ex where ex is in the sense of definition 3 we have here the continuity of lny is used which follows from the continuity of 1t here the result lnan nlna has been used this result can be established for n a natural number by induction or using integration by substitution the extension to real powers must wait until ln and exp have been established as inverses of each other so that ab can be defined for real b as eb lna the following proof is a simplified version of the one in hewitt and stromberg exercise 1846 first one proves that measurability or here lebesgueintegrability implies continuity for a nonzero function f x displaystyle fx satisfying f x y f x f y displaystyle fxyfxfy and then one proves that continuity implies f x e k x displaystyle fxekx for some k and finally f 1 e displaystyle f1e implies k 1 first a few elementary properties from f x displaystyle fx satisfying f x y f x f y displaystyle fxyfxfy are proven and the assumption that f x displaystyle fx is not identically zero if f x displaystyle fx is nonzero anywhere say at xy then it is nonzero everywhere proof f y f x f y − x = 0 displaystyle fyfxfyxneq 0 implies f x = 0 displaystyle fxneq 0 f 0 1 displaystyle f01 proof f x f x 0 f x f 0 displaystyle fxfx0fxf0 and f x displaystyle fx is nonzero f − x 1 f x displaystyle fx1fx proof 1 f 0 f x − x f x f − x displaystyle 1f0fxxfxfx if f x displaystyle fx is continuous anywhere say at x y then it is continuous everywhere proof f x δ − f x f x − y f y δ − f y → 0 displaystyle fxdelta fxfxyfydelta fyto 0 as δ → 0 displaystyle delta to 0 by continuity at ythe second and third properties mean that it is sufficient to prove f x e x displaystyle fxex for positive x if f x displaystyle fx is a lebesgueintegrable function then it then follows that since f x displaystyle fx is nonzero some y can be chosen such that g y = 0 displaystyle gyneq 0 and solve for f x displaystyle fx in the above'</li><li>'in mathematics the stieltjes moment problem named after thomas joannes stieltjes seeks necessary and sufficient conditions for a sequence m0 m1 m2 to be of the form m n [UNK] 0 ∞ x n d μ x displaystyle mnint 0infty xndmu x for some measure μ if such a function μ exists one asks whether it is unique the essential difference between this and other wellknown moment problems is that this is on a halfline 0 ∞ whereas in the hausdorff moment problem one considers a bounded interval 0 1 and in the hamburger moment problem one considers the whole line −∞ ∞ let δ n m 0 m 1 m 2 [UNK] m n m 1 m 2 m 3 [UNK] m n 1 m 2 m 3 m 4 [UNK] m n 2 [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] m n m n 1 m n 2 [UNK] m 2 n displaystyle delta nleftbeginmatrixm0m1m2cdots mnm1m2m3cdots mn1m2m3m4cdots mn2vdots vdots vdots ddots vdots mnmn1mn2cdots m2nendmatrixright and δ n 1 m 1 m 2 m 3 [UNK] m n 1 m 2 m 3 m 4 [UNK] m n 2 m 3 m 4 m 5 [UNK] m n 3 [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] [UNK] m n 1 m n 2 m n 3 [UNK] m 2 n 1 displaystyle delta n1leftbeginmatrixm1m2m3cdots mn1m2m3m4cdots mn2m3m4m5cdots mn3vdots vdots vdots ddots vdots mn1mn2mn3cdots m2n1endmatrixright then mn n 1 2 3 is a moment sequence of some measure on 0 ∞ displaystyle 0infty with infinite support if and only if for all n both det δ n 0 a n d det δ n 1 0 displaystyle detdelta n0 mathrm and det leftdelta n1right0 mn n 1 2 3 is a moment sequence of some measure on 0 ∞ displaystyle 0infty with finite support of size m if and only if for all n ≤ m displaystyle nleq m both det δ n 0 a n d det δ n 1 0 displaystyle detdelta n0 mathrm and det leftdelta n1right0 and for all larger n displaystyle n det δ'</li><li>'broadly overcomplete frames are usually constructed in three ways combine a set of bases such as wavelet basis and fourier basis to obtain an overcomplete frame enlarge the range of parameters in some frame such as in gabor frame and wavelet frame to have an overcomplete frame add some other functions to an existing complete basis to achieve an overcomplete framean example of an overcomplete frame is shown below the collected data is in a twodimensional space and in this case a basis with two elements should be able to explain all the data however when noise is included in the data a basis may not be able to express the properties of the data if an overcomplete frame with four elements corresponding to the four axes in the figure is used to express the data each point would be able to have a good expression by the overcomplete frame the flexibility of the overcomplete frame is one of its key advantages when used in expressing a signal or approximating a function however because of this redundancy a function can have multiple expressions under an overcomplete frame when the frame is finite the decomposition can be expressed as f a x displaystyle fax where f displaystyle f is the function one wants to approximate a displaystyle a is the matrix containing all the elements in the frame and x displaystyle x is the coefficients of f displaystyle f under the representation of a displaystyle a without any other constraint the frame will choose to give x displaystyle x with minimal norm in l 2 r displaystyle l2mathbb r based on this some other properties may also be considered when solving the equation such as sparsity so different researchers have been working on solving this equation by adding other constraints in the objective function for example a constraint minimizing x displaystyle x s norm in l 1 r displaystyle l1mathbb r may be used in solving this equation this should be equivalent to the lasso regression in statistics community bayesian approach is also used to eliminate the redundancy in an overcomplete frame lweicki and sejnowski proposed an algorithm for overcomplete frame by viewing it as a probabilistic model of the observed data recently the overcomplete gabor frame has been combined with bayesian variable selection method to achieve both small norm expansion coefficients in l 2 r displaystyle l2mathbb r and sparsity in elements in modern analysis in signal processing and other engineering field various overcomplete frames are proposed and'</li></ul> |
| 38 | <ul><li>'professional titles here are some examples for malesfemales resp pan minister pani minister minister pan dyrektor pani dyrektor director pan kierowca pani kierowca driver pan doktor pani doktor doctorthese professional titles are more formal as the speaker humbles himherself and puts the addressee at a higher rank or status these can also be used along with a name only last or both names but that is extremely formal and almost never used in direct conversation for some professional titles eg doktor profesor the panpani can be dropped resulting in a form which is less formal but still polite unlike the above this can also precede a name almost always last but it is seldom used in second person as with panpani phrases such as prosze pana ministra which can be translated minister sir can also be used for calling attention although they are less common the panpani can also be dropped with some titles in the phrase but it is even less common and can be inappropriate historical factors played a major role in shaping the polish usage of honorifics polands history of nobility was the major source for polish politeness which explains how the honorific malemarked pronoun pan pani is femalemarked was derived from the old word for lord there are separate honorific pronouns used to address a priest ksiadz a nun or nurse siostra it is acceptable to replace siostra with pani when addressing a nurse but it is unacceptable when speaking to a nun likewise it is unacceptable to replace ksiadz with pan when speaking to a priest the intimate t form is marked as neutral when used reciprocally between children relatives students soldiers and young people native russian speakers usually know when to use the informal second person singular pronoun ty or the formal form vy the practice of being informal is known as tykan ’ e while the practice of being formal and polite is referred to vykan ’ eit has been suggested that the origin of vyaddress came from the roman empire and the french due to the influence of their language and culture on the russian aristocracy in many other european countries ty initially was used to address any one person or object regardless of age and social ranking vy was then used to address multiple people or objects altogether later after being in contact with foreigners the second person plural pronoun acquired another function displaying respect and formality it was used for addressing aristocrats – people of higher social status and poweranother theory suggests that in russia the emperor'</li><li>'to more central languages according to the google scholar website de swaans book words of the world the global language system has been cited by 2990 other papers as of 25 august 2021however there have also been several concerns regarding the global language system van parijs 2004 claimed that frequency or likelihood of contact is adequate as an indicator of language learning and language spread however de swaan 2007 argued that it alone is not sufficient rather the qvalue which comprises both frequency better known as prevalence and centrality helps to explain the spread of supercentral languages especially former colonial languages in newly independent countries where in which only the elite minority spoke the language initially frequency alone would not be able to explain the spread of such languages but qvalue which includes centrality would be able to in another paper cook and li 2009 examined the ways to categorise language users into various groups they suggested two theories one by siegel 2006 who used sociolinguistic settings which is based on the notion of dominant language and another one by de swaan 2001 that used the concept of hierarchy in the global language system according to them de swaans hierarchy is more appropriate as it does not imply dominance in power terms rather de swaans applies the concepts of geography and function to group languages and hence language users according to the global language system de swaan 2001 views the acquisition of second languages l2 as typically going up the hierarchy however cook and li argues that this analysis is not adequate in accounting for the many groups of l2 users to whom the two areas of territory and function hardly apply the two areas of territory and function can be associated respectively with the prevalence and centrality of the qvalue this group of l2 users typically does not acquire an l2 going up the hierarchy such as users in an intercultural marriage or users who come from a particular cultural or ethnic group and wish to learn its language for identity purposes thus cook and li argue that de swaans theory though highly relevant still has its drawbacks in that the concept behind qvalue is insufficient in accounting for some l2 users there is disagreement as to which languages should be considered more central the theory states that a language is central if it connects speakers of a series of central languages robert phillipson questioned why japanese is included as one of the supercentral languages but bengali which has more speakers is not on the list michael morris argued that while it is clear that there is language hierarchy from the ongoing interstate competition and power politics there is little evidence provided that shows that the global language interaction is so intense and systematic that it constitutes'</li><li>'talked satirically about the pc police groups who oppose certain generally accepted scientific views about evolution secondhand tobacco smoke aids global warming race and other politically contentious scientific matters have used the term political correctness to describe what they view as unwarranted rejection of their perspective on these issues by a scientific community that they believe has been corrupted by liberal politics political correctness is a label typically used to describe liberal or leftwing terms and actions but rarely used for analogous attempts to mold language and behavior on the right in 2012 economist paul krugman wrote that the big threat to our discourse is rightwing political correctness which – unlike the liberal version – has lots of power and money behind it and the goal is very much the kind of thing orwell tried to convey with his notion of newspeak to make it impossible to talk and possibly even think about ideas that challenge the established order alex nowrasteh of the cato institute referred to the rights own version of political correctness as patriotic correctness bernstein david e 2003 you cant say that the growing threat to civil liberties from antidiscrimination laws cato institute 180 pages isbn 1930865538 hentoff nat 1992 free speech for me – but not for thee harpercollins isbn 006019006x schlesinger jr arthur m 1998 the disuniting of america reflections on a multicultural society ww norton revised edition isbn 0393318540 debra l schultz 1993 to reclaim a legacy of diversity analyzing the political correctness debates in higher education new york national council for research on women isbn 9781880547137 john wilson 1995 the myth of political correctness the conservative attack on high education durham north carolina duke university press isbn 9780822317135'</li></ul> |
| 32 | <ul><li>'timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics lists within the history of electromagnetism the associated theories technology and events 28th century bc – ancient egyptian texts describe electric fish they refer to them as the thunderer of the nile and described them as the protectors of all other fish 6th century bc – greek philosopher thales of miletus observes that rubbing fur on various substances such as amber would cause an attraction between the two which is now known to be caused by static electricity he noted that rubbing the amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair and that if the amber was rubbed sufficiently a spark would jump 424 bc aristophanes lens is a glass globe filled with waterseneca says that it can be used to read letters no matter how small or dim 4th century bc mo di first mentions the camera obscura a pinhole camera 3rd century bc euclid is the first to write about reflection and refraction and notes that light travels in straight lines 3rd century bc – the baghdad battery is dated from this period it resembles a galvanic cell and is believed by some to have been used for electroplating although there is no common consensus on the purpose of these devices nor whether they were indeed even electrical in nature 1st century ad – pliny in his natural history records the story of a shepherd magnes who discovered the magnetic properties of some iron stones it is said made this discovery when upon taking his herds to pasture he found that the nails of his shoes and the iron ferrel of his staff adhered to the ground 130 ad – claudius ptolemy in his work optics wrote about the properties of light including reflection refraction and color and tabulated angles of refraction for several media 8th century ad – electric fish are reported by arabic naturalists and physicians 1021 – ibn alhaytham alhazen writes the book of optics studying vision 1088 – shen kuo first recognizes magnetic declination 1187 – alexander neckham is first in europe to describe the magnetic compass and its use in navigation 1269 – pierre de maricourt describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles 1282 – alashraf umar ii discusses the properties of magnets and dry compasses in relation to finding qibla 1305 – theodoric of freiberg uses crystalline spheres and flasks filled with water to study the reflection and refraction in raindrops that leads to primary and secondary rainbows 14th century ad – possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning and electricity from any other source is to be'</li><li>'the need for lowlight sensitivity and narrow depth of field effects this has led to such cameras becoming preferred by some film and television program makers over even professional hd video cameras because of their filmic potential in theory the use of cameras with 16 and 21megapixel sensors offers the possibility of almost perfect sharpness by downconversion within the camera with digital filtering to eliminate aliasing such cameras produce very impressive results and appear to be leading the way in video production towards largeformat downconversion with digital filtering becoming the standard approach to the realization of a flat mtf with true freedom from aliasing due to optical effects the contrast may be suboptimal and approaches zero before the nyquist frequency of the display is reached the optical contrast reduction can be partially reversed by digitally amplifying spatial frequencies selectively before display or further processing although more advanced digital image restoration procedures exist the wiener deconvolution algorithm is often used for its simplicity and efficiency since this technique multiplies the spatial spectral components of the image it also amplifies noise and errors due to eg aliasing it is therefore only effective on good quality recordings with a sufficiently high signaltonoise ratio in general the point spread function the image of a point source also depends on factors such as the wavelength color and field angle lateral point source position when such variation is sufficiently gradual the optical system could be characterized by a set of optical transfer functions however when the image of the point source changes abruptly upon lateral translation the optical transfer function does not describe the optical system accurately bokeh gamma correction minimum resolvable contrast minimum resolvable temperature difference optical resolution signaltonoise ratio signal transfer function strehl ratio transfer function wavefront coding'</li><li>'materials show various physical characteristics depending on the direction of measurement their characteristics are not constant throughout the substance crystal structure molecule orientation or the presence of preferred axes can all be causes of anisotropy crystals certain polymers calcite and numerous minerals are typical examples of anisotropic materials the physical characteristics of anisotropic materials such as refractive index electrical conductivity and mechanical qualities can differ depending on the direction of measurement a frequent notion in the study of anisotropic materials particularly in the context of optics is the optical axis it refers to a particular axis within the material along which certain optical characteristics remain unaltered to put it in another way the light that travels along the optical axis does not experience anisotropic behaviours on the transverse plane it is possible to further divide anisotropic materials into two categories uniaxial anisotropic and biaxial anisotropic materials one optical axis also referred to as the extraordinary axis exists in uniaxially anisotropic materials in these materials light propagating along the optical axis experience the same effects independently of the polarization the optical plane also known as the plane of polarization is perpendicular to the optical axis light exhibits birefringence within this plane which means that the refractive index and all the phenomena associated to that depend on the polarization a common effect that can be observed is the splitting of an incident ray into two rays when propagating in a birefringent mediumdue to the presence of two independent optical axes in biaxial anisotropic materials light travelling in two different directions will experience different optical characteristics there are two types of uniaxial material depending on the value of index of refraction for the eray and oray when the value of the refractive index of the eray nₑ is larger than the index of refraction index of the orayn₀ the material is positive uniaxial on the other hand when the value of refractive index of the eray nₑ is less than index of refraction index of the oray n₀ the material is negative uniaxial material ice and quartz are examples for positive uniaxial material calcite and tourmaline are examples of negative uniaxial materials the ordinary ray oray has a spherical wavefront because the oray has a constant refractive index n₀ independent of propagation direction inside the uniaxial material and the same velocity in all directions on the other hand the extraordinary ray eray has an ellipsoidal wave'</li></ul> |
| 14 | <ul><li>'the ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers formed in early embryonic development it is the outermost layer and is superficial to the mesoderm the middle layer and endoderm the innermost layer it emerges and originates from the outer layer of germ cells the word ectoderm comes from the greek ektos meaning outside and derma meaning skingenerally speaking the ectoderm differentiates to form epithelial and neural tissues spinal cord peripheral nerves and brain this includes the skin linings of the mouth anus nostrils sweat glands hair and nails and tooth enamel other types of epithelium are derived from the endodermin vertebrate embryos the ectoderm can be divided into two parts the dorsal surface ectoderm also known as the external ectoderm and the neural plate which invaginates to form the neural tube and neural crest the surface ectoderm gives rise to most epithelial tissues and the neural plate gives rise to most neural tissues for this reason the neural plate and neural crest are also referred to as the neuroectoderm heinz christian pander a baltic german – russian biologist has been credited for the discovery of the three germ layers that form during embryogenesis pander received his doctorate in zoology from the university of wurzburg in 1817 he began his studies in embryology using chicken eggs which allowed for his discovery of the ectoderm mesoderm and endoderm due to his findings pander is sometimes referred to as the founder of embryology panders work of the early embryo was continued by a prussian – estonian biologist named karl ernst von baer baer took panders concept of the germ layers and through extensive research of many different types of species he was able to extend this principle to all vertebrates baer also received credit for the discovery of the blastula baer published his findings including his germ layer theory in a textbook which translates to on the development of animals which he released in 1828 the ectoderm can first be observed in amphibians and fish during the later stages of gastrulation at the start of this process the developing embryo has divided into many cells forming a hollow ball called the blastula the blastula is polar and its two halves are called the animal hemisphere and vegetal hemisphere it is the animal hemisphere will eventually become the ectoderm like the other two germ layers – ie the mesoderm and endoderm – the ectoderm forms shortly'</li><li>'within the oocyte and can be used to allow the localization of mrna molecules to specific parts of the cell maternally synthesized bicoid mrnas attach to microtubules and are concentrated at the anterior ends of forming drosophila eggs in unfertilized eggs transcripts are still strictly localized at the tip but immediately after fertilization a small mrna gradient is formed in the anterior 20 of the eggs another report documents a mrna gradient up to 40 nanos mrna also attaches to a drosophila eggs cytoskeleton but is concentrated at the posterior end of the egg hunchback and caudal mrnas lack special location control systems and are fairly evenly spread throughout the entire interior of the egg cells it has been shown that the dsrnabinding protein staufen stau1 is responsible for guiding bicoid nanos and other proteins which play a role in forming the anteriorposterior axis to the correct regions of the embryo to build gradients when the mrnas from the maternal effect genes are translated into proteins a bicoid protein gradient forms at the anterior end of the egg nanos protein forms a gradient at the posterior end the bicoid protein blocks translation of caudal mrna so caudal protein is of lower concentration at the anterior part of the embryo and at higher concentration at the posterior part of the embryo this is of opposite direction of the bicoid protein the caudal protein then activates later to turn genes on to form the posterior structures during the segmentation phase nanos protein creates a posteriortoanterior slope and is a morphogen that helps in abdomen formation nanos protein in complex with pumilio protein binds to the hunchback mrna and blocks its translation in the posterior end of drosophila embryos the bicoid hunchback and caudal proteins are transcription factors the bicoid protein is a morphogen as well the nanos protein is a translational repressor protein bicoid has a dnabinding homeodomain that binds both dna and the nanos mrna bicoid binds a specific rna sequence in the 3 ′ untranslated region called the bicoid 3 ′ utr regulatory element of caudal mrna and blocks translation hunchback protein levels in the early embryo are significantly augmented by new hunchback gene transcription and translation of the resulting zygotically produced mrna during early drosophila embryogenesis there are nuclear divisions without cell division the many nuclei that are produced distribute themselves around the periphery'</li><li>'placentation refers to the formation type and structure or arrangement of the placenta the function of placentation is to transfer nutrients respiratory gases and water from maternal tissue to a growing embryo and in some instances to remove waste from the embryo placentation is best known in livebearing mammals theria but also occurs in some fish reptiles amphibians a diversity of invertebrates and flowering plants in vertebrates placentas have evolved more than 100 times independently with the majority of these instances occurring in squamate reptiles the placenta can be defined as an organ formed by the sustained apposition or fusion of fetal membranes and parental tissue for physiological exchange this definition is modified from the original mossman 1937 definition which constrained placentation in animals to only those instances where it occurred in the uterus in live bearing mammals the placenta forms after the embryo implants into the wall of the uterus the developing fetus is connected to the placenta via an umbilical cord mammalian placentas can be classified based on the number of tissues separating the maternal from the fetal blood these include endotheliochorial placentation in this type of placentation the chorionic villi are in contact with the endothelium of maternal blood vessels eg in most carnivores like cats and dogs epitheliochorial placentation chorionic villi growing into the apertures of uterine glands epithelium eg in ruminants horses whales lower primates dugongs hemochorial placentation in hemochorial placentation maternal blood comes in direct contact with the fetal chorion which it does not in the other two types it may avail for more efficient transfer of nutrients etc but is also more challenging for the systems of gestational immune tolerance to avoid rejection of the fetus eg in higher order primates including humans and also in rabbits guinea pigs mice and ratsduring pregnancy placentation is the formation and growth of the placenta inside the uterus it occurs after the implantation of the embryo into the uterine wall and involves the remodeling of blood vessels in order to supply the needed amount of blood in humans placentation takes place 7 – 8 days after fertilization in humans the placenta develops in the following manner chorionic villi from the embryo on the embryonic pole grow forming chorion frondosum villi on the opposite side abembryonic pole degenerate and form the chorion laeve or chorionic laevae a smooth surface the endometrium from'</li></ul> |
| 5 | <ul><li>'which otherwise would tend to strip away planetary atmosphere and to bombard living things with ionized particles mass is not the only criterion for producing a magnetic field — as the planet must also rotate fast enough to produce a dynamo effect within its core — but it is a significant component of the process the mass of a potentially habitable exoplanet is between 01 and 50 earth masses however it is possible for a habitable world to have a mass as low as 00268 earth masses the radius of a potentially habitable exoplanet would range between 05 and 15 earth radii as with other criteria stability is the critical consideration in evaluating the effect of orbital and rotational characteristics on planetary habitability orbital eccentricity is the difference between a planets farthest and closest approach to its parent star divided by the sum of said distances it is a ratio describing the shape of the elliptical orbit the greater the eccentricity the greater the temperature fluctuation on a planets surface although they are adaptive living organisms can stand only so much variation particularly if the fluctuations overlap both the freezing point and boiling point of the planets main biotic solvent eg water on earth if for example earths oceans were alternately boiling and freezing solid it is difficult to imagine life as we know it having evolved the more complex the organism the greater the temperature sensitivity the earths orbit is almost perfectly circular with an eccentricity of less than 002 other planets in the solar system with the exception of mercury have eccentricities that are similarly benign habitability is also influenced by the architecture of the planetary system around a star the evolution and stability of these systems are determined by gravitational dynamics which drive the orbital evolution of terrestrial planets data collected on the orbital eccentricities of extrasolar planets has surprised most researchers 90 have an orbital eccentricity greater than that found within the solar system and the average is fully 025 this means that the vast majority of planets have highly eccentric orbits and of these even if their average distance from their star is deemed to be within the hz they nonetheless would be spending only a small portion of their time within the zone a planets movement around its rotational axis must also meet certain criteria if life is to have the opportunity to evolve a first assumption is that the planet should have moderate seasons if there is little or no axial tilt or obliquity relative to the perpendicular of the ecliptic seasons will not occur and a main stimulant to biospheric dynamism will disappear the planet would also be colder than it would be with a significant tilt when the greatest intensity of radiation is always within a few'</li><li>'dallol is a unique terrestrial hydrothermal system around a cinder cone volcano in the danakil depression northeast of the erta ale range in ethiopia it is known for its unearthly colors and mineral patterns and the very acidic fluids that discharge from its hydrothermal springs the term dallol was coined by the afar people and means dissolution or disintegration describing a landscape of green acid ponds and geysers phvalues less than 1 and iron oxide sulfur and salt desert plains the area somewhat resembles the hot springs areas of yellowstone national park dallol mountain has an area of about 3 by 15 km 19 by 09 mi and rises about 60 m 1969 ft above the surrounding salt plains a circular depression near the centre is probably a collapsed crater the southwestern slopes have watereroded salt canyons pillars and blocks there are numerous saline springs and fields of small fumarolesnumerous hot springs discharge brine and acidic liquid here small widespread temporary geysers produce cones of salt the dallol deposits include significant bodies of potash found directly at the surface the yellow ochre and brown colourings are the result of the presence of iron and other impurities older inactive springs tend to be dark brown because of oxidation processes it was formed by the intrusion of basaltic magma into miocene salt deposits and subsequent hydrothermal activity phreatic eruptions took place here in 1926 forming dallol volcano numerous other eruption craters dot the salt flats nearby these craters are the lowest known subaerial volcanic vents in the world at 45 m 148 ft or more below sea level in october 2004 the shallow magma chamber beneath dallol deflated and fed a magma intrusion southwards beneath the rift the most recent signs of activity occurred in january 2011 in what may have been a degassing event from deep below the surface dallol lies in the evaporitic plain of the danakil depression at the afar triangle in the prolongation of the erta ale basaltic volcanic range the intrusion of basaltic magma in the marine sedimentary sequence of danakil resulted in the formation of a salt dome structure where the hydrothermal system is hosted the age of the hydrothermal system is unknown and the latest phreatic eruption that resulted in the formation of a 30 m 98 ft diameter crater within the dome took place in 1926 the wider area of dallol is known as one of the driest and hottest places on the planet it is also one of the lowest land points lying 125 m 410 ft below mean sea level other known hydrothermal features nearby dallol are gaetale'</li><li>'common error of probabilistic reasoning about lowprobability events by guessing specific numbers for likelihoods of events whose mechanism is not yet understood such as the likelihood of abiogenesis on an earthlike planet with current likelihood estimates varying over many hundreds of orders of magnitude an analysis that takes into account some of the uncertainty associated with this lack of understanding has been carried out by anders sandberg eric drexler and toby ord and suggests a substantial ex ante probability of there being no other intelligent life in our observable universe the great filter a concept introduced by robin hanson in 1996 represents whatever natural phenomena that would make it unlikely for life to evolve from inanimate matter to an advanced civilization the most commonly agreedupon low probability event is abiogenesis a gradual process of increasing complexity of the first selfreplicating molecules by a randomly occurring chemical process other proposed great filters are the emergence of eukaryotic cells or of meiosis or some of the steps involved in the evolution of a brain capable of complex logical deductionsastrobiologists dirk schulzemakuch and william bains reviewing the history of life on earth including convergent evolution concluded that transitions such as oxygenic photosynthesis the eukaryotic cell multicellularity and toolusing intelligence are likely to occur on any earthlike planet given enough time they argue that the great filter may be abiogenesis the rise of technological humanlevel intelligence or an inability to settle other worlds because of selfdestruction or a lack of resources there are two parts of the fermi paradox that rely on empirical evidence — that there are many potential habitable planets and that humans see no evidence of life the first point that many suitable planets exist was an assumption in fermis time but is now supported by the discovery that exoplanets are common current models predict billions of habitable worlds in the milky waythe second part of the paradox that humans see no evidence of extraterrestrial life is also an active field of scientific research this includes both efforts to find any indication of life and efforts specifically directed to finding intelligent life these searches have been made since 1960 and several are ongoingalthough astronomers do not usually search for extraterrestrials they have observed phenomena that they could not immediately explain without positing an intelligent civilization as the source for example pulsars when first discovered in 1967 were called little green men lgm because of the precise repetition of their pulses in all cases explanations with no need for intelligent life have been found for such observations but the possibility'</li></ul> |
| 16 | <ul><li>'deposits of the karst dinarides tislar j vlahovic i sokac b geologia croatica 552 zagreb 2002 bosak 2003 karst processes from the beginning to the end how can they be dated bosak p 2003 frelih 2003 geomorphology of karst depressions polje or uvala – a case study of lucki dol frelih m acta carsologica 322 ljubljana 2003 sauro 2003 dolines and sinkholes aspects of evolution and problems of classification sauro u acta carsologica 322 ljubljana 2003 nicod 2003 a little contribution to the karst terminology special or aberrant cases of poljes nicod jean acta carsologica 322 ljubljana 2003 abel 2003 untersuchungen zur genese des malmkarsts der mittleren schwabischen alb im quartar und jungeren tertiar abel thekla tubingen 2003 ufrechtabel 2003 zur pliopleistozanen entwicklung der baren und karlshohle bei erpfingen schwabische alb unter berucksichtigung der sinterchronologie ufrecht w abel th harlacher chr laichinger hohlenfreund laichingen 2003 goudie 2004 encyclopedia of geomorphology goudie as new york ny 2004 gunn 2004 encyclopedia of caves and karst science gunn j new york ny 2005 culver white 2005 encyclopedia of caves culver d c white w b burlington ma 2005 sauro 2005 closed depressions sauro u in culver white 2005 gams 2005 tectonic impact on poljes and minor basins case studies of dinaric karst gams i acta carsologica 341 ljubljana 2005 jalov stamenova 2005 historical data for karst phenomena in the province of macedonia greece jalovastamenovam greek cavers meeting karditza 2005 ufrecht 2006 ein plombiertes hohlenruinenstadium auf der kuppenalb zwischen fehla und lauchert zollernalbkries schwabische alb ufrecht w laichinger hohlenfreund laichingen 2006 abel 2006 zur verkarstungsgeschichte der baren und karlshohle bei erpfingen schwabische alb im pliopleistozan unter berucksichtigung von'</li><li>'by storm surges is bounded by a belt of dunes where floods can form a dune cliff on the beach the beach platform there is very often a bank of sand or a gravel ridge parallel to the shoreline and a few tens of centimetres high known as the berm on its landward side there is often a shallow runnel the berm is formed by material transported by the breaking waves that is thrown beyond the average level of the sea the coarsegrained material that can no longer be washed away by the backwash remains behind the location and size of the berm is subject to seasonal changes for example a winter berm that has been thrown up by storm surges in winter is usually much more prominent and higher up the beach than berms formed by summer high tides a similar landform is a beach ridge beaches are usually heavily eroded during storm surges and the beach profile steepened whereas normal wave action on flat coasts tends to raise the beach not infrequently a whole series of parallel berms is formed one behind the other there is a consequent gradual increase in height with the result that over time the shoreline advances seawards a striking example of landforming system of berms is skagen odde on the northern tip of vendsyssel in the extreme north of denmark this headland is still growing today as more berms are added coastal defences against erosion are groynes stone walls or tetrapods of concrete which act as breakwaters the first plants to colonise the dunes include sea buckthorn or beach grass which prevent wind erosion klaus duphorn et al die deutsche ostseekuste sammlung geologischer fuhrer vol 88 281 p numerous diagrams and maps borntrager berlin 1995 heinz klug horst sterr dieter boedecker die deutsche ostseekuste zwischen kiel und flensburg morphologischer charakter und rezente entwicklung geographische rundschau 5 p 6 – 14 brunswick 1988 harald zepp grundriss allgemeine geographie – geomorphologie utb 2008 isbn 3825221644 frank ahnert einfuhrung in die geomorphologie utb 2003 isbn 3825281035'</li><li>'a yazoo stream also called a yazoo tributary is a geologic and hydrologic term for any tributary stream that runs parallel to and within the floodplain of a larger river for considerable distance before eventually joining it this is especially the characteristic when such a stream is forced to flow along the base of the main rivers natural levee where the two meet is known as a belated confluence or a deferred junction the name is derived from an exterminated native american tribe the yazoo indians the choctaw word is translated to river of death because of the strong flows under its bank full stage yazoo river runs parallel to the mississippi river for 280 km 170 mi before converging being constrained from doing so upstream by the rivers natural and manmade levees moesian streamflow is a parallel derivative remnant of paleoriver many yazoo streams are actually paleoremnants of just one original river the good examples of moesian flow are mossy creek missouri and jezava morava important salmonoid fish habitat and large spruce forests inhabit these streams which flow into the mendenhall river in alaska yazoo streams here drain the back swamps of the wakarusa river valley over time the main river flows through the landscape widening a valley and creating a floodplain sediment accumulates and creates a natural levee tributaries that want to enter the main channel are not allowed because of this levee instead the water then enters the back swamps or form a yazoo stream because yazoo streams are separated from the main river by natural levees they flow and meander streams and rivers rarely flow in straight lines parallel to the main stream channel or river on the floodplain for a considerable distance these series of smooth bends or curves flows with a slight gradient and is normally blocked from entering by a natural levee along the larger stream a yazoo stream will join the major river where it will eventually break through the natural levees and flow into the larger waterway at its belated confluence yazoo stream formation can also be influenced by glacial processes an example is the formation of the montana creek valley during the recent little ice age the mendenhall glacier carved out a wide floodplain that is domed in the center high valley walls due to tectonic uplift and glacial outwash the natural levee create two yazoo streams that parallel the mendenhall river floods are a major driving force for yazoo streams in the yazoo basin settlers were faced with high waters for most of the year making it hard for building homes and maintaining agriculture a few manmade levees were built'</li></ul> |
| 28 | <ul><li>'in mathematics a natural number in a given number base is a p displaystyle p kaprekar number if the representation of its square in that base can be split into two parts where the second part has p displaystyle p digits that add up to the original number for example in base 10 45 is a 2kaprekar number because 45² 2025 and 20 25 45 the numbers are named after d r kaprekar let n displaystyle n be a natural number we define the kaprekar function for base b 1 displaystyle b1 and power p 0 displaystyle p0 f p b n → n displaystyle fpbmathbb n rightarrow mathbb n to be the following f p b n α β displaystyle fpbnalpha beta where β n 2 mod b p displaystyle beta n2bmod bp and α n 2 − β b p displaystyle alpha frac n2beta bp a natural number n displaystyle n is a p displaystyle p kaprekar number if it is a fixed point for f p b displaystyle fpb which occurs if f p b n n displaystyle fpbnn 0 displaystyle 0 and 1 displaystyle 1 are trivial kaprekar numbers for all b displaystyle b and p displaystyle p all other kaprekar numbers are nontrivial kaprekar numbers the earlier example of 45 satisfies this definition with b 10 displaystyle b10 and p 2 displaystyle p2 because β n 2 mod b p 45 2 mod 1 0 2 25 displaystyle beta n2bmod bp452bmod 10225 α n 2 − β b p 45 2 − 25 10 2 20 displaystyle alpha frac n2beta bpfrac 4522510220 f 2 10 45 α β 20 25 45 displaystyle f21045alpha beta 202545 a natural number n displaystyle n is a sociable kaprekar number if it is a periodic point for f p b displaystyle fpb where f p b k n n displaystyle fpbknn for a positive integer k displaystyle k where f p b k displaystyle fpbk is the k displaystyle k th iterate of f p b displaystyle fpb and forms a cycle of period k displaystyle k a kaprekar number is a sociable kaprekar number with k 1 displaystyle k1 and a amicable kaprekar number is a sociable kaprekar number with k 2 displaystyle k2 the'</li><li>'euclid used a restricted version of the fundamental theorem and some careful argument to prove the theorem his proof is in euclids elements book x proposition 9the fundamental theorem of arithmetic is not actually required to prove the result however there are selfcontained proofs by richard dedekind among others the following proof was adapted by colin richard hughes from a proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2 found by theodor estermann in 1975if d is a nonsquare natural number then there is a number n such that n2 d n 12so in particular 0 √d − n 1if the square root of d is rational then it can be written as the irreducible fraction pq so that q is the smallest possible denominator and hence the smallest number for which q√d is also an integer then √d − nq√d qd − nq√dwhich is thus also an integer but 0 √d − n 1 so √d − nq q hence √d − nq is an integer smaller than q which multiplied by √d makes an integer this is a contradiction because q was defined to be the smallest such number therefore √d cannot be rational algebraic number field apotome mathematics periodic continued fraction restricted partial quotients quadratic integer'</li><li>'functional equation uniquely defines the barnes gfunction if the convexity condition [UNK] x ≥ 1 d 3 d x 3 log g x ≥ 0 displaystyle forall xgeq 1frac mathrm d 3mathrm d x3loggxgeq 0 is added additionally the barnes gfunction satisfies the duplication formula g x g x 1 2 2 g x 1 e 1 4 a − 3 2 − 2 x 2 3 x − 11 12 π x − 1 2 g 2 x displaystyle gxgleftxfrac 12right2gx1efrac 14a322x23xfrac 1112pi xfrac 12gleft2xright similar to the bohrmollerup theorem for the gamma function for a constant c 0 displaystyle c0 we have for f x c g x displaystyle fxcgx f x 1 γ x f x displaystyle fx1gamma xfx and for x 0 displaystyle x0 f x n [UNK] γ x n n x 2 f n displaystyle fxnsim gamma xnnx choose 2fn as n → ∞ displaystyle nto infty g 1 2 2 1 24 e 3 2 ζ ′ − 1 π − 1 4 2 1 24 e 1 8 π − 1 4 a − 3 2 displaystyle beginalignedglefttfrac 12right2frac 124efrac 32zeta 1pi frac 142frac 124efrac 18pi frac 14afrac 32endaligned where a displaystyle a is the glaisher – kinkelin constant the difference equation for the gfunction in conjunction with the functional equation for the gamma function can be used to obtain the following reflection formula for the barnes gfunction originally proved by hermann kinkelin log g 1 − z log g 1 z − z log 2 π [UNK] 0 z π x cot π x d x displaystyle log g1zlog g1zzlog 2pi int 0zpi xcot pi xdx the logtangent integral on the righthand side can be evaluated in terms of the clausen function of order 2 as is shown below 2 π log g 1 − z g 1 z 2 π z log sin π z π cl 2 2 π z displaystyle 2pi log leftfrac g1zg1zright2pi zlog leftfrac sin pi zpi rightoperatorname cl 22pi z the proof of this result hinges on the following evaluation of the cotangent integral introducing'</li></ul> |
| 41 | <ul><li>'comprehensive planning is an ordered process that determines community goals and aspirations in terms of community development the end product is called a comprehensive plan also known as a general plan or master plan this resulting document expresses and regulates public policies on transportation utilities land use recreation and housing comprehensive plans typically encompass large geographical areas a broad range of topics and cover a longterm time horizon the term comprehensive plan is most often used by urban planners in the united states each city and county adopts and updates their plan to guide the growth and land development of their community for both the current period and the long term this serious document is then the foundation for establishing goals purposes zoning and activities allowed on each land parcel to provide compatibility and continuity to the entire region as well as each individual neighborhood it has been one of the most important instruments in city and regional planning since the early twentieth century during the earliest times of american history cities had little power given to them by state governments to control land use after the american revolution the focus on property rights turned to selfrule and personal freedom as this was a time of very strong personal property rights local governments had simple powers which included maintaining law and order and providing basic services cities had little power if any at all to direct development in the city cities began to focus on the provision of basic services during the 1840s at a time known as the sanitary reform movement during this time it became clear that there was a strong relationship between disease and the availability of a quality sewer system part of the movement included the development of sanitary survey planning to help bring sewer systems to infected parts of cities from this planning also developed a new consciousness of townsite location people began to understand the environmental and social impacts of building cities and developed ways in which to further lower the spread of deadly diseases frederick law olmsted was a firm believer in the relationship between the physical environment and sanitation which helped lead to the development of grand parks and open spaces in communities to bring not only recreation but sanitation as well the sanitary reform movement is seen by many as the first attempt at comprehensive planning however it failed to be completely comprehensive because it focused on only one aspect of the city and did not consider the city as a whole during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries cities began to urbanize at very high rates cities became very dense and full of disease as a response to the overpopulation and chaotic conditions planning became a major focus of many large american cities the city beautiful movement was one of the many responses to the decaying city the movement began in chicago in 1890 with the worlds columbian exposition of 1893 and lasted until about the 1920s the focus on the'</li><li>'a study done by sociologist glenn firebaugh showed that agricultural density a strong indicator of land constraint and the presence plantation agriculture both have significant effects on overurbanization these findings were later reversed by sociologist bruce london who emphasized that urban migration was not the only potential response to agricultural densitysovani argues that there is little evidence for the greater role of push factor of increased population in rural areas as even countries where there is little pressure for land experience this phenomenon but that instead the opportunity for higher income is responsible for the excessive migration and pressure on cities as the salary for an unproductive job in an urban area was almost always higher than the salary for unproductive work in a rural area graves and sexton also emphasize that individuals move despite negative factors such as overcrowding suggesting that individuals still see urban migration as an overall benefit they argue that if the benefits do indeed outweigh the costs for society as a whole then the term overurbanization is not appropriate to describe the phenomenon gugler argues that while the benefits outweigh the costs for an individual migrating to an urban area greater costs such as resource scarcity and widespread unemployment and poverty are present when this occurs at a larger scalesovani also argues that the definition of overurbanization as developed by scholars in the 1950s and 1960s suggests some sort of limits to population density beyond which the resulting social situation is abnormal which he argues need to be defined more clearly such unsupportable growth would suggest that the cause of overurbanization is urbanization happening too rapidly for a citys level of economic development dyckman would call this the pretakeoff period however several scholars have questioned the validity of the connection between urbanization and industrialization the economic modernization perspective on the causes of overurbanization is based on modernization theory which argues that a hierarchical progression exists from premodern to modern society an explanation of overurbanization from this perspective was given by sociologist jeffrey kentor who wrote that under modernization theory urbanization results from development and industrialization creating jobs and infrastructure this argument has been criticized by those who do not ascribe to the assumption that there is a linear path of development that all countries follow shandras take on the political modernization perspective asserts that environmental degradation causes overurbanization because the destruction of natural resources in rural areas lowers production and increases poverty and health risks supporters of the political modernization perspective suggest that a strong civil society supports lower levels of overurbanization the presences of international nongovernmental organizations ingos in rural areas political protests and democratic government all'</li><li>'occur in private lands 5 species occur in military lands 4 species in schools 4 species in golf courses 4 species at utility easements such as railways 3 species at airports and 1 species at hospitals the spiked rice flower species pimelea spicata persists mainly at a golf course while the guineaflower hibbertia puberula glabrescens is known mainly from the grounds of an airport unconventional landscapes as such are the ones that must be prioritized the goal in the management of these areas is to bring about a “ winwin ” situation where conservation efforts are practiced while not compromising the original use of the space while being near to large human populations can pose risks to endangered species inhabiting urban environments such closeness can prove to be an advantage as long as the human community is conscious and engaged in local conservation efforts reintroduction of species to urban settings can help improve the local biodiversity previously lost however the following guidelines should be followed in order to avoid undesired effects no predators capable of killing children will be reintroduced to urban areas there will be no introduction of species that significantly threaten human health pets crops or property reintroduction will not be done when it implies significant suffering to the organisms being reintroduced for example stress from capture or captivity organisms that carry pathogens will not be reintroduced organisms whose genes threaten the genetic pool of other organisms in the urban area will not be reintroduced organisms will only be reintroduced when scientific data support a reasonable chance of longterm survival if funds are insufficient for the longterm effort reintroduction will not be attempted reintroduced organisms will receive food supplementation and veterinary assistance as needed reintroduction will be done in both experimental and control areas to produce reliable assessments monitoring must continue afterwards to trigger interventions if necessary reintroduction must be done in several places and repeated over several years to buffer for stochastic events people in the areas affected must participate in the decision process and will receive education to make reintroduction sustainable but final decisions must be based on objective information gathered according to scientific standards with the everincreasing demands for resources necessitated by urbanization recent campaigns to move toward sustainable energy and resource consumption such as leed certification of buildings energy star certified appliances and zero emission vehicles have gained momentum sustainability reflects techniques and consumption ensuring reasonably low resource use as a component of urban ecology techniques such as carbon recapture may also be used to sequester carbon compounds produced in urban centers rather continually emitting more of the greenhouse gas the use of other types of renewable energy like bioenergy solar energy geothermal energy and wind energy would also help to reduce greenhouse'</li></ul> |
| 29 | <ul><li>'bau scenario in limits to growth which could mean that rapid degrowth would occur after 2040 alexander king 1909 – 2007 president of the club of rome 1984 – 1990 founding member anders wijkman copresident 2012 – 2018 ashok khosla copresident 2006 – 2012 aurelio peccei 1908 – 1984 founding member bas de leeuw bohdan hawrylyshyn 1926 – 2016 – economist chairman international management institute – kyiv imikyiv honorary council of ukraine calin georgescu born 1962 – chairman of the board european support centre for the club of rome now european research center vienna and konstanz 2010 – daisaku ikeda david korten dennis meadows born 1942 dennis gabor b1900 d1979 derrick de kerckhove born 1944 director of the mcluhan program in culture and technology university of toronto 1983 – 2008 dzhermen gvishiani son in law of alexei kosygin eberhard von koerber copresident 2006 – 2012 elisabeth mannborgese – first female member since 1970 erich jantsch author of technological forecasting 1929 – 1980 ernst ulrich von weizsacker copresident 2012 – 2018 fernando henrique cardoso fredrick chien born in 1935 former minister of foreign affairs of the republic of china taiwan frederic vester 1925 – 2003 graeme maxton hanspeter durr 1929 – 2014 hugo thiemann 1917 – 2012 ivo slaus john r platt 1918 – 1992 joseph stiglitz born 1943 nobel prizewinning economist jørgen randers born 1945 bi norwegian business school counsil for astra zeneca uk kristin vala ragnarsdottir mahdi elmandjra 1933 – 2014 mamphela ramphele copresident since 2018 max kohnstamm former secretary general of the ecsc 1914 – 2010 michael k dorsey mikhail gorbachev 1931 – 2022 last leader of the soviet union mihajlo d mesarovic mohan munasinghe mugur isarescu born in 1949 the governor of the national bank of romania in bucharest nicholas georgescuroegen 1906 – 1994 economist author of the entropy law and the economic process pierre elliott trudeau 1919 – 2000 former prime minister of canada prince hassan bin talal president of the club of rome 2000 – 2006 ricardo diez hochleitner president 1991 – 2000 robert uffen 1923 – 2009 chief scientific advisor to the canadian government 1969 – 1971 sandrine dixsondecleve copresident since 2018 tomas b'</li><li>'##leaching and increased yields in adjacent fisheries one notable example is the mpa surrounding apo island latin america has designated one large mpa system as of 2008 05 of its marine environment was protected mostly through the use of small multipleuse mpasmexico designed a marine strategy that goes from the years 2018 – 2021 governments in the south pacific network ranging from belize to chile adopted the lima convention and action plan in 1981 an mpaspecific protocol was ratified in 1989 the permanent commission on the exploitation and conservation on the marine resources of the south pacific promotes the exchange of studies and information among participants the region is currently running one comprehensive crossnational program the tropical eastern pacific marine corridor network signed in april 2004 the network covers about 211000000 square kilometres 81000000 sq mithe marae moana conservation park in cook islands has many stakeholders within its governance structure including a variety of government ministries ngos traditional landowners and society representatives the marae moana conservation area is managed through a spatial zoning principle whereby specific designations are given to specific zones though these designations may change over time for example some areas may allow fishing whilst fishing may be prohibited in other areas the north pacific network covers the western coasts of mexico canada and the us the antigua convention and an action plan for the north pacific region were adapted in 2002 participant nations manage their own national systems in 2010 – 2011 the state of california completed hearings and actions via the state department of fish and game to establish new mpas in exchange for some of its national debt being written off the seychelles designates two new marine protected areas in the indian ocean covering about 210000 square kilometres 81000 sq mi it is the result of a financial deal brokered in 2016 by the nature conservancyin 2021 australia announced the creation of 2 national marine parks in size of 740000 square kilometers with those parks 45 of the australian marine territory will be protectedten countries in the western indian ocean have launched the great blue wall initiative which seeks to create a network of linked mpas throughout the region these are generally expected to be under iucn category iv protection which allows for local fishing but prohibits industrial exploitation the natura 2000 ecological mpa network in the european union included mpas in the north atlantic the mediterranean sea and the baltic sea the member states had to define natura 2000 areas at sea in their exclusive economic zone two assessments conducted thirty years apart of three mediterranean mpas demonstrate that proper protection allows commercially valuable and slowgrowing red coral corallium rubrum to produce large colonies in shallow water of less than 50 metres 160 ft shallowwater'</li><li>'the rise project rivera submersible experiments was a 1979 international marine research project which mapped and investigated seafloor spreading in the pacific ocean at the crest of the east pacific rise epr at 21° north latitude using a deep sea submersible alvin to search for hydrothermal activity at depths around 2600 meters the project discovered a series of vents emitting dark mineral particles at extremely high temperatures which gave rise to the popular name black smokers biologic communities found at 21° n vents based on chemosynthesis and similar to those found at the galapagos spreading center established that these communities are not unique discovery of a deepsea ecosystem not based on sunlight spurred theories of the origin of life on earth the rise expedition took place on the east pacific rise spreading center at depths around 2600 meters 8500 ft at 21° north latitude about 200 kilometers 110 nautical miles south of baja california and 350 kilometers 190 nautical miles southwest of mazatlan mexico the study area at 21° n was selected following results from a series of detailed nearbottom geophysical surveys that were designed to map the geologic features associated with a known spreading center the project objective was detecting and mapping the subseafloor magma chamber that feeds lavas and igneous intrusions that create the oceanic crust and lithosphere in the process of seafloor spreading the approach comprised many geophysical techniques including seismology magnetism crustal electrical properties and gravity the major experiment effort though was seafloor observation and sample collection using the deep submergence submersible alvin on the crest of the epr at depths of 2600 meters or morerise was part of the rita riveratamayo expeditions project which included submersible investigations cyamex at 21° n and at the tamayo fracture zone at the mouth of the gulf of california the rita project used the french submersible cyana on the cyamex expeditions cyana dives at 21° n occurred in 1978 one year prior to the rise expedition american french and mexican biologists geologists and geophysicists participated in both the rise and rita expeditions the rise expedition was directed by scientists at the scripps institution of oceanography part of the university of california san diego project leaders were fred spiess and ken macdonald woods hole oceanographic institution provided the alvin and its support tender the catamaran lulu scripps provided surface survey vessels the melville and new horizon the expedition took place during march to may 1979 the rita project was directed by french scientists and was led by jean francheteau the major finding of the rise project'</li></ul> |
| 4 | <ul><li>'mmid nk which is finite if k ≥ 2 thus for suitably large ω displaystyle omega we have n [UNK] m k ≈ m [UNK] n k [UNK] n m ∞ m [UNK] n k − 1 m ≤ n displaystyle nmid mkapprox mmid nkleftsum nminfty mmid nkright1mleq n for k ≥ 1 the mode of the distribution of the number of enemy tanks is m for k ≥ 2 the credibility that the number of enemy tanks is equal to n displaystyle n is n n [UNK] m k k − 1 m − 1 k − 1 k − 1 n k − 1 m ≤ n displaystyle nnmid mkk1binom m1k1k1binom nk1mleq n the credibility that the number of enemy tanks n is greater than n is n n [UNK] m k 1 if n m m − 1 k − 1 n k − 1 if n ≥ m displaystyle nnmid mkbegincases1textif nmfrac binom m1k1binom nk1textif ngeq mendcases for k ≥ 3 n has the finite mean value m − 1 k − 1 k − 2 − 1 displaystyle m1k1k21 for k ≥ 4 n has the finite standard deviation k − 1 1 2 k − 2 − 1 k − 3 − 1 2 m − 1 1 2 m 1 − k 1 2 displaystyle k112k21k312m112m1k12 these formulas are derived below the following binomial coefficient identity is used below for simplifying series relating to the german tank problem [UNK] n m ∞ 1 n k k k − 1 1 m − 1 k − 1 displaystyle sum nminfty frac 1binom nkfrac kk1frac 1binom m1k1 this sum formula is somewhat analogous to the integral formula [UNK] n m ∞ d n n k 1 k − 1 1 m k − 1 displaystyle int nminfty frac dnnkfrac 1k1frac 1mk1 these formulas apply for k 1 observing one tank randomly out of a population of n tanks gives the serial number m with probability 1n for m ≤ n and zero probability for m n using iverson bracket notation this is written m m [UNK] n n k 1 m [UNK] n m ≤ n n displaystyle mmmid nnk1mmid nfrac mleq nn this is the conditional probability mass distribution function'</li><li>'growth in online social networks and other virtual communities has led to an increased use of the bass diffusion model the bass diffusion model is used to estimate the size and growth rate of these social networks the work by christian bauckhage and coauthors shows that the bass model provides a more pessimistic picture of the future than alternative models such as the weibull distribution and the shifted gompertz distribution bass 1969 distinguished between a case of pq wherein periodic sales grow and then decline a successful product has a periodic sales peak and a case of pq wherein periodic sales decline from launch no peak jain et al 1995 explored the impact of seeding when using seeding diffusion can begin when p qf0 0 even if p ’ s value is negative but a marketer uses seeding strategy with seed size of f0 pq the interpretation of a negative p value does not necessarily mean that the product is useless there can be cases wherein there are price or effort barriers to adoption when very few others have already adopted when others adopt the benefits from the product increase due to externalities or uncertainty reduction and the product becomes more and more plausible for many potential customers moldovan and goldenberg 2004 incorporated negative word of mouth wom effect on the diffusion which implies a possibility of a negative q negative q does not necessarily mean that adopters are disappointed and dissatisfied with their purchase it can fit a case wherein the benefit from a product declines as more people adopt for example for a certain demand level for train commuting reserved tickets may be sold to those who like to guarantee a seat those who do not reserve seating may have to commute while standing as more reserved seating are sold the crowding in the nonreserved railroad car is reduced and the likelihood of finding a seat in the nonreserved car increases thus reducing the incentive to buy reserved seating while the noncumulative sales curve with negative q is similar to those with q0 the cumulative sales curve presents a more interesting situation when p q the market will reach 100 of its potential eventually as for a regular positive value of q however if p q at the longrange the market will saturate at an equilibrium level – pq of its potential orbach 2022 summarized the diffusion behavior at each portion of the pq space and maps the extended pq regions beyond the positive right quadrant where diffusion is spontaneous to other regions where diffusion faces barriers negative p where diffusion requires “ stimuli ” to start or resistance of adopters to new members negative q which might stabilize the market below full adoption occur the model is one of'</li><li>'the excessive computational cost such a simulation would require numerical weather models have limited forecast skill at spatial resolutions under 1 kilometer 06 mi forcing complex wildfire models to parameterize the fire in order to calculate how the winds will be modified locally by the wildfire and to use those modified winds to determine the rate at which the fire will spread locally although models such as los alamos firetec solve for the concentrations of fuel and oxygen the computational grid cannot be fine enough to resolve the combustion reaction so approximations must be made for the temperature distribution within each grid cell as well as for the combustion reaction rates themselves atmospheric physics atmospheric thermodynamics tropical cyclone forecast model types of atmospheric models'</li></ul> |
| 19 | <ul><li>'##invasive lowcost and can be performed onsitea dilated portal vein diameter of greater than 13 or 15 mm is a sign of portal hypertension with a sensitivity estimated at 125 or 40 on doppler ultrasonography a slow velocity of 16 cms in addition to dilatation in the main portal vein are diagnostic of portal hypertension other signs of portal hypertension on ultrasound include a portal flow mean velocity of less than 12 cms porto – systemic collateral veins patent paraumbilical vein spleno – renal collaterals and dilated left and short gastric veins splenomegaly and signs of cirrhosis including nodularity of the liver surfacethe hepatic venous pressure gradient hvpg measurement has been accepted as the gold standard for assessing the severity of portal hypertension portal hypertension is defined as hvpg greater than or equal to 5 mmhg and is considered to be clinically significant when hvpg exceeds 10 to 12 mmhg pathogenesis the activation of neurohumoral factors as described in the pathophysiology section results in a high volume state due to sodium and water retention additionally with cirrhosis there is increased hydrostatic pressure and decreased production of albumin which lead to decreased oncotic pressure combined this leads to leakage of fluid into the peritoneal cavity management the management of ascites needs to be gradual to avoid sudden changes in systemic volume status which can precipitate hepatic encephalopathy kidney failure and death the management includes salt restriction in diet diuretics to urinate excess salt and water furosemide spironolactone paracentesis to manually remove the ascitic fluid and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt tips pathogenesis in cirrhosis there is bacterial overgrowth in the intestinal tract and increased permeability of the intestinal wall these bacteria most commonly e coli klebsiella are able to pass through the intestinal wall and into ascitic fluid leading to an inflammatory response management antibiotic treatment is usually with a third generation cephalosporin ceftriaxone or cefotaxime after a diagnostic paracentesis patients are also given albumin prevention primary prevention is given to highrisk groups secondary prevention is given to anyone who has previously been diagnosed with sbp medications for prevention are usually fluoroquinolones or sulfonamides pathogenesis increased portal pressure leads to dilation of existing vessels and the formation of'</li><li>'positions on the steroid nucleus and sidechain of the bile acid structure to avoid the problems associated with the production of lithocholic acid most species add a third hydroxyl group to chenodeoxycholic acid the subsequent removal of the 7α hydroxyl group by intestinal bacteria will then result in a less toxic but stillfunctional dihydroxy bile acid over the course of vertebrate evolution a number of positions have been chosen for placement of the third hydroxyl group initially the 16α position was favored in particular in birds later this position was superseded in a large number of species selecting the 12α position primates including humans utilize 12α for their third hydroxyl group position producing cholic acid in mice and other rodents 6β hydroxylation forms muricholic acids α or β depending on the 7 hydroxyl position pigs have 6α hydroxylation in hyocholic acid 3α6α7αtrihydroxy5βcholanoic acid and other species have a hydroxyl group on position 23 of the sidechain many other bile acids have been described often in small amounts resulting from bacterial enzymatic or other modifications the iso epimers have the 3hydroxyl group in the β position the allo epimers have the 5α configuration which changes the relative position of the a and b ringsursodeoxycholic acid was first isolated from bear bile which has been used medicinally for centuries its structure resembles chenodeoxycholic acid but with the 7hydroxyl group in the β positionobeticholic acid 6αethylchenodeoxycholic acid is a semisynthetic bile acid with greater activity as an fxr agonist which has been developed as a pharmaceutical agent in certain liver diseases bile acids also act as steroid hormones secreted from the liver absorbed from the intestine and having various direct metabolic actions in the body through the nuclear receptor farnesoid x receptor fxr also known by its gene name nr1h4 another bile acid receptor is the cell membrane receptor known as g proteincoupled bile acid receptor 1 or tgr5 many of their functions as signaling molecules in the liver and the intestines are by activating fxr whereas tgr5 may be involved in metabolic endocrine and neurological functions as surfactants or detergents bile acids are potentially toxic to cells and so their concentrations are tightly regulated activation of fxr in the liver inhibits synthesis of bile acids and is one'</li><li>'liver regeneration is the process by which the liver is able to replace lost liver tissue the liver is the only visceral organ with the capacity to regenerate the liver can regenerate after partial surgical removal or chemical injury as little as 51 of the original liver mass is required for the organ to regenerate back to full size the process of regeneration in mammals is mainly compensatory growth because while the lost mass of the liver is replaced it does not regain its original shape during compensatory hyperplasia the remaining liver tissue becomes larger so that the organ can continue to function in lower species such as fish the liver can regain both its original size and mass there are two types of damage from which the liver is able to regenerate one being a partial hepatectomy and the other being damage to the liver by toxins or infection the following describes regeneration following a partial hepatectomyfollowing partial hepatectomy regeneration occurs in three phases the first phase is the priming phase during this portion hundreds of genes are activated and prepare the liver for regeneration this priming phase occurs within 5 hours of the hepatectomy and deals mainly with events prior to entering the cell cycle and ensuring that hepatocytes can maintain their homeostatic functions the second phase involves activation of various growth factors including egfr epidermal growth factor receptor and cmet these two factors play a major role in liver regeneration the final phase is termination of proliferation by tgfβ transforming growth factor betaimmediately after a hepatectomy numerous signaling pathways activate to start the process of regeneration the first is an increase in urokinase activity urokinase activates matrix remodeling this remodeling causes the release of hgf hepatic growth factor and from this release which activates the release of the growth factors cmet and egfr these two growth factors play a major role in the regeneration process these processes occur outside of the hepatocyte and prime the liver for regeneration once these processes are complete hepatocytes are able to enter the liver to start the process of proliferation this is because there is a communication between βcatenin inside the hepatocyte and the growth factors egfr and cmet outside the hepatocyte this communication can occur because of βcatenin and notch1 move to the nucleus of the hepatocyte approximately 15 – 30 minutes after the hepatectomy the presence of these two proteins increases the regenerative response'</li></ul> |
| 26 | <ul><li>'solid vehicles tend to be based on natural or modified rosin mostly abietic acid pimaric acid and other resin acids or natural or synthetic resins watersoluble organic fluxes tend to contain vehicles based on highboiling polyols glycols diethylene glycol and higher polyglycols polyglycolbased surfactants and glycerol solvents – added to facilitate processing and deposition to the joint solvents are typically dried out during preheating before the soldering operation incomplete solvent removal may lead to boiling off and spattering of solder paste particles or molten solder additives – numerous other chemicals modifying the flux properties additives can be surfactants especially nonionic corrosion inhibitors stabilizers and antioxidants tackifiers thickeners and other rheological modifiers especially for solder pastes plasticizers especially for fluxcored solders and dyes inorganic fluxes contain components playing the same role as in organic fluxes they are more often used in brazing and other hightemperature applications where organic fluxes have insufficient thermal stability the chemicals used often simultaneously act as both vehicles and activators typical examples are borax borates fluoroborates fluorides and chlorides halogenides are active at lower temperatures than borates and are therefore used for brazing of aluminium and magnesium alloys they are however highly corrosive the role of the activators is primarily disruption and removal of the oxide layer on the metal surface and also the molten solder to facilitate direct contact between the molten solder and metal the reaction product is usually soluble or at least dispersible in the molten vehicle the activators are usually either acids or compounds that release acids at elevated temperature the general reaction of oxide removal is metal oxide acid → salt watersalts are ionic in nature and can cause problems from metallic leaching or dendrite growth with possible product failure in some cases particularly in highreliability applications flux residues must be removed the activity of the activator generally increases with temperature up to a certain value where activity ceases either due to thermal decomposition or excessive volatilization however the oxidation rate of the metals also increases with temperature at high temperatures copper oxide reacts with hydrogen chloride to watersoluble and mechanically weak copper chloride and with rosin to salts of copper and abietic acid which is soluble in molten rosin some activators may also contain metal ions capable of exchange reaction with the underlying metal such fluxes aid soldering by chemically deposit'</li><li>'in metalworking and jewelry making casting is a process in which a liquid metal is delivered into a mold usually by a crucible that contains a negative impression ie a threedimensional negative image of the intended shape the metal is poured into the mold through a hollow channel called a sprue the metal and mold are then cooled and the metal part the casting is extracted casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methodscasting processes have been known for thousands of years and have been widely used for sculpture especially in bronze jewelry in precious metals and weapons and tools highly engineered castings are found in 90 percent of durable goods including cars trucks aerospace trains mining and construction equipment oil wells appliances pipes hydrants wind turbines nuclear plants medical devices defense products toys and moretraditional techniques include lostwax casting which may be further divided into centrifugal casting and vacuum assist direct pour casting plaster mold casting and sand casting the modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories expendable and nonexpendable casting it is further broken down by the mold material such as sand or metal and pouring method such as gravity vacuum or low pressure expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand plastic shell plaster and investment lostwax technique moldings this method of mold casting involves the use of temporary nonreusable molds sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting and has been used for centuries sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a very reasonable cost not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost but there are other benefits to sand casting such as very smallsize operations the process allows for castings small enough fit in the palm of ones hand to those large enough for a train car bed one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car sand casting also allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds sand casting requires a lead time of days or even weeks sometimes for production at high output rates 1 – 20 pieceshrmold and is unsurpassed for largepart production green moist sand which is black in color has almost no part weight limit whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of 2300 – 2700 kg 5100 – 6000 lb minimum part weight ranges from 0075 – 01 kg 017 – 022 lb the sand is bonded using clays chemical binders or polymerized oils such as motor oil sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little maintenance'</li><li>'its hydrogen content reaches equilibrium with the vapor pressure of h2 in the melt the h2 concentration in the gas is measured and converted into a reading of the gas concentration in the metal this method is fast reproducible and accurate and can be used online on the factory floor the amount of h2 in the gas loop of the instrument is determined by a thermal conductivity sensor which provides high reproducibility and a broad measurement range'</li></ul> |
| 20 | <ul><li>'a prosopographical network is a system which represents a historical group made up by individual actors and their interactions within a delimited spatial and temporal range the network science methodology offers an alternative way of analyzing the patterns of relationships composition and activities of people studied in their own historical context since prosopography examines the whole of a past society its individuals who made it up and its structure this independent science of social history uses a collective study of biographies of a welldefined group in a multiple career analysis for collecting and interpreting relevant quantities of data these same set of data can be employed for constructing a network of the studied group prosopographical network studies have emerged as a young and dynamic field in historical research nevertheless the category of prosopographical network is in its formative initial phase and as a consequence it is hard to view as a stable and defined notion in history and beyond social network analysis see also narrative network with the advent of the study of complex systems graph theory provides analysts of historical groups and collective lives with relatively simple tools for answering questions such as how many degrees of separation on average separate all members of the prosopographical group which historical character is connected to the most other members of the studied range how densely or loosely connected was the group as a whole such questions hold a natural interest for prosopographers who can then begin to look for certain characteristics – class office occupation gender faction ethnic background – and identify patterns of connectivity that they might have otherwise missed when confronted with a mass of data too large for normal synthetic approaches the concepts and methods of social network analysis in historical research are recently being used not only as a mere metaphor but are increasingly applied in practice the analysis and interpretation of prosopographical networks is an interdisciplinary field of study in social studies and humanities this field emerged from philology history genealogical studies and sociology and social network analysis the term prosopography comes from the word prosopoeia a figure in classical rhetoric in which an imagined person is figured and represented as if present claude nicolet defined the main of prosopography as the history of groups as elements in political and social history achieved by isolating series of persons having certain political or social characteristics in common and then analyzing each series in terms of multiple criteria in order both to obtain information specific to individuals and to identify the constants and the variables among the data for whole groupsaccording to lawrence stone prosopography had become a twofold tool for historical research 1 it helps to unveil interests and connections hidden or unclear in the narrative ie rhetoric historiography etc and 2 it'</li><li>'for the english word source german usually uses sekundarliteratur secondary literature for secondary sources for historical facts leaving sekundarquelle secondary source to historiography a sekundarquelle is a source which can tell about a lost primarquelle primary source such as a letter quoting from minutes which are no longer known to exist and so cannot be consulted by the historian in general secondary sources in a scientific context may be referred to as secondary literature and can be selfdescribed as review articles or metaanalysis primary source materials are typically defined as original research papers written by the scientists who actually conducted the study an example of primary source material is the purpose methods results conclusions sections of a research paper in imrad style in a scientific journal by the authors who conducted the study in some fields a secondary source may include a summary of the literature in the introduction of a scientific paper a description of what is known about a disease or treatment in a chapter in a reference book or a synthesis written to review available literature a survey of previous work in the field in a primary peerreviewed source is secondary source information this allows secondary sourcing of recent findings in areas where full review articles have not yet been published a book review that contains the judgment of the reviewer about the book is a primary source for the reviewers opinion and a secondary source for the contents of the book a summary of the book within a review is a secondary source in library and information sciences secondary sources are generally regarded as those sources that summarize or add commentary to primary sources in the context of the particular information or idea under study an important use of secondary sources in the field of mathematics has been to make difficult mathematical ideas and proofs from primary sources more accessible to the public in other sciences tertiary sources are expected to fulfill the introductory role secondary sources in history and humanities are usually books or scholarly journals from the perspective of a later interpreter especially by a later scholar in the humanities a peer reviewed article is always a secondary source the delineation of sources as primary and secondary first arose in the field of historiography as historians attempted to identify and classify the sources of historical writing in scholarly writing an important objective of classifying sources is to determine the independence and reliability of sources in original scholarly writing historians rely on primary sources read in the context of the scholarly interpretationsfollowing the rankean model established by german scholarship in the 19th century historians use archives of primary sources most undergraduate research projects rely on secondary source material with perhaps snippets of primary sources law in the legal field source classification'</li><li>'philosophy of history is the philosophical study of history and its discipline the term was coined by the french philosopher voltairein contemporary philosophy a distinction has developed between the speculative philosophy of history and the critical philosophy of history now referred to as analytic the split between these approaches may be approximately compared by analogy and on the strength of regional and academic influences to the schism in commitments between analytic and continental philosophy or very roughly between positivism and nihilism wherein the analytic approach is pragmatic and the speculative approach attends more closely to a metaphysics or antimetaphysics of determining forces like language or the phenomenology of perception at the level of background assumptions at the level of practice the analytic approach questions the meaning and purpose of the historical process whereas the latter speculative approach studies the foundations and implications of history and the historical method the names of these are derived from c d broads distinction between critical philosophy and speculative philosophythe divergence between these approaches crystallizes in the disagreements between hume and kant on the question of causality hume and kant may be viewed in retrospect — by expressive anachronism — as analytic and speculative respectively historians like foucault or hannah arendt who tend to be spoken of as theorists or philosophers before they are acknowledged as historians may largely be identified with the speculative approach whereas generic academic history tends to be cleave to analytic and narrative approaches in his poetics aristotle 384 – 322 bce maintained the superiority of poetry over history because poetry speaks of what ought or must be true rather than merely what is true herodotus a fifthcentury bce contemporary of socrates broke from the homeric tradition of passing narrative from generation to generation in his work investigations ancient greek ιστοριαι istoriai also known as histories herodotus regarded by some as the first systematic historian and later plutarch 46 – 120 ce freely invented speeches for their historical figures and chose their historical subjects with an eye toward morally improving the reader history was supposed to teach good examples for one to follow the assumption that history should teach good examples influenced how writers produced history from the classical period to the renaissance historians focus alternated between subjects designed to improve mankind and a devotion to fact history was composed mainly of hagiographies of monarchs and epic poetry describing heroic deeds such as the song of roland — about the battle of roncevaux pass 778 during charlemagnes first campaign to conquer the iberian peninsulain the fourteenth century ibn khaldun whom george sarton considered one of the first philosophers of history discussed his philosophy of history and'</li></ul> |
| 7 | <ul><li>'caused by sensorineural hearing loss such as abnormal spectral and temporal processing and which may negatively affect speech perception are more difficult to compensate for using digital signal processing and in some cases may be exacerbated by the use of amplification conductive hearing losses which do not involve damage to the cochlea tend to be better treated by hearing aids the hearing aid is able to sufficiently amplify sound to account for the attenuation caused by the conductive component once the sound is able to reach the cochlea at normal or nearnormal levels the cochlea and auditory nerve are able to transmit signals to the brain normally common issues with hearing aid fitting and use are the occlusion effect loudness recruitment and understanding speech in noise once a common problem feedback is generally now wellcontrolled through the use of feedback management algorithms there are several ways of evaluating how well a hearing aid compensates for hearing loss one approach is audiometry which measures a subjects hearing levels in laboratory conditions the threshold of audibility for various sounds and intensities is measured in a variety of conditions although audiometric tests may attempt to mimic realworld conditions the patients own every day experiences may differ an alternative approach is selfreport assessment where the patient reports their experience with the hearing aidhearing aid outcome can be represented by three dimensions hearing aid usage aided speech recognition benefitsatisfactionthe most reliable method for assessing the correct adjustment of a hearing aid is through real ear measurement real ear measurements or probe microphone measurements are an assessment of the characteristics of hearing aid amplification near the ear drum using a silicone probe tube microphonecurrent research is also pointing towards hearing aids and proper amplification as a treatment for tinnitus a medical condition which manifests itself as a ringing or buzzing in the ears there are many types of hearing aids also known as hearing instruments which vary in size power and circuitry among the different sizes and models are body worn aids were the first portable electronic hearing aids and were invented by harvey fletcher while working at bell laboratories body aids consist of a case and an earmold attached by a wire the case contains the electronic amplifier components controls and battery while the earmold typically contains a miniature loudspeaker the case is typically about the size of a pack of playing cards and is carried in a pocket or on a belt without the size constraints of smaller hearing devices body worn aid designs can provide large amplification and long battery life at a lower cost body aids are still used in emerging markets because of their relatively low cost behind the'</li><li>'a hearing aid is a device designed to improve hearing by making sound audible to a person with hearing loss hearing aids are classified as medical devices in most countries and regulated by the respective regulations small audio amplifiers such as personal sound amplification products psaps or other plain sound reinforcing systems cannot be sold as hearing aids early devices such as ear trumpets or ear horns were passive amplification cones designed to gather sound energy and direct it into the ear canal modern devices are computerised electroacoustic systems that transform environmental sound to make it audible according to audiometrical and cognitive rules modern devices also utilize sophisticated digital signal processing to try and improve speech intelligibility and comfort for the user such signal processing includes feedback management wide dynamic range compression directionality frequency lowering and noise reduction modern hearing aids require configuration to match the hearing loss physical features and lifestyle of the wearer the hearing aid is fitted to the most recent audiogram and is programmed by frequency this process called fitting can be performed by the user in simple cases by a doctor of audiology also called an audiologist aud or by a hearing instrument specialist his or audioprosthologist the amount of benefit a hearing aid delivers depends in large part on the quality of its fitting almost all hearing aids in use in the us are digital hearing aids as analog aids are phased out devices similar to hearing aids include the osseointegrated auditory prosthesis formerly called the boneanchored hearing aid and cochlear implant hearing aids are used for a variety of pathologies including sensorineural hearing loss conductive hearing loss and singlesided deafness hearing aid candidacy was traditionally determined by a doctor of audiology or a certified hearing specialist who will also fit the device based on the nature and degree of the hearing loss being treated the amount of benefit experienced by the user of the hearing aid is multifactorial depending on the type severity and etiology of the hearing loss the technology and fitting of the device and on the motivation personality lifestyle and overall health of the user overthecounter hearing aids which address mild to moderate hearing loss are designed to be adjusted by the userhearing aids are incapable of truly correcting a hearing loss they are an aid to make sounds more audible the most common form of hearing loss for which hearing aids are sought is sensorineural resulting from damage to the hair cells and synapses of the cochlea and auditory nerve sensorineural hearing loss reduces the sensitivity to sound which a hearing aid can partially accommodate by making sound louder other decrements in auditory perception'</li><li>'reference an increase of 6 db represents a doubling of the spl or energy of the sound wave and therefore its propensity to cause ear damage because human ears hear logarithmically not linearly it takes an increase of 10 db to produce a sound that is perceived to be twice as loud ear damage due to noise is proportional to sound intensity not perceived loudness so its misleading to rely on subjective perception of loudness as an indication of the risk to hearing ie it can significantly underestimate the danger while the standards differ moderately in levels of intensity and duration of exposure considered safe some guidelines can be derivedthe safe amount of exposure is reduced by a factor of 2 for every exchange rate 3 db for niosh standard or 5 db for osha standard increase in spl for example the safe daily exposure amount at 85 db 90 db for osha is 8 hours while the safe exposure at 94 dba nightclub level is only 1 hour noise trauma can also cause a reversible hearing loss called a temporary threshold shift this typically occurs in individuals who are exposed to gunfire or firecrackers and hear ringing in their ears after the event tinnitus ambient environmental noise populations living near airports railyards and train stations freeways and industrial areas are exposed to levels of noise typically in the 65 to 75 dba range if lifestyles include significant outdoor or open window conditions these exposures over time can degrade hearing us dept of housing and urban development sets standards for noise impact in residential and commercial construction zones huds noise standards may be found in 24 cfr part 51 subpart b environmental noise above 65 db defines a noiseimpacted area personal audio electronics personal audio equipment such as ipods ipods often reach 115 decibels or higher can produce powerful enough sound to cause significant nihl acoustic trauma exposure to a single event of extremely loud noise such as explosions can also cause temporary or permanent hearing loss a typical source of acoustic trauma is a tooloud music concert workplace noise the osha standards 191095 general industry occupational noise exposure and 192652 construction industry occupational noise exposure identify the level of 90 dba for 8 hour exposure as the level necessary to protect workers from hearing loss disease or disorder inflammatory suppurative labyrinthitis or otitis interna inflammation of the inner ear diabetes mellitus a recent study found that hearing loss is twice as common in people with diabetes as it is in those who dont have the disease also of the 86 million adults in the us who have prediabetes the rate of hearing loss is 30 percent higher than in'</li></ul> |
| 10 | <ul><li>'dally division abnormally delayed is the name of a gene that encodes a hsmodifiedprotein found in the fruit fly drosophila melanogaster the protein has to be processed after being codified and in its mature form it is composed by 626 amino acids forming a proteoglycan rich in heparin sulfate which is anchored to the cell surface via covalent linkage to glycophosphatidylinositol gpi so we can define it as a glypican for its normal biosynthesis it requires sugarless sgl a gene that encodes an enzyme which plays a critical role in the process of modification of dally dally works as a coreceptor of some secreted signaling molecules as fibroblast growth factor vascular endothelial growth factor hepatocyte growth factor and members of the wnt signaling pathway tgfb and hedgehog families it is also necessary for the cell division patterning during the postembryonic development of the nervous system it is a regulatory component of the wg receptor and is part of a multiprotein complex together with frizzled fz transmembrane proteins therefore it regulates two cell growth factors in drosophila melanogaster wingless wg and decapentaplegic dpp it must be said that in vertebrates the equivalent to dpp are bone morphogenetic proteins and the mammalian equal to wg might be integrinbeta 4 the first one wg controls cell proliferation and differentiation during embryos development specifically in epidermis whereas the latter dpp plays a role in the imaginal discs ’ growth dpp and wg are mutually antagonistic in patterning genitalia concretely dally selectively regulates both wg signalling in epidermis and dpp in genitalia this selectivity is supposed to be controlled by the type of glycosaminoglycan gag bonded to the dally protein considering that there is a huge structural variety in gags tissue malformations occur in various situations as said in the introduction the sgl enzyme is essential for a normal biosynthesis of dally that is why the absence or malfunction of this enzyme doesn ’ t allow the correct wg and dpp signalling also the expression of mutated dally proteins alters wnt signalling pathways which leads to anomalies in drosophila melanogaster ’ s eye antennal genital wing and neural morphogenesis dal'</li><li>'membrane transport memory b cell memory t cell mendelian inheritance metabolic pathway metabolism metabotropic glutamate receptor metalloprotein metaphase metazoa methionine micelle michaelismenten kinetics microbe microbiology microevolution microfilament microfilament protein microsatellite microscope microtiter plate microtubuleassociated protein mineralocorticoid receptor minisatellite mitochondrial membrane mitochondrion mitogen receptor mitosis mitotic spindle mixture modern evolutionary synthesis molar volume mole unit molecular biology molecular chaperone molecular dynamics molecular engineering molecular evolution molecular mechanics molecular modelling molecular orbital molecular phylogeny molecular sequence data molecule monoamine monoclonal antibody monomer monosaccharide monosaccharide transport protein morphogenesis morphogenetic field mos gene mossbauer spectroscopy mri msh mu opioid receptor muchain immunoglobulin mucin mullers ratchet multiresistance muscarinic receptor muscle muscle protein mutagen mutation myc gene mycology myelin basic protein myeloma protein myosin nformylmethionine nformylmethionine leucylphenylalanine nmethyldaspartate receptor nmethylaspartate nterminus nadh nadph nakatpase native state nef gene product neoplasm protein nernst equation nerve nerve growth factor nerve growth factor receptor nerve tissue protein nerve tissue protein s 100 nervous system neurobiology neurofilament protein neurokinin a neurokinin k neurokinin1 receptor neurokinin2 receptor neuron neuronal cell adhesion molecule neuropeptide neuropeptide receptor neuropeptide y neuropeptide y receptor neuroscience neurotensin neurotensin receptor neurotransmitter neurotransmitter receptor neutral theory of molecular evolution neutron neutron activation analysis nfkappa b nicotinic receptor nitrogen nitroglycerine nobel prize in chemistry noncompetitive inhibition nuclear lamina nuclear localization signal nuclear magnetic resonance nmr nuclear protein nucleic acid nucleic acid regulatory sequence nucleic acid repetitive sequence nucleic acid sequence homology nucleon nucleophile nucleoside nucleosome nucleotide nutrition octreotide odorant receptor olfaction olfactory receptor neuron oligopeptide oncogene oncogene protein oncogen'</li><li>'an endergonic reaction is an anabolic chemical reaction that consumes energy it is the opposite of an exergonic reaction it has a positive δg because it takes more energy to break the bonds of the reactant than the energy of the products offer ie the products have weaker bonds than the reactants thus endergonic reactions are thermodynamically unfavorable additionally endergonic reactions are usually anabolicthe free energy δg gained or lost in a reaction can be calculated as follows δg δh − tδs where ∆g gibbs free energy ∆h enthalpy t temperature in kelvins and ∆s entropy glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose into pyruvate producing two molecules of atp per 1 molecule of glucose in the process when a cell has a higher concentration of atp than adp ie has a high energy charge the cell cant undergo glycolysis releasing energy from available glucose to perform biological work pyruvate is one product of glycolysis and can be shuttled into other metabolic pathways gluconeogenesis etc as needed by the cell additionally glycolysis produces reducing equivalents in the form of nadh nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide which will ultimately be used to donate electrons to the electron transport chaingluconeogenesis is the opposite of glycolysis when the cells energy charge is low the concentration of adp is higher than that of atp the cell must synthesize glucose from carbon containing biomolecules such as proteins amino acids fats pyruvate etc for example proteins can be broken down into amino acids and these simpler carbon skeletons are used to build synthesize glucosethe citric acid cycle is a process of cellular respiration in which acetyl coenzyme a synthesized from pyruvate dehydrogenase is first reacted with oxaloacetate to yield citrate the remaining eight reactions produce other carboncontaining metabolites these metabolites are successively oxidized and the free energy of oxidation is conserved in the form of the reduced coenzymes fadh2 and nadh these reduced electron carriers can then be reoxidized when they transfer electrons to the electron transport chainketosis is a metabolic process whereby ketone bodies are used by the cell for energy instead of using glucose cells often turn to ketosis as a source of energy when glucose levels are low eg during starvationoxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport'</li></ul> |
| 8 | <ul><li>'design limit and when you got there you wouldnt be able to tell because very few commercial pilots have ever flown 25 g but in the a320 you wouldnt have to hesitate you could just slam the controller all the way to the side and instantly get out of there as fast as the plane will take you thus the makers of the airbus argue envelope protection doesnt constrain the pilot it liberates the pilot from uncertainty – and thus enhances safety in the second case eg when using a forcefeedbacksystem to communicate with the pilot if the pilot tries to apply even more rearward control the flight envelope protection would present increasing counterforces on the controls so that the pilot has to apply increasing force in order to continue the control input that is perceived as dangerous by the flight envelope protectionwhile most designers of modern flybywire aircraft stick to either one of these two solutions sidestickcontrol no feedback or conventional control feedback see also below there are also approaches in science to combine both of them as a study demonstrated forcefeedback applied to the sidestick of an aircraft controlled via roll rate and gload as eg a modern airbus aircraft can be used to increase adherence to a safe flight envelope and thus reduce the risk of pilots entering dangerous states of flights outside the operational borders while maintaining the pilots final authority and increasing their situation awareness the airbus a320 was the first commercial aircraft to incorporate full flightenvelope protection into its flightcontrol software this was instigated by former airbus senior vice president for engineering bernard ziegler in the airbus the flight envelope protection cannot be overridden completely although the crew can fly beyond flight envelope limits by selecting an alternate control law boeing took a different approach with the 777 by allowing the crew to override flight envelope limits by using excessive force on the flight controls one objection raised against flight envelope protection is the incident that happened to china airlines flight 006 a boeing 747sp09 northwest of san francisco in 1985 in this flight incident the crew was forced to overstress and structurally damage the horizontal tail surfaces in order to recover from a roll and nearvertical dive this had been caused by an automatic disconnect of the autopilot and incorrect handling of a yaw brought about by an engine flameout the pilot recovered control with about 10000 ft of altitude remaining from its original highaltitude cruise to do this the pilot had to pull the aircraft with an estimated 55 g or more than twice its design limits had the aircraft incorporated a flight envelope protection system this'</li><li>'out radially from the hub in the general direction of the lightning source the dots are at different distances along the line because the strokes have different intensities these characteristic lines of dots in such sensor displays are called radial spread these sensors operate in the very low frequency vlf and low frequency lf range below 300 khz which provides the strongest lightning signals those generated by return strokes from the ground but unless the sensor is close to the flash they do not pick up the weaker signals from ic discharges which have a significant amount of energy in the high frequency hf range up to 30 mhz another issue with vlf lightning receivers is that they pick up reflections from the ionosphere so sometimes can not tell the difference in distance between lightning 100 km away and several hundred km away at distances of several hundred km the reflected signal termed the sky wave is stronger than the direct signal termed the ground wave the earthionosphere waveguide traps electromagnetic vlf and elf waves electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide the waveguide is dispersive which means that their group velocity depends on frequency the difference of the group time delay of a lighting pulse at adjacent frequencies is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver together with the direction finding method this allows locating lightning strikes by a single station up to distances of 10000 km from their origin moreover the eigenfrequencies of the earthionospheric waveguide the schumann resonances at about 75 hz are used to determine the global thunderstorm activitybecause of the difficulty in obtaining distance to lightning with a single sensor the only current reliable method for positioning lightning is through interconnected networks of spaced sensors covering an area of the earths surface using timeofarrival differences between the sensors andor crossedbearings from different sensors several such national networks currently operating in the us can provide the position of cg flashes but currently cannot reliably detect and position ic flashes there are a few small area networks such as kennedy space centers ldar network one of whose sensors is pictured at the top of this article that have vhf time of arrival systems and can detect and position ic flashes these are called lightning mapper arrays they typically cover a circle 30 – 40 miles in diameter automated airport weather station lightning prediction system convective storm detection uk military emp detectors us military emp detectors'</li><li>'one and only one end system to a predetermined set of end systems there can be one or more receiving end systems connected within each virtual link each virtual link is allocated dedicated bandwidth sum of all vl bandwidth allocation gap bag rates x mtu with the total amount of bandwidth defined by the system integrator however total bandwidth cannot exceed the maximum available bandwidth on the network bidirectional communications must therefore require the specification of a complementary vl each vl is frozen in specification to ensure that the network has a designed maximum traffic hence determinism also the switch having a vl configuration table loaded can reject any erroneous data transmission that may otherwise swamp other branches of the network additionally there can be subvirtual links subvls that are designed to carry less critical data subvirtual links are assigned to a particular virtual link data are read in a roundrobin sequence among the virtual links with data to transmit also subvirtual links do not provide guaranteed bandwidth or latency due to the buffering but afdx specifies that latency is measured from the traffic regulator function anyway bag stands for bandwidth allocation gap this is one of the main features of the afdx protocol this is the maximum rate data can be sent and it is guaranteed to be sent at that interval when setting the bag rate for each vl care must be taken so there will be enough bandwidth for other vls and the total speed cannot exceed 100 mbits each switch has filtering policing and forwarding functions that should be able to process at least 4096 vls therefore in a network with multiple switches cascaded star topology the total number of virtual links is nearly limitless there is no specified limit to the number of virtual links that can be handled by each end system although this will be determined by the bag rates and maximum frame size specified for each vl versus the ethernet data rate however the number of subvls that may be created in a single virtual link is limited to four the switch must also be nonblocking at the data rates that are specified by the system integrator and in practice this may mean that the switch shall have a switching capacity that is the sum of all of its physical ports since afdx utilizes the ethernet protocol at the mac layer it is possible to use high performance cots switches with layer 2 routing as afdx switches for testing purposes as a costcutting measure however some features of a real afdx switch may be missing such as traffic policing and redundancy functions the afdx bus is used in'</li></ul> |
| 0 | <ul><li>'the sofar channel short for sound fixing and ranging channel or deep sound channel dsc is a horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound is at its minimum the sofar channel acts as a waveguide for sound and low frequency sound waves within the channel may travel thousands of miles before dissipating an example was reception of coded signals generated by the navy chartered ocean surveillance vessel cory chouest off heard island located in the southern indian ocean between africa australia and antarctica by hydrophones in portions of all five major ocean basins and as distant as the north atlantic and north pacificthis phenomenon is an important factor in ocean surveillance the deep sound channel was discovered and described independently by maurice ewing and j lamar worzel at columbia university and leonid brekhovskikh at the lebedev physics institute in the 1940s in testing the concept in 1944 ewing and worzel hung a hydrophone from saluda a sailing vessel assigned to the underwater sound laboratory with a second ship setting off explosive charges up to 900 nmi 1000 mi 1700 km away temperature is the dominant factor in determining the speed of sound in the ocean in areas of higher temperatures eg near the ocean surface there is higher sound speed temperature decreases with depth with sound speed decreasing accordingly until temperature becomes stable and pressure becomes the dominant factor the axis of the sofar channel lies at the point of minimum sound speed at a depth where pressure begins dominating temperature and sound speed increases this point is at the bottom of the thermocline and the top of the deep isothermal layer and thus has some seasonal variance other acoustic ducts exist particularly in the upper mixed layer but the ray paths lose energy with either surface or bottom reflections in the sofar channel low frequencies in particular are refracted back into the duct so that energy loss is small and the sound travels thousands of miles analysis of heard island feasibility test data received by the ascension island missile impact locating system hydrophones at an intermediate range of 9200 km 5700 mi 5000 nmi from the source found surprisingly high signaltonoise ratios ranging from 19 to 30 db with unexpected phase stability and amplitude variability after a travel time of about 1 hour 44 minutes and 17 seconds within the duct sound waves trace a path that oscillates across the sofar channel axis so that a single signal will have multiple arrival times with a signature of multiple pulses climaxing in a sharply defined end that sharply defined end representing a near axial arrival path is sometimes termed the sofar finale and the earlier ones the sofar symphony those effects are due to the larger sound channel'</li><li>'in summary the technology that originated with underwater sonar 40 years ago has been made practical for reproduction of audible sound in air by pompeis paper and device which according to his aes paper 1998 demonstrated that distortion had been reduced to levels comparable to traditional loudspeaker systems the nonlinear interaction mixes ultrasonic tones in air to produce sum and difference frequencies a dsb doublesideband amplitudemodulation scheme with an appropriately large baseband dc offset to produce the demodulating tone superimposed on the modulated audio spectrum is one way to generate the signal that encodes the desired baseband audio spectrum this technique suffers from extremely heavy distortion as not only the demodulating tone interferes but also all other frequencies present interfere with one another the modulated spectrum is convolved with itself doubling its bandwidth by the length property of the convolution the baseband distortion in the bandwidth of the original audio spectrum is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the dc offset demodulation tone superimposed on the signal a larger tone results in less distortion further distortion is introduced by the second order differentiation property of the demodulation process the result is a multiplication of the desired signal by the function ω² in frequency this distortion may be equalized out with the use of preemphasis filtering increase amplitude of high frequency signal by the timeconvolution property of the fourier transform multiplication in the time domain is a convolution in the frequency domain convolution between a baseband signal and a unity gain pure carrier frequency shifts the baseband spectrum in frequency and halves its magnitude though no energy is lost one halfscale copy of the replica resides on each half of the frequency axis this is consistent with parsevals theorem the modulation depth m is a convenient experimental parameter when assessing the total harmonic distortion in the demodulated signal it is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the dc offset thd increases proportionally with m1² these distorting effects may be better mitigated by using another modulation scheme that takes advantage of the differential squaring device nature of the nonlinear acoustic effect modulation of the second integral of the square root of the desired baseband audio signal without adding a dc offset results in convolution in frequency of the modulated squareroot spectrum half the bandwidth of the original signal with itself due to the nonlinear channel effects this convolution in frequency is a multiplication in time of the signal by itself or a squaring this again doubles the bandwidth of the spectrum reproducing the second time integral of'</li><li>'t displaystyle ztrtixt where i is the imaginary unit in zs rs is not the laplace transform of the time domain acoustic resistance rt zs is in zω rω is not the fourier transform of the time domain acoustic resistance rt zω is in zt rt is the time domain acoustic resistance and xt is the hilbert transform of the time domain acoustic resistance rt according to the definition of the analytic representationinductive acoustic reactance denoted xl and capacitive acoustic reactance denoted xc are the positive part and negative part of acoustic reactance respectively x s x l s − x c s displaystyle xsxlsxcs x ω x l ω − x c ω displaystyle xomega xlomega xcomega x t x l t − x c t displaystyle xtxltxct acoustic admittance denoted y is the laplace transform or the fourier transform or the analytic representation of time domain acoustic conductance y s d e f l g s 1 z s l q s l p s displaystyle ysstackrel mathrm def mathcal lgsfrac 1zsfrac mathcal lqsmathcal lps y ω d e f f g ω 1 z ω f q ω f p ω displaystyle yomega stackrel mathrm def mathcal fgomega frac 1zomega frac mathcal fqomega mathcal fpomega y t d e f g a t z − 1 t 1 2 q a ∗ p − 1 a t displaystyle ytstackrel mathrm def gmathrm a tz1tfrac 12leftqmathrm a leftp1rightmathrm a rightt where z −1 is the convolution inverse of z p −1 is the convolution inverse of pacoustic conductance denoted g and acoustic susceptance denoted b are the real part and imaginary part of acoustic admittance respectively y s g s i b s displaystyle ysgsibs y ω g ω i b ω displaystyle yomega gomega ibomega y t g t i b t displaystyle ytgtibt where in ys gs is not the laplace transform of the time domain acoustic conductance gt ys is in yω gω is not the fourier transform of the time domain acoustic conductance gt yω is in yt gt is the time domain acoustic conductance and bt is the hilbert transform of the time domain acoustic'</li></ul> |
| 11 | <ul><li>'and therefore increase preload but not so much as to alter haemodynamics the minimum and maximum volumes vmax and vmin from each loop in the series of loops are plotted on a graph vmax and vmin lines are extrapolated and at their point of intersection where vmax is equal to vmin must be zero — conductance is parallel conductance only the volume at this point is the correction volume admittance techniques offer an alternative to the saline bolus as a means of determining gp several parameters can be calculated for each loop eg enddiastolic pressure endsystolic pressure ejection and filling intervals contractility index stroke volume and ejection fraction more importantly other interesting parameters are derived from series of loops obtained under changing conditions for example the enddiastolic pressurevolume relationship edpvr and endsystolic pressurevolume relationship espvr are derived from series of loops obtained by slowly inflating a balloon to occlude the inferior vena cava a procedure that reduces cardiac preload edpvr and espvr are valuable because they are loadindependent indices of left ventricular function they also measure left ventricle compliancestiffness edpvr and contractility espvr respectively other parameters derived from series of loops are timevarying elastance endsystolic elastance also called maximal elastance preload recruitable stroke work preload adjusted d p d t m a x displaystyle operatorname d p over operatorname d tmax d p d t m a x displaystyle operatorname d p over operatorname d tmax vs enddiastolic volume signal processing'</li><li>'both groups'</li><li>'das reizleitungssystem des saugetierherzens english the conduction system of the mammalian heart is a scientific monograph published in 1906 by sunao tawara it has been recognized by cardiologists as a monumental discovery and a milestone in cardiac electrophysiologythe monograph revealed the existence of the atrioventricular node and the function of purkinje cells it was used by arthur keith and martin flack as a detailed guide in their attempts to verify the existence of the bundle of his which subsequently led to their discovery of the sinoatrial node throughout the beginning of the 20th century tawaras monograph influenced the work of many cardiologists and it was later cited by willem einthoven in his anatomical interpretation of the electrocardiogram prior to tawaras discoveries it was assumed that electrical conduction through the bundle of his was slow because of the long interval between atrial and ventricular contractions the swiss cardiologist wilhelm his jr assumed that the heart bundle was connected directly to the base of the ventricle and physiologists incorrectly taught that the base of the ventricle contracted first followed by the apexhowever tawara postulated that ventricular contraction occurs in the opposite manner with the apex contracting earlier than the base he also believed that the hearts electrical conduction was not slow but rapid working under the guidance of his mentor ludwig aschoff tawara performed a histological examination of 150 hearts with myocarditis which led to the discovery of aschoff bodies and he began examining the atrioventricular bundle before embarking on a comprehensive study of the anatomy and histology of the hearts conduction systemthe implications of his work were immediately recognized by aschoff who arranged for it to be published in the form of a monograph tawaras monograph titled das reizleitungssystem des saugetierherzens english the conduction system of the mammalian heart was published in 1906 the most important discoveries are listed below the bundle of his is divided into 2 bundle branches that are connected with a fanlike group of “ subendocardially scattered characteristic muscular bundles ” purkinje cells act as a pathway for the atrioventricular connecting system the atrioventricular connecting system starts in the atrioventricular node moves into the fibrocartilaginous portion of the septum bundle of his divides into defined left and right bundle branches and descends into the terminal ends of the purkinje fiberstawara commented that the system'</li></ul> |
| 3 | <ul><li>'the trifunctional hypothesis of prehistoric protoindoeuropean society postulates a tripartite ideology ideologie tripartite reflected in the existence of three classes or castes — priests warriors and commoners farmers or tradesmen — corresponding to the three functions of the sacral the martial and the economic respectively the trifunctional thesis is primarily associated with the french mythographer georges dumezil who proposed it in 1929 in the book flamenbrahman and later in mitravaruna according to georges dumezil 1898 – 1986 protoindoeuropean society had three main groups corresponding to three distinct functions sovereignty which fell into two distinct and complementary subparts one formal juridical and priestly but worldly the other powerful unpredictable and priestly but rooted in the supernatural world military connected with force the military and war productivity herding farming and crafts ruled by the other twoin the protoindoeuropean mythology each social group had its own god or family of gods to represent it and the function of the god or gods matched the function of the group many such divisions occur in the history of indoeuropean societies southern russia bernard sergent associates the indoeuropean language family with certain archaeological cultures in southern russia and reconstructs an indoeuropean religion based upon the tripartite functions early germanic society the supposed division between the king nobility and regular freemen in early germanic society norse mythology odin sovereignty tyr law and justice the vanir fertility odin has been interpreted as a deathgod and connected to cremations and has also been associated with ecstatic practices classical greece the three divisions of the ideal society as described by socrates in platos the republic bernard sergent examined the trifunctional hypothesis in greek epic lyric and dramatic poetry india the three hindu castes the brahmins or priests the kshatriya the warriors and military and the vaishya the agriculturalists cattle rearers and traders the shudra a fourth indian caste is a peasant or serf researchers believe that indoeuropeanspeakers entered india in the late bronze age mixed with local indus valley civilisation populations and may have established a caste system with themselves primarily in higher castes supporters of the hypothesis include scholars such as emile benveniste bernard sergent and iaroslav lebedynsky the last of whom concludes that the basic idea seems proven in a convincing waythe hypothesis was embraced outside the field of indoeuropean studies by some mythographers anthropologists and historians such as mircea eliade claude levistrauss'</li><li>'a stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state in stateless societies there is little concentration of authority most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power and are generally not permanentlyheld positions and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small different stateless societies feature highly variable economic systems and cultural practiceswhile stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory few stateless societies exist today almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state though in some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and may wield little or no actual power over the course of history most stateless peoples have become integrated into external statebased societiessome political philosophies particularly anarchism regard the state as an unwelcome institution and stateless societies as the ideal while marxism considers that in a postcapitalist society the state would become unnecessary and would wither away in archaeology cultural anthropology and history a stateless society denotes a less complex human community without a state such as a tribe a clan a band society or a chiefdom the main criterion of complexity used is the extent to which a division of labor has occurred such that many people are permanently specialized in particular forms of production or other activity and depend on others for goods and services through trade or sophisticated reciprocal obligations governed by custom and laws an additional criterion is population size the bigger the population the more relationships have to be reckoned withevidence of the earliest known citystates has been found in ancient mesopotamia around 3700 bce suggesting that the history of the state is less than 6000 years old thus for most of human prehistory the state did not exist for 998 percent of human history people lived exclusively in autonomous bands and villages at the beginning of the paleolithic ie the stone age the number of these autonomous political units must have been small but by 1000 bce it had increased to some 600000 then supravillage aggregation began in earnest and in barely three millennia the autonomous political units of the world dropped from 600000 to 157 generally speaking the archaeological evidence suggests that the state emerged from stateless communities only when a fairly large population at least tens of thousands of people was more or less settled together in a particular territory and practiced agriculture indeed one of the typical functions of the state is the defense of territory nevertheless there are exceptions lawrence krader for example describes the case of the tatar state a political authority arising among confederations of clans of nomadic or seminomadic herdsmencharacteristically the state functionaries royal'</li><li>'##aa195658302a00030 riviere peter g 1984 individual and society in guiana cambridge cambridge university press p 40f isbn 9780521269971 renshaw john 2002 the indians of the paraguayan chaco identity and economy lincoln ne university of nebraska press p 186ff isbn 9780803289918 siskind janet 1977 to hunt in the morning london oxford university press pp 79 – 81 oclc 918281851 turner terrence s 1979 the ge and bororo societies as dialectical systems a general model in mayburylewis david ed dialectical societies the ge and bororo of central brazil cambridge ma harvard university press pp 159 – 60 isbn 9780674202856 oclc 253693411 whitten norman e whitten dorothea s 1984 the structure of kinship and marriage among the canelos quichua of eastcentral ecuador in kensinger kenneth m ed marriage practices in lowland south america urbana il university of illinois press p 209 isbn 9780252010149'</li></ul> |
| 1 | <ul><li>'are functions depending on c p c p α m r e p displaystyle cpcpalpha mrep c f c f α m r e p displaystyle cfcfalpha mrep where α ≡ displaystyle alpha equiv angle of attack p ≡ displaystyle pequiv considered point of the surfaceunder these conditions drag and lift coefficient are functions depending exclusively on the angle of attack of the body and mach and reynolds numbers aerodynamic efficiency defined as the relation between lift and drag coefficients will depend on those parameters as well c d c d α m r e c l c l α m r e e e α m r e c l c d displaystyle begincasescdcdalpha mreclclalpha mreeealpha mredfrac clcdendcases it is also possible to get the dependency of the drag coefficient respect to the lift coefficient this relation is known as the drag coefficient equation c d c d c l m r e ≡ displaystyle cdcdclmreequiv drag coefficient equationthe aerodynamic efficiency has a maximum value emax respect to cl where the tangent line from the coordinate origin touches the drag coefficient equation plot the drag coefficient cd can be decomposed in two ways first typical decomposition separates pressure and friction effects c d c d f c d p c d f d q s − 1 s [UNK] σ c f t [UNK] i w d σ c d p d q s − 1 s [UNK] σ − c p n [UNK] i w d σ displaystyle cdcdfcdpbegincasescdfdfrac dqsdfrac 1sint sigma cfmathbf t bullet mathbf iw dsigma cdpdfrac dqsdfrac 1sint sigma cpmathbf n bullet mathbf iw dsigma endcases theres a second typical decomposition taking into account the definition of the drag coefficient equation this decomposition separates the effect of the lift coefficient in the equation obtaining two terms cd0 and cdi cd0 is known as the parasitic drag coefficient and it is the base drag coefficient at zero lift cdi is known as the induced drag coefficient and it is produced by the body lift c d c d 0 c d i c d 0 c d c l 0 c d i displaystyle cdcd0cdibegincasescd0cdcl0cdiendcases parabolic and generic drag coefficient a good attempt for the induced drag coefficient is to assume a parabolic dependency of the lift c d i k c l 2 ⇒ c d c d 0 k c l 2 displaystyle cd'</li><li>'the pitch attitude θ displaystyle theta theta and incidence α displaystyle alpha alpha the direction of the velocity vector relative to inertial axes is θ − α displaystyle theta alpha the velocity vector is u f u cos θ − α displaystyle ufucostheta alpha w f u sin θ − α displaystyle wfusintheta alpha where u f displaystyle uf w f displaystyle wf are the inertial axes components of velocity according to newtons second law the accelerations are proportional to the forces so the forces in inertial axes are x f m d u f d t m d u d t cos θ − α − m u d θ − α d t sin θ − α displaystyle xfmfrac dufdtmfrac dudtcostheta alpha mufrac dtheta alpha dtsintheta alpha z f m d w f d t m d u d t sin θ − α m u d θ − α d t cos θ − α displaystyle zfmfrac dwfdtmfrac dudtsintheta alpha mufrac dtheta alpha dtcostheta alpha where m is the mass by the nature of the motion the speed variation m d u d t displaystyle mfrac dudt is negligible over the period of the oscillation so x f − m u d θ − α d t sin θ − α displaystyle xfmufrac dtheta alpha dtsintheta alpha z f m u d θ − α d t cos θ − α displaystyle zfmufrac dtheta alpha dtcostheta alpha but the forces are generated by the pressure distribution on the body and are referred to the velocity vector but the velocity wind axes set is not an inertial frame so we must resolve the fixed axes forces into wind axes also we are only concerned with the force along the zaxis z − z f cos θ − α x f sin θ − α displaystyle zzfcostheta alpha xfsintheta alpha or z − m u d θ − α d t displaystyle zmufrac dtheta alpha dt in words the wind axes force is equal to the centripetal acceleration the moment equation is the time derivative of the angular momentum m b d 2 θ d t 2 displaystyle mbfrac d2theta dt2 where m is the pitching moment and b is the moment of inertia about the pitch axis let d θ d'</li><li>'##pendent contributions that increase in proportion to cl2 in total then cd cd0 kcl cl02the effect of cl0 is to shift the curve up the graph physically this is caused by some vertical asymmetry such as a cambered wing or a finite angle of incidence which ensures the minimum drag attitude produces lift and increases the maximum lifttodrag ratio one example of the way the curve is used in the design process is the calculation of the power required pr curve which plots the power needed for steady level flight over the operating speed range the forces involved are obtained from the coefficients by multiplication with ρ2s v2 where ρ is the density of the atmosphere at the flight altitude s is the wing area and v is the speed in level flight lift equals weight w and thrust equals drag so w ρ2sv2cl andpr ρ2ηsv3cdthe extra factor of vη with η the propeller efficiency in the second equation enters because pr required thrust×vη power rather than thrust is appropriate for a propeller driven aircraft since it is roughly independent of speed jet engines produce constant thrust since the weight is constant the first of these equations determines how cl falls with increasing speed putting these cl values into the second equation with cd from the drag curve produces the power curve the low speed region shows a fall in lift induced drag through a minimum followed by an increase in profile drag at higher speeds the minimum power required at a speed of 195 kmh 121 mph is about 86 kw 115 hp 135 kw 181 hp is required for a maximum speed of 300 kmh 186 mph flight at the power minimum will provide maximum endurance the speed for greatest range is where the tangent to the power curve passes through the origin about 240 kmh 150 mph if an analytical expression for the curve is available useful relationships can be developed by differentiation for example the form above simplified slightly by putting cl0 0 has a maximum clcd at cl2 cd0k for a propeller aircraft this is the maximum endurance condition and gives a speed of 185 kmh 115 mph the corresponding maximum range condition is the maximum of cl32cd at cl2 3cd0k and so the optimum speed is 244 kmh 152 mph the effects of the approximation cl0 0 are less than 5 of course with a finite cl0 01 the analytic and graphical methods give the same resultsthe low speed region of flight is known as the back of the power curve sometimes back of the drag curve where more power is required in order to fly slower it is an inefficient region of flight because speed can be'</li></ul> |
| 6 | <ul><li>'observed to be more elongated than e6 or e7 corresponding to a maximum axis ratio of about 31 the firehose instability is probably responsible for this fact since an elliptical galaxy that formed with an initially more elongated shape would be unstable to bending modes causing it to become rounder simulated dark matter haloes like elliptical galaxies never have elongations greater than about 31 this is probably also a consequence of the firehose instabilitynbody simulations reveal that the bars of barred spiral galaxies often puff up spontaneously converting the initially thin bar into a bulge or thick disk subsystem the bending instability is sometimes violent enough to weaken the bar bulges formed in this way are very boxy in appearance similar to what is often observedthe firehose instability may play a role in the formation of galactic warps stellar dynamics'</li><li>'przybylskis star pronounced or or hd 101065 is a rapidly oscillating ap star at roughly 356 lightyears 109 parsecs from the sun in the southern constellation of centaurus it has a unique spectrum showing overabundances of most rareearth elements including some shortlived radioactive isotopes but underabundances of more common elements such as iron in 1961 the polishaustralian astronomer antoni przybylski discovered that this star had a peculiar spectrum that would not fit into the standard framework for stellar classification przybylskis observations indicated unusually low amounts of iron and nickel in the stars spectrum but higher amounts of unusual elements like strontium holmium niobium scandium yttrium caesium neodymium praseodymium thorium ytterbium and uranium in fact at first przybylski doubted that iron was present in the spectrum at all modern work shows that the iron group elements are somewhat below normal in abundance but it is clear that the lanthanides and other exotic elements are highly overabundantprzybylskis star possibly also contains many different shortlived actinide elements with actinium protactinium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium and einsteinium being theoretically detected the longestlived known isotope of einsteinium has a halflife of only 472 days with astrophysicist stephane goriely at the free university of brussels ulb stating in 2017 that the evidence for such actinides is not strong as “ przybylski ’ s stellar atmosphere is highly magnetic stratified and chemically peculiar so that the interpretation of its spectrum remains extremely complex and the presence of such nuclei remains to be confirmed ” as well the lead author of the actinide studies vera f gopka directly admits that the position of lines of the radioactive elements under search were simply visualized in synthetic spectrum as vertical markers because there are no atomic data for these lines except for their wavelengths sansonetti et al 2004 enabling one to calculate their profiles with more or less real intensities the signature spectra of einsteiniums isotopes have since been comprehensively analyzed experimentally in 2021 though there is currently no published research confirming whether the theorized einsteinium signatures proposed to be found in the stars spectrum match the labdetermined results radioactive elements that were verifiably identified in this star include technetium and promethium while the longest lived known isotopes of'</li><li>'luminosity is an absolute measure of radiated electromagnetic energy light per unit time and is synonymous with the radiant power emitted by a lightemitting object in astronomy luminosity is the total amount of electromagnetic energy emitted per unit of time by a star galaxy or other astronomical objectsin si units luminosity is measured in joules per second or watts in astronomy values for luminosity are often given in the terms of the luminosity of the sun [UNK] luminosity can also be given in terms of the astronomical magnitude system the absolute bolometric magnitude mbol of an object is a logarithmic measure of its total energy emission rate while absolute magnitude is a logarithmic measure of the luminosity within some specific wavelength range or filter band in contrast the term brightness in astronomy is generally used to refer to an objects apparent brightness that is how bright an object appears to an observer apparent brightness depends on both the luminosity of the object and the distance between the object and observer and also on any absorption of light along the path from object to observer apparent magnitude is a logarithmic measure of apparent brightness the distance determined by luminosity measures can be somewhat ambiguous and is thus sometimes called the luminosity distance when not qualified the term luminosity means bolometric luminosity which is measured either in the si units watts or in terms of solar luminosities l☉ a bolometer is the instrument used to measure radiant energy over a wide band by absorption and measurement of heating a star also radiates neutrinos which carry off some energy about 2 in the case of the sun contributing to the stars total luminosity the iau has defined a nominal solar luminosity of 3828×1026 w to promote publication of consistent and comparable values in units of the solar luminositywhile bolometers do exist they cannot be used to measure even the apparent brightness of a star because they are insufficiently sensitive across the electromagnetic spectrum and because most wavelengths do not reach the surface of the earth in practice bolometric magnitudes are measured by taking measurements at certain wavelengths and constructing a model of the total spectrum that is most likely to match those measurements in some cases the process of estimation is extreme with luminosities being calculated when less than 1 of the energy output is observed for example with a hot wolfrayet star observed only in the infrared bolometric luminosities can also be calculated using a bolometric correction to a luminosity in a particular'</li></ul> |
| 23 | <ul><li>'bonemarrowderived macrophage bmdm refers to macrophage cells that are generated in a research laboratory from mammalian bone marrow cells bmdms can differentiate into mature macrophages in the presence of growth factors and other signaling molecules undifferentiated bone marrow cells are cultured in the presence of macrophage colonystimulating factor mcsf csf1 mcsf is a cytokine and growth factor that is responsible for the proliferation and commitment of myeloid progenitors into monocytes which then mature into macrophages macrophages have a wide variety of functions in the body including phagocytosis of foreign invaders and other cellular debris releasing cytokines to trigger immune responses and antigen presentation bmdms provide a large homogenous population of macrophages that play an increasingly important role in making macrophagerelated research possible and financially feasible in order to produce bmdms mesenchymal stem cells are removed from the tibia or femur of mice since bmdms are derived from bone marrow withdrawn cells are healthy and naive or unactivated regardless of the condition of donor mice after removal stemcells are incubated with csf1 without csf1 the cells enter an inactive state but can reinitiate growth and differentiation if stimulated later mature macrophages and fibroblasts which may carry unwanted growth factors are removed next il3 and il1 two growth factors are often added to increase yield and promote rapid terminal differentiation exogenous media containing growth factors and other serums must also be added to make the cells continually viable full growth and differentiation take approximately 5 – 8 daysmillions of bmdms can be derived from one mouse and frozen for years after being thawed bmdms can respond to a variety of stimuli such as lps ifnγ pamps nfκb and irf3 these signals induce translation of genes that produce cytokines and determine if macrophages are m1 proinflammatory or m2 antiinflammatory if bmdms are not frozen they age and become less viable as csf1 and growth factors in their media decreasesproliferation of bmdms can also be inhibited by a number of reagents for example growth and differentiation is dependent on csf1 and a functional csf1 receptor a member of the tyrosine kinase family without a functional csf1 receptors stem cells cannot respond to csf1 stimuli and therefore cannot differentiate interferons can cause a down regulation of the'</li><li>'##ing 10 of cells overexpressing her2 and 3 2000000 receptors per cell strong complete membrane staining 10 of cells overexpressing her2 the presence of cytoplasmic expression is disregarded treatment with trastuzumab is indicated in cases where her2 expression has a score of 3 however ihc has been shown to have numerous limitations both technical and interpretative which have been found to impact on the reproducibility and accuracy of results especially when compared with ish methodologies it is also true however that some reports have stated that ihc provides excellent correlation between gene copy number and protein expressionfluorescent in situ hybridization fish is viewed as being the gold standard technique in identifying patients who would benefit from trastuzumab but it is expensive and requires fluorescence microscopy and an image capture system the main expense involved with cish is in the purchase of fdaapproved kits and as it is not a fluorescent technique it does not require specialist microscopy and slides may be kept permanently comparative studies of cish and fish have shown that these two techniques show excellent correlation the lack of a separate chromosome 17 probe on the same section is an issue with regards to acceptance of cish as of june 2011 roche has obtained fda approval for the inform her2 dual ish dna probe cocktail developed by ventana medical systems the ddish dualchromagendualhapten insitu hybridization cocktail uses both her2 and chromosome 17 hybridization probes for chromagenic visualization on the same tissue section the detection can be achieved by using a combination of ultraview sishsilver insitu hybridization and ultraview red ish for deposition of distinct chromgenic precipitates at the site of dnp or dig labeled probesthe recommended assays are a combination of ihc and fish whereby ihc scores of 0 and 1 are negative no trastuzumab treatment scores of 3 are positive trastuzumab treatment and score of 2 equivocal case is referred to fish for a definitive treatment decision industry best practices indicate the use of fdacleared automated tissue image systems by laboratories for automated processing of specimens thereby reducing process variability avoiding equivocal cases and ensuring maximum efficacy of trastuzumab therapy one of the challenges in the treatment of breast cancer patients by herceptin is our understanding towards herceptin resistance in the last decade several assays have been performed to understand the mechanism of herceptin resistance withwithout supplementary drugs recently all this information has'</li><li>'visilizumab with a tentative trade name of nuvion they are being investigated for the treatment of other conditions like crohns disease ulcerative colitis and type 1 diabetes further development of teplizumab is uncertain due to oneyear data from a recent phase iii trial being disappointing especially during the first infusion the binding of muromonabcd3 to cd3 can activate t cells to release cytokines like tumor necrosis factor and interferon gamma this cytokine release syndrome or crs includes side effects like skin reactions fatigue fever chills myalgia headaches nausea and diarrhea and could lead to lifethreatening conditions like apnoea cardiac arrest and flash pulmonary edema to minimize the risk of crs and to offset some of the minor side effects patient experience glucocorticoids such as methylprednisolone acetaminophen and diphenhydramine are given before the infusionother adverse effects include leucopenia as well as an increased risk for severe infections and malignancies typical of immunosuppressive therapies neurological side effects like aseptic meningitis and encephalopathy have been observed possibly they are also caused by the t cell activationrepeated application can result in tachyphylaxis reduced effectiveness due to the formation of antimouse antibodies in the patient which accelerates elimination of the drug it can also lead to an anaphylactic reaction against the mouse protein which may be difficult to distinguish from a crs except under special circumstances the drug is contraindicated for patients with an allergy against mouse proteins as well as patients with uncompensated heart failure uncontrolled arterial hypertension or epilepsy it should not be used during pregnancy or lactation muromonabcd3 was developed before the who nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies took effect and consequently its name does not follow this convention instead it is a contraction from murine monoclonal antibody targeting cd3'</li></ul> |
| 18 | <ul><li>'the american institute of graphic arts aiga is a professional organization for design its members practice all forms of communication design including graphic design typography interaction design user experience branding and identity the organizations aim is to be the standard bearer for professional ethics and practices for the design profession there are currently over 25000 members and 72 chapters and more than 200 student groups around the united states in 2005 aiga changed its name to “ aiga the professional association for design ” dropping the american institute of graphic arts to welcome all design disciplines aiga aims to further design disciplines as professions as well as cultural assets as a whole aiga offers opportunities in exchange for creative new ideas scholarly research critical analysis and education advancement in 1911 frederic goudy alfred stieglitz and w a dwiggins came together to discuss the creation of an organization that was committed to individuals passionate about communication design in 1913 president of the national arts club john g agar announced the formation of the american institute of graphic arts during the eighth annual exhibition of “ the books of the year ” the national arts club was instrumental in the formation of aiga in that they helped to form the committee to plan to organize the organization the committee formed included charles dekay and william b howland and officially formed the american institute of graphic arts in 1914 howland publisher and editor of the outlook was elected president the goal of the group was to promote excellence in the graphic design profession through its network of local chapters throughout the countryin 1920 aiga began awarding medals to individuals who have set standards of excellence over a lifetime of work or have made individual contributions to innovation within the practice of design winners have been recognized for design teaching writing or leadership of the profession and may honor individuals posthumouslyin 1982 the new york chapter was formed and the organization began creating local chapters to decentralize leadershiprepresented by washington dc arts advocate and attorney james lorin silverberg esq the washington dc chapter of aiga was organized as the american institute of graphic arts incorporated washington dc on september 6 1984 the aiga in collaboration with the us department of transportation produced 50 standard symbols to be used on signs in airports and other transportation hubs and at large international events the first 34 symbols were published in 1974 receiving a presidential design award the remaining 16 designs were added in 1979 in 2012 aiga replaced all its competitions with a single competition called cased formerly called justified the stated aim of the competition is to demonstrate the collective success and impact of the design profession by celebrating the best in contemporary design through case studies between 1941 and 2011 aiga sponsored a juried contest for the 50 best designed'</li><li>'##dal grammar allowing a person to decode the text through “ cultural codes ” that contextualize the image to construct meaning because of what is unstated memetic images can hold multiple interpretations as groups create and share a specific meme template what is unstated becomes a fixed reading with “ novel expressionshifman in an analysis of knowyourmemecom found that popular memetic images often feature juxtaposition and frozen motion juxtaposition frames clashing visual elements in order to “ deepen the ridicule ” with a large incongruity or diminishes the original contrast by taking the visual object into a more fitting situation frozen motion pictures an action made static leaving the viewer to complete the motion in order to complete the premiseconsidered by some scholars to be a subversive form of communication memetic images have been used to unify political movements such as umbrellas during the umbrella movement in hong kong or the images of tea bags by the tea party movement in 2009according to a 2013 study by bauckhage et al the temporal nature of most memes and their hype cycles of popularity are in line with the behavior of a typical fad and suggest that after they proliferate and become mainstream memes quickly lose their appeal and popularity once it has lost its appeal a meme is pronounced “ dead ” to signify its overuse or mainstream appearanceamong the intrinsic factors of memes that affect their potential rise to popularity is similarity a 2014 study conducted by researcher michele coscia concluded that meme similarity has a negative correlation to meme popularity and can therefore be used along with factors like social network structure to explain the popularity of various memes a 2015 study by mazambani et al concluded that other factors of influence in meme spread within an online community include how relevant a meme is to the topic focus or theme of the online community as well as whether the posting user is in a position of power within an online setting memes that are consistent with a groups theme and memes that originate from lowerstatus members within the group spread faster than memes that are inconsistent and are created by members of a group that are in positions of powerscholars like jakub nowak propose the idea of popular driven media as well successful memes originate and proliferate by means of anonymous internet users not entities like corporations or political parties that have an agenda for this reason anonymity is linked to meme popularity and credibility nowak asserts that meme authorship should'</li><li>'regulationin april 2019 the uk information commissioners office ico issued a proposed ageappropriate design code for the operations of social networking services when used by minors which prohibits using nudges to draw users into options that have low privacy settings this code would be enforceable under the data protection act 2018 it took effect 2 september 2020on 9 april 2019 us senators deb fischer and mark warner introduced the deceptive experiences to online users reduction detour act which would make it illegal for companies with more than 100 million monthly active users to use dark patterns when seeking consent to use their personal informationin march 2021 california adopted amendments to the california consumer privacy act which prohibits the use of deceptive user interfaces that have the substantial effect of subverting or impairing a consumers choice to optoutin october 2021 the federal trade commission issued an enforcement policy statement announcing a crackdown on businesses using dark patterns that trick or trap consumers into subscription services as a result of rising numbers of complaints the agency is responding by enforcing these consumer protection lawsaccording to the european data protection board the principle of fair processing laid down in article 5 1 a gdpr serves as a starting point to assess whether a design pattern actually constitutes a dark patternin 2022 new york attorney general letitia james fined fareportal 26 million for using deceptive marketing tactics to sell airline tickets and hotel rooms and the federal court of australia fined expedia groups trivago a447 million for misleading consumers into paying higher prices for hotel room bookingsin march 2023 the united states federal trade commission fined fortnite developer epic games 245 million for use of dark patterns to trick users into making purchases the 245 million will be used to refund affected customers and is the largest refund amount ever issued by the ftc in a gaming case antipattern growth hacking jamba optin email optout revolving credit shadow banning'</li></ul> |
| 39 | <ul><li>'thermodynamic work is one of the principal processes by which a thermodynamic system can interact with its surroundings and exchange energy this exchange results in externally measurable macroscopic forces on the systems surroundings which can cause mechanical work to lift a weight for example or cause changes in electromagnetic or gravitational variables the surroundings also can perform work on a thermodynamic system which is measured by an opposite sign convention for thermodynamic work appropriately chosen externally measured quantities are exactly matched by values of or contributions to changes in macroscopic internal state variables of the system which always occur in conjugate pairs for example pressure and volume or magnetic flux density and magnetizationin the international system of units si work is measured in joules symbol j the rate at which work is performed is power measured in joules per second and denoted with the unit watt w work ie weight lifted through a height was originally defined in 1824 by sadi carnot in his famous paper reflections on the motive power of fire where he used the term motive power for work specifically according to carnot we use here motive power to express the useful effect that a motor is capable of producing this effect can always be likened to the elevation of a weight to a certain height it has as we know as a measure the product of the weight multiplied by the height to which it is raised in 1845 the english physicist james joule wrote a paper on the mechanical equivalent of heat for the british association meeting in cambridge in this paper he reported his bestknown experiment in which the mechanical power released through the action of a weight falling through a height was used to turn a paddlewheel in an insulated barrel of water in this experiment the motion of the paddle wheel through agitation and friction heated the body of water so as to increase its temperature both the temperature change ∆t of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight mg were recorded using these values joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat joule estimated a mechanical equivalent of heat to be 819 ft • lbfbtu 441 jcal the modern day definitions of heat work temperature and energy all have connection to this experiment in this arrangement of apparatus it never happens that the process runs in reverse with the water driving the paddles so as to raise the weight not even slightly mechanical work was done by the apparatus of falling weight pulley and paddles which lay in the surroundings of the water their motion scarcely affected the volume of the water work that does not change the volume of the water is said to be isochoric it is'</li><li>'the enclosed space from which they emanated which is how the term backdraft originated backdrafts are very dangerous often surprising even experienced firefighters the most common tactic used by firefighters to defuse a potential backdraft is to ventilate a room from its highest point allowing the heat and smoke to escape without igniting common signs of imminent backdraft include a sudden inrush of air upon an opening into a compartment being created lack of visible signs of flame fire above its upper flammability limit pulsing smoke plumes from openings and autoignition of hot gases at openings where they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air although iso 13943 defines flashover as transition to a state of total surface involvement in a fire of combustible materials within an enclosure a broad definition that embraces several different scenarios including backdrafts there is nevertheless considerable disagreement regarding whether or not backdrafts should be properly considered flashovers the most common use of the term flashover is to describe the nearsimultaneous ignition of material caused by heat attaining the autoignition temperature of the combustible material and gases in an enclosure flashovers of this type are not backdrafts as they are caused by thermal change backdrafts are caused by the introduction of oxygen into an enclosed space with conditions already suitable for ignition and are thus caused by chemical change backdrafts were publicized by the 1991 movie backdraft in which a serial arsonist in chicago was using them as a means of assassinating conspirators in a scam in the film adaptation of stephen kings 1408 the protagonist mike enslin induces one as a lastditch effort to kill the room the term is also used and is the title of a scene in the 2012 video game root double before crime after days'</li><li>'overbar standing for partial molar volume ∂ ln f i ∂ p t x i v i [UNK] r t displaystyle leftfrac partial ln fipartial prighttxifrac bar virt applying the first equation of this section to this last equation we find v i ∗ v [UNK] i displaystyle vibar vi which means that the partial molar volumes in an ideal mix are independent of composition consequently the total volume is the sum of the volumes of the components in their pure forms v [UNK] i v i ∗ displaystyle vsum ivi proceeding in a similar way but taking the derivative with respect to t displaystyle t we get a similar result for molar enthalpies g t p − g g a s t p u r t ln f p u displaystyle frac gtpgmathrm gas tpurtln frac fpu remembering that ∂ g t ∂ t p − h t 2 displaystyle leftfrac partial frac gtpartial trightpfrac ht2 we get − h i [UNK] − h i g a s r − h i ∗ − h i g a s r displaystyle frac bar hihimathrm gas rfrac hihimathrm gas r which in turn means that h i [UNK] h i ∗ displaystyle bar hihi and that the enthalpy of the mix is equal to the sum of its component enthalpies since u i [UNK] h i [UNK] − p v i [UNK] displaystyle bar uibar hipbar vi and u i ∗ h i ∗ − p v i ∗ displaystyle uihipvi similarly u i ∗ u i [UNK] displaystyle uibar ui it is also easily verifiable that c p i ∗ c p i [UNK] displaystyle cpibar cpi finally since g i [UNK] μ i g i g a s r t ln f i p u g i g a s r t ln f i ∗ p u r t ln x i μ i ∗ r t ln x i displaystyle bar gimu igimathrm gas rtln frac fipugimathrm gas rtln frac fipurtln ximu irtln xi we find that δ g i m i x r t ln x i displaystyle delta gimathrm mix rtln xi since the gibbs free energy per mole of the mixture g m displaystyle gm is then δ g m m i x r t [UNK] i x i ln x i displaystyle delta gmathrm mmix rtsum ixiln xi'</li></ul> |
| 2 | <ul><li>'weierstrass replaced this sentence by the formula [UNK] [UNK] 0 [UNK] η 0 [UNK] x x − a η ⇒ l − f x [UNK] displaystyle forall epsilon 0exists eta 0forall xxaeta rightarrow lfxepsilon in which none of the five variables is considered as varying this static formulation led to the modern notion of variable which is simply a symbol representing a mathematical object that either is unknown or may be replaced by any element of a given set eg the set of real numbers variables are generally denoted by a single letter most often from the latin alphabet and less often from the greek which may be lowercase or capitalized the letter may be followed by a subscript a number as in x2 another variable xi a word or abbreviation of a word xtotal or a mathematical expression x2i 1 under the influence of computer science some variable names in pure mathematics consist of several letters and digits following rene descartes 1596 – 1650 letters at the beginning of the alphabet such as a b c are commonly used for known values and parameters and letters at the end of the alphabet such as x y z are commonly used for unknowns and variables of functions in printed mathematics the norm is to set variables and constants in an italic typefacefor example a general quadratic function is conventionally written as a x 2 b x c textstyle ax2bxc where a b and c are parameters also called constants because they are constant functions while x is the variable of the function a more explicit way to denote this function is x ↦ a x 2 b x c textstyle xmapsto ax2bxc which clarifies the functionargument status of x and the constant status of a b and c since c occurs in a term that is a constant function of x it is called the constant termspecific branches and applications of mathematics have specific naming conventions for variables variables with similar roles or meanings are often assigned consecutive letters or the same letter with different subscripts for example the three axes in 3d coordinate space are conventionally called x y and z in physics the names of variables are largely determined by the physical quantity they describe but various naming conventions exist a convention often followed in probability and statistics is to use x y z for the names of random variables keeping x y z for variables representing corresponding betterdefined values it is common for variables to play different roles in the same mathematical formula and names or qualifiers have been introduced to distinguish them for example the general cubic equation a x 3 b'</li><li>'and only if its rank equals its number of columns this left inverse is not unique except for square matrices where the left inverse equal the inverse matrix similarly a right inverse exists if and only if the rank equals the number of rows it is not unique in the case of a rectangular matrix and equals the inverse matrix in the case of a square matrix composition is a partial operation that generalizes to homomorphisms of algebraic structures and morphisms of categories into operations that are also called composition and share many properties with function composition in all the case composition is associative if f x → y displaystyle fcolon xto y and g y ′ → z displaystyle gcolon yto z the composition g ∘ f displaystyle gcirc f is defined if and only if y ′ y displaystyle yy or in the function and homomorphism cases y ⊂ y ′ displaystyle ysubset y in the function and homomorphism cases this means that the codomain of f displaystyle f equals or is included in the domain of g in the morphism case this means that the codomain of f displaystyle f equals the domain of g there is an identity id x x → x displaystyle operatorname id xcolon xto x for every object x set algebraic structure or object which is called also an identity function in the function case a function is invertible if and only if it is a bijection an invertible homomorphism or morphism is called an isomorphism an homomorphism of algebraic structures is an isomorphism if and only if it is a bijection the inverse of a bijection is called an inverse function in the other cases one talks of inverse isomorphisms a function has a left inverse or a right inverse if and only it is injective or surjective respectively an homomorphism of algebraic structures that has a left inverse or a right inverse is respectively injective or surjective but the converse is not true in some algebraic structures for example the converse is true for vector spaces but not for modules over a ring a homomorphism of modules that has a left inverse of a right inverse is called respectively a split epimorphism or a split monomorphism this terminology is also used for morphisms in any category let s displaystyle s be a unital magma that is a set with a binary operation ∗ displaystyle and an identity element e ∈ s displaystyle ein s if for a b ∈ s displaystyle abin s we have a ∗ b e displaystyle abe'</li><li>'##k1prod i0k2didk1bk1sum i0k1dibin if n b displaystyle nb then trivially f b n n displaystyle fbnn therefore the only possible multiplicative digital roots are the natural numbers 0 ≤ n b displaystyle 0leq nb and there are no cycles other than the fixed points of 0 ≤ n b displaystyle 0leq nb the number of iterations i displaystyle i needed for f b i n displaystyle fbin to reach a fixed point is the multiplicative persistence of n displaystyle n the multiplicative persistence is undefined if it never reaches a fixed point in base 10 it is conjectured that there is no number with a multiplicative persistence i 11 displaystyle i11 this is known to be true for numbers n ≤ 10 20585 displaystyle nleq 1020585 the smallest numbers with persistence 0 1 are 0 10 25 39 77 679 6788 68889 2677889 26888999 3778888999 277777788888899 sequence a003001 in the oeisthe search for these numbers can be sped up by using additional properties of the decimal digits of these recordbreaking numbers these digits must be sorted and except for the first two digits all digits must be 7 8 or 9 there are also additional restrictions on the first two digits based on these restrictions the number of candidates for k displaystyle k digit numbers with recordbreaking persistence is only proportional to the square of k displaystyle k a tiny fraction of all possible k displaystyle k digit numbers however any number that is missing from the sequence above would have multiplicative persistence 11 such numbers are believed not to exist and would need to have over 20000 digits if they do exist the multiplicative digital root can be extended to the negative integers by use of a signeddigit representation to represent each integer the example below implements the digit product described in the definition above to search for multiplicative digital roots and multiplicative persistences in python arithmetic dynamics digit sum digital root sumproduct number guy richard k 2004 unsolved problems in number theory 3rd ed springerverlag pp 398 – 399 isbn 9780387208602 zbl 105811001'</li></ul> |
| 40 | <ul><li>'quantum computation even with a standard quantum information processing scheme raussendorf harrington and goyal have studied one model with promising simulation results one of the prominent examples in topological quantum computing is with a system of fibonacci anyons in the context of conformal field theory fibonacci anyons are described by the yang – lee model the su2 special case of the chern – simons theory and wess – zumino – witten models these anyons can be used to create generic gates for topological quantum computing there are three main steps for creating a model choose our basis and restrict our hilbert space braid the anyons together fuse the anyons at the end and detect how they fuse in order to read the output of the system fibonacci anyons are defined by three qualities they have a topological charge of τ displaystyle tau in this discussion we consider another charge called 1 displaystyle 1 which is the ‘ vacuum ’ charge if anyons are annihilated with eachother each of these anyons are their own antiparticle τ τ ∗ displaystyle tau tau and 1 1 ∗ displaystyle 11 if brought close to eachother they will ‘ fuse ’ together in a nontrivial fashion specifically the ‘ fusion ’ rules are 1 ⊗ 1 1 displaystyle 1otimes 11 1 ⊗ τ τ ⊗ 1 τ displaystyle 1otimes tau tau otimes 1tau τ ⊗ τ 1 ⊕ τ displaystyle tau otimes tau 1oplus tau many of the properties of this system can be explained similarly to that of two spin 12 particles particularly we use the same tensor product ⊗ displaystyle otimes and direct sum ⊕ displaystyle oplus operatorsthe last ‘ fusion ’ rule can be extended this to a system of three anyons τ ⊗ τ ⊗ τ τ ⊗ 1 ⊕ τ τ ⊗ 1 ⊕ τ ⊗ τ τ ⊕ 1 ⊕ τ 1 ⊕ 2 ⋅ τ displaystyle tau otimes tau otimes tau tau otimes 1oplus tau tau otimes 1oplus tau otimes tau tau oplus 1oplus tau 1oplus 2cdot tau thus fusing three anyons will yield a final state of total charge τ displaystyle tau in 2 ways or a charge of 1 displaystyle 1 in exactly one way we use three states to define our basis however because we wish to encode these three anyon states as superpositions of 0 and 1 we need to limit the basis to a twodimensional hilbert space thus we consider only two states'</li><li>'every point is an umbilic the sphere and plane are the only surfaces with this property the sphere does not have a surface of centers for a given normal section exists a circle of curvature that equals the sectional curvature is tangent to the surface and the center lines of which lie along on the normal line for example the two centers corresponding to the maximum and minimum sectional curvatures are called the focal points and the set of all such centers forms the focal surface for most surfaces the focal surface forms two sheets that are each a surface and meet at umbilical points several cases are special for channel surfaces one sheet forms a curve and the other sheet is a surface for cones cylinders tori and cyclides both sheets form curves for the sphere the center of every osculating circle is at the center of the sphere and the focal surface forms a single point this property is unique to the sphere all geodesics of the sphere are closed curves geodesics are curves on a surface that give the shortest distance between two points they are a generalization of the concept of a straight line in the plane for the sphere the geodesics are great circles many other surfaces share this property of all the solids having a given volume the sphere is the one with the smallest surface area of all solids having a given surface area the sphere is the one having the greatest volume it follows from isoperimetric inequality these properties define the sphere uniquely and can be seen in soap bubbles a soap bubble will enclose a fixed volume and surface tension minimizes its surface area for that volume a freely floating soap bubble therefore approximates a sphere though such external forces as gravity will slightly distort the bubbles shape it can also be seen in planets and stars where gravity minimizes surface area for large celestial bodies the sphere has the smallest total mean curvature among all convex solids with a given surface area the mean curvature is the average of the two principal curvatures which is constant because the two principal curvatures are constant at all points of the sphere the sphere has constant mean curvature the sphere is the only imbedded surface that lacks boundary or singularities with constant positive mean curvature other such immersed surfaces as minimal surfaces have constant mean curvature the sphere has constant positive gaussian curvature gaussian curvature is the product of the two principal curvatures it is an intrinsic property that can be determined by measuring length and angles and is independent of how the surface is embedded in space hence bending a surface will not alter the gaussian curvature and other surfaces with constant positive gaussian curvature can be obtained by cutting a small slit in'</li><li>'##joint noncontractible 3cycles in the triangulation a rectangular mobius strip made by attaching the ends of a paper rectangle can be embedded smoothly into threedimensional space whenever its aspect ratio is greater than 3 ≈ 173 displaystyle sqrt 3approx 173 the same ratio as for the flatfolded equilateraltriangle version of the mobius strip this flat triangular embedding can lift to a smooth embedding in three dimensions in which the strip lies flat in three parallel planes between three cylindrical rollers each tangent to two of the planes mathematically a smoothly embedded sheet of paper can be modeled as a developable surface that can bend but cannot stretch as its aspect ratio decreases toward 3 displaystyle sqrt 3 all smooth embeddings seem to approach the same triangular form the lengthwise folds of an accordionfolded flat mobius strip prevent it from forming a threedimensional embedding in which the layers are separated from each other and bend smoothly without crumpling or stretching away from the folds instead unlike in the flatfolded case there is a lower limit to the aspect ratio of smooth rectangular mobius strips their aspect ratio cannot be less than π 2 ≈ 157 displaystyle pi 2approx 157 even if selfintersections are allowed selfintersecting smooth mobius strips exist for any aspect ratio above this bound without selfintersections the aspect ratio must be at least for aspect ratios between this bound and 3 displaystyle sqrt 3 it has been an open problem whether smooth embeddings without selfintersection exist in 2023 richard schwartz announced a proof that they do not exist but this result still awaits peer review and publication if the requirement of smoothness is relaxed to allow continuously differentiable surfaces the nash – kuiper theorem implies that any two opposite edges of any rectangle can be glued to form an embedded mobius strip no matter how small the aspect ratio becomes the limiting case a surface obtained from an infinite strip of the plane between two parallel lines glued with the opposite orientation to each other is called the unbounded mobius strip or the real tautological line bundle although it has no smooth closed embedding into threedimensional space it can be embedded smoothly as a closed subset of fourdimensional euclidean space the minimumenergy shape of a smooth mobius strip glued from a rectangle does not have a known analytic description but can be calculated numerically and has been the subject of much study in plate theory since'</li></ul> |
| 17 | <ul><li>'on the seafloor across the continental shelf the development of fraser island indirectly led to the formation of the great barrier reef by drastically decreasing the flow of sediment to the area of continental shelf north of fraser island a necessary precondition for the growth of coral reefs on such an enormous scale as found in the great barrier reef 100000year problem chibanian milankovitch cycles paleoclimatology paleothermometer timeline of glaciation'</li><li>'##ial discharge totaling two km3 048 cu mi traveling 260 km 160 mi over a period of less than a year as the flow subsided the weight of ice closed the tunnel and sealed the lake again the water flow was modeled satisfactorily with channeling in ice and in sediment the analytic model shows that over some regions the icebedrock geometry included sections which would have frozen blocking off flow unless erosion of the sedimentary substrate was the means of creating a channel and sustaining the discharge hence combining this data and analysis with icelandic jokulhlaup observations there is experimental evidence that some form of the jokulhlaup hypothesis with features of the steady state model is correct subglacial meltwater flow is common to all theories hence a key to understanding channel formation is an understanding of subglacial meltwater flow meltwater may be produced on the glacier surface supraglacially below the glacier basally or both meltwater may flow either supraglacially or basally as well the signatures of supraglacial and basal water flow differ with the passage zone supraglacial flow is similar to stream flow in all surface environments – water flows from higher areas to lower areas under the influence of gravity basal flow exhibits significant differences in basal flow the water either produced by melting at the base or drawn downward from the surface by gravity collects at the base of the glacier in ponds and lakes in a pocket overlain by hundreds of meters of ice if there is no surface drainage path water from surface melting will flow downward and collect in crevices in the ice while water from basal melting will collect under the glacier either source will form a subglacial lake the hydraulic head of the water collected in a basal lake will increase as water drains through the ice until the pressure grows high enough to either develop a path through the ice or to float the ice above it sources of water and water drainage routes through and below temperate and subpolar glaciers are reasonably well understood and provide a basis for understanding tunnel valleys for these glaciers supraglacial water ponds or moves in rivers across the surface of the glacier until it drops down a vertical crevice a moulin in the glacier there it joins subglacial water created by geothermal heat some portion of the water drains into aquifers below the glacier excess subglacial water that cannot drain through sediment or impermeable bedrock as groundwater moves either through channels eroded into the bed of sediment below the glacier called nye channels or through channels upward into the glacial'</li><li>'a tunnel valley is a ushaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages they can be as long as 100 km 62 mi 4 km 25 mi wide and 400 m 1300 ft deep tunnel valleys were formed by subglacial erosion by water and served as subglacial drainage pathways carrying large volumes of meltwater their crosssections often exhibit steepsided flanks similar to fjord walls they presently appear as dry valleys lakes seabed depressions and as areas filled with sediment if they are filled with sediment their lower layers are filled primarily with glacial glaciofluvial or glaciolacustrine sediment supplemented by upper layers of temperate infill they can be found in areas formerly covered by glacial ice sheets including africa asia north america europe australia and offshore in the north sea the atlantic and in waters near antarctica tunnel valleys appear in the technical literature under several terms including tunnel channels subglacial valleys iceways snake coils and linear incisions tunnel valleys play a role in identifying oilrich areas in arabia and north africa the upper ordovician – lower silurian materials there contain a roughly 20 m 66 ft thick carbonrich layer of black shale approximately 30 of the worlds oil is found in these shale deposits although the origin of these deposits is still under study it has been established that the shale routinely overlies glacial and glaciomarine sediment deposited 445 million years before the present by the hirnantian glaciation the shale has been linked to glacial meltwater nutrient enrichment of the shallow marine environment hence the presence of tunnel valleys is an indicator of the presence of oil in these areastunnel valleys represent a substantial fraction of all meltwater drainage from glaciers meltwater drainage influences the flow of glacial ice which is important in understanding of the duration of glacial – interglacial periods and aids in identifying glacial cyclicity a problem that is important to palaeoenvironmental investigationstunnel valleys are typically eroded into bedrock and filled with glacial debris of varying sizes this configuration makes them excellent at capturing and storing water hence they serve an important role as aquifers across much of northern europe canada and the united states examples include oak ridges moraine aquifer spokane valleyrathdrum prairie aquifer mahomet aquifer the saginaw lobe aquifer and the corning aquifer tunnel valleys have been observed as open valleys and as partially or totally buried valleys if buried they may'</li></ul> |
| 37 | <ul><li>'an injured person verbally asking for help elicit more consistent intervention and assistance with regard to the bystander effect studies have shown that emergencies deemed ambiguous trigger the appearance of the classic bystander effect wherein more witnesses decrease the likelihood of any of them helping far more than nonambiguous emergencies in computer science the si prefixes kilo mega and giga were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 1024 10242 and 10243 contrary to the metric system in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand one million and one billion this usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices eg dram addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense subsequently the ki mi and gi prefixes were introduced so that binary prefixes could be written explicitly also rendering k m and g unambiguous in texts conforming to the new standard — this led to a new ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes necessarily indicating the new style as to whether the usage of k m and g remains ambiguous old style or not new style 1 m where m is ambiguously 1000000 or 1048576 is less uncertain than the engineering value 10e6 defined to designate the interval 950000 to 1050000 as nonvolatile storage devices begin to exceed 1 gb in capacity where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit gb and tb almost always mean 109 and 1012 bytes'</li><li>'validity while another indicates that the information is inferred but unlikely to be true reportative evidentials indicate that the information was reported to the speaker by another person a few languages distinguish between hearsay evidentials and quotative evidentials hearsay indicates reported information that may or may not be accurate a quotative indicates the information is accurate and not open to interpretation ie is a direct quotation an example of a reportative from shipibo ronki typology of evidentiality systems the following is a brief survey of evidential systems found in the languages of the world as identified in aikhenvald 2004 some languages only have two evidential markers while others may have six or more the system types are organized by the number of evidentials found in the language for example a twoterm system a will have two different evidential markers a threeterm system b will have three different evidentials the systems are further divided by the type of evidentiality that is indicated eg a1 a2 a3 etc languages that exemplify each type are listed in parentheses the most common system found is the a3 type twoterm systems a1 witness nonwitness eg jarawara yukaghir languages myky godoberi kalashamun khowar yanam a2 nonfirsthand everything else eg abkhaz mansi khanty nenets enets selkup northeast caucasian languages a3 reported everything else eg turkic languages tamil enga tauya lezgian kham estonian livonian tibetoburman languages several south american languagesthreeterm systems b1 visual sensory inferential reportative eg aymara shastan languages qiang languages maidu most quechuan languages northern embera languages b2 visual sensory nonvisual sensory inferential eg washo b3 nonvisual sensory inferential reportative eg retuara northern pomo b4 witness direct nonwitness indirect inferential reportative eg tsezic and dagestanian languagesfourterm systems c1 visual sensory nonvisual sensory inferential reportative eg tariana xamatauteri eastern pomo east tucanoan languages c2 visual sensory inferential 1 inferential 2 reportative eg tsafiki pawnee ancash quechua c3 nonvisual sensory inferential 1 inferential 2 reportative eg wintu c4 visual sensory inferential reportative 1 reportative 2 eg southeastern tepehuan c5 witness nonsu'</li><li>'of application the following table documents some of these variants the notation n p displaystyle np is polish notation in set theory [UNK] displaystyle setminus is also used to indicate not in the set of u [UNK] a displaystyle usetminus a is the set of all members of u that are not members of a regardless how it is notated or symbolized the negation ¬ p displaystyle neg p can be read as it is not the case that p not that p or usually more simply as not p as a way of reducing the number of necessary parentheses one may introduce precedence rules ¬ has higher precedence than ∧ ∧ higher than ∨ and ∨ higher than → so for example p ∨ q ∧ ¬ r → s displaystyle pvee qwedge neg rrightarrow s is short for p ∨ q ∧ ¬ r → s displaystyle pvee qwedge neg rrightarrow s here is a table that shows a commonly used precedence of logical operators within a system of classical logic double negation that is the negation of the negation of a proposition p displaystyle p is logically equivalent to p displaystyle p expressed in symbolic terms ¬ ¬ p ≡ p displaystyle neg neg pequiv p in intuitionistic logic a proposition implies its double negation but not conversely this marks one important difference between classical and intuitionistic negation algebraically classical negation is called an involution of period two however in intuitionistic logic the weaker equivalence ¬ ¬ ¬ p ≡ ¬ p displaystyle neg neg neg pequiv neg p does hold this is because in intuitionistic logic ¬ p displaystyle neg p is just a shorthand for p → [UNK] displaystyle prightarrow bot and we also have p → ¬ ¬ p displaystyle prightarrow neg neg p composing that last implication with triple negation ¬ ¬ p → [UNK] displaystyle neg neg prightarrow bot implies that p → [UNK] displaystyle prightarrow bot as a result in the propositional case a sentence is classically provable if its double negation is intuitionistically provable this result is known as glivenkos theorem de morgans laws provide a way of distributing negation over disjunction and conjunction ¬ p ∨ q ≡ ¬ p ∧ ¬ q displaystyle neg plor qequiv neg pland neg q and ¬ p ∧ q ≡ ¬ p ∨ ¬ q displaystyle neg pland qequiv neg plor'</li></ul> |
| 27 | <ul><li>'entire system of a szilard engine a composite system of the engine and the demon a recent approach based on the nonequilibrium thermodynamics for small fluctuating systems has provided deeper insight on each information process with each subsystem from this viewpoint the measurement process is regarded as a process where the correlation mutual information between the engine and the demon increases and the feedback process is regarded as a process where the correlation decreases if the correlation changes thermodynamic relations such as the second law of thermodynamics and the fluctuation theorem for each subsystem should be modified and for the case of external control a secondlaw like inequality and a generalized fluctuation theorem with mutual information are satisfied these relations suggest that we need extra thermodynamic cost to increase correlation measurement case and in contrast we can apparently violate the second law up to the consumption of correlation feedback case for more general information processes including biological information processing both inequality and equality with mutual information hold reallife versions of maxwellian demons occur but all such real demons or molecular demons have their entropylowering effects duly balanced by increase of entropy elsewhere molecularsized mechanisms are no longer found only in biology they are also the subject of the emerging field of nanotechnology singleatom traps used by particle physicists allow an experimenter to control the state of individual quanta in a way similar to maxwells demon if hypothetical mirror matter exists zurab silagadze proposes that demons can be envisaged which can act like perpetuum mobiles of the second kind extract heat energy from only one reservoir use it to do work and be isolated from the rest of ordinary world yet the second law is not violated because the demons pay their entropy cost in the hidden mirror sector of the world by emitting mirror photons in 2007 david leigh announced the creation of a nanodevice based on the brownian ratchet popularized by richard feynman leighs device is able to drive a chemical system out of equilibrium but it must be powered by an external source light in this case and therefore does not violate thermodynamicspreviously researchers including nobel prize winner fraser stoddart had created ringshaped molecules called rotaxanes which could be placed on an axle connecting two sites a and b particles from either site would bump into the ring and move it from end to end if a large collection of these devices were placed in a system half of the devices had the ring at site a and half at b at any given moment in timeleigh'</li><li>'lead sensor generally the gold nanoparticles would aggregate as they approached each other and the change in size would result in a color change interactions between the enzyme and pb2 ions would inhibit this aggregation and thus the presence of ions could be detected the main challenge associated with using nanosensors in food and the environment is determining their associated toxicity and overall effect on the environment currently there is insufficient knowledge on how the implementation of nanosensors will affect the soil plants and humans in the longterm this is difficult to fully address because nanoparticle toxicity depends heavily on the type size and dosage of the particle as well as environmental variables including ph temperature and humidity to mitigate potential risk research is being done to manufacture safe nontoxic nanomaterials as part of an overall effort towards green nanotechnology nanosensors possess great potential for diagnostic medicine enabling early identification of disease without reliance on observable symptoms ideal nanosensor implementations look to emulate the response of immune cells in the body incorporating both diagnostic and immune response functionalities while transmitting data to allow for monitoring of the sensor input and response however this model remains a longterm goal and research is currently focused on the immediate diagnostic capabilities of nanosensors the intracellular implementation of nanosensor synthesized with biodegradable polymers induces signals that enable realtime monitoring and thus paves way for advancement in drug delivery and treatmentone example of these nanosensors involves using the fluorescence properties of cadmium selenide quantum dots as sensors to uncover tumors within the body a downside to the cadmium selenide dots however is that they are highly toxic to the body as a result researchers are working on developing alternate dots made out of a different less toxic material while still retaining some of the fluorescence properties in particular they have been investigating the particular benefits of zinc sulfide quantum dots which though they are not quite as fluorescent as cadmium selenide can be augmented with other metals including manganese and various lanthanide elements in addition these newer quantum dots become more fluorescent when they bond to their target cellsanother application of nanosensors involves using silicon nanowires in iv lines to monitor organ health the nanowires are sensitive to detect trace biomarkers that diffuse into the iv line through blood which can monitor kidney or organ failure these nanowires would allow for continuous biomarker measurement which provides some benefits in terms of temporal sensitivity over traditional biomarker quantification assays such as elisananosensors can also be'</li><li>'providing such films for optoelectronics through the efficient creation of lead sulfide pbs films cbd synthesis of these films allows for both costeffective and accurate assemblies with grain type and size as well as optical properties of the nanomaterial dictated by the properties of the surrounding bath as such this method of nanoscale chemosynthesis is often implemented when these properties are desired and can be used for a wide range of nanomaterials not just lead sulfide due to the adjustable propertiesas explained previously the usage of chemical bath deposition allows for the synthesis of large deposits of nanofilm layers at a low cost which is important in the mass production of cadmium sulfide the low cost associated with the synthesis of cds through means of chemical deposition has seen cds nanoparticles being applied to semiconductor sensitized solar cells which when treated with cds nanoparticles see improved performance in their semiconductor materials through a reduction of the band gap energy the usage of chemical deposition in particular allows for the crystallite orientation of cds to be more favourable though the process is quite time consuming research by sa vanalakar in 2010 resulted in the successful production of cadmium sulfide nanoparticle film with a thickness of 139 nm though this was only after the applied films were allowed to undergo deposition for 300 minutes as the deposition time was increased for the film not only was the film thickness found to increase but the band gap of the resultant film decreased'</li></ul> |
| 9 | <ul><li>'marshland streams rivers and estuaries different species of ntm prefer different types of environment human disease is believed to be acquired from environmental exposures unlike tuberculosis and leprosy animaltohuman or humantohuman transmission of ntm rarely occursntm diseases have been seen in most industrialized countries where incidence rates vary from 10 to 18 cases per 100000 persons recent studies including one done in ontario canada suggest that incidence is much higher pulmonary ntm is estimated by some experts in the field to be at least ten times more common than tb in the us with at least 150000 cases per year most ntm disease cases involve the species known as mycobacterium avium complex or mac for short m abscessus m fortuitum and m kansasii m abscessus is being seen with increasing frequency and is particularly difficult to treatmayo clinic researchers found a threefold increased incidence of cutaneous ntm infection between 1980 and 2009 in a populationbased study of residents of olmsted county minnesota the most common species were m marinum accounting for 45 of cases and m chelonae and m abscessus together accounting for 32 of patients m chelonae infection outbreaks as a consequence of tattooing with infected ink have been reported in the united kingdom and the united statesrapidly growing ntms are implicated in catheter infections postlasik skin and soft tissue especially postcosmetic surgery and pulmonary infections the most common clinical manifestation of ntm disease is lung disease but lymphatic skinsoft tissue and disseminated diseases are also importantpulmonary disease caused by ntm is most often seen in postmenopausal women and patients with underlying lung disease such as cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis and prior tuberculosis it is not uncommon for alpha 1antitrypsin deficiency marfan syndrome and primary ciliary dyskinesia patients to have pulmonary ntm colonization andor infection pulmonary ntm can also be found in individuals with aids and malignant disease it can be caused by many ntm species which depends on region but most frequently mac and m kansasiiclinical symptoms vary in scope and intensity but commonly include chronic cough often with purulent sputum hemoptysis may also be present systemic symptoms include malaise fatigue and weight loss in advanced disease the diagnosis of m abscessus pulmonary infection requires the presence of symptoms radiologic abnormalities and microbiologic cultures lymphadenitis can be caused by various species that differ from one place to another but again'</li><li>'penicillin binding protein 3 pbp3 the ftsl gene is a group of filamentation temperaturesensitive genes used in cell division their product pbp3 as mentioned above is a membrane transpeptidase required for peptidoglycan synthesis at the septum inactivation of the ftsl gene product requires the sospromoting reca and lexa genes as well as dpia and transiently inhibits bacterial cell division the dpia is the effector for the dpib twocomponent system interaction of dpia with replication origins competes with the binding of the replication proteins dnaa and dnab when overexpressed dpia can interrupt dna replication and induce the sos response resulting in inhibition of cell division nutritional stress can change bacterial morphology a common shape alteration is filamentation which can be triggered by a limited availability of one or more substrates nutrients or electron acceptors since the filament can increase a cells uptake – surface area without significantly changing its volume appreciably moreover the filamentation benefits bacterial cells attaching to a surface because it increases specific surface area in direct contact with the solid medium in addition the filamentation may allows bacterial cells to access nutrients by enhancing the possibility that part of the filament will contact a nutrientrich zone and pass compounds to the rest of the cells biomass for example actinomyces israelii grows as filamentous rods or branched in the absence of phosphate cysteine or glutathione however it returns to a regular rodlike morphology when adding back these nutrients filamentation protoplasts spheroplasts'</li><li>'stimulus controlling the directed movement such as chemotaxis chemical gradients like glucose aerotaxis oxygen phototaxis light thermotaxis heat and magnetotaxis magnetic fields the overall movement of a bacterium can be the result of alternating tumble and swim phases as a result the trajectory of a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment will form a random walk with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium bacteria such as e coli are unable to choose the direction in which they swim and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational diffusion in other words bacteria forget the direction in which they are going by repeatedly evaluating their course and adjusting if they are moving in the wrong direction bacteria can direct their random walk motion toward favorable locationsin the presence of a chemical gradient bacteria will chemotax or direct their overall motion based on the gradient if the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction toward attractantaway from repellent it will keep swimming in a straight line for a longer time before tumbling however if it is moving in the wrong direction it will tumble sooner bacteria like e coli use temporal sensing to decide whether their situation is improving or not and in this way find the location with the highest concentration of attractant detecting even small differences in concentrationthis biased random walk is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement namely tumbling and straight swimming the helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur the protein structure that makes up the flagellar filament flagellin is conserved among all flagellated bacteria vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor tlr5 designed to recognize this conserved protein as in many instances in biology there are bacteria that do not follow this rule many bacteria such as vibrio are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell their method of chemotaxis is different others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall these bacteria move by spinning the whole cell which is shaped like a corkscrewthe ability of marine microbes to navigate toward chemical hotspots can determine their nutrient uptake and has the potential to affect the cycling of elements in the ocean the link between bacterial navigation and nutrient cycling highlights the need to understand how chemotaxis functions in the context of marine microenvironments chemotaxis hinges on the stochastic bindingunbinding of'</li></ul> |
| 34 | <ul><li>'##formed pedagogy is especially important in higher education college students are among the most affected group of learners for teachers to be able to apply traumainformed teaching they must first be able to recognize early signs of trauma in students these signs include anxiety about assignments missing class isolation issues with emotional regulation and difficulty with focusing or recalling information'</li><li>'by insistently energetically exploring the entire problem before them and building for themselves a unique image of the problem they want to solve a historical response to process is concerned primarily with the manner in which writing has been shaped and governed by historical and social forces these forces are dynamic and contextual and therefore render any static iteration of process unlikely notable scholars that have conducted this type of inquiry include media theorists such as marshall mcluhan walter ong gregory ulmer and cynthia selfe much of mcluhans work for example centered around the impact of written language on oral cultures degrees to which various media are accessible and interactive and the ways in which electronic media determine communication patterns his evaluation of technology as a shaper of human societies and psyches indicates a strong connection between historical forces and literacy practices criticism of cognitive model patricia bizzell a professor with a phd in english and former president of rhetoric society of america argues that even though educators may have an understanding of how the writing process occurs educators shouldnt assume that this knowledge can answer the question about why the writer makes certain choices in certain situations since writing is always situated within a discourse community she discusses how the flower and hayes model relies on what is called the process of translating ideas into visible language this process occurs when students treat written english as a set of containers into which we pour meaning bizzell contends that this process remains the emptiest box in the cognitive process model since it decontextualizes the original context of the written text negating the original she argues writing does not so much contribute to thinking as provide an occasion for thinking the aim of collaborative learning helps students to find more control in their learning situation the social model of writing relies on the relationship between the writers and readers for the purpose of creating meaning writers seldom write exactly what they mean and readers seldom interpret a writers words exactly as the writer intendedeven grammar has a social turn in writing it may be that to fully account for the contempt that some errors of usage arouse we will have to understand better than we do the relationship between language order and those deep psychic forces that perceived linguistic violations seem to arouse in otherwise amiable people so one cant simply say a thing is right or wrong there is a difference of degrees attributed to social forces according to the expressivist theory the process of writing is centered on the writers transformation this involves the writer changing in the sense that voice and identity are established and the writer has a sense of his or her self writing is a process used to create meaning according to expressivist pedagogy an author ’ s sense of'</li><li>'##orted collective inquiry a national case study computers education 453 337 – 356 available online muukkonen h hakkarainen k lakkala m 1999 collaborative technology for facilitating progressive inquiry future learning environment tools in c hoadley j roschelle eds proceedings of the cscl 99 the third international conference on computer support for collaborative learning on title designing new media for a new millennium collaborative technology for learning education and training pp 406 – 415 mahwah nj erlbaum 1 muukkonen h hakkarainen k lakkala m 2004 computermediated progressive inquiry in higher education in t s roberts ed online collaborative learning theory and practice pp 28 – 53 hershey pa information science publishing scardamalia m bereiter c 2003 knowledge building in encyclopedia of education 2nd ed pp 1370 – 1373 new york macmillan reference usa available online'</li></ul> |
| 33 | <ul><li>'telekinesis from ancient greek τηλε far off and κινησις movement is a hypothetical psychic ability allowing an individual to influence a physical system without physical interaction experiments to prove the existence of telekinesis have historically been criticized for lack of proper controls and repeatability there is no reliable evidence that telekinesis is a real phenomenon and the topic is generally regarded as pseudoscience there is a broad scientific consensus that telekinetic research has not produced a reliable demonstration of the phenomenon 149 – 161 a panel commissioned in 1988 by the united states national research council to study paranormal claims concluded thatdespite a 130year record of scientific research on such matters our committee could find no scientific justification for the existence of phenomena such as extrasensory perception mental telepathy or mind over matter exercises evaluation of a large body of the best available evidence simply does not support the contention that these phenomena existin 1984 the united states national academy of sciences at the request of the us army research institute formed a scientific panel to assess the best evidence for telekinesis part of its purpose was to investigate military applications of telekinesis for example to remotely jam or disrupt enemy weaponry the panel heard from a variety of military staff who believed in telekinesis and made visits to the pear laboratory and two other laboratories that had claimed positive results from microtelekinesis experiments the panel criticized macrotelekinesis experiments for being open to deception by conjurors and said that virtually all microtelekinesis experiments depart from good scientific practice in a variety of ways their conclusion published in a 1987 report was that there was no scientific evidence for the existence of telekinesis 149 – 161 carl sagan included telekinesis in a long list of offerings of pseudoscience and superstition which it would be foolish to accept without solid scientific data nobel prize laureate richard feynman advocated a similar positionfelix planer a professor of electrical engineering has written that if telekinesis were real then it would be easy to demonstrate by getting subjects to depress a scale on a sensitive balance raise the temperature of a waterbath which could be measured with an accuracy of a hundredth of a degree centigrade or affect an element in an electrical circuit such as a resistor which could be monitored to better than a millionth of an ampere planer writes that such experiments are extremely sensitive and easy to monitor but are not utilized by parapsychologists as they do not hold out the remotest hope'</li><li>'an appropriate frequency very small driving movements of the arm are sufficient to produce relatively large pendulum motion it is strongly associated with the practice of analytical hypnotherapy based on uncovering techniques such as watkins affect bridge whereby a subjects yes no i dont know or i dont want to answer responses to an operators questions are indicated by physical movements rather than verbal signals and are produced per medium of a predetermined between operator and subject and precalibrated set of responses'</li><li>'psychic phenomena from an engineering perspective his paper published in february 1982 includes numerous references to remote viewing replication studies at the time subsequently flaws and mistakes in jahns reasoning were exposed by ray hyman in a critical appraisal published several years later in the same journal the descriptions of a large number of psychic studies and their results were published in march 1976 in the journal proceedings of the ieee together with the earlier papers this provoked intense scrutiny in the mainstream scientific literature numerous problems in the overall design of the remote viewing studies were identified with problems noted in all three of the remote viewing steps target selection target viewing and results judging a particular problem was the failure to follow the standard procedures that are used in experimental psychologyseveral external researchers expressed concerns about the reliability of the judging process independent examination of some of the sketches and transcripts from the viewing process revealed flaws in the original procedures and analyses in particular the presence of sensory cues being available to the judges was noted a lengthy exchange ensued with the external researchers finally concluding that the failure of puthoff and targ to address their concerns meant that the claim of remote viewing can no longer be regarded as falling within the scientific domain procedural problems and researcher conflicts of interest in the psychokinesis experiments were noted by science writer martin gardner in a detailed analysis of the nasa final report also sloppy procedures in the conduct of the eeg study were reported by a visiting observer during another series of exchanges in the scientific literaturein his book flim flam james randi presents a detailed criticism of the methods employed by puthoff and targ peepholes through walls overly helpful laboratory assistants and incautious conversations between researchers were common occurrences in puthoff and targs laboratories randi also contacted the builder of the magnetometer used in the swann experiments and established that the phenomena claimed as psychokinetic were no more than the normal fluctuations of the machineray hyman and james mcclenons 1980 replication study identified many of the same problems in methodology as james randi had particularly in the area of researchers giving subjects in remote viewing trials verbal cues that hinted at what the target images were although this was a small study with only eight participants hyman was particularly interested in how cuing from researchers affected both the subjects answers during the trial and their attitudes toward psychic phenomena at the end of the trial after reviewing the literature generated by researchers at sri and conducting his own replication study hyman summed up his findings as the bottom line here is that there is no scientifically convincing case for remote viewingpublication in scientific journals is often viewed by both the scientific community and by'</li></ul> |
| 15 | <ul><li>'during replication or transcription respectively or sometimes a complete fully transcribed rna molecule before any alterations have been made eg polyadenylation or rna editing or a peptide chain actively undergoing translation by a ribosome ncaa see noncanonical amino acid ncdna see noncoding dna ncrna see noncoding rna negative sense strand see template strand negative control also negative regulation a type of gene regulation in which a repressor binds to an operator upstream from the coding region and thereby prevents transcription by rna polymerase an inducer is necessary to switch on transcription in positive control negative supercoiling nick nick translation nickase nicking enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide nad nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate nadp nadp nitrogenous base sometimes used interchangeably with nucleobase or simply base any organic compound containing a nitrogen atom that has the chemical properties of a base a set of five particular nitrogenous bases – adenine a guanine g cytosine c thymine t and uracil u – are especially relevant to biology because they are components of nucleotides which in turn are the primary monomers that make up nucleic acids noncanonical amino acid ncaa also nonstandard amino acid any amino acid natural or artificial that is not one of the 20 or 21 proteinogenic amino acids encoded by the standard genetic code there are hundreds of such amino acids many of which have biological functions and are specified by alternative codes or incorporated into proteins accidentally by errors in translation many of the best known naturally occurring ncaas occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways leading to the standard amino acids while others have been made synthetically in the laboratory noncoding dna ncdna any segment of dna that does not encode a sequence that may ultimately be transcribed and translated into a protein in most organisms only a small fraction of the genome consists of proteincoding dna though the proportion varies greatly between species some noncoding dna may still be transcribed into functional noncoding rna as with transfer rnas or may serve important developmental or regulatory purposes other regions as with socalled junk dna appear to have no known biological function noncoding rna ncrna any molecule of rna that is not ultimately translated into a protein the dna sequence from which a functional noncoding rna is transcribed is often referred to as an rna gene numerous types of noncoding rnas essential to normal genome function are produced constitutively including transfer rna trna ribosomal rna rrna microrna mirna and small interfering rna sirna other noncoding rnas sometimes'</li><li>'multifactorial diseases are not confined to any specific pattern of single gene inheritance and are likely to be caused when multiple genes come together along with the effects of environmental factorsin fact the terms ‘ multifactorial ’ and ‘ polygenic ’ are used as synonyms and these terms are commonly used to describe the architecture of disease causing genetic component multifactorial diseases are often found gathered in families yet they do not show any distinct pattern of inheritance it is difficult to study and treat multifactorial diseases because specific factors associated with these diseases have not yet been identified some common multifactorial disorders include schizophrenia diabetes asthma depression high blood pressure alzheimer ’ s obesity epilepsy heart diseases hypothyroidism club foot cancer birth defects and even dandruff the multifactorial threshold model assumes that gene defects for multifactorial traits are usually distributed within populations firstly different populations might have different thresholds this is the case in which occurrences of a particular disease is different in males and females eg pyloric stenosis the distribution of susceptibility is the same but threshold is different secondly threshold may be same but the distributions of susceptibility may be different it explains the underlying risks present in first degree relatives of affected individuals multifactorial disorders exhibit a combination of distinct characteristics which are clearly differentiated from mendelian inheritance the risk of multifactorial diseases may get increased due to environmental influences the disease is not sexlimited but it occurs more frequently in one gender than the other females are more likely to have neural tube defects compared to males the disease occurs more commonly in a distinct ethnic group ie africans asians caucasians etc the diseases may have more in common than generally recognized since similar risk factors are associated with multiple diseases families with close relatives are more likely to develop one of the disease than the common population the risk may heighten anywhere between 12 and 50 percent depending on the relation of the family member multifactorial disorders also reveal increased concordance for disease in monozygotic twins as compared to dizygotic twins or full siblings the risk for multifactorial disorders is mainly determined by universal risk factors risk factors are divided into three categories genetic environmental and complex factors for example overweight genetic risk factors are associated with the permanent changes in the base pair sequence of human genome in the last decade many studies have been generated data regarding genetic basis of multifactorial diseases various polymorphism have been shown to be associated with more than one disease examples include polymorphisms in tnfa tgfb and ace'</li><li>'disease neuroradiology the spectrum of neuroradiological features associated with ags is broad but is most typically characterised by the following cerebral calcifications calcifications on ct computed tomography are seen as areas of abnormal signal typically bilateral and located in the basal ganglia but sometimes also extending into the white matter calcifications are usually better detected using ct scans and can be missed completely on mri without gradient echo sequences magnetic resonance imagingwhite matter abnormalities these are found in 75100 of cases and are best visualised on mri signal changes can be particularly prominent in frontal and temporal regions white matter abnormalities sometimes include cystic degenerationcerebral atrophy is seen frequentlygenetics pathogenic mutations in any of the seven genes known to be involved in ags at the moment there are no therapies specifically targeting the underlying cause of ags current treatments address the symptoms which can be varied both in scope and severity many patients benefit from tubefeeding drugs can be administered to help with seizures epilepsy the treatment of chilblains remains problematic but particularly involves keeping the feet hands warm physical therapy including the use of splints can help to prevent contractures and surgery is sometimes required botox botulinium toxin has sometimes caused severe immune reactions in some ags patients and the high risk of possible further brain damage must be considered before giving botox occupational therapy can help with development and the use of technology eg assistive communication devices can facilitate communication patients should be regularly screened for treatable conditions most particularly glaucoma and endocrine problems especially hypothyroidism the risk versus benefit of giving immunizations also must be considered as some ags patients have high immune responses or flares that cause further brain damage from immunizations but other patients have no problems with immunizations on the other hand ags patients have died from illnesses that can be immunized against so the family must consider the risk vs benefit of each immunization vs risk of the actual virus if they choose not to immunize as of 2017 there are current drug trials being conducted that may lead to drug treatments for ags in 1984 jean aicardi and francoise goutieres described eight children from five families presenting with a severe early onset encephalopathy which was characterized by calcification of the basal ganglia abnormalities of the cerebral white matter and diffuse brain atrophy an excess of white cells chiefly lymphocytes was found in the cerebrospinal fluid csf thus indicating an'</li></ul> |
| 31 | <ul><li>'substance theory or substance – attribute theory is an ontological theory positing that objects are constituted each by a substance and properties borne by the substance but distinct from it in this role a substance can be referred to as a substratum or a thinginitself substances are particulars that are ontologically independent they are able to exist all by themselves another defining feature often attributed to substances is their ability to undergo changes changes involve something existing before during and after the change they can be described in terms of a persisting substance gaining or losing properties attributes or properties on the other hand are entities that can be exemplified by substances properties characterize their bearers they express what their bearer is likesubstance is a key concept in ontology the latter in turn part of metaphysics which may be classified into monist dualist or pluralist varieties according to how many substances or individuals are said to populate furnish or exist in the world according to monistic views there is only one substance stoicism and spinoza for example hold monistic views that pneuma or god respectively is the one substance in the world these modes of thinking are sometimes associated with the idea of immanence dualism sees the world as being composed of two fundamental substances for example the cartesian substance dualism of mind and matter pluralist philosophies include platos theory of forms and aristotles hylomorphic categories aristotle used the term substance greek ουσια ousia in a secondary sense for genera and species understood as hylomorphic forms primarily however he used it with regard to his category of substance the specimen this person or this horse or individual qua individual who survives accidental change and in whom the essential properties inhere that define those universalsa substance — that which is called a substance most strictly primarily and most of all — is that which is neither said of a subject nor in a subject eg the individual man or the individual horse the species in which the things primarily called substances are are called secondary substances as also are the genera of these species for example the individual man belongs in a species man and animal is a genus of the species so these — both man and animal — are called secondary substances in chapter 6 of book i the physics aristotle argues that any change must be analysed in reference to the property of an invariant subject as it was before the change and thereafter thus in his hylomorphic account of change matter serves as a relative substratum of transformation ie of changing substantial form in the categories properties are predicated only of substance but in chapter 7'</li><li>'subjectivity the philosophical conversation around subjectivity remains one that struggles with the epistemological question of what is real what is made up and what it would mean to be separated completely from subjectivity aristotles teacher plato considered geometry to be a condition of his idealist philosophy concerned with universal truth in platos republic socrates opposes the sophist thrasymachuss relativistic account of justice and argues that justice is mathematical in its conceptual structure and that ethics was therefore a precise and objective enterprise with impartial standards for truth and correctness like geometry the rigorous mathematical treatment plato gave to moral concepts set the tone for the western tradition of moral objectivism that came after him his contrasting between objectivity and opinion became the basis for philosophies intent on resolving the questions of reality truth and existence he saw opinions as belonging to the shifting sphere of sensibilities as opposed to a fixed eternal and knowable incorporeality where plato distinguished between how we know things and their ontological status subjectivism such as george berkeleys depends on perception in platonic terms a criticism of subjectivism is that it is difficult to distinguish between knowledge opinions and subjective knowledgeplatonic idealism is a form of metaphysical objectivism holding that the ideas exist independently from the individual berkeleys empirical idealism on the other hand holds that things only exist as they are perceived both approaches boast an attempt at objectivity platos definition of objectivity can be found in his epistemology which is based on mathematics and his metaphysics where knowledge of the ontological status of objects and ideas is resistant to changein opposition to philosopher rene descartes method of personal deduction natural philosopher isaac newton applied the relatively objective scientific method to look for evidence before forming a hypothesis partially in response to kants rationalism logician gottlob frege applied objectivity to his epistemological and metaphysical philosophies if reality exists independently of consciousness then it would logically include a plurality of indescribable forms objectivity requires a definition of truth formed by propositions with truth value an attempt of forming an objective construct incorporates ontological commitments to the reality of objectsthe importance of perception in evaluating and understanding objective reality is debated in the observer effect of quantum mechanics direct or naive realists rely on perception as key in observing objective reality while instrumentalists hold that observations are useful in predicting objective reality the concepts that encompass these ideas are important in the philosophy of science philosophies of mind explore whether objectivity relies on perceptual constancy moral objectivism is the'</li><li>'metaontology is the study of the field of inquiry known as ontology the goal of metaontology is to clarify what ontology is about and how to interpret the meaning of ontological claims different metaontological theories disagree on what the goal of ontology is and whether a given issue or theory lies within the scope of ontology there is no universal agreement whether metaontology is a separate field of inquiry besides ontology or whether it is just one branch of ontologymetaontological realists hold that there are objective answers to the basic questions of ontology according to the quinean approach the goal of ontology is to determine what exists and what doesnt exist the neoaristotelian approach asserts that the goal of ontology is to determine which entities are fundamental and how the nonfundamental entities depend on them metaontological antirealists on the other hand deny that there are objective answers to the basic questions of ontology one example of such an approach is rudolf carnaps thesis that the truth of existenceclaims depends on the framework in which these claims are formulated the term metaontology is of recent origin it was first coined in the francophone world by alain badiou in his work being and event in which he proposes a philosophy of the event conditioned by axiomatic set theory its first angloamerican use can be found in the work of peter van inwagen in which he analyzes willard van orman quines critique of rudolf carnaps metaphysics where quine introduced a formal technique for determining the ontological commitments in a comparison of ontologies thomas hofweber while acknowledging that the use of the term is controversial suggests that metaontology constitutes a separate field of enquiry besides ontology as its metatheory when understood in a strict sense but ontology can also be construed more broadly as containing its metatheory advocates of the term seek to distinguish ontology which investigates what there is from metaontology which investigates what we are asking when we ask what there isthe notion of ontological commitment is useful for elucidating the difference between ontology and metaontology a theory is ontologically committed to an entity if that entity must exist in order for the theory to be true metaontology is interested in among other things what the ontological commitments of a given theory are for this inquiry it is not important whether the theory and its commitments are true or false ontology on the other hand is interested in among other things what entities exist ie which ontological commitments'</li></ul> |
| 35 | <ul><li>'mean annual soil temperature is 8 °c or higher the major area of gray brown luvisols is found in the southern part of the great lakesst lawrence lowlands gray luvisols have eluvial and illuvial horizons and may have an ah horizon if the mean annual soil temperature is below 8 °c vast areas of gray luvisols in the boreal forest zone of the interior plains have thick light grey eluvial horizons underlying the forest litter and thick bt horizons with clay coating the surface of aggregates this order includes all soils that have developed b horizons but do not meet the requirements of any of the orders described previously many brunisolic soils have brownish b horizons without much evidence of clay accumulation as in luvisolic soils or of amorphous materials as in podzolic soils with time and stable environmental conditions some brunisolic soils will evolve to luvisolic soils others to podzolic soils covering almost 790 000 km2 86 of canadas land area brunisolic soils occur in association with other soils in all regions south of the permafrost zone four great groups are distinguished on the basis of organic matter enrichment in the a horizon and acidity melanic brunisols have an ah horizon at least 10 cm thick and a ph above 55 they occur commonly in southern ontario and quebec eutric brunisols have the same basic properties as melanic brunisols except that the ah horizon if any is less than 10 cm thick sombric brunisols have an ah horizon at least 10 cm thick and are acid and their ph is below 55 dystric brunisols are acidic and do not have an ah horizon 10 cm thick these soils are too weakly developed to meet the limits of any other order the absence or weak development of genetic horizons may result from a lack of time for development or from instability of materials the properties of regosolic soils are essentially those of the parent material two great groups are defined regosols consist essentially of c horizons humic regosols have an ah horizon at least 10 cm thick regosolic soils cover about 73 000 km2 08 of canadas land area the 31 great group classes are formed by subdividing order classes on the basis of soil properties that reflect differences in soilforming processes eg kinds and amounts of organic matter in surface soil horizons subgroups are based on the sequence of horizons in the pedon many subgroups intergrade to other soil orders for example the gray luvisol great group includes 12 subgroups orthic'</li><li>'to podsolisation of soilsthe symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees thus contributing to tree nutrition it was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading to the release of inorganic nutrients a large range of bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces or to weather minerals and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect has been demonstrated the demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents such as protons organic acids and chelating molecules weathering of basaltic oceanic crust differs in important respects from weathering in the atmosphere weathering is relatively slow with basalt becoming less dense at a rate of about 15 per 100 million years the basalt becomes hydrated and is enriched in total and ferric iron magnesium and sodium at the expense of silica titanium aluminum ferrous iron and calcium buildings made of any stone brick or concrete are susceptible to the same weathering agents as any exposed rock surface also statues monuments and ornamental stonework can be badly damaged by natural weathering processes this is accelerated in areas severely affected by acid rainaccelerated building weathering may be a threat to the environment and occupant safety design strategies can moderate the impact of environmental effects such as using of pressuremoderated rain screening ensuring that the hvac system is able to effectively control humidity accumulation and selecting concrete mixes with reduced water content to minimize the impact of freezethaw cycles granitic rock which is the most abundant crystalline rock exposed at the earths surface begins weathering with destruction of hornblende biotite then weathers to vermiculite and finally oligoclase and microcline are destroyed all are converted into a mixture of clay minerals and iron oxides the resulting soil is depleted in calcium sodium and ferrous iron compared with the bedrock and magnesium is reduced by 40 and silicon by 15 at the same time the soil is enriched in aluminium and potassium by at least 50 by titanium whose abundance triples and by ferric iron whose abundance increases by an order of magnitude compared with the bedrockbasaltic rock is more easily weathered than granitic rock due to its formation at higher temperatures and drier conditions the fine grain size and presence of volcanic glass also hasten weathering in tropical settings it rapidly weathers to clay minerals aluminium hydroxides and titaniumen'</li><li>'a soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features mainly colour and texture these may be described both in absolute terms particle size distribution for texture for instance and in terms relative to the surrounding material ie coarser or sandier than the horizons above and belowthe identified horizons are indicated with symbols which are mostly used in a hierarchical way master horizons main horizons are indicated by capital letters suffixes in form of lowercase letters and figures further differentiate the master horizons there are many different systems of horizon symbols in the world no one system is more correct — as artificial constructs their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols the systems cannot be mixed in most soil classification systems horizons are used to define soil types the german system uses entire horizon sequences for definition other systems pick out certain horizons the diagnostic horizons for the definition examples are the world reference base for soil resources wrb the usda soil taxonomy and the australian soil classification diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names eg the cambic horizon or the spodic horizon the wrb lists 40 diagnostic horizons in addition to these diagnostic horizons some other soil characteristics may be needed to define a soil type some soils do not have a clear development of horizons a soil horizon is a result of soilforming processes pedogenesis layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called layers many soils have an organic surface layer which is denominated with a capital letter o letters may differ depending on the system the mineral soil usually starts with an a horizon if a welldeveloped subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists it is generally called a b horizon an underlying loose but poorly developed horizon is called a c horizon hard bedrock is mostly denominated r most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five in the following the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile not all of them are present in every soil soils with a history of human interference for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing may lack distinct horizons almost completely when examining soils in the field attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses to which the land has been put in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons the designations are found in chapter 10 of the world reference base for soil resources manual 4th edition 2022 the chapter starts with some'</li></ul> |
| 36 | <ul><li>'an apologue or apolog from the greek απολογος a statement or account is a brief fable or allegorical story with pointed or exaggerated details meant to serve as a pleasant vehicle for a moral doctrine or to convey a useful lesson without stating it explicitly unlike a fable the moral is more important than the narrative details as with the parable the apologue is a tool of rhetorical argument used to convince or persuade among the best known ancient and classical examples are that of jotham in the book of judges 9715 the belly and its members by the patrician agrippa menenius lanatus in the second book of livy and perhaps most famous of all those of aesop wellknown modern examples of this literary form include george orwells animal farm and the brer rabbit stories derived from african and cherokee cultures and recorded and synthesized by joel chandler harris the term is applied more particularly to a story in which the actors or speakers are either various kinds of animals or are inanimate objects an apologue is distinguished from a fable in that there is always some moral sense present in the former which there need not be in the latter an apologue is generally dramatic and has been defined as a satire in action an apologue differs from a parable in several respects a parable is equally an ingenious tale intended to correct manners but it can be true in the sense that when this kind of actual event happens among men this is what it means and this is how we should think about it while an apologue with its introduction of animals and plants to which it lends ideas language and emotions contains only metaphoric truth when this kind of situation exists anywhere in the world here is an interesting truth about it the parable reaches heights to which the apologue cannot aspire for the points in which animals and nature present analogies to man are principally those of his lower nature hunger desire pain fear etc and the lessons taught by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential morality keep yourself safe find ease where you can plan for the future dont misbehave or youll eventually be caught and punished whereas the parable aims at representing the relations between man and existence or higher powers know your role in the universe behave well towards all you encounter kindness and respect are of higher value than cruelty and slander it finds its framework in the world of nature as it actually is and not in any parody of it and it exhibits real and not fanciful analogies the apologue seizes on'</li><li>'##xtapose their product with another image listed as 123 after juxtaposition the complexity is increased with fusion which is when an advertisers product is combined with another image listed as 456 the most complex is replacement which replaces the product with another product listed as 789 each of these sections also include a variety of richness the least rich would be connection which shows how one product is associated with another product listed as 147 the next rich would be similarity which shows how a product is like another product or image listed as 258 finally the most rich would be opposition which is when advertisers show how their product is not like another product or image listed as 369 advertisers can put their product next to another image in order to have the consumer associate their product with the presented image advertisers can put their product next to another image to show the similarity between their product and the presented image advertisers can put their product next to another image in order to show the consumer that their product is nothing like what the image shows advertisers can combine their product with an image in order to have the consumer associate their product with the presented image advertisers can combine their product with an image to show the similarity between their product and the presented image advertisers can combine their product with another image in order to show the consumer that their product is nothing like what the image shows advertisers can replace their product with an image to have the consumer associate their product with the presented image advertisers can replace their product with an image to show the similarity between their product and the presented image advertisers can replace their product with another image to show the consumer that their product is nothing like what the image showseach of these categories varies in complexity where putting a product next to a chosen image is the simplest and replacing the product entirely is the most complex the reason why putting a product next to a chosen image is the most simple is because the consumer has already been shown that there is a connection between the two in other words the consumer just has to figure out why there is the connection however when advertisers replace the product that they are selling with another image then the consumer must first figure out the connection and figure out why the connection was made visual tropes and tropic thinking are a part of visual rhetoric while the field of visual rhetoric isnt necessarily concerned with the aesthetic choices of a piece the same principles of visual composition may be applied to the study and practice of visual art for example'</li><li>'reconciliation between mendelian mutation and darwinian natural selection by remaining sensitive to the interests of naturalists and geneticists dobzhansky – through a subtle strategy of polysemy – allowed a peaceful solution to a battle between two scientific territories his expressed objective was to review the genetic information bearing on the problem of organic diversity 41 53 the building blocks of dobzhanskys interdisciplinary influence that included much development in two scientific camps were the result of the compositional choices he made he uses for instance prolepsis to make arguments that introduced his research findings and he provided a metaphoric map as a means to guide his audience 57 8 one illustration of metaphor is his use of the term adaptive landscapes considered metaphorically this term is a way of representing how theorists of two different topics can unite 57 another figure that is important as an aid to understanding and knowledge is antimetabole refutation by reversal antithesis also works toward a similar end an example of antimetabole antimetabole often appears in writing or visuals where the line of inquiry and experiment has been characterized by mirrorimage objects or of complementarity reversible or equilibrium processes louis pasteurs revelation that many organic compounds come in leftand righthanded versions or isomers as articulated at an 1883 lecture illustrates the use of this figure he argues in lecture that life is the germ and the germ is life because all life contains unsymmetricalasymmetrical processes fahnestock 137140 a more recent trend in rhetorical studies involves participation with the broader new materialist ideas concerning philosophy and science and technology studies this new topic of inquiry investigates the role of rhetoric and discourse as an integral part of the materialism of scientific practice this method considers how the methods of natural sciences came into being and the particular role interaction among scientists and scientific institutions has to play new materialist rhetoric of science include those proponents who consider the progress of the natural sciences as having been obtained at a high cost a cost that limits the scope and vision of science work in this area often draws on scholarship by bruno latour steve woolgar annemarie mol and other new materialist scholars from science and technology studies work in new materialist rhetoric of science tends to be very critical of a perceived overreliance on language in more conservative variants of rhetoric of science and has significantly criticized longstanding areas of inquiry such as incommensurability studies globalization of rhetoric renewed interest today in rhetoric of science is its positioning as a hermeneutic metadiscourse rather than a substantive discourse practice'</li></ul> |
| 21 | <ul><li>'air supply when the air supply is restricted fermentation instead of respiration can occur poor ventilation of produce also leads to the accumulation of carbon dioxide when the concentration of carbon dioxide increases it will quickly ruin produce fresh produce continues to lose water after harvest water loss causes shrinkage and loss of weight the rate at which water is lost varies according to the product leafy vegetables lose water quickly because they have a thin skin with many pores potatoes on the other hand have a thick skin with few pores but whatever the product to extend shelf or storage life the rate of water loss must be minimal the most significant factor is the ratio of the surface area of the fruit or vegetable to its volume the greater the ratio the more rapid will be the loss of water the rate of loss is related to the difference between the water vapour pressure inside the produce and in the air produce must therefore be kept in a moist atmosphere diseases caused by fungi and bacteria cause losses but virus diseases common in growing crops are not a major postharvest problem deep penetration of decay makes infected produce unusable this is often the result of infection of the produce in the field before harvest quality loss occurs when the disease affects only the surface skin blemishes may lower the sale price but do not render a fruit or vegetable inedible fungal and bacterial diseases are spread by microscopic spores which are distributed in the air and soil and via decaying plant material infection after harvest can occur at any time it is usually the result of harvesting or handling injuries ripening occurs when a fruit is mature ripeness is followed by senescence and breakdown of the fruit the category “ fruit ” refers also to products such as aubergine sweet pepper and tomato nonclimacteric fruit only ripen while still attached to the parent plant their eating quality suffers if they are harvested before fully ripe as their sugar and acid content does not increase further examples are citrus grapes and pineapple early harvesting is often carried out for export shipments to minimise loss during transport but a consequence of this is that the flavour suffers climacteric fruit are those that can be harvested when mature but before ripening has begun these include banana melon papaya and tomato in commercial fruit marketing the rate of ripening is controlled artificially thus enabling transport and distribution to be carefully planned ethylene gas is produced in most plant tissues and is important in starting off the ripening process it can be used commercially for the ripening of climacteric fruits however natural ethylene produced by fruits can lead to instorage losses for example ethyl'</li><li>'##bens 14 3 – 9'</li><li>'##rapubsoilmgmthtm bear fe sj toth and al prince 1948 variation in mineral composition of vegetables soil sci soc am proc 13380 – 384 mclean eo and carbonell 1972 calcium magnesium and potassium saturation ratios in two soils and their effects upon yield and nutrient contents of german millet and alfalfa soil sci soc am proc 36927 – 930 mclean eo 1977 contrasting concepts in soil test interpretation sufficiency levels of available nutrients versus basic cation saturation ratios p 39 – 54 in tr peck et al ed soil testing correlating and interpreting the analytical results asa spec publ 29 asa cssa and sssa madison wi p mclean eo and carbonell 1972 calcium magnesium and potassium saturation ratios in two soils and their effects upon yield and nutrient contents of german millet and alfalfa soil sci soc am proc 36927 – 930 annemarie mayer 1997 historical changes in the mineral content of fruits and vegetables british food journal vol 99 iss 6 pp 207 – 211 moser f 1933 the calcium – magnesium ratio in soils and its relation to crop growth j am soc agron 25365 – 377 national sustainable agriculture information service – httpswebarchiveorgweb20090305021221httpattrancatorgattrapubsoilmgmthtml ologunde oo and sorensen 1982 influence of concentrations of k and mg in nutrient solutions on sorghum agron j 7441 – 46 olson ra frank grabouski and rehm 1982 economic and agronomic impacts of varied philosophies of soil testing agron j 74492 – 499 pmm kopittke w neal – a review of the use of the basic cation saturation ratio and the ideal soil – httpswebarchiveorgweb20141226024327httpswwwagronomyorgpublicationssssajarticles712259 rehm gw and rc sorensen 1985 effects of potassium and magnesium applied for corn grown on an irrigated sandy soil soil sci soc amer j 491446 – 1450 rengasamy p greene and ford 1986 influence of magnesium on aggregate stability in sodic redbrown earths aust j soil res 24229 – 237 schonbeck m 2000 balancing soil nutrients in organic vegetable production systems testing albrechts base saturation theory in southeastern soils organic farminolson ra frank grabouski and rehm 1982 economic and agronomic impacts of varied'</li></ul> |
| 13 | <ul><li>'today the term generative art is still current within the relevant artistic community since 1998 a series of conferences have been held in milan with that title generativeartcom and brian eno has been influential in promoting and using generative art methods eno 1996 both in music and in visual art the use of the term has now converged on work that has been produced by the activation of a set of rules and where the artist lets a computer system take over at least some of the decisionmaking although of course the artist determines the rules in the call of the generative art conferences in milan annually starting from 1998 the definition of generative art by celestino soddu generative art is the idea realized as genetic code of artificial events as construction of dynamic complex systems able to generate endless variations each generative project is a conceptsoftware that works producing unique and nonrepeatable events like music or 3d objects as possible and manifold expressions of the generating idea strongly recognizable as a vision belonging to an artist designer musician architect mathematician discussion on the eugene mailing list was framed by the following definition by adrian ward from 1999 generative art is a term given to work which stems from concentrating on the processes involved in producing an artwork usually although not strictly automated by the use of a machine or computer or by using mathematic or pragmatic instructions to define the rules by which such artworks are executed a similar definition is provided by philip galanter generative art refers to any art practice where the artist creates a process such as a set of natural language rules a computer program a machine or other procedural invention which is then set into motion with some degree of autonomy contributing to or resulting in a completed work of art around the 2020s generative ai models learned to imitate the distinct style of particular authors for example a generative image model such as stable diffusion is able to model the stylistic characteristics of an artist like pablo picasso including his particular brush strokes use of colour perspective and so on and a user can engineer a prompt such as an astronaut riding a horse by picasso to cause the model to generate a novel image applying the artists style to an arbitrary subject generative image models have received significant backlash from artists who object to their style being imitated without their permission arguing that this harms their ability to profit from their own work johann kirnbergers musikalisches wurfelspiel musical dice game of 1757 is considered an early example of a generative system based on randomness dice were used to select musical sequences from a numbered pool of previously composed phrases this system provided a balance of'</li><li>'government regulation on nfts in january 2022 it was reported that some nfts were being exploited by sellers to unknowingly gather users ip addresses the exploit works via the offchain nature of nft as the users computer automatically follows a web address in the nft to display the content the server at the address can then log the ip address and in some cases dynamically alter the returned content to show the result opensea has a particular vulnerability to this loophole because it allows html files to be linked critics compare the'</li><li>'40 by studio roosegaarde netherlands foreign voices common stories ghettoblaster by james phillips presented by analogue nostalgia canada instant places canada code by ian birse laura kavanaugh canada paparazzi bots by ken rinaldo usa play the hertzian collective by geoffrey shea canada reactable by sergi jorda martin kaltenbrunner gunter geiger and marcos alonso austria spain breaking the ice by society for arts and technology canada at great northern way campus and the bibliotheque de montreal vested by don ritter canada we are stardust by george legrady canada where are you by luc courschene canada ecoart by brendan wypich ontario world without water by suzette araujo tahir mahmood and kalli paakspuu canada located at emily carr university the use of unconventional exhibit spaces allowed for a unique venue for participatory art acts included the paradise institute by janet cardiff and georges bures miller organized by the national gallery of canada canada codelab by m simon levin and jer thorp with emily carr students and faculty canada glistenhive by julie andreyev maria lantin and simon overstall canada odd spaces by faisal anwar canada song of solomon by julian jonker and ralph borland south africa code dialogues copresented with emily carr university of art and design canada electromode curated by valerie lamontagne canada peau dane blue code jacket antics and tornado dress by barbara layne studio subtela canada company keeper and emotional ties by sara diamond canada electric skin and barking mad by suzi webster with jordan benwick canada peau dane by valerie lamontagne canada skorpions and captain electric by joanna berzowska xs labs canada tendrils by thecla schiphorst canada walking city and living pod by ying gao canada within the vancouver public librarys central branch on georgia st code live 3 featured these writings seen by david rokeby canada the sacred touch by ranjit makkuni india when the gods came down to earth by srinivas krishna canada room to make your peace by 2010 for eight nights electronic musicians played at the great northern way campus these exhibits were not free but included many popular musical artists acts like mike relm junior boys the golden filter hard rubber a festival event featuring a 14piece groove band kid koala jamming the networks modern deep left quartet mike shannon bell orchestre martyn 2562 deadbeat chromeo this exhibit showcased over 50 canadian filmmakers a common theme among their films because they were for the olympics was'</li></ul> |
| 22 | <ul><li>'flows through the notch it passes through lost river gorge an area where enormous boulders falling off the flanking walls of the notch at the close of the last ice age have covered the river creating a network of boulder caves the lost river of west virginia is located in the appalachian mountains of hardy county in the eastern panhandle region of the state it flows into an underground channel northeast of baker along west virginia route 259 at the sinks and reappears near wardensville as the cacapon river ponor groundwater subterranean river'</li><li>'groundwater aquifer in the world over 17 million km2 or 066 million sq mi it plays a large part in water supplies for queensland and some remote parts of south australia discontinuous sand bodies at the base of the mcmurray formation in the athabasca oil sands region of northeastern alberta canada are commonly referred to as the basal water sand bws aquifers saturated with water they are confined beneath impermeable bitumensaturated sands that are exploited to recover bitumen for synthetic crude oil production where they are deeplying and recharge occurs from underlying devonian formations they are saline and where they are shallow and recharged by surface water they are nonsaline the bws typically pose problems for the recovery of bitumen whether by openpit mining or by in situ methods such as steamassisted gravity drainage sagd and in some areas they are targets for wastewater injection the guarani aquifer located beneath the surface of argentina brazil paraguay and uruguay is one of the worlds largest aquifer systems and is an important source of fresh water named after the guarani people it covers 1200000 km2 460000 sq mi with a volume of about 40000 km3 9600 cu mi a thickness of between 50 and 800 m 160 and 2620 ft and a maximum depth of about 1800 m 5900 ft the ogallala aquifer of the central united states is one of the worlds great aquifers but in places it is being rapidly depleted by growing municipal use and continuing agricultural use this huge aquifer which underlies portions of eight states contains primarily fossil water from the time of the last glaciation annual recharge in the more arid parts of the aquifer is estimated to total only about 10 percent of annual withdrawals according to a 2013 report by the united states geological survey usgs the depletion between 2001 and 2008 inclusive is about 32 percent of the cumulative depletion during the entire 20th centuryin the united states the biggest users of water from aquifers include agricultural irrigation and oil and coal extraction cumulative total groundwater depletion in the united states accelerated in the late 1940s and continued at an almost steady linear rate through the end of the century in addition to widely recognized environmental consequences groundwater depletion also adversely impacts the longterm sustainability of groundwater supplies to help meet the nation ’ s water needsan example of a significant and sustainable carbonate aquifer is the edwards aquifer in central texas this carbonate aquifer has historically been providing high'</li><li>'– channel shapedumpy level – dischargeacoustic doppler velocimeter – dilution tracing – precipitationrain gauge – rainfall depth unit and intensity unit time−1 disdrometer – raindrop size total precipitation depth and intensity doppler weather radar – raindrop size total precipitation depth and intensity rain cloud reflectivity converted to precipitation intensity through calibration to rain gauges wind profiler – precipitation vertical and horizontal motion vertical crosssection of reflectivity and typingfrozen precipitation on groundpressure sensors – pressure depth and liquid water equivalent acoustic sensors – pressure depth and liquid water equivalentmean windspeed and directionanemometer – doppler sonar – wind profiler – air vertical and horizontal motionmean air temperaturethermometer – humidityinfrared thermometer – a form of remote sensing hygrometer psychrometer – measures relative humidityair pressurebarometer – heat fluxnet radiometer – pyranometer – pyrgeometer – heat flux sensor – lysimeter – cloudinesssunshinespectroradiometer – campbell – stokes recorder – evapotranspiration water budget methodbasin water balance – evaporation pan – lysimetry – soil moisture depletion – water vapor transfer methodbowen ratio – considers the energy budget eddy covariance – component analysisporometrysap flow – interception loss – soil evaporation – largescalescintillometer – remote sensing estimates – lidar – bulk density porosityoven dried sample – matric potentialsuction plate – determines relationship between the water volume and matric potential resistance thermometer – relates to matric potential from previous calibrationhydraulic conductivitydisc permeameter – measures soil hydraulic conductivity rainfall simulator – measures output through the application of constant input rain in a sealed area slug test – addition or removal of water and monitors the time until return to predisturbance levelpiezometer – soil moisture content water volume percentagefrequency domain sensor – time domain reflectometer – neutron probe – conductivityelectrical conductivity – variety of probes usedphph meter – dissolved oxygen dowinkler test – turbiditynephelometer turbidimeter – water claritysecchi disk – bed load erosiondeposition behavioral modeling in hydrology basin hacks law – catchment water balance – evaporation penman – penmanmonteith – infiltrationsoil movement darcys law – darcyweisbach – richards equation – streamflow'</li></ul> |
| 24 | <ul><li>'space in landscape design refers to theories about the meaning and nature of space as a volume and as an element of design the concept of space as the fundamental medium of landscape design grew from debates tied to modernism contemporary art asian art and design as seen in the japanese garden and architecture elizabeth k meyer cites claudehenri watelets essay on gardens 1774 as perhaps the first reference to space in gardenarchitectural theory andrew jackson downing in 1918 wrote space composition in architecture which directly linked painting and gardens as arts involved in the creation of space the origins of modern northern european thought is a german innovation of the 1890s by the 1920s einsteins theories of relativity were replacing newtons conception of universal space practitioners such as fletcher steele james rose garrett eckbo and dan kiley began to write and design through a vocabulary of lines volumes masses and planes in an attempt to replace the prevalent debate centered around ideas of the formal and informal with one that would more closely align their field with the fine arts according to adrian forty the term space in relation to design was all but meaningless until the 1890s at that time two schools began to develop viennese gottfried semper in 1880 developed an architectural theory based the idea that the first impulse of architecture was the enclosure of space camillo sitte extended sempers ideas to exterior spaces in his city planning according to artistic principles 1889 concurrently friedrich nietzsche built on ideas from kant which emphasized the experience of space as a force field generated by human movement and perception martin heidegger would later contradict both of these schools in his 1927 being and time and 1951 building dwelling thinking he claimed that space was neither a construct of the mind nor a given but was that for which a room has been made and was created by the object within a room rather than the room itself henri lefebvre would call all of this into question linking designers notions of themselves as spacemakers to a subservience to a dominant capitalist mode of production he felt that the abstract space they had created had destroyed social space through alienation separation and a privileging of the eye james rose and garrett eckbo colleagues at harvard in the 1930s were the pioneers of a movement which adopted ideas about space from artists such as wassily kandinsky kurt schwitters naum gabo and the russian constructivists and from architectural ideas based om mies van der rohes free plan seeing gardens as outdoor rooms or sculptures to be walked through they prioritized movement in analogy to painting and sculpture rose in particular saw elements of landscape as having architectural volume not just mass in'</li><li>'##region which are part of the new themes each thematic group division has updated its strategic roadmap by including the following new elements issues in 2011 in each grouptheme identified by prospective studies conducted in preparation of the strategic plan development areas and issues specific to the new spheres of cluster activities the ict and sustainable city area was analyzed in 2009 ict and health field will be in 2010 with an update of this document in france the first four themes of the cluster systematic parisregion comprised no less than 320000 employees including 250000 in services and 70000 in industry by itself the software segment in complex systems represent a global market of 300 billion euros'</li><li>'a german garden is a type of architecture of gardens originating in germany influenced by the english garden concept with staffages and embellishments eg a grotto and weeping trees a sense of emotional aesthetics should be developed typical of this kind of park design is clear structure and domestic animals a necessary component of the garden as seen in former times in the luisium palace near dessau in germany or still existing the historistic park of villa haas hesse from 1892 livestock in the park serve to enhance the idyll nature experience the park area therefore had to be redesigned to protect the plants walls hedges watercourses fences the term ornamental farm which is still used today in manors with small park areas forms a flowing border to this here too beauty always serves the useful an own german garden style as demanded by the leading german garden theorist hirschfeld and his pupils is never concretized in the literature compared to the french or english style therefore in addition to the usual references to ancient mythology the german style is limited to the decoration of statues memorial stones etc of national importance if the english landscape garden mostly is the expression of a liberal bourgeoisie the german garden is more oriented towards the model of the nobility and later incorporates elements of german romanticism and other stylesoften the style concept is confused with the new german gardening here more emphasis is placed on easycare locationloyal shrubs and colour aesthetics theory of garden art c c l hirschfeld edited and translated by linda b parshall isbn 9780812235845 klaus f muller park und villa haas historismus kunst und lebensstil park and villa haas historism art und lifestyle verlag edition winterwork 2012 isbn 9783864681608 ebook isbn 9783864687655 2013 list of garden types'</li></ul> |
## Evaluation
### Metrics
| Label | F1 |
|:--------|:-------|
| **all** | 0.7832 |
## Uses
### Direct Use for Inference
First install the SetFit library:
```bash
pip install setfit
```
Then you can load this model and run inference.
```python
from setfit import SetFitModel
# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SetFitModel.from_pretrained("udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-contrastive-logistic-500s")
# Run inference
preds = model("##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert")
```
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## Training Details
### Training Set Metrics
| Training set | Min | Median | Max |
|:-------------|:----|:---------|:----|
| Word count | 1 | 369.0421 | 509 |
| Label | Training Sample Count |
|:------|:----------------------|
| 0 | 500 |
| 1 | 500 |
| 2 | 420 |
| 3 | 500 |
| 4 | 356 |
| 5 | 374 |
| 6 | 500 |
| 7 | 364 |
| 8 | 422 |
| 9 | 372 |
| 10 | 494 |
| 11 | 295 |
| 12 | 500 |
| 13 | 278 |
| 14 | 314 |
| 15 | 500 |
| 16 | 417 |
| 17 | 379 |
| 18 | 357 |
| 19 | 370 |
| 20 | 337 |
| 21 | 373 |
| 22 | 500 |
| 23 | 500 |
| 24 | 312 |
| 25 | 481 |
| 26 | 386 |
| 27 | 500 |
| 28 | 500 |
| 29 | 500 |
| 30 | 500 |
| 31 | 470 |
| 32 | 284 |
| 33 | 311 |
| 34 | 500 |
| 35 | 318 |
| 36 | 500 |
| 37 | 500 |
| 38 | 500 |
| 39 | 500 |
| 40 | 500 |
| 41 | 500 |
| 42 | 336 |
### Training Hyperparameters
- batch_size: (32, 32)
- num_epochs: (4, 8)
- max_steps: -1
- sampling_strategy: oversampling
- num_iterations: 20
- body_learning_rate: (3e-05, 0.01)
- head_learning_rate: 0.01
- loss: SupConLoss
- distance_metric: cosine_distance
- margin: 0.25
- end_to_end: False
- use_amp: False
- warmup_proportion: 0.1
- max_length: 512
- seed: 42
- eval_max_steps: -1
- load_best_model_at_end: True
### Training Results
| Epoch | Step | Training Loss | Validation Loss |
|:----------:|:-------:|:-------------:|:---------------:|
| 0.0015 | 1 | 2.182 | - |
| 0.3671 | 250 | 1.0321 | - |
| **0.7342** | **500** | **1.01** | **0.9291** |
| 1.1013 | 750 | 0.7586 | - |
| 1.4684 | 1000 | 0.2408 | 0.9875 |
| 1.8355 | 1250 | 0.8995 | - |
| 2.2026 | 1500 | 0.3702 | 0.9411 |
| 2.5698 | 1750 | 0.669 | - |
| 2.9369 | 2000 | 0.2361 | 0.9538 |
| 3.3040 | 2250 | 0.1108 | - |
| 3.6711 | 2500 | 0.5895 | 0.9276 |
| 0.0017 | 1 | 0.0591 | - |
| 0.4371 | 250 | 0.3805 | - |
| **0.8741** | **500** | **0.5506** | **0.9742** |
| 1.3112 | 750 | 0.5571 | - |
| 1.7483 | 1000 | 0.1259 | 1.1268 |
| 2.1853 | 1250 | 0.7435 | - |
| 2.6224 | 1500 | 0.7133 | 1.1094 |
| 3.0594 | 1750 | 0.0812 | - |
| 3.4965 | 2000 | 0.3421 | 1.2851 |
| 3.9336 | 2250 | 0.0722 | - |
* The bold row denotes the saved checkpoint.
### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- SetFit: 1.0.3
- Sentence Transformers: 2.7.0
- Transformers: 4.40.1
- PyTorch: 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets: 2.19.1
- Tokenizers: 0.19.1
## Citation
### BibTeX
```bibtex
@article{https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2209.11055,
doi = {10.48550/ARXIV.2209.11055},
url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055},
author = {Tunstall, Lewis and Reimers, Nils and Jo, Unso Eun Seo and Bates, Luke and Korat, Daniel and Wasserblat, Moshe and Pereg, Oren},
keywords = {Computation and Language (cs.CL), FOS: Computer and information sciences, FOS: Computer and information sciences},
title = {Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts},
publisher = {arXiv},
year = {2022},
copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International}
}
```
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*Clearly define terms in order to be accessible across audiences.*
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leowang707/whisper-tiny-zh-tw | leowang707 | 2024-05-09T07:39:36Z | 94 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"whisper",
"automatic-speech-recognition",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:common_voice_13_0",
"base_model:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"base_model:finetune:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"license:apache-2.0",
"model-index",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | automatic-speech-recognition | 2024-05-09T07:20:24Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- common_voice_13_0
metrics:
- wer
model-index:
- name: whisper-tiny-zh-tw
results:
- task:
name: Automatic Speech Recognition
type: automatic-speech-recognition
dataset:
name: common_voice_13_0
type: common_voice_13_0
config: zh-TW
split: test
args: zh-TW
metrics:
- name: Wer
type: wer
value: 60.19417475728155
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# whisper-tiny-zh-tw
This model is a fine-tuned version of [Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw](https://huggingface.co/Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw) on the common_voice_13_0 dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.5537
- Wer Ortho: 59.0
- Wer: 60.1942
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 1e-05
- train_batch_size: 4
- eval_batch_size: 4
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 4
- total_train_batch_size: 16
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: constant_with_warmup
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 50
- training_steps: 500
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Wer Ortho | Wer |
|:-------------:|:------:|:----:|:---------------:|:---------:|:-------:|
| 0.0079 | 0.6882 | 500 | 0.5537 | 59.0 | 60.1942 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.3.0+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
ilikecrab/blip2_newyorker_model | ilikecrab | 2024-05-09T07:38:43Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-08T17:40:28Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
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## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
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<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
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[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
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#### Summary
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## Environmental Impact
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Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
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adityar23/microsftnstruct-model-maisupport | adityar23 | 2024-05-09T07:36:59Z | 2 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"pytorch",
"mistral",
"text-generation",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"trl",
"sft",
"conversational",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:finetune:unsloth/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T07:08:23Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- mistral
- trl
- sft
base_model: unsloth/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** adityar23
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct-bnb-4bit
This mistral model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
DesignITlab/Llama_Brutalism_eng_ver.3 | DesignITlab | 2024-05-09T07:35:38Z | 8 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"pytorch",
"safetensors",
"gguf",
"llama",
"unsloth",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"text-generation-inference",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T06:25:14Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags:
- unsloth
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
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[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
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#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
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## Technical Specifications [optional]
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[More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
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e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct-Q4_K_M-GGUF | e-palmisano | 2024-05-09T07:32:04Z | 4 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"gguf",
"text-generation-inference",
"trl",
"sft",
"phi-3",
"phi-3-mini",
"italian",
"llama-cpp",
"gguf-my-repo",
"it",
"base_model:microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct",
"base_model:quantized:microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct",
"license:mit",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us",
"conversational"
] | null | 2024-05-09T07:31:57Z | ---
language:
- it
license: mit
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- trl
- sft
- phi-3
- phi-3-mini
- italian
- llama-cpp
- gguf-my-repo
base_model: microsoft/Phi-3-mini-4k-instruct
---
# e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct-Q4_K_M-GGUF
This model was converted to GGUF format from [`e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct`](https://huggingface.co/e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct) using llama.cpp via the ggml.ai's [GGUF-my-repo](https://huggingface.co/spaces/ggml-org/gguf-my-repo) space.
Refer to the [original model card](https://huggingface.co/e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct) for more details on the model.
## Use with llama.cpp
Install llama.cpp through brew.
```bash
brew install ggerganov/ggerganov/llama.cpp
```
Invoke the llama.cpp server or the CLI.
CLI:
```bash
llama-cli --hf-repo e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct-Q4_K_M-GGUF --model phi3-ita-mini-4k-instruct.Q4_K_M.gguf -p "The meaning to life and the universe is"
```
Server:
```bash
llama-server --hf-repo e-palmisano/Phi3-ITA-mini-4K-instruct-Q4_K_M-GGUF --model phi3-ita-mini-4k-instruct.Q4_K_M.gguf -c 2048
```
Note: You can also use this checkpoint directly through the [usage steps](https://github.com/ggerganov/llama.cpp?tab=readme-ov-file#usage) listed in the Llama.cpp repo as well.
```
git clone https://github.com/ggerganov/llama.cpp && cd llama.cpp && make && ./main -m phi3-ita-mini-4k-instruct.Q4_K_M.gguf -n 128
```
|
Mag0g/Ezekiel25_24 | Mag0g | 2024-05-09T07:25:50Z | 121 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"stablelm",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T07:23:27Z | ---
library_name: transformers
tags: []
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
This is the model card of a 🤗 transformers model that has been pushed on the Hub. This model card has been automatically generated.
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
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- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
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[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
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[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
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[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
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#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
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[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
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- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
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[More Information Needed]
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<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
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uwwee/whisper-tiny-zh-tw | uwwee | 2024-05-09T07:22:09Z | 87 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"whisper",
"automatic-speech-recognition",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:common_voice_13_0",
"base_model:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"base_model:finetune:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"license:apache-2.0",
"model-index",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | automatic-speech-recognition | 2024-05-09T07:12:06Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- common_voice_13_0
metrics:
- wer
model-index:
- name: whisper-tiny-zh-tw
results:
- task:
name: Automatic Speech Recognition
type: automatic-speech-recognition
dataset:
name: common_voice_13_0
type: common_voice_13_0
config: zh-TW
split: test
args: zh-TW
metrics:
- name: Wer
type: wer
value: 61.165048543689316
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# whisper-tiny-zh-tw
This model is a fine-tuned version of [Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw](https://huggingface.co/Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw) on the common_voice_13_0 dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.5531
- Wer Ortho: 61.0
- Wer: 61.1650
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 1e-05
- train_batch_size: 4
- eval_batch_size: 4
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 4
- total_train_batch_size: 16
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: constant_with_warmup
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 50
- training_steps: 500
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Wer Ortho | Wer |
|:-------------:|:------:|:----:|:---------------:|:---------:|:-------:|
| 0.0087 | 0.6882 | 500 | 0.5531 | 61.0 | 61.1650 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.3.0+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
ping98k/typhoon-7b-cross-0.9 | ping98k | 2024-05-09T07:12:59Z | 0 | 0 | peft | [
"peft",
"safetensors",
"arxiv:1910.09700",
"base_model:scb10x/typhoon-7b",
"base_model:adapter:scb10x/typhoon-7b",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T07:11:55Z | ---
library_name: peft
base_model: scb10x/typhoon-7b
---
# Model Card for Model ID
<!-- Provide a quick summary of what the model is/does. -->
## Model Details
### Model Description
<!-- Provide a longer summary of what this model is. -->
- **Developed by:** [More Information Needed]
- **Funded by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Shared by [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
- **Model type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Language(s) (NLP):** [More Information Needed]
- **License:** [More Information Needed]
- **Finetuned from model [optional]:** [More Information Needed]
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<!-- Provide the basic links for the model. -->
- **Repository:** [More Information Needed]
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## Uses
<!-- Address questions around how the model is intended to be used, including the foreseeable users of the model and those affected by the model. -->
### Direct Use
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[More Information Needed]
### Downstream Use [optional]
<!-- This section is for the model use when fine-tuned for a task, or when plugged into a larger ecosystem/app -->
[More Information Needed]
### Out-of-Scope Use
<!-- This section addresses misuse, malicious use, and uses that the model will not work well for. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Bias, Risks, and Limitations
<!-- This section is meant to convey both technical and sociotechnical limitations. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Recommendations
<!-- This section is meant to convey recommendations with respect to the bias, risk, and technical limitations. -->
Users (both direct and downstream) should be made aware of the risks, biases and limitations of the model. More information needed for further recommendations.
## How to Get Started with the Model
Use the code below to get started with the model.
[More Information Needed]
## Training Details
### Training Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card, perhaps with a short stub of information on what the training data is all about as well as documentation related to data pre-processing or additional filtering. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Training Procedure
<!-- This relates heavily to the Technical Specifications. Content here should link to that section when it is relevant to the training procedure. -->
#### Preprocessing [optional]
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#### Speeds, Sizes, Times [optional]
<!-- This section provides information about throughput, start/end time, checkpoint size if relevant, etc. -->
[More Information Needed]
## Evaluation
<!-- This section describes the evaluation protocols and provides the results. -->
### Testing Data, Factors & Metrics
#### Testing Data
<!-- This should link to a Dataset Card if possible. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Factors
<!-- These are the things the evaluation is disaggregating by, e.g., subpopulations or domains. -->
[More Information Needed]
#### Metrics
<!-- These are the evaluation metrics being used, ideally with a description of why. -->
[More Information Needed]
### Results
[More Information Needed]
#### Summary
## Model Examination [optional]
<!-- Relevant interpretability work for the model goes here -->
[More Information Needed]
## Environmental Impact
<!-- Total emissions (in grams of CO2eq) and additional considerations, such as electricity usage, go here. Edit the suggested text below accordingly -->
Carbon emissions can be estimated using the [Machine Learning Impact calculator](https://mlco2.github.io/impact#compute) presented in [Lacoste et al. (2019)](https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.09700).
- **Hardware Type:** [More Information Needed]
- **Hours used:** [More Information Needed]
- **Cloud Provider:** [More Information Needed]
- **Compute Region:** [More Information Needed]
- **Carbon Emitted:** [More Information Needed]
## Technical Specifications [optional]
### Model Architecture and Objective
[More Information Needed]
### Compute Infrastructure
[More Information Needed]
#### Hardware
[More Information Needed]
#### Software
[More Information Needed]
## Citation [optional]
<!-- If there is a paper or blog post introducing the model, the APA and Bibtex information for that should go in this section. -->
**BibTeX:**
[More Information Needed]
**APA:**
[More Information Needed]
## Glossary [optional]
<!-- If relevant, include terms and calculations in this section that can help readers understand the model or model card. -->
[More Information Needed]
## More Information [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Authors [optional]
[More Information Needed]
## Model Card Contact
[More Information Needed]
### Framework versions
- PEFT 0.10.0 |
zhuchi76/whisper-tiny-zh-tw | zhuchi76 | 2024-05-09T07:12:23Z | 78 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"whisper",
"automatic-speech-recognition",
"generated_from_trainer",
"dataset:common_voice_13_0",
"base_model:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"base_model:finetune:Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw",
"license:apache-2.0",
"model-index",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | automatic-speech-recognition | 2024-05-09T07:06:30Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
datasets:
- common_voice_13_0
metrics:
- wer
model-index:
- name: whisper-tiny-zh-tw
results:
- task:
name: Automatic Speech Recognition
type: automatic-speech-recognition
dataset:
name: common_voice_13_0
type: common_voice_13_0
config: zh-TW
split: test
args: zh-TW
metrics:
- name: Wer
type: wer
value: 60.19417475728155
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# whisper-tiny-zh-tw
This model is a fine-tuned version of [Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw](https://huggingface.co/Wellyowo/whisper-tiny-zh-tw) on the common_voice_13_0 dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.5508
- Wer Ortho: 59.0
- Wer: 60.1942
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 1e-05
- train_batch_size: 4
- eval_batch_size: 4
- seed: 42
- gradient_accumulation_steps: 4
- total_train_batch_size: 16
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: constant_with_warmup
- lr_scheduler_warmup_steps: 50
- training_steps: 500
- mixed_precision_training: Native AMP
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Wer Ortho | Wer |
|:-------------:|:------:|:----:|:---------------:|:---------:|:-------:|
| 0.0086 | 0.6882 | 500 | 0.5508 | 59.0 | 60.1942 |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.2
- Pytorch 2.3.0+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
mlx-community/typhoon-v1.5-8b-instruct-4bit-mlx | mlx-community | 2024-05-09T07:10:17Z | 10 | 0 | mlx | [
"mlx",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"instruct",
"chat",
"text-generation",
"conversational",
"en",
"th",
"license:llama3",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-09T06:58:21Z | ---
language:
- en
- th
license: llama3
tags:
- instruct
- chat
- mlx
pipeline_tag: text-generation
---
# mlx-community/typhoon-v1.5-8b-instruct-4bit-mlx
This model was converted to MLX format from [`scb10x/typhoon-v1.5-8b-instruct`]() using mlx-lm version **0.12.1**.
Refer to the [original model card](https://huggingface.co/scb10x/typhoon-v1.5-8b-instruct) for more details on the model.
## Use with mlx
```bash
pip install mlx-lm
```
```python
from mlx_lm import load, generate
model, tokenizer = load("mlx-community/typhoon-v1.5-8b-instruct-4bit-mlx")
response = generate(model, tokenizer, prompt="hello", verbose=True)
```
|
lwanming/whisper-base-static-shape | lwanming | 2024-05-09T07:01:01Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"onnx",
"automatic-speech-recognition",
"region:us"
] | automatic-speech-recognition | 2024-03-11T05:43:28Z | ---
pipeline_tag: automatic-speech-recognition
--- |
redmojo7/unsloth_llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit_linux | redmojo7 | 2024-05-09T07:00:30Z | 4 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"llama",
"text-generation",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"trl",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:quantized:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"4-bit",
"bitsandbytes",
"region:us"
] | text-generation | 2024-05-08T02:50:52Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- llama
- trl
base_model: unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** redmojo7
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
This llama model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
hzhuang0000/10K_Data | hzhuang0000 | 2024-05-09T06:59:06Z | 0 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"safetensors",
"text-generation-inference",
"unsloth",
"llama",
"trl",
"en",
"base_model:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"base_model:finetune:unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit",
"license:apache-2.0",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T06:58:46Z | ---
language:
- en
license: apache-2.0
tags:
- text-generation-inference
- transformers
- unsloth
- llama
- trl
base_model: unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
---
# Uploaded model
- **Developed by:** hzhuang0000
- **License:** apache-2.0
- **Finetuned from model :** unsloth/llama-3-8b-bnb-4bit
This llama model was trained 2x faster with [Unsloth](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth) and Huggingface's TRL library.
[<img src="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unslothai/unsloth/main/images/unsloth%20made%20with%20love.png" width="200"/>](https://github.com/unslothai/unsloth)
|
BothBosu/bert-scam-classifier-v1.2 | BothBosu | 2024-05-09T06:50:27Z | 112 | 0 | transformers | [
"transformers",
"tensorboard",
"safetensors",
"bert",
"text-classification",
"generated_from_trainer",
"base_model:google-bert/bert-base-uncased",
"base_model:finetune:google-bert/bert-base-uncased",
"license:apache-2.0",
"autotrain_compatible",
"endpoints_compatible",
"region:us"
] | text-classification | 2024-05-09T06:47:25Z | ---
license: apache-2.0
base_model: google-bert/bert-base-uncased
tags:
- generated_from_trainer
metrics:
- accuracy
- precision
- recall
- f1
model-index:
- name: bert-scam-classifier-v1.2
results: []
---
<!-- This model card has been generated automatically according to the information the Trainer had access to. You
should probably proofread and complete it, then remove this comment. -->
# bert-scam-classifier-v1.2
This model is a fine-tuned version of [google-bert/bert-base-uncased](https://huggingface.co/google-bert/bert-base-uncased) on an unknown dataset.
It achieves the following results on the evaluation set:
- Loss: 0.0004
- Accuracy: {'accuracy': 1.0}
- Precision: {'precision': 1.0}
- Recall: {'recall': 1.0}
- F1: {'f1': 1.0}
## Model description
More information needed
## Intended uses & limitations
More information needed
## Training and evaluation data
More information needed
## Training procedure
### Training hyperparameters
The following hyperparameters were used during training:
- learning_rate: 2e-05
- train_batch_size: 8
- eval_batch_size: 8
- seed: 42
- optimizer: Adam with betas=(0.9,0.999) and epsilon=1e-08
- lr_scheduler_type: linear
- num_epochs: 2
### Training results
| Training Loss | Epoch | Step | Validation Loss | Accuracy | Precision | Recall | F1 |
|:-------------:|:-----:|:----:|:---------------:|:-----------------:|:------------------:|:---------------:|:-----------:|
| No log | 1.0 | 160 | 0.0008 | {'accuracy': 1.0} | {'precision': 1.0} | {'recall': 1.0} | {'f1': 1.0} |
| No log | 2.0 | 320 | 0.0004 | {'accuracy': 1.0} | {'precision': 1.0} | {'recall': 1.0} | {'f1': 1.0} |
### Framework versions
- Transformers 4.40.1
- Pytorch 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets 2.19.1
- Tokenizers 0.19.1
|
blxxu/kissoflife | blxxu | 2024-05-09T06:50:25Z | 0 | 0 | null | [
"license:bigscience-bloom-rail-1.0",
"region:us"
] | null | 2024-05-09T06:48:33Z | ---
license: bigscience-bloom-rail-1.0
---
|
udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-contrastive-logistic | udrearobert999 | 2024-05-09T06:50:21Z | 9 | 0 | setfit | [
"setfit",
"safetensors",
"mpnet",
"sentence-transformers",
"text-classification",
"generated_from_setfit_trainer",
"en",
"arxiv:2209.11055",
"base_model:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1",
"base_model:finetune:sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1",
"model-index",
"region:us"
] | text-classification | 2024-05-08T18:59:46Z | ---
language: en
library_name: setfit
tags:
- setfit
- sentence-transformers
- text-classification
- generated_from_setfit_trainer
base_model: sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1
metrics:
- f1
widget:
- text: in durankulak near varna is another important example other signs of early
metals are found from the third millennium bc in palmela portugal los millares
spain and stonehenge united kingdom the precise beginnings however have not be
clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing in tamilnadu
in approximately 1900 bc ancient iron smelting sites were functioning in tamil
nadu in the near east about 3500 bc it was discovered that by combining copper
and tin a superior metal could be made an alloy called bronze this represented
a major technological shift known as the bronze age the extraction of iron from
its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin the
process appears to have been invented by the hittites in about 1200 bc beginning
the iron age the secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the
success of the philistineshistorical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be
found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations this includes the ancient
and medieval kingdoms and empires of the middle east and near east ancient iran
ancient egypt ancient nubia and anatolia in presentday turkey ancient nok carthage
the greeks and romans of ancient europe medieval europe ancient and medieval china
ancient and medieval india ancient and medieval japan amongst others many applications
practices and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in
ancient china such as the innovation of the blast furnace cast iron hydraulicpowered
trip hammers and double acting piston bellowsa 16th century book by georg agricola
de re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining
metal ores metal extraction and metallurgy of the time agricola has been described
as the father of metallurgy extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing
valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer
form in order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal the ore must
be reduced physically chemically or electrolytically extractive metallurgists
are interested in three primary streams feed concentrate metal oxidesulphide and
tailings waste after mining large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing
or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either
mostly valuable or mostly waste concentrating the particles of value in a form
supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products
mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive
to leaching leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched
solution the solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals ore
- text: '##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf
x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate
the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point
of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat
algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch
step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical
srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer
tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point
this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the
grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not
correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic
with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa
information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point
in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related
to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering
a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x
and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation
limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf
x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring
the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid
alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the
tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle
nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau
m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright
of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated
a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given
by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min
leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert'
- text: authority to select projects and mandated new metropolitan planning initiatives
for the first time state transportation officials were required to consult seriously
with local representatives on mpo governing boards regarding matters of project
prioritization and decisionmaking these changes had their roots in the need to
address increasingly difficult transportation problems — in particular the more
complicated patterns of traffic congestion that arose with the suburban development
boom in the previous decades many recognized that the problems could only be addressed
effectively through a stronger federal commitment to regional planning the legislation
that emerged the intermodal surface transportation efficiency act istea was signed
into federal law by president george h w bush in december 1991 it focused on improving
transportation not as an end in itself but as the means to achieve important national
goals including economic progress cleaner air energy conservation and social equity
istea promoted a transportation system in which different modes and facilities
— highway transit pedestrian bicycle aviation and marine — were integrated to
allow a seamless movement of both goods and people new funding programs provided
greater flexibility in the use of funds particularly regarding using previously
restricted highway funds for transit development improved intermodal connections
and emphasized upgrades to existing facilities over building new capacity — particularly
roadway capacity to accomplish more serious metropolitan planning istea doubled
federal funding for mpo operations and required the agencies to evaluate a variety
of multimodal solutions to roadway congestion and other transportation problems
mpos also were required to broaden public participation in the planning process
and to see that investment decisions contributed to meeting the air quality standards
of the clean air act amendments in addition istea placed a new requirement on
mpos to conduct fiscally constrained planning and ensure that longrange transportation
plans and shortterm transportation improvement programs were fiscally constrained
in other words adopted plans and programs can not include more projects than reasonably
can be expected to be funded through existing or projected sources of revenues
this new requirement represented a major conceptual shift for many mpos and others
in the planning community since the imposition of fiscal discipline on plans now
required not only understanding how much money might be available but how to prioritize
investment needs and make difficult choices among competing needs adding to this
complexity is the need to plan across transportation modes and develop approaches
for multimodal investment prioritization and decision making it is in this context
of greater prominence funding and requirements that mpos function today an annual
element is composed of transportation improvement projects contained in an areas
transportation improvement program tip which is proposed for implementation during
the current year the annual element is submitted to the us department of transportation
as part of the required planning process the passage of safe accountable flexible
efficient transportation equity act a legacy for users safetealu
- text: '##pignygiroux served as an assistant professor from 1997 2003 associate professor
from 2003 2014 chair of the department of geography from 2015 2018 and professor
beginning in 2014 with secondary appointments in department of geology the college
of education social services and rubenstein school of environment natural resources
she teaches courses in meteorology climatology physical geography remote sensing
and landsurface processes in her work as state climatologist for vermont dupignygiroux
uses her expertise hydrology and extreme weather such as floods droughts and storms
to keep the residents of vermont informed on how climate change will affect their
homes health and livelihoods she assists other state agencies in preparing for
and adapting to current and future impacts of climate change on vermonts transportation
system emergency management planning and agriculture and forestry industries for
example she has published analyses of the impacts of climate change on the health
of vermonts sugar maples a hardwood species of key economic and cultural importance
to the state as cochair of vermonts state ’ s drought task force she played a
key role in developing the 2018 vermont state hazard mitigation plandupignygiroux
served as secretary for the american association of state climatologists from
20102011 and president elect from 20192020 in june 2020 she was elected as president
of the american association of state climatologists which is a twoyear term in
addition to her research on climate change dupignygiroux is known for her efforts
to research and promote climate literacy climate literacy is an understanding
of the influences of and influences on the climate system including how people
change the climate how climate metrics are observed and modelled and how climate
change affects society “ being climate literate is more critical than ever before
” lesleyann dupignygiroux stated for a 2020 article on climate literacy “ if we
do not understand weather climate and climate change as intricate and interconnected
systems then our appreciation of the big picture is lost ” dupignygiroux is known
for her climate literacy work with elementary and high school teachers and students
she cofounded the satellites weather and climate swac project in 2008 which is
a professional development program for k12 teachers designed to promote climate
literacy and interest in the stem science technology engineering and mathematics
careers dupignygiroux is also a founding member of the climate literacy and energy
awareness network clean formerly climate literacy network a communitybased effort
to support climate literacy and communication in a 2016 interview dupignygiroux
stated “ sharing knowledge and giving back to my community are my two axioms in
life watching students mature and flourish in'
- text: no solutions to x n y n z n displaystyle xnynzn for all n ≥ 3 displaystyle
ngeq 3 this claim appears in his annotations in the margins of his copy of diophantus
euler the interest of leonhard euler 1707 – 1783 in number theory was first spurred
in 1729 when a friend of his the amateur goldbach pointed him towards some of
fermats work on the subject this has been called the rebirth of modern number
theory after fermats relative lack of success in getting his contemporaries attention
for the subject eulers work on number theory includes the following proofs for
fermats statements this includes fermats little theorem generalised by euler to
nonprime moduli the fact that p x 2 y 2 displaystyle px2y2 if and only if p ≡
1 mod 4 displaystyle pequiv 1bmod 4 initial work towards a proof that every integer
is the sum of four squares the first complete proof is by josephlouis lagrange
1770 soon improved by euler himself the lack of nonzero integer solutions to x
4 y 4 z 2 displaystyle x4y4z2 implying the case n4 of fermats last theorem the
case n3 of which euler also proved by a related method pells equation first misnamed
by euler he wrote on the link between continued fractions and pells equation first
steps towards analytic number theory in his work of sums of four squares partitions
pentagonal numbers and the distribution of prime numbers euler pioneered the use
of what can be seen as analysis in particular infinite series in number theory
since he lived before the development of complex analysis most of his work is
restricted to the formal manipulation of power series he did however do some very
notable though not fully rigorous early work on what would later be called the
riemann zeta function quadratic forms following fermats lead euler did further
research on the question of which primes can be expressed in the form x 2 n y
2 displaystyle x2ny2 some of it prefiguring quadratic reciprocity diophantine
equations euler worked on some diophantine equations of genus 0 and 1 in particular
he studied diophantuss work he tried to systematise it but the time was not yet
ripe for such an endeavour — algebraic geometry was still in its infancy he did
notice there was a connection between diophantine problems and elliptic integrals
whose study he had himself initiated lagrange legendre and gauss josephlouis
pipeline_tag: text-classification
inference: true
model-index:
- name: SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 on Wiki Labeled
Articles
results:
- task:
type: text-classification
name: Text Classification
dataset:
name: Wiki Labeled Articles
type: unknown
split: test
metrics:
- type: f1
value: 0.7897499102401195
name: F1
---
# SetFit with sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1 on Wiki Labeled Articles
This is a [SetFit](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit) model that can be used for Text Classification. This SetFit model uses [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1) as the Sentence Transformer embedding model. A [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance is used for classification.
The model has been trained using an efficient few-shot learning technique that involves:
1. Fine-tuning a [Sentence Transformer](https://www.sbert.net) with contrastive learning.
2. Training a classification head with features from the fine-tuned Sentence Transformer.
## Model Details
### Model Description
- **Model Type:** SetFit
- **Sentence Transformer body:** [sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1)
- **Classification head:** a [SetFitHead](huggingface.co/docs/setfit/reference/main#setfit.SetFitHead) instance
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 512 tokens
- **Number of Classes:** 43 classes
<!-- - **Training Dataset:** [Unknown](https://huggingface.co/datasets/unknown) -->
- **Language:** en
<!-- - **License:** Unknown -->
### Model Sources
- **Repository:** [SetFit on GitHub](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit)
- **Paper:** [Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055)
- **Blogpost:** [SetFit: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://huggingface.co/blog/setfit)
### Model Labels
| Label | Examples |
|:------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 27 | <ul><li>'integration into microfluidic systems ie micrototal analytical systems or labonachip structures for instance ncams when incorporated into microfluidic devices can reproducibly perform digital switching allowing transfer of fluid from one microfluidic channel to another selectivity separate and transfer analytes by size and mass mix reactants efficiently and separate fluids with disparate characteristics in addition there is a natural analogy between the fluid handling capabilities of nanofluidic structures and the ability of electronic components to control the flow of electrons and holes this analogy has been used to realize active electronic functions such as rectification and fieldeffect and bipolar transistor action with ionic currents application of nanofluidics is also to nanooptics for producing tuneable microlens arraynanofluidics have had a significant impact in biotechnology medicine and clinical diagnostics with the development of labonachip devices for pcr and related techniques attempts have been made to understand the behaviour of flowfields around nanoparticles in terms of fluid forces as a function of reynolds and knudsen number using computational fluid dynamics the relationship between lift drag and reynolds number has been shown to differ dramatically at the nanoscale compared with macroscale fluid dynamics there are a variety of challenges associated with the flow of liquids through carbon nanotubes and nanopipes a common occurrence is channel blocking due to large macromolecules in the liquid also any insoluble debris in the liquid can easily clog the tube a solution for this researchers are hoping to find is a low friction coating or channel materials that help reduce the blocking of the tubes also large polymers including biologically relevant molecules such as dna often fold in vivo causing blockages typical dna molecules from a virus have lengths of approx 100 – 200 kilobases and will form a random coil of the radius some 700 nm in aqueous solution at 20 this is also several times greater than the pore diameter of even large carbon pipes and two orders of magnitude the diameter of a single walled carbon nanotube nanomechanics nanotechnology microfluidics nanofluidic circuitry'</li><li>'states are governed by the effective energy barrier e a displaystyle ea crystal surfaces have specific bonding sites with larger e a displaystyle ea values that would preferentially be populated by vapor molecules to reduce the overall free energy these stable sites are often found on step edges vacancies and screw dislocations after the most stable sites become filled the adatomadatom vapor molecule interaction becomes important nucleation kinetics can be modeled considering only adsorption and desorption first consider case where there are no mutual adatom interactions no clustering or interaction with step edges the rate of change of adatom surface density n displaystyle n where j displaystyle j is the net flux τ a displaystyle tau a is the mean surface lifetime prior to desorption and σ displaystyle sigma is the sticking coefficient d n d t j σ − n τ a displaystyle dn over dtjsigma n over tau a n j σ τ a 1 − exp − t τ a n j σ τ a exp − t τ a displaystyle njsigma tau aleft1exp leftt over tau arightrightnjsigma tau aleftexp leftt over tau arightright adsorption can also be modeled by different isotherms such as langmuir model and bet model the langmuir model derives an equilibrium constant b displaystyle b based on the adsorption reaction of vapor adatom with vacancy on the substrate surface the bet model expands further and allows adatoms deposition on previously adsorbed adatoms without interaction between adjacent piles of atoms the resulting derived surface coverage is in terms of the equilibrium vapor pressure and applied pressure langmuir model where p a displaystyle pa is the vapor pressure of adsorbed adatoms θ b p a 1 b p a displaystyle theta bpa over 1bpa bet model where p e displaystyle pe is the equilibrium vapor pressure of adsorbed adatoms and p displaystyle p is the applied vapor pressure of adsorbed adatoms θ x p p e − p 1 x − 1 p p e displaystyle theta xp over pepleft1x1p over peright as an important note surface crystallography and differ from the bulk to minimize the overall free electronic and bond energies due to the broken bonds at the surface this can result in a new equilibrium position known as “ selvedge ” where the parallel bulk lattice symmetry is preserved this phenomenon can cause deviations from theoretical calculations of nucleation surface diffusion describes the lateral motion of'</li><li>'in particular the invention of smart and active packaging nano sensors nano pesticides and nano fertilizerslimited nanotechnology labeling and regulation may exacerbate potential human and environmental health and safety issues associated with nanotechnology it has been argued that the development of comprehensive regulation of nanotechnology will be vital to ensure that the potential risks associated with the research and commercial application of nanotechnology do not overshadow its potential benefits regulation may also be required to meet community expectations about responsible development of nanotechnology as well as ensuring that public interests are included in shaping the development of nanotechnologyin 2008 e marla felcher the consumer product safety commission and nanotechnology suggested that the consumer product safety commission which is charged with protecting the public against unreasonable risks of injury or death associated with consumer products is illequipped to oversee the safety of complex hightech products made using nanotechnology failsafes in nanotechnology international center for technology assessment fritz allhoff patrick lin and daniel moore what is nanotechnology and why does it matter from science to ethics oxford wileyblackwell 2010 fritz allhoff and patrick lin eds nanotechnology society current and emerging ethical issues dordrecht springer 2008 fritz allhoff patrick lin james moor and john weckert eds nanoethics the ethical and societal implications of nanotechnology hoboken john wiley sons 2007 alternate link kaldis byron epistemology of nanotechnology sage encyclopedia of nanoscience and society thousand oaks ca sage 2010 approaches to safe nanotechnology an information exchange with niosh united states national institute for occupational safety and health june 2007 dhhs niosh publication no 2007123 mehta michael geoffrey hunt 2006 nanotechnology risk ethics and law london earthscan provides a global overview of the state of nanotechnology and society in europe the us japan and canada and examines the ethics the environmental and public health risks and the governance and regulation of this technology donal p omathuna nanoethics big ethical issues with small technology london new york continuum 2009'</li></ul> |
| 22 | <ul><li>'generally form a nontree network with an incorrect topology alternative stream ordering systems have been developed by shreve and hodgkinson et al a statistical comparison of strahler and shreve systems together with an analysis of streamlink lengths is given by smart the strahler numbering may be applied in the statistical analysis of any hierarchical system not just to rivers arenas et al 2004 describe an application of the horton – strahler index in the analysis of social networks ehrenfeucht rozenberg vermeir 1981 applied a variant of strahler numbering starting with zero at the leaves instead of one which they called treerank to the analysis of lsystems strahler numbering has also been applied to biological hierarchies such as the branching structures of trees and of animal respiratory and circulatory systems when translating a highlevel programming language to assembly language the minimum number of registers required to evaluate an expression tree is exactly its strahler number in this context the strahler number may also be called the register numberfor expression trees that require more registers than are available the sethi – ullman algorithm may be used to translate an expression tree into a sequence of machine instructions that uses the registers as efficiently as possible minimizing the number of times intermediate values are spilled from registers to main memory and the total number of instructions in the resulting compiled code associated with the strahler numbers of a tree are bifurcation ratios numbers describing how close to balanced a tree is for each order i in a hierarchy the ith bifurcation ratio is n i n i 1 displaystyle frac nini1 where ni denotes the number of nodes with order i the bifurcation ratio of an overall hierarchy may be taken by averaging the bifurcation ratios at different orders in a complete binary tree the bifurcation ratio will be 2 while other trees will have larger bifurcation ratios it is a dimensionless number the pathwidth of an arbitrary undirected graph g may be defined as the smallest number w such that there exists an interval graph h containing g as a subgraph with the largest clique in h having w 1 vertices for trees viewed as undirected graphs by forgetting their orientation and root the pathwidth differs from the strahler number but is closely related to it in a tree with pathwidth w and strahler number s these two numbers are related by the inequalities w ≤ s ≤ 2w 2the ability to handle graphs with cycles and not just trees gives path'</li><li>'##ied at the specified conditions but also because the amount of cbw at reservoir conditions varies with the salinity of formation water in the “ effective ” pore space humiditydried cores have no water in the “ effective ” pore space and therefore can never truly represent the reservoir cbw condition a further complication can arise in that humidity drying of cores may sometimes leave water of condensation in clayfree microporeslog derivation of effective porosity includes cbw as part of the volume of shale vsh vsh is greater than the volume of vcl not only because it incorporates cbw but also because vsh includes clay size and siltsize quartz and other mineral grains not just pure clay small pores ” contain capillary water which is different from cbw in that it is physically not electrochemically bound to the rock by capillary forces capillary water generally forms part of the effective pore space for both log and core analysis however microporous pore space associated with shales where water is held by capillary forces and hence is not true cbw is usually estimated as part of the vsh by logs and therefore not included as part of the effective porosity the total water associated with shales is more properly termed “ shale water ” which is larger in value than cbw if we humidity dried core samples some of the electrochemically bound cbw would be retained but none of the capillarybound microporous water notwithstanding comments in therefore although the figure infers that a humiditydried core could produce an effective porosity similar to a log analysis effective porosity the effective porosity from the core will usually be higher see “ examples ” section — notwithstanding comments in traditionally true cbw has been directly measured neither on cores nor by logs although nmr measurement holds promiseat a given height above the freewater level the capillary water becomes “ irreducible ” this capillary water forms the irreducible water saturation “ swi ” with respect to effective porosity notwithstanding the inclusion of microporous water as vsh during the log analysis whereas for total porosity the cbw and capillary water combined form the “ swi ” ” large pores ” contain hydrocarbons in a hydrocarbon bearing formation above the transition zone only hydrocarbons will flow effective porosity with reference to the figure below can be classified as only the hydrocarbonfilled large pore spaces above the transition zoneanecdotally effective pore space has been equated to displaceable'</li><li>'april 2001 sharan had incidentally noticed substantial condensation on the roof of a cottage at toran beach resort in the arid coastal region of kutch where he was briefly staying the following year he investigated the phenomenon more closely and interviewed local people financed by the gujarat energy development agency and the world bank sharan and his team went on to develop passive radiative condensers for use in the arid coastal region of kutch active commercialisation began in 2006sharan tested a wide range of materials and got good results from galvanised iron and aluminium sheets but found that sheets of the special plastic developed by the opur just 400 micrometres 0016 in thick generally worked even better than the metal sheets and were less expensive the plastic film known as opur foil is hydrophilic and is made from polyethylene mixed with titanium dioxide and barium sulphate there are three principal approaches to the design of the heat sinks that collect the moisture in air wells high mass radiative and active early in the twentieth century there was interest in highmass air wells but despite much experimentation including the construction of massive structures this approach proved to be a failurefrom the late twentieth century onwards there has been much investigation of lowmass radiative collectors these have proved to be much more successful the highmass air well design attempts to cool a large mass of masonry with cool nighttime air entering the structure due to breezes or natural convection in the day the warmth of the sun results in increased atmospheric humidity when moist daytime air enters the air well it condenses on the presumably cool masonry none of the highmass collectors performed well knapens aerial well being a particularly conspicuous example the problem with the highmass collectors was that they could not get rid of sufficient heat during the night – despite design features intended to ensure that this would happen while some thinkers have believed that zibold might have been correct after all an article in journal of arid environments discusses why highmass condenser designs of this type cannot yield useful amounts of water we would like to stress the following point to obtain condensation the condenser temperature of the stones must be lower than the dew point temperature when there is no fog the dew point temperature is always lower than the air temperature meteorological data shows that the dew point temperature an indicator of the water content of the air does not change appreciably when the weather is stable thus wind which ultimately imposes air temperature to the condenser cannot cool the condenser to ensure its functioning another cooling phenomenon — ra'</li></ul> |
| 3 | <ul><li>'feminist anthropology is a fourfield approach to anthropology archeological biological cultural linguistic that seeks to transform research findings anthropological hiring practices and the scholarly production of knowledge using insights from feminist theory simultaneously feminist anthropology challenges essentialist feminist theories developed in europe and america while feminists practiced cultural anthropology since its inception see margaret mead and hortense powdermaker it was not until the 1970s that feminist anthropology was formally recognized as a subdiscipline of anthropology since then it has developed its own subsection of the american anthropological association – the association for feminist anthropology – and its own publication feminist anthropology their former journal voices is now defunct feminist anthropology has unfolded through three historical phases beginning in the 1970s the anthropology of women the anthropology of gender and finally feminist anthropologyprior to these historical phases feminist anthropologists trace their genealogy to the late 19th century erminnie platt smith alice cunningham fletcher matilda coxe stevenson frances densmore — many of these women were selftaught anthropologists and their accomplishments faded and heritage erased by the professionalization of the discipline at the turn of the 20th century prominent among early women anthropologists were the wives of professional men anthropologists some of whom facilitated their husbands research as translators and transcriptionists margery wolf for example wrote her classic ethnography the house of lim from experiences she encountered following her husband to northern taiwan during his own fieldworkwhile anthropologists like margaret mead and ruth benedict are representatives of the history of feminist anthropology female anthropologists of color and varying ethnicities also play a role in the theoretical concepts of the field hortense powdermaker for example a contemporary of meads who studied with british anthropological pioneer bronislaw malinowski conducted political research projects in a number of then atypical settings reproduction and women in melanesia powdermaker 1933 race in the american south powdermaker 1939 gender and production in hollywood 1950 and classgenderrace intersectionality in the african copper belt powdermaker 1962 similarly zora neale hurston a student of franz boas the father of american anthropology experimented with narrative forms beyond the objective ethnography that characterized the protopseudoscientific writings of the time other african american women made similar moves at the junctions of ethnography and creativity namely katherine dunham and pearl primus both of whom studied dance in the 1940s also important to the later spread of feminist anthropology within other subfields beyond cultural anthropology was physical anthropologist caroline bond day and archeologist mary leakey the anthropology of women introduced through peggy goldes women in the field and michelle rosaldo and louise lampheres edited volume woman culture and society attempted to'</li><li>'##nagh fosterage childrearing in medieval ireland history ireland 51 1997 28 – 31 parkes peter celtic fosterage adoptive kinship and clientage in northwest europe society for comparative study of society and history 482 2006 359 – 95 pdf available online smith llinos beverley fosterage adoption and godparenthood ritual and fictive kinship in medieval wales welsh history review 161 1992 135 parkes peter alternative social structures and foster relations in the hindu kush milk kinship allegiance in former mountain kingdoms of northern pakistan comparative studies in society and history 434 2001 36 parkes peter fostering fealty a comparative analysis of tributary allegiances of adoptive kinship comparative studies in society and history 45 2003 741 – 82 parkes peter fosterage kinship and legend when milk was thicker than blood comparative studies in society and history 46 2004 587 – 615 parkes peter milk kinship in southeast europe alternative social structures and foster relations in the caucasus and the balkans social anthropology 12 2004 341 – 58 mccutcheon james 2010 historical analysis and contemporary assessment of foster care in texas perceptions of social workers in a private nonprofit foster care agency applied research projects texas state university paper 332 httpecommonstxstateeduarp332 crawford sally childhood in anglosaxon england stroud sutton publishing 1999 especially pp 122 – 38'</li><li>'an anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies social anthropology cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and values of societies linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life while economic anthropology studies human economic behavior biological physical forensic and medical anthropology study the biological development of humans the application of biological anthropology in a legal setting and the study of diseases and their impacts on humans over time respectively anthropologists usually cover a breadth of topics within anthropology in their undergraduate education and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level in some universities a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a students understanding of anthropology the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation anthropologists typically hold graduate degrees either doctorates or masters degrees not holding an advanced degree is rare in the field some anthropologists hold undergraduate degrees in other fields than anthropology and graduate degrees in anthropology research topics of anthropologists include the discovery of human remains and artifacts as well as the exploration of social and cultural issues such as population growth structural inequality and globalization by making use of a variety of technologies including statistical software and geographic information systems gis anthropological field work requires a faithful representation of observations and a strict adherence to social and ethical responsibilities such as the acquisition of consent transparency in research and methodologies and the right to anonymityhistorically anthropologists primarily worked in academic settings however by 2014 us anthropologists and archaeologists were largely employed in research positions 28 management and consulting 23 and government positions 27 us employment of anthropologists and archaeologists is projected to increase from 7600 to 7900 between 2016 and 2026 a growth rate just under half the national mediananthropologists without doctorates tend to work more in other fields than academia while the majority of those with doctorates are primarily employed in academia many of those without doctorates in academia tend to work exclusively as researchers and do not teach those in researchonly positions are often not considered faculty the median salary for anthropologists in 2015 was 62220 many anthropologists report an above average level of job satisfaction although closely related and often grouped with archaeology anthropologists and archaeologists perform differing roles though archeology is considered a subdiscipline of anthropology while both professions focus on the study of human culture from past to present archaeologists focus specifically on analyzing material remains such as artifacts and architectural remains anthropology encompasses a wider range of professions including the rising fields of forensic anthropology digital anthropology and cyber anthropology the role of an anthropologist differs as well from that of a historian while anthropologists focus their studies'</li></ul> |
| 1 | <ul><li>'measurements of aerodynamic forces drag theories were developed by jean le rond dalembert gustav kirchhoff and lord rayleigh in 1889 charles renard a french aeronautical engineer became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight otto lilienthal the first person to become highly successful with glider flights was also the first to propose thin curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag building on these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel the wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on december 17 1903 during the time of the first flights frederick w lanchester martin kutta and nikolai zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift kutta and zhukovsky went on to develop a twodimensional wing theory expanding upon the work of lanchester ludwig prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thinairfoil and liftingline theories as well as work with boundary layers as aircraft speed increased designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near the speed of sound the differences in airflow under such conditions lead to problems in aircraft control increased drag due to shock waves and the threat of structural failure due to aeroelastic flutter the ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the mach number after ernst mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of the supersonic flow macquorn rankine and pierre henri hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave while jakob ackeret led the initial work of calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils theodore von karman and hugh latimer dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds between the critical mach number and mach 1 where drag increases rapidly this rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable until the sound barrier was broken in 1947 using the bell x1 aircraft by the time the sound barrier was broken aerodynamicists understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured the cold war prompted the design of an everevolving line of highperformance aircraft computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using computer software with windtunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions understanding of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has matured since the 1960s and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from the behaviour of fluid flow to the engineering of a vehicle such that it'</li><li>'of lift are based on continuum fluid mechanics assuming that air flows as a continuous fluid lift is generated in accordance with the fundamental principles of physics the most relevant being the following three principles conservation of momentum which is a consequence of newtons laws of motion especially newtons second law which relates the net force on an element of air to its rate of momentum change conservation of mass including the assumption that the airfoils surface is impermeable for the air flowing around and conservation of energy which says that energy is neither created nor destroyedbecause an airfoil affects the flow in a wide area around it the conservation laws of mechanics are embodied in the form of partial differential equations combined with a set of boundary condition requirements which the flow has to satisfy at the airfoil surface and far away from the airfoilto predict lift requires solving the equations for a particular airfoil shape and flow condition which generally requires calculations that are so voluminous that they are practical only on a computer through the methods of computational fluid dynamics cfd determining the net aerodynamic force from a cfd solution requires adding up integrating the forces due to pressure and shear determined by the cfd over every surface element of the airfoil as described under pressure integration the navier – stokes equations ns provide the potentially most accurate theory of lift but in practice capturing the effects of turbulence in the boundary layer on the airfoil surface requires sacrificing some accuracy and requires use of the reynoldsaveraged navier – stokes equations rans simpler but less accurate theories have also been developed these equations represent conservation of mass newtons second law conservation of momentum conservation of energy the newtonian law for the action of viscosity the fourier heat conduction law an equation of state relating density temperature and pressure and formulas for the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the fluidin principle the ns equations combined with boundary conditions of no throughflow and no slip at the airfoil surface could be used to predict lift in any situation in ordinary atmospheric flight with high accuracy however airflows in practical situations always involve turbulence in the boundary layer next to the airfoil surface at least over the aft portion of the airfoil predicting lift by solving the ns equations in their raw form would require the calculations to resolve the details of the turbulence down to the smallest eddy this is not yet possible even on the most powerful computer so in principle the ns equations provide a complete and very accurate theory of lift but practical prediction of lift requires that the effects of turbulence be modeled in the rans equations rather than computed directly these are the ns equations with the turbulence motions averaged'</li><li>'zalpha mufrac mqbfrac malpha b1frac zqmurightalpha 0 this represents a damped simple harmonic motion we should expect z q m u displaystyle frac zqmu to be small compared with unity so the coefficient of α displaystyle alpha the stiffness term will be positive provided m α z α m u m q displaystyle malpha frac zalpha mumq this expression is dominated by m α displaystyle malpha which defines the longitudinal static stability of the aircraft it must be negative for stability the damping term is reduced by the downwash effect and it is difficult to design an aircraft with both rapid natural response and heavy damping usually the response is underdamped but stable phugoid if the stick is held fixed the aircraft will not maintain straight and level flight except in the unlikely case that it happens to be perfectly trimmed for level flight at its current altitude and thrust setting but will start to dive level out and climb again it will repeat this cycle until the pilot intervenes this long period oscillation in speed and height is called the phugoid mode this is analyzed by assuming that the sspo performs its proper function and maintains the angle of attack near its nominal value the two states which are mainly affected are the flight path angle γ displaystyle gamma gamma and speed the small perturbation equations of motion are m u d γ d t − z displaystyle mufrac dgamma dtz which means the centripetal force is equal to the perturbation in lift force for the speed resolving along the trajectory m d u d t x − m g γ displaystyle mfrac dudtxmggamma where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the earths surface the acceleration along the trajectory is equal to the net xwise force minus the component of weight we should not expect significant aerodynamic derivatives to depend on the flight path angle so only x u displaystyle xu and z u displaystyle zu need be considered x u displaystyle xu is the drag increment with increased speed it is negative likewise z u displaystyle zu is the lift increment due to speed increment it is also negative because lift acts in the opposite sense to the zaxis the equations of motion become m u d γ d t − z u u displaystyle mufrac dgamma dtzuu m d u d t x u u − m g γ displaystyle mfrac dudtxuumggamma these may be expressed as a second order equation in'</li></ul> |
| 9 | <ul><li>'bacillus subtilis is a rodshaped grampositive bacteria that is naturally found in soil and vegetation and is known for its ability to form a small tough protective and metabolically dormant endospore b subtilis can divide symmetrically to make two daughter cells binary fission or asymmetrically producing a single endospore that is resistant to environmental factors such as heat desiccation radiation and chemical insult which can persist in the environment for long periods of time the endospore is formed at times of nutritional stress allowing the organism to persist in the environment until conditions become favourable the process of endospore formation has profound morphological and physiological consequences radical postreplicative remodelling of two progeny cells accompanied eventually by cessation of metabolic activity in one daughter cell the spore and death by lysis of the other the ‘ mother cell ’ although sporulation in b subtilis is induced by starvation the sporulation developmental program is not initiated immediately when growth slows due to nutrient limitation a variety of alternative responses can occur including the activation of flagellar motility to seek new food sources by chemotaxis the production of antibiotics to destroy competing soil microbes the secretion of hydrolytic enzymes to scavenge extracellular proteins and polysaccharides or the induction of ‘ competence ’ for uptake of exogenous dna for consumption with the occasional sideeffect that new genetic information is stably integrated sporulation is the lastditch response to starvation and is suppressed until alternative responses prove inadequate even then certain conditions must be met such as chromosome integrity the state of chromosomal replication and the functioning of the krebs cycle sporulation requires a great deal of time and also a lot of energy and is essentially irreversible making it crucial for a cell to monitor its surroundings efficiently and ensure that sporulation is embarked upon at only the most appropriate times the wrong decision can be catastrophic a vegetative cell will die if the conditions are too harsh while bacteria forming spores in an environment which is conducive to vegetative growth will be out competed in short initiation of sporulation is a very tightly regulated network with numerous checkpoints for efficient control two transcriptional regulators σh and spo0a play key roles in initiation of sporulation several additional proteins participate mainly by controlling the accumulated concentration of spo0ap spo0a lies at the end of a series of interprotein phosphotransfer reactions kin – spo0'</li><li>'##hb nmethyldehydrobutyrine another dehydroamino acid derivative microcystins covalently bond to and inhibit protein phosphatases pp1 and pp2a and can thus cause pansteatitis the adda residue is key to this functionality greatly simplified synthetic analogues consisting of adda and one additional amino acid can show the same inhibiting function the microcystinproducing microcystis is a genus of freshwater cyanobacteria and thrives in warm water conditions especially in stagnant waters the epa predicted in 2013 that climate change and changing environmental conditions may lead to harmful algae growth and may negatively impact human health algal growth is also encouraged through the process of eutrophication oversupply of nutrients in particular dissolved reactive phosphorus promotes algal growthmicrocystins may have evolved as a way to deal with low iron supply in cyanobacteria the molecule binds iron and nonproducing strains are significantly worse at coping with low iron levels low iron supply upregulates mcyd one of the microcystin synthetic operons sufficient iron supply however can still boost microcystin production by making the bacterium better at photosynthesis therefore producing sufficient atp for mc biosynthesismicrocystin production is also positively correlated with temperature bright light and red light increases transcription of mcyd but blue light reduces it a wide range of other factors such as ph may also affect mc production but comparison is complicated due to a lack of standard testing conditions there are several ways of exposure to these hepatotoxins that humans can encounter one of which is through recreational activities like swimming surfing fishing and other activities involving direct contact with contaminated water another rare yet extremely toxic route of exposure that has been identified by scientists is through hemodialysis surgeries one of the fatal cases for microcystic intoxication through hemodialysis was studied in brazil where 48 of patients that received the surgery in a specific period of time died because the water used in the procedure was found to be contaminatedmicrocystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and ph possibly as a result of their cyclic structuremicrocystinlr water contamination is resistant to boiling and microwave treatments microcystinproducing bacteria algal blooms can overwhelm the filter capacities of water treatment plants some evidence shows the toxin can be transported by irrigation into the food chain in 2011 a record outbreak of blooming microcystis occurred in lake erie in part'</li><li>'of another microorganism the term was used again to describe tissue extracts that stimulated microbial growth the term probiotics was taken up by parker who defined the concept as organisms and substances that have a beneficial effect on the host animal by contributing to its intestinal microbial balance later the definition was greatly improved by fuller whose explanation was very close to the definition used today fuller described probiotics as a live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance he stressed two important claims for probiotics the viable nature of probiotics and the capacity to help with intestinal balance in the following decades intestinal lacticacid bacterial species with alleged healthbeneficial properties were introduced as probiotics including lactobacillus rhamnosus lactobacillus casei and lactobacillus johnsonii some literature gives the word a full greek etymology but it appears to be a composite of the latin preposition pro meaning for and the greek adjective βιωτικος biotikos meaning fit for life lively the latter deriving from the noun βιος bios meaning life the term contrasts etymologically with the term antibiotic although it is not a complete antonym the related term prebiotic comes from the latin prae meaning before and refers to a substance that is not digested but rather may be fermented to promote the growth of beneficial intestinal microorganisms as food products or dietary supplements probiotics are under preliminary research to evaluate if they provide any effect on health in all cases proposed as health claims to the european food safety authority the scientific evidence remains insufficient to prove a causeandeffect relationship between consumption of probiotic products and any health benefit there is no scientific basis for extrapolating an effect from a tested strain to an untested strain improved health through gut flora modulation appears to be directly related to longterm dietary changes claims that some lactobacilli may contribute to weight gain in some humans remain controversial there is inconsistency in the results of different groups of 3488 children as reported in a cochrane review also it shows no significant difference regarding the adverse effects between probiotic and the other comparators only limited lowquality evidence exists to indicate that probiotics are helpful for treating people with milk allergy a 2015 review showed lowquality evidence that probiotics given directly to infants with eczema or in infants whose mothers used probiotics during the last trimester of pregnancy and breast'</li></ul> |
| 13 | <ul><li>'##ssolving those roles into equal participants in a conversation this also excludes gaming or vr environments in which the usually isolated participant is the director of the action which his actions drive while tv studio audiences may feel that they are at a public live performance these performances are often edited and remixed for the benefit of their intended primary audience the home audiences which are viewing the mass broadcast in private broadcasts of great performances by pbs and other theatrical events broadcast into private homes give the tv viewers the sense that they are secondary viewers of a primary live event in addition archival or realtime webcasts which do not generate feedback influencing the live performances are not within the range of digital theatre in each case a visible interface such as tv or monitor screen like a camera frames and interprets the original event for the viewers an example of this is the case of internet chat which becomes the main text of be read or physically interpreted by performers on stage online input including content and directions can also have an effect of influencing live performance beyond the ability of live copresent audiences eg happenings such as the stunning visual media dance concerts like ghostcatching by merce cunningham and riverbed accessible online via the revampedmigrated digital performance archive 1 and merce cunningham dance cf isabel c valverde catching ghosts in ghostcatching choreographing gender and race in riverbedbill t jones virtual dance accessible in a pdf version from extensions the online journal of embodied teaching such as telematic dreaming by paul sermon in which distant participants shared a bed through mixing projected video streams see telematic dreaming statement mark reaney head of the virtual reality theatre lab at the university of kansas investigates the use of virtual reality and related technologies in theatre vr theatre is one form or subset of digital theatre focusing on utilizing virtual reality immersion in mutual concession with traditional theatre practices actors directors plays a theatre environment the group uses image projection and stereoscopic sets as their primary area of digital investigation another example of digital theatre is computer theatre as defined by claudio s pinhanez in his work computer theatre in which he also gives the definition of hyperactor as an actor whose expressive capabilities are extended through the use of technologies computer theatre in my view is about providing means to enhance the artistic possibilities and experiences of professional and amateur actors or of audiences clearly engaged in a representational role in a performance computer theater cambridge perceptual computing group mit media laboratory 1996 forthcoming in a revised ed pinhanez also sees this technology being explored more through dance than theatre his writing and his productions of iit suggest that computer theatre is digital theatre on'</li><li>'creative researchers to learn how to create garments which are completely free from the material world and how to fit them digitally to a client – whether they are a model for a virtual catwalk a social media influencer looking to boost their reach a gaming avatar in need of a fashion edge or a movie character being given a bespoke costumewhile there are not yet dedicated scientific journals devoted to the topic several research activities have been done in the field among them a dedicated conference has taken place in 2015 in seoul south korea scoms studies in communication sciences a swissbased communication journal has published a special thematic section on fashion communication between tradition and digital transformation in july 2019 a conference titled factum19 fashion communication between tradition and future digital developments has taken place in ascona switzerland whose proceedings are published by springer during factum19 a document titled fashion communication research a way ahead has been publishedfashion is closely related with art and heritage several museums related to fashion have started to make their appearance in the past thirty years examples are the museum christian dior granville the museum cristobal balenciaga the armani silosthe museum audemars piguet among the most important initiatives to digitize fashion history thus making such heritage available to researchers practitioners and all interested people two projects can be mentioned europeana fashion and we wear culture by google arts and culture since the beginning of the 2020 pandemic the fashion industry has suffered strong economic losses as sales plummeted and jobs were lost but it has since learned to digitally recover through virtual clothing catwalks and showroomsamidst the covid19 pandemic fashion is among the industries that have been forced to adapt their commercial and creative strategies to better suit the social distancing measures therefore the digital channel has since seen a rise in use offering live shopping and has been highlighted as the only way to overcome physical barriers it is also believed that these changes will prevail in years to come as reported by wgsnfashion brands and wellknown personalities in the industry spread welfare messages on social media and brands such as louis vuitton balenciaga gucci and prada began massproducing face masks and hospital gowns in order to help with the shortage of the coveted sanitary product moreover brands stepped up and launched initiatives to aid in the battle of covid19s impact on economy ralph lauren donated 10 million to help fight coronavirus and initiated the transport of free coffee and baked goods to new york hospitals to thank healthcare workers for their serviceonce events only attended by selected people catwalks'</li><li>'they are online and thus easily updatable being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teachers unique curriculum there are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks some of these organizations and projects include the university of minnesotas open textbook library connexions openstax college the saylor academy open textbook challenge and wikibooks according to the current definition of open content on the opencontent website any general royaltyfree copyright license would qualify as an open license because it provides users with the right to make more kinds of uses than those normally permitted under the law these permissions are granted to users free of chargehowever the narrower definition used in the open definition effectively limits open content to libre content any free content license defined by the definition of free cultural works would qualify as an open content license according to this narrower criteria the following stillmaintained licenses qualify creative commons licenses only creative commons attribution attributionshare alike and zero open publication license the original license of the open content project the open content license did not permit forprofit copying of the licensed work and therefore does not qualify against drm license gnu free documentation license without invariant sections open game license designed for roleplaying games by wizards of the coast free art license digital rights open source free education free software movement freedom of information information wants to be free open publishing opensource hardware project gutenberg knowledge for free – the emergence of open educational resources 2007 isbn 926403174x d atkins j s brown a l hammond february 2007 a review of the open educational resources oer movement achievements challenges and new opportunities pdf report to the william and flora hewlett foundation organisation for economic cooperation and development oecd giving know archived 7 july 2017 at the wayback machine'</li></ul> |
| 17 | <ul><li>'timeline of glaciation – chronology of the major ice ages of the earth cryogenian period geowhen database archived from the original on december 2 2005 retrieved january 5 2006 james g ogg 2004 status on divisions of the international geologic time scale lethaia 37 2 183 – 199 doi10108000241160410006492 brain c k prave a r hoffmann k h fallick a e herd d a sturrock c young i condon d j allison s g 2012 the first animals ca 760millionyearold spongelike fossils from namibia pdf south african journal of science 108 1 – 8 doi104102sajsv108i12658 hoffman paul f abbot dorian s et al november 8 2017 snowball earth climate dynamics and cryogenian geologygeobiology science advances american association for the advancement of science 3 11 e1600983 bibcode2017scia3e0983h doi101126sciadv1600983 pmc 5677351 pmid 29134193 s2cid 1465316'</li><li>'term ie the ocean – averaged value of s displaystyle s ⊗ i displaystyle otimes i and ⊗ o displaystyle otimes o denote spatiotemporal convolutions over the ice and oceancovered regions and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation holocene glacial retreat – global deglaciation starting about 19000 years ago and accelerating about 15000 years ago raised beach also known as marine terrace – emergent coastal landform physical impacts of climate change stress mechanics – physical quantity that expresses internal forces in a continuous material isostatic depression the opposite of isostatic rebound as alaska glaciers melt it ’ s land that ’ s rising may 17 2009 new york times'</li><li>'##frost covered europe south of the ice sheet down to as far south as presentday szeged in southern hungary ice covered the whole of iceland in addition ice covered ireland and almost all of wales with the southern boundary of the ice sheet running approximately from the current location of cardiff northnortheast to middlesbrough and then across the now submerged land of doggerland to denmarkin the cantabrian mountains of the northwestern corner of the iberian peninsula which in the present day have no permanent glaciers the lgm led to a local glacial recession as a result of increased aridity caused by the growth of other ice sheets farther to the east and north which drastically limited annual snowfall over the mountains of northwestern spain the cantabrian alpine glaciers had previously expanded between approximately 60000 and 40000 years ago during a local glacial maximum in the regionin northeastern italy in the region around lake fimon artemisiadominated semideserts steppes and meadowsteppes replaced open boreal forests at the start of the lgm specifically during heinrich stadial 3 the overall climate of the region became both drier and colderin the sar mountains the glacial equilibriumline altitude was about 450 metres lower than in the holocene in greece steppe vegetation predominatedmegafaunal abundance in europe peaked around 27000 and 21000 bp this bountifulness was attributable to the cold stadial climate in greenland the difference between lgm temperatures and present temperatures was twice as great during winter as during summer greenhouse gas and insolation forcings dominated temperature changes in northern greenland whereas atlantic meridional overturning circulation amoc variability was the dominant influence on southern greenlands climate illorsuit island was exclusively covered by coldbased glaciersfollowing a preceding period of relative retreat from 52000 to 40000 years ago the laurentide ice sheet grew rapidly at the onset of the lgm until it covered essentially all of canada east of the rocky mountains and extended roughly to the missouri and ohio rivers and eastward to manhattan reaching a total maximum volume of around 265 to 37 million cubic kilometres at its peak the laurentide ice sheet reached 32 km in height around keewatin dome and about 1721 km along the plains divide in addition to the large cordilleran ice sheet in canada and montana alpine glaciers advanced and in some locations ice caps covered much of the rocky and sierra nevada mountains further south latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of the ice sheets except at high elevations glaciers forced the early human populations who'</li></ul> |
| 31 | <ul><li>'zyxland xz proper parts principle if all the proper parts of x are proper parts of y then x is included in y wp3g7 [UNK] z z x → z y → x ≤ y displaystyle forall zzxrightarrow zyrightarrow xleq y a model of g1 – g7 is an inclusion space definition gerla and miranda 2008 def 41 given some inclusion space s an abstractive class is a class g of regions such that sg is totally ordered by inclusion moreover there does not exist a region included in all of the regions included in g intuitively an abstractive class defines a geometrical entity whose dimensionality is less than that of the inclusion space for example if the inclusion space is the euclidean plane then the corresponding abstractive classes are points and lines inclusionbased pointfree geometry henceforth pointfree geometry is essentially an axiomatization of simonss 1987 83 system w in turn w formalizes a theory in whitehead 1919 whose axioms are not made explicit pointfree geometry is w with this defect repaired simons 1987 did not repair this defect instead proposing in a footnote that the reader do so as an exercise the primitive relation of w is proper part a strict partial order the theory of whitehead 1919 has a single primitive binary relation k defined as xky ↔ y x hence k is the converse of proper part simonss wp1 asserts that proper part is irreflexive and so corresponds to g1 g3 establishes that inclusion unlike proper part is antisymmetric pointfree geometry is closely related to a dense linear order d whose axioms are g13 g5 and the totality axiom x ≤ y ∨ y ≤ x displaystyle xleq ylor yleq x hence inclusionbased pointfree geometry would be a proper extension of d namely d ∪ g4 g6 g7 were it not that the d relation ≤ is a total order a different approach was proposed in whitehead 1929 one inspired by de laguna 1922 whitehead took as primitive the topological notion of contact between two regions resulting in a primitive connection relation between events connection theory c is a firstorder theory that distills the first 12 of the 31 assumptions in chapter 2 of part 4 of process and reality into 6 axioms c1c6 c is a proper fragment of the theories proposed in clarke 1981 who noted their mereological character theories that like c feature both inclusion and topological primitives are called mereotopologies c has one primitive relation binary connection denoted by the prefixed predicate letter c that'</li><li>'they report no awareness and suitable experimental manipulations can lead to increasing priming effects despite decreasing prime identification double dissociationverbal report is widely considered to be the most reliable indicator of consciousness but it raises a number of issues for one thing if verbal reports are treated as observations akin to observations in other branches of science then the possibility arises that they may contain errors — but it is difficult to make sense of the idea that subjects could be wrong about their own experiences and even more difficult to see how such an error could be detected daniel dennett has argued for an approach he calls heterophenomenology which means treating verbal reports as stories that may or may not be true but his ideas about how to do this have not been widely adopted another issue with verbal report as a criterion is that it restricts the field of study to humans who have language this approach cannot be used to study consciousness in other species prelinguistic children or people with types of brain damage that impair language as a third issue philosophers who dispute the validity of the turing test may feel that it is possible at least in principle for verbal report to be dissociated from consciousness entirely a philosophical zombie may give detailed verbal reports of awareness in the absence of any genuine awarenessalthough verbal report is in practice the gold standard for ascribing consciousness it is not the only possible criterion in medicine consciousness is assessed as a combination of verbal behavior arousal brain activity and purposeful movement the last three of these can be used as indicators of consciousness when verbal behavior is absent the scientific literature regarding the neural bases of arousal and purposeful movement is very extensive their reliability as indicators of consciousness is disputed however due to numerous studies showing that alert human subjects can be induced to behave purposefully in a variety of ways in spite of reporting a complete lack of awareness studies of the neuroscience of free will have also shown that the experiences that people report when they behave purposefully sometimes do not correspond to their actual behaviors or to the patterns of electrical activity recorded from their brainsanother approach applies specifically to the study of selfawareness that is the ability to distinguish oneself from others in the 1970s gordon gallup developed an operational test for selfawareness known as the mirror test the test examines whether animals are able to differentiate between seeing themselves in a mirror versus seeing other animals the classic example involves placing a spot of coloring on the skin or fur near the individuals forehead and seeing if they attempt to remove it or at least touch the spot thus indicating that they recognize that the individual they are seeing in the mirror is themselves'</li><li>'neti neti sanskrit नति नति is a sanskrit expression which means not this not that or neither this nor that neti is sandhi from na iti not so it is found in the upanishads and the avadhuta gita and constitutes an analytical meditation helping a person to understand the nature of the brahman by negating everything that is not brahman one of the key elements of jnana yoga practice is often a neti neti search the purpose of the exercise is to negate all objects of consciousness including thoughts and the mind and to realize the nondual awareness of reality neti neti meaning not this not this is the method of vedic analysis of negation it is a keynote of vedic inquiry with its aid the jnani negates identification with all things of this world which is not the atman in this way he negates the anatman notself through this gradual process he negates the mind and transcends all worldly experiences that are negated till nothing remains but the self he attains union with the absolute by denying the body name form intellect senses and all limiting adjuncts and discovers what remains the true i alone lcbeckett in his book neti neti explains that this expression is an expression of something inexpressible it expresses the ‘ suchness ’ the essence of that which it refers to when ‘ no other definition applies to it ’ neti neti negates all descriptions about the ultimate reality but not the reality itself intuitive interpretation of uncertainty principle can be expressed by neti neti that annihilates ego and the world as nonself anatman it annihilates our sense of self altogetheradi shankara was one of the foremost advaita philosophers who advocated the netineti approach in his commentary on gaudapada ’ s karika he explains that brahman is free from adjuncts and the function of neti neti is to remove the obstructions produced by ignorance his disciple sureshvara further explains that the negation neti neti does not have negation as its purpose it purports identity the sage of the brihadaranyaka upanishad ii iii 16 beginning with there are two forms of brahman the material and the immaterial the solid and the fluid the sat ‘ being ’ and tya ‘ that ’ of satya – which means true denies the existence of everything other than brahman and therefore there exists no separate entity like jiva which shankara states is'</li></ul> |
| 37 | <ul><li>'the queen has been insulted have contents we can capture using that clauses the content externalist often appeal to observations found as early as hilary putnams seminal essay the meaning of meaning 1975 putnam stated that we can easily imagine pairs of individuals that are microphysical duplicates embedded in different surroundings who use the same words but mean different things when using them for example suppose that ike and tinas mothers are identical twins and that ike and tina are raised in isolation from one another in indistinguishable environments when ike says i want my mommy he expresses a want satisfied only if he is brought to his mommy if we brought tinas mommy ike might not notice the difference but he doesnt get what he wants it seems that what he wants and what he says when he says i want my mommy will be different from what tina wants and what she says she wants when she says i want my mommy externalists say that if we assume competent speakers know what they think and say what they think the difference in what these two speakers mean corresponds to a difference in the thoughts of the two speakers that is not necessarily reflected by a difference in the internal make up of the speakers or thinkers they urge us to move from externalism about meaning of the sort putnam defended to externalism about contentful states of mind the example pertains to singular terms but has been extended to cover kind terms as well such as natural kinds eg water and for kinds of artifacts eg espresso maker there is no general agreement amongst content externalists as to the scope of the thesis philosophers now tend to distinguish between wide content externalist mental content and narrow content antiexternalist mental content some then align themselves as endorsing one view of content exclusively or both for example jerry fodor 1980 argues for narrow content although he comes to reject that view in his 1995 while david chalmers 2002 argues for a two dimensional semantics according to which the contents of mental states can have both wide and narrow content critics of the view have questioned the original thought experiments saying that the lessons that putnam and later writers such as tyler burge 1979 1982 have urged us to draw can be resisted frank jackson and john searle for example have defended internalist accounts of thought content according to which the contents of our thoughts are fixed by descriptions that pick out the individuals and kinds that our thoughts intuitively pertain to the sorts of things that we take them to in the iketina example one might agree that ikes thoughts pertain to ikes mother and that tinas thoughts pertain to tinas but insist that this is because ike thinks'</li><li>'normal linguistic analysis begin to make some sense when junctural metanalysis at some stage in the transmission is assumed eg the formula eche nedumos hypnos sweet sleep held him appears to be a resegmentation of echen edumos hypnos steve reece has discovered several dozen similar instances of metanalysis in homer thereby shedding new light on their etymologiesjuncture loss is common in later greek as well especially in place names or in borrowings of greek names in italian and turkish where particles εις στην στον σε are fused with the original name in the cretan dialect the se prefix was also found in common nouns such as secambo or tsecambo se cambo a plainexamples prefix stan στην at to istanbul or stamboul and stimpoli crete from στην πολη stimˈboli in the city or to the city istankoy stanco for the island of kos standia for the island of dia prefix s σε at satines for athines athens etc samsun samison from se and amisos sdille for delos susam for samos samastro for amasra greek amastris sitia stamiro stalimure prefix is εις at to izmit from media with earlier iznikmit from nicomedia izmir from smyrna iznik from nicaea iz nikea other navarino for earlier avarino'</li><li>'possible use of would or could in the condition clause as well see § use of will and would in condition clauses below the conditional construction of the main clause is usually the simple conditional sometimes the conditional progressive eg would be waiting is used occasionally with a first person subject the auxiliary would is replaced by should similarly to the way will is replaced by shall also would may be replaced by another appropriate modal could should might when referring to hypothetical future circumstance there may be little difference in meaning between the first and second conditional factual vs counterfactual realis vs irrealis the following two sentences have similar meaning although the second with the second conditional implies less likelihood that the condition will be fulfilled if you leave now you will still catch your train if you left now you would still catch your trainnotice that in indirect speech reported in the past tense the first conditional naturally changes to the second shell kill me if she finds out he said i would kill him if i found out third conditional or conditional iii is a pattern used to refer to hypothetical situations in a past time frame generally counterfactual or at least presented as counterfactual here the condition clause is in the past perfect and the consequence is expressed using the conditional perfect if you had called me i would have come would he have succeeded if i had helped himit is possible for the usual auxiliary construction to be replaced with were to have past participle that used the above examples can be written as such if you were to have called me i would have come would he have succeeded if i were to have helped himthe condition clause can undergo inversion with omission of the conjunction had you called me i would have come were you to have called me i would have come would he have succeeded had i helped him would he have succeeded were i to have helped himanother possible pattern similar to that mentioned under the second conditional is if it hadnt been for inverted form had it not been for which means something like in the absence of with past reference for clauses with if only see uses of english verb forms § expressions of wish for the possible use of would in the condition clause see § use of will and would in condition clauses occasionally with a first person subject would is replaced with should in the main clause the auxiliary would can be replaced by could or might as described for the second conditional if only one of the two clauses has past reference a mixed conditional pattern see below is used mixed conditional usually refers to a mixture of the second and third conditionals the counterfactual patterns here either the condition or the consequence but not both has'</li></ul> |
| 23 | <ul><li>'antibodies and antinuclear antibodies have toxic effects on the implantation of embryos this does not apply to antithyroid antibodies elevated levels do not have a toxic effect but they are indicative of a risk of miscarriage elevated antithyroid antibodies act as a marker for females who have tlymphocyte dysfunction because these levels indicate t cells that are secreting high levels of cytokines that induce inflammation in the uterine wallstill there is currently no drug that has evidence of preventing miscarriage by inhibition of maternal immune responses aspirin has no effect in this case the increased immune tolerance is believed to be a major contributing factor to an increased susceptibility and severity of infections in pregnancy pregnant women are more severely affected by for example influenza hepatitis e herpes simplex and malaria the evidence is more limited for coccidioidomycosis measles smallpox and varicella pregnancy does not appear to alter the protective effects of vaccination if the mechanisms of rejectionimmunity of the fetus could be understood it might lead to interspecific pregnancy having for example pigs carry human fetuses to term as an alternative to a human surrogate mother'</li><li>'##berg nkt cell recombinationactivating gene hartwell lh hood l goldberg ml reynolds ae silver lm veres rc 2000 chapter 24 evolution at the molecular level in genetics new york mcgrawhill pp 805 – 807 isbn 9780072995879 vdj recombination series advances in experimental medicine and biology vol 650 ferrier pierre ed landes bioscience 2009 xii 199 p isbn 9781441902955'</li><li>'##c bond cleaving the co bond in the substrate whereas asp52 acts as a nucleophile to generate a glycosyl enzyme intermediate the glu35 reacts with water to form hydroxyl ion a stronger nucleophile than water which then attacks the glycosyl enzyme intermediate to give the product of hydrolysis and leaving the enzyme unchanged this type of covalent mechanism for enzyme catalysis was first proposed by koshlandmore recently quantum mechanics molecular mechanics qmmm molecular dynamics simulations have been using the crystal of hewl and predict the existence of a covalent intermediate evidence for the esims and xray structures indicate the existence of covalent intermediate but primarily rely on using a less active mutant or nonnative substrate thus qmmm molecular dynamics provides the unique ability to directly investigate the mechanism of wildtype hewl and native substrate the calculations revealed that the covalent intermediate from the covalent mechanism is 30 kcalmol more stable than the ionic intermediate from the phillips mechanism these calculations demonstrate that the ionic intermediate is extremely energetically unfavorable and the covalent intermediates observed from experiments using less active mutant or nonnative substrates provide useful insight into the mechanism of wildtype hewl imidazole derivatives can form a chargetransfer complex with some residues in or outside active center to achieve a competitive inhibition of lysozyme in gramnegative bacteria the lipopolysaccharide acts as a noncompetitive inhibitor by highly favored binding with lysozyme despite that the muramidase activity of lysozyme has been supposed to play the key role for its antibacterial properties evidence of its nonenzymatic action was also reported for example blocking the catalytic activity of lysozyme by mutation of critical amino acid in the active site 52asp 52ser does not eliminate its antimicrobial activity the lectinlike ability of lysozyme to recognize bacterial carbohydrate antigen without lytic activity was reported for tetrasaccharide related to lipopolysaccharide of klebsiella pneumoniae also lysozyme interacts with antibodies and tcell receptors lysozyme exhibits two conformations an open active state and a closed inactive state the catalytic relevance was examined with single walled carbon nanotubes swcn field effect transistors fets where a singular lysozyme was bound to the swcn fet electronically monitoring the lysozyme showed two'</li></ul> |
| 24 | <ul><li>'indonesia marina walk herzila israel qingdao international tourist city qingdao china thanh xuan park hanoi vietnam wasaga beach ontario canada wave city centre noida india dreamland cairo egypt longleat safari and adventure park warminster united kingdom st elizabeth village hamilton ontario canada architecture in perspective 32 observational award of excellence to ashley thomas rendering award of excellence to autumn kwon architecture in perspective 31 from the american society of architectural illustratorstaidgh mcclory rendering juror award to gary chan aquatics international dream design for wanda xishuangbanna international resort water park architecture in perspective 30award of excellence to michael mills for hungarian house of music budapest thomas payne jurors award to anthony chieh for tower concept guiyang richard johnson jurors award to steve thorington for ocean cottage order of da vinci award to forrec creative director gordon grice from the ontario association of architects recognizing architects who have demonstrated exceptional leadership in the profession education andor in the community excellence in planning award research and new directions for step forward pedestrian mobility plan city of hamilton from the ontario professional planners institute excellence in planning award healthy communities for step forward pedestrian mobility plan city of hamilton from the ontario professional planners institute dream design waterpark renovation honor for happy magic watercube beijing from aquatics international architecture in perspective 28award of excellence to danny drapiza for thanh xuan park award of excellence to steve thorington for powerlong city plaza award of excellence to jan jurgensen for verdant avenue architecture in perspective 27 award of excellence to juhn pena for 1001 cities planning excellence award innovation in sustaining places for confederation park master plan review and update from american planning association new york upstate chapter recognizing plans that demonstrate how sustainability practices are being used in how places are planned designed built used and maintained at all scales architecture in perspective 26 award of excellence for two wanda dalian illustrations industry innovation award for centre parcs aquamundo moselle france from the world waterpark association industry innovation award for happy magic watercube beijing from the world waterpark association'</li><li>'2007 – 2009 biennial of art architecture and landscape of canarias las palmas spain 2009 object art manuel ojeda gallery las palmas spain 2010 – 2011 a city called spain athensmoscow greecerussia 2015 – 2016 exhibition at the maxxi museo nazionale delle arti del xxi secolo in rome italy 2017 in process exhibition of architectural models by alonsososa in the saro leon gallery las palmas spain academy member admission of jose antonio sosa diazsaavedra into the real academia de bellas artes de canarias of san miguel arcangel royal canarian academy of fine arts of st michael archangel 2014 awards professor sosa has been awarded in the following competitions 2006 first prize the venegas public square and underground car park 2005 first prize puerto del rosario waterfront 2005 first prize la regenta art center 2004 first prize the city of justice new law courts headquarter in las palmas 2002 first prize the rehabilitation building restoration of the town hall las palmas gran canaria 1997 first prize the rehabilitation building restoration of the literary cabinet design and ideas 2008 third prizethe madrid slaughterhouse 2008 first prize rehabilitation consistorial houses of the palmas de gran canaria melbourne sustainable building 2008 first accesit for architectural renovation building restoration of the old tabakalera in donostiasan sebastian 2012 first prize railway station of playa del ingles 2013 second prize station20 sophia bulgaria 2016 first prize a house in a garden gran canaria some of them are 2003 loyolas foundation administrative building spain 2003 the elongated house gran canaria spain in collaboration with miguel santiago 2004 the hidden house gran canaria spain 2008 rehabilitacion building restoration town hall of las palmas spain in collaboration with magui gonzalez 2010 black pavilion las palmas spain 2010 art center la regenta las palmas spain 2011 the z house gran canaria spain 2011 station20 sophia bulgaria 2012 railway station of playa del ingles las palmas spain 2012 the city of justicenew law courts headquarter las palmas spain jointly with magui gonzalez y miguel santiago 2012 central library of helsinki finland jointly with evelyn alonso rohner 2014 philologicum of munich germany jointly with evelyn alonso rohner 2014 the loft apartment emblematic house intervention and renewal las palmas spain jointly with evelyn alonso rohner 2014 total building rehabilitation buganvilla apartments gran canaria spain jointly with evelyn alonso rohner 2015 – 16 industrial building renewal group volkswagen franchisee “ majuelos ” la laguna tenerife spain jointly with evelyn alonso rohner 2016 – 17 rehabilitation of the industrial'</li><li>'bazaars large mosques and other public buildings naqshe jahan square in isfahan and azadi square in tehran are examples of classic and modern squares a piazza italian pronunciation ˈpjattsa is a city square in italy malta along the dalmatian coast and in surrounding regions san marco in venice may be the worlds best known the term is roughly equivalent to the spanish plaza in ethiopia it is used to refer to a part of a city when the earl of bedford developed covent garden – the first privateventure public square built in london – his architect inigo jones surrounded it with arcades in the italian fashion talk about the piazza was connected in londoners minds not with the square as a whole but with the arcades a piazza is commonly found at the meeting of two or more streets most italian cities have several piazzas with streets radiating from the center shops and other small businesses are found on piazzas as it is an ideal place to set up a business many metro stations and bus stops are found on piazzas as they are key point in a city in britain piazza now generally refers to a paved open pedestrian space without grass or planting often in front of a significant building or shops following its 2012 redevelopment kings cross station in london has a piazza which replaces a 1970s concourse there is a good example of a piazza in scotswood at newcastle college in the united states in the early 19th century a piazza by further extension became a fanciful name for a colonnaded porch piazza was used by some especially in the boston area to refer to a verandah or front porch of a house or apartmenta central square just off gibraltars main street between the parliament building and the city hall officially named john mackintosh square is colloquially referred to as the piazza in the low countries squares are often called markets because of their usage as marketplaces most towns and cities in belgium and the southern part of the netherlands have in their historical centre a grote markt literally big market in dutch or grandplace literally grand square in french for example the grandplace in brussels and the grote markt in antwerp the grote markt or grandplace is often the location of the town hall hence also the political centre of the town the dutch word for square is plein which is another common name for squares in dutchspeaking regions for example het plein in the hague in the 17th and 18th centuries another type of square emerged the socalled royal square french place royale dutch koningsplein such squares did not serve as a marketplace but were built in front of large palaces or public'</li></ul> |
| 38 | <ul><li>'the participants with less dominant participants generally being more attentive to more dominant participants ’ words an opposition between urban and suburban linguistic variables is common to all metropolitan regions of the united states although the particular variables distinguishing urban and suburban styles may differ from place to place the trend is for urban styles to lead in the use of nonstandard forms and negative concord in penny eckerts study of belten high in the detroit suburbs she noted a stylistic difference between two groups that she identified schooloriented jocks and urbanoriented schoolalienated burnouts the variables she analyzed were the usage of negative concord and the mid and low vowels involved in the northern cities shift which consists of the following changes æ ea a æ ə a ʌ ə ay oy and ɛ ʌ y here is equivalent to the ipa symbol j all of these changes are urbanled as is the use of negative concord the older mostly stabilized changes æ ea a æ and ə a were used the most by women while the newer changes ʌ ə ay oy and ɛ ʌ were used the most by burnouts eckert theorizes that by using an urban variant such as foyt they were not associating themselves with urban youth rather they were trying to index traits that were associated with urban youth such as tough and streetsmart this theory is further supported by evidence from a subgroup within the burnout girls which eckert refers to as ‘ burnedout ’ burnout girls she characterizes this group as being even more antiestablishment than the ‘ regular ’ burnout girls this subgroup led overall in the use of negative concord as well as in femaleled changes this is unusual because negative concord is generally used the most by males ‘ burnedout ’ burnout girls were not indexing masculinity — this is shown by their use of femaleled variants and the fact that they were found to express femininity in nonlinguistic ways this shows that linguistic variables may have different meanings in the context of different styles there is some debate about what makes a style gay in stereotypically flamboyant gay speech the phonemes s and l have a greater duration people are also more likely to identify those with higher frequency ranges as gayon the other hand there are many different styles represented within the gay community there is much linguistic variation in the gay community and each subculture appears to have its own distinct features according to podesva et al gay culture encompasses reified categories such as leather daddies clones drag queens circuit boys guppies gay yuppies gay prostitutes and activists'</li><li>'according to tannens research men tend to tell stories as another way to maintain their status primarily men tell jokes or stories that focus on themselves women on the other hand are less concerned with their own power and therefore their stories revolve not around themselves but around others by putting themselves on the same level as those around them women attempt to downplay their part in their own stories which strengthens their connections to those around them lakoff identified three forms of politeness formal deference and camaraderie womens language is characterized by formal and deference politeness whereas mens language is exemplified by camaraderiethere is a generalization about conservativeness and politeness in womens speech it is commonly believed that women are gentle while men are rough and rude since there is no evidence for the total accuracy of this perception researchers have tried to examine the reasons behind it statistics show a pattern that women tend to use more standard variable of the language for example in the case of negative concord eg i didnt do anything vs i didnt do nothing women usually use the standard form pierre bourdieu introduced the concept of the linguistic marketplace according to this concept different varieties of language have different values when people want to be accepted in a diplomatic organization they need to have a range of knowledge to show their competency possessing the right language is as important as the right style of dress both of these manners have social values while bourdieu focuses on the diplomatic corps it would be true if people want to be accepted in other contexts such as an urban ghetto the market that one wants to engage with has a profound effect on the value of the variation of language they may use the relations of each gender to linguistic markets are different a research on the pronunciation of english in norwich has shown that womens usage is considerably more conservative regarding the standard variation of the language they speak this research provides the pieces of evidence that womens exclusion from the workplace has led to this variation as women in some cases have not had the same position as men and their opportunities to secure these positions have been fewer they have tried to use more valuable variations of the language it can be the standard one or the polite version of it or the socalled right one situational context is another factor that affects verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors based on gender i'</li><li>'in modern english she is a singular feminine thirdperson pronoun in standard modern english she has four shapes representing five distinct word forms she the nominative subjective form her the accusative objective also called the oblique 146 form the dependent genitive possessive form hers the independent genitive form herself the reflexive form old english had a single thirdperson pronoun – from the protogermanic demonstrative base khi from pie ko this – which had a plural and three genders in the singular in early middle english one case was lost and distinct pronouns started to develop the modern pronoun it developed out of the neuter singular in the 12th century her developed out of the feminine singular dative and genitive forms the older pronoun had the following forms the evolution of she is disputed 118 some sources claim it evolved from old english seo sio accusative sie fem of demonstrative pronoun masc se the from pie root so this that see the in middle english the old english system collapses due to the gradual loss of þe and the replacement of the paradigm se seo þæt by indeclinable that 296 a more likely account is what is sometimes called the shetland theory since it assumes a development parallel to that of shetland oscand hjaltland shapinsay hjalpandisey etc the starting point is the morphologically and chronologically preferable heo once again we have syllabicity shift and vowel reduction giving heo heo hjoː then hj c and c ʃ giving final ʃoː 118 this does not lead to the modern form she ʃiː so any solution that gets ʃ from eo also needs to correct the resultant oː outside the north to eː this means an analogical transfer of probably the eː of he 118 none of this is entirely plausible the self forms developed in early middle english with hire self becoming herself by the 15th century the middle english forms of she had solidified into those we use today 120 historically she was encompassed in he as he had three genders in old english the neuter and feminine genders split off during middle english today she is the only feminine pronoun in english she is occasionally used as a gender neutral thirdperson singular pronoun see also singular they 492 she can appear as a subject object determiner or predicative complement the reflexive form also appears as an adjunct she occasionally appears as a modifier in a noun phrase subject shes there her being there she paid for herself to be there object i saw'</li></ul> |
| 36 | <ul><li>'rage farming or ragebaiting is internet slang that refers to a manipulative tactic to elicit outrage with the goal of increasing internet traffic online engagement revenue and support rage baiting or farming can be used as a tool to increase engagement attract subscribers followers and supporters which can be financially lucrative rage baiting and rage farming manipulates users to respond in kind to offensive inflammatory headlines memes tropes or commentsragefarming which has been cited since at least january 2022 is an offshoot of ragebaiting where the outrage of the person being provoked is farmed or manipulated into an online engagement by rageseeding that helps amplify the message of the original content creator it has also been used as a political tactic at the expense of ones opponent political scientist jared wesley of the university of alberta said in 2022 that the use of the tactic of rage farming was on the rise with rightwing politicians employing the technique by promoting conspiracy theories and misinformation as politicians increase rage farming against their political and ideological opponents they attract more followers online some of whom may engage in offline violence including verbal violence and acts of intimidation wesley describes how those engaged in rage farming combine halftruths with blatant lies rage farming is from rage farm rageseeding ragebait rage baiting and outrage baiting are similar internet slang neologisms referring to manipulative tactics that feed on readers anxieties and fears they are all forms of clickbait a term used used since c 1999 which is more nuanced and not necessarily seen as a negative tactic the term rage bait which has been cited since at least 2009 is a negative form of clickbaiting as it relies on manipulating users to respond in kind to offensive inflammatory headlines memes tropes or commentsin his 2022 tweet a senior researcher at citizen lab john scottrailton described how a person was being ragefarmed when they responded to an inflammatory post with an equally inflammatory quote tweet as quote tweets reward the original rage tweet algorithms on social media such as facebook twitter tiktok instagram and youtube were discovered to reward increased positive and negative engagement by directing traffic to posts and amplifying themamerican writer molly jongfast wrote that rage farming is the product of a perfect storm of f an unholy melange of algorithms and anxiety in her january 2022 article in the atlantic on the gops farright media network she described the tactic as cynicalpolitical scientist jared wesley wrote that rage farming was often used to describe rhetoric designed to elicit'</li><li>'this is the governments actions in freezing bank accounts and regulating internet speech ostensibly to protect the vulnerable and preserve freedom of expression despite contradicting values and rightsthe origins of the rhetoric language begin in ancient greece it originally began by a group named the sophists who wanted to teach the athenians to speak persuasively in order to be able to navigate themselves in the court and senate what inspired this form of persuasive speech came about through a new form of government known as democracy that was being experimented with consequently people began to fear that persuasive speech would overpower truth aristotle however believed that this technique was an art and that persuasive speech could have truth and logic embedded within it in the end rhetoric speech still remained popular and was used by many scholars and philosophers the study of rhetoric trains students to speak andor write effectively and to critically understand and analyze discourse it is concerned with how people use symbols especially language to reach agreement that permits coordinated effortrhetoric as a course of study has evolved since its ancient beginnings and has adapted to the particular exigencies of various times venues and applications ranging from architecture to literature although the curriculum has transformed in a number of ways it has generally emphasized the study of principles and rules of composition as a means for moving audiences rhetoric began as a civic art in ancient greece where students were trained to develop tactics of oratorical persuasion especially in legal disputes rhetoric originated in a school of presocratic philosophers known as the sophists c 600 bce demosthenes and lysias emerged as major orators during this period and isocrates and gorgias as prominent teachers modern teachings continue to reference these rhetoricians and their work in discussions of classical rhetoric and persuasion rhetoric was taught in universities during the middle ages as one of the three original liberal arts or trivium along with logic and grammar during the medieval period political rhetoric declined as republican oratory died out and the emperors of rome garnered increasing authority with the rise of european monarchs rhetoric shifted into courtly and religious applications augustine exerted strong influence on christian rhetoric in the middle ages advocating the use of rhetoric to lead audiences to truth and understanding especially in the church the study of liberal arts he believed contributed to rhetorical study in the case of a keen and ardent nature fine words will come more readily through reading and hearing the eloquent than by pursuing the rules of rhetoric poetry and letter writing became central to rhetorical study during the middle ages 129 – 47 after the fall of roman republic poetry became a tool for rhetorical training since there were fewer opportunities'</li><li>'the ending s as in in dublins fair city which is uncommon in classical greek genitive of explanation as in greek υος μεγα χρημα romanized hyos mega chrema a monster great affair of a boar histories of herodotus 136 where υος the word for boar is inflected for the genitive singular in japanese postpositive no as in japanese ふしの 山 romanized fuji no yama lit the mountain of fuji in biblical hebrew construct genitive of association as in hebrew גן עדן romanized gan eden the garden of eden figure of speech hyperbaton literary device parenthesis'</li></ul> |
| 2 | <ul><li>'in linear algebra an idempotent matrix is a matrix which when multiplied by itself yields itself that is the matrix a displaystyle a is idempotent if and only if a 2 a displaystyle a2a for this product a 2 displaystyle a2 to be defined a displaystyle a must necessarily be a square matrix viewed this way idempotent matrices are idempotent elements of matrix rings examples of 2 × 2 displaystyle 2times 2 idempotent matrices are examples of 3 × 3 displaystyle 3times 3 idempotent matrices are if a matrix a b c d displaystyle beginpmatrixabcdendpmatrix is idempotent then a a 2 b c displaystyle aa2bc b a b b d displaystyle babbd implying b 1 − a − d 0 displaystyle b1ad0 so b 0 displaystyle b0 or d 1 − a displaystyle d1a c c a c d displaystyle ccacd implying c 1 − a − d 0 displaystyle c1ad0 so c 0 displaystyle c0 or d 1 − a displaystyle d1a d b c d 2 displaystyle dbcd2 thus a necessary condition for a 2 × 2 displaystyle 2times 2 matrix to be idempotent is that either it is diagonal or its trace equals 1 for idempotent diagonal matrices a displaystyle a and d displaystyle d must be either 1 or 0 if b c displaystyle bc the matrix a b b 1 − a displaystyle beginpmatrixabb1aendpmatrix will be idempotent provided a 2 b 2 a displaystyle a2b2a so a satisfies the quadratic equation a 2 − a b 2 0 displaystyle a2ab20 or a − 1 2 2 b 2 1 4 displaystyle leftafrac 12right2b2frac 14 which is a circle with center 12 0 and radius 12 in terms of an angle θ a 1 2 1 − cos θ sin θ sin θ 1 cos θ displaystyle afrac 12beginpmatrix1cos theta sin theta sin theta 1cos theta endpmatrix is idempotenthowever b c displaystyle bc is not a necessary condition any matrix a b c 1 − a displaystyle beginpmatrixabc1aendpmatrix with a 2 b c a displaystyle a2bca is idempotent the only nonsingular idempotent matrix is the identity matrix that'</li><li>'in mathematics when the elements of some set s displaystyle s have a notion of equivalence formalized as an equivalence relation then one may naturally split the set s displaystyle s into equivalence classes these equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a displaystyle a and b displaystyle b belong to the same equivalence class if and only if they are equivalent formally given a set s displaystyle s and an equivalence relation [UNK] displaystyle sim on s displaystyle s the equivalence class of an element a displaystyle a in s displaystyle s often denoted by a displaystyle a the definition of equivalence relations implies that the equivalence classes form a partition of s displaystyle s meaning that every element of the set belongs to exactly one equivalence class the set of the equivalence classes is sometimes called the quotient set or the quotient space of s displaystyle s by [UNK] displaystyle sim and is denoted by s [UNK] ′ displaystyle ssim when the set s displaystyle s has some structure such as a group operation or a topology and the equivalence relation [UNK] displaystyle sim is compatible with this structure the quotient set often inherits a similar structure from its parent set examples include quotient spaces in linear algebra quotient spaces in topology quotient groups homogeneous spaces quotient rings quotient monoids and quotient categories let x displaystyle x be the set of all rectangles in a plane and [UNK] displaystyle sim the equivalence relation has the same area as then for each positive real number a displaystyle a there will be an equivalence class of all the rectangles that have area a displaystyle a consider the modulo 2 equivalence relation on the set of integers z displaystyle mathbb z such that x [UNK] y displaystyle xsim y if and only if their difference x − y displaystyle xy is an even number this relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes one class consists of all even numbers and the other class consists of all odd numbers using square brackets around one member of the class to denote an equivalence class under this relation 7 9 displaystyle 79 and 1 displaystyle 1 all represent the same element of z [UNK] displaystyle mathbb z sim let x displaystyle x be the set of ordered pairs of integers a b displaystyle ab with nonzero b displaystyle b and define an equivalence relation [UNK] displaystyle sim on x displaystyle x such that a b [UNK] c d displaystyle absim cd if and only if a d b c displaystyle adbc then the equivalence class of the pair a b displaystyle ab can be identified'</li><li>'in mathematics a group is called boundedly generated if it can be expressed as a finite product of cyclic subgroups the property of bounded generation is also closely related with the congruence subgroup problem see lubotzky segal 2003 a group g is called boundedly generated if there exists a finite subset s of g and a positive integer m such that every element g of g can be represented as a product of at most m powers of the elements of s g s 1 k 1 [UNK] s m k m displaystyle gs1k1cdots smkm where s i ∈ s displaystyle siin s and k i displaystyle ki are integersthe finite set s generates g so a boundedly generated group is finitely generated an equivalent definition can be given in terms of cyclic subgroups a group g is called boundedly generated if there is a finite family c1 … cm of not necessarily distinct cyclic subgroups such that g c1 … cm as a set bounded generation is unaffected by passing to a subgroup of finite index if h is a finite index subgroup of g then g is boundedly generated if and only if h is boundedly generated bounded generation goes to extension if a group g has a normal subgroup n such that both n and gn are boundedly generated then so is g itself any quotient group of a boundedly generated group is also boundedly generated a finitely generated torsion group must be finite if it is boundedly generated equivalently an infinite finitely generated torsion group is not boundedly generateda pseudocharacter on a discrete group g is defined to be a realvalued function f on a g such that fgh − fg − fh is uniformly bounded and fgn n · fgthe vector space of pseudocharacters of a boundedly generated group g is finitedimensional if n ≥ 3 the group slnz is boundedly generated by its elementary subgroups formed by matrices differing from the identity matrix only in one offdiagonal entry in 1984 carter and keller gave an elementary proof of this result motivated by a question in algebraic ktheory a free group on at least two generators is not boundedly generated see below the group sl2z is not boundedly generated since it contains a free subgroup with two generators of index 12 a gromovhyperbolic group is boundedly generated if and only if it is virtually cyclic or elementary ie contains a cyclic subgroup of finite index several authors have stated in the mathematical literature that it is obvious that finitely generated free groups are not boundedly generated this section'</li></ul> |
| 0 | <ul><li>'close to the pump frequency make the main contribution to the gain of the useful mode in contrast the determination of the starting pressure in ordinary lasers is independent from the number of radiators the useful mode grows with the number of particles but sound absorption increases at the same time both these factors neutralize each other bubbles play the main role in the energy dispersion in a saser a relevant suggested scheme of sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation using gas bubbles as the active medium was introduced around 1995 the pumping is created by mechanical oscillations of a cylindrical resonator and the phase bunching of bubbles is realized by acoustic radiation forces a notable fact is that gas bubbles can only oscillate under an external action but not spontaneously according to other proposed schemes the electrostriction oscillations of the dispersed particle volumes in the cylindrical resonator are realized by an alternating electromagnetic field however a saser scheme with an alternating electric field as the pump has a limitation a very large amplitude of electric field up to tens of kvcm is required to realize the amplification such values approach the electric puncture intensity of liquid dielectrics hence a study proposes a saser scheme without this limitation the pumping is created by radial mechanical pulsations of a cylinder this cylinder contains an active medium — a liquid dielectric with gas bubbles the radiation emits through the faces of the cylinder a proposal for the development of a phonon laser on resonant phonon transitions has been introduced from a group in institute of spectroscopy in moscow russia two schemes for steady stimulated phonon generation were mentioned the first scheme exploits a narrowgap indirect semiconductor or analogous indirect gap semiconductor heterostructure where the tuning into resonance of onephonon transition of electron – hole recombination can be carried out by external pressure magnetic or electric fields the second scheme uses onephonon transition between direct and indirect exciton levels in coupled quantum wells we note that an exciton is an electrically neutral quasiparticle that describes an elementary excitation of condensed matter it can transport energy without transporting net electric charge the tuning into the resonance of this transition can be accomplished by engineering of dispersion of indirect exciton by external inplane magnetic and normal electric fields the magnitude of phonon wave vector in the second proposed scheme is supposed to be determined by magnitude of inplane magnetic field therefore such kind of saser is tunable ie its wavelength of operation can be altered in a controlled manner common semiconductor lasers can be realised only in direct'</li><li>'##gible because of their low quality brevity and irregularity of speed only one of these recordings 1857 cornet scale recording was restored and made intelligible history of sound recording koenigsberg allen the birth of the recording industry adapted from the seventeenyear itch delivered at the us patent office bicentennial in washington dc on may 9 1990'</li><li>'a known sound pressure field in a cavity to which a test microphone is coupled sound calibrators are different from pistonphones in that they work electronically and use a lowimpedance electrodynamic source to yield a high degree of volume independent operation furthermore modern devices often use a feedback mechanism to monitor and adjust the sound pressure level in the cavity so that it is constant regardless of the cavity microphone size sound calibrators normally generate a 1 khz sine tone 1 khz is chosen since the aweighted spl is equal to the linear level at 1 khz sound calibrators should also be calibrated regularly at a nationally accredited calibration laboratory to ensure traceability sound calibrators tend to be less precise than pistonphones but are nominally independent of internal cavity volume and ambient pressure'</li></ul> |
| 10 | <ul><li>'ground substance is an amorphous gellike substance in the extracellular space of animals that contains all components of the extracellular matrix ecm except for fibrous materials such as collagen and elastin ground substance is active in the development movement and proliferation of tissues as well as their metabolism additionally cells use it for support water storage binding and a medium for intercellular exchange especially between blood cells and other types of cells ground substance provides lubrication for collagen fibersthe components of the ground substance vary depending on the tissue ground substance is primarily composed of water and large organic molecules such as glycosaminoglycans gags proteoglycans and glycoproteins gags are polysaccharides that trap water giving the ground substance a gellike texture important gags found in ground substance include hyaluronic acid heparan sulfate dermatan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate with the exception of hyaluronic acid gags are bound to proteins called proteoglycans glycoproteins are proteins that attach components of the ground substance to one another and to the surfaces of cells components of the ground substance are secreted by fibroblasts usually it is not visible on slides because it is lost during staining in the preparation processlink proteins such as vinculin spectrin and actomyosin stabilize the proteoglycans and organize elastic fibers in the ecm changes in the density of ground substance can allow collagen fibers to form aberrant crosslinks loose connective tissue is characterized by few fibers and cells and a relatively large amount of ground substance dense connective tissue has a smaller amount of ground substance compared to the fibrous materialthe meaning of the term has evolved over time milieu interieur'</li><li>'drug is cisplatin mri contrast agent commonly contain gadolinium lithium carbonate has been used to treat the manic phase of bipolar disorder gold antiarthritic drugs eg auranofin have been commercialized carbon monoxidereleasing molecules are metal complexes have been developed to suppress inflammation by releasing small amounts of carbon monoxide the cardiovascular and neuronal importance of nitric oxide has been examined including the enzyme nitric oxide synthase see also nitrogen assimilation besides metallic transition complexes based on triazolopyrimidines have been tested against several parasite strains environmental chemistry traditionally emphasizes the interaction of heavy metals with organisms methylmercury has caused major disaster called minamata disease arsenic poisoning is a widespread problem owing largely to arsenic contamination of groundwater which affects many millions of people in developing countries the metabolism of mercury and arseniccontaining compounds involves cobalaminbased enzymes biomineralization is the process by which living organisms produce minerals often to harden or stiffen existing tissues such tissues are called mineralized tissues examples include silicates in algae and diatoms carbonates in invertebrates and calcium phosphates and carbonates in vertebrates other examples include copper iron and gold deposits involving bacteria biologicallyformed minerals often have special uses such as magnetic sensors in magnetotactic bacteria fe3o4 gravity sensing devices caco3 caso4 baso4 and iron storage and mobilization fe2o3 • h2o in the protein ferritin because extracellular iron is strongly involved in inducing calcification its control is essential in developing shells the protein ferritin plays an important role in controlling the distribution of iron the abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes the most important ions are sodium potassium calcium magnesium chloride phosphate and bicarbonate the maintenance of precise gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and ph ions are also critical for nerves and muscles as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cytosol electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels for example muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and ttubules the transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms with zinc and iron being most abundant these metals are used as protein cofactors and signalling molecules many are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygencarrier proteins such as hemoglobin these cofactors are tightly to a specific protein although enzyme cofactors can be modified'</li><li>'retromer is a complex of proteins that has been shown to be important in recycling transmembrane receptors from endosomes to the transgolgi network tgn and directly back to the plasma membrane mutations in retromer and its associated proteins have been linked to alzheimers and parkinsons diseases retromer is a heteropentameric complex which in humans is composed of a less defined membraneassociated sorting nexin dimer snx1 snx2 snx5 snx6 and a vacuolar protein sorting vps heterotrimer containing vps26 vps29 and vps35 although the snx dimer is required for the recruitment of retromer to the endosomal membrane the cargo binding function of this complex is contributed by the core heterotrimer through the binding of vps26 and vps35 subunits to various cargo molecules including m6pr wntless sorl1 which is also a receptor for other cargo proteins such as app and sortilin early study on sorting of acid hydrolases such as carboxypeptidase y cpy in s cerevisiae mutants has led to the identification of retromer in mediating the retrograde trafficking of the procpy receptor vps10 from the endosomes to the tgn the retromer complex is highly conserved homologs have been found in c elegans mouse and human the retromer complex consists of 5 proteins in yeast vps35p vps26p vps29p vps17p vps5p the mammalian retromer consists of vps26 vps29 vps35 snx1 and snx2 and possibly snx5 and snx6 it is proposed to act in two subcomplexes 1 a cargo recognition heterotrimeric complex that consist of vps35 vps29 and vps26 and 2 snxbar dimers which consist of snx1 or snx2 and snx5 or snx6 that facilitate endosomal membrane remodulation and curvature resulting in the formation of tubulesvesicles that transport cargo molecules to the transgolgi network tgn humans have two orthologs of vps26 vps26a which is ubiquitous and vps26b which is found in the central nervous system where it forms a unique retromer that is dedicated to direct recycling of neuronal cell surface proteins such as app back to the plasma membrane with the assistance of the cargo receptor sorl1 the retromer complex has been shown to mediate retrieval'</li></ul> |
| 4 | <ul><li>'in topological data analysis the vietorisrips filtration sometimes shortened to rips filtration is the collection of nested vietorisrips complexes on a metric space created by taking the sequence of vietorisrips complexes over an increasing scale parameter often the vietorisrips filtration is used to create a discrete simplicial model on point cloud data embedded in an ambient metric space the vietorisrips filtration is a multiscale extension of the vietorisrips complex that enables researchers to detect and track the persistence of topological features over a range of parameters by way of computing the persistent homology of the entire filtration the vietorisrips filtration is the nested collection of vietorisrips complexes indexed by an increasing scale parameter the vietorisrips complex is a classical construction in mathematics that dates back to a 1927 paper of leopold vietoris though it was independently considered by eliyahu rips in the study of hyperbolic groups as noted by mikhail gromov in the 1980s the conjoined name vietorisrips is due to jeanclaude hausmann given a metric space x displaystyle x and a scale parameter sometimes called the threshold or distance parameter r ∈ 0 ∞ displaystyle rin 0infty the vietorisrips complex with respect to r displaystyle r is defined as v r r x ∅ = s ⊆ x [UNK] s finite diam s ≤ r displaystyle mathbf vr rxemptyset neq ssubseteq xmid stext finiteoperatorname diam sleq r where diam s displaystyle operatorname diam s is the diameter ie the maximum distance of points lying in s displaystyle s observe that if r ≤ s ∈ 0 ∞ displaystyle rleq sin 0infty there is a simplicial inclusion map v r r x [UNK] v r s x displaystyle mathbf vr rxhookrightarrow mathbf vr sx the vietorisrips filtration is the nested collection of complexes v r r x displaystyle mathbf vr rx v r x v r r x r ∈ 0 ∞ displaystyle mathbf vr xmathbf vr rxrin 0infty if the nonnegative real numbers 0 ∞ displaystyle 0infty are viewed as a posetal category via the ≤ displaystyle leq relation then the vietorisrips filtration can be viewed as a functor v r x 0 ∞ → s'</li><li>'or anthropogenic seismic sources eg explosives marine air guns were used crystallography is one of the traditional areas of geology that use mathematics crystallographers make use of linear algebra by using the metrical matrix the metrical matrix uses the basis vectors of the unit cell dimensions to find the volume of a unit cell dspacings the angle between two planes the angle between atoms and the bond length millers index is also helpful in the application of the metrical matrix brags equation is also useful when using an electron microscope to be able to show relationship between light diffraction angles wavelength and the dspacings within a sample geophysics is one of the most math heavy disciplines of earth science there are many applications which include gravity magnetic seismic electric electromagnetic resistivity radioactivity induced polarization and well logging gravity and magnetic methods share similar characteristics because theyre measuring small changes in the gravitational field based on the density of the rocks in that area while similar gravity fields tend to be more uniform and smooth compared to magnetic fields gravity is used often for oil exploration and seismic can also be used but it is often significantly more expensive seismic is used more than most geophysics techniques because of its ability to penetrate its resolution and its accuracy many applications of mathematics in geomorphology are related to water in the soil aspect things like darcys law stokes law and porosity are used darcys law is used when one has a saturated soil that is uniform to describe how fluid flows through that medium this type of work would fall under hydrogeology stokes law measures how quickly different sized particles will settle out of a fluid this is used when doing pipette analysis of soils to find the percentage sand vs silt vs clay a potential error is it assumes perfectly spherical particles which dont exist stream power is used to find the ability of a river to incise into the river bed this is applicable to see where a river is likely to fail and change course or when looking at the damage of losing stream sediments on a river system like downstream of a dam differential equations can be used in multiple areas of geomorphology including the exponential growth equation distribution of sedimentary rocks diffusion of gas through rocks and crenulation cleavages mathematics in glaciology consists of theoretical experimental and modeling it usually covers glaciers sea ice waterflow and the land under the glacier polycrystalline ice deforms slower than single crystalline ice due to the stress being on the basal planes that are already blocked by other ice crystals it can be mathematically modeled with hookes law to show the elastic characteristics while'</li><li>'will encounter in statistics an inference is drawn from a statistical model which has been selected via some procedure burnham anderson in their muchcited text on model selection argue that to avoid overfitting we should adhere to the principle of parsimony the authors also state the following 32 – 33 overfitted models … are often free of bias in the parameter estimators but have estimated and actual sampling variances that are needlessly large the precision of the estimators is poor relative to what could have been accomplished with a more parsimonious model false treatment effects tend to be identified and false variables are included with overfitted models … a best approximating model is achieved by properly balancing the errors of underfitting and overfitting overfitting is more likely to be a serious concern when there is little theory available to guide the analysis in part because then there tend to be a large number of models to select from the book model selection and model averaging 2008 puts it this way given a data set you can fit thousands of models at the push of a button but how do you choose the best with so many candidate models overfitting is a real danger is the monkey who typed hamlet actually a good writer in regression analysis overfitting occurs frequently as an extreme example if there are p variables in a linear regression with p data points the fitted line can go exactly through every point for logistic regression or cox proportional hazards models there are a variety of rules of thumb eg 5 – 9 10 and 10 – 15 — the guideline of 10 observations per independent variable is known as the one in ten rule in the process of regression model selection the mean squared error of the random regression function can be split into random noise approximation bias and variance in the estimate of the regression function the bias – variance tradeoff is often used to overcome overfit models with a large set of explanatory variables that actually have no relation to the dependent variable being predicted some variables will in general be falsely found to be statistically significant and the researcher may thus retain them in the model thereby overfitting the model this is known as freedmans paradox usually a learning algorithm is trained using some set of training data exemplary situations for which the desired output is known the goal is that the algorithm will also perform well on predicting the output when fed validation data that was not encountered during its training overfitting is the use of models or procedures that violate occams razor for example by including more adjustable parameters than are ultimately optimal or by using a more complicated approach than is ultimately optimal for an'</li></ul> |
| 39 | <ul><li>'a quantum heat engine is a device that generates power from the heat flow between hot and cold reservoirs the operation mechanism of the engine can be described by the laws of quantum mechanics the first realization of a quantum heat engine was pointed out by scovil and schulzdubois in 1959 showing the connection of efficiency of the carnot engine and the 3level maser quantum refrigerators share the structure of quantum heat engines with the purpose of pumping heat from a cold to a hot bath consuming power first suggested by geusic schulzdubois de grasse and scovil when the power is supplied by a laser the process is termed optical pumping or laser cooling suggested by wineland and hansch surprisingly heat engines and refrigerators can operate up to the scale of a single particle thus justifying the need for a quantum theory termed quantum thermodynamics the threelevelamplifier is the template of a quantum device it operates by employing a hot and cold bath to maintain population inversion between two energy levels which is used to amplify light by stimulated emission the ground state level 1g and the excited level 3h are coupled to a hot bath of temperature t h displaystyle ttexth the energy gap is [UNK] ω h e 3 − e 1 displaystyle hbar omega texthe3e1 when the population on the levels equilibrate n h n g e − [UNK] ω h k b t h displaystyle frac ntexthntextgefrac hbar omega texthktextbttexth where [UNK] h 2 π displaystyle hbar frac h2pi is the planck constant and k b displaystyle ktextb is the boltzmann constant the cold bath of temperature t c displaystyle ttextc couples the ground 1g to an intermediate level 2c with energy gap e 2 − e 1 [UNK] ω c displaystyle e2e1hbar omega textc when levels 2c and 1g equilibrate then n c n g e − [UNK] ω c k b t c displaystyle frac ntextcntextgefrac hbar omega textcktextbttextc the device operates as an amplifier when levels 3h and 2c are coupled to an external field of frequency ν displaystyle nu for optimal resonance conditions ν ω h − ω c displaystyle nu omega texthomega textc the efficiency of the amplifier in converting heat to power is the ratio of work output to heat input η [UNK] ν [UNK] ω h 1 − ω c ω h displaystyle eta'</li><li>'sponge and carried by capillary action past the fulcrum to a larger sponge reservoir which they fashioned to resemble wings when enough water has been absorbed by the reservoir the nowheavy bottom causes the bird to tip into a headup position with the beak out of the water eventually enough water evaporates from the sponge that the original balance is restored and the head tips down again although a small drop in temperature may occur due to evaporative cooling this does not contribute to the motion of the bird the device operates relatively slowly with 7 hours 22 minutes being the average cycle time measured minto wheel a heat engine consisting of a set of sealed chambers with volatile fluid inside just as in the drinking bird cryophorus a glass container with two bulbs containing liquid water and water vapor it is used in physics courses to demonstrate rapid freezing by evaporation heat pipe a heattransfer device that employs phase transition to transfer heat between two solid interfaces thermodynamics the branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work'</li><li>'an enthalpy – entropy chart also known as the h – s chart or mollier diagram plots the total heat against entropy describing the enthalpy of a thermodynamic system a typical chart covers a pressure range of 001 – 1000 bar and temperatures up to 800 degrees celsius it shows enthalpy h displaystyle h in terms of internal energy u displaystyle u pressure p displaystyle p and volume v displaystyle v using the relationship h u p v displaystyle hupv or in terms of specific enthalpy specific entropy and specific volume h u p v displaystyle hupv the diagram was created in 1904 when richard mollier plotted the total heat h against entropy sat the 1923 thermodynamics conference held in los angeles it was decided to name in his honor as a mollier diagram any thermodynamic diagram using the enthalpy as one of its axes on the diagram lines of constant pressure constant temperature and volume are plotted so in a twophase region the lines of constant pressure and temperature coincide thus coordinates on the diagram represent entropy and heatthe work done in a process on vapor cycles is represented by length of h so it can be measured directly whereas in a t – s diagram it has to be computed using thermodynamic relationship between thermodynamic propertiesin an isobaric process the pressure remains constant so the heat interaction is the change in enthalpyin an isenthalpic process the enthalpy is constant a horizontal line in the diagram represents an isenthalpic process a vertical line in the h – s chart represents an isentropic process the process 3 – 4 in a rankine cycle is isentropic when the steam turbine is said to be an ideal one so the expansion process in a turbine can be easily calculated using the h – s chart when the process is considered to be ideal which is the case normally when calculating enthalpies entropies etc later the deviations from the ideal values and they can be calculated considering the isentropic efficiency of the steam turbine used lines of constant dryness fraction x sometimes called the quality are drawn in the wet region and lines of constant temperature are drawn in the superheated region x gives the fraction by mass of gaseous substance in the wet region the remainder being colloidal liquid droplets above the heavy line the temperature is above the boiling point and the dry superheated substance is gas only in general such charts do not show the values of specific volumes nor do they show the'</li></ul> |
| 41 | <ul><li>'a community of place or placebased community is a community of people who are bound together because of where they reside work visit or otherwise spend a continuous portion of their time such a community can be a neighborhood town coffeehouse workplace gathering place public space or any other geographically specific place that a number of people share have in common or visit frequently a community offers many appealing features of a broader social relationship safety familiarity support and loyalties as well as appreciation appreciation that is founded on efforts and contribution to the community rather than the efforts rank or status of an individualadvances in technology transportation and communication have evolved the concept of place and the limits society once had in interactions with one another with these advances barriers have been lifted and distance is no longer such a great factor in anchoring the flow of people goods or information when identifying what it is that makes a community it is important to break it down and understand the components that sociologist have found that creates solidarity between the community and its members german sociologist and philosopher ferdinand tonnies spoke of these components as evolutionary terms in his theoretical essay gemeinschaft und gesellschaft translated to community and society gemeinschaft would represent the childhood of humanity whereas gesellschaft would represent the maturity of humanity gemeinschaft or community is smaller in number of members its members usually share a common way of life occupationdaily activities common beliefs members have frequent interaction with one another as well as a tie of emotional bonds and distance from centers of power gesellschaft or society is much larger in terms of its members contrary to gemeinschaft members do not share the same ways of life or beliefs members rarely interact with one another and have loose connections to each other as well as being closer to establishments of power and regulated competitiveness among its members this type of bond is most often found in urban communities that follow specific systems a place should be thought of as a geographic location its material form and the investments of meaning and value the combination of these concepts make a place a place geographic location is important because this is used to identify what and where a place is this concept gives individuals a sense of direction and reference to location the material form is physicality of the place whether it be artificially made like a building belonging to an institution or establishment or a natural form such as a well known land mass finally the meanings and value of place is the shared meaning or psych of a location for example the understanding of an area or neighborhood to reflect some historic value prestigious families utopian or a dangerous a place is not space space can be thought of distance size direction – usually descriptions of geometric items space however can become a place when'</li><li>'habitat ii the second united nations conference on human settlements was held in istanbul turkey from 3 – 14 june 1996 twenty years after habitat i held in vancouver canada in 1976 popularly called the city summit it brought together highlevel representatives of national and local governments as well as private sector ngos research and training institutions and the media universal goals of ensuring adequate shelter for all and human settlements safer healthier and more livable cities inspired by the charter of the united nations were discussed and endorsed habitat ii received its impetus from the 1992 united nations conference on environment and development and general assembly resolution ares47180 the conference outcomes were integrated in the istanbul declaration and the habitat agenda and adopted as a new global action plan to realize sustainable human settlements the secretarygeneral of the conference was dr wally ndow the objectives for habitat ii were stated as in the long term to arrest the deterioration of global human settlements conditions and ultimately create the conditions for achieving improvements in the living environment of all people on a sustainable basis with special attention to the needs and contributions of women and vulnerable social groups whose quality of life and participation in development have been hampered by exclusion and inequality affecting the poor in generalto adopt a general statement of principles and commitments and formulate a related global plan of action capable of guiding national and international efforts through the first two decades of the next century a new mandate for the united nations centre for human settlements unchs was derived to support and monitor the implementation of the habitat agenda adopted at the conference and approved by the general assembly habitat iii met in quito ecuador from 17 – 20 october 2016 the organizational session of the preparatory committee prepcom for habitat ii was held at un headquarters in new york from 3 – 5 march 1993 delegates elected the bureau and took decisions regarding the organization and timing of the process the first substantive session of the preparatory committee of the prepcom was held in geneva from 11 – 22 april 1994 delegates agreed that the overriding objective of the conference was to increase world awareness of the problems and potentials of human settlements as important inputs to social progress and economic growth and to commit the worlds leaders to making cities towns and villages healthy safe just and sustainable the earth negotiations bulletin prepared a comprehensive report on the first session of the prepcom the prepcom also took decisions on the organization of the conference and financing in addition to the areas of national objectives international objectives participation draft statement of principles and commitments and draft global plan of action the second committee of the un general assembly addressed habitat ii from 8 – 16 november 1994 the earth negotiations bulletin prepared a yearend update report on habitat ii preparations that included a report'</li><li>'irkutsk yaroslavl saratov and moscow region cities with high construction rate podolsk khimki balashikha and mytishchi the mediumranked cities are the cities characterized by dynamic development kaluga krasnodar kislovodsk industrial cities pervouralsk chelyabinsk ulyanovsk kamenskuralsky shakhty the singleindustry city of naberezhnye chelny as well as bryansk ryazan vologda and yoshkarola the following cities are noted for satisfactory development levels orsk ulanude orenburg sterlitamak syzran ussuriysk oktyabrsky votkinsk singleindustry cities magnitogorsk nizhni tagil and the singleindustry city having the highest investment inflow – nakhodka the bottomranked cities in most subratings are the north caucasus cities kaspiysk and yessentuki cities of the altai territory rubtsovsk barnaul biysk singleindustry cities leninskkuznetsky and severodvinsk as well as artyom miass novocheboksarsk and kopeisk yamalonenets autonomous district cities novy urengoy and noyabrsk in spite of high economic indicators generally lose on 50 of the indicators overall ranking indicates considerable disproportions in city potential which becomes clear if we delete population dynamics indices from the rating thus if we exclude this parameter the potential of the 1st city will be more than twice as high as of the 10th city and 10 times higher than the potential of the 100th city evidently such a high difference is determined by objective difference of potentials of the cities it is also important to notice that in accordance with the pareto principle it is not obligatory to improve all the components of qualitative appraisal of cities here the key aspect is economic potential it is also necessary to compare some social factors first of all the development of healthcare education social services because these are the key indicators the overall ranking of cities in the rating shows that even absolute leaders are not so far from the cities in the middle of the rating this is caused by leveling of low indicators of parameters of some leaders in particular the value of the general index of omsk which ranks 10th is just 12 times by 20 higher than that of the midcity mezhdurechensk the only exception is moscow the value of the general indicator is 3 times higher than that of mezh'</li></ul> |
| 42 | <ul><li>'##d dna than in eukaryotes this is because eukaryotes exhibit cpg suppression – ie cpg dinucleotide pairs occur much less frequently than expected additionally cpgs sequences are hypomethylated this occurs frequently in bacterial dna while cpg motifs occurring in eukaryotes are methylated at the cytosine nucleotide in contrast nucleotide sequences that inhibit the activation of an immune response termed cpg neutralising or cpgn are over represented in eukaryotic genomes the optimal immunostimulatory sequence is an unmethylated cpg dinucleotide flanked by two 5 ’ purines and two 3 ’ pyrimidines additionally flanking regions outside this immunostimulatory hexamer must be guaninerich to ensure binding and uptake into target cells the innate system works with the adaptive immune system to mount a response against the dna encoded protein cpgs sequences induce polyclonal bcell activation and the upregulation of cytokine expression and secretion stimulated macrophages secrete il12 il18 tnfα ifnα ifnβ and ifnγ while stimulated bcells secrete il6 and some il12manipulation of cpgs and cpgn sequences in the plasmid backbone of dna vaccines can ensure the success of the immune response to the encoded antigen and drive the immune response toward a th1 phenotype this is useful if a pathogen requires a th response for protection cpgs sequences have also been used as external adjuvants for both dna and recombinant protein vaccination with variable success rates other organisms with hypomethylated cpg motifs have demonstrated the stimulation of polyclonal bcell expansion the mechanism behind this may be more complicated than simple methylation – hypomethylated murine dna has not been found to mount an immune response most of the evidence for immunostimulatory cpg sequences comes from murine studies extrapolation of this data to other species requires caution – individual species may require different flanking sequences as binding specificities of scavenger receptors vary across species additionally species such as ruminants may be insensitive to immunostimulatory sequences due to their large gastrointestinal load dnaprimed immune responses can be boosted by the administration of recombinant protein or recombinant poxviruses primeboost strategies with recombinant protein have successfully increased both neutralising antibody titre and antibody avid'</li><li>'viral pathogenesis is the study of the process and mechanisms by which viruses cause diseases in their target hosts often at the cellular or molecular level it is a specialized field of study in virologypathogenesis is a qualitative description of the process by which an initial infection causes disease viral disease is the sum of the effects of viral replication on the host and the hosts subsequent immune response against the virus viruses are able to initiate infection disperse throughout the body and replicate due to specific virulence factorsthere are several factors that affect pathogenesis some of these factors include virulence characteristics of the virus that is infecting in order to cause disease the virus must also overcome several inhibitory effects present in the host some of the inhibitory effects include distance physical barriers and host defenses these inhibitory effects may differ among individuals due to the inhibitory effects being genetically controlled viral pathogenesis is affected by various factors 1 transmission entry and spread within the host 2 tropism 3 virus virulence and disease mechanisms 4 host factors and host defense viruses need to establish infections in host cells in order to multiply for infections to occur the virus has to hijack host factors and evade the host immune response for efficient replication viral replication frequently requires complex interactions between the virus and host factors that may result in deleterious effects in the host which confers the virus its pathogenicity transmission from a host with an infection to a second host entry of the virus into the body local replication in susceptible cells dissemination and spread to secondary tissues and target organs secondary replication in susceptible cells shedding of the virus into the environment onward transmission to third host three requirements must be satisfied to ensure successful infection of a host firstly there must be sufficient quantity of virus available to initiate infection cells at the site of infection must be accessible in that their cell membranes display hostencoded receptors that the virus can exploit for entry into the cell and the host antiviral defense systems must be ineffective or absent viruses causing disease in humans often enter through the mouth nose genital tract or through damaged areas of skin so cells of the respiratory gastrointestinal skin and genital tissues are often the primary site of infection some viruses are capable of transmission to a mammalian fetus through infected germ cells at the time of fertilization later in pregnancy via the placenta and by infection at birth following initial entry to the host the virus hijacks the host cell machinery to undergo viral amplification here the virus must modulate the host innate immune response to prevent its elimination by the body while facilitating its replication replicated virus'</li><li>'control the spread of diseases were used restrictions on trade and travel were implemented stricken families were isolated from their communities buildings were fumigated and livestock killedreferences to influenza infections date from the late 15th and early 16th centuries but infections almost certainly occurred long before then in 1173 an epidemic occurred that was possibly the first in europe and in 1493 an outbreak of what is now thought to be swine influenza struck native americans in hispaniola there is some evidence to suggest that source of the infection was pigs on columbuss ships during an influenza epidemic that occurred in england between 1557 and 1559 five per cent of the population – about 150000 – died from the infection the mortality rate was nearly five times that of the 1918 – 19 pandemic the first pandemic that was reliably recorded began in july 1580 and swept across europe africa and asia the mortality rate was high – 8000 died in rome the next three pandemics occurred in the 18th century including that during 1781 – 82 which was probably the most devastating in history this began in november 1781 in china and reached moscow in december in february 1782 it hit saint petersburg and by may it had reached denmark within six weeks 75 per cent of the british population were infected and the pandemic soon spread to the americas the americas and australia remained free of measles and smallpox until the arrival of european colonists between the 15th and 18th centuries along with measles and influenza smallpox was taken to the americas by the spanish smallpox was endemic in spain having been introduced by the moors from africa in 1519 an epidemic of smallpox broke out in the aztec capital tenochtitlan in mexico this was started by the army of panfilo de narvaez who followed hernan cortes from cuba and had an african slave with smallpox aboard his ship when the spanish finally entered the capital in the summer of 1521 they saw it strewn with the bodies of smallpox victims the epidemic and those that followed during 1545 – 1548 and 1576 – 1581 eventually killed more than half of the native population most of the spanish were immune with his army of fewer than 900 men it would not have been possible for cortes to defeat the aztecs and conquer mexico without the help of smallpox many native american populations were devastated later by the inadvertent spread of diseases introduced by europeans in the 150 years that followed columbuss arrival in 1492 the native american population of north america was reduced by 80 per cent from diseases including measles smallpox and influenza the damage done by these viruses significantly aided european attempts to displace and'</li></ul> |
| 6 | <ul><li>'are broken down in the upper atmosphere to form ozonedestroying chlorine free radicals in astrophysics photodissociation is one of the major processes through which molecules are broken down but new molecules are being formed because of the vacuum of the interstellar medium molecules and free radicals can exist for a long time photodissociation is the main path by which molecules are broken down photodissociation rates are important in the study of the composition of interstellar clouds in which stars are formed examples of photodissociation in the interstellar medium are hν is the energy of a single photon of frequency ν h 2 o → h ν h oh displaystyle ce h2o hnu h oh ch 4 → h ν ch 3 h displaystyle ce ch4 hnu ch3 h currently orbiting satellites detect an average of about one gammaray burst per day because gammaray bursts are visible to distances encompassing most of the observable universe a volume encompassing many billions of galaxies this suggests that gammaray bursts must be exceedingly rare events per galaxy measuring the exact rate of gammaray bursts is difficult but for a galaxy of approximately the same size as the milky way the expected rate for long grbs is about one burst every 100000 to 1000000 years only a few percent of these would be beamed toward earth estimates of rates of short grbs are even more uncertain because of the unknown beaming fraction but are probably comparablea gammaray burst in the milky way if close enough to earth and beamed toward it could have significant effects on the biosphere the absorption of radiation in the atmosphere would cause photodissociation of nitrogen generating nitric oxide that would act as a catalyst to destroy ozonethe atmospheric photodissociation n 2 [UNK] 2 n displaystyle ce n2 2n o 2 [UNK] 2 o displaystyle ce o2 2o co 2 [UNK] c 2 o displaystyle ce co2 c 2o h 2 o [UNK] 2 h o displaystyle ce h2o 2h o 2 nh 3 [UNK] 3 h 2 n 2 displaystyle ce 2nh3 3h2 n2 would yield no2 consumes up to 400 ozone molecules ch2 nominal ch4 nominal co2incomplete according to a 2004 study a grb at a distance of about a kiloparsec could destroy up to half of earths ozone layer the direct uv irradiation from the burst combined with additional solar uv radiation passing through the diminished ozone layer could then have potentially significant impacts on the food chain and potentially trigger a mass extinction the authors estimate that one such burst'</li><li>'a sense of scale to a0 a freefloating mass in space that was exposed for one hour to 12 × 10−10 ms2 would fall by just 08 millimeter — roughly the thickness of a credit card an interplanetary spacecraft on a freeflying inertial path well above the solar systems ecliptic plane where it is isolated from the gravitational influence of individual planets would when at the same distance from the sun as neptune experience a classic newtonian gravitational strength that is 55000 times stronger than a0 for small solar system asteroids gravitational effects in the realm of a0 are comparable in magnitude to the yarkovsky effect which subtly perturbs their orbits over long periods due to momentum transfer from the nonsymmetric emission of thermal photons the suns contribution to interstellar galactic gravity doesnt decline to the a0 threshold at which monds effects predominate until objects are 41 lightdays from the sun this is 53 times further away from the sun than voyager 2 was in november 2022 which has been in the interstellar medium since 2012 despite its vanishingly small and undetectable effects on bodies that are on earth within the solar system and even in proximity to the solar system and other planetary systems mond successfully explains significant observed galacticscale rotational effects without invoking the existence of asyet undetected dark matter particles lying outside of the highly successful standard model of particle physics this is in large part due to mond holding that exceedingly weak galacticscale gravity holding galaxies together near their perimeters declines as a very slow linear relationship to distance from the center of a galaxy rather than declining as the inverse square of distance milgroms law can be interpreted in two ways one possibility is to treat it as a modification to newtons second law so that the force on an object is not proportional to the particles acceleration a but rather to μ a a 0 a textstyle mu leftfrac aa0righta in this case the modified dynamics would apply not only to gravitational phenomena but also those generated by other forces for example electromagnetism alternatively milgroms law can be viewed as leaving newtons second law intact and instead modifying the inversesquare law of gravity so that the true gravitational force on an object of mass m due to another of mass m is roughly of the form g m m μ a a 0 r 2 textstyle frac gmmmu leftfrac aa0rightr2 in this interpretation milgroms modification would apply exclusively to gravitational phenomenaby itself milgroms law is not a complete and'</li><li>'##rtial theta jdelta ijpartial psi over partial theta ipartial theta jleftbeginarrayc c 1kappa gamma 1gamma 2gamma 21kappa gamma 1endarrayright where we have define the derivatives κ ∂ ψ 2 ∂ θ 1 ∂ θ 1 ∂ ψ 2 ∂ θ 2 ∂ θ 2 γ 1 ≡ ∂ ψ 2 ∂ θ 1 ∂ θ 1 − ∂ ψ 2 ∂ θ 2 ∂ θ 2 γ 2 ≡ ∂ ψ ∂ θ 1 ∂ θ 2 displaystyle kappa partial psi over 2partial theta 1partial theta 1partial psi over 2partial theta 2partial theta 2gamma 1equiv partial psi over 2partial theta 1partial theta 1partial psi over 2partial theta 2partial theta 2gamma 2equiv partial psi over partial theta 1partial theta 2 which takes the meaning of convergence and shear the amplification is the inverse of the jacobian a 1 d e t a i j 1 1 − κ 2 − γ 1 2 − γ 2 2 displaystyle a1detaij1 over 1kappa 2gamma 12gamma 22 where a positive a displaystyle a means either a maxima or a minima and a negative a displaystyle a means a saddle point in the arrival surface for a single point lens one can show albeit a lengthy calculation that κ 0 γ γ 1 2 γ 2 2 θ e 2 θ 2 θ e 2 4 g m d d s c 2 d d d s displaystyle kappa 0gamma sqrt gamma 12gamma 22theta e2 over theta 2theta e24gmdds over c2ddds so the amplification of a point lens is given by a 1 − θ e 4 θ 4 − 1 displaystyle aleft1theta e4 over theta 4right1 note a diverges for images at the einstein radius θ e displaystyle theta e in cases there are multiple point lenses plus a smooth background of dark particles of surface density σ c r κ s m o o t h displaystyle sigma rm crkappa rm smooth the time arrival surface is ψ θ → ≈ 1 2 κ s m o o t h θ 2 [UNK] i θ e 2 ln θ → − θ → i 2 4 d d d d s displaystyle psi vec theta approx 1 over 2kappa rm smooththeta 2sum itheta e2leftln leftvec theta vec theta i2 over 4dd over ddsrightright'</li></ul> |
| 29 | <ul><li>'national oceanography centre including the national oceanography centre southampton national tidal and sea level facility including the uk national tide gauge network ntslf plymouth marine laboratory in devon proudman oceanographic laboratory in liverpool scott polar research institute cambridge spri scottish association for marine science dunstaffnage oban sams national agencies and nonprofit organizations integrated ocean observing system a network of regional observing systems ocean observatories initiative a collaboration between whoi osu uw and rutgers nasa goddard space flight center ’ s ocean biology and biogeochemistry program national data buoy center national oceanic and atmospheric administration within which there are several affiliate “ joint ” programs cohosted by other institutions national undersea research program naval oceanographic office stennis space center mississippi also home to the naval meteorology and oceanography command navoceano schmidt ocean institute sea education association also known as sea semester sea universitynational oceanographic laboratory system unolsuniversities with oceanography programs northeast bigelow laboratory for ocean sciences in maine bigelow university of maine school of marine sciences based in orono and the downeast institute at the machias campus lamont – doherty earth observatory associated with columbia university in palisades new york marine biological laboratory in woods hole massachusetts associated with the university of chicago mbl northeastern university marine science center east point nahant massachusetts marine science center stony brook university school of marine and atmospheric sciences on long island new york state somas princeton university ’ s geophysical fluid dynamics laboratory new jersey rutgers university department of marine and coastal sciences is based in new brunswick new jersey with other marine science field stations in new jersey university of connecticut department of marine sciences at the avery point campus near groton connecticut also host to the national undersea research center for the north atlantic and great lakes dms woods hole oceanographic institution on cape cod massachusetts whoi university of delaware college of earth ocean and environment which has a campus in lewes delaware ceoe university of massachusetts dartmouth school for marine science technology smast university of new hampshire ’ s school of marine science and ocean engineering center for coastal ocean mapping and shoals marine laboratory university of new england united states has programs in marine science at the biddeford maine campus marine programs university of rhode island ’ s graduate school of oceanography also has a center for ocean exploration and archaeological oceanographysoutheast duke university marine laboratory near beaufort north carolina duke marine lab halmos college of natural sciences and oceanography at nova southeastern university florida harbor branch oceanographic institution at florida atlantic university in fort pierce florida hboi florida institute of technology school of marine and'</li><li>'temperature of the arctic ocean is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice the phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing salt and water molecules similar to the dissolution of sugar in water even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar thus the dissolution rate is limited by salt transport whereas melting can occur at much higher rates that are characteristic for heat transport humans have used ice for cooling and food preservation for centuries relying on harvesting natural ice in various forms and then transitioning to the mechanical production of the material ice also presents a challenge to transportation in various forms and a setting for winter sports ice has long been valued as a means of cooling in 400 bc iran persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert the ice was brought in from ice pools or during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts and stored in specially designed naturally cooled refrigerators called yakhchal meaning ice storage this was a large underground space up to 5000 m3 that had thick walls at least two meters at the base made of a special mortar called sarooj composed of sand clay egg whites lime goat hair and ash in specific proportions and which was known to be resistant to heat transfer this mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable the space often had access to a qanat and often contained a system of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days the ice was used to chill treats for royalty harvesting there were thriving industries in 16th – 17th century england whereby lowlying areas along the thames estuary were flooded during the winter and ice harvested in carts and stored interseasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters this was allegedly copied by an englishman who had seen the same activity in china ice was imported into england from norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823in the united states the first cargo of ice was sent from new york city to charleston south carolina in 1799 and by the first half of the 19th century ice harvesting had become a big business frederic tudor who became known as the ice king worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice especially to the tropics this became known as the ice trade between 1812 and 1822 under lloyd hesketh bamford heskeths instruction gwrych castle was built with 18 large towers one of those towers is called the ice tower its sole purpose was to store icetrieste sent ice to'</li><li>'that must be overcome fisheries pollution borders multiple agencies etc to create a positive outcome managers must be able to react and adapt as to limit the variance associated with the outcome the land and resource management planning lrmp was implemented by the british columbia government canada in the mid1990s in the great bear rainforest in order to establish a multiparty landuse planning system the aim was to maintain the ecological integrity of terrestrial marine and freshwater ecosystems and achieve high levels of human wellbeing the steps described in the programme included protect oldgrowth forests maintain forest structure at the stand level protect threatened and endangered species and ecosystems protect wetlands and apply adaptive management mackinnon 2008 highlighted that the main limitation of this program was the social and economic aspects related to the lack of orientation to improve human wellbeing a remedial action plan rap was created during the great lakes water quality agreement that implemented ecosystembased management the transition according to the authors from a narrow to a broader approach was not easy because it required the cooperation of both the canadian and american governments this meant different cultural political and regulatory perspectives were involved with regards to the lakes hartig et al 1998 described eight principles required to make the implementation of ecosystembased management efficacious broadbased stakeholder involvement commitment of top leaders agreement on information needs and interpretation action planning within a strategic framework human resource development results and indicators to measure progress systematic review and feedback and stakeholder satisfaction the elwha dam removal in washington state is the largest dam removal project in the united states not only was it blocking several species of salmon from reaching their natural habitat it also had millions of tons of sediment built up behind it peruvian bay scallop is grown in the benthic environment intensity of the fishery has caused concern over recent years and there has been a shift to more of an environmental management scheme they are now using food web models to assess the current situation and to calibrate the stocking levels that are needed the impacts of the scallops on the ecosystem and on other species are now being taken into account as to limit phytoplankton blooms overstocking diseases and overconsumption in a given year this study is proposed to help guide both fisherman and managers in their goal of providing longterm success for the fishery as well as the ecosystem they are utilizing scientists and numerous angling clubs have collaborated in a largescale set of wholelake experiments 20 gravel pit lakes monitored over a period of six years to assess the outcomes of ecosystembased habitat enhancement compared to alternative management practices in fisheries in some of the lakes additional'</li></ul> |
| 34 | <ul><li>'the discovery of the child is an essay by italian pedagogist maria montessori 18701952 published in italy in 1950 about the origin and features of the montessori method a teaching method invented by her and known worldwide the book is nothing more than a rewrite of one of her previous books which was published for the first time in 1909 with the title the method of scientific pedagogy applied to infant education in childrens homes this book was rewritten and republished five times adding each time the new discoveries and techniques learnt in particular it was published in 1909 1913 1926 1935 and 1950 the title was changed only in the last edition 1950 becoming the discovery of the child maria montessori in some parts of the book carefully explains that what she invented shouldnt be considered a method but instead some guidelines from which new methods may be developed her conclusions although normally treated as a method are nothing more than the result of scientific observation of the child and its behavior as told in the book her first experiences were in the field of psychiatry more precisely at the mental hospital of the sapienza university where montessori at the turn of the and xx century had worked as a doctor and assistant during this experience she took care of intellectually disabled children in the book they are called with terms that today sound offensive and derogatory ie retarded children or idiotic children but at that time they did not necessarily have a derogatory connotation at that time italys minister of education guido baccelli chose her for the task of teaching courses for teachers on how to teach children with intellectual disabilities bambini frenastenici a whole school started later in order to teach these courses the scuola magistrale ortofrenica in this period montessori not only taught the other educators and directed their work but she taught herself those unfortunate children as she wrote in the book this first experience was my first and true qualification in the field of pedagogy and starting from 1898 when she began to devote herself to the education of children with disabilities she started to realize that such methods had universal scope and they were more rational and efficient than those in use at that time at school with normal childrenduring this period she made extensive use and correctly applied the socalled physiological method devised by edouard seguin for the education of children with intellectual disabilities it was based on the previous work of the french jean marc gaspard itard seguins teacher who in the years of the french revolution worked at an institute for the deaf and dumb and also tried'</li><li>'the center for interdisciplinary research german zentrum fur interdisziplinare forschung zif is the institute for advanced study ias in bielefeld university bielefeld germany founded in 1968 it was the first ias in germany and became a model for numerous similar institutes in europe the zif promotes and provides premises for interdisciplinary and international research groups scholars from all countries and all disciplines can carry out interdisciplinary research projects ranging from oneyear research groups to short workshops in the last 40 years numerous renowned researchers lived and worked at zif among them the social scientist norbert elias and nobel laureates reinhard selten john charles harsanyi roger b myerson and elinor ostrom the mission of the zif is to encourage mediate and host interdisciplinary exchange the concept was developed by german sociologist helmut schelsky who was its first director serving from 1968 to 1971 schelsky believed that interdisciplinary exchange is a key driver of scientific progress therefore the zif does not focus on a single topic and does not invite individual researchers but offers scholars the opportunity to carry out interdisciplinary research projects with international colleagues free from everyday duties the zif offers residential fellowships grants and conference services schelsky wrote systematic and regular discussion colloquia critique and agreement in a group of scientists interested in the same topics although perhaps from different perspectives are of the greatest benefit for a scholar and his work the zif funds research groups for one year cooperation groups for 1 – 6 months and workshops of 2 – 14 days public lectures authors colloquia and art exhibitions address wider audiences the zif is bielefeld university ’ s institute for advanced study its board of directors consists of five professors of bielefeld university assisted by a scientific advisory council consisting of 16 eminent scholars a staff of about 20 organizes life and work at the zif about 1000 scholars visit the zif every year one third from abroad they take part in about 40 activities including one research group one or two cooperation groups and about 20 workshops per year so far about 600 publications have been issued by zif projects the zif is situated in the hilly surroundings of the teutoburg forest close to the university it has its own campus surrounded by conference facilities and apartments for the fellows and their families so the zif ’ s fellows can enjoy the tranquil setting as well as the facilities of the nearby university a professional infrastructure including library and indoor pool offers pleasant working and living conditions'</li><li>'cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom activities into academic and social learning experiences there is much more to cooperative learning than merely arranging students into groups and it has been described as structuring positive interdependence students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic goals unlike individual learning which can be competitive in nature students learning cooperatively can capitalize on one anothers resources and skills asking one another for information evaluating one anothers ideas monitoring one anothers work etc furthermore the teachers role changes from giving information to facilitating students learning everyone succeeds when the group succeeds ross and smyth 1995 describe successful cooperative learning tasks as intellectually demanding creative openended and involve higherorder thinking tasks cooperative learning has also been linked to increased levels of student satisfactionfive essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in the classroom positive interdependence individual and group accountability promotive interaction face to face teaching the students the required interpersonal and small group skills group processingaccording to johnson and johnsons metaanalysis students in cooperative learning settings compared to those in individualistic or competitive learning settings achieve more reason better gain higher selfesteem like classmates and the learning tasks more and have more perceived social support prior to world war ii social theorists such as allport watson shaw and mead began establishing cooperative learning theory after finding that group work was more effective and efficient in quantity quality and overall productivity when compared to working alone however it wasnt until 1937 when researchers may and doob found that people who cooperate and work together to achieve shared goals were more successful in attaining outcomes than those who strived independently to complete the same goals furthermore they found that independent achievers had a greater likelihood of displaying competitive behaviors philosophers and psychologists in the 1930s and 1940s such as john dewey kurt lewin and morton deutsh also influenced the cooperative learning theory practiced today dewey believed it was important that students develop knowledge and social skills that could be used outside of the classroom and in the democratic society this theory portrayed students as active recipients of knowledge by discussing information and answers in groups engaging in the learning process together rather than being passive receivers of information eg teacher talking students listening lewins contributions to cooperative learning were based on the ideas of establishing relationships between group members in order to successfully carry out and achieve the learning goal deutshs contribution to cooperative learning was positive social interdependence the idea that the student is responsible for contributing to group knowledgesince then david and roger johnson have been actively contributing to the cooperative learning theory in 1975 they identified that cooperative learning promoted mutual liking better communication high acceptance'</li></ul> |
| 32 | <ul><li>'similarly one establishes the following from the remaining maxwells equations now by considering arbitrary small subsurfaces γ 0 displaystyle gamma 0 of γ displaystyle gamma and setting up small neighbourhoods surrounding γ 0 displaystyle gamma 0 in r 4 displaystyle mathbf r 4 and subtracting the above integrals accordingly one obtains where ∇ 4 d displaystyle nabla 4d denotes the gradient in the 4d x y z t displaystyle xyzt space and since γ 0 displaystyle gamma 0 is arbitrary the integrands must be equal to 0 which proves the lemma its now easy to show that as they propagate through a continuous medium the discontinuity surfaces obey the eikonal equation specifically if ε displaystyle varepsilon and μ displaystyle mu are continuous then the discontinuities of e displaystyle mathbf e and h displaystyle mathbf h satisfy ε e ε e displaystyle varepsilon mathbf e varepsilon mathbf e and μ h μ h displaystyle mu mathbf h mu mathbf h in this case the last two equations of the lemma can be written as taking the cross product of the second equation with ∇ φ displaystyle nabla varphi and substituting the first yields the continuity of μ displaystyle mu and the second equation of the lemma imply ∇ φ ⋅ h 0 displaystyle nabla varphi cdot mathbf h 0 hence for points lying on the surface φ 0 displaystyle varphi 0 only notice the presence of the discontinuity is essential in this step as wed be dividing by zero otherwise because of the physical considerations one can assume without loss of generality that φ displaystyle varphi is of the following form φ x y z t ψ x y z − c t displaystyle varphi xyztpsi xyzct ie a 2d surface moving through space modelled as level surfaces of ψ displaystyle psi mathematically ψ displaystyle psi exists if φ t = 0 displaystyle varphi tneq 0 by the implicit function theorem the above equation written in terms of ψ displaystyle psi becomes ie which is the eikonal equation and it holds for all x displaystyle x y displaystyle y z displaystyle z since the variable t displaystyle t is absent other laws of optics like snells law and fresnel formulae can be similarly obtained by considering discontinuities in ε displaystyle varepsilon and μ displaystyle mu in fourvector notation used in special relativity the wave equation can be written'</li><li>'lower speeds the light from stars other than the sun arrives at earth precisely collimated because stars are so far away they present no detectable angular size however due to refraction and turbulence in the earths atmosphere starlight arrives slightly uncollimated at the ground with an apparent angular diameter of about 04 arcseconds direct rays of light from the sun arrive at the earth uncollimated by onehalf degree this being the angular diameter of the sun as seen from earth during a solar eclipse the suns light becomes increasingly collimated as the visible surface shrinks to a thin crescent and ultimately a small point producing the phenomena of distinct shadows and shadow bands a perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point conversely a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light creating a collimator since the source needs to be small such an optical system cannot produce much optical power spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are often used to produce approximately collimated light many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from pointlike sources this principle is used in full flight simulators ffs that have specially designed systems for displaying imagery of the outthewindow otw scene to the pilots in the replica aircraft cockpit in aircraft where two pilots are seated side by side if the otw imagery were projected in front of the pilots on a screen one pilot would see the correct view but the other would see a view where some objects in the scene would be at incorrect angles to avoid this collimated optics are used in the simulator visual display system so that the otw scene is seen by both pilots at a distant focus rather than at the focal distance of a projection screen this is achieved through an optical system that allows the imagery to be seen by the pilots in a mirror that has a vertical curvature the curvature enabling the image to be seen at a distant focus by both pilots who then see essentially the same otw scene without any distortions since the light arriving at the eye point of both pilots is from different angles to the field of view of the pilots due to different projection systems arranged in a semicircle above the pilots the entire display system cannot be considered a collimated display but a display system that uses collimated light collimation refers to all the optical elements in an instrument being on their designed optical axis it also refers to the process of adjusting an optical instrument so that all its elements are on that designed axis in line and parallel the unconditional align'</li><li>'the science of photography is the use of chemistry and physics in all aspects of photography this applies to the camera its lenses physical operation of the camera electronic camera internals and the process of developing film in order to take and develop pictures properly the fundamental technology of most photography whether digital or analog is the camera obscura effect and its ability to transform of a three dimensional scene into a two dimensional image at its most basic a camera obscura consists of a darkened box with a very small hole in one side which projects an image from the outside world onto the opposite side this form is often referred to as a pinhole camera when aided by a lens the hole in the camera doesnt have to be tiny to create a sharp and distinct image and the exposure time can be decreased which allows cameras to be handheld a photographic lens is usually composed of several lens elements which combine to reduce the effects of chromatic aberration coma spherical aberration and other aberrations a simple example is the threeelement cooke triplet still in use over a century after it was first designed but many current photographic lenses are much more complex using a smaller aperture can reduce most but not all aberrations they can also be reduced dramatically by using an aspheric element but these are more complex to grind than spherical or cylindrical lenses however with modern manufacturing techniques the extra cost of manufacturing aspherical lenses is decreasing and small aspherical lenses can now be made by molding allowing their use in inexpensive consumer cameras fresnel lenses are not common in photography are used in some cases due to their very low weight the recently developed fibercoupled monocentric lens consists of spheres constructed of concentric hemispherical shells of different glasses tied to the focal plane by bundles of optical fibers monocentric lenses are also not used in cameras because the technology was just debuted in october 2013 at the frontiers in optics conference in orlando florida all lens design is a compromise between numerous factors not excluding cost zoom lenses ie lenses of variable focal length involve additional compromises and therefore normally do not match the performance of prime lenses when a camera lens is focused to project an object some distance away onto the film or detector the objects that are closer in distance relative to the distant object are also approximately in focus the range of distances that are nearly in focus is called the depth of field depth of field generally increases with decreasing aperture diameter increasing fnumber the unfocused blur outside the depth of field is sometimes used for artistic effect in photography the subjective appearance of this blur is known as bokeh if the camera lens is'</li></ul> |
| 21 | <ul><li>'raised bed and produce healthy nutritious organic food a farmers market a place to pass on gardening experience and a sharing of bounty promoting a more sustainable way of living that would encourage their local economy a simple 4 x 8 32 square feet raised bed garden based on the principles of biointensive planting and square foot gardening uses fewer nutrients and less water and could keep a family or community supplied with an abundance of healthy nutritious organic greens while promoting a more sustainable way of living organic gardening is designed to work with the ecological systems and minimally disturb the earths natural balance because of this organic farmers have been interested in reducedtillage methods conventional agriculture uses mechanical tillage which is ploughing or sowing which is harmful to the environment the impact of tilling in organic farming is much less of an issue ploughing speeds up erosion because the soil remains uncovered for a long period of time and if it has a low content of organic matter the structural stability of the soil decreases organic farmers use techniques such as mulching planting cover crops and intercropping to maintain a soil cover throughout most of the year the use of compost manure mulch and other organic fertilizers yields a higher organic content of soils on organic farms and helps limit soil degradation and erosionother methods such as composting or vermicomposting composting using worms can also be used to supplement an existing garden these practices are ways of recycling organic matter into some of the best organic fertilizers and soil conditioner the byproduct of vermicomposting is also an excellent source of nutrients for an organic garden organic horticulture techniques are used to maintain lawns and turf fields organically as required by certain laws and management plans beginning in the late 20th century some large properties and municipalities required organic lawn management and organic horticulture in the maintenance of both public and private parks and properties some locations require organic lawn management and organic horticulture differing approaches to pest control are equally notable in chemical horticulture a specific insecticide may be applied to quickly kill off a particular insect pest chemical controls can dramatically reduce pest populations in the short term yet by unavoidably killing or starving natural control insects and animals cause an increase in the pest population in the long term thereby creating an everincreasing problem repeated use of insecticides and herbicides also encourages rapid natural selection of resistant insects plants and other organisms necessitating increased use or requiring new more powerful controls in contrast organic horticulture tends to tolerate some pest populations while taking the'</li><li>'urban horticulture is the science and study of the growing plants in an urban environment it focuses on the functional use of horticulture so as to maintain and improve the surrounding urban area urban horticulture has seen an increase in attention with the global trend of urbanization and works to study the harvest aesthetic architectural recreational and psychological purposes and effects of plants in urban environments horticulture and the integration of nature into human civilization has been a major part in the establishment of cities during neolithic revolution cities would often be built with market gardens and farms as their trading centers studies in urban horticulture rapidly increased with the major growth of cities during the industrial revolution these insights led to the field being dispersed to farmers in the hinterlands for centuries the built environment such as homes public buildings etc were integrated with cultivation in the form of gardens farms and grazing lands kitchen gardens farms common grazing land etc therefore horticulture was a regular part of everyday life in the city with the industrial revolution and the related increasing populations rapidly changed the landscape and replaced green spaces with brick and asphalt after the nineteenth century horticulture was then selectively restored in some urban spaces as a response to the unhealthy conditions of factory neighborhoods and cities began seeing the development of parks early urban horticulture movements majorly served the purposes of short term welfare during recession periods philanthropic charity to uplift the masses or patriotic relief the tradition of urban horticulture mostly declined after world war ii as suburbs became the focus of residential and commercial growth most of the economically stable population moved out of the cities into the suburbs leaving only slums and ghettos at the city centers however there were a few exceptions of garden projects initiated by public housing authorities in the 1950s and 1960s for the purpose of beautification and tenant pride but for the most part as businesses also left the metropolitan areas it generated wastelands and areas of segregated povertyinevitably the disinvestment of major city centers specifically in america resulted in the drastic increase of vacant lots existing buildings became uninhabitable houses were abandoned and even productive industrial land became vacant modern community gardening urban agriculture and food security movements were a form of response to battle the above problems at a local level in fact other movements at that time such as the peace environmental womens civil rights and backtothecity movements of the 1960s and 1970s and the environmental justice movement of the 1980s and 1990s saw opportunity in these vacant lands as a way of reviving communities through school and community gardens farmers markets and urban agriculture things have taken a turn in the twentyfirst century as people are recognizing'</li><li>'##ulating on precolumbian transoceanic journeys is extensive the first inhabitants of the new world brought with them domestic dogs and possibly a container the calabash both of which persisted in their new home the medieval explorations visits and brief residence of the norsemen in greenland newfoundland and vinland in the late 10th century and 11th century had no known impact on the americas many scientists accept that possible contact between polynesians and coastal peoples in south america around the year 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by polynesians of an american crop the sweet potato however it was only with the first voyage of the italian explorer christopher columbus and his crew to the americas in 1492 that the columbian exchange began resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres the first manifestation of the columbian exchange may have been the spread of syphilis from the native people of the caribbean sea to europe the history of syphilis has been wellstudied but the origin of the disease remains a subject of debate there are two primary hypotheses one proposes that syphilis was carried to europe from the americas by the crew of christopher columbus in the early 1490s while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in europe but went unrecognized the first written descriptions of the disease in the old world came in 1493 the first large outbreak of syphilis in europe occurred in 1494 – 1495 among the army of charles viii during its invasion of naples many of the crew members who had served with columbus had joined this army after the victory charless largely mercenary army returned to their respective homes thereby spreading the great pox across europe and killing up to five million peoplethe columbian exchange of diseases in the other direction was by far deadlier the peoples of the americas had had no contact to european and african diseases and little or no immunity an epidemic of swine influenza beginning in 1493 killed many of the taino people inhabiting caribbean islands the precontact population of the island of hispaniola was probably at least 500000 but by 1526 fewer than 500 were still alive spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the nearextinction of the native people in 1518 smallpox was first recorded in the americas and became the deadliest imported european disease forty percent of the 200000 people living in the aztec capital of tenochtitlan later mexico city are estimated to have died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the aztecs with conquistador hernan cortes epidemics possibly of smallpox and spread from'</li></ul> |
| 8 | <ul><li>'suggested by a 2002 us air force research laboratory report and used in the table on the right full autonomy is available for specific tasks such as airborne refueling or groundbased battery switching other functions available or under development include collective flight realtime collision avoidance wall following corridor centring simultaneous localization and mapping and swarming cognitive radio and machine learning in this context computer vision can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety uavs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landingperching on inclined surfaces and then to climb toward better communication spots some uavs can control flight with varying flight modelisation such as vtol designs uavs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface uav endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot because of their small size low weight low vibration and high power to weight ratio wankel rotary engines are used in many large uavs their engine rotors cannot seize the engine is not susceptible to shockcooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power these attributes reduce fuel usage increasing range or payload proper drone cooling is essential for longterm drone endurance overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failurehydrogen fuel cells using hydrogen power may be able to extend the endurance of small uavs up to several hoursmicro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flappingwing uavs followed by planes and multirotors standing last due to lower reynolds numbersolarelectric uavs a concept originally championed by the astroflight sunrise in 1974 have achieved flight times of several weeks solarpowered atmospheric satellites atmosats designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km 12 miles or 60000 feet for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than low earth orbit satellites likely applications include weather drones for weather monitoring disaster recovery earth imaging and communications electric uavs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutionsanother application for a high endurance uav would be to stare at a battlefield for a long interval argusis gorgon stare integrated sensor is structure to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities the delicacy of the british phasa35 military drone at a late stage of development is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor it has however remained on station at 65000 feet for 24 hours airbus zephyr in 2023 has attained 70000 feet and flown for 64 days 200 days aimed at this is sufficiently close enough to nearspace for them to'</li><li>'display that shows either the surrounding terrain or obstacles relative to the airplane or bothclass c defines voluntary equipment intended for small general aviation airplanes that are not required to install class b equipment this includes minimum operational performance standards intended for pistonpowered and turbinepowered airplanes when configured with fewer than six passenger seats excluding any pilot seats class c taws equipment shall meet all the requirements of a class b taws with the small aircraft modifications described by the faa the faa has developed class c to make voluntary taws usage easier for small aircraft prior to the development of gpws large passenger aircraft were involved in 35 fatal cfit accidents per year falling to 2 per year in the mid1970s a 2006 report stated that from 1974 when the us faa made it a requirement for large aircraft to carry such equipment until the time of the report there had not been a single passenger fatality in a cfit crash by a large jet in us airspaceafter 1974 there were still some cfit accidents that gpws was unable to help prevent due to the blind spot of those early gpws systems more advanced systems were developed older taws or deactivation of the egpws or ignoring its warnings when airport is not in its database still leave aircraft vulnerable to possible cfit incidents in april 2010 a polish air force tupolev tu154m aircraft crashed near smolensk russia in a possible cfit accident killing all passengers and crew including the polish president the aircraft was equipped with taws made by universal avionics systems of tucson according to the russian interstate aviation committee taws was turned on however the airport where the aircraft was going to land smolensk xubs is not in the taws database in january 2008 a polish air force casa c295m crashed in a cfit accident near mirosławiec poland despite being equipped with egpws the egpws warning sounds had been disabled and the pilotincommand was not properly trained with egpws index of aviation articles list of aviation avionics aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations airborne collision avoidance system controlled flight into terrain cfit digital flybywire ground proximity warning system enhanced gpws runway awareness and advisory system'</li><li>'states nextgen air traffic system 1090 mhz extended squitter in 2002 the federal aviation administration faa announced a duallink decision using the 1090 mhz extended squitter 1090 es link for air carrier and private or commercial operators of highperformance aircraft and universal access transceiver link for the typical general aviation user in november 2012 the european aviation safety agency confirmed that the european union would also use 1090 es for interoperability the format of extended squitter messages has been codified by the icaowith 1090 es the existing mode s transponder tso c112 or a standalone 1090 mhz transmitter supports a message type known as the extended squitter message it is a periodic message that provides position velocity time and in the future intent the basic es does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data called trajectory change points to enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message the transponder is modified tso c166a and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder atc ground stations and aircraft equipped with traffic collision avoidance system tcas already have the necessary 1090 mhz mode s receivers to receive these signals and would only require enhancements to accept and process the additional extended squitter information as per the faa adsb link decision and the technical link standards 1090 es does not support fisb service radar directly measures the range and bearing of an aircraft from a groundbased antenna the primary surveillance radar is usually a pulse radar it continuously transmits highpower radio frequency rf pulses bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives the rf pulses that are reflected from the aircraft skin the range is measured by measuring the time it takes for the rf energy to travel to and from the aircraft primary surveillance radar does not require any cooperation from the aircraft it is robust in the sense that surveillance outage failure modes are limited to those associated with the ground radar system secondary surveillance radar depends on active replies from the aircraft its failure modes include the transponder aboard the aircraft typical adsb aircraft installations use the output of the navigation unit for navigation and for cooperative surveillance introducing a common failure mode that must be accommodated in air traffic surveillance systems the radiated beam becomes wider as the distance between the antenna and the aircraft becomes greater making the position information less accurate additionally detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart in contrast a system using adsb creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft these reports are generated based on the aircrafts navigation system and'</li></ul> |
| 33 | <ul><li>'utts emphasis on replication and hymans challenge on interlaboratory consistency in the air report pear conducted several hundred trials to see if they could replicate the saic and sri experiments they created an analytical judgment methodology to replace the human judging process that was criticized in past experiments and they released a report in 1996 they felt the results of the experiments were consistent with the sri experiments however statistical flaws have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and within the general scientific community a variety of scientific studies of remote viewing have been conducted early experiments produced positive results but they had invalidating flaws none of the more recent experiments have shown positive results when conducted under properly controlled conditions this lack of successful experiments has led the mainstream scientific community to reject remote viewing based upon the absence of an evidence base the lack of a theory which would explain remote viewing and the lack of experimental techniques which can provide reliably positive resultsscience writers gary bennett martin gardner michael shermer and professor of neurology terence hines describe the topic of remote viewing as pseudosciencec e m hansel who evaluated the remote viewing experiments of parapsychologists such as puthoff targ john b bisha and brenda j dunne noted that there were a lack of controls and precautions were not taken to rule out the possibility of fraud he concluded the experimental design was inadequately reported and too loosely controlled to serve any useful functionthe psychologist ray hyman says that even if the results from remote viewing experiments were reproduced under specified conditions they would still not be a conclusive demonstration of the existence of psychic functioning he blames this on the reliance on a negative outcome — the claims on esp are based on the results of experiments not being explained by normal means he says that the experiments lack a positive theory that guides as to what to control on them and what to ignore and that parapsychologists have not come close to having a positive theory as yethyman also says that the amount and quality of the experiments on rv are far too low to convince the scientific community to abandon its fundamental ideas about causality time and other principles due to its findings still not having been replicated successfully under careful scrutinymartin gardner has written that the founding researcher harold puthoff was an active scientologist prior to his work at stanford university and that this influenced his research at sri in 1970 the church of scientology published a notarized letter that had been written by puthoff while he was conducting research on remote viewing at stanford the letter read in part although critics viewing the system scientology from the outside may form the impression that'</li><li>'guess the card ten runs with esp packs of cards were used and she achieved 93 hits 43 more than chance weaknesses with the experiment were later discovered the duration of the light signal could be varied so that the subject could call for specific symbols and certain symbols in the experiment came up far more often than others which indicated either poor shuffling or card manipulation the experiment was not repeatedthe administration of duke grew less sympathetic to parapsychology and after rhines retirement in 1965 parapsychological links with the university were broken rhine later established the foundation for research on the nature of man frnm and the institute for parapsychology as a successor to the duke laboratory in 1995 the centenary of rhines birth the frnm was renamed the rhine research center today the rhine research center is a parapsychology research unit stating that it aims to improve the human condition by creating a scientific understanding of those abilities and sensitivities that appear to transcend the ordinary limits of space and time the parapsychological association pa was created in durham north carolina on june 19 1957 its formation was proposed by j b rhine at a workshop on parapsychology which was held at the parapsychology laboratory of duke university rhine proposed that the group form itself into the nucleus of an international professional society in parapsychology the aim of the organization as stated in its constitution became to advance parapsychology as a science to disseminate knowledge of the field and to integrate the findings with those of other branches of sciencein 1969 under the direction of anthropologist margaret mead the parapsychological association became affiliated with the american association for the advancement of science aaas the largest general scientific society in the world in 1979 physicist john a wheeler said that parapsychology is pseudoscientific and that the affiliation of the pa to the aaas needed to be reconsideredhis challenge to parapsychologys aaas affiliation was unsuccessful today the pa consists of about three hundred full associate and affiliated members worldwide beginning in the early 1950s the cia started extensive research into behavioral engineering the findings from these experiments led to the formation of the stargate project which handled esp research for the us federal government the stargate project was terminated in 1995 with the conclusion that it was never useful in any intelligence operation the information was vague and included a lot of irrelevant and erroneous data there was also reason to suspect that the research managers had adjusted their project reports to fit the known background cues the affiliation of the parapsychological association pa with the american association for the advancement of'</li><li>'extrasensory perception or esp also called sixth sense is a claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses but sensed with the mind the term was adopted by duke university botanist j b rhine to denote psychic abilities such as intuition telepathy psychometry clairvoyance clairaudience clairsentience empathy and their transtemporal operation as precognition or retrocognition second sight is an alleged form of extrasensory perception whereby a person perceives information in the form of a vision about future events before they happen precognition or about things or events at remote locations remote viewing there is no evidence that second sight exists reports of second sight are known only from anecdotes second sight and esp are classified as pseudosciences in the 1930s at duke university in north carolina j b rhine and his wife louisa e rhine conducted an investigation into extrasensory perception while louisa rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases j b rhine worked largely in the laboratory carefully defining terms such as esp and psi and designing experiments to test them a simple set of cards was developed originally called zener cards – now called esp cards they bear the symbols circle square wavy lines cross and star there are five of each type of card in a pack of 25 in a telepathy experiment the sender looks at a series of cards while the receiver guesses the symbols to try to observe clairvoyance the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses to try to observe precognition the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made later he used dice to test for psychokinesisthe parapsychology experiments at duke evoked criticism from academics and others who challenged the concepts and evidence of esp a number of psychological departments attempted unsuccessfully to repeat rhines experiments w s cox 1936 from princeton university with 132 subjects produced 25064 trials in a playing card esp experiment cox concluded there is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the average man or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group the discrepancy between these results and those obtained by rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects four other psychological departments failed to replicate rhines resultsin 1938 the psychologist joseph jastrow wrote that much of the evidence for extrasensory perception collected by rhine and other parapsychologists was anecdotal biased dubious and the result of faulty observation and familiar human frailties rhines'</li></ul> |
| 25 | <ul><li>'##rime is equicontinuous the balanced hull of h displaystyle h is equicontinuous the convex hull of h displaystyle h is equicontinuous the convex balanced hull of h displaystyle h is equicontinuous while if x displaystyle x is normed then this list may be extended to include h displaystyle h is a strongly bounded subset of x ′ displaystyle xprime while if x displaystyle x is a barreled space then this list may be extended to include h displaystyle h is relatively compact in the weak topology on x ′ displaystyle xprime h displaystyle h is weak bounded that is h displaystyle h is σ x ′ x − displaystyle sigma leftxprime xright bounded in x ′ displaystyle xprime h displaystyle h is bounded in the topology of bounded convergence that is h displaystyle h is b x ′ x − displaystyle bleftxprime xright bounded in x ′ displaystyle xprime the uniform boundedness principle also known as the banach – steinhaus theorem states that a set h displaystyle h of linear maps between banach spaces is equicontinuous if it is pointwise bounded that is sup h ∈ h ‖ h x ‖ ∞ displaystyle sup hin hhxinfty for each x ∈ x displaystyle xin x the result can be generalized to a case when y displaystyle y is locally convex and x displaystyle x is a barreled space properties of equicontinuous linear functionals alaoglus theorem implies that the weak closure of an equicontinuous subset of x ′ displaystyle xprime is weak compact thus that every equicontinuous subset is weak relatively compactif x displaystyle x is any locally convex tvs then the family of all barrels in x displaystyle x and the family of all subsets of x ′ displaystyle xprime that are convex balanced closed and bounded in x σ ′ displaystyle xsigma prime correspond to each other by polarity with respect to ⟨ x x ⟩ displaystyle leftlangle xxrightrangle it follows that a locally convex tvs x displaystyle x is barreled if and only if every bounded subset of x σ ′ displaystyle xsigma prime is equicontinuous let x be a compact hausdorff space and equip cx with the uniform norm thus making cx a banach space hence a metric space then arzela – ascoli theorem states'</li><li>'xifrac partial fpartial yrightfrac 12leftfrac partial upartial xifrac partial vpartial xifrac partial upartial yfrac partial vpartial yrightfrac partial upartial zifrac partial vpartial zfrac partial fpartial zendaligned where the 3rd equality uses the cauchyriemann equations because the complex derivative is independent of the choice of a path in differentiation the first wirtinger derivative is the complex derivative the second wirtinger derivative is also related with complex differentiation ∂ f ∂ z [UNK] 0 displaystyle frac partial fpartial bar z0 is equivalent to the cauchyriemann equations in a complex form in the present section and in the following ones it is assumed that z ∈ c n displaystyle zin mathbb c n is a complex vector and that z ≡ x y x 1 … x n y 1 … y n displaystyle zequiv xyx1ldots xny1ldots yn where x y displaystyle xy are real vectors with n ≥ 1 also it is assumed that the subset ω displaystyle omega can be thought of as a domain in the real euclidean space r 2 n displaystyle mathbb r 2n or in its isomorphic complex counterpart c n displaystyle mathbb c n all the proofs are easy consequences of definition 1 and definition 2 and of the corresponding properties of the derivatives ordinary or partial lemma 1 if f g ∈ c 1 ω displaystyle fgin c1omega and α β displaystyle alpha beta are complex numbers then for i 1 … n displaystyle i1dots n the following equalities hold ∂ ∂ z i α f β g α ∂ f ∂ z i β ∂ g ∂ z i ∂ ∂ z [UNK] i α f β g α ∂ f ∂ z [UNK] i β ∂ g ∂ z [UNK] i displaystyle beginalignedfrac partial partial zileftalpha fbeta grightalpha frac partial fpartial zibeta frac partial gpartial zifrac partial partial bar zileftalpha fbeta grightalpha frac partial fpartial bar zibeta frac partial gpartial bar ziendaligned lemma 2 if f g ∈ c 1 ω displaystyle fgin c1omega then for i 1 … n displaystyle i1dots n the product rule holds ∂ ∂ z i f ⋅ g ∂ f ∂ z i ⋅ g f ⋅ ∂ g ∂ z'</li><li>'this section the coordinates of the points on the curve are of the form x 1 x displaystyle leftxfrac 1xright where x is a number other than 0 for example the graph contains the points 1 1 2 05 5 02 10 01 as the values of x displaystyle x become larger and larger say 100 1000 10000 putting them far to the right of the illustration the corresponding values of y displaystyle y 01 001 0001 become infinitesimal relative to the scale shown but no matter how large x displaystyle x becomes its reciprocal 1 x displaystyle frac 1x is never 0 so the curve never actually touches the xaxis similarly as the values of x displaystyle x become smaller and smaller say 01 001 0001 making them infinitesimal relative to the scale shown the corresponding values of y displaystyle y 100 1000 10000 become larger and larger so the curve extends farther and farther upward as it comes closer and closer to the yaxis thus both the x and yaxis are asymptotes of the curve these ideas are part of the basis of concept of a limit in mathematics and this connection is explained more fully below the asymptotes most commonly encountered in the study of calculus are of curves of the form y ƒx these can be computed using limits and classified into horizontal vertical and oblique asymptotes depending on their orientation horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x tends to ∞ or −∞ as the name indicates they are parallel to the xaxis vertical asymptotes are vertical lines perpendicular to the xaxis near which the function grows without bound oblique asymptotes are diagonal lines such that the difference between the curve and the line approaches 0 as x tends to ∞ or −∞ the line x a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function y ƒx if at least one of the following statements is true lim x → a − f x ± ∞ displaystyle lim xto afxpm infty lim x → a f x ± ∞ displaystyle lim xto afxpm infty where lim x → a − displaystyle lim xto a is the limit as x approaches the value a from the left from lesser values and lim x → a displaystyle lim xto a is the limit as x approaches a from the right for example if ƒx xx – 1 the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 as x approaches 1 so lim x → 1 x x'</li></ul> |
| 16 | <ul><li>'unit stream power and b is the width of the channel normalizing the stream power by the width of the river allows for a better comparison between rivers of various widths this also provides a better estimation of the sediment carrying capacity of the river as wide rivers with high stream power are exerting less force per surface area than a narrow river with the same stream power as they are losing the same amount of energy but in the narrow river it is concentrated into a smaller area critical unit stream power is the amount of stream power needed to displace a grain of a specific size it is given by the equation ω 0 τ 0 ν 0 displaystyle omega 0tau 0nu 0 where τ0 is the critical shear stress of the grain size that will be moved which can be found in the literature or experimentally determined while v0 is the critical mobilization speed critical stream power can be used to determine the stream competency of a river which is a measure to determine the largest grain size that will be moved by a river in rivers with large sediment sizes the relationship between critical unit stream power and sediment diameter displaced can be reduced to ω 0 0030 d i 169 displaystyle omega 00030di169 while in intermediatesized rivers the relationship was found to follow ω 0 0130 d i 1438 displaystyle omega 00130di1438 shear stress is another variable used in erosion and sediment transport models representing the force applied on a surface by a perpendicular force and can be calculated using the following formula τ h s ρ g displaystyle tau hsrho g where τ is the shear stress s is the slope of the water ρ is the density of water 1000 kgm3 g is acceleration due to gravity 98 ms2 shear stress can be used to compute the unit stream power using the formula ω τ v displaystyle omega tau v where v is the velocity of the water in the stream stream power is used extensively in models of landscape evolution and river incision unit stream power is often used for this because simple models use and evolve a 1dimensional downstream profile of the river channel it is also used with relation to river channel migration and in some cases is applied to sediment transport predicting flood plain formation by plotting stream power along the length of a river course as a secondorder exponential curve you are able to identify areas where flood plains may form and why they will form there sensitivity to erosion stream power has also been used as a criterion to determine whether a river is in a state of reshaping itself or whether it is stable a value of unit stream power between 30 and 35'</li><li>'geomorphology from ancient greek γη ge earth μορφη morphe form and λογος logos study is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical chemical or biological processes operating at or near earths surface geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations physical experiments and numerical modeling geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography geology geodesy engineering geology archaeology climatology and geotechnical engineering this broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field earths surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence and shape the coastal geography surface processes comprise the action of water wind ice wildfire and life on the surface of the earth along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties the stability and rate of change of topography under the force of gravity and other factors such as in the very recent past human alteration of the landscape many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges the growth of volcanoes isostatic changes in land surface elevation sometimes in response to surface processes and the formation of deep sedimentary basins where the surface of the earth drops and is filled with material eroded from other parts of the landscape the earths surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of climatic hydrologic and biologic action with geologic processes or alternatively stated the intersection of the earths lithosphere with its hydrosphere atmosphere and biosphere the broadscale topographies of the earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action mountain belts are uplifted due to geologic processes denudation of these high uplifted regions produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast on progressively smaller scales similar ideas apply where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes uplift and deposition and subtractive processes subsidence and erosion often these processes directly affect each other ice sheets water and sediment are all loads that change topography through flexural isostasy topography can modify the local climate for example through orographic precipitation which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for feedbacks between climate and tectonics mediated by geomorphic processesin addition to these broad'</li><li>'coefficients one of the largest pressure ridges on record had a sail extending 12 m above the water surface and a keel depth of 45 m the total thickness for a multiyear ridge was reported to be 40 m on average total thickness ranges between 5 m and 30 m with a mean sail height that remains below 2 m the average keel depth of arctic ridges is 45 m the sail height is usually proportional to the square root of the ridge block thickness ice ridges in fram strait usually have a trapezoidal shape with a bottom horizontal section covering around 17 of the total ridge width and with a mean draft of 7 m while ice ridges in the chukchi and beaufort seas have a concave close to triangular shapethe average consolidated layer thickness of arctic ridges is 16 m usually ridges consolidate faster than level ice because of their initial macroporosity ridge rubble porosity or waterfilled void fraction of ridge unconsolidated part is in the wide range of 10 – 40 during winter ice ridges consolidate up to two times faster than level ice with the ratio of level ice and consolidated layer thickness proportional to the square root of ridge rubble porosity this results in 16 – 18 ratio of consolidated layer and level ice thickness by the end of winter season meanwhile snow is usually about three times thicker above ridges than above level ice sometimes ridges can be found fully consolidated with the total thickness up to 8 m ridges may also contain from 6 to 11 of snow mass fraction which can be potentially linked to the mechanisms of ridge consolidation fram strait ridge observations suggest that the largest part of ridge consolidation happens during the spring season when during warm air intrusions or dynamic events snow can enter ridge keels via open leads and increase the speed of ridge consolidation these observations are supported by high snow mass fraction in refrozen leads observed during the spring season the ridge consolidation potentially reduces light levels and the habitable space available for organisms which may have negative ecological impacts as ridges have been identified as ecological hotspots the physical characterization of pressure ridges can be done using the following methods mechanical drilling of the ice with noncoring or coring augers when the ice core is retrieved for analysis surveying whereby a level theodolite or a differential gps system is used to determine sail geometry thermal drilling — drilling involving melting of the ice observation of the ice canopy by scuba divers upward looking sonars and multibeam sonars fixed on seabed or moounted on a remotely operated underwater vehicle a series of thermistors ice mass balance buoy to monitor temperature changes electromagnetic induction from the ice surface or from an aircraft from an offshore'</li></ul> |
| 28 | <ul><li>'numbers modulo p until finding either a number that is congruent to zero mod p or finding a repeated modulus using this technique he found that 1166 out of the first three million primes are divisors of sylvester numbers and that none of these primes has a square that divides a sylvester number the set of primes which can occur as factors of sylvester numbers is of density zero in the set of all primes indeed the number of such primes less than x is o π x log log log x displaystyle opi xlog log log x the following table shows known factorizations of these numbers except the first four which are all prime as is customary pn and cn denote prime numbers and unfactored composite numbers n digits long boyer galicki kollar 2005 use the properties of sylvesters sequence to define large numbers of sasakian einstein manifolds having the differential topology of odddimensional spheres or exotic spheres they show that the number of distinct sasakian einstein metrics on a topological sphere of dimension 2n − 1 is at least proportional to sn and hence has double exponential growth with n as galambos woeginger 1995 describe brown 1979 and liang 1980 used values derived from sylvesters sequence to construct lower bound examples for online bin packing algorithms seiden woeginger 2005 similarly use the sequence to lower bound the performance of a twodimensional cutting stock algorithmznams problem concerns sets of numbers such that each number in the set divides but is not equal to the product of all the other numbers plus one without the inequality requirement the values in sylvesters sequence would solve the problem with that requirement it has other solutions derived from recurrences similar to the one defining sylvesters sequence solutions to znams problem have applications to the classification of surface singularities brenton and hill 1988 and to the theory of nondeterministic finite automatad r curtiss 1922 describes an application of the closest approximations to one by kterm sums of unit fractions in lowerbounding the number of divisors of any perfect number and miller 1919 uses the same property to upper bound the size of certain groups cahens constant primary pseudoperfect number leonardo number'</li><li>'− 2 1 → 0 0 0 0 displaystyle pi esqrt 21pi esqrt 21pi esqrt 21pi esqrt 21rightarrow 0000 the properties presented here do not always hold for these generalisations for example a ducci sequence starting with the ntuple 1 q q2 q3 where q is the irrational positive root of the cubic x 3 − x 2 − x − 1 0 displaystyle x3x2x10 does not reach 0000 in a finite number of steps although in the limit it converges to 0000 ducci sequences may be arbitrarily long before they reach a tuple of zeros or a periodic loop the 4tuple sequence starting with 0 653 1854 4063 takes 24 iterations to reach the zeros tuple 0 653 1854 4063 → 653 1201 2209 4063 → 548 1008 1854 3410 → displaystyle 065318544063rightarrow 653120122094063rightarrow 548100818543410rightarrow [UNK] → 0 0 128 128 → 0 128 0 128 → 128 128 128 128 → 0 0 0 0 displaystyle cdots rightarrow 00128128rightarrow 01280128rightarrow 128128128128rightarrow 0000 this 5tuple sequence enters a period 15 binary loop after 7 iterations 15799 → 42208 → 20284 → 22642 → 04220 → 42020 → 22224 → 00022 → 00202 → 02222 → 20002 → 20020 → 20222 → 22000 → 02002 → 22022 → 02200 → 20200 → 22202 → 00220 → 02020 → 22220 → 00022 → [UNK] displaystyle beginmatrix15799rightarrow 42208rightarrow 20284rightarrow 22642rightarrow 04220rightarrow 42020rightarrow 22224rightarrow 00022rightarrow 00202rightarrow 02222rightarrow 20002rightarrow 20020rightarrow 20222rightarrow 22000rightarrow 02002rightarrow 22022rightarrow 02200rightarrow 20200rightarrow 22202rightarrow 00220rightarrow 02020rightarrow 22220rightarrow 00022rightarrow cdots quad quad endmatrix the following 6tuple sequence shows that'</li><li>'the proper divisors of 1305184 displaystyle 1305184 2 5 ⋅ 40787 displaystyle 25cdot 40787 is 1 2 4 8 16 32 40787 81574 163148 326296 652592 1264460 the following categorizes all known sociable numbers as of july 2018 by the length of the corresponding aliquot sequence it is conjectured that if n is congruent to 3 modulo 4 then there is no such sequence with length n the 5cycle sequence is 12496 14288 15472 14536 14264 the only known 28cycle is 14316 19116 31704 47616 83328 177792 295488 629072 589786 294896 358336 418904 366556 274924 275444 243760 376736 381028 285778 152990 122410 97946 48976 45946 22976 22744 19916 17716 sequence a072890 in the oeis it was discovered by ben orlin these two sequences provide the only sociable numbers below 1 million other than the perfect and amicable numbers the aliquot sequence can be represented as a directed graph g n s displaystyle gns for a given integer n displaystyle n where s k displaystyle sk denotes the sum of the proper divisors of k displaystyle k cycles in g n s displaystyle gns represent sociable numbers within the interval 1 n displaystyle 1n two special cases are loops that represent perfect numbers and cycles of length two that represent amicable pairs it is conjectured that as the number of sociable number cycles with length greater than 2 approaches infinity the proportion of the sums of the sociable number cycles divisible by 10 approaches 1 sequence a292217 in the oeis'</li></ul> |
| 5 | <ul><li>'there are several methods currently used by astronomers to detect distant exoplanets from earth theoretically some of these methods can be used to detect earth as an exoplanet from distant star systems in june 2021 astronomers identified 1715 stars with likely related exoplanetary systems within 326 lightyears 100 parsecs that have a favorable positional vantage point — in relation to the earth transit zone etz — of detecting earth as an exoplanet transiting the sun since the beginnings of human civilization about 5000 years ago an additional 319 stars are expected to arrive at this special vantage point in the next 5000 years seven known exoplanet hosts including ross 128 may be among these stars teegardens star and trappist1 may be expected to see the earth in 29 and 1642 years respectively radio waves emitted by humans have reached over 75 of the closest stars that were studied in june 2021 astronomers reported identifying 29 planets in habitable zones that may be capable of observing the earth earlier in october 2020 astronomers had initially identified 508 such stars within 326 lightyears 100 parsecs that would have a favorable positional vantage point — in relation to the earth transit zone etz — of detecting earth as an exoplanet transiting the suntransit method is the most popular tool used to detect exoplanets and the most common tool to spectroscopically analyze exoplanetary atmospheres as a result such studies based on the transit method will be useful in the search for life on exoplanets beyond the solar system by the seti program breakthrough listen initiative as well as upcoming exoplanetary tess mission searchesdetectability of earth from distant starbased systems may allow for the detectability of humanity andor analysis of earth from distant vantage points such as via atmospheric seti for the detection of atmospheric compositions explainable only by use of artificial technology like air pollution containing nitrogen dioxide from eg transportation technologies the easiest or most likely artificial signals from earth to be detectable are brief pulses transmitted by antiballistic missile abm earlywarning and spacesurveillance radars during the cold war and later astronomical and military radars unlike the earliest and conventional radio and televisionbroadcasting which has been claimed to be undetectable at short distances such signals could be detected from very distant possibly starbased receiver stations – any single of which would detect brief episodes of powerful pulses repeating with intervals of one earth day – and could be used to detect both earth as well as the presence of a radarutilizing civilization'</li><li>'the possibility of life on mars is a subject of interest in astrobiology due to the planets proximity and similarities to earth to date no proof of past or present life has been found on mars cumulative evidence suggests that during the ancient noachian time period the surface environment of mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms but habitable conditions do not necessarily indicate lifescientific searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century and continue today via telescopic investigations and deployed probes searching for water chemical biosignatures in the soil and rocks at the planets surface and biomarker gases in the atmospheremars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early earth this is especially true since mars has a cold climate and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the hesperian period at least twothirds of marss surface is more than 35 billion years old and it could have been habitable since 448 billion years ago 500 million years before the earliest known earth lifeforms mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to life even if life does not or has never existed therefollowing the confirmation of the past existence of surface liquid water the curiosity perseverance and opportunity rovers started searching for evidence of past life including a past biosphere based on autotrophic chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms as well as ancient water including fluviolacustrine environments plains related to ancient rivers or lakes that may have been habitable the search for evidence of habitability taphonomy related to fossils and organic compounds on mars is now a primary objective for space agencies the findings of organic compounds inside sedimentary rocks and of boron on mars are of interest as they are precursors for prebiotic chemistry such findings along with previous discoveries that liquid water was clearly present on ancient mars further supports the possible early habitability of gale crater on mars currently the surface of mars is bathed with ionizing radiation and martian soil is rich in perchlorates toxic to microorganisms therefore the consensus is that if life exists — or existed — on mars it could be found or is best preserved in the subsurface away from presentday harsh surface processes in june 2018 nasa announced the detection of seasonal variation of methane levels on mars methane could be produced by microorganisms or by geological means the european exomars trace gas orbiter started mapping the atmospheric methane in april 2018'</li><li>'the purple earth hypothesis is an astrobiological hypothesis first proposed by molecular biologist shiladitya dassarma in 2007 that the earliest photosynthetic life forms of early earth were based on the simpler molecule retinal rather than the more complex porphyrinbased chlorophyll making the surface biosphere appear purplish rather its current greenish color the time would date somewhere between 35 to 24 billion years ago prior to the great oxygenation event and huronian glaciationretinalcontaining cell membrane exhibits a single light absorption peak centered in the energyrich greenyellow region of the visible spectrum but transmit and reflects red and blue light resulting in a magenta color chlorophyll pigments in contrast absorb red and blue light but little or no green light which results in the characteristic green color of plants green algae cyanobacteria and other organisms with chlorophyllic organelles the simplicity of retinal pigments in comparison to the more complex chlorophyll their association with isoprenoid lipids in the cell membrane as well as the discovery of archaeal membrane components in ancient sediments on the early earth are consistent with an early appearance of life forms with purple membrane prior to the turquoise of the canfield ocean and later green photosynthetic organisms the discovery of archaeal membrane components in ancient sediments on the early earth support the peh an example of retinalbased organisms that exist today are photosynthetic microbes collectively called haloarchaea many haloarchaea contain the retinal derivative protein bacteriorhodopsin in their cell membrane which carries out photondriven proton pumping generating a protonmotive gradient across the membrane and driving atp synthesis the process is a form of anoxygenic photosynthesis that does not involve carbon fixation and the haloarchaeal membrane protein pump constitutes one of the simplest known bioenergetic systems for harvesting light energy microorganisms with purple and green photopigments frequently coexist in stratified colonies known as microbial mats where they may utilize complementary regions of the solar spectrum coexistence of purple and green pigmentcontaining microorganisms in many environments suggests their coevolution it is possible that the early earths biosphere was dominated by retinalpowered archaeal colonies that absorbed all the green light leaving the eubacteria that lived in their shadows to evolve utilizing the residual red and blue light spectrum however when porphy'</li></ul> |
| 15 | <ul><li>'##es an enzyme with histone methyltransferase activity capable of methylating histones at different chromosome loci or at the level of ribosomal dna rdna in the nucleolus'</li><li>'##mal digestive tract greatest protein expression values appeared in the muscle tissues as well in addition to some in the lung gastrointestinal tract liver gallbladder and bone marrow lymphoid tissuesclip4 protein expression seems to be highly expressed during ada3 deficiency there also exists a higher trend towards higher clip4 expression in the absence of u28 common transcription factor binding sites these transcription factors were chosen and organized based on proximity to the promoter and matrix similarity the human clip4 mrna sequence has 12 stemloop structures in its 5 utr and 13 stemloop structures in its 3 utr of those secondary structures there are 12 conserved stemloop secondary structures in the 5utr as well as 1 conserved stemloop secondary structure in the 3 utr the human clip4 protein is localized within the cellular nuclear membrane clip4 does not have a signal peptide due to its intracellular localization it also does not have nlinked glycosylation sites for that same reason clip4 is not cleaved however numerous olinked glycosylation sites are present a high density of phosphorylation sites are present in the 400599 amino acid positions on the clip4 protein although many are also present throughout the rest of the protein capgly domains are often associated with microtubule regulation in addition ankyrin repeats are known to mediate proteinprotein interactions furthermore clip1 a paralog of clip4 in humans is known to bind to microtubules and regulate the microtubule cytoskeleton the clip4 protein is also predicted to interact with various microtubuleassociated proteins as a result it is likely that the clip4 protein although uncharacterized is associated with microtubule regulation the clip4 protein is predicted to interact with many proteins associated with microtubules namely mapre1 mapre2 and mapre3 it is also predicted to interact with ckap5 and dctn1 a cytoskeletonassociated protein and dynactinassociated protein respectively clip4 activity is correlated with the spread of renal cell carcinomas rccs within the host and could therefore be a potential biomarker for rcc metastasis in cancer patients additionally measurement of promotor methylation levels of clip4 using a global methylation dna index reveals that higher methylation of clip4 is associated with an increase in severity of gastritis to possibly gastric cancer this indicates that clip4 could be used for early detection of gastric cancer a similar finding was also'</li><li>'since older premenopausal women ordinarily have normal progeny their capability for meiotic recombinational repair appears to be sufficient to prevent deterioration of their germline despite the reduction in ovarian reserve dna damages may arise in the germline during the decades long period in humans between early oocytogenesis and the stage of meiosis in which homologous chromosomes are effectively paired dictyate stage it has been suggested that such dna damages may be removed in large part by mechanisms dependent on chromosome pairing such as homologous recombination some algae and the oomycetes produce eggs in oogonia in the brown alga fucus all four egg cells survive oogenesis which is an exception to the rule that generally only one product of female meiosis survives to maturity in plants oogenesis occurs inside the female gametophyte via mitosis in many plants such as bryophytes ferns and gymnosperms egg cells are formed in archegonia in flowering plants the female gametophyte has been reduced to an eightcelled embryo sac within the ovule inside the ovary of the flower oogenesis occurs within the embryo sac and leads to the formation of a single egg cell per ovule in ascaris the oocyte does not even begin meiosis until the sperm touches it in contrast to mammals where meiosis is completed in the estrus cycle in female drosophila flies genetic recombination occurs during meiosis this recombination is associated with formation of dna doublestrand breaks and the repair of these breaks the repair process leads to crossover recombinants as well as at least three times as many noncrossover recombinants eg arising by gene conversion without crossover anisogamy archegonium evolution of sexual reproduction female infertility female reproductive system meiosis oncofertility oogonium oocyte origin and function of meiosis sexual reproduction spermatogenesis'</li></ul> |
| 12 | <ul><li>'##c 14lefta14a222a4right the group c4 also acts on the unordered pairs of elements of x in a natural way any permutation g would send xy → x g y g where x g is the image of the element x under the permutation g the set x is now a b c d e f where a 12 b 23 c 34 d 14 e 13 and f 24 these elements can be thought of as the sides and diagonals of the square or in a completely different setting as the edges of the complete graph k4 acting on this new set the four group elements are now represented by a d c be f a cb def a b c de f and e abcdef and the cycle index of this action is z c 4 1 4 a 1 6 a 1 2 a 2 2 2 a 2 a 4 displaystyle zc4frac 14lefta16a12a222a2a4right the group c4 can also act on the ordered pairs of elements of x in the same natural way any permutation g would send xy → x g y g in this case we would also have ordered pairs of the form x x the elements of x could be thought of as the arcs of the complete digraph d4 with loops at each vertex the cycle index in this case would be z c 4 1 4 a 1 16 a 2 8 2 a 4 4 displaystyle zc4frac 14lefta116a282a44right as the above example shows the cycle index depends on the group action and not on the abstract group since there are many permutation representations of an abstract group it is useful to have some terminology to distinguish them when an abstract group is defined in terms of permutations it is a permutation group and the group action is the identity homomorphism this is referred to as the natural action the symmetric group s3 in its natural action has the elements s 3 e 23 12 123 132 13 displaystyle s3e231212313213 and so its cycle index is z s 3 1 6 a 1 3 3 a 1 a 2 2 a 3 displaystyle zs3frac 16lefta133a1a22a3right a permutation group g on the set x is transitive if for every pair of elements x and y in x there is at least one g in g such that y x g a transitive permutation group is regular or sometimes referred to as sharply transitive if'</li><li>'partition 521 and ρ is the partition 3311 the shape partition λ specifies that the tableau must have three rows the first having 5 boxes the second having 2 boxes and the third having 1 box the type partition ρ specifies that the tableau must be filled with three 1s three 2s one 3 and one 4 there are six such borderstrip tableaux if we call these t 1 displaystyle t1 t 2 displaystyle t2 t 3 displaystyle t3 t 4 displaystyle t4 t 5 displaystyle t5 and t 6 displaystyle t6 then their heights are h t t 1 0 1 0 0 1 h t t 2 1 0 0 0 1 h t t 3 1 0 0 0 1 h t t 4 2 0 0 0 2 h t t 5 2 0 0 0 2 h t t 6 2 1 0 0 3 displaystyle beginalignedhtt101001htt210001htt310001htt420002htt520002htt621003endaligned and the character value is therefore χ 3 3 1 1 5 2 1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1 1 − 1 2 − 1 2 − 1 3 − 1 − 1 − 1 1 1 − 1 − 2 displaystyle chi 33115211111111212131111112 theorem χ ρ λ [UNK] ξ ∈ b s λ ρ 1 − 1 h t ξ χ ρ [UNK] ρ 1 λ [UNK] ξ displaystyle chi rho lambda sum xi in bslambda rho 11htxi chi rho backslash rho 1lambda backslash xi where the sum is taken over the set bsλρ1 of border strips within the young diagram of shape λ that have ρ1 boxes and whose removal leaves a valid young diagram the notation λ [UNK] ξ displaystyle lambda backslash xi represents the partition that results from removing the border strip ξ from λ the notation ρ [UNK] ρ 1 displaystyle rho backslash rho 1 represents the partition that results from removing the first element ρ1 from ρ note that the righthand side is a sum of characters for symmetric groups that have smaller order than that of the symmetric group we started with on the lefthand side in other words this version of the murnaghannakayama rule expresses a character of the symmetric group sn in terms of the characters of smaller symmetric groups sk with kn applying this rule recursively will result in a tree of character value evaluations for smaller and smaller partitions each branch stops for one of two reasons'</li><li>'than t players can such a system is called a t nthreshold scheme an oavt n1 v t may be used to construct a perfect t nthreshold scheme let a be the orthogonal array the first n columns will be used to provide shares to the players while the last column represents the secret to be shared if the dealer wishes to share a secret s only the rows of a whose last entry is s are used in the scheme the dealer randomly selects one of these rows and hands out to player i the entry in this row in column i as shares a factorial experiment is a statistically structured experiment in which several factors watering levels antibiotics fertilizers etc are applied to each experimental unit at finitely many levels which may be quantitative or qualitative in a full factorial experiment all combinations of levels of the factors need to be tested in a fractional factorial design only a subset of treatment combinations are used an orthogonal array can be used to design a fractional factorial experiment the columns represent the various factors and the entries are the levels at which the factors are observed an experimental run is a row of the orthogonal array that is a specific combination of factor levels the strength of the array determines the resolution of the fractional design when using one of these designs the treatment units and trial order should be randomized as much as the design allows for example one recommendation is that an appropriately sized orthogonal array be randomly selected from those available and that the run order then be randomized mixedlevel designs occur naturally in the statistical setting orthogonal arrays played a central role in the development of taguchi methods by genichi taguchi which took place during his visit to indian statistical institute in the early 1950s his methods were successfully applied and adopted by japanese and indian industries and subsequently were also embraced by us industry albeit with some reservations taguchis catalog contains both fixed and mixedlevel arrays orthogonal array testing is a black box testing technique which is a systematic statistical way of software testing it is used when the number of inputs to the system is relatively small but too large to allow for exhaustive testing of every possible input to the systems it is particularly effective in finding errors associated with faulty logic within computer software systems orthogonal arrays can be applied in user interface testing system testing regression testing and performance testing the permutations of factor levels comprising a single treatment are so chosen that their responses are uncorrelated and hence each treatment gives a unique piece of information the net effect of organizing the experiment in such treatments is that the same piece of information is gathered in the minimum number of experiments'</li></ul> |
| 30 | <ul><li>'##trolled analgesia intrathecal pump an external or implantable intrathecal pump infuses a local anesthetic such as bupivacaine andor an opioid such as morphine andor ziconotide andor some other nonopioid analgesic as clonidine currently only morphine and ziconotide are the only agents approved by the us food and drug administration for it analgesia directly into the fluidfilled space the subarachnoid cavity between the spinal cord and its protective sheath providing enhanced analgesia with reduced systemic side effects this can reduce the level of pain in otherwise intractable caseslongterm epidural catheter the outer layer of the sheath surrounding the spinal cord is called the dura mater between this and the surrounding vertebrae is the epidural space filled with connective tissue fat and blood vessels and crossed by the spinal nerve roots a longterm epidural catheter may be inserted into this space for three to six months to deliver anesthetics or analgesics the line carrying the drug may be threaded under the skin to emerge at the front of the person a process called tunneling recommended with longterm use to reduce the chance of any infection at the exit site reaching the epidural space spinal cord stimulation electrical stimulation of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord can produce analgesia first the leads are implanted guided by fluoroscopy and feedback from the patient and the generator is worn externally for several days to assess efficacy if pain is reduced by more than half the therapy is deemed to be suitable a small pocket is cut into the tissue beneath the skin of the upper buttocks chest wall or abdomen and the leads are threaded under the skin from the stimulation site to the pocket where they are attached to the snugly fitting generator it seems to be more helpful with neuropathic and ischemic pain than nociceptive pain but current evidence is too weak to recommend its use in the treatment of cancer pain due to the poor quality of most studies of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of cancer pain it is not possible to recommend integration of these therapies into the management of cancer pain there is weak evidence for a modest benefit from hypnosis studies of massage therapy produced mixed results and none found pain relief after 4 weeks reiki and touch therapy results were inconclusive acupuncture the most studied such treatment has demonstrated no benefit as an adjunct analgesic in cancer pain the evidence for music therapy is equivocal'</li><li>'anaplasia from ancient greek ανα ana backward πλασις plasis formation is a condition of cells with poor cellular differentiation losing the morphological characteristics of mature cells and their orientation with respect to each other and to endothelial cells the term also refers to a group of morphological changes in a cell nuclear pleomorphism altered nuclearcytoplasmic ratio presence of nucleoli high proliferation index that point to a possible malignant transformationsuch loss of structural differentiation is especially seen in most but not all malignant neoplasms sometimes the term also includes an increased capacity for multiplication lack of differentiation is considered a hallmark of aggressive malignancies for example it differentiates leiomyosarcomas from leiomyomas the term anaplasia literally means to form backward it implies dedifferentiation or loss of structural and functional differentiation of normal cells it is now known however that at least some cancers arise from stem cells in tissues in these tumors failure of differentiation rather than dedifferentiation of specialized cells account for undifferentiated tumors anaplastic cells display marked pleomorphism variability the nuclei are characteristically extremely hyperchromatic darkly stained and large the nuclearcytoplasmic ratio may approach 11 instead of the normal 14 or 16 giant cells that are considerably larger than their neighbors may be formed and possess either one enormous nucleus or several nuclei syncytia anaplastic nuclei are variable and bizarre in size and shape the chromatin is coarse and clumped and nucleoli may be of astounding size more important mitoses are often numerous and distinctly atypical anarchic multiple spindles may be seen and sometimes appear as tripolar or quadripolar forms also anaplastic cells usually fail to develop recognizable patterns of orientation to one another ie they lose normal polarity they may grow in sheets with total loss of communal structures such as gland formation or stratified squamous architecture anaplasia is the most extreme disturbance in cell growth encountered in the spectrum of cellular proliferations pleomorphism list of biological development disorders'</li><li>'human papillomavirus hpv liver hepatitis b virus hbv and hepatitis c virus hcv stomach helicobacter pylori h pylori lymphoid tissues epsteinbarr virus ebv nasopharynx ebv urinary bladder schistosoma hematobium and biliary tract opisthorchis viverrini clonorchis sinensis cancer has been thought to be a preventable disease since the time of roman physician galen who observed that unhealthy diet was correlated with cancer incidence in 1713 italian physician ramazzini hypothesized that abstinence caused lower rates of cervical cancer in nuns further observation in the 18th century led to the discovery that certain chemicals such as tobacco soot and tar leading to scrotal cancer in chimney sweepers as reported by percivall pot in 1775 could serve as carcinogens for humans although potts suggested preventive measures for chimney sweeps wearing clothes to prevent contact bodily contact with soot his suggestions were only put into practice in holland resulting in decreasing rates of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps later the 19th century brought on the onset of the classification of chemical carcinogensin the early 20th century physical and biological carcinogens such as x ray radiation or the rous sarcoma virus discovered 1911 were identified despite observed correlation of environmental or chemical factors with cancer development there was a deficit of formal prevention research and lifestyle changes for cancer prevention were not feasible during this timein europe in 1987 the european commission launched the european code against cancer to help educate the public about actions they can take to reduce their risk of getting cancer the first version of the code covered 10 recommendations covering tobacco alcohol diet weight sun exposure exposure to known carcinogens early detection and participation in organised breast and cervical cancer screening programmes in the early 1990s the european school of oncology led a review of the code and added details about the scientific evidence behind each of the recommendations later updates were coordinated by the international agency for research on cancer the fourth edition of the code 1 developed in 2012 ‒ 2013 also includes recommendations on participation in vaccination programmes for hepatitis b infants and human papillomavirus girls breast feeding and hormone replacement therapy and participation in organised colorectal cancer screening programmes brca1 and brca2 genetic blood test to verify familiar predisposizione to cancer microplastics ingested through diet human genetic enhancement the cancer prevention and treatment fund world cancer day'</li></ul> |
| 14 | <ul><li>'##als knockout similarly overexpression of either the nodal squintcyclops or oep with the knockout of the other does not show phenotypical differences this evidence coupled with the data that overexpression of oep shows no phenotype corroborates the role of egfcfc as an essential cofactor in nodal signaling in mouse frog and fish dapper2 is a negative regulator of mesoderm formation acting through the downregulation of the wnt and tgfβ nodal signaling pathways in zebrafish nodal is known to activate the gene expression of dapper2 in the cell surface dapper2 tightly binds to the active form of the activin type 1 receptors and targets the receptor for lysosomal degradation dapper2 overexpression mimics nodal coreceptor loss of function because nodal signal cannot be transduced and therefore it produces less mesoderm in the mouse embryo dpr2 mrna is located across all the embryo 75 days post conception dpc however its location changes at 85dpc where it is observed at the prospective somites and by 10dpc neural tube otic vesicle and gut because dapper2 and nodal are expressed in the same region this suggests that dapper antagonizes mesoderm induction signals derived from nodal somehow the reduction of activin receptors would lead to the decrease in activity of different tgfb pathways smad proteins are responsible for transducing nodal signals into the nucleus the binding of nodal proteins to activin or activinlike serinethreonine kinase receptors results in the phosphorylation of smad2 smad2 will then associate with smad4 and translocate into the nucleus thereby stimulating transcription of nodal target genes evidence has been shown that another smad smad3 can be phosphorylated by activated receptors and may also function as an activator of nodal genes however knockout of smad2 in mice leads to disruption of the formation of the primitive streak this is not sufficient to knockdown all mesoendodermal genes showing that smad3 has some overlapping function with smad2 however the expression of these genes is ubiquitous in smad2 ko embryos whereas it is limited in the wild type smad3 knockouts do not have a phenotype showing that expression overlap with smad2 is sufficient normal development molecules affecting nodal activation via smad ectodermin negatively regulates the'</li><li>'blastocyst cavity and fill it with loosely packed cells when the extraembryonic mesoderm is separated into two portions a new gap arises called the gestational sac this new cavity is responsible for detaching the embryo and its amnion and yolk sac from the far wall of the blastocyst which is now named the chorion when the extraembryonic mesoderm splits into two layers the amnion yolk sac and chorion also become doublelayered the amnion and chorion are composed of extraembryonic ectoderm and mesoderm whereas the yolk sac is composed of extraembryonic endoderm and mesoderm by day 13 the connecting stalk a dense portion of extraembryonic mesoderm restrains the embryonic disc in the gestational sac like the amnion the yolk sac is a fetal membrane that surrounds a cavity formation of the definitive yolk sac occurs after the extraembryonic mesoderm splits and it becomes a double layered structure with hypoblastderived endoderm on the inside and mesoderm surrounding the outside the definitive yolk sac contributes greatly to the embryo during the fourth week of development and executes critical functions for the embryo one of which being the formation of blood or hematopoiesis also primordial germ cells are first found in the wall of the yolk sac before primordial germ cell migration after the fourth week of development the growing embryonic disc becomes much larger than the yolk sac and eventually involutes before birth uncommonly the yolk sac may persist as the vitelline duct and cause a congenital out pouching of the digestive tract called meckels diverticulum in the third week gastrulation begins with the formation of the primitive streak gastrulation occurs when pluripotent stem cells differentiate into the three germ cell layers ectoderm mesoderm and endoderm during gastrulation cells of the epiblast migrate towards the primitive streak enter it and then move apart from it through a process called ingression on day 16 epiblast cells that are next to the primitive streak experience epithelialtomesenchymal transformation as they ingress through the primitive streak the first wave of epiblast cells takes over the hypoblast which slowly becomes replaced by new cells that eventually constitute the definitive endoderm the definitive endoderm is'</li><li>'mutations in these genes of drosophila suggests that segment polarity genes interactions are also responsible for neuroblast division affecting the quantity of neuroblasts as well as their specificity'</li></ul> |
| 40 | <ul><li>'also called the fat cantor set − a closed nowhere dense and thus meagre subset of the unit interval 0 1 displaystyle 01 that has positive lebesgue measure and is not a jordan measurable set the complement of the fat cantor set in jordan measure is a bounded open set that is not jordan measurable alexandrov topology lexicographic order topology on the unit square order topology lawson topology poset topology upper topology scott topology scott continuity priestley space roys lattice space split interval also called the alexandrov double arrow space and the two arrows space − all compact separable ordered spaces are orderisomorphic to a subset of the split interval it is compact hausdorff hereditarily lindelof and hereditarily separable but not metrizable its metrizable subspaces are all countable specialization preorder branching line − a nonhausdorff manifold double origin topology e8 manifold − a topological manifold that does not admit a smooth structure euclidean topology − the natural topology on euclidean space r n displaystyle mathbb r n induced by the euclidean metric which is itself induced by the euclidean norm real line − r displaystyle mathbb r unit interval − 0 1 displaystyle 01 extended real number line fake 4ball − a compact contractible topological 4manifold house with two rooms − a contractible 2dimensional simplicial complex that is not collapsible klein bottle lens space line with two origins also called the bugeyed line − it is a nonhausdorff manifold it is locally homeomorphic to euclidean space and thus locally metrizable but not metrizable and locally hausdorff but not hausdorff it is also a t1 locally regular space but not a semiregular space prufer manifold − a hausdorff 2dimensional real analytic manifold that is not paracompact real projective line torus 3torus solid torus unknot whitehead manifold − an open 3manifold that is contractible but not homeomorphic to r 3 displaystyle mathbb r 3 gieseking manifold − a cusped hyperbolic 3manifold of finite volume horosphere horocycle picard horn seifert – weber space gabriels horn − it has infinite surface area but finite volume lakes of wada − three disjoint connected open sets of r 2 displaystyle mathbb r 2 or 0 1 2 displaystyle 012 that they all have the same boundary hantzsche – wendt manifold − a compact orientable flat 3manifold it is'</li><li>'∇ x v κ v ∗ x displaystyle begincasesnabla gamma tmtimes gamma eto gamma enabla xvkappa vxendcases induced by an ehresmann connection is a covariant derivative on γe in the sense that ∇ x y v ∇ x v ∇ y v ∇ λ x v λ ∇ x v ∇ x v w ∇ x v ∇ x w ∇ x λ v λ ∇ x v ∇ x f v x f v f ∇ x v displaystyle beginalignednabla xyvnabla xvnabla yvnabla lambda xvlambda nabla xvnabla xvwnabla xvnabla xwnabla xlambda vlambda nabla xvnabla xfvxfvfnabla xvendaligned if and only if the connector map is linear with respect to the secondary vector bundle structure te p∗ tm on te then the connection is called linear note that the connector map is automatically linear with respect to the tangent bundle structure te πte e connection vector bundle double tangent bundle ehresmann connection vector bundle'</li><li>'phi varepsilon mathcal rdelta phi cup leftdelta phi varepsilon right in other words a nonempty set equipped with the proximal relator r δ φ ε displaystyle mathcal rdelta phi varepsilon has underlying structure provided by the proximal relator r δ φ displaystyle mathcal rdelta phi and provides a basis for the study of tolerance near sets in x displaystyle x that are near within some tolerance sets a b displaystyle ab in a descriptive pseudometric proximal relator space x r δ φ ε displaystyle xmathcal rdelta phi varepsilon are tolerance near sets ie a δ φ ε b displaystyle a delta phi varepsilon b provided d φ a b ε displaystyle dphi abvarepsilon relations with the same formal properties as similarity relations of sensations considered by poincare are nowadays after zeeman called tolerance relations a tolerance τ displaystyle tau on a set o displaystyle o is a relation τ ⊆ o × o displaystyle tau subseteq otimes o that is reflexive and symmetric in algebra the term tolerance relation is also used in a narrow sense to denote reflexive and symmetric relations defined on universes of algebras that are also compatible with operations of a given algebra ie they are generalizations of congruence relations see eg in referring to such relations the term algebraic tolerance or the term algebraic tolerance relation is used transitive tolerance relations are equivalence relations a set o displaystyle o together with a tolerance τ displaystyle tau is called a tolerance space denoted o τ displaystyle otau a set a ⊆ o displaystyle asubseteq o is a τ displaystyle tau preclass or briefly preclass when τ displaystyle tau is understood if and only if for any x y ∈ a displaystyle xyin a x y ∈ τ displaystyle xyin tau the family of all preclasses of a tolerance space is naturally ordered by set inclusion and preclasses that are maximal with respect to set inclusion are called τ displaystyle tau classes or just classes when τ displaystyle tau is understood the family of all classes of the space o τ displaystyle otau is particularly interesting and is denoted by h τ o displaystyle htau o the family h τ o displaystyle htau o is a covering of o displaystyle o the work on similarity by poincare and zeeman presage the introduction of near sets and research on similarity relations eg in science and'</li></ul> |
| 7 | <ul><li>'puretone audiometry is the main hearing test used to identify hearing threshold levels of an individual enabling determination of the degree type and configuration of a hearing loss and thus providing a basis for diagnosis and management puretone audiometry is a subjective behavioural measurement of a hearing threshold as it relies on patient responses to pure tone stimuli therefore puretone audiometry is only used on adults and children old enough to cooperate with the test procedure as with most clinical tests standardized calibration of the test environment the equipment and the stimuli is needed before testing proceeds in reference to iso ansi or other standardization body puretone audiometry only measures audibility thresholds rather than other aspects of hearing such as sound localization and speech recognition however there are benefits to using puretone audiometry over other forms of hearing test such as click auditory brainstem response abr puretone audiometry provides ear specific thresholds and uses frequency specific pure tones to give place specific responses so that the configuration of a hearing loss can be identified as puretone audiometry uses both air and bone conduction audiometry the type of loss can also be identified via the airbone gap although puretone audiometry has many clinical benefits it is not perfect at identifying all losses such as ‘ dead regions ’ of the cochlea and neuropathies such as auditory processing disorder apd this raises the question of whether or not audiograms accurately predict someones perceived degree of disability the current international organization for standardization iso standard for puretone audiometry is iso82531 which was first published in 1983 the current american national standards institute ansi standard for puretone audiometry is ansiasa s3212004 prepared by the acoustical society of america in the united kingdom the british society of audiology bsa is responsible for publishing the recommended procedure for puretone audiometry as well as many other audiological procedures the british recommended procedure is based on international standards although there are some differences the bsarecommended procedures are in accordance with the iso82531 standard the bsarecommended procedures provide a best practice test protocol for professionals to follow increasing validity and allowing standardisation of results across britainin the united states the american speech – language – hearing association asha published guidelines for manual puretone threshold audiometry in 2005 there are cases where conventional puretone audiometry is not an appropriate or effective method of threshold testing procedural changes to the conventional test method may be necessary with populations who are unable to cooperate with the test in order to obtain hearing thresholds sound field audiometry may be more suitable when patients are unable to wear ear'</li><li>'2015 the ahaah model has not been adopted by the nato communityboth niosh and the us army aeromedical research laboratories funded research to investigate the classical conditioning that has been integral to the warned ahaah model in the warned mode the middle ear muscles are assumed to be already contracted in the unwarned mode the middle ear muscles are contracted after a loud sound exceeds a threshold of about 134 db peak spl several studies conducted between 2014 and 2020 have examined the prevalence and reliability of the memc according to a nationally representative survey of more than 15000 persons the prevalence of the acoustic reflex measured in persons aged 18 to 30 was less than 90 a followon study that carefully assessed 285 persons with normal hearing concluded that acoustic reflexes are not pervasive and should not be included in damage risk criteria and health assessments for impulsive noise the anticipatory contraction integral to the warned response is not reliable in persons with normal hearing the completion of the usaarl live fire exposure study demonstrated that the early activation of the memc was not present in 18 of 19 subjects during tests with an m4rifle using live ammunition experienced shooters according to the hypothesis of the ahaah developers would exhibit an early contraction that precedes the trigger pull the warned hypothesis was demonstrated to be insufficiently prevalent to merit including the memc in subsequent damage risk criteria'</li><li>'a direct acoustic cochlear implant also daci is an acoustic implant which converts sound in mechanical vibrations that stimulate directly the perilymph inside the cochlea the hearing function of the external and middle ear is being taken over by a little motor of a cochlear implant directly stimulating the cochlea with a daci people with no or almost no residual hearing but with a still functioning inner ear can again perceive speech sounds and music daci is an official product category as indicated by the nomenclature of gmdna daci tries to provide an answer for people with hearing problems for which no solution exists today people with some problems at the level of the cochlea can be helped with a hearing aid a hearing aid will absorb the incoming sound from a microphone and offer enhanced through the natural way for larger reinforcements this may cause problems with feedback and distortion a hearing aid also simply provides more loudness no more resolution users will view this often as all sounds louder but i understand nothing more than before once a hearing aid offers no solution anymore one can switch to a cochlear implant a cochlear implant captures the sound and sends it electrically through the cochlea to the auditory nerve in this way completely deaf patients can perceive sounds again however as soon as there are problems not only at the level of the cochlea but also in the middle ear the socalled conductive losses then there are more efficient ways to get sound to the partially functioning cochlea the most obvious solution is a baha which brings the sound to the cochlea via bone conduction however patients who have both problems with the cochlea as with the middle ear ie patients with mixed losses none of the above solutions is ideal to this end the direct acoustic cochlear implant was developed a daci brings the sound directly to the cochlea and provides the most natural way of sound amplification the first daci was implanted in hannover in belgium the first daci was implanted at the catholic university hospital of leuven in the netherlands the radboud clinic in nijmegen was the first while in poland it was first implanted at the institute of physiology and pathology of hearing in warsaw baha hearing cochlear implant'</li></ul> |
| 26 | <ul><li>'splat quenching is a metallurgical metal morphing technique used for forming metals with a particular crystal structure by means of extremely rapid quenching or cooling a typical technique for splat quenching involves casting molten metal by pouring it between two massive cooled copper rollers that are constantly chilled by the circulation of water these provide a nearinstant quench because of the large surface area in close contact with the melt the thin sheet formed has a low ratio of volume relative to the area used for cooling products that are formed through this process have a crystal structure that is nearamorphous or noncrystalline they are commonly used for their valuable magnetic properties specifically high magnetic permeability this makes them useful for magnetic shielding and for lowloss transformer cores in electrical grids the process of splat quenching involves rapid quenching or cooling of molten metal a typical procedure for splat quenching involves pouring the molten metal between two cooled copper rollers that are circulated with water to transfer the heat away from the metal causing it to almost instantaneously solidifya more efficient splat quenching technique is duwezs and willens gun technique their technique produces higher rates of cooling of the droplet of metal because the sample is propelled at high velocities and hits a quencher plate causing its surface area to increase which immediately solidifies the metal this allows for a wider range of metals that can be quenched and be given amorphouslike features instead of the general iron alloyanother technique involves the consecutive spraying of the molten metal onto a chemical vapor deposition surface however the layers do not fuse together as desired and this causes oxides to be contained in the structure and pores to form around the structure manufacturing companies take an interest in the resultant products because of their nearnet shaping capabilities some varying factors in splat quenching are the drop size and velocity of the metal in ensuring the complete solidification of the metal in cases where the volume of the drop is too large or the velocity is too slow the metal will not solidify past equilibrium causing it to remelt therefore experiments are carried out to determine the precise volume and velocity of the droplet that will ensure complete solidification of a certain metal intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the glassforming ability of metallic alloys were analyzed and classified the nearinstantaneous quenching of the metal causes the metal to have a nearamorphous crystalline structure which is very uncharacteristic of a'</li><li>'object these tend to consist of either cooling different areas of an alloy at different rates by quickly heating in a localized area and then quenching by thermochemical diffusion or by tempering different areas of an object at different temperatures such as in differential tempering differential hardening some techniques allow different areas of a single object to receive different heat treatments this is called differential hardening it is common in high quality knives and swords the chinese jian is one of the earliest known examples of this and the japanese katana may be the most widely known the nepalese khukuri is another example this technique uses an insulating layer like layers of clay to cover the areas that are to remain soft the areas to be hardened are left exposed allowing only certain parts of the steel to fully harden when quenched flame hardening flame hardening is used to harden only a portion of the metal unlike differential hardening where the entire piece is heated and then cooled at different rates in flame hardening only a portion of the metal is heated before quenching this is usually easier than differential hardening but often produces an extremely brittle zone between the heated metal and the unheated metal as cooling at the edge of this heataffected zone is extremely rapid induction hardening induction hardening is a surface hardening technique in which the surface of the metal is heated very quickly using a nocontact method of induction heating the alloy is then quenched producing a martensite transformation at the surface while leaving the underlying metal unchanged this creates a very hard wearresistant surface while maintaining the proper toughness in the majority of the object crankshaft journals are a good example of an induction hardened surface case hardening case hardening is a thermochemical diffusion process in which an alloying element most commonly carbon or nitrogen diffuses into the surface of a monolithic metal the resulting interstitial solid solution is harder than the base material which improves wear resistance without sacrificing toughnesslaser surface engineering is a surface treatment with high versatility selectivity and novel properties since the cooling rate is very high in laser treatment metastable even metallic glass can be obtained by this method although quenching steel causes the austenite to transform into martensite all of the austenite usually does not transform some austenite crystals will remain unchanged even after quenching below the martensite finish mf temperature further transformation of the austenite into martensite can be induced by slowly cooling the metal to extremely low temperatures cold treating generally consists of cooling the steel to around [UNK]'</li><li>'false brinelling is a bearing damage caused by fretting with or without corrosion that causes imprints that look similar to brinelling but are caused by a different mechanism false brinelling may occur in bearings which act under small oscillations or vibrationsthe basic cause of false brinelling is that the design of the bearing does not have a method for redistribution of lubricant without large rotational movement of all bearing surfaces in the raceway lubricant is pushed out of a loaded region during small oscillatory movements and vibration where the bearings surfaces repeatedly do not move very far without lubricant wear is increased when the small oscillatory movements occur again it is possible for the resulting wear debris to oxidize and form an abrasive compound which further accelerates wear in normal operation a rollingelement bearing has the rollers and races separated by a thin layer of lubricant such as grease or oil although these lubricants normally appear liquid not solid under high pressure they act as solids and keep the bearing and race from touchingif the lubricant is removed the bearings and races can touch directly while bearings and races appear smooth to the eye they are microscopically rough thus high points of each surface can touch but valleys do not the bearing load is thus spread over much less area increasing the contact stress causing pieces of each surface to break off or to become pressurewelded then break off when the bearing rolls on the brokenoff pieces are also called wear debris wear debris is bad because it is relatively large compared to the surrounding surface finish and thus creates more regions of high contact stress worse the steel in ordinary bearings can oxidize rust producing a more abrasive compound which accelerates wear the simulation of false brinelling is possible with the help of the finite element method for the simulation the relative displacements slip between rolling element and raceway as well as the pressure in the rolling contact are determined for comparison between simulation and experiments the friction work density is used which is the product of friction coefficient slip and local pressure the simulation results can be used to determine critical application parameters or to explain the damage mechanisms physical simulation of the false brinelling mechanism has been standardized since the 1980s in the fafnir bearing test instrument where two sets of thrust ball bearings are compressed with a fixed load and the bearings are oscillated by an excentric arm under standardised conditions this culminated in the astm d4170 standard although an old method this is still the leading quality control method for greases that need'</li></ul> |
| 35 | <ul><li>'aeolian processes also spelled eolian pertain to wind activity in the study of geology and weather and specifically to the winds ability to shape the surface of the earth or other planets winds may erode transport and deposit materials and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation a lack of soil moisture and a large supply of unconsolidated sediments although water is a much more powerful eroding force than wind aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as desertsthe term is derived from the name of the greek god aeolus the keeper of the winds aeolian processes are those processes of erosion transport and deposition of sediments that are caused by wind at or near the surface of the earth sediment deposits produced by the action of wind and the sedimentary structures characteristic of these deposits are also described as aeolianaeolian processes are most important in areas where there is little or no vegetation however aeolian deposits are not restricted to arid climates they are also seen along shorelines along stream courses in semiarid climates in areas of ample sand weathered from weakly cemented sandstone outcrops and in areas of glacial outwashloess which is silt deposited by wind is common in humid to subhumid climates much of north america and europe are underlain by sand and loess of pleistocene age originating from glacial outwashthe lee downwind side of river valleys in semiarid regions are often blanketed with sand and sand dunes examples in north america include the platte arkansas and missouri rivers wind erodes the earths surface by deflation the removal of loose finegrained particles by the turbulent action of the wind and by abrasion the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action and sandblasting by windborne particles once entrained in the wind collisions between particles further break them down a process called attritionworldwide erosion by water is more important than erosion by wind but wind erosion is important in semiarid and arid regions wind erosion is increased by some human activities such as the use of 4x4 vehicles deflation is the lifting and removal of loose material from the surface by wind turbulence it takes place by three mechanisms tractionsurface creep saltation and suspension traction or surface creep is a process of larger grains sliding or rolling across the surface saltation refers to particles bouncing across the surface for short distances suspended particles are fully entrained in the wind which carries them for long distances saltation likely accounts for 50 – 70 of deflation while suspension accounts for 30 – 40 and surface creep accounts for 5 – 25 regions which experience'</li><li>'an anthrosol or anthropogenic soil in the world reference base for soil resources wrb is a type of soil that has been formed or heavily modified due to longterm human activity such as from irrigation addition of organic waste or wetfield cultivation used to create paddy fields such soils can be formed from any parent soil and are commonly found in areas where agriculture has been practiced for centuries anthrosols can be found worldwide though they tend to have different soil horizons in different regions for example in northwestern europe anthrosols commonly have plaggic or terric strongly affected by manure horizons and together they cover some 500000 hectares due to the broad range of anthrosol compositions and structures compared to other soils of the same order of classification there is debate on whether anthrosol should be included as an independent soil group anthrosols can have different characteristics based on their origins a high phosphate concentration is a common indicator of decaying organic matter such as bones tissue or excrement a dark color can also be the result of a high amount of organic matter or of calcium carbonate iron and manganese a high ph or carbonate concentration in anthropogenic terms is likely the result of the addition of wood ash to the soil presence of human artifacts such as tools and waste can also be present in anthrosols other indicators include nitrogen calcium potassium magnesium iron copper and zinc concentrations the presence of anthrosols can be used to detect longterm human habitation and has been used by archaeologists to identify sites of interest anthrosols that can indicate such activity can be described as for instance plaggic from the longterm use of manure to enrich soil irragric from the use of flood or surface irrigation hortic from deep cultivation manure use and presence of other anthropogenic organic matter such as kitchen waste anthraquic from anthropos – man and aqua – water – meaning produced by manmade soil moisture management including irrigation or terracing anthrosols can be detected by visual inspection of soils or even from satellite imagery because of a high concentration of minerals and in particular decayed organic matter anthrosols are useful for agriculture in an environmental context wellmanaged anthrosols act as a carbon sink anthrepts from a different soil classification system necrosol technosols terra preta precolombian agriculture in the amazon basin howard j 2017 anthropogenic soils springer international publishing isbn 9783319543307 w zech p schad g hint'</li><li>'processes are seldom observed and because pedogenic processes change over time knowledge of soil genesis is imperative and basic to soil use and management human influence on or adjustment to the factors and processes of soil formation can be best controlled and planned using knowledge about soil genesis soils are natural clay factories clay includes both clay mineral structures and particles less than 2 µm in diameter shales worldwide are to a considerable extent simply soil clays that have been formed in the pedosphere and eroded and deposited in the ocean basins to become lithified at a later date olivier de serres vasily v dokuchaev friedrich albert fallou konstantin d glinka eugene w hilgard francis d hole hans jenny curtis f marbut bernard palissy agricultural sciences basic topics list of soil topics pedogenesis'</li></ul> |
| 19 | <ul><li>'buildup of camp in the myocardium milrinone increases contractile force heart rate and the extent of relaxation the newest generation in pph pharmacy shows great promise bosentan is a nonspecific endothelinreceptor antagonist capable of neutralizing the most identifiable cirrhosis associated vasoconstrictor safely and efficaciously improving oxygenation and pvr especially in conjunction with sildenafil finally where the high pressures and pulmonary tree irritations of pph cause a medial thickening of the vessels smooth muscle migration and hyperplasia one can remove the cause – control the pressure transplant the liver – yet those morphological changes persist sometimes necessitating lung transplantation imatinib designed to treat chronic myeloid leukemia has been shown to reverse the pulmonary remodeling associated with pph following diagnosis mean survival of patients with pph is 15 months the survival of those with cirrhosis is sharply curtailed by pph but can be significantly extended by both medical therapy and liver transplantation provided the patient remains eligibleeligibility for transplantation is generally related to mean pulmonary artery pressure pap given the fear that those pph patients with high pap will have right heart failure following the stress of posttransplant reperfusion or in the immediate perioperative period patients are typically riskstratified based on mean pap indeed the operationrelated mortality rate is greater than 50 when preoperative mean pap values lie between 35 and 50 mm hg if mean pap exceeds 40 – 45 transplantation is associated with a perioperative mortality of 7080 in those cases without preoperative medical therapy patients then are considered to have a high risk of perioperative death once their mean pap exceeds 35 mmhgsurvival is best inferred from published institutional experiences at one institution without treatment 1year survival was 46 and 5year survival was 14 with medical therapy 1year survival was 88 and 5year survival was 55 survival at 5 years with medical therapy followed by liver transplantation was 67 at another institution of the 67 patients with pph from 1652 total cirrhotics evaluated for transplant half 34 were placed on the waiting list of these 16 48 were transplanted at a time when 25 of all patients who underwent full evaluation received new livers meaning the diagnosis of pph made a patient twice as likely to be transplanted once on the waiting list of those listed for transplant with pph 11 33 were eventually removed because of pph and 5 15 died on the'</li><li>'##phorylaseb kinase deficiency gsd type xi gsd 11 fanconibickel syndrome glut2 deficiency hepatorenal glycogenosis with renal fanconi syndrome no longer considered a glycogen storage disease but a defect of glucose transport the designation of gsd type xi gsd 11 has been repurposed for muscle lactate dehydrogenase deficiency ldha gsd type xiv gsd 14 no longer classed as a gsd but as a congenital disorder of glycosylation type 1t cdg1t affects the phosphoglucomutase enzyme gene pgm1 phosphoglucomutase 1 deficiency is both a glycogenosis and a congenital disorder of glycosylation individuals with the disease have both a glycolytic block as muscle glycogen cannot be broken down as well as abnormal serum transferrin loss of complete nglycans as it affects glycogenolysis it has been suggested that it should redesignated as gsdxiv lafora disease is considered a complex neurodegenerative disease and also a glycogen metabolism disorder polyglucosan storage myopathies are associated with defective glycogen metabolism not mcardle disease same gene but different symptoms myophosphorylasea activity impaired autosomal dominant mutation on pygm gene ampindependent myophosphorylase activity impaired whereas the ampdependent activity was preserved no exercise intolerance adultonset muscle weakness accumulation of the intermediate filament desmin in the myofibers of the patients myophosphorylase comes in two forms form a is phosphorylated by phosporylase kinase form b is not phosphorylated both forms have two conformational states active r or relaxed and inactive t or tense when either form a or b are in the active state then the enzyme converts glycogen into glucose1phosphate myophosphorylaseb is allosterically activated by amp being in larger concentration than atp andor glucose6phosphate see glycogen phosphorylase § regulation unknown glycogenosis related to dystrophy gene deletion patient has a previously undescribed myopathy associated with both becker muscular dystrophy and a glycogen storage disorder of unknown aetiology methods to diagnose glycogen storage diseases include'</li><li>'groups at positions 3α and 7α this is 3α7αdihydroxy5βcholan24oic acid or as more usually known chenodeoxycholic acid this bile acid was first isolated from the domestic goose from which the cheno portion of the name was derived greek χην goose the 5β in the name denotes the orientation of the junction between rings a and b of the steroid nucleus in this case they are bent the term cholan denotes a particular steroid structure of 24 carbons and the 24oic acid indicates that the carboxylic acid is found at position 24 at the end of the sidechain chenodeoxycholic acid is made by many species and is the prototypic functional bile acidan alternative acidic pathway of bile acid synthesis is initiated by mitochondrial sterol 27hydroxylase cyp27a1 expressed in liver and also in macrophages and other tissues cyp27a1 contributes significantly to total bile acid synthesis by catalyzing sterol side chain oxidation after which cleavage of a threecarbon unit in the peroxisomes leads to formation of a c24 bile acid minor pathways initiated by 25hydroxylase in the liver and 24hydroxylase in the brain also may contribute to bile acid synthesis 7αhydroxylase cyp7b1 generates oxysterols which may be further converted in the liver to cdcacholic acid 3α7α12αtrihydroxy5βcholan24oic acid the most abundant bile acid in humans and many other species was discovered before chenodeoxycholic acid it is a trihydroxybile acid with 3 hydroxyl groups 3α 7α and 12α in its synthesis in the liver 12α hydroxylation is performed by the additional action of cyp8b1 as this had already been described the discovery of chenodeoxycholic acid with 2 hydroxyl groups made this new bile acid a deoxycholic acid in that it had one fewer hydroxyl group than cholic aciddeoxycholic acid is formed from cholic acid by 7dehydroxylation resulting in 2 hydroxyl groups 3α and 12α this process with chenodeoxycholic acid results in a bile acid with only a 3α hydroxyl group termed lithocholic acid litho stone having been identified first in a gallstone from a calf it is poorly watersoluble and rather toxic to cellsdifferent vertebrate families have evolved to use modifications of most'</li></ul> |
| 20 | <ul><li>'sees it as a steady evolution of british parliamentary institutions benevolently watched over by whig aristocrats and steadily spreading social progress and prosperity it described a continuity of institutions and practices since anglosaxon times that lent to english history a special pedigree one that instilled a distinctive temper in the english nation as whigs liked to call it and an approach to the world which issued in law and lent legal precedent a role in preserving or extending the freedoms of englishmenpaul rapin de thoyrass history of england published in 1723 became the classic whig history for the first half of the eighteenth century rapin claimed that the english had preserved their ancient constitution against the absolutist tendencies of the stuarts however rapins history lost its place as the standard history of england in the late 18th century and early 19th century to that of david humewilliam blackstones commentaries on the laws of england 1765 – 1769 reveals many whiggish traitsaccording to arthur marwick however henry hallam was the first whig historian publishing constitutional history of england in 1827 which greatly exaggerated the importance of parliaments or of bodies whig historians thought were parliaments while tending to interpret all political struggles in terms of the parliamentary situation in britain during the nineteenth century in terms that is of whig reformers fighting the good fight against tory defenders of the status quo in the history of england 1754 – 1761 hume challenged whig views of the past and the whig historians in turn attacked hume but they could not dent his history in the early 19th century some whig historians came to incorporate humes views dominant for the previous fifty years these historians were members of the new whigs around charles james fox 1749 – 1806 and lord holland 1773 – 1840 in opposition until 1830 and so needed a new historical philosophy fox himself intended to write a history of the glorious revolution of 1688 but only managed the first year of james iis reign a fragment was published in 1808 james mackintosh then sought to write a whig history of the glorious revolution published in 1834 as the history of the revolution in england in 1688 hume still dominated english historiography but this changed when thomas babington macaulay entered the field utilising fox and mackintoshs work and manuscript collections macaulays history of england was published in a series of volumes from 1848 to 1855 it proved an immediate success replacing humes history and becoming the new orthodoxy as if to introduce a linear progressive view of history the first chapter of macaulays history of england proposes the history of our country during the last hundred and sixty years is eminently the history of physical'</li><li>'laws in the 1950s mark d naison 2005 describes the bronx african american history project baahp an oral community history project developed by the bronx county historical society its goal was to document the histories of black working and middleclass residents of the south bronx neighborhood of morrisania in new york city since the 1940s the middle east the middle east often requires oral history methods of research mainly because of the relative lack in written and archival history and its emphasis on oral records and traditions furthermore because of its population transfers refugees and emigres become suitable objects for oral history research syria katharina lange studied the tribal histories of syria the oral histories in this area could not be transposed into tangible written form due to their positionalities which lange describes as “ taking sides ” the positionality of oral history could lead to conflict and tension the tribal histories are typically narrated by men while histories are also told by women they are not accepted locally as “ real history ” oral histories often detail the lives and feats of ancestors genealogy is a prominent subject in the area according to lange the oral historians often tell their own personalized genealogies to demonstrate their credibility both in their social standing and their expertise in the field china the rise of oral history is a new trend in historical studies in china that began in the late twentieth century some oral historians stress the collection of eyewitness accounts of the words and deeds of important historical figures and what really happened during those important historical events which is similar to common practice in the west while the others focus more on important people and event asking important figures to describe the decision making and details of important historical events in december 2004 the chinese association of oral history studies was established the establishment of this institution is thought to signal that the field of oral history studies in china has finally moved into a new phase of organized development uzbekistan from 2003 to 2004 professors marianne kamp and russell zanca researched agricultural collectivization in uzbekistan in part by using oral history methodology to fill in gaps in information missing from the central state archive of uzbekistan the goal of the project was to learn more about life in the 1920s and 1930s to study the impact of the soviet unions conquest 20 interviews each were conducted in the fergana valley tashkent bukhara khorezm and kashkadarya regions their interviews uncovered stories of famine and death that had not been widely known outside of local memory in the region southeast asia while oral tradition is an integral part of ancient southeast asian history oral history is a relatively recent development since the 1960s oral history has been accorded increasing attention on institutional and individual'</li><li>'of the past university of birmingham 10 – 12 september 2004'</li></ul> |
| 11 | <ul><li>'a sonographer is an allied healthcare professional who specializes in the use of ultrasonic imaging devices to produce diagnostic images scans videos or threedimensional volumes of anatomy and diagnostic data the requirements for clinical practice vary greatly by country sonography requires specialized education and skills to acquire analyze and optimize information in the image due to the high levels of decisional latitude and diagnostic input sonographers have a high degree of responsibility in the diagnostic process many countries require medical sonographers to have professional certification sonographers have core knowledge in ultrasound physics crosssectional anatomy physiology and pathology a sonologist is a medical doctor who has undergone additional medical ultrasound training to diagnose and treat diseases sonologist is licensed to perform and write ultrasound imaging reports independently or verifies a sonographers report prescribe medications and medical certificates and give clinical consultations a sonologist may practice in multiple modalities or specialize in only one field such as obstetric gynecology heart emergency and vascular ultrasound prior to 1970 many individuals performed sonography for research purposes and those assisting with the imaging were considered technicians or technologists and in 1973 in the united states the occupation of diagnostic medical technology was established as sonography become more widely used within healthcare settings today sonographer is the preferred term for the allied healthcare professionals who perform diagnostic medical sonography or diagnostic ultrasound the alternative term ultrasonographer is much less commonly used the australasian sonographers association asa was formed in 1992 in response to the desire of sonographers across australia for an organisation that represents and considers issues important to sonographers in the australian healthcare environment the asa has more than 5000 individual member sonographers from australia and new zealand and about 30 corporate partners the asa has pledged to pursue high standards within the practice of medical sonography and has a structure of a board of directors and multiple representative branches in all australian states and new zealandaustralian sonographers must be accredited by the australian sonographers accreditation registry asar whose brief is to accredit and reaccredit on a regular basis postgraduate ultrasound programs offered by australian universities and to establish the criteria against which those programs and any other future australian and new zealand programs are to be judged in addition a register of accredited medical sonographers and accredited student sonographers is maintained and their continuing professional development activities monitored and recordedthe health insurance commissison in association with the asar introduced in 2002 a program of accreditation and continuing professional education for sonographers the asar recognises registration with the australian orthoptic board as appropriate accreditation for'</li><li>'in clinical cardiology the term diastolic function is most commonly referred as how the heart fills parallel to diastolic function the term systolic function is usually referenced in terms of the left ventricular ejection fraction lvef which is the ratio of stroke volume and enddiastolic volume due to the epidemic of heart failure particularly the cases determined as diastolic heart failure it is increasingly urgent and crucial to understand the meaning of “ diastolic function ” unlike systolic function which can be simply evaluated by lvef there are no established dimensionless parameters for diastolic function assessment hence to further study diastolic function the complicated and speculative physiology must be taken into consideration how the heart works during its filling period still has many misconceptions remaining to better understand diastolic function it is crucial to realize that the left ventricle is a mechanical suction pump at and for a little while after the mitral valve opening in other words when mitral valve opens the atrium does not push blood into the ventricle instead it is the ventricle that mechanically sucks in blood from the atrium the energy that drives the suction process is generated from phase of systole during systole to overcome the peripheral arterial load at ejection ventricle contracts which also compresses elastic tissues internal to and external to the myocardium then when cardiac muscle relaxes the energy captured by compressed elements releases driving the recoil of ventricular wall until a new balanced equilibrium state is reachedduring diastole the ventricle of heart must remain elastic or compliant enough and have capacity to hold incoming blood to guarantee effectiveness of the filling phase hence stiffness and relaxation are ventricles intrinsic feature parameters that are practical in evaluating and quantifying diastolic function in addition volumetric load serves as an extrinsic indicating parameter that modulates diastolic function the most established index to describe left ventricular diastolic function is tau left ventricular diastolic time constant measurement of tau is traditionally delivered in a catheter lab by an invasive method recently noninvasive measurement of tau is available for mitral regurgitation or aortic regurgitation patients in an echo labthere have been many attempts intending for extracting both intrinsic and extrinsic properties early attempts concentrated on pulsewave dopplerecho measured transmitral flow velocity contoursin terms of filling diastolic intervals consist of early rapid filling ewaves followed by diastasis and followed'</li><li>'a cardiovascular technician also known as a vascular technician is health professional that deal with the circulatory system technicians who use ultrasound to examine the heart chambers valves and vessels are referred to as cardiac sonographers they use ultrasound instrumentation to create images called echocardiograms an echocardiogram may be performed while the patient is either resting or physically active technicians may administer medication to physically active patients to assess their heart function cardiac sonographers also may assist transesophageal echocardiography which involves placing a tube in the patients esophagus to obtain ultrasound images those who assist in the diagnosis of disorders affecting the circulation are known as vascular technologist vascular specialists or vascular sonographers they obtain a medical history evaluate pulses and assess blood flow in arteries and veins by listening to the vascular flow sounds for abnormalities then they perform a noninvasive procedure using ultrasound instrumentation to record vascular information such as vascular blood flow blood pressure changes in limb volume oxygen saturation cerebral circulation peripheral circulation and abdominal circulation many of these tests are performed during or immediately after surgery cardiovascular technicians who obtain ekgs are known as electrocardiograph or ekg technicians to take a basic ekg which traces electrical impulses transmitted by the heart technicians attach electrodes to the patients chest arms and legs and then manipulate switches on an ekg machine to obtain a reading an ekg is printed out for interpretation by the physician this test is done before most kinds of surgery or as part of a routine physical examination especially on persons who have reached middle age or who have a history of cardiovascular problems ekg technicians with advanced training setup holter monitor and stress testing for holter monitoring technicians place electrodes on the patients chest and attach a portable ekg monitor to the patients belt following 24 or more hours of normal activity by the patient the technician removes a tape from the monitor and places it in a scanner after checking the quality of the recorded impulses on an electronic screen the technician usually prints the information from the tape for analysis by a physician physicians use the output from the scanner to diagnose heart ailments such as heart rhythm abnormalities or problems with pacemakers for a treadmill stress test ekg technicians document the patients medical history explain the procedure connect the patient to an ekg monitor and obtain a baseline reading and resting blood pressure next they monitor the hearts performance while the patient is walking on a treadmill gradually increasing the treadmills speed to observe the effect of increased exertion the position is generally unlicensed and skills are learned on the job however two and fouryear training programs to'</li></ul> |
| 18 | <ul><li>'5 p 0 5 t 1 − t 4 p 1 10 t 2 1 − t 3 p 2 10 t 3 1 − t 2 p 3 5 t 4 1 − t p 4 t 5 p 5 0 [UNK] t [UNK] 1 displaystyle beginalignedmathbf b t1t5mathbf p 05t1t4mathbf p 110t21t3mathbf p 210t31t2mathbf p 35t41tmathbf p 4t5mathbf p 50leqslant tleqslant 1endaligned some terminology is associated with these parametric curves we have b t [UNK] i 0 n b i n t p i 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 displaystyle mathbf b tsum i0nbintmathbf p i 0leq tleq 1 where the polynomials b i n t n i t i 1 − t n − i i 0 … n displaystyle bintn choose iti1tni i0ldots n are known as bernstein basis polynomials of degree n t0 1 1 − t0 1 and the binomial coefficient n i displaystyle scriptstyle n choose i is n i n i n − i displaystyle n choose ifrac nini the points pi are called control points for the bezier curve the polygon formed by connecting the bezier points with lines starting with p0 and finishing with pn is called the bezier polygon or control polygon the convex hull of the bezier polygon contains the bezier curve sometimes it is desirable to express the bezier curve as a polynomial instead of a sum of less straightforward bernstein polynomials application of the binomial theorem to the definition of the curve followed by some rearrangement will yield b t [UNK] j 0 n t j c j displaystyle mathbf b tsum j0ntjmathbf c j where c j n n − j [UNK] i 0 j − 1 i j p i i j − i [UNK] m 0 j − 1 n − m [UNK] i 0 j − 1 i j p i i j − i displaystyle mathbf c jfrac nnjsum i0jfrac 1ijmathbf p iijiprod m0j1nmsum i0jfrac 1ijmathbf p iiji this could be practical if c j displaystyle mathbf c j can be computed prior to many evaluations of b t displaystyle mathbf b t however one should use caution as high order curves may lack'</li><li>'##lde as the successor institution to the grandducal saxon art school founded in 1906 by the grand duke of saxonyweimar walter gropius the architect acted as director from 1919 to 1928 after the relationship with the increasingly rightwing dominated thuringian state had become progressively more and more strained the bauhaus was forced to close down in 1925 due to political pressure the declaration of closure had already been published in numerous daily newspapers on december 29 1924 however it only became legally binding after the expiration of the contracts which were valid until march 31 1925 the mayor of dessau fritz hesse and his cultural advisor ludwig grote made it possible for gropius to move the school to dessau where the bauhaus was rebuilt between 1925 and 1926 according to gropius designs and recognized as the state university of anhalt in 1926 formation in march 1925 gropius office was commissioned by the city of dessau to design the community building for the dessau school of arts and crafts from 1926 onwards technical schools and the bauhaus in september 1925 construction of the joint school building began the toppingout ceremony was held on march 21 1926 and the inauguration took place on december 4 1926 the school had planned and carried out large parts of the furnishings themselves furniture and fixtures came from the carpentry workshop seating in the assembly hall by marcel breuer for the classrooms in the bridge wing as well as the workshops walter gropius decided to use stools exclusively from the chemnitzbased company rowac the lamps were designed in the metal workshop mainly by marianne brandt lamps in the assembly hall by max krajewsky furniture fabrics and curtain fabrics were made in the inhouse weaving mill under gunta stolzl the lettering came from the advertising workshop and the color scheme from the mural painting workshop with its foundation in 1926 an architecture department was also started up for the first time which was headed by the swissborn hannes meyer in 1927 in 1928 gropius resigned from management meyer who was highly politically involved succeeded him on april 1 1928 and expanded the architecture department but was also dismissed for political reasons on august 1 1930 and emigrated with his family and a group of his students to moscow he was succeeded by ludwig mies van der rohe who was unable to keep the bauhaus out of the political turmoil despite the schools professional and academic success period of national socialism in 1931 a little over a year before hitlers seizure of power the nsdap won 15 of the 36 seats in the municipal elections in dessau making it the strongest party in their leaflet for the elections on'</li><li>'large creative agencies due to budget constraints crowdsourcing could cater to the needs of all such businesses on a single platform bridging the gap between small businesses that could not afford big agency fee and freelancers who are always looking for creative freedom and opportunity also there was an opportunity to work for large and mature businesses in search of new creative ideas for their marketing campaigns and willing to experiment with more people than traditional agencies can provide theres a case study being written on why the business after scaling up couldnt reach the next level by professors in great lakes institute of management the founders sitashwa has moved on to do startup in financial services vertical called stockal while manik has started a venture in real estate space called pin click under a pilot program for testing the business model by the name of creadivity the founders brought onboard 45 providers and got their first five customers in july 2008 creadivity got selected for the indus entrepreneurs ’ tie entrepreneurial acceleration program eap which selects one or two startup companies every year and assists in funding mentoring and networking to support them the program provides role models in successful entrepreneurs and helps with the support required by earlystage entrepreneursjoining the tie program also helped manik and sitashwa raise initial seed funding with the help of which they launched the platform rebranded by the name of jade magnet on 15 october 2009 the name was changed from creadivity since it was observed that people found it difficult to pronounce the name and place the brand the companys new name was derived from jade – a precious stone with sacred connotations in many cultures and magnet that signifies an ability to pull towards itself anything that comes close to it the design of the companys logo itself was the result of a crowdsourcing exercise where multiple designers created more than 15 design options the logo that was finally chosen symbolises highvalue by juxtaposing a ” and g ” together ag is the scientific name of silver with the g falling slightly to represent the magnetic force of gravityunder the contest – based platform customers looking crowdsourced design requirements could register on the website and post a project jade magnet set a minimum payout limit for categories of creative projects below which market dynamics have shown that there are no takers for given tasks customers post projects for a budget above the preset minimum 80 of which is paid out to the winning entry once the project was posted as a contest it received a number of entries from providers registered on the platform customers then shortlisted up to five entries from these and made a final choice after any modificationsproviders looking to participate'</li></ul> |
## Evaluation
### Metrics
| Label | F1 |
|:--------|:-------|
| **all** | 0.7897 |
## Uses
### Direct Use for Inference
First install the SetFit library:
```bash
pip install setfit
```
Then you can load this model and run inference.
```python
from setfit import SetFitModel
# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SetFitModel.from_pretrained("udrearobert999/multi-qa-mpnet-base-cos-v1-contrastive-logistic")
# Run inference
preds = model("##rch procedure that evaluates the objective function p x displaystyle pmathbf x on a grid of candidate source locations g displaystyle mathcal g to estimate the spatial location of the sound source x s displaystyle textbf xs as the point of the grid that provides the maximum srp modifications of the classical srpphat algorithm have been proposed to reduce the computational cost of the gridsearch step of the algorithm and to increase the robustness of the method in the classical srpphat for each microphone pair and for each point of the grid a unique integer tdoa value is selected to be the acoustic delay corresponding to that grid point this procedure does not guarantee that all tdoas are associated to points on the grid nor that the spatial grid is consistent since some of the points may not correspond to an intersection of hyperboloids this issue becomes more problematic with coarse grids since when the number of points is reduced part of the tdoa information gets lost because most delays are not anymore associated to any point in the grid the modified srpphat collects and uses the tdoa information related to the volume surrounding each spatial point of the search grid by considering a modified objective function where l m 1 m 2 l x displaystyle lm1m2lmathbf x and l m 1 m 2 u x displaystyle lm1m2umathbf x are the lower and upper accumulation limits of gcc delays which depend on the spatial location x displaystyle mathbf x the accumulation limits can be calculated beforehand in an exact way by exploring the boundaries separating the regions corresponding to the points of the grid alternatively they can be selected by considering the spatial gradient of the tdoa ∇ τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ x τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ y τ m 1 m 2 x ∇ z τ m 1 m 2 x t displaystyle nabla tau m1m2mathbf x nabla xtau m1m2mathbf x nabla ytau m1m2mathbf x nabla ztau m1m2mathbf x t where each component γ ∈ x y z displaystyle gamma in leftxyzright of the gradient is for a rectangular grid where neighboring points are separated a distance r displaystyle r the lower and upper accumulation limits are given by where d r 2 min 1 sin θ cos [UNK] 1 sin θ sin [UNK] 1 cos θ displaystyle dr2min leftfrac 1vert sintheta cosphi vert frac 1vert sintheta sinphi vert frac 1vert")
```
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## Training Details
### Training Set Metrics
| Training set | Min | Median | Max |
|:-------------|:----|:---------|:----|
| Word count | 1 | 369.5217 | 509 |
| Label | Training Sample Count |
|:------|:----------------------|
| 0 | 830 |
| 1 | 584 |
| 2 | 420 |
| 3 | 927 |
| 4 | 356 |
| 5 | 374 |
| 6 | 520 |
| 7 | 364 |
| 8 | 422 |
| 9 | 372 |
| 10 | 494 |
| 11 | 295 |
| 12 | 558 |
| 13 | 278 |
| 14 | 314 |
| 15 | 721 |
| 16 | 417 |
| 17 | 379 |
| 18 | 357 |
| 19 | 370 |
| 20 | 337 |
| 21 | 373 |
| 22 | 661 |
| 23 | 754 |
| 24 | 312 |
| 25 | 481 |
| 26 | 386 |
| 27 | 556 |
| 28 | 551 |
| 29 | 840 |
| 30 | 574 |
| 31 | 470 |
| 32 | 284 |
| 33 | 311 |
| 34 | 633 |
| 35 | 318 |
| 36 | 687 |
| 37 | 848 |
| 38 | 668 |
| 39 | 721 |
| 40 | 603 |
| 41 | 747 |
| 42 | 336 |
### Training Hyperparameters
- batch_size: (32, 32)
- num_epochs: (4, 8)
- max_steps: -1
- sampling_strategy: oversampling
- num_iterations: 20
- body_learning_rate: (2.7e-05, 0.01)
- head_learning_rate: 0.01
- loss: SupConLoss
- distance_metric: cosine_distance
- margin: 0.25
- end_to_end: False
- use_amp: False
- warmup_proportion: 0.1
- max_length: 512
- seed: 42
- eval_max_steps: -1
- load_best_model_at_end: True
### Training Results
| Epoch | Step | Training Loss | Validation Loss |
|:----------:|:--------:|:-------------:|:---------------:|
| 0.0015 | 1 | 2.182 | - |
| 0.3671 | 250 | 1.0321 | - |
| 0.7342 | 500 | 1.01 | 0.9291 |
| 1.1013 | 750 | 0.7586 | - |
| 1.4684 | 1000 | 0.2408 | 0.9875 |
| 1.8355 | 1250 | 0.8995 | - |
| 2.2026 | 1500 | 0.3702 | 0.9411 |
| 2.5698 | 1750 | 0.669 | - |
| 2.9369 | 2000 | 0.2361 | 0.9538 |
| 3.3040 | 2250 | 0.1108 | - |
| **3.6711** | **2500** | **0.5895** | **0.9276** |
* The bold row denotes the saved checkpoint.
### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- SetFit: 1.0.3
- Sentence Transformers: 2.7.0
- Transformers: 4.40.1
- PyTorch: 2.2.1+cu121
- Datasets: 2.19.1
- Tokenizers: 0.19.1
## Citation
### BibTeX
```bibtex
@article{https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2209.11055,
doi = {10.48550/ARXIV.2209.11055},
url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055},
author = {Tunstall, Lewis and Reimers, Nils and Jo, Unso Eun Seo and Bates, Luke and Korat, Daniel and Wasserblat, Moshe and Pereg, Oren},
keywords = {Computation and Language (cs.CL), FOS: Computer and information sciences, FOS: Computer and information sciences},
title = {Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts},
publisher = {arXiv},
year = {2022},
copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International}
}
```
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Subsets and Splits