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, ▁engineer , ▁mixing ▁Jonathan ▁Y ud kin ▁– ▁strings ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 7 ▁albums ▁Category : J im my ▁Rank in ▁albums ▁Category : E MI ▁Records ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Star key a ▁nov ella ▁is ▁a ▁ ▁chem ol ith o aut ot ro ph ic ▁and ▁ ▁meth yl ot ro ph ic ▁bacteria ▁from ▁the ▁family ▁of ▁X anth ob acter aceae ▁which ▁has ▁been ▁isolated ▁from ▁soil . ▁Star key a ▁nov ella ▁has ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁ox id ise ▁th ios ulf ate . ▁The ▁complete ▁gen ome ▁of ▁Star key a ▁nov ella '' ▁is ▁sequ enced . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Type ▁strain ▁of ▁Star key a ▁nov ella ▁at ▁B ac D ive ▁- ▁ ▁the ▁B acter ial ▁D ivers ity ▁Met ad at abase <0x09> ▁ ▁Category : R h iz ob ial es ▁Category : B acter ia ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁European ▁Weight l ifting ▁Championships ▁were ▁held ▁in ▁Const an ţ a , ▁Rom ania ▁from ▁May ▁ 1 3 ▁to ▁May ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 1 9 7 2 . ▁This ▁was ▁the ▁ 5 1 st ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁event . ▁There ▁were ▁ 1 5 7 ▁men ▁in ▁action ▁from ▁ 2 7 ▁nations . ▁ ▁Medal ▁summary ▁ ▁Medal ▁table ▁Rank ing ▁by ▁Big ▁( Total ▁result ) ▁med als ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁Results |
▁( Ch id lov ski . net ) ▁М . ▁Л . ▁А п те ка рь . ▁ ▁« Т я ж ё ла я ▁а т ле ти ка . ▁С пра во ч ник . » ▁— ▁М .: ▁« Ф из куль тура ▁и ▁спо рт », ▁ 1 9 8 3 . ▁— ▁ 4 1 6 ▁с . ▁▁ ▁Category : Europe an ▁Weight l ifting ▁Championships ▁European ▁Weight l ifting ▁Championships ▁European ▁Weight l ifting ▁Championships ▁Category : Intern ational ▁sports ▁compet itions ▁hosted ▁by ▁Rom ania ▁Category : S port ▁in ▁Const an ța <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Ya es u ▁FT - 8 1 7 ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁smallest ▁M F / H F / V H F / U H F ▁mult im ode ▁general - cover age ▁amateur ▁radio ▁trans ce ivers . ▁The ▁set ▁is ▁built ▁by ▁the ▁Japanese ▁Ver tex ▁Standard ▁Corporation ▁and ▁is ▁sold ▁under ▁the ▁Ya es u ▁brand . ▁With ▁internal ▁battery ▁pack , ▁on ▁board ▁key er , ▁its ▁all ▁mode / all ▁band ▁capability ▁and ▁flexible ▁anten na , ▁the ▁set ▁is ▁particularly ▁well ▁suited ▁for ▁portable ▁use . ▁The ▁FT - 8 1 7 ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁main ▁circuit ▁board ▁as ▁Ya es u ' s ▁FT - 8 5 7 ▁and ▁FT - 8 9 7 , ▁so ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁compromise ▁trans ceiver ▁and ▁incorpor ates ▁its ▁features ▁to ▁its ▁low ▁price ▁($ 6 7 0 .- ▁at ▁its ▁ |
2 0 0 1 ▁release ). ▁ ▁The ▁up graded ▁FT - 8 1 7 ( N ) D ▁was ▁launched ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁The ▁difference ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁models ▁is ▁the ▁addition ▁of ▁ 6 0 ▁meter ▁band ▁coverage ▁in ▁ 5 ▁fixed ▁channels ▁( USA ▁model ▁only ), ▁other ▁display ▁lighting ▁options , ▁modifications ▁in ▁the ▁RF ▁stage , ▁the ▁included ▁F N B - 8 5 ▁battery - pack ▁and ▁NC - 7 2 B ▁charg er . ▁ ▁The ▁FT - 8 1 7 ▁is ▁a ▁Q RP ▁trans ceiver . ▁ ▁Technical ▁description ▁ ▁C AT ▁Inter face ▁A ▁serial ▁port ▁with ▁a ▁wide ▁range ▁of ▁commands ▁is ▁provided . ▁ ▁Circ uit ▁description ▁The ▁following ▁circuit ▁description ▁is ▁an ▁extract ▁from ▁the ▁service ▁manual ▁ ▁R X ▁signals ▁may ▁be ▁input ▁via ▁a ▁front ▁B NC ▁conne ctor ▁or ▁a ▁rear ▁U H F ▁SO - 2 3 9 ▁conne ctor ▁( Y a es u ▁calls ▁it ▁a ▁type ▁" M " ▁conne ctor ) ▁using ▁a ▁relay ▁on ▁the ▁PA ▁unit . ▁The ▁selection ▁has ▁to ▁be ▁made ▁per ▁band ▁( H F , ▁ 6 , ▁ 2 ▁m ▁or ▁ 7 0 cm ) ▁using ▁menu ▁selection . ▁The ▁B NC ▁conne ctor ▁is ▁the ▁anten na ▁conne ctor ▁chosen ▁when ▁the ▁relay ▁is ▁by pass ed . ▁ ▁A ▁ 7 0 cm ▁signal ▁path ▁goes ▁through ▁a ▁high ▁pass ▁filter ▁network , ▁through ▁the ▁RF ▁direction |
al ▁cou pler / power ▁detector ▁( not ▁on ▁rx ) ▁to ▁a ▁low ▁pass ▁filter ▁to ▁a ▁P IN - di ode . ▁In ▁rx ▁mode , ▁these ▁are ▁turned ▁off . ▁ ▁The ▁rx ▁signal ▁then ▁passes ▁through ▁a ▁D AN 2 3 5 U ; ▁this ▁is ▁a ▁dual ▁di ode ▁and ▁when ▁in ▁U H F ▁rx ▁mode , ▁the ▁appropriate ▁di ode ▁is ▁turned ▁on , ▁passing ▁the ▁ 7 0 cm ▁signal ▁through ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁signal ▁then ▁leaves ▁the ▁PA ▁board . ▁On ▁the ▁MA IN ▁circuit ▁board ▁the ▁ 7 0 cm ▁rx ▁signal ▁enters ▁a ▁D AP 2 3 6 U . ▁This ▁dual ▁di ode ▁get ▁its ▁current ▁from ▁the ▁PA ▁unit ▁and ▁when ▁ 7 0 cm ▁rx ▁mode ▁is ▁active ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁di odes ▁is ▁turned ▁on . ▁R x ▁signal ▁goes ▁through ▁a ▁device ▁consisting ▁of ▁ 2 ▁back - to - back ▁di odes ▁providing ▁protection ▁for ▁the ▁receiver ' s ▁front ▁end . ▁The ▁output ▁of ▁the ▁pre am pl ifier ▁is ▁sent ▁to ▁a ▁helic al ▁reson ator ▁filter . ▁ ▁The ▁output ▁of ▁the ▁filtered ▁and ▁ampl ified ▁ 7 0 cm ▁path ▁is ▁passed ▁through ▁and ▁coupled ▁into ▁the ▁receive ▁mix er . ▁For ▁ 7 0 cm ▁receive , ▁P IN ▁di ode ▁bias ▁is ▁provided ▁to ▁the ▁PA ▁unit , ▁through ▁the ▁MA IN ▁unit ▁and ▁then ▁through ▁an ▁RF - dec ou pler ▁network , ▁a |
▁parallel - output ▁shift ▁register . ▁ ▁A ▁ 2 m ▁signal ▁goes ▁to ▁a ▁relay ▁and ▁then ▁the ▁signals ▁are ▁dip lex ed , ▁with ▁ 2 m ▁and ▁< ▁going ▁to ▁a ▁lo - pass ▁filter . ▁The ▁signal ▁gets ▁dip lex ed ▁again ▁using ▁a ▁hi - pass ▁filter , ▁separ ating ▁out ▁the ▁ 2 ▁m ▁signal ▁from ▁the ▁H F - 6 ▁meter ▁signal ▁path . ▁The ▁rx ▁signal ▁passes ▁through ▁the ▁V H F ▁direction al ▁cou pler / power ▁detector ▁( not ▁used ▁in ▁rx ) ▁to ▁a ▁lo - pass ▁filter ▁and ▁then ▁passes ▁by ▁ 2 ▁P IN ▁di odes ▁( both ▁H SU 2 7 7 ). ▁ ▁These ▁di odes ▁and ▁related ▁components ▁form ▁T / R ▁isolation ▁sw itches ▁that ▁operate ▁similar ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁ 7 0 cm ▁front ▁end . ▁R x ▁signal ▁passes ▁through ▁the ▁half ▁which ▁is ▁not ▁used ▁for ▁ 7 0 cm ▁and ▁then ▁to ▁the ▁R X ▁RF ▁output ▁and ▁is ▁then ▁passes ▁to ▁the ▁MA IN ▁unit . ▁Here ▁the ▁signal ▁enters ▁ ▁and ▁then ▁passes ▁through ▁a ▁transform er , ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁var actor ▁and ▁related ▁components ▁and ▁forms ▁an ▁electric ally - t un ed ▁filter / match ing ▁network , ▁the ▁ 2 ▁meter ▁pre am pl ifier . ▁The ▁output ▁of ▁the ▁pre am pl ifier ▁goes ▁through ▁ 2 ▁electron ically ▁tun ed ▁trans ist ors . ▁ ▁Finally , ▁the ▁output ▁goes ▁through |
▁to ▁get ▁to ▁the ▁rx ▁mix er . ▁For ▁ 2 ▁m ▁rx , ▁the ▁P IN ▁di ode ▁bias ▁is ▁provided ▁by ▁ ▁the ▁PA ▁unit ▁to ▁ 2 ▁m ▁pre am pl ifier . ▁ ▁Air craft ▁band ▁R x ▁path ▁( 1 0 8 - 1 5 4 ▁M Hz ) ▁is ▁the ▁same ▁as ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 ▁m ▁path ▁on ▁the ▁PA ▁unit . ▁On ▁the ▁MA IN ▁unit , ▁it ▁goes ▁through ▁the ▁same ▁part ▁as ▁the ▁ 2 ▁m ▁signal , ▁but ▁it ▁then ▁goes ▁through ▁the ▁di ode ▁portion ▁that ▁was ▁not ▁used ▁for ▁ 2 ▁m ▁into ▁an ▁electron ically ▁tun ed ▁band pass ▁filter . ▁ ▁The ▁output ▁passes ▁through ▁the ▁rx ▁mix er . ▁The ▁P IN ▁di ode ▁bias ▁is ▁provided ▁by ▁the ▁PA ▁unit ▁and ▁flows ▁through ▁the ▁primary ▁trans ist or . ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁output , ▁current ▁is ▁provided ▁and ▁goes ▁through ▁the ▁secondary ▁trans ist or . ▁Both ▁current ▁paths ▁are ▁completed ▁using ▁the ▁aircraft ▁band ▁rx ▁pre am pl ifier . ▁ ▁W FM ▁broadcast ▁band ▁rx ▁path ▁( 7 6 - 1 0 8 ▁M Hz ) ▁is ▁identical ▁to ▁the ▁ 2 ▁m ▁path ▁on ▁the ▁PA ▁unit . ▁On ▁the ▁MA IN ▁unit ▁it ▁passes ▁through ▁the ▁same ▁portion ▁as ▁the ▁ 2 ▁m ▁signal , ▁then ▁through ▁a ▁H SC 2 7 7 ▁di ode . ▁This ▁signal ▁then ▁goes ▁into ▁pin ▁ 1 0 ▁of ▁a ▁Sony ▁C X A |
1 6 1 1 ▁FM ▁Re ceiver ▁IC . ▁ ▁The ▁IC ▁has ▁a ▁front ▁end , ▁mix er , ▁IF ▁and ▁de mod ulation ▁and ▁provides ▁received ▁audio . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁suppress ▁local ▁oscill ator ▁leak age ▁and ▁provide ▁a ▁slight ▁amount ▁of ▁image ▁re jection , ▁a ▁var actor ▁and ▁a ▁co il ▁provide ▁one ▁stage ▁of ▁tracking ▁band pass ▁filter ing . ▁Typ ical ▁for ▁single - chip ▁rece ivers , ▁the ▁dynamic ▁range ▁of ▁this ▁receiver ▁is ▁poor . ▁When ▁using ▁a ▁large ▁anten na , ▁expect ▁over load / inter mod ▁problems . ▁ ▁H F ▁and ▁ 6 ▁meter ▁receive ▁path . ▁After ▁relay ▁the ▁signal ▁is ▁dip lex ed ▁via ▁a ▁low - pass ▁filter . ▁At ▁this ▁point ▁ 2 ▁m , ▁aircraft ▁and ▁W FM ▁are ▁dip lex ed . ▁ ▁Contin uing ▁the ▁signal ▁passes ▁through ▁a ▁low ▁pass ▁filter , ▁continues ▁through ▁the ▁RF ▁D irection al ▁Cou pler / Power ▁Det ector ▁( not ▁used ▁in ▁rx ) ▁through ▁low ▁pass ▁filters ▁selected ▁by ▁rel ays ▁as ▁appropriate ▁for ▁ ▁current ▁rx ▁frequency . ▁The ▁combination ▁of ▁lo - ▁and ▁hi - pass ▁filters ▁provide ▁broad band ▁band pass ▁filter ing ▁to ▁the ▁rx ▁front ▁end . ▁ ▁For ▁ 6 ▁m ▁the ▁hi - pass ▁filter ▁includes ▁a ▁pre am pl ifier ▁( always ▁used ▁on ▁ 6 ▁m ▁rx ▁and ▁not ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁I PO ▁menu ▁setting ). ▁ ▁The ▁appropriate ▁high ▁pass ▁filter ▁output ▁is |
▁selected ▁with ▁a ▁P IN ▁di ode ▁with ▁logic ▁levels . ▁The ▁output ▁from ▁the ▁P IN ▁di odes ▁are ▁rout ed ▁to ▁the ▁MA IN ▁unit . ▁Here ▁the ▁rx ▁signal ▁is ▁applied ▁to ▁dual ▁P IN ▁di ode ▁modules ▁( type ▁D AP 2 3 6 U ). ▁ ▁One ▁path ▁routes ▁the ▁signal ▁directly ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁modules ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁path ▁passes ▁the ▁signal ▁through ▁a ▁ 1 0 ▁db ▁pad ▁- ▁the ▁pad ▁that ▁is ▁switched ▁in ▁as ▁a ▁menu ▁item . ▁The ▁output ▁is ▁then ▁passed ▁through ▁a ▁simple ▁lo - pass ▁filter ▁to ▁another ▁D AP 2 3 6 U . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁outputs ▁is ▁applied ▁to ▁a ▁pre am pl ifier ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁is ▁applied ▁to ▁a ▁di ode , ▁by pass ing ▁the ▁pre am pl ifier . ▁ ▁The ▁output ▁of ▁the ▁di ode ▁is ▁applied ▁to ▁an ▁IF ▁trap . ▁The ▁purpose ▁of ▁which ▁is ▁to ▁prevent ▁ 6 8 . 3 3 M Hz ▁energy ▁from ▁the ▁anten na ▁from ▁getting ▁into ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁IF . ▁ ▁The ▁H F ▁receive ▁signal ▁is ▁rout ed ▁to ▁the ▁receive ▁mix er . ▁ ▁Technical ▁Spec ifications ▁R X ▁F req ▁coverage : ▁ 1 0 0 k Hz - 3 0 M Hz , ▁ 5 0 M Hz - 5 4 M Hz , ▁ 7 6 M Hz - 1 0 8 M Hz ▁( W FM ), |
▁ 1 0 8 M Hz - 1 5 4 M Hz , ▁ 4 2 0 M Hz - 4 5 0 M Hz ▁TX ▁F req ▁coverage : ▁ 1 6 0 ▁- ▁ 6 ▁M eters , ▁ 2 ▁M eters , ▁ 7 0 ▁Cent im eters ▁( Am ateur ▁bands ▁only ), ▁ 5 . 1 6 7 5 M Hz ▁Al ask an ▁Emer gency ▁F requency ▁( USA ▁model ▁only ), ▁ 5 ▁fixed ▁channels ▁( USA ▁model ▁FT - 8 1 7 ND ▁only ) ▁ 5 . 3 3 2 M Hz , ▁ 5 . 3 4 8 M Hz , ▁ 5 . 3 6 8 M Hz , ▁ 5 . 3 7 3 M Hz , ▁ 5 . 4 0 5 M Hz ▁Power ▁consumption : ▁ 1 3 . 8 ▁V ▁DC ▁@ ▁transmit ▁ 2 A , ▁@ ▁receive ▁ 4 5 0 m A . ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁* Oper ating ▁voltage ▁range : ▁within ▁ 8 ▁- 1 6 V ▁( AA ▁al kan ine ▁batteries : ▁ 1 2 V ; ▁Nic ad ▁battery : ▁ 9 , 6 V ) ▁Tun ing ▁steps : ▁ 1 0 0 Hz ▁AM , ▁FM , ▁W FM ; ▁ 1 0 Hz ▁SS B , ▁C W ▁switch able ▁Dim ensions ▁ 1 3 . 5 ▁x ▁ 4 ▁x ▁ 1 |
6 . 8 cm ▁Weight ▁app x . ▁ 1 . 2 kg ▁with ▁al kal ine ▁batteries ▁and ▁flex ▁anten na ▁Em ission : ▁C W , ▁SS B , ▁AM , ▁FM , ▁Digital ▁mode ▁Power ▁output : ▁ 5 W ▁( SS B , C W , FM ), ▁ 1 . 5 W ▁( AM , ▁carrier ) ▁@ ▁ 1 3 . 8 V ▁Car rier ▁supp ression : ▁better ▁than ▁- 4 0 d B ▁below ▁rated ▁output ▁Un w anted ▁side band ▁supp ression : ▁better ▁than ▁- 6 0 d B ▁below ▁peak ▁output ▁Sp urious : ▁better ▁than ▁– ▁ 4 0 d B ▁below ▁peak ▁output ▁Dist ortion : ▁better ▁than ▁- 3 1 d B ▁below ▁peak ▁output ▁Trans mit ter ▁f req ▁response : ▁ 3 5 0 ▁– ▁ 2 7 0 0 Hz ▁(- 6 d B ) ▁St ability : ▁± 0 . 3 ▁p pm / 1 ▁hour ▁@ 2 5 ° C , ▁after ▁warm up ▁Ant ▁output ▁imped ance : ▁ 5 0 ▁Oh ms ▁un bal anced ▁( front ▁B NC ▁conne ctor , ▁rear ▁U H F ▁( SO - 2 3 9 ) ▁conne ctor ) ▁Micro phone ▁output ▁imped ance : ▁ 2 0 0 - 1 0 k ▁Oh ms ▁( N om inal : ▁ 6 0 0 ▁Oh ms ) ▁Re ceive ▁sensitivity : ▁ 1 0 0 |
k Hz ▁– ▁ 2 9 . 9 9 9 M Hz ▁continuous ▁better ▁than ▁ 0 . 7 ▁micro V ▁for ▁S / N ▁ 1 0 d B ▁Image ▁re jection : ▁H F / 5 0 M Hz : ▁ 7 0 d B , ▁ 1 4 4 / 4 3 0 M Hz : ▁ 6 0 d B ▁IF ▁re jection : ▁- 6 0 d B ▁( all ▁f req ) ▁Select ivity : ▁- 6 d B ▁ 2 . 2 k Hz , ▁- 6 0 d B ▁ 4 . 5 k Hz ▁Audio ▁output : ▁ 1 ▁W ▁@ ▁ 1 0 % ▁TH D , ▁ 8 ▁Oh ms ▁ ▁Access ories ▁Should er ▁Str ap ▁Car rying ▁case ▁soft ▁vin yl ▁Y HA - 6 3 ▁flex ▁wh ip ▁anten na ▁for ▁ 5 0 / 1 4 4 / 4 3 0 M Hz ▁F BA - 2 8 ▁B attery ▁case ▁for ▁AA ▁batteries ▁E - DC - 6 ▁DC ▁cable ▁M H - 3 1 A 8 J ▁hand ▁mic ▁F N B ▁ 7 2 ▁and ▁ 8 5 ▁internal ▁Ni C d / N i M H ▁ 9 . 8 V ▁battery ▁pack s ▁ 1 0 0 0 / 1 4 0 0 m Ah ▁NC - 7 2 B ▁B attery ▁pack ▁charg er ▁T C X O ▁stability ▁unit |
▁D TM F ▁mic ▁Cat ▁interface ▁and ▁P acket ▁cable ▁AT AS ▁ 2 5 ▁portable ▁manually ▁tun ed ▁anten na ▁ ▁Su itable ▁Ant en na ▁Tun ers ▁L D G ▁Z 8 1 7 ▁automatic ▁anten na ▁tun er ▁Ele craft ▁T 1 ▁mini ature ▁automatic ▁anten na ▁tun er ▁Em tech ▁Z M - 2 ▁small , ▁light weight ▁manual ▁Z - match ▁tun er ▁for ▁balanced ▁and ▁un bal anced ▁feed lines ▁ ▁K nown ▁We ak ness es ▁▁ <0x09> ▁V ul ner able ▁final ▁trans ist ors ▁in ▁non - ND ▁model ! ▁The ▁ 2 SK 2 9 7 5 ▁F ET ' s ▁in ▁the ▁final ▁stage ▁are ▁V ERY ▁sensitive ▁and ▁can ▁easily ▁be ▁destroyed ▁by ▁high ▁S WR , ▁over he ating , ▁over volt age , ▁or ▁voltage ▁peaks . ▁In ▁the ▁N D ▁model ▁Ya es u ▁( Vertex ) ▁replaced ▁the ▁F ET s ▁with ▁R D 0 7 M VS 1 ▁F ET ' s ▁but ▁the ▁problem ▁may ▁still ▁exist . ▁ ▁Be ▁aware ▁that ▁the ▁RF ▁stage ▁may ▁remain ▁sensitive ▁to ▁damage . ▁ <0x09> ▁The ▁internal ▁battery ▁should ▁be ▁removed ▁if ▁the ▁radio ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁stored ▁for ▁an ▁extended ▁period . ▁In ▁the ▁non - ND ▁model , ▁a ▁failing ▁battery ▁can ▁cause ▁the ▁fin als ▁to ▁oscill ate ▁which ▁destro ys ▁the ▁F ET s . ▁ ▁This ▁was ▁corrected ▁with ▁the ▁N D ▁model ▁though ▁it ▁is ▁still ▁recommended ▁that ▁the ▁internal ▁battery |
▁be ▁removed ▁for ▁extended ▁storage ▁to ▁prevent ▁this ▁issue ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁to ▁ensure ▁that ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁possibility ▁of ▁battery ▁leak age ▁which ▁can ▁destroy ▁internal ▁components ▁of ▁the ▁radio . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : Am ateur ▁radio ▁trans ce ivers <0x0A> </s> ▁D all ▁C . ▁Field s ▁( 1 1 ▁July ▁ 1 8 8 9 ▁Ro ann , ▁Indiana ▁— ▁ 1 7 ▁August ▁ 1 9 5 6 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁bass oon ist , ▁composer , ▁and ▁music ▁educ ator , ▁who ▁for ▁much ▁of ▁his ▁career , ▁was ▁based ▁in ▁and ▁around ▁Chicago . ▁As ▁a ▁perform er , ▁he ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁bass oon ist ▁with ▁the ▁C inc inn ati ▁Sym phony ▁Orchestra , ▁the ▁Min ne apolis ▁Sym phony ▁Orchestra ▁( 1 9 1 7 – 1 9 1 8 ▁season ), ▁the ▁Chicago ▁Phil harm onic ▁Orchestra ▁( 1 st ▁bass oon ), ▁and ▁later , ▁the ▁Bach man ▁Wood wind ▁En semble . ▁As ▁an ▁educ ator , ▁he ▁taught ▁mostly ▁in ▁the ▁Chicago ▁area , ▁teaching ▁out ▁of ▁his ▁own ▁studio ▁and ▁through ▁affili ations ▁with ▁the ▁May wood ▁extension ▁of ▁the ▁Chicago ▁Conserv atory ▁of ▁Music . ▁ ▁He ▁also ▁taught ▁at ▁Yale ▁University ▁and ▁through ▁affili ations ▁with ▁August ▁Bu cc i ▁( 1 8 9 7 – 1 9 3 5 ), ▁William ▁Johnson ▁of ▁Val par ais o , ▁Indiana , ▁and ▁the ▁Val po ▁Music ▁House ▁( serv ing ▁Val par ais |
o ▁and ▁P orter ▁County ). ▁ ▁Career ▁highlights ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁being ▁a ▁bass oon ▁virt u oso , ▁Field s ▁was ▁prof icient ▁on ▁other ▁re ed ▁instruments , ▁namely ▁clar inet , ▁sa x oph one , ▁and ▁ob oe . ▁He ▁taught ▁all ▁the ▁wood wind ▁re ed ▁instruments . ▁▁ ▁Bach man ▁Wood wind ▁En semble ▁ ▁The ▁Back man ▁Band ▁Wood wind ▁En semble ▁was ▁organized ▁to ▁fill - in ▁open ▁time ▁between ▁seasons ▁for ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Bach man ▁Band , ▁a ka ▁" B ach man ' s ▁Mill ion ▁D ollar ▁Band ," ▁Harold ▁Bur ton ▁Bach man ▁( 1 8 9 2 – 1 9 7 2 ), ▁condu ctor . ▁During ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁the ▁group ▁played ▁conc erts ▁and ▁gave ▁music ▁clin ics ▁for ▁high ▁schools ▁and ▁Univers ities ▁in ▁Iowa , ▁Illinois , ▁Wisconsin , ▁Michigan , ▁Indiana , ▁Ohio , ▁and ▁Pennsylvania . ▁ ▁Its ▁members ▁were : ▁▁ ▁Frank ▁H ale ▁Ph ares ▁( 1 9 0 2 – 1 9 6 1 ), ▁fl ute ▁ ▁Joseph ▁Ol iv ad oti ▁( 1 8 9 3 – 1 9 7 7 ), ▁ob oe ▁ ▁Gabriel ▁T ose ▁( 1 9 0 7 – 1 9 8 4 ), ▁clar inet ▁ ▁D all ▁Field s , ▁bass oon ▁ ▁Earl ▁E . ▁Str icker ▁( 1 9 0 2 – 1 9 8 9 ), ▁French ▁horn ▁ ▁Harry ▁Su |
k man ▁( 1 9 1 2 – 1 9 8 4 ), ▁piano ▁▁ ▁Fac ulty ▁positions ▁ ▁From ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁to ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁Field s ▁was ▁an ▁instructor ▁of ▁wood wind s ▁at ▁the ▁Author ▁Jordan ▁Conserv atory ▁of ▁Music . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁Field s ▁was ▁In structor ▁of ▁Ap plied ▁Music ▁at ▁Ball ▁State ▁University . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 8 , ▁he ▁was ▁on ▁the ▁music ▁faculty ▁of ▁the ▁Indiana ▁State ▁University ▁College ▁of ▁Music . ▁Also , ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 , ▁he ▁gave ▁private ▁wood wind ▁lessons ▁at ▁Hob art ▁High ▁School . ▁ ▁Se lected ▁publications ▁▁ ▁Bass oon ▁Method , ▁M . M . ▁Cole , ▁Chicago ▁( pub lisher ) ▁( 1 9 3 7 ) ▁▁ ▁Con cert st ück , ▁Op us ▁ 1 3 , ▁composed ▁by ▁É d ou ard ▁Fl ament ▁( 1 8 8 0 – 1 9 5 8 ), ▁rev ised ▁& ▁edited ▁by ▁D all ▁Field s , ▁Rub ank , ▁Chicago ▁( pub lisher ) ▁( 1 9 4 0 ) ▁▁ ▁Qu art ette , ▁for ▁wood wind s , ▁composed ▁by ▁D all ▁Field s ▁ ▁Disc ography ▁▁ ▁Chicago ▁Sym phony ▁Wood wind ▁Qu int et , ▁En core ! ▁ 1 5 ▁pieces , ▁mon o ▁▁ ▁Ralph ▁Johnson , ▁fl ute ; ▁Robert ▁May er , ▁ob oe ; ▁Jer ome ▁St ow ell |
, ▁clar inet ; ▁Philip ▁F ark as , ▁French ▁horn ; ▁Wil bur ▁Sim pson , ▁bass oon ▁ ▁Record ed ▁in ▁Chicago , ▁December ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁ ▁Leo ▁Del ib es , ▁Vari ations ▁from ▁' B allet ▁la ▁Source ' ▁arranged ▁by ▁D all ▁Field s ▁ ▁Gabriel ▁Pier ne , ▁En tr ance ▁of ▁the ▁Little ▁Fa uns , ▁arranged ▁by ▁D all ▁Field s ▁ ▁Ar med ▁Forces ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁ ▁Field s ▁served ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Navy ▁from ▁December ▁ 1 9 1 7 ▁to ▁September ▁ 1 9 2 1 . ▁He ▁was ▁assigned ▁as ▁a ▁clar inet ist ▁aboard ▁the ▁, ▁a ▁hospital ▁ship . ▁ ▁Family ▁ ▁D all ▁Field s ▁was ▁married ▁to ▁Mart el ▁Field s ▁( born ▁ 1 8 9 5 ). ▁He ▁died ▁August ▁ 1 7 , ▁ 1 9 5 6 , ▁and ▁was ▁buried ▁at ▁Memorial ▁Gard ens ▁C emetery , ▁P ly mouth , ▁Indiana . ▁ ▁Memorial ▁scholarship ▁▁ ▁The ▁D all ▁Field s ▁Memorial ▁Sch olar ship ▁is ▁awarded ▁annually ▁to ▁an ▁Indiana ▁State ▁University ▁under graduate ▁major ing ▁in ▁Music . ▁ ▁Professional ▁affili ations ▁▁ ▁Ph i ▁Mu ▁Alpha ▁S inf onia , ▁G amma ▁Om ega ▁Chapter , ▁Indiana ▁State ▁University ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 8 8 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 5 6 ▁deaths ▁Category : American ▁classical ▁bass oon ists ▁Category |
: People ▁from ▁W ab ash ▁County , ▁Indiana <0x0A> </s> ▁Ser iant hes ▁petit iana ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁leg ume ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Fab aceae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁only ▁in ▁New ▁Cal ed onia . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁▁ ▁petit iana ▁Category : End emic ▁fl ora ▁of ▁New ▁Cal ed onia ▁Category : Con serv ation ▁dependent ▁plants ▁Category : Tax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁Edward ▁Ferr ero ▁( Jan uary ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 8 3 1 ▁– ▁December ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 8 9 9 ) ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁leading ▁dance ▁instruct ors , ▁ch ore ograph ers , ▁and ▁ball room ▁operators ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁He ▁also ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁Union ▁Army ▁general ▁in ▁the ▁American ▁Civil ▁War , ▁most ▁remembered ▁for ▁his ▁dish on our able ▁conduct ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁the ▁Cr ater ▁( J uly ▁ 1 8 6 4 ), ▁reported ▁drinking ▁with ▁another ▁general ▁behind ▁the ▁lines , ▁while ▁both ▁their ▁units ▁were ▁virtually ▁destroyed . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁career ▁Ferr ero ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Gran ada , ▁Spain . ▁His ▁parents ▁were ▁nat ives ▁of ▁Italy , ▁and ▁had ▁just ▁arrived ▁in ▁Spain ▁when ▁their ▁son ▁was ▁born . ▁Th irteen ▁months ▁later , ▁the ▁family ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁settled ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁Ferr ero ' s ▁father , ▁a ▁noted ▁d ancer ▁and ▁a ▁personal ▁friend ▁of ▁the ▁revolutionary ▁General ▁Gi useppe |
▁Gar ib ald i , ▁soon ▁opened ▁a ▁dance ▁academ y . ▁When ▁the ▁elder ▁Ferr ero ▁retired ▁in ▁his ▁early ▁f ift ies , ▁Edward ▁took ▁over ▁operation ▁of ▁the ▁academ y . ▁He ▁educated ▁the ▁wealthy ▁and ▁elite ▁of ▁New ▁York ▁society ▁in ▁the ▁art ▁of ▁dance , ▁and ▁origin ated ▁many ▁d ances ▁that ▁spread ▁in ▁popularity ▁throughout ▁the ▁country . ▁Ferr ero ▁became ▁renown ed ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁America ' s ▁leading ▁experts ▁in ▁dance . ▁He ▁worked ▁part - time ▁as ▁a ▁dance ▁instructor ▁at ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Military ▁Academy ▁and ▁was ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁The ▁Art ▁of ▁D ancing ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 9 . ▁ ▁Ferr ero ▁was ▁interested ▁in ▁military ▁affairs ▁from ▁his ▁association ▁as ▁a ▁youth ▁with ▁Gar ib ald i , ▁and ▁from ▁his ▁uncle , ▁Colonel ▁Lewis ▁Ferr ero , ▁who ▁had ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁Crime an ▁War ▁and ▁the ▁Italian ▁campaign . ▁Edward ▁Ferr ero ▁became ▁the ▁lieutenant ▁colon el ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 1 th ▁New ▁York ▁Mil it ia ▁Regiment , ▁serving ▁for ▁six ▁years ▁in ▁the ▁milit ia ▁organization . ▁With ▁his ▁skills ▁in ▁ch ore ography ▁and ▁instruction , ▁his ▁troops ▁soon ▁became ▁known ▁for ▁their ▁par ade ▁ground ▁precision ▁and ▁military ▁dr ill . ▁ ▁Civil ▁War ▁With ▁the ▁outbreak ▁of ▁the ▁Civil ▁War ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 8 6 1 , ▁Ferr ero ▁raised ▁a ▁reg iment ▁at ▁his ▁own ▁expense , ▁the ▁ 5 1 st ▁New ▁York ▁Vol unte er ▁Infan try |
▁Regiment ▁( the ▁" She p ard ▁R if les "). ▁He ▁was ▁commissioned ▁as ▁its ▁first ▁colon el ▁and ▁dr illed ▁the ▁reg iment ▁in ▁military ▁procedures . ▁He ▁led ▁a ▁brig ade ▁of ▁three ▁reg iments ▁in ▁Maj . ▁Gen . ▁Amb rose ▁Burn side ' s ▁expedition ▁to ▁Ro ano ke ▁Island , ▁where ▁his ▁reg iment ▁seized ▁the ▁first ▁fort ified ▁Confeder ate ▁red oubt ▁captured ▁in ▁the ▁war . ▁He ▁also ▁commanded ▁a ▁brig ade ▁at ▁New ▁Bern ▁under ▁Brig . ▁Gen . ▁Jesse ▁L . ▁Ren o . ▁ ▁Trans ferred ▁north ward ▁with ▁his ▁brig ade ▁to ▁Virginia ▁in ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 8 6 2 , ▁he ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁army ▁of ▁Maj . ▁Gen . ▁John ▁Pope ▁during ▁the ▁Northern ▁Virginia ▁Campaign , ▁including ▁the ▁Second ▁Battle ▁of ▁Bull ▁Run . ▁In ▁September , ▁he ▁served ▁at ▁the ▁battles ▁of ▁South ▁Mountain ▁and ▁Ant iet am , ▁where ▁his ▁brig ade ▁was ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Union ▁IX ▁Corps ▁and ▁storm ed ▁Burn side ' s ▁Bridge . ▁For ▁his ▁personal ▁bra very ▁at ▁Ant iet am , ▁the ▁d ancer - turn ed - war rior ▁was ▁promoted ▁to ▁brig ad ier ▁general ▁of ▁volunteers ▁on ▁September ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 1 8 6 2 . ▁( This ▁commission ▁exp ired ▁in ▁March ▁ 1 8 6 3 , ▁but ▁he ▁was ▁re appoint ed ▁to ▁rank ▁from ▁May ▁ 6 . ▁The ▁latter ▁appointment ▁was ▁rev oked ▁on ▁July ▁ |
2 1 , ▁ 1 8 6 4 ). ▁His ▁first ▁action ▁as ▁a ▁general ▁was ▁at ▁Frederick sburg . ▁ ▁S ent ▁to ▁the ▁Western ▁Theater ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁IX ▁Corps ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 8 6 3 , ▁Ferr ero ▁led ▁his ▁brig ade ▁with ▁distinction ▁during ▁the ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁V ick sburg . ▁He ▁subsequently ▁commanded ▁a ▁division ▁during ▁the ▁Kn ox ville ▁Campaign , ▁and ▁was ▁in ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁def enses ▁of ▁Fort ▁Sand ers . ▁Trans ferred ▁east ward ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 4 ▁with ▁the ▁corps , ▁he ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁Peters burg , ▁command ing ▁a ▁division ▁of ▁black ▁troops . ▁His ▁men ▁were ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁ill - f ated ▁July ▁ 3 0 ▁charge ▁on ▁the ▁Cr ater , ▁where ▁they ▁suffered ▁significant ▁losses ▁supporting ▁the ▁initial ▁attack ▁of ▁Brig . ▁Gen . ▁James ▁H . ▁Led lie ' s ▁division . ▁Both ▁Ferr ero ▁and ▁Led lie ▁received ▁criticism ▁for ▁remaining ▁in ▁a ▁shelter ▁behind ▁the ▁lines ▁through ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁battle , ▁passing ▁a ▁bottle ▁of ▁rum ▁between ▁them . ▁A ▁court ▁of ▁in quiry ▁headed ▁by ▁Maj . ▁Gen . ▁Win field ▁S . ▁H anc ock ▁cited ▁Ferr ero ▁for ▁" being ▁in ▁a ▁bomb - proof ▁habit ually , ▁where ▁he ▁could ▁not ▁see ▁the ▁operation ▁of ▁his ▁troops ▁[ nor ▁know ] ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁two ▁brig ades ▁of ▁his ▁division ▁or ▁whether ▁they ▁had ▁taken ▁C emetery ▁Hill ▁or ▁not |
." ▁ ▁On ▁December ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 8 6 4 , ▁Ferr ero ▁was ▁bre vet ed ▁major ▁general ▁for ▁" bra very ▁and ▁mer itor ious ▁services ." ▁He ▁served ▁throughout ▁the ▁App om atto x ▁Campaign ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 8 6 5 . ▁ ▁Post bell um ▁Ferr ero ▁must ered ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁army ▁on ▁August ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 1 8 6 5 , ▁and ▁returned ▁home ▁to ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁He ▁chose ▁not ▁to ▁re open ▁his ▁previous ▁dance ▁academ y , ▁but ▁instead ▁le ased ▁a ▁building ▁in ▁a ▁new ▁location , ▁eventually ▁turning ▁it ▁into ▁a ▁world - f amed ▁ball room ▁known ▁as ▁A pol lo ▁Hall , ▁ 3 1 ▁West ▁ 2 8 th ▁Street ▁at ▁Broadway . ▁In ▁ 1 8 7 2 , ▁he ▁term inated ▁his ▁lease ▁and ▁the ▁building ▁was ▁converted ▁into ▁a ▁theater . ▁ ▁Ferr ero ▁le ased ▁the ▁ball room ▁of ▁T amm any ▁Hall ▁for ▁his ▁academ y ▁and ▁joined ▁the ▁T amm any ▁Society , ▁becoming ▁soc ially ▁active ▁in ▁Democratic ▁political ▁circles , ▁although ▁he ▁never ▁ran ▁for ▁office . ▁He ▁was ▁active ▁in ▁veterans ▁affairs , ▁including ▁the ▁Grand ▁Army ▁of ▁the ▁Republic ▁and ▁the ▁L oyal ▁Leg ion . ▁He ▁also ▁joined ▁the ▁Fre em asons . ▁He ▁published ▁a ▁second ▁best - selling ▁book , ▁The ▁History ▁of ▁D ancing , ▁which ▁remains ▁in ▁print ▁today . ▁ ▁He ▁le ased ▁the ▁Len ox ▁Ly |
ce um ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 8 8 9 ▁and ▁continued ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁country ' s ▁fore most ▁dance ▁instruct ors ▁for ▁another ▁decade . ▁He ▁retired ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 8 9 9 ▁when ▁he ▁became ▁ill ▁with ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁a il ments ▁that ▁claimed ▁his ▁life ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁year . ▁ ▁Ferr ero ▁died ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City ▁and ▁is ▁buried ▁in ▁Green - W ood ▁C emetery , ▁Brooklyn . ▁ ▁Ferr ero ' s ▁books ▁ ▁The ▁Art ▁of ▁D ancing ▁Histor ically ▁Ill ustr ated ▁to ▁Which ▁is ▁Add ed ▁a ▁F ew ▁H int s ▁on ▁Et iqu ette ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁History ▁of ▁D ancing ▁. ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁American ▁Civil ▁War ▁gener als ▁( Union ) ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁E icher , ▁John ▁H ., ▁and ▁E icher , ▁David ▁J ., ▁Civil ▁War ▁High ▁Comm ands , ▁Stanford ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁. ▁ ▁Warner , ▁Ez ra ▁J ., ▁Gener als ▁in ▁Blue : ▁L ives ▁of ▁the ▁Union ▁Command ers , ▁Louisiana ▁State ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 6 4 , ▁. ▁ ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁ob it uary ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Ant iet am ▁on ▁the ▁Web ▁▁▁ ▁New ▁York ▁Press ▁article ▁on ▁Ferr ero ▁ ▁New ▁York ▁State ▁Military ▁Museum ▁press ▁clip p ings ▁and ▁brief ▁bi ography ▁ ▁Green - W ood ▁C emetery ▁Bur ial ▁Search ▁ ▁Category |
: Union ▁Army ▁gener als ▁Category : People ▁of ▁New ▁York ▁( state ) ▁in ▁the ▁American ▁Civil ▁War ▁Category : American ▁people ▁of ▁Italian ▁descent ▁Category : 1 8 3 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 8 9 9 ▁deaths ▁Category : B ur ials ▁at ▁Green - W ood ▁C emetery ▁Category : American ▁ch ore ograph ers <0x0A> </s> ▁Irish mans ▁is ▁an ▁un inc or por ated ▁community ▁within ▁K not t ▁County , ▁Kentucky , ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Un inc or por ated ▁communities ▁in ▁K not t ▁County , ▁Kentucky ▁Category : Un inc or por ated ▁communities ▁in ▁Kentucky <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁following ▁is ▁a ▁chron ology ▁of ▁discover ies ▁concerning ▁the ▁magnet os phere . ▁▁ 1 6 0 0 ▁- ▁William ▁Gilbert ▁in ▁London ▁suggests ▁the ▁Earth ▁is ▁a ▁giant ▁magnet . ▁ 1 7 4 1 ▁- ▁H ior ter ▁and ▁Anders ▁C els ius ▁note ▁that ▁the ▁polar ▁aur ora ▁is ▁accompanied ▁by ▁a ▁disturb ance ▁of ▁the ▁magnetic ▁needle . ▁ 1 8 2 0 ▁- ▁Hans ▁Christian ▁ Ø r sted ▁disco vers ▁electric ▁current s ▁create ▁magnetic ▁effects . ▁André - Mar ie ▁A mp ère ▁ded u ces ▁that ▁magnet ism ▁is ▁basically ▁the ▁force ▁between ▁electric ▁current s . ▁ 1 8 4 3 ▁- ▁Samuel ▁Schw abe , ▁a ▁German ▁amateur ▁astronom er , ▁shows ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁an ▁ 1 1 - year ▁sun spot ▁cycle . ▁ 1 |
8 5 9 ▁- ▁Richard ▁Car ring ton ▁in ▁England ▁observ es ▁a ▁solar ▁fl are ; ▁▁ 1 7 ▁hours ▁later ▁a ▁large ▁magnetic ▁storm ▁begins . ▁ 1 8 9 2 ▁- ▁George ▁Ell ery ▁H ale ▁introdu ces ▁the ▁spect ro he li ograph , ▁observ ing ▁the ▁Sun ▁in ▁hydro gen ▁light ▁from ▁the ▁chrom os phere , ▁a ▁sensitive ▁way ▁of ▁detect ing ▁fl ares . ▁He ▁conf ir ms ▁the ▁connection ▁between ▁fl ares ▁and ▁magnetic ▁storm s . ▁▁ 1 9 0 0 - 3 ▁- ▁Krist ian ▁B irk eland ▁experiments ▁with ▁be ams ▁of ▁elect rons ▁aimed ▁at ▁a ▁magnet ized ▁sphere ▁(" ter re lla ") ▁in ▁a ▁vacuum ▁chamber . ▁The ▁elect rons ▁hit ▁near ▁the ▁magnetic ▁pol es , ▁leading ▁him ▁to ▁propose ▁that ▁the ▁polar ▁aur ora ▁is ▁created ▁by ▁electron ▁be ams ▁from ▁the ▁Sun . ▁B irk eland ▁also ▁observ es ▁magnetic ▁disturb ances ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁aur ora , ▁suggesting ▁to ▁him ▁that ▁local ized ▁ ▁" pol ar ▁magnetic ▁storm s " ▁exist ▁in ▁the ▁aur oral ▁zone . ▁▁ 1 9 0 2 ▁- ▁Mar con i ▁successfully ▁sends ▁radio ▁signals ▁across ▁the ▁Atlantic ▁Ocean . ▁Oliver ▁He avis ide ▁suggests ▁that ▁the ▁radio ▁waves ▁found ▁their ▁way ▁around ▁the ▁cur ving ▁Earth ▁because ▁they ▁were ▁reflected ▁from ▁electric ally ▁conducting ▁layer ▁at ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁atmosphere . ▁▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁- ▁Gregory ▁Bre it ▁and ▁Mer le ▁Tu ve ▁measure ▁the |
▁distance ▁to ▁the ▁conducting ▁layer — which ▁R . ▁Watson - W att ▁propos es ▁n aming ▁" ion os phere "— by ▁measuring ▁the ▁time ▁needed ▁for ▁a ▁radio ▁signal ▁to ▁b ounce ▁back . ▁▁ 1 9 3 0 - 1 ▁- ▁After ▁B irk eland ' s ▁" elect ron ▁beam " ▁theory ▁is ▁dis pro ved , ▁Sydney ▁Chap man ▁and ▁Vincent ▁Ferr aro ▁in ▁England ▁propose ▁that ▁magnetic ▁storm s ▁are ▁caused ▁when ▁plasma ▁clouds ▁e ject ed ▁from ▁the ▁Sun ▁envelope ▁the ▁Earth . ▁▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁- ▁A ▁sudden ▁increase ▁in ▁cos mic ▁r ays ▁is ▁tr aced ▁to ▁an ▁er u ption ▁on ▁the ▁Sun . ▁A ▁much ▁larger ▁" fl are ▁event " ▁occurs ▁on ▁February ▁ 2 3 , ▁ 1 9 5 6 . ▁▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁- ▁Owen ▁Store y ▁proves ▁that ▁" wh ist ler " ▁radio ▁waves ▁are ▁produced ▁by ▁lightning ▁and ▁are ▁often ▁guided ▁through ▁distant ▁space ▁along ▁field ▁lines ▁of ▁the ▁Earth ' s ▁magnetic ▁field . ▁▁▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁- ▁M ered ith , ▁Gott lie b ▁and ▁Van ▁Allen ▁use ▁a ▁rock et ▁in ▁the ▁aur oral ▁zone ▁to ▁detect ▁radiation ▁from ▁the ▁aur ora . ▁▁▁ 1 9 5 7 ▁- ▁S put nik ▁ 1 ▁launched ▁by ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union , ▁the ▁first ▁artificial ▁satellite . ▁▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁- ▁Expl orer ▁ 1 , ▁built ▁by ▁Van ▁Allen ▁and ▁his ▁Iowa ▁group ▁and ▁launched |
▁by ▁the ▁US ▁January ▁ 3 1 , ▁observ es ▁the ▁radiation ▁belt . ▁Expl orer ▁ 3 , ▁launched ▁in ▁March , ▁comes ▁up ▁with ▁the ▁first ▁clear ▁evidence ▁for ▁its ▁existence . ▁▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁- ▁Eug ene ▁Parker ▁( Ch icago ) ▁propos es ▁the ▁theory ▁of ▁the ▁solar ▁wind . ▁▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁- ▁P ione er ▁ 3 ▁observ es ▁the ▁outer ▁radiation ▁belt . ▁▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁- ▁Project ▁Arg us , ▁ 3 ▁small ▁nuclear ▁bombs ▁above ▁the ▁south ▁Atlantic ▁Ocean , ▁creates ▁artificial ▁radiation ▁bel ts , ▁lasting ▁about ▁ 2 ▁weeks . ▁The ▁project ▁also ▁creates ▁artificial ▁aur ora . ▁▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁- ▁Thomas ▁Gold ▁propos es ▁the ▁name ▁" Mag net os phere " ▁▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁- ▁James ▁Dun ge y ▁in ▁Britain ▁propos es ▁a ▁re connection ▁mechanism ▁for ▁transm itting ▁solar ▁wind ▁energy ▁to ▁the ▁magnet os phere ▁by ▁direct ▁magnetic ▁link age ▁between ▁the ▁two . ▁▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁- ▁Ian ▁Ax ford ▁and ▁Colin ▁H ines ▁( Can ada ) ▁raise ▁an ▁alternative ▁possibility , ▁of ▁energ ization ▁by ▁fluid ▁fr iction ▁at ▁the ▁boundary ▁between ▁the ▁two . ▁▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁- ▁The ▁magnet op ause , ▁boundary ▁between ▁magnet os phere ▁and ▁the ▁solar ▁wind , ▁is ▁observed ▁by ▁Expl orer ▁ 1 2 . ▁The ▁measurements ▁confirm ▁predictions ▁made ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 1 ▁by ▁Chap man ▁and ▁Ferr |
aro . ▁▁ 1 9 6 2 ▁- ▁In ▁July , ▁a ▁U . S . ▁H - b omb ▁test ▁( Project ▁Star fish ) ▁above ▁the ▁central ▁Pacific ▁Ocean ▁creates ▁a ▁radiation ▁belt ▁of ▁high - energy ▁elect rons , ▁parts ▁of ▁which ▁remain ▁until ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁The ▁new ▁belt ▁creates ▁aur ora ▁at ▁Sam oa ▁and ▁unexpected ly ▁kn ocks ▁out ▁ 3 ▁artificial ▁satell ites . ▁▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁- ▁IMP - 1 ▁( Inter plan etary ▁Monitor ing ▁Platform ▁ 1 ) ▁reports ▁a ▁large ▁bow ▁shock ▁formed ▁in ▁the ▁solar ▁wind ▁ahead ▁of ▁the ▁magnet os phere , ▁and ▁a ▁long ▁magnetic ▁tail ▁on ▁the ▁night ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁Earth . ▁▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁- ▁Sy un - I chi ▁Ak as of u ▁( J apan - U . S .) ▁and ▁Sydney ▁Chap man ▁rev ive ▁and ▁expand ▁B irk eland ' s ▁notion ▁of ▁a ▁" pol ar ▁magnetic ▁storm ", ▁now ▁named ▁" mag netic ▁subst orm ." ▁▁ 1 9 7 1 ▁- ▁I on ospher ic ▁O + ▁ ions ▁found ▁among ▁energet ic ▁particles ▁trapped ▁in ▁the ▁Earth ' s ▁magnetic ▁field , ▁evidence ▁that ▁O + ▁ ions ▁are ▁pulled ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁ion os phere ▁and ▁acceler ated ▁▁▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁- ▁Observ ations ▁of ▁the ▁diff use ▁aur ora ▁are ▁reported , ▁made ▁by ▁the ▁Canadian ▁space craft ▁Is is ▁ 2 . ▁▁ 1 9 7 |
4 ▁- ▁A ▁large - scale ▁pattern ▁of ▁" B irk eland ▁current s " ▁between ▁space ▁and ▁the ▁aur oral ▁zone ▁tr aced ▁by ▁Alfred ▁Z m uda ▁and ▁Jim ▁Arm strong , ▁using ▁the ▁Navy ' s ▁" Tri ad " ▁satellite . ▁▁ 1 9 7 4 ▁- ▁David ▁Evans ▁presents ▁evidence ▁that ▁aur oral ▁elect rons ▁are ▁acceler ated ▁within ▁ 8 0 0 0 km ▁or ▁so ▁of ▁Earth . ▁▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁- ▁The ▁S 3 - 3 ▁satellite ▁of ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Air ▁Force ▁observ es ▁the ▁upward ▁acceler ation ▁of ▁O + ▁ ions , ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁down ward ▁acceler ation ▁of ▁elect rons ▁in ▁the ▁polar ▁aur ora . ▁▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁- ▁High ▁resolution ▁aur oral ▁images ▁are ▁obtained ▁by ▁the ▁D ynamics ▁Expl orer ▁satellite . ▁▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁- ▁I SEE - 3 ▁( Intern ational ▁Sun - E arth ▁Expl orer ▁ 3 ) ▁expl ores ▁the ▁distant ▁magnet ot ail , ▁observ es ▁that ▁the ▁distant ▁tail ▁plasma ▁flows ▁( p ast ▁about ▁ 7 0 ▁RE ) ▁away ▁from ▁Earth . ▁▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁ ▁- ▁An ▁" art ificial ▁com et " ▁is ▁produced ▁by ▁a ▁cloud ▁of ▁b arium ▁ ions , ▁released ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁IR M ▁( I on ▁Release ▁Module ) ▁satellite . ▁Meanwhile , ▁another ▁A MP TE ▁space craft , ▁C CE ▁( Ch arge ▁Com position ▁Expl orer |
) ▁observ es ▁mass ▁and ▁energy ▁distribution ▁in ▁the ▁ring ▁current , ▁including ▁its ▁peak ▁energies ▁around ▁ 6 5 ▁ke V . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : E lect romag net ism ▁Category : Plan etary ▁science ▁Category : Space ▁pl as mas <0x0A> </s> ▁Ped da ▁Man ush ulu ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁Tel ugu ▁language ▁film ▁directed ▁by ▁Boy ina ▁Sub ba ▁R ao ▁under ▁the ▁S ures h ▁Produ ctions ▁b anner . ▁The ▁film ▁stars ▁S uman ▁and ▁R ach ana ▁Ban er je e ▁in ▁the ▁lead ▁roles . ▁ ▁Cast ▁S uman ▁R ach ana ▁Ban er je e ▁He era ▁Raj ag op al ▁Ka ik ala ▁Sat yan ar ay ana ▁Sri h ari ▁K ota ▁S rin iv asa ▁R ao ▁R aja ▁Rav ind ra ▁N ars ing ▁Y ad av ▁S . P . ▁Bal as ub ra hm any am ▁ ▁Sound track ▁ ▁E es hw ar ▁composed ▁the ▁music . ▁Music ▁released ▁under ▁Ad ity a ▁Music ▁Company . ▁ ▁Release ▁The ▁film ▁enjoyed ▁commercial ▁success . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 0 s ▁Tel ugu - language ▁films ▁Category : 1 9 9 9 ▁films ▁Category : Ind ian ▁films <0x0A> </s> ▁Map ▁Commun ication ▁Model ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁in ▁cart ography ▁that ▁character izes ▁mapping ▁as ▁a ▁process ▁of ▁transm itting ▁ge ographic ▁information ▁via ▁the ▁map ▁from ▁the ▁cart ographer ▁to ▁the ▁end - user . |
▁ ▁Over view ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁mid - 2 0 th ▁century , ▁according ▁to ▁C ram pton ▁( 2 0 0 1 ) ▁" cart ograph ers ▁as ▁Arthur ▁H . ▁Robinson ▁and ▁others ▁had ▁begun ▁to ▁see ▁the ▁map ▁as ▁primarily ▁a ▁communication ▁tool , ▁and ▁so ▁developed ▁a ▁specific ▁model ▁for ▁map ▁communication , ▁the ▁map ▁communication ▁model ▁( MC M ) ". ▁This ▁model , ▁according ▁to ▁Andrew s ▁( 1 9 8 8 ) ▁" can ▁be ▁group ed ▁with ▁the ▁other ▁major ▁communication ▁models ▁of ▁the ▁time , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Sh annon - We aver ▁and ▁L ass well ▁models ▁of ▁communication . ▁The ▁map ▁communication ▁model ▁led ▁to ▁a ▁whole ▁new ▁body ▁of ▁research , ▁method ologies ▁and ▁map ▁design ▁parad ig ms " ▁▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁implications ▁of ▁this ▁communication ▁model ▁according ▁to ▁C ram pton ▁( 2 0 0 1 ) ▁" end ors ed ▁an ▁“ ep ist emic ▁break ” ▁that ▁shifted ▁our ▁understand ings ▁of ▁maps ▁as ▁communication ▁systems ▁to ▁investig ating ▁them ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁fields ▁of ▁power ▁relations ▁and ▁exploring ▁the ▁“ mapping ▁environments ▁in ▁which ▁knowledge ▁is ▁constructed ” ... ▁This ▁involved ▁exam ining ▁the ▁social ▁context s ▁in ▁which ▁maps ▁were ▁both ▁produced ▁and ▁used , ▁a ▁departure ▁from ▁simply ▁seeing ▁maps ▁as ▁art ifacts ▁to ▁be ▁understood ▁apart ▁from ▁this ▁context ". ▁ ▁A ▁second ▁im plication ▁of ▁this ▁model ▁is ▁the ▁presum ption ▁inherited ▁from ▁posit iv ism ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁to |
▁separate ▁facts ▁from ▁values . ▁As ▁Har ley ▁stated : ▁M aps ▁are ▁never ▁value - free ▁images ; ▁except ▁in ▁the ▁narrow est ▁Eu cl ide an ▁sense ▁they ▁are ▁not ▁in ▁themselves ▁either ▁true ▁or ▁false . ▁Both ▁in ▁the ▁select ivity ▁of ▁their ▁content ▁and ▁in ▁their ▁signs ▁and ▁styles ▁of ▁representation ▁maps ▁are ▁a ▁way ▁of ▁conce iving , ▁artic ulating , ▁and ▁struct uring ▁the ▁human ▁world ▁which ▁is ▁bi ased ▁towards , ▁promoted ▁by , ▁and ▁ex erts ▁influence ▁upon ▁particular ▁sets ▁of ▁social ▁relations . ▁By ▁accepting ▁such ▁prem ises ▁it ▁becomes ▁easier ▁to ▁see ▁how ▁appropriate ▁they ▁are ▁to ▁manip ulation ▁by ▁the ▁powerful ▁in ▁society . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁Although ▁this ▁was ▁a ▁post war ▁discovery , ▁the ▁Map ▁Commun ication ▁Model ▁( MC M ) ▁has ▁its ▁roots ▁in ▁information ▁theory ▁developed ▁in ▁the ▁telephone ▁industry ▁before ▁the ▁war ▁began . ▁ ▁Mat hem atic ian , ▁invent or , ▁and ▁teacher ▁Claude ▁Sh annon ▁worked ▁at ▁Bell ▁L abs ▁after ▁completing ▁his ▁Ph . D . ▁at ▁the ▁Massachusetts ▁Institute ▁of ▁Technology ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 0 . ▁ ▁Sh annon ▁applied ▁mathematical ▁theory ▁to ▁information ▁and ▁demonstrated ▁that ▁communication ▁could ▁be ▁reduced ▁to ▁binary ▁dig its ▁( bits ) ▁of ▁positive ▁and ▁negative ▁circ uits . ▁This ▁information ▁could ▁be ▁c oded ▁and ▁trans mitted ▁across ▁a ▁no isy ▁interface ▁without ▁losing ▁any ▁meaning . ▁ ▁Once ▁the ▁information ▁was ▁received ▁it ▁was ▁then ▁dec oded ▁by ▁the ▁listener ; |
▁the ▁integrity ▁of ▁the ▁information ▁remained ▁intact . ▁ ▁In ▁producing ▁meaningful ▁sounds ▁that ▁could ▁be ▁measured ▁for ▁quality , ▁Sh annon ▁produced ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁information ▁theory ▁and ▁digital ▁communication ▁through ▁circ uits ▁of ▁on ▁and ▁off ▁sw itches . ▁ ▁Sh annon ▁developed ▁his ▁ideas ▁more ▁thoroughly ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 0 s ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁that ▁ge ographer ▁and ▁ ▁cart ographer ▁Arthur ▁H . ▁Robinson ▁returned ▁from ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War ▁during ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁served ▁as ▁cart ographer ▁for ▁the ▁military . ▁ ▁Robinson ▁found ▁that ▁cart ograph ers ▁were ▁significantly ▁limited ▁because ▁artists ▁could ▁make ▁more ▁effective ▁maps ▁than ▁ge ograph ers . ▁ ▁Upon ▁returning ▁from ▁the ▁war , ▁Robinson ▁worked ▁to ▁rem edy ▁this ▁problem ▁at ▁Ohio ▁State ▁University ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁a ▁graduate ▁student . ▁ ▁His ▁The ▁Look ▁of ▁M aps ▁emphas izes ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁letter ing , ▁map ▁design , ▁map ▁structure , ▁color , ▁and ▁technique . ▁▁▁ ▁Information ▁theory ▁helped ▁turn ▁the ▁map ▁into ▁a ▁medium ▁of ▁commun icating ▁information . ▁Although ▁Robinson ▁never ▁artic ulated ▁a ▁map ▁model ▁that ▁could ▁govern ▁the ▁new ▁scientific ▁pursuit ▁of ▁maps , ▁his ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁war ▁led ▁to ▁an ▁understanding ▁of ▁the ▁practical ▁need ▁for ▁maps ▁based ▁on ▁science ▁not ▁art . ▁ ▁Robinson ▁opened ▁the ▁door ▁for ▁others ▁to ▁apply ▁Sh annon ’ s ▁Mathemat ical ▁Theory ▁of ▁Commun ication ▁to ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁maps . ▁ ▁British ▁ge ographer ▁Christopher ▁Board ▁developed ▁the ▁first ▁M CM |
▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁cum bers ome ▁and ▁poorly ▁measured ▁a ▁map ’ s ▁information ▁quality . ▁ ▁The ▁Czech ▁Ge ographer ▁Kol á cn ý ’ s ▁ 1 9 6 9 ▁version ▁made ▁several ▁key ▁improvements ▁to ▁Board ’ s ▁model . ▁ ▁These ▁versions ▁of ▁the ▁M CM ▁helped ▁cart ograph ers ▁realize ▁the ▁problems ▁that ▁Robinson ▁noted ▁as ▁a ▁war ▁cart ographer ▁and ▁helped ▁artic ulate ▁the ▁discipline ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁science . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁" The ▁map ▁communication ▁model ▁and ▁critical ▁cart ography ", ▁U b ik can ▁blog spot ▁ 8 . 1 3 . 2 0 0 6 . ▁ ▁Category : Cart ography ▁Category : Information ▁theory <0x0A> </s> ▁Richard ▁W ade ▁We hr ▁( De cember ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁– ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 1 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁professional ▁basketball ▁player ▁and ▁college ▁coach . ▁We hr ▁was ▁selected ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁B AA ▁draft ▁by ▁the ▁Indian apolis ▁J ets ▁after ▁a ▁colleg iate ▁career ▁at ▁Rice . ▁He ▁played ▁for ▁the ▁J ets ▁in ▁only ▁nine ▁total ▁games , ▁recording ▁ 1 2 ▁points ▁and ▁ 3 ▁ass ists . ▁ ▁He ▁co ached ▁Georgia ▁State ▁University ' s ▁men ' s ▁basketball ▁and ▁golf ▁teams ▁following ▁his ▁playing ▁career . ▁ ▁B AA ▁career ▁statistics ▁ ▁Regular ▁season ▁ ▁Head ▁coaching ▁record ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ |
▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 1 ▁deaths ▁Category : American ▁military ▁personnel ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁Category : B asket ball ▁coaches ▁from ▁Ohio ▁Category : B asket ball ▁players ▁from ▁Ohio ▁Category : Col lege ▁golf ▁coaches ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁Category : Den ison ▁University ▁al umn i ▁ ▁Category : Fl or ida ▁State ▁University ▁al umn i ▁ ▁Category : Ge org ia ▁State ▁Pan thers ▁men ' s ▁basketball ▁coaches ▁Category : High ▁school ▁basketball ▁coaches ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Ind iana ▁Ho os iers ▁men ' s ▁basketball ▁players ▁Category : Ind ian apolis ▁J ets ▁draft ▁picks ▁Category : Ind ian apolis ▁J ets ▁players ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Cal d well , ▁Ohio ▁Category : R ice ▁O w ls ▁men ' s ▁basketball ▁players ▁Category : Saint ▁Mary ' s ▁College ▁of ▁California ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Pittsburgh ▁al umn i ▁ ▁Category : American ▁men ' s ▁basketball ▁players ▁Category : For wards ▁( b asket ball ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Col cha ▁District ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁nine ▁districts ▁of ▁the ▁province ▁Par uro , ▁Peru . ▁ ▁Eth nic ▁groups ▁ ▁The ▁people ▁in ▁the ▁district ▁are ▁mainly ▁ind igenous ▁citizens ▁of ▁Que ch ua ▁descent . ▁Que ch ua ▁is ▁the ▁language ▁which ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁( 9 5 . 4 9 %) ▁learn ▁to ▁speak ▁in ▁childhood , ▁ 4 |
. 3 5 % ▁of ▁the ▁residents ▁started ▁speaking ▁using ▁the ▁Spanish ▁language ▁( 2 0 0 7 ▁Peru ▁Census ). ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁P um aw asi ▁ ▁Re ferences <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Social ist ▁Work ers ▁Party ▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( , ▁P SM R ), ▁later ▁renamed ▁the ▁Independent ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( Part id ul ▁Social ist ▁Independent ▁din ▁Rom â nia , ▁P SI R ), ▁was ▁a ▁political ▁party ▁in ▁Rom ania . ▁The ▁party ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁Buch arest ▁on ▁ 1 5 ▁July ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁as ▁a ▁left ist ▁spl inter ▁group ▁of ▁the ▁Social ▁Democratic ▁Party , ▁formed ▁by ▁a ▁minority ▁that ▁opposed ▁the ▁cooperation ▁with ▁the ▁National ▁Pe as ants ' ▁Party . ▁ ▁Background ▁Following ▁the ▁decision ▁of ▁the ▁May ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁Congress ▁of ▁the ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( PS R ) ▁to ▁un condition ally ▁affiliate ▁to ▁the ▁Third ▁International ▁( Com intern ), ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁authorities ▁arrested ▁en ▁m asse ▁its ▁leadership , ▁accused ▁of ▁conspiracy ▁against ▁state ▁security . ▁The ▁supporters ▁of ▁the ▁un cond itional ▁affili ation ▁reform ed ▁themselves ▁as ▁the ▁Social ist ▁Communist ▁Party , ▁with ▁P SR ▁members ▁which ▁had ▁only ▁supported ▁an ▁affili ation ▁preserv ing ▁party ▁aut onomy ▁either ▁leaving ▁or ▁being ▁exp elled ▁at ▁the ▁request ▁of ▁the ▁Com intern . ▁The ▁latter ▁group , ▁known ▁as ▁" un itarian ", ▁created ▁a ▁new ▁Social ist ▁Party |
▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( PS ) ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 2 , ▁after ▁some ▁of ▁its ▁leaders ▁were ▁freed ▁from ▁det ention . ▁While ▁initially ▁ad op ting ▁the ▁radical ▁ 1 9 1 9 ▁program ▁of ▁the ▁P SR , ▁the ▁party ▁ton ed ▁down ▁its ▁rhet oric ▁after ▁joining ▁the ▁minor ▁Social ▁Democratic ▁Party ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 9 2 2 , ▁to ▁const itute ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁Old ▁Kingdom ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁Federation ▁of ▁Roman ian ▁Social ist ▁Part ies ▁( F PS R ). ▁The ▁Federation ▁had ▁been ▁const ituted ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁by ▁the ▁reform ist ▁groups ▁that ▁had ▁left ▁the ▁original ▁P SR ▁in ▁early ▁February , ▁diss atisf ied ▁with ▁the ▁growing ▁strength ▁of ▁the ▁commun ist ▁f action . ▁ ▁Unlike ▁the ▁Trans yl van ian ▁and ▁B uk ov ina ▁sections ▁of ▁the ▁F PS R , ▁the ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁of ▁the ▁Old ▁Kingdom ▁maintained ▁a ▁more ▁left ist ▁orientation , ▁being ▁more ▁open ▁to ▁cooperation ▁with ▁the ▁Communist ▁Party ▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( PC d R ). ▁Thus , ▁the ▁Buch arest ▁section ▁successfully ▁ran ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁local ▁elections ▁on ▁a ▁common ▁list ▁with ▁the ▁Pe asant ▁Work ers ' ▁B loc , ▁a ▁front ▁organization ▁of ▁the ▁PC d R ▁– ▁the ▁latter ▁having ▁been ▁banned ▁by ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁government ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 4 . ▁The ▁transformation ▁of ▁the ▁F PS R ▁into ▁the ▁Social ▁Democratic ▁Party |
▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( PS DR ) ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 7 ▁however ▁meant ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁PS ’ s ▁aut onomy , ▁with ▁decisions ▁on ▁elect oral ▁all iances ▁falling ▁within ▁the ▁compet ence ▁of ▁the ▁national ▁leadership . ▁ ▁Foundation ▁During ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁the ▁PS DR ▁decision ▁to ▁run ▁on ▁a ▁common ▁platform ▁with ▁the ▁centre - left ▁National ▁Pe as ants ' ▁Party ▁( PN Ţ ) ▁against ▁the ▁ruling ▁National ▁Liberal ▁Party ▁( PN L ), ▁and ▁its ▁ban ▁on ▁local ▁collaboration ▁with ▁commun ist - in flu enced ▁organisations , ▁resulted ▁in ▁t ensions ▁between ▁the ▁central ▁leadership ▁and ▁the ▁Buch arest ▁section . ▁After ▁calls ▁to ▁sub ord ination ▁issued ▁in ▁March – Apr il ▁were ▁ignored , ▁the ▁direct ▁confront ation ▁that ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁May ▁between ▁L oth ar ▁R ă d ă cean u , ▁Il ie ▁Mos cov ici , ▁and ▁Io an ▁Fl u era ş , ▁representing ▁the ▁Executive ▁Committee , ▁on ▁one ▁side , ▁and ▁the ▁local ▁leaders ▁, ▁ Ş te fan ▁Vo ite c , ▁Vas ile ▁An agnost e , ▁and ▁, ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁side , ▁only ▁served ▁to ▁height en ▁the ▁conflict . ▁Con sequently , ▁the ▁Executive ▁Committee ▁diss olved ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁Buch arest ▁section ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁May . ▁Furthermore , ▁G he ler ter , ▁himself ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Executive ▁Committee , ▁was ▁exp elled ▁from ▁the ▁PS DR ▁in ▁July , |
▁accused ▁of ▁critic ising ▁the ▁alliance ▁with ▁the ▁Pe as ants ' ▁Party ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁protecting ▁and ▁encouraging ▁commun ist ▁elements ▁within ▁his ▁section . ▁ ▁On ▁July ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁a ▁day ▁after ▁the ▁PS DR ▁appointed ▁a ▁new ▁leadership ▁for ▁its ▁Buch arest ▁section , ▁G he ler ter ▁called ▁on ▁a ▁meeting ▁of ▁his ▁supporters . ▁In ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁former ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁section , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁representatives ▁from ▁major ▁industrial ▁cent res ▁from ▁the ▁Old ▁Kingdom , ▁the ▁meeting ▁adopted ▁a ▁manifest o ▁auth ored ▁by ▁G he ler ter , ▁Vo ite c ▁and ▁Pet re ▁Z iss u . ▁The ▁manifest o ▁announced ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁Social ist ▁Work ers ' ▁Party ▁as ▁a ▁party ▁dedicated ▁to ▁social ▁revolution , ▁opposed ▁to ▁any ▁collaboration ▁with ▁bour ge ois ▁parties , ▁seen ▁as ▁supporters ▁of ▁the ▁class - based ▁society . ▁Aff irm ing ▁its ▁commitment ▁to ▁class ▁struggle , ▁it ▁called ▁on ▁the ▁peas antry ▁to ▁follow ▁the ▁lead ▁of ▁the ▁working ▁class ▁in ▁its ▁struggle ▁with ▁capitalism , ▁whose ▁fore most ▁representative ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁was ▁considered ▁the ▁National ▁Liberal ▁Party . ▁The ▁document ▁further ▁condem ned ▁PS DR ' s ▁collaboration ▁with ▁the ▁Pe as ants ' ▁Party , ▁and ▁critic ised ▁its ▁position ▁assert ing ▁social ▁revolution ▁would ▁be ▁possible ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁only ▁after ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁social ism ▁in ▁Western ▁Europe . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁meeting , |
▁a ▁Committee ▁of ▁the ▁Buch arest ▁section ▁was ▁elected ▁and ▁task ed ▁to ▁work ▁with ▁milit ants ▁from ▁P lo ie ş ti , ▁G ala ţ i , ▁C â mp ina , ▁and ▁B oto ş ani ▁towards ▁calling ▁a ▁country - wide ▁Congress . ▁ ▁Activ ities ▁Express ing ▁its ▁ad her ence ▁to ▁Marx ist ▁do ctr ines , ▁the ▁P SM R ▁called ▁for ▁peace ▁between ▁Rom ania ▁and ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁As ▁the ▁world ▁financial ▁crisis ▁of ▁ 1 9 2 9 ▁w reak ed ▁hav oc , ▁the ▁party ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁time ▁was ▁ri pe ▁for ▁revolution . ▁It ▁also ▁called ▁for ▁end ▁to ▁cens orship ▁and ▁re pression ▁and ▁advoc ated ▁salary ▁increases , ▁collective ▁barg aining ▁agreements ▁and ▁the ▁ 8 ▁hour ▁working ▁day . ▁Moreover , ▁it ▁fav oured ▁land ▁reform , ▁ex propri ating ▁lands ▁from ▁large ▁land owners ▁without ▁compensation . ▁ ▁The ▁party ▁slowly ▁expanded ▁its ▁territor ial ▁base , ▁already ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁July ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁en rolling ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁groups ▁of ▁workers ▁from ▁G ala ţ i , ▁I a ş i ▁and ▁P lo ie ş ti . ▁Nevertheless , ▁it ▁was ▁never ▁able ▁to ▁establish ▁a ▁significant ▁presence ▁in ▁the ▁territor ies ▁incorporated ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁in ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁For ▁most ▁of ▁its ▁existence , ▁its ▁main ▁strong holds ▁were ▁Buch arest ▁and ▁the ▁Pra h ova ▁Valley , ▁an ▁important ▁industrial ▁region |
▁in ▁southern ▁Rom ania . ▁Soon ▁after ▁foundation , ▁the ▁P SM R ▁was ▁also ▁joined ▁by ▁other ▁important ▁figures ▁from ▁the ▁PS DR , ▁the ▁Pe asant ▁Work ers ' ▁B loc ▁and ▁the ▁local ▁trade ▁un ions , ▁such ▁as ▁Constant in ▁M ă nes cu , ▁Dum it ru ▁G ă nes cu ▁or ▁I anc u ▁Il ies cu . ▁ ▁The ▁party ▁was ▁led ▁by ▁a ▁Central ▁Executive ▁Committee . ▁Lit man ▁G he ler ter ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁party . ▁ Ș te fan ▁Vo ite c ▁was ▁the ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁party . ▁Other ▁key ▁leaders ▁of ▁the ▁party ▁included ▁Z ah aria ▁T ă n ase , ▁Vas ile ▁An agnost e , ▁C . ▁M ă nes cu ▁and ▁M ih ail ▁Mor aru . ▁Ge ograph ically ▁the ▁party ▁was ▁divided ▁in ▁county - level ▁feder ations , ▁each ▁consisting ▁of ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁local ▁sections . ▁The ▁party ▁organized ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁independent ▁trade ▁un ions . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 9 ▁the ▁party ▁joined ▁the ▁Paris - based ▁International ▁Bureau ▁of ▁Revolution ary ▁Social ist ▁Part ies . ▁The ▁central ▁organ ▁of ▁the ▁party ▁was ▁the ▁newspaper ▁Pro let ar ul , ▁which ▁began ▁publishing ▁on ▁July ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 9 2 8 . ▁ ▁In ▁preparation ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁general ▁election , ▁the ▁P SM ▁extended ▁an ▁official ▁invitation ▁for ▁cooperation ▁to ▁the ▁Pe asant ▁Work ers ' ▁B |
loc , ▁calling ▁for ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁a ▁united ▁front . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁party ' s ▁leaders ▁were ▁ready ▁to ▁accept ▁the ▁B loc ' s ▁programme , ▁however ▁the ▁latter ▁required ▁that ▁they ▁publicly ▁rep udi ate ▁the ▁P SM ▁as ▁" cent rist " ▁and ▁" social ▁democratic ". ▁Despite ▁its ▁claimed ▁independence , ▁the ▁decision ▁of ▁the ▁commun ist - dom inated ▁B loc ▁to ▁fore go ▁an ▁alliance ▁with ▁the ▁social ists ▁mir ro red ▁the ▁Com intern ▁ban ▁on ▁collaboration ▁with ▁social - dem ocr ats ▁imposed ▁on ▁the ▁French ▁and ▁English ▁commun ist ▁parties , ▁institut ed ▁in ▁February ▁ 1 9 2 8 . ▁Nevertheless , ▁the ▁P SM ▁decided ▁not ▁to ▁design ate ▁candidates , ▁and ▁called ▁on ▁supporters ▁to ▁vote ▁for ▁the ▁B loc ' s ▁list . ▁During ▁the ▁campaign , ▁the ▁party ▁called ▁for ▁un ification ▁of ▁the ▁trade ▁union ▁movement . ▁With ▁its ▁campaign ing ▁severely ▁curt ailed ▁by ▁the ▁P N Ţ - led ▁government , ▁the ▁social ists - supported ▁B loc ▁was ▁only ▁able ▁to ▁obtain ▁ 1 . 4 % ▁of ▁the ▁national ▁vote . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁the ▁P N Ţ ▁in ▁alliance ▁with ▁the ▁PS DR ▁obtained ▁ 7 7 . 7 6 %, ▁resulting ▁in ▁ 9 ▁MP ▁seats ▁for ▁the ▁Social - Dem ocr ats . ▁After ▁the ▁B loc ▁refused ▁another ▁alliance ▁offer , ▁the ▁P SM R , ▁unable ▁to ▁raise ▁sufficient ▁funds , ▁decided ▁not ▁to ▁participate ▁in ▁the |
▁local ▁elections ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 0 , ▁calling ▁the ▁workers ▁to ▁cancel ▁their ▁vote ▁by ▁writing ▁" Down ▁with ▁the ▁terror ! ▁Long ▁live ▁B uj or ! ▁Long ▁live ▁Social ism !" ▁on ▁their ▁ball ot . ▁ ▁P SM R ▁held ▁a ▁conference ▁in ▁C â mp ina ▁September ▁ 2 6 – 2 7 , ▁ 1 9 3 1 , ▁at ▁which ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁party ▁was ▁changed ▁to ▁the ▁Independent ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( P . S . I . R ). ▁ ▁On ▁August ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁P SI R ▁merged ▁with ▁the ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Rom ania ▁( C . ▁Pop ov ici ), ▁a ▁spl inter ▁group ▁of ▁Social ▁Democratic ▁Party , ▁forming ▁the ▁United ▁Social ist ▁Party . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 8 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁Category : 1 9 3 3 ▁dis est ablish ments ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁Category : Def unct ▁social ist ▁parties ▁in ▁Rom ania ▁Category : Pol it ical ▁parties ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁Category : Pol it ical ▁parties ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 8 <0x0A> </s> ▁Wh an an aki ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁local ity ▁on ▁the ▁east ▁coast ▁of ▁North land , ▁New ▁Zealand . ▁Wh ang are i ▁is ▁to ▁the ▁south west . ▁Te ▁W air ah i ▁Stream ▁flows ▁from ▁the ▁north west ▁into ▁Wh an |
an aki ▁In let , ▁a ▁wide ▁tid al ▁est uary ▁which ▁separ ates ▁Wh an an aki ▁from ▁Wh an an aki ▁South . ▁Sandy ▁Bay ▁lies ▁to ▁the ▁sout heast . ▁A ▁long ▁wooden ▁foot bridge ▁connect s ▁Wh an an aki ▁North ▁and ▁Wh an an aki ▁South , ▁with ▁an ▁alternative ▁connection ▁being ▁a ▁ ▁road ▁that ▁cross es ▁the ▁river ▁above ▁the ▁est uary . ▁H ik ur ang i ▁is ▁about ▁ 2 2 km ▁south west ▁of ▁Wh an an aki ▁South . ▁ ▁The ▁area ▁was ▁reput edly ▁named ▁by ▁Pu hi , ▁the ▁captain ▁of ▁the ▁legendary ▁w aka ▁M ā ta at ua . ▁The ▁M ā ori - language ▁word ▁Wh an an ā ki ▁means ▁" k icking ", ▁and ▁the ▁name ▁a rose ▁because ▁mos qu ito es ▁caused ▁Pu hi ▁to ▁sleep ▁rest lessly . ▁ ▁Mar ae ▁ ▁Wh an an ā ki ▁Mar ae ▁and ▁Wh ak apa um ah ara ▁meeting ▁house ▁are ▁a ▁meeting ▁place ▁for ▁Ng ā ti ▁Re h ua ▁and ▁the ▁Ng ā ti w ai ▁h ap ū ▁of ▁Te ▁ Ā ki ▁Tai . ▁ ▁Education ▁Wh an an aki ▁School ▁is ▁a ▁co educ ational ▁full ▁primary ▁( year s ▁ 1 – 8 ) ▁school ▁with ▁a ▁dec ile ▁rating ▁of ▁ 5 ▁and ▁a ▁roll ▁of ▁ 4 3 . ▁ ▁Not able ▁people ▁ ▁W inst on ▁Peters , ▁leader ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ▁First ▁Jim |
▁Peters , ▁politician ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Category : Wh ang are i ▁District ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁the ▁North land ▁Region <0x0A> </s> ▁David ▁Wilson ▁De amer ▁( born ▁April ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 1 9 3 9 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁bi ologist ▁and ▁Research ▁Professor ▁of ▁Bi om ole cular ▁Engineering ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Santa ▁Cruz . ▁De amer ▁has ▁made ▁significant ▁contributions ▁to ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁membr ane ▁bi oph ys ics . ▁ ▁His ▁work ▁led ▁to ▁a ▁novel ▁method ▁of ▁DNA ▁sequ encing ▁and ▁a ▁more ▁complete ▁understanding ▁of ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁membr anes ▁in ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁life . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁awarded ▁a ▁G ug gen heim ▁Fellow ship ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 , ▁which ▁supported ▁research ▁at ▁the ▁Australian ▁National ▁University ▁in ▁Can ber ra ▁to ▁investigate ▁organic ▁comp ounds ▁in ▁the ▁M urch ison ▁met e or ite . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁Society ▁for ▁the ▁Study ▁of ▁the ▁Origin ▁of ▁Life , ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁- ▁ 1 4 . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁ ▁De amer ' s ▁father , ▁also ▁David , ▁worked ▁at ▁Douglas ▁Air craft ▁in ▁Santa ▁Mon ica , ▁California ▁during ▁and ▁after ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁while ▁his ▁mother ▁Z ena ▁cared ▁for ▁De amer ▁and ▁his ▁two ▁brothers , ▁Richard ▁and ▁John . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 2 , ▁the ▁family ▁moved ▁to ▁Ohio , ▁where ▁the ▁three ▁brothers ▁attended ▁W ester ville |
▁High ▁School . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 7 , ▁De amer ▁submitted ▁his ▁research ▁on ▁self - organ izing ▁proto zo a ▁to ▁the ▁West ing house ▁Science ▁Tal ent ▁Search ▁and ▁was ▁among ▁the ▁ 4 0 ▁winners ▁who ▁were ▁invited ▁to ▁Washington ▁DC ▁that ▁year . ▁He ▁was ▁awarded ▁a ▁full ▁scholarship ▁to ▁Duke ▁University , ▁where ▁he ▁completed ▁a ▁b achelor ' s ▁degree ▁in ▁Chem istry ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 . ▁ ▁De amer ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁earn ▁a ▁PhD ▁in ▁Phys i ological ▁Chem istry ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁at ▁the ▁Ohio ▁State ▁University ▁School ▁of ▁Medicine . ▁His ▁advis or ▁was ▁David ▁Corn well , ▁a ▁lip id ▁bi oc hem ist , ▁so ▁De amer ▁focused ▁on ▁calci um ▁interactions ▁with ▁fat ty ▁acid ▁and ▁ph osph ol ip id ▁mon ol ay ers , ▁finishing ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 . ▁During ▁his ▁time ▁as ▁a ▁graduate ▁student ▁De amer ▁married ▁Jane , ▁and ▁their ▁first ▁son ▁Mark ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 3 . ▁ ▁De amer ▁began ▁post - do ctor al ▁research ▁with ▁Les ter ▁Pack er ▁and ▁Daniel ▁Br anton ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Berkeley ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 , ▁where ▁he ▁learned ▁techniques ▁of ▁electron ▁micro sc opy . ▁De amer ▁and ▁Br anton ▁demonstrated ▁that ▁the ▁freeze - etch ▁method ▁split ▁the ▁lip id ▁bil ayer ▁of ▁membr anes ▁to ▁reveal ▁integral ▁prote ins ▁for ▁the ▁first |
▁time , ▁and ▁their ▁paper ▁was ▁published ▁in ▁Science ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁In ▁the ▁same ▁year ▁De amer ▁accepted ▁a ▁faculty ▁position ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Davis , ▁where ▁he ▁spent ▁the ▁next ▁ 2 7 ▁years . ▁Ann abeth ▁and ▁Nicholas ▁were ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁family ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 9 ▁and ▁ 1 9 7 7 . ▁The ▁marriage ▁ended ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁De amer ▁married ▁O lo f ▁Ein ars d ott ir , ▁a ▁professor ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Chem istry ▁and ▁Bi oc hem istry , ▁and ▁moved ▁his ▁laboratory ▁to ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Santa ▁Cruz ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁The ▁couple ▁have ▁two ▁children , ▁A sta ▁born ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁and ▁St ella ▁born ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Research ▁▁ ▁As ▁a ▁young ▁professor ▁at ▁U C ▁Davis , ▁De amer ▁continued ▁to ▁work ▁with ▁electron ▁micro sc opy , ▁revealing ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁particles ▁related ▁to ▁functional ▁A TP ase ▁en zym es ▁within ▁the ▁membr anes ▁of ▁s arc opl asm ic ▁ret ic ulum . ▁After ▁spending ▁sab bat icals ▁in ▁England ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Brist ol ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 ▁and ▁with ▁Ale c ▁Ban gh am ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 5 , ▁De amer ▁became ▁interested ▁in ▁lip os omes . ▁Con vers ations ▁with ▁Ban |
gh am ▁inspired ▁his ▁research ▁on ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁membr anes ▁in ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁life , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁De amer ▁demonstrated ▁that ▁the ▁M urch ison ▁carbon ace ous ▁met e or ite ▁contained ▁lip id - like ▁comp ounds ▁that ▁could ▁as semble ▁into ▁membr an ous ▁v es icles . ▁De amer ▁described ▁the ▁significance ▁of ▁self - assembly ▁processes ▁in ▁his ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁book ▁First ▁Life . ▁In ▁collabor ative ▁work ▁with ▁Mark ▁Ak es on , ▁a ▁post - do ctor al ▁student ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁the ▁two ▁established ▁methods ▁for ▁monitoring ▁pro ton ▁per me ation ▁through ▁ion ▁channels ▁such ▁as ▁gram ic id in . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 9 , ▁while ▁returning ▁from ▁a ▁scientific ▁meeting ▁in ▁Oregon , ▁De amer ▁con ceived ▁that ▁it ▁might ▁be ▁possible ▁to ▁sequence ▁single ▁mole cules ▁of ▁DNA ▁by ▁using ▁an ▁imposed ▁voltage ▁to ▁pull ▁them ▁individually ▁through ▁a ▁n anos cop ic ▁channel . ▁The ▁DNA ▁sequence ▁could ▁be ▁distinguished ▁by ▁the ▁specific ▁mod ulating ▁effect ▁of ▁the ▁four ▁bases ▁on ▁the ▁ion ic ▁current ▁through ▁the ▁channel . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 3 , ▁he ▁and ▁Dan ▁Br anton ▁initiated ▁a ▁research ▁collaboration ▁with ▁John ▁Kas ian ow itz ▁at ▁N IST ▁to ▁explore ▁this ▁possibility ▁with ▁the ▁hem ol ys in ▁channel , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁published ▁the ▁first ▁paper ▁demonstr ating ▁that ▁nan op ore ▁sequ encing ▁may ▁be |
▁feas ible . ▁George ▁Church ▁at ▁Harvard ▁had ▁independently ▁proposed ▁a ▁similar ▁idea , ▁and ▁Church , ▁Br anton ▁and ▁De amer ▁decided ▁to ▁initi ate ▁a ▁patent ▁application ▁which ▁was ▁awarded ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 . ▁Mark ▁Ak es on ▁joined ▁the ▁research ▁effort ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 7 , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁published ▁a ▁paper ▁showing ▁that ▁the ▁hem ol ys in ▁channel , ▁now ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁a ▁nan op ore , ▁could ▁distinguish ▁between ▁pur ine ▁and ▁p yr im id ine ▁bases ▁in ▁single ▁R NA ▁mole cules . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Oxford ▁N an op ore ▁Techn ologies ▁( ONT ) ▁licensed ▁the ▁pat ents ▁describing ▁the ▁technology ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁released ▁the ▁Min ION ▁nan op ore ▁sequ encing ▁device ▁to ▁selected ▁researchers . ▁The ▁first ▁publications ▁appeared ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁one ▁of ▁which ▁used ▁the ▁Min ION ▁to ▁sequence ▁E . ▁col i ▁DNA ▁with ▁ 9 9 . 4 % ▁accuracy ▁relative ▁to ▁the ▁established ▁ 5 . 4 ▁million ▁base ▁pair ▁gen ome . ▁Despite ▁earlier ▁ske ptic ism , ▁nan op ore ▁sequ encing ▁is ▁now ▁accepted ▁as ▁a ▁viable ▁third ▁generation ▁sequ encing ▁method . ▁The ▁original ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁paper ▁has ▁been ▁cited ▁over ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁times ▁in ▁the ▁scientific ▁literature , ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁twenty ▁one ▁years ▁later , ▁a |
▁Google ▁search ▁for ▁nan op ore ▁sequ encing ▁returned ▁ 2 2 6 , 0 0 0 ▁results . ▁ ▁Other ▁Public ations ▁ ▁De amer ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁co - author ▁with ▁science ▁writer ▁Wallace ▁K auf man ▁of ▁a ▁sc i - fi ▁novel , ▁The ▁Hunt ▁for ▁FO X P 5 : ▁A ▁Gen omic ▁Myst ery ▁Nov el ▁( Spring er , ▁ 2 0 1 6 ). ▁Through ▁characters ▁in ▁American ▁universities ▁and ▁Kaz akh st ani ▁science ▁and ▁politics ▁the ▁authors ▁explore ▁the ▁ethical ▁complexity ▁of ▁editing ▁human ▁genes . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : American ▁bi oc hem ists ▁Category : Du ke ▁University ▁Tr inity ▁College ▁of ▁Arts ▁and ▁Sciences ▁al umn i ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Oh io ▁State ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Santa ▁Mon ica , ▁California ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁California , ▁Davis ▁faculty ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁California , ▁Santa ▁Cruz ▁faculty <0x0A> </s> ▁La ▁En sen ada ▁is ▁a ▁cor reg imiento ▁in ▁Bal bo a ▁District , ▁Pan am á ▁Province , ▁Pan ama ▁with ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 9 4 ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁Its ▁population ▁as ▁of ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁was ▁ 9 7 ; ▁its ▁population ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁was ▁ 8 9 . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Cor reg im ientos ▁of ▁Pan am á |
▁Province <0x0A> </s> ▁V y š kov ce ▁nad ▁I p ľ om ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁and ▁municip ality ▁in ▁the ▁Lev ice ▁District ▁in ▁the ▁N it ra ▁Region ▁of ▁Slov ak ia . ▁ ▁History ▁In ▁historical ▁records ▁the ▁village ▁was ▁first ▁mentioned ▁in ▁ 1 1 5 6 , ▁whilst ▁the ▁castle ▁was ▁mentioned ▁first ▁in ▁ 1 2 9 6 , ▁when ▁Andrew ▁III ▁of ▁Hung ary ▁conf isc ated ▁it ▁from ▁the ▁sons ▁of ▁Jak ab ▁C ses z ne ky ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁dis lo yal ty ▁of ▁the ▁C ses z nek ys ▁and ▁don ated ▁the ▁castle ▁to ▁J án os ▁( C s ák ' s ▁son ) ▁of ▁the ▁clan ▁C s ák . ▁Later ▁the ▁ ▁K oh á ry , ▁E ster h á zy , ▁For g ách , ▁and ▁Bre un er ▁families ▁were ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁land l ords ▁in ▁the ▁village . ▁ ▁Ge ography ▁The ▁village ▁lies ▁at ▁an ▁alt itude ▁of ▁ 1 2 3 ▁metres ▁and ▁covers ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁ 1 9 . 2 9 5 km ². ▁It ▁has ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁about ▁ 6 9 5 ▁people . ▁ ▁Eth nic ity ▁The ▁village ▁is ▁approximately ▁ 8 0 % ▁Mag yar ▁and ▁ 2 0 % ▁Slov ak . ▁ ▁Fac ilities ▁The ▁village ▁has ▁a ▁public ▁library ▁and ▁football ▁pitch . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁https :// web . archive . org / web / 2 0 |
0 8 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 1 5 / http :// www . stat istics . sk / mos m is / eng / run . html ▁▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁and ▁municipal ities ▁in ▁Lev ice ▁District <0x0A> </s> ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁was ▁the ▁general ▁name ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁family ▁of ▁digital ▁game ▁cont rollers ▁developed ▁by ▁Microsoft ▁for ▁PC s . ▁The ▁line ▁was ▁first ▁launched ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 . ▁ ▁Although ▁intended ▁only ▁for ▁use ▁with ▁Microsoft ▁Windows , ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁game ▁cont rollers ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁with ▁mac OS , ▁Mac ▁OS ▁ 9 ▁with ▁third - party ▁software , ▁and ▁Linux . ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁" Side W inder " ▁describes ▁many ▁types ▁of ▁Microsoft ' s ▁PC ▁game ▁cont rollers ▁including ▁jo yst icks , ▁game p ads ▁and ▁ste ering ▁wheels . ▁Several ▁types ▁of ▁jo yst icks ▁were ▁made , ▁including ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 , ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro , ▁and ▁the ▁regular ▁Side W inder ▁jo yst ick . ▁Also , ▁several ▁types ▁of ▁game p ads ▁were ▁made , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁original ▁game ▁port ▁version , ▁a ▁plug - and - play ▁game ▁port ▁version , ▁and ▁the ▁USB ▁version . ▁Ste ering ▁wheels ▁are ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Racing ▁Whe el ▁and ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Whe el ▁vari ants ▁which ▁include ▁thro tt le ▁and ▁bra ke ▁ped als . ▁ ▁The |
▁family ▁also ▁includes ▁some ▁more ▁exotic ▁devices ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁Game ▁Voice ▁system ▁and ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁Strateg ic ▁Commander . ▁ ▁The ▁Side W inder ▁family ▁of ▁products ▁was ▁dis contin ued ▁by ▁Microsoft ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁c iting ▁poor ▁sales . ▁The ▁company ▁has ▁since ▁re - ent ered ▁the ▁gaming ▁hardware ▁market , ▁in ▁hopes ▁of ▁designing ▁a ▁standard ized ▁game pad ▁for ▁Windows ▁V ista ▁with ▁both ▁the ▁w ired ▁Xbox ▁ 3 6 0 ▁controller ▁and ▁the ▁Wire less ▁G aming ▁Re ceiver ▁that ▁allows ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁wireless ▁Xbox ▁ 3 6 0 ▁controller ▁on ▁the ▁PC . ▁ ▁In ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Microsoft ▁announced ▁they ▁were ▁rel a unch ing ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁line ▁of ▁gaming ▁peripher als , ▁starting ▁with ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁Mouse . ▁The ▁mouse ▁was ▁given ▁an ▁MS RP ▁of ▁$ 8 0 ▁and ▁a ▁launch ▁date ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Microsoft ▁no ▁longer ▁has ▁any ▁Side w inder ▁brand ed ▁products ▁on ▁its ▁hardware ▁website . ▁ ▁Game p ads ▁sold ▁on ▁the ▁website ▁use ▁Microsoft ' s ▁Xbox ▁ 3 6 0 ▁or ▁Xbox ▁One ▁brand ing . ▁ ▁First ▁generation ▁ ▁Notes ▁▁ ▁See ▁bottom ▁of ▁device . ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁Plus ▁were ▁sold ▁as ▁Side w inder ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁but ▁have ▁no ▁USB |
▁support . ▁ ▁Also ▁known ▁as ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁ 1 . 0 ▁ ▁Also ▁known ▁as ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Whe el ▁USB ▁ 1 . 0 ▁ ▁A ▁user - made ▁adapter ▁exists ▁for ▁modern ▁Windows ▁versions ▁( X P ▁and ▁later ), ▁Mac ▁OS ▁X ▁and ▁Linux . ▁ ▁A ▁user - made ▁adapter ▁exists , ▁incorpor ating ▁Force - feed back ▁support ▁for ▁modern ▁Windows ▁versions ▁( X P ▁and ▁later ), ▁Mac ▁OS ▁X ▁and ▁Linux . ▁Game ▁must ▁also ▁support ▁F FB . ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁bug ▁in ▁the ▁Windows ▁ 8 ▁jo yst ick ▁control ▁panel ▁which ▁causes ▁the ▁jo yst ick ▁to ▁be ▁reported ▁as ▁non - function al . ▁Games ▁will ▁still ▁recognize ▁and ▁use ▁the ▁jo yst ick . ▁ ▁A ▁user - made ▁adapter ▁exists ▁for ▁modern ▁Windows ▁versions ▁( X P ▁and ▁later ), ▁Mac ▁OS ▁X ▁and ▁Linux . ▁There ▁is ▁no ▁support ▁for ▁Force - feed back ▁at ▁this ▁time . ▁ ▁Game pad ▁ ▁The ▁original ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁game pad ▁had ▁a ▁digital ▁direction al ▁pad , ▁six ▁fire ▁buttons , ▁two ▁trigger ▁buttons , ▁and ▁a ▁" Mode " ▁and ▁" Start " ▁button . ▁The ▁original ▁game port ▁version ▁had ▁a ▁pass - through , ▁so ▁additional ▁joy p ads ▁or ▁jo yst icks ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁without ▁un plug ging ▁the ▁Side W inder , ▁and ▁also ▁allowed ▁the ▁connection ▁of ▁up ▁to ▁four |
▁Side W inder ▁game p ads ▁working ▁simultaneously . ▁New er ▁USB ▁versions ▁of ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁game pad ▁have ▁a ▁round ▁digital ▁direction al ▁pad ▁instead ▁of ▁the ▁more ▁traditional ▁cross - shaped ▁direction al ▁pad , ▁and ▁lack ▁the ▁mode ▁button . ▁The ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ' s ▁button ▁layout ▁is ▁very ▁similar ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁S ega ▁Sat urn ▁controller , ▁which ▁was ▁released ▁over ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁period . ▁ ▁The ▁Game pad ▁features ▁as ▁a ▁character ▁( Ä ) ▁in ▁the ▁Web dings ▁d ing bat ▁font . ▁▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁▁ ▁As ▁Microsoft ' s ▁first ▁Side W inder ▁jo yst ick , ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁setting ▁the ▁overall ▁design ▁as ▁seen ▁in ▁all ▁of ▁Microsoft ' s ▁future ▁jo yst icks . ▁Des igned ▁as ▁a ▁gaming - neut ral ▁jo yst ick , ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁specialized ▁jo yst ick ▁for ▁use ▁with ▁realistic ▁combat ▁flight ▁sim ul ators , ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁was ▁built ▁with ▁a ▁functional , ▁but ▁low - key ▁geometric ▁design . ▁Int ended ▁to ▁rival ▁the ▁other ▁sticks ▁from ▁the ▁time , ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁included ▁ 8 ▁buttons ▁- ▁ 4 ▁on ▁the ▁base , ▁ 4 ▁on ▁the ▁stick ▁- ▁an ▁ 8 - way ▁hat ▁switch , ▁a ▁sl ider - based ▁thro tt le , ▁and ▁the ▁stick ▁itself ▁was ▁twist able ▁for ▁Z / rud der / spin ▁control . ▁By ▁going |
▁with ▁a ▁geometric ▁design ▁however , ▁it ▁meant ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁lack ed ▁an ▁effective ▁ad her ence ▁to ▁er g onom ic ▁principles , ▁making ▁it ▁un su itable ▁for ▁long ▁gaming ▁sessions ▁for ▁some ▁users . ▁ ▁Elect ron ically , ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁used ▁a ▁digital / anal og ▁hybrid ▁design ▁that ▁was ▁intended ▁to ▁correct ▁the ▁outstanding ▁fl aws ▁in ▁traditional ▁analog ▁jo yst icks , ▁such ▁as ▁drift ▁and ▁CPU ▁overhead , ▁by ▁using ▁a ▁digital / opt ical ▁tracking ▁mechanism ▁to ▁keep ▁perfect ▁track ▁of ▁the ▁jo yst ick , ▁and ▁a ▁digital ▁communication ▁method ▁over ▁the ▁analog ▁game port . ▁However , ▁this ▁digital ▁mode ▁required ▁software ▁support , ▁and ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁used ▁with ▁many ▁D OS ▁games ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁( M ech War rior ▁ 2 ▁being ▁the ▁only ▁major ▁exception ), ▁as ▁most ▁software ▁and ▁game ports ▁were ▁built ▁completely ▁around ▁an ▁analog ▁design . ▁ ▁Additionally , ▁some ▁sound card ▁game ports , ▁and ▁so - called ▁acceler ated ▁game - ports ▁- ▁which ▁attempted ▁to ▁resolve ▁CPU ▁overhead ▁issues ▁presented ▁by ▁poll ing ▁the ▁game port ▁directly ▁themselves ▁- ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁produced ▁by ▁Gr avis , ▁would ▁not ▁always ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁handle ▁the ▁stick ▁in ▁digital ▁mode . ▁ ▁The ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁had ▁a ▁unique ▁feature ▁in ▁that ▁it ▁could ▁fall - back ▁to ▁an ▁' anal og ▁em ulation ' ▁mode , ▁where ▁it ▁could ▁em ulate ▁either ▁a ▁CH ▁Flight |
stick ▁Pro ▁or ▁a ▁Th rust master ▁F CS ▁( Select able ▁by ▁a ▁switch ▁on ▁the ▁base ), ▁in ▁environments ▁where ▁the ▁digital ▁mode ▁would ▁not ▁work . ▁ ▁In ▁this ▁mode , ▁manual ▁cal ibration ▁was ▁required , ▁the ▁four ▁base - buttons ▁no ▁longer ▁function ▁and , ▁the ▁jo yst ick ▁would ▁function ▁essentially ▁like ▁a ▁CH ▁Flight stick ▁Pro ▁or ▁Th rust master ▁F CS ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁mode ▁selector ▁switch . ▁ ▁However , ▁on ▁later ▁operating ▁systems ▁the ▁digital ▁mode ▁would ▁be ▁less ▁and ▁less ▁reliable , ▁and ▁on ▁modern ▁PC s ▁most ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁owners ▁can ▁only ▁run ▁in ▁analog ▁mode . ▁The ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁was ▁popular ▁enough ▁to ▁spawn ▁a ▁success or , ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro , ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁USB ▁device ▁and , ▁while ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁work ▁in ▁D OS ▁at ▁all , ▁was ▁far ▁more ▁reliable ▁under ▁Windows ▁despite ▁quality ▁issues . ▁ ▁The ▁jo yst ick ▁was ▁widely ▁praised ▁in ▁its ▁in ception ▁and ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁jo yst icks ▁with ▁multiple ▁buttons ▁that ▁did ▁not ▁require ▁a ▁keyboard ▁pass - through . ▁The ▁stick ▁was ▁especially ▁popular ▁with ▁Me ch War rior ▁and ▁Des cent ▁players ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁multi - button ▁jo yst icks ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁games ▁nat ively . ▁ ▁The ▁jo yst ick ' s ▁popularity ▁has ▁created ▁a ▁small ▁die - hard ▁following , ▁with ▁many ▁people ▁still ▁holding ▁onto ▁them ▁despite ▁their ▁age |
. ▁This ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁a ▁USB ▁adapter ▁for ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro . ▁ ▁The ▁ 3 D ▁Pro ▁features ▁as ▁a ▁character ▁( Ã ) ▁in ▁the ▁Web dings ▁d ing bat ▁font . ▁ ▁Standard ▁▁ ▁The ▁Side W inder ▁Standard ▁jo yst ick ▁was ▁a ▁more ▁basic ▁jo yst ick ▁released ▁around ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁as ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro . ▁It ▁was ▁a ▁simple ▁two ▁button , ▁three ▁axis ▁jo yst ick . ▁It ▁featured ▁a ▁trigger ▁button , ▁a ▁thumb ▁button ▁and ▁a ▁thro tt le ▁wheel ▁on ▁left ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁base . ▁In ▁addition ▁it ▁had ▁two ▁additional ▁d ials ▁on ▁the ▁base ▁for ▁adjust ment ▁of ▁the ▁stick ▁itself , ▁one ▁above ▁stick ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁to ▁the ▁right ▁of ▁the ▁stick . ▁It ▁used ▁a ▁game port ▁conne ctor ▁to ▁interface ▁with ▁the ▁computer . ▁ ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁▁ ▁Microsoft ▁introduced ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁correct ing ▁the ▁er g onom ic ▁issues , ▁fixing ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁electrical ▁issues , ▁and ▁adding ▁new ▁features . ▁ ▁The ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁introduced ▁a ▁new ▁stick ▁that ▁was ▁far ▁more ▁er g onom ic ▁than ▁the ▁" ge ometric " ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro . ▁Microsoft ▁also ▁gave ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁a ▁more ▁rounded ▁design , ▁replacing ▁the ▁rect angular ▁base ▁buttons ▁with ▁more ▁rounded ▁versions ▁at ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁base |
, ▁the ▁sl ider - based ▁thro tt le ▁with ▁a ▁wheel - based ▁thro tt le , ▁and ▁the ▁base ▁itself ▁was ▁made ▁more ▁rounded . ▁The ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁also ▁added ▁a ▁shift ▁button ▁to ▁the ▁base , ▁dou bling ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁possible ▁button ▁combinations . ▁ ▁Sign atures ▁can ▁be ▁seen ▁inside ▁the ▁jo yst ick , ▁on ▁the ▁base ▁cover pl ate . ▁Fred ▁I yc ▁and ▁Ed ie ▁Adams ▁are ▁among ▁the ▁ 1 7 ▁people ▁who ▁have ▁signed ▁it . ▁ ▁For ▁its ▁electron ics , ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁featured ▁a ▁ref ined ▁hybrid ▁system , ▁res olving ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁hardware ▁compatibility ▁issues ▁with ▁the ▁ 3 D ▁Pro . ▁However , ▁with ▁the ▁widespread ▁introduction ▁of ▁USB ▁in ▁consumer ▁computers ▁shortly ▁after ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁was ▁released , ▁Microsoft ▁soon ▁re - re leased ▁the ▁jo yst ick ▁in ▁a ▁USB - compatible ▁form ▁( jo yst icks ▁labeled ▁as ▁Part ▁No . ▁X 0 3 - 5 7 5 4 0 , ▁Product ▁I . D . ▁ 8 5 7 9 1 - 5 7 9 - 2 1 7 7 0 3 1 - 0 0 0 0 0 ). ▁The ▁rev ised ▁jo yst ick ▁still ▁featured ▁a ▁game port ▁conne ctor ▁but ▁had ▁additional ▁circuit ry ▁for ▁inter f acing ▁with ▁USB , ▁and ▁was ▁bund led ▁with ▁a ▁USB ▁conver ter ▁( a ▁DI Y ▁conver ter ▁project ▁exists ). ▁Original ▁Prec ision ▁Pro s ▁remain |
▁in compatible ▁with ▁this ▁conver ter , ▁but ▁a ▁user ▁made ▁conver ter ▁exists . ▁The ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁USB ▁conver ter ▁by pass ed ▁the ▁problems ▁with ▁the ▁analog ▁game port ▁entirely , ▁and ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁became ▁the ▁true ▁solution ▁to ▁the ▁electrical ▁problems . ▁However , ▁due ▁to ▁a ▁flaw ▁in ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro , ▁in ▁rare ▁cases ▁the ▁stick ▁would ▁build ▁up ▁a ▁static ▁charge ▁in ▁its ▁electron ics ▁and ▁require ▁either ▁a ▁complex ▁process ▁to ▁dis charge ▁that ▁was ▁not ▁always ▁successful , ▁or ▁simply ▁needed ▁to ▁stay ▁un powered ▁for ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁hours ▁to ▁slowly ▁dis charge ▁on ▁its ▁own . ▁This ▁is ▁also ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁jo yst icks ▁to ▁use ▁light ▁sensors ▁instead ▁of ▁pot enti om eters ▁so ▁it ▁required ▁no ▁cal ibration , ▁and ▁thus ▁had ▁no ▁electron ical ▁moving ▁parts . ▁The ▁only ▁moving ▁parts ▁were ▁mechanical ▁on ▁the ▁thro tt le ▁and ▁jo yst ick ▁p iv ots ▁which ▁gave ▁this ▁jo yst ick ▁virtually ▁un limited ▁lifetime . ▁The ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁ 2 ▁had ▁re int rodu ced ▁pot enti om eters ▁to ▁save ▁money ▁and ▁thus ▁their ▁lifetime ▁was ▁limited ▁to ▁wear ▁and ▁tear ▁of ▁the ▁pot enti om eters . ▁ ▁Thanks ▁to ▁the ▁timing ▁of ▁the ▁launch ▁of ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁to ▁coinc ide ▁with ▁the ▁widespread ▁launch ▁of ▁USB ▁along ▁the ▁er g onom ic ▁corrections ▁and ▁r arity ▁of ▁the ▁static ▁charge ▁problem , ▁the ▁Prec ision |
▁Pro ▁saw ▁a ▁much ▁higher ▁sales ▁volume ▁and ▁review ▁scores ▁than ▁the ▁earlier ▁ 3 D ▁Pro . ▁ ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Pro ▁ ▁From ▁technology ▁acquired ▁from ▁EX OS , ▁Inc , ▁Microsoft ▁then ▁released ▁a ▁force ▁feedback ▁product ▁called ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Pro . ▁Built ▁on ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro , ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Pro ▁differ ed ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁mot ors ▁for ▁the ▁force ▁feedback ▁effects , ▁and ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁USB ▁compatibility . ▁( A ▁DI Y ▁conver ter ▁project ▁exists .) ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁the ▁mot ors , ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Pro ▁was ▁significantly ▁larger ▁and ▁heav ier ▁than ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro , ▁making ▁it ▁easy ▁to ▁different iate ▁between ▁the ▁two . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁PC ▁jo yst ick ▁port ▁is ▁input - only , ▁the ▁only ▁way ▁for ▁data ▁to ▁be ▁sent ▁to ▁the ▁jo yst ick ▁( to ▁trigger ▁force ▁feedback ▁events ) ▁is ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁M ID I ▁capabilities ▁of ▁the ▁port . ▁ ▁This ▁extension ▁to ▁the ▁original ▁game port , ▁first ▁popular ised ▁by ▁Creative ▁L abs ▁in ▁their ▁early ▁sound ▁cards , ▁was ▁intended ▁to ▁allow ▁M ID I ▁instruments ▁to ▁be ▁connected ▁to ▁the ▁jo yst ick ▁port ▁but ▁is ▁used ▁here ▁to ▁provide ▁bid irection al ▁communication ▁with ▁the ▁jo yst ick ▁instead . ▁ ▁Force ▁feedback ▁events ▁are ▁triggered ▁by ▁messages ▁on ▁M ID I ▁channel ▁ 6 , ▁with ▁effect ▁data |
▁upload ed ▁via ▁S ys Ex ▁messages . ▁ ▁This ▁means ▁that ▁force ▁feedback ▁would ▁be ▁un available ▁on ▁the ▁earliest ▁of ▁PC s , ▁where ▁the ▁game ports ▁lack ▁M ID I ▁functionality . ▁ ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁▁ ▁The ▁basis ▁of ▁Microsoft ' s ▁last ▁generation ▁of ▁Side W inder ▁jo yst icks , ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁design ▁was ▁a ▁further ▁ref inement ▁of ▁the ▁previous ▁Prec ision ▁Pro . ▁Comp ared ▁to ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro , ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁dropped ▁the ▁Pro ' s ▁shift ▁button , ▁replaced ▁the ▁thro tt le ▁wheel ▁with ▁a ▁more ▁traditional ▁lever , ▁and ▁re arr anged ▁the ▁face ▁buttons ▁on ▁the ▁stick ▁into ▁a ▁symmetric ▁design . ▁The ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁also ▁dropped ▁all ▁game port ▁compatibility ▁by ▁only ▁shipping ▁in ▁a ▁USB ▁version , ▁and ▁was ▁slightly ▁smaller ▁and ▁lighter ▁than ▁the ▁Pro . ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁being ▁Microsoft ' s ▁ 2 nd - gener ation ▁USB ▁controller , ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁in ▁particular ▁seemed ▁to ▁suffer ▁more ▁from ▁the ▁USB ▁Side W inder ' s ▁long - standing ▁static ▁build up ▁problem ▁than ▁the ▁original ▁Prec ision ▁Pro . ▁ ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 ▁ ▁Along ▁with ▁replacing ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁with ▁a ▁new ▁design , ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Pro ▁was ▁replaced ▁with ▁a ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁derivative , ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 . ▁Comp ared ▁to ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back |
▁Pro ▁and ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 , ▁nothing ▁new ▁was ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 ▁that ▁wasn ' t ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 , ▁in ▁fact ▁the ▁shift ▁button ▁was ▁taken ▁away . ▁The ▁overall ▁size ▁and ▁weight ▁difference ▁was ▁not ▁so ▁great ▁with ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁smaller ▁mot ors . ▁This ▁jo yst ick ▁came ▁in ▁two ▁varieties : ▁one ▁version ▁with ▁a ▁silver ▁trigger , ▁and ▁an ▁updated ▁version ▁with ▁a ▁transl u cent ▁red ▁trigger . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁ideas ▁in ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 ▁was ▁the ▁removal ▁of ▁the ▁power ▁brick . ▁Since ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁the ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 , ▁the ▁stick ▁has ▁gar ner ed ▁a ▁reputation ▁of ▁reli ability ▁and ▁res ili ency , ▁many ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 ▁sticks ▁are ▁still ▁in ▁use ▁currently . ▁On ▁e Bay ▁Side w inder ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁ 2 ▁jo yst icks ▁regularly ▁sell ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁the ▁original ▁MS RP ▁of ▁$ 1 0 9 . ▁ ▁Jo yst ick ▁ ▁Using ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 ▁design ▁once ▁again , ▁Microsoft ▁introduced ▁a ▁value - oriented ▁Side W inder ▁jo yst ick , ▁simply ▁called ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁Jo yst ick . ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁its ▁value ▁design ation , ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁Jo yst ick ▁was ▁function ally ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁ 2 . ▁The ▁main ▁features ▁dropped ▁were ▁Z - axis ▁control |
▁and ▁the ▁ 8 - way ▁hat ▁switch . ▁ ▁Otherwise ▁the ▁differences ▁were ▁cos metic , ▁including ▁shr inking ▁the ▁base , ▁moving ▁the ▁thro tt le ▁to ▁the ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁base , ▁and ▁replacing ▁ 2 ▁of ▁the ▁rounded ▁buttons ▁on ▁the ▁stick ▁with ▁more ▁rect angular ▁buttons . ▁Support ▁for ▁this ▁jo yst ick ▁was ▁dropped ▁with ▁the ▁advent ▁of ▁Windows ▁X P . ▁ ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Whe el ▁ ▁The ▁Microsoft ▁Side W inder ▁Force ▁Fe ed back ▁Whe el ▁is ▁a ▁ste ering ▁wheel ▁controller ▁for ▁sim ▁racing . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁wheel ▁controller ▁to ▁contain ▁force ▁feedback . ▁ ▁Strateg ic ▁Commander ▁▁ ▁The ▁Strateg ic ▁Commander ▁is ▁designed ▁to ▁complement ▁a ▁standard ▁mouse / key board ▁setup ▁for ▁Real ▁Time ▁Str ategy ▁games . ▁It ▁features ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ 6 ▁program m able ▁command ▁buttons , ▁ 2 ▁zoom ▁buttons , ▁ 3 ▁shift ▁buttons , ▁a ▁macro ▁record ▁button ▁and ▁a ▁ 3 - point ▁configuration ▁switch . ▁The ▁device ▁also ▁has ▁three ▁movement ▁ax es : ▁X , ▁Y ▁and ▁Z ▁( rotation ). ▁Through ▁extensive ▁configuration ▁of ▁the ▁shift ▁and ▁command ▁buttons , ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ 2 4 ▁different ▁commands ▁per ▁configuration . ▁ ▁The ▁Strateg ic ▁Commander ▁is ▁a ▁highly ▁er g onom ic ▁device , ▁and ▁re semb les ▁a ▁large ▁mouse ▁in ▁shape , ▁cont oured ▁for ▁the ▁left ▁hand . ▁It ▁has ▁an ▁upper ▁section ▁attached ▁to ▁a |
▁base . ▁On ▁the ▁upper ▁section , ▁the ▁program m able ▁buttons ▁mentioned ▁above ▁are ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁tips ▁of ▁the ▁index , ▁middle ▁and ▁ring ▁fingers ▁for ▁quick ▁access . ▁Three ▁buttons ▁are ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁thumb ▁in ▁an ▁arc . ▁ ▁A ▁feature ▁of ▁the ▁device ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁upper ▁section ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁ 2 - axis ▁motion ▁controller ▁with ▁additional ▁support ▁for ▁rotation . ▁It ▁allows ▁motion ▁in ▁the ▁X , ▁Y ▁& ▁Z ▁axis ▁( cor respon ding ▁to ▁For ward , ▁Back wards , ▁Stra fe ▁left ▁& ▁right , ▁Turn ▁left ▁& ▁right ). ▁This ▁made ▁it ▁an ▁ideal ▁companion ▁for ▁F PS ▁and ▁similar ▁games , ▁because ▁you ▁can ▁aim ▁weapons ▁or ▁look ▁up ▁and ▁down ▁with ▁the ▁right ▁hand ▁while ▁simultaneously ▁sle wing ▁position ▁with ▁the ▁left ▁hand , ▁and ▁change ▁weapons ▁etc . ▁with ▁the ▁left ▁finger ▁buttons . ▁ ▁Software ▁was ▁included ▁for ▁the ▁device ▁to ▁provide ▁hot keys ▁for ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁( then ▁popular ) ▁games . ▁The ▁buttons ▁are ▁also ▁program m able , ▁allowing ▁the ▁device ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁with ▁other ▁games ▁and ▁applications . ▁For ▁example , ▁one ▁application ▁developed ▁at ▁Car ne gie ▁M ell on ▁used ▁the ▁device ▁as ▁a ▁peripher al ▁for ▁navig ating ▁massive ▁social ▁network ▁maps . ▁ ▁Linux ▁treats ▁this ▁device ▁as ▁a ▁jo yst ick ▁( with ▁all ▁ 3 ▁axis ▁and ▁ 1 2 ▁plus ▁ 3 ▁buttons ) ▁and ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁one ▁or ▁using ▁various ▁app |
lets ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁" jo yst ick ▁action ▁to ▁key ▁press " ▁device ▁( e . g . ▁Joy 2 Key ) ▁ ▁Game ▁Voice ▁ ▁The ▁Game ▁Voice ▁is ▁an ▁early ▁voice ▁chat ▁device . ▁It ▁was ▁shaped ▁like ▁a ▁hockey ▁p uck , ▁with ▁four ▁channel ▁buttons ▁that ▁allowed ▁the ▁user ▁to ▁speak ▁to ▁individual ▁team mates . ▁It ▁could ▁also ▁be ▁set ▁to ▁communicate ▁with ▁the ▁entire ▁team , ▁or ▁glob ally ▁to ▁all ▁players . ▁The ▁driver ▁software ▁also ▁allowed ▁it ▁to ▁function ▁as ▁a ▁voice ▁command ▁device ▁using ▁program m able ▁mac ros . ▁The ▁package ▁included ▁a ▁head set ▁with ▁an ▁attached ▁micro phone , ▁though ▁these ▁could ▁be ▁subst ituted ▁with ▁any ▁other ▁PC ▁head set / m icro phone . ▁The ▁p uck ▁acted ▁as ▁an ▁inter medi ary ▁between ▁the ▁sound ▁card ▁and ▁the ▁sound ▁input / output ▁devices . ▁The ▁head set , ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁system ▁speakers , ▁plug ged ▁into ▁the ▁p uck , ▁where ▁a ▁switch ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁set ▁whether ▁sound ▁would ▁be ▁output ▁from ▁the ▁speakers ▁or ▁the ▁head set . ▁The ▁p uck ▁also ▁had ▁its ▁own ▁volume ▁control . ▁To ▁provide ▁power ▁for ▁the ▁p uck ▁LED s ▁and ▁drive ▁the ▁voice ▁command ▁and ▁channel ▁functions , ▁a ▁USB ▁connection ▁was ▁also ▁required . ▁Microsoft ▁recommended ▁Game ▁Voice ▁as ▁a ▁micro phone ▁for ▁use ▁with ▁the ▁speech ▁recognition ▁feature ▁of ▁Microsoft ▁Office ▁X P . ▁ ▁Microsoft ▁dis contin ued ▁the ▁product |
▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁By ▁then , ▁the ▁market ▁for ▁voice ▁chat ▁had ▁seen ▁intense ▁competition ▁from ▁download able ▁and ▁free - to - use ▁software ▁like ▁Vent ril o ▁and ▁Team Spe ak , ▁among ▁others . ▁These ▁software ▁packages ▁only ▁charge ▁the ▁host ▁or ▁server , ▁whereas ▁each ▁person ▁would ▁have ▁to ▁own ▁a ▁Game ▁Voice ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁hardware ▁and ▁software . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁the ▁Game ▁Voice ▁ultimately ▁lost ▁that ▁market . ▁However , ▁these ▁competing ▁software ▁packages ▁do ▁not ▁offer ▁voice ▁command ▁systems . ▁ ▁Microsoft ▁has ▁not ▁released ▁the ▁hardware ▁specific ations ▁so ▁that ▁an ▁open ▁source ▁driver ▁could ▁be ▁developed . ▁The ▁device ▁is ▁supported ▁under ▁Windows ▁X P , ▁but ▁no ▁new ▁driver ▁is ▁planned ▁for ▁Windows ▁V ista . ▁Despite ▁this , ▁GNU / Lin ux ▁based ▁operating ▁systems ▁can ▁use ▁this ▁device ▁using ▁various ▁third ▁party ▁app lets ▁( i . e . ▁K ame voice ) ▁ ▁Fre estyle ▁Pro ▁▁ ▁The ▁Fre estyle ▁Pro , ▁released ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁was ▁a ▁unique ▁game pad , ▁as ▁the ▁up - down - left - right ▁directions ▁in ▁analog ue ▁mode ▁were ▁controlled ▁by ▁the ▁physical ▁movement ▁of ▁the ▁controller , ▁more ▁precisely ▁by ▁the ▁absolute ▁pitch ▁and ▁roll ▁position ▁of ▁the ▁pad . ▁This ▁reaction ▁on ▁movement ▁is ▁quite ▁similar ▁to ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁features ▁of ▁the ▁Sony ▁Play Station ▁ 3 ▁S IX AX IS . ▁Games ▁such ▁as ▁Mot oc |
ross ▁Mad ness ▁( which ▁was ▁bund led ▁with ▁and ▁designed ▁for ▁the ▁controller ) ▁prof ited ▁from ▁this ▁physical ▁interaction . ▁The ▁left ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁controller ▁features ▁an ▁eight - direction ▁d - pad ▁which ▁function ▁varies ▁depending ▁on ▁which ▁mode ▁the ▁controller ▁is ▁on . ▁ ▁The ▁control ▁pad ▁had ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ten ▁digital ▁fire ▁buttons : ▁six ▁buttons ▁controlled ▁with ▁the ▁right ▁thumb ▁( named ▁ABC ▁X Y Z ), ▁two ▁shoulder ▁buttons ▁( one ▁left , ▁one ▁right ), ▁and ▁two ▁buttons ▁controlled ▁with ▁the ▁left ▁thumb , ▁one ▁named ▁start , ▁the ▁other ▁marked ▁with ▁a ▁shift ▁key ▁symbol ▁( as ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁software ▁allowed ▁to ▁use ▁this ▁button ▁to ▁shift ▁controls ▁for ▁the ▁ABC ▁X Y Z ▁buttons ▁- ▁on ▁the ▁driver ▁side , ▁it ▁was ▁just ▁an ▁action ▁button ▁like ▁the ▁others ). ▁ ▁A ▁sensor ▁button ▁switched ▁the ▁control ▁pad ▁between ▁analog ue ▁mode ▁( green ▁LED ) ▁and ▁digital ▁mode ▁( red ▁LED ). ▁In ▁analog ue ▁mode , ▁the ▁x - ▁and ▁y - axis ▁were ▁controlled ▁by ▁the ▁analog ue ▁controller ▁movements , ▁and ▁the ▁D - pad ▁was ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁hat ▁switch . ▁In ▁digital ▁mode , ▁the ▁D - pad ▁controlled ▁the ▁x - ▁and ▁y - axis ▁like ▁a ▁traditional ▁digital ▁control ▁pad ▁( there fore , ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁hat ▁switch ▁function ▁in ▁digital ▁mode ). ▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁release ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁at ▁which ▁time ▁USB ▁was |
▁just ▁taking ▁off , ▁the ▁Fre estyle ▁Pro ▁supported ▁both ▁game ▁port ▁and ▁USB ▁connection . ▁Without ▁the ▁adapter , ▁the ▁controller ' s ▁cable ▁ended ▁in ▁a ▁game ▁port ▁plug . ▁The ▁sale ▁box ▁contained ▁the ▁game ▁port - to - USB ▁adapter ▁for ▁free . ▁ ▁D ual ▁St rike ▁▁ ▁The ▁D ual ▁St rike , ▁which ▁debut ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁was ▁Microsoft ' s ▁second ▁notable ▁venture ▁into ▁strange ▁game pad ▁designs , ▁following ▁the ▁Fre estyle ▁Pro . ▁The ▁D ual ▁St rike ▁attempted ▁to ▁blend ▁both ▁mouse ▁and ▁game pad ▁functions ▁into ▁a ▁single ▁unit . ▁It ▁was ▁composed ▁of ▁two ▁portions ; ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁h inge ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁that ▁allows ▁you ▁to ▁rot ate ▁the ▁right ▁side ▁up ▁and ▁down ▁and ▁from ▁side ▁to ▁side . ▁The ▁D ual ▁St rike ▁only ▁supported ▁USB . ▁ ▁Side w inder ▁ 9 2 6 2 6 ▁▁ ▁This ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁Prec ision ▁Pro ▁and ▁has ▁a ▁USB ▁connection . ▁Cir ca ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁Serial ▁numbers ▁begin ▁with ▁ 9 2 6 2 6 . ▁ ▁Second ▁generation ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁following ▁a ▁collaboration ▁with ▁R az er ▁in ▁creating ▁the ▁Microsoft ▁Hab u ▁and ▁Microsoft ▁Re cl usa , ▁a ▁gaming ▁mouse ▁and ▁gaming ▁keyboard ▁sold ▁under ▁the ▁plain ▁Microsoft ▁Hard ware ▁brand , ▁Microsoft ▁resur re cted ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁brand ▁ ▁with ▁an ▁all - new |
▁Side W inder ▁Mouse , ▁designed ▁from ▁the ▁ground ▁up ▁for ▁high - end ▁PC ▁gaming . ▁The ▁design ▁incorporated ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁advanced ▁features ▁including ▁adjust able ▁weights , ▁program m able ▁macro ▁mode , ▁on - ▁the - ▁fly ▁D PI ▁change , ▁and ▁a ▁built - in ▁L CD ▁display , ▁the ▁first ▁ever ▁found ▁in ▁a ▁mouse . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Microsoft ▁also ▁released ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁X 6 ▁G aming ▁Key board , ▁which ▁is ▁designed ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁keyboard ▁counter part ▁of ▁the ▁Side w inder ▁Mouse . ▁It ▁features ▁up ▁to ▁ 3 0 ▁program m able ▁macro ▁keys , ▁volume ▁control , ▁media ▁control , ▁a ▁det ach able ▁n ump ad ▁and ▁back light ing . ▁Along ▁with ▁this ▁keyboard ▁a ▁new ▁mouse ▁was ▁released ▁dub bed ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁X 5 . ▁The ▁X 5 ▁has ▁a ▁more ▁basic ▁function ▁set ▁than ▁its ▁predecess or ▁but ▁was ▁well ▁received ▁because ▁of ▁its ▁lower ▁price . ▁Its ▁shape ▁is ▁the ▁same ▁as ▁the ▁original ▁but ▁without ▁the ▁L CD , ▁weight ▁adjust ing ▁and ▁metal ▁side ▁buttons . ▁It ▁also ▁comes ▁with ▁a ▁complete ▁black ▁design ▁with ▁red ▁" LED ▁J ets " ▁on ▁the ▁back ▁to ▁make ▁it ▁stand ▁out ▁from ▁the ▁original ▁and ▁better ▁fit ▁the ▁X 6 ▁keyboard . ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Microsoft ▁released ▁another ▁update ▁to ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁line , ▁the ▁Side W inder ▁X |
8 ▁gaming ▁mouse . ▁This ▁new ▁iteration ▁incorporated ▁new ▁Microsoft ▁Blue Track ▁tracking ▁technology , ▁intended ▁to ▁provide ▁better ▁tracking ▁on ▁non - standard ▁surfaces . ▁In ▁addition , ▁the ▁mouse ▁was ▁made ▁wireless , ▁and ▁the ▁maximum ▁D PI ▁sensitivity ▁was ▁up ped ▁to ▁ 4 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁In ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁Microsoft ▁released ▁a ▁second ▁gaming ▁keyboard , ▁the ▁Side w inder ▁X 4 . ▁In ▁comparison ▁with ▁the ▁earlier ▁X 6 , ▁anti - gh ost ing ▁technology ▁was ▁added . ▁However , ▁the ▁det ach able ▁n ump ad ▁was ▁removed , ▁and ▁a ▁n ump ad ▁was ▁instead ▁attached ▁permanently ▁to ▁the ▁keyboard . ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Microsoft ▁no ▁longer ▁offers ▁any ▁gaming ▁m ice ▁or ▁key boards ▁in ▁the ▁US . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Game S py ▁article ▁on ▁PC ▁jo yst icks ▁for ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁ ▁Game S py ▁article ▁on ▁PC ▁wheels ▁for ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁ ▁Category : Video ▁game ▁cont rollers ▁Category : Microsoft ▁hardware <0x0A> </s> ▁Cec rop ter us ▁is ▁a ▁genus ▁of ▁skip pers ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁H es per i idae . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁Natural ▁History ▁Museum ▁L ep id opter a ▁genus ▁database ▁ ▁Category : H es per i idae ▁Category : H es per i idae ▁gener a <0x0A> </s> ▁Sel w yn ▁S ese ▁Al a ▁( Aug |
ust ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁– ▁November ▁ 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 5 ) ▁was ▁a ▁ni - V an u atu ▁football er ▁who ▁played ▁as ▁a ▁def ender . ▁He ▁died ▁aged ▁ 2 9 ▁on ▁November ▁ 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁the ▁cause ▁of ▁death ▁was ▁suicide . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : 2 0 1 5 ▁deaths ▁Category : 1 9 8 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : V an u at uan ▁football ers ▁Category : V an u atu ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁defend ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁players ▁who ▁committed ▁suicide <0x0A> </s> ▁La ▁Chap elle - A gn on ▁is ▁a ▁commune ▁in ▁the ▁P uy - de - D ô me ▁department ▁in ▁Au ver g ne - R h ô ne - Al pes ▁in ▁central ▁France . ▁ ▁The ▁commune ▁of ▁La ▁Chap elle - A gn on ▁is ▁ad herent ▁to ▁Par c ▁nature l ▁rég ional ▁Liv r ado is - Fore z ▁( L iv r ado is - Fore z ▁Regional ▁Nature ▁Park ) ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Commun es ▁of ▁the ▁P uy - de - D ô me ▁department ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁IN SEE ▁commune ▁file ▁ ▁Chap elle agn on <0x0A> </s> ▁N ong olo za ' s ▁Children : ▁Western ▁Cape ▁Pr ison ▁G angs ▁During ▁and ▁After ▁Apart heid , ▁a ▁book ▁written ▁as ▁a ▁mon ograph |
▁about ▁the ▁gang s ▁from ▁pr isons ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Cape ▁during ▁and ▁after ▁racial ▁isolation , ▁was ▁written ▁for ▁the ▁Centre ▁for ▁the ▁Study ▁of ▁Vi olence ▁and ▁Re conc iliation ▁by ▁Jon ny ▁Stein berg . ▁It ▁expl ores ▁the ▁preval ence ▁of ▁gang s ▁in ▁society ▁and ▁in ▁pr isons ▁and ▁offers ▁recommendations ▁for ▁solving ▁post - ap art heid ▁gang ▁violence . ▁ ▁Over view ▁The ▁author ▁writes ▁that ▁he ▁spent ▁nine ▁months ▁of ▁research ▁at ▁Poll s M oor ▁Pr ison ▁Ad mission ▁Center . ▁There ▁he ▁interviewed ▁the ▁prisoners , ▁most ▁of ▁whom ▁were ▁await ing ▁trial . ▁For ▁an ▁ 1 8 - month ▁period ▁he ▁interviewed ▁about ▁ 3 0 ▁veterans ▁members ▁of ▁gang s . ▁During ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 0 s ▁all ▁of ▁them ▁served ▁their ▁sentences ▁in ▁pr isons ▁throughout ▁the ▁Western ▁Cape . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Stein berg , ▁The ▁Num bers ▁G angs ▁take ▁their ▁inspiration ▁from ▁the ▁historical ▁figure ▁N ong olo za ▁Mat he b ula , ▁born ▁M z uz ep hi ▁Mat he b ula , ▁who ▁became ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁The ▁Number ▁G angs ▁in ▁South ▁Africa . ▁An ▁early ▁Johannes burg ▁band it , ▁he ▁built ▁a ▁quasi - mil itary ▁band ▁of ▁out l aws , ▁wel ding ▁his ▁small ▁army ▁together ▁with ▁a ▁simple ▁but ▁pot ent ▁ide ology ▁of ▁band it ry - as - anti - colon ial - res istance . |
▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 4 ▁non - f iction ▁books ▁Category : Cr ime ▁in ▁South ▁Africa ▁Category : Non - f iction ▁books ▁about ▁crim inals ▁Category : Non - f iction ▁crime ▁books ▁Category : Non - f iction ▁books ▁about ▁organized ▁crime <0x0A> </s> ▁In ▁autom ata ▁theory , ▁a ▁self - ver ifying ▁finite ▁autom aton ▁( SV FA ) ▁is ▁a ▁special ▁kind ▁of ▁a ▁n ond et erm in istic ▁finite ▁autom aton ▁( N FA ) ▁with ▁a ▁symmetric ▁kind ▁of ▁n ond et erm in ism ▁introduced ▁by ▁H rom kov ič ▁and ▁Sch nit ger . ▁Gener ally , ▁in ▁self - ver ifying ▁n ond et erm in ism , ▁each ▁computation ▁path ▁is ▁concluded ▁with ▁any ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁possible ▁answers : ▁yes , ▁no , ▁and ▁I ▁do ▁not ▁know . ▁For ▁each ▁input ▁string , ▁no ▁two ▁paths ▁may ▁give ▁contrad ict ory ▁answers , ▁namely ▁both ▁answers ▁yes ▁and ▁no ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁input ▁are ▁not ▁possible . ▁At ▁least ▁one ▁path ▁must ▁give ▁answer ▁yes ▁or ▁no , ▁and ▁if ▁it ▁is ▁yes ▁then ▁the ▁string ▁is ▁considered ▁accepted . ▁SV FA ▁accept ▁the ▁same ▁class ▁of ▁languages ▁as ▁determin istic ▁finite ▁autom ata ▁( D FA ) ▁and ▁N FA ▁but ▁have ▁different ▁state ▁complexity . ▁ ▁F ormal ▁definition ▁▁ ▁An ▁SV FA ▁is ▁represented ▁formally ▁by ▁a ▁ 6 - tuple , ▁A =( Q , ▁ Σ , ▁ |
Δ , ▁q 0 , ▁Fa , ▁Fr ) ▁such ▁that ▁( Q , ▁ Σ , ▁ Δ , ▁q 0 , ▁Fa ) ▁is ▁an ▁N FA , ▁and ▁Fa , ▁Fr ▁are ▁dis joint ▁sub sets ▁of ▁Q . ▁For ▁each ▁word ▁w ▁= ▁a 1 a 2 ▁… ▁an , ▁a ▁computation ▁is ▁a ▁sequence ▁of ▁states ▁r 0 , r 1 , ▁… , ▁r n , ▁in ▁Q ▁with ▁the ▁following ▁conditions : ▁ ▁r 0 ▁= ▁q 0 ▁ ▁ri + 1 ▁ ∈ ▁ Δ ( ri , ▁ai + 1 ), ▁for ▁i ▁= ▁ 0 , ▁… , ▁n − 1 . ▁If ▁r n ▁ ∈ ▁Fa ▁then ▁the ▁computation ▁is ▁accepting , ▁and ▁if ▁r n ▁ ∈ ▁Fr ▁then ▁the ▁computation ▁is ▁reject ing . ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁requirement ▁that ▁for ▁each ▁w ▁there ▁is ▁at ▁least ▁one ▁accepting ▁computation ▁or ▁at ▁least ▁one ▁reject ing ▁computation ▁but ▁not ▁both . ▁ ▁Results ▁▁ ▁Each ▁D FA ▁is ▁a ▁SV FA , ▁but ▁not ▁vice ▁vers a . ▁J ir á sk ová ▁and ▁P igh izz ini ▁proved ▁that ▁ ▁for ▁every ▁SV FA ▁of ▁n ▁states , ▁there ▁exists ▁an ▁equivalent ▁D FA ▁of ▁ ▁states . ▁Furthermore , ▁for ▁each ▁positive ▁integer ▁n , ▁there ▁exists ▁an ▁n - state ▁SV FA ▁such ▁that ▁the ▁minimal ▁equivalent ▁D FA ▁has ▁exactly ▁ ▁states . ▁ ▁Other ▁results ▁on ▁the ▁state ▁complexity ▁of ▁SV FA ▁were ▁obtained ▁by |
▁J ir á sk ová ▁and ▁her ▁colleagues . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : Fin ite ▁autom ata <0x0A> </s> ▁Carl ▁Morris ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Carl ▁Morris ▁( p ain ter ) ▁( 1 9 1 1 – 1 9 9 3 ), ▁American ▁painter ▁Carl ▁E . ▁Morris ▁( 1 8 8 7 – 1 9 5 1 ), ▁American ▁box er ▁Carl ▁Morris ▁( stat istic ian ), ▁professor ▁of ▁statistics ▁at ▁Harvard ▁University ▁Carl ▁Morris , ▁a ▁fict ional ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁British ▁TV ▁series , ▁M oving ▁Wall paper <0x0A> </s> ▁Ak k ad ian ▁( ▁ak k ad û , ▁ ▁ak - ka - du - u 2 ; ▁log ogram : ▁ ▁URI K I ) ▁is ▁an ▁ext inct ▁East ▁Sem it ic ▁language ▁that ▁was ▁spoken ▁in ▁ancient ▁Mes op ot am ia ▁( A kk ad , ▁Ass y ria , ▁Is in , ▁Lars a ▁and ▁Bab yl onia ) ▁from ▁the ▁third ▁mill enn ium ▁BC ▁until ▁its ▁grad ual ▁replacement ▁by ▁Ak k ad ian - in flu enced ▁Old ▁Ar ama ic ▁among ▁Mes op ot am ians ▁by ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁BC . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁earliest ▁att ested ▁Sem it ic ▁language . ▁ ▁It ▁used ▁the ▁c une iform ▁script , ▁which ▁was ▁originally ▁used ▁to ▁write ▁the ▁un related , ▁and ▁also ▁ext inct , ▁S umer ian ▁( which ▁is ▁a ▁language ▁isol ate ). ▁Ak k ad |
ian ▁is ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Ak k ad , ▁a ▁major ▁centre ▁of ▁Mes op ot am ian ▁civilization ▁during ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁Empire ▁( c . ▁ 2 3 3 4 – 2 1 5 4 ▁BC ). ▁ ▁The ▁mutual ▁influence ▁between ▁S umer ian ▁and ▁Ak k ad ian ▁had ▁led ▁scholars ▁to ▁describe ▁the ▁languages ▁as ▁a ▁Spr ach bund . ▁ ▁Ak k ad ian ▁proper ▁names ▁were ▁first ▁att ested ▁in ▁S umer ian ▁texts ▁from ▁around ▁the ▁mid ▁ 3 rd - mill enn ium ▁BC . ▁ ▁From ▁about ▁the ▁ 2 5 th ▁or ▁ 2 4 th ▁century ▁BC , ▁texts ▁fully ▁written ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian ▁begin ▁to ▁appear . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁BC , ▁two ▁variant ▁forms ▁of ▁the ▁language ▁were ▁in ▁use ▁in ▁Ass y ria ▁and ▁Bab yl onia , ▁known ▁as ▁Ass y rian ▁and ▁Bab ylon ian ▁respectively . ▁The ▁bulk ▁of ▁preserved ▁material ▁is ▁from ▁this ▁later ▁period , ▁corresponding ▁to ▁the ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁Iron ▁Age . ▁In ▁total , ▁hundreds ▁of ▁thousands ▁of ▁texts ▁and ▁text ▁fragments ▁have ▁been ▁exc av ated , ▁covering ▁a ▁vast ▁text ual ▁tradition ▁of ▁myth ological ▁narrative , ▁legal ▁texts , ▁scientific ▁works , ▁correspondence , ▁political ▁and ▁military ▁events , ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁examples . ▁▁ ▁Ak k ad ian ▁( in ▁its ▁Ass y rian ▁and ▁Bab ylon ian ▁varieties ) ▁was ▁the ▁native ▁language ▁of ▁the |
▁Mes op ot am ian ▁em pires ▁( A kk ad ian ▁Empire , ▁Old ▁Ass y rian ▁Empire , ▁Bab yl onia , ▁Middle ▁Ass y rian ▁Empire ) ▁throughout ▁the ▁later ▁Bron ze ▁Age , ▁and ▁Ak k ad ian ▁became ▁the ▁ling ua ▁franc a ▁of ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁Near ▁East ▁by ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Bron ze ▁Age ▁collapse . ▁Its ▁decline ▁began ▁in ▁the ▁Iron ▁Age , ▁▁ ▁during ▁the ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁Empire , ▁by ▁about ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁BC ▁( T ig l ath - P iles er ▁III ), ▁ ▁in ▁favour ▁of ▁Old ▁Ar ama ic . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁H ellen istic ▁period , ▁the ▁language ▁was ▁largely ▁conf ined ▁to ▁scholars ▁and ▁priests ▁working ▁in ▁tem ples ▁in ▁Ass y ria ▁and ▁Bab yl onia . ▁The ▁last ▁known ▁Ak k ad ian ▁c une iform ▁document ▁dates ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁century ▁AD . ▁ ▁M anda ic ▁and ▁ ▁Ass y rian ▁are ▁two ▁( N orth west ▁Sem it ic ) ▁Ne o - Ar ama ic ▁languages ▁that ▁retain ▁some ▁Ak k ad ian ▁voc abulary ▁and ▁gram mat ical ▁features . ▁▁ ▁Ak k ad ian ▁is ▁a ▁fus ional ▁language ▁with ▁gram mat ical ▁case ; ▁and ▁like ▁all ▁Sem it ic ▁languages , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁uses ▁the ▁system ▁of ▁cons on antal ▁roots . ▁The ▁K ül te pe ▁texts , ▁which ▁were ▁written ▁in |
▁Old ▁Ass y rian , ▁include ▁H itt ite ▁loan words ▁and ▁names , ▁which ▁const itute ▁the ▁oldest ▁record ▁of ▁any ▁Ind o - Europe an ▁language . ▁ ▁Class ification ▁ ▁Ak k ad ian ▁belongs ▁with ▁the ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁in ▁the ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁Af ro asi atic ▁languages , ▁a ▁family ▁native ▁to ▁the ▁Middle ▁East , ▁Arab ian ▁Pen insula , ▁the ▁Horn ▁of ▁Africa , ▁parts ▁of ▁An at olia , ▁North ▁Africa , ▁Mal ta , ▁Can ary ▁Islands ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁West ▁Africa ▁( H aus a ). ▁Ak k ad ian ▁and ▁its ▁success or ▁Ar ama ic , ▁however , ▁are ▁only ▁ever ▁att ested ▁in ▁Mes op ot am ia ▁and ▁the ▁Near ▁East . ▁ ▁Within ▁the ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁Sem it ic ▁languages , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁forms ▁an ▁East ▁Sem it ic ▁sub group ▁( with ▁E bl a ite ). ▁This ▁group ▁distingu ishes ▁itself ▁from ▁the ▁North west ▁and ▁South ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁by ▁its ▁subject – object – verb ▁word ▁order , ▁while ▁the ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁usually ▁have ▁either ▁a ▁verb – subject – object ▁or ▁subject – verb – object ▁order . ▁This ▁novel ▁word ▁order ▁is ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁S umer ian ▁substr at um , ▁which ▁has ▁an ▁SO V ▁order . ▁ ▁Additionally ▁Ak k ad ian ▁is ▁the ▁only ▁Sem it ic ▁language ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁pre pos itions |
▁in a ▁and ▁an a ▁( loc ative ▁case , ▁English ▁in / on / with , ▁and ▁d ative - loc ative ▁case , ▁for / to , ▁respectively ). ▁Other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁like ▁Arab ic ▁and ▁Ar ama ic ▁have ▁the ▁pre pos itions ▁bi / b ə ▁and ▁li / l ə ▁( loc ative ▁and ▁d ative , ▁respectively ). ▁The ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁spatial ▁pre pos itions ▁is ▁unknown . ▁ ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁most ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁has ▁only ▁one ▁non - s ibil ant ▁fr ic ative : ▁ ḫ ▁. ▁Ak k ad ian ▁lost ▁both ▁the ▁gl ott al ▁and ▁ph ary n ge al ▁fr ic atives , ▁which ▁are ▁characteristic ▁of ▁the ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages . ▁Until ▁the ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian ▁period , ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁s ibil ants ▁were ▁exclusively ▁aff ric ated . ▁ ▁History ▁and ▁writing ▁ ▁Writing ▁ ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian ▁is ▁preserved ▁on ▁clay ▁table ts ▁dating ▁back ▁to ▁c . ▁ 2 5 0 0 ▁BC . ▁It ▁was ▁written ▁using ▁c une iform , ▁a ▁script ▁adopted ▁from ▁the ▁S umer ians ▁using ▁wed ge - shaped ▁symbols ▁pressed ▁in ▁wet ▁clay . ▁As ▁employed ▁by ▁Ak k ad ian ▁sc rib es , ▁the ▁adapted ▁c une iform ▁script ▁could ▁represent ▁either ▁( a ) ▁S umer ian ▁log ogram s ▁( i . |
e ., ▁picture - based ▁characters ▁representing ▁entire ▁words ), ▁( b ) ▁S umer ian ▁sy ll ables , ▁( c ) ▁Ak k ad ian ▁sy ll ables , ▁or ▁( d ) ▁ph on etic ▁complement s . ▁However , ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian ▁the ▁script ▁practically ▁became ▁a ▁fully ▁fled ged ▁sy ll ab ic ▁script , ▁and ▁the ▁original ▁log ographic ▁nature ▁of ▁c une iform ▁became ▁secondary , ▁though ▁log ogram s ▁for ▁frequent ▁words ▁such ▁as ▁' god ' ▁and ▁' tem ple ' ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁used . ▁For ▁this ▁reason , ▁the ▁sign ▁AN ▁can ▁on ▁the ▁one ▁hand ▁be ▁a ▁log ogram ▁for ▁the ▁word ▁il um ▁(' god ') ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁sign ify ▁the ▁god ▁An u ▁or ▁even ▁the ▁sy ll able ▁- an -. ▁Additionally , ▁this ▁sign ▁was ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁determin ative ▁for ▁divine ▁names . ▁ ▁Another ▁peculiar ity ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian ▁c une iform ▁is ▁that ▁many ▁signs ▁do ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁well - defined ▁ph on etic ▁value . ▁Certain ▁signs , ▁such ▁as ▁, ▁do ▁not ▁distinguish ▁between ▁the ▁different ▁v ow el ▁qualities . ▁Nor ▁is ▁there ▁any ▁coord ination ▁in ▁the ▁other ▁direction ; ▁the ▁sy ll able ▁, ▁for ▁example , ▁is ▁rendered ▁by ▁the ▁sign ▁, ▁but ▁also ▁by ▁the ▁sign ▁. ▁Both ▁of ▁these ▁are ▁often ▁used ▁for ▁the ▁same ▁sy ll able ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁text . ▁ ▁C une iform ▁was ▁in |
▁many ▁ways ▁un su ited ▁to ▁Ak k ad ian : ▁among ▁its ▁fl aws ▁was ▁its ▁in ability ▁to ▁represent ▁important ▁ph on em es ▁in ▁Sem it ic , ▁including ▁a ▁gl ott al ▁stop , ▁ph ary n ge als , ▁and ▁em ph atic ▁cons on ants . ▁In ▁addition , ▁c une iform ▁was ▁a ▁sy ll ab ary ▁writing ▁system — i . e ., ▁a ▁cons on ant ▁plus ▁v ow el ▁compr ised ▁one ▁writing ▁unit — f requ ently ▁in appropri ate ▁for ▁a ▁Sem it ic ▁language ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁tr icons on antal ▁roots ▁( i . e ., ▁three ▁cons on ants ▁plus ▁any ▁v ow els ). ▁ ▁Development ▁Ak k ad ian ▁is ▁divided ▁into ▁several ▁varieties ▁based ▁on ▁ge ography ▁and ▁historical ▁period : ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian , ▁ 2 5 0 0 – 1 9 5 0 ▁BC ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian ▁and ▁Old ▁Ass y rian , ▁ 1 9 5 0 – 1 5 3 0 ▁BC ▁Middle ▁Bab ylon ian ▁and ▁Middle ▁Ass y rian , ▁ 1 5 3 0 – 1 0 0 0 ▁BC ▁Ne o - B ab ylon ian ▁and ▁Ne o - Ass y rian , ▁ 1 0 0 0 – 6 0 0 ▁BC ▁Late ▁Bab ylon ian , ▁ 6 0 0 ▁BC – 1 0 0 ▁AD ▁▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁known ▁Ak k ad ian ▁in scriptions ▁was ▁found ▁on |
▁a ▁bowl ▁at ▁Ur , ▁addressed ▁to ▁the ▁very ▁early ▁pre - S arg onic ▁king ▁Mes ki agn un na ▁of ▁Ur ▁( c . ▁ 2 4 8 5 – 2 4 5 0 ▁BC ) ▁by ▁his ▁queen ▁G an - s aman , ▁who ▁is ▁thought ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁from ▁Ak k ad . ▁The ▁Ak k ad ian ▁Empire , ▁established ▁by ▁S arg on ▁of ▁Ak k ad , ▁introduced ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁language ▁( the ▁" language ▁of ▁Ak k ad ") ▁as ▁a ▁written ▁language , ▁ad ap ting ▁S umer ian ▁c une iform ▁orth ography ▁for ▁the ▁purpose . ▁During ▁the ▁Middle ▁Bron ze ▁Age ▁( Old ▁Ass y rian ▁and ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian ▁period ), ▁the ▁language ▁virtually ▁displ aced ▁S umer ian , ▁which ▁is ▁assumed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁ext inct ▁as ▁a ▁living ▁language ▁by ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁BC . ▁ ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian , ▁which ▁was ▁used ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 3 rd ▁mill enn ium ▁BC , ▁differ ed ▁from ▁both ▁Bab ylon ian ▁and ▁Ass y rian , ▁and ▁was ▁displ aced ▁by ▁these ▁dialect s . ▁By ▁the ▁ 2 1 st ▁century ▁BC ▁Bab ylon ian ▁and ▁Ass y rian , ▁which ▁were ▁to ▁become ▁the ▁primary ▁dialect s , ▁were ▁easily ▁distinguish able . ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian , ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁closely ▁related ▁dialect ▁Mar i otic , ▁is ▁clearly ▁more ▁innovative ▁than |
▁the ▁Old ▁Ass y rian ▁dialect ▁and ▁the ▁more ▁dist antly ▁related ▁E bl a ite ▁language . ▁For ▁this ▁reason , ▁forms ▁like ▁lu - pr us ▁(' I ▁will ▁decide ') ▁were ▁first ▁encountered ▁in ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian ▁instead ▁of ▁the ▁older ▁la - pr us . ▁While ▁generally ▁more ▁arch a ic , ▁Ass y rian ▁developed ▁certain ▁innov ations ▁as ▁well , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁" Ass y rian ▁v ow el ▁harmony ". ▁E bl a ite ▁was ▁even ▁more ▁so , ▁ret aining ▁a ▁productive ▁dual ▁and ▁a ▁relative ▁pron oun ▁declined ▁in ▁case , ▁number ▁and ▁gender . ▁Both ▁of ▁these ▁had ▁already ▁disappeared ▁in ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁Over ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁c une iform ▁table ts ▁in ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian ▁have ▁been ▁recovered ▁from ▁the ▁K ül te pe ▁site ▁in ▁An at olia . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁archae ological ▁evidence ▁is ▁typical ▁of ▁An at olia ▁rather ▁than ▁of ▁Ass y ria , ▁but ▁the ▁use ▁both ▁of ▁c une iform ▁and ▁the ▁dialect ▁is ▁the ▁best ▁indication ▁of ▁Ass y rian ▁presence . ▁ ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian ▁was ▁the ▁language ▁of ▁king ▁Ham m ur abi ▁and ▁his ▁code , ▁which ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁oldest ▁collections ▁of ▁laws ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁( see ▁Code ▁of ▁Ur - N am mu .) ▁The ▁Middle ▁Bab ylon ian ▁( or ▁Ass y rian ) ▁period ▁started ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th |
▁century ▁BC . ▁The ▁division ▁is ▁marked ▁by ▁the ▁K ass ite ▁invasion ▁of ▁Bab yl onia ▁around ▁ 1 5 5 0 ▁BC . ▁The ▁K ass ites , ▁who ▁re igned ▁for ▁ 3 0 0 ▁years , ▁gave ▁up ▁their ▁own ▁language ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian , ▁but ▁they ▁had ▁little ▁influence ▁on ▁the ▁language . ▁At ▁its ▁ap og ee , ▁Middle ▁Bab ylon ian ▁was ▁the ▁written ▁language ▁of ▁diplom acy ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁Anc ient ▁Near ▁East , ▁including ▁Egypt . ▁During ▁this ▁period , ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁loan ▁words ▁were ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁language ▁from ▁North west ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁and ▁Hur rian ; ▁however , ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁these ▁words ▁was ▁conf ined ▁to ▁the ▁f ring es ▁of ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian - spe aking ▁territory . ▁ ▁Middle ▁Ass y rian ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁ling ua ▁franc a ▁in ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁Near ▁East ▁of ▁the ▁Late ▁Bron ze ▁Age ▁( Am arna ▁Period ). ▁During ▁the ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁Empire , ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁began ▁to ▁turn ▁into ▁a ▁ch ancell ery ▁language , ▁being ▁marginal ized ▁by ▁Old ▁Ar ama ic . ▁Under ▁the ▁A cha emen ids , ▁Ar ama ic ▁continued ▁to ▁prosper , ▁but ▁Ass y rian ▁continued ▁its ▁decline . ▁The ▁language ' s ▁final ▁dem ise ▁came ▁about ▁during ▁the ▁H ellen istic ▁period ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁further ▁marginal ized ▁by ▁Ko |
ine ▁Greek , ▁even ▁though ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁c une iform ▁remained ▁in ▁use ▁in ▁literary ▁tradition ▁well ▁into ▁Par th ian ▁times . ▁The ▁latest ▁known ▁text ▁in ▁c une iform ▁Bab ylon ian ▁is ▁an ▁astronom ical ▁al man ac ▁dated ▁to ▁ 7 9 / 8 0 ▁AD . ▁However , ▁the ▁latest ▁c une iform ▁texts ▁are ▁almost ▁entirely ▁written ▁in ▁S umer ian ▁log ogram s . ▁ ▁Old ▁Ass y rian ▁developed ▁as ▁well ▁during ▁the ▁second ▁mill enn ium ▁BC , ▁but ▁because ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁purely ▁popular ▁language ▁— ▁kings ▁wrote ▁in ▁Bab ylon ian ▁— ▁few ▁long ▁texts ▁are ▁preserved . ▁From ▁ 1 5 0 0 ▁BC ▁on wards , ▁the ▁language ▁is ▁term ed ▁Middle ▁Ass y rian . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁first ▁mill enn ium ▁BC , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁progress ively ▁lost ▁its ▁status ▁as ▁a ▁ling ua ▁franc a . ▁In ▁the ▁beginning , ▁from ▁around ▁ 1 0 0 0 ▁BC , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁and ▁Ar ama ic ▁were ▁of ▁equal ▁status , ▁as ▁can ▁be ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁copied ▁texts : ▁clay ▁table ts ▁were ▁written ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian , ▁while ▁sc rib es ▁writing ▁on ▁pap yr us ▁and ▁leather ▁used ▁Ar ama ic . ▁From ▁this ▁period ▁on , ▁one ▁speaks ▁of ▁Ne o - B ab ylon ian ▁and ▁Ne o - Ass y rian . ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁received ▁an |
▁up swing ▁in ▁popularity ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁BC ▁when ▁the ▁Ass y rian ▁kingdom ▁became ▁a ▁major ▁power ▁with ▁the ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁Empire , ▁but ▁texts ▁written ▁' ex cl us ively ' ▁in ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁disappear ▁within ▁ 1 0 ▁years ▁of ▁N ine veh ' s ▁destruction ▁in ▁ 6 1 2 ▁BC . ▁The ▁domin ance ▁of ▁the ▁Ne o - Ass y rian ▁Empire ▁under ▁Tig l ath - P iles er ▁III ▁over ▁Ar am - Dam asc us ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁century ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁Ar ama ic ▁as ▁a ▁ling ua ▁franc a ▁of ▁the ▁empire , ▁rather ▁than ▁it ▁being ▁e cl ips ed ▁by ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Mes op ot am ian ▁kingdom s , ▁which ▁were ▁conqu ered ▁by ▁the ▁Pers ians , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁( which ▁existed ▁solely ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁Late ▁Bab ylon ian ) ▁disappeared ▁as ▁a ▁popular ▁language . ▁However , ▁the ▁language ▁was ▁still ▁used ▁in ▁its ▁written ▁form ; ▁and ▁even ▁after ▁the ▁Greek ▁invasion ▁under ▁Alexander ▁the ▁Great ▁in ▁the ▁ 4 th ▁century ▁BC , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁was ▁still ▁a ▁cont ender ▁as ▁a ▁written ▁language , ▁but ▁spoken ▁Ak k ad ian ▁was ▁likely ▁ext inct ▁by ▁this ▁time , ▁or ▁at ▁least ▁rarely ▁used . ▁ ▁The ▁last ▁posit ively ▁identified |
▁Ak k ad ian ▁text ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 st ▁century ▁AD . ▁ ▁Dec ipher ment ▁ ▁The ▁Ak k ad ian ▁language ▁began ▁to ▁be ▁re dis covered ▁when ▁Car sten ▁Nie bu hr ▁in ▁ 1 7 6 7 ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁make ▁extensive ▁copies ▁of ▁c une iform ▁texts ▁and ▁published ▁them ▁in ▁Denmark . ▁The ▁dec ipher ing ▁of ▁the ▁texts ▁started ▁immediately , ▁and ▁b iling uals , ▁in ▁particular ▁Old ▁Pers ian - A kk ad ian ▁b iling uals , ▁were ▁of ▁great ▁help . ▁Since ▁the ▁texts ▁contained ▁several ▁royal ▁names , ▁isolated ▁signs ▁could ▁be ▁identified , ▁and ▁were ▁presented ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 2 ▁by ▁Georg ▁Friedrich ▁G rote f end . ▁By ▁this ▁time ▁it ▁was ▁already ▁evident ▁that ▁Ak k ad ian ▁was ▁a ▁Sem it ic ▁language , ▁and ▁the ▁final ▁break through ▁in ▁dec ipher ing ▁the ▁language ▁came ▁from ▁Edward ▁H in cks , ▁Henry ▁Raw l inson ▁and ▁J ules ▁Op pert ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century . ▁ ▁The ▁Ori ental ▁Institute ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago ▁recently ▁completed ▁a ▁ 2 1 - volume ▁dictionary ▁of ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁language , ▁which ▁is ▁available ▁commer c ially ▁and ▁online . ▁ ▁D ial ect s ▁The ▁following ▁table ▁summar ises ▁the ▁dialect s ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian ▁identified ▁with ▁certain ty ▁so ▁far . ▁ ▁Some ▁researchers ▁( such ▁as ▁W . ▁Som mer |
feld ▁ 2 0 0 3 ) ▁believe ▁that ▁the ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian ▁variant ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁older ▁texts ▁is ▁not ▁an ▁ancest or ▁of ▁the ▁later ▁Ass y rian ▁and ▁Bab ylon ian ▁dialect s , ▁but ▁rather ▁a ▁separate ▁dialect ▁that ▁was ▁replaced ▁by ▁these ▁two ▁dialect s ▁and ▁which ▁died ▁out ▁early . ▁ ▁E bl a ite , ▁formerly ▁thought ▁of ▁as ▁yet ▁another ▁Ak k ad ian ▁dialect , ▁is ▁now ▁generally ▁considered ▁a ▁separate ▁East ▁Sem it ic ▁language . ▁ ▁Ph on etics ▁and ▁ph on ology ▁ ▁Because ▁Ak k ad ian ▁as ▁a ▁spoken ▁language ▁is ▁ext inct ▁and ▁no ▁contemporary ▁descriptions ▁of ▁the ▁pron unci ation ▁are ▁known , ▁little ▁can ▁be ▁said ▁with ▁certain ty ▁about ▁the ▁ph on etics ▁and ▁ph on ology ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁Some ▁conclusions ▁can ▁be ▁made , ▁however , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁relationship ▁to ▁the ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁and ▁variant ▁spell ings ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian ▁words . ▁ ▁Cons on ants ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁table ▁gives ▁the ▁cons on ant ▁sounds ▁distinguished ▁in ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁use ▁of ▁c une iform , ▁with ▁the ▁presum ed ▁pron unci ation ▁in ▁IP A ▁trans cription ▁according ▁to ▁H ue h ner g ard ▁and ▁Woods , ▁which ▁most ▁closely ▁corresponds ▁to ▁recent ▁re const ructions ▁of ▁Pro to - S emit ic ▁ph on ology . ▁The ▁parent hes ised ▁symbol ▁following ▁is ▁the ▁trans cription |
▁used ▁in ▁the ▁literature , ▁in ▁the ▁cases ▁where ▁that ▁symbol ▁is ▁different ▁from ▁the ▁ph on etic ▁symbol . ▁This ▁trans cription ▁has ▁been ▁suggested ▁for ▁all ▁Sem it ic ▁languages ▁by ▁the ▁De utsche ▁M org en l änd ische ▁Ges ellschaft ▁( DM G ), ▁and ▁is ▁therefore ▁known ▁as ▁DM G - U ms ch rift . ▁ ▁Re construction ▁ ▁Ak k ad ian ▁em ph atic ▁cons on ants ▁are ▁typically ▁recon struct ed ▁as ▁e ject ives , ▁which ▁are ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁oldest ▁realization ▁of ▁em ph at ics ▁across ▁the ▁Sem it ic ▁languages . ▁One ▁piece ▁of ▁evidence ▁for ▁this ▁is ▁that ▁Ak k ad ian ▁shows ▁a ▁development ▁known ▁as ▁Ge ers ' ▁law , ▁where ▁one ▁of ▁two ▁em ph atic ▁cons on ants ▁dis sim il ates ▁to ▁the ▁corresponding ▁non - emph atic ▁cons on ant . ▁For ▁the ▁s ibil ants , ▁tradition ally ▁/ š / ▁has ▁been ▁held ▁to ▁be ▁post al ve olar ▁, ▁and ▁/ s /, ▁/ z /, ▁// ▁analyzed ▁as ▁fr ic atives ; ▁but ▁att ested ▁ass imil ations ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian ▁suggest ▁otherwise . ▁For ▁example , ▁when ▁the ▁possess ive ▁suffix ▁- š u ▁is ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁root ▁aw at ▁(' word '), ▁it ▁is ▁written ▁aw ass u ▁(' his ▁word ') ▁even ▁though ▁š š ▁would ▁be ▁expected . ▁The ▁most ▁straightforward ▁interpretation ▁of ▁this ▁shift ▁from ▁t š ▁to ▁ss ▁is |
▁that ▁/ s , ▁ ṣ / ▁form ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁vo ic eless ▁al ve olar ▁aff ric ates ▁, ▁* š ▁is ▁a ▁vo ic eless ▁al ve olar ▁fr ic ative ▁, ▁and ▁* z ▁is ▁a ▁vo iced ▁al ve olar ▁aff ric ate ▁or ▁fr ic ative ▁. ▁The ▁ass im ilation ▁is ▁then ▁[ aw at + su ] ▁> ▁. ▁In ▁this ▁ve in , ▁an ▁alternative ▁trans cription ▁of ▁* š ▁is ▁* s <0xCC> <0xA0> , ▁with ▁the ▁mac ron ▁below ▁indicating ▁a ▁soft ▁( len is ) ▁artic ulation ▁in ▁Sem it ic ▁trans cription . ▁Other ▁interpret ations ▁are ▁possible , ▁however . ▁ ▁could ▁have ▁been ▁ass imil ated ▁to ▁the ▁preced ing ▁, ▁yield ing ▁, ▁which ▁would ▁later ▁have ▁been ▁simpl ified ▁to ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁ph on eme ▁/ r / ▁has ▁tradition ally ▁been ▁interpreted ▁as ▁a ▁tr ill ▁but ▁its ▁pattern ▁of ▁altern ation ▁with ▁// ▁suggests ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁vel ar ▁( or ▁u v ular ) ▁fr ic ative . ▁In ▁the ▁H ellen istic ▁period , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁/ r / ▁was ▁transc ribed ▁using ▁the ▁Greek ▁ ρ , ▁indicating ▁it ▁was ▁pronounced ▁similarly ▁as ▁an ▁al ve olar ▁tr ill ▁( though ▁Gree ks ▁may ▁also ▁have ▁perceived ▁a ▁u v ular ▁tr ill ▁as ▁ ρ ). ▁ ▁Des cent ▁from ▁Pro to - S emit ic ▁ ▁Several ▁Pro to - S emit ic ▁ph on em |
es ▁are ▁lost ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁The ▁Pro to - S emit ic ▁gl ott al ▁stop ▁, ▁ ▁are ▁lost ▁as ▁cons on ants , ▁either ▁by ▁sound ▁change ▁or ▁orth ograph ically , ▁but ▁they ▁gave ▁rise ▁to ▁the ▁v ow el ▁quality ▁e ▁not ▁exhib ited ▁in ▁Pro to - S emit ic . ▁The ▁vo ic eless ▁later al ▁fr ic atives ▁() ▁merged ▁with ▁the ▁s ibil ants ▁as ▁in ▁C ana an ite , ▁leaving ▁ 1 9 ▁cons on antal ▁ph on em es . ▁Old ▁Ak k ad ian ▁preserved ▁the ▁/* ś / ▁ph on eme ▁longest ▁but ▁it ▁eventually ▁merged ▁with ▁/* š /, ▁beginning ▁in ▁the ▁Old ▁Bab ylon ian ▁period . ▁The ▁following ▁table ▁shows ▁Pro to - S emit ic ▁ph on em es ▁and ▁their ▁correspond ences ▁among ▁Ak k ad ian , ▁Modern ▁Standard ▁Arab ic ▁and ▁T iber ian ▁He brew : ▁ ▁V ow els ▁ ▁The ▁existence ▁of ▁a ▁back ▁mid - v ow el ▁ ▁has ▁been ▁proposed , ▁but ▁the ▁c une iform ▁writing ▁gives ▁no ▁good ▁proof ▁for ▁this . ▁There ▁is ▁limited ▁contrast ▁between ▁different ▁u - sign s ▁in ▁le x ical ▁texts , ▁but ▁this ▁sc rib al ▁different iation ▁may ▁reflect ▁the ▁super im position ▁of ▁the ▁S umer ian ▁ph on ological ▁system ▁( for ▁which ▁an ▁/ o / ▁ph on eme ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁proposed ), ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁separate ▁ph on |
eme ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁ ▁All ▁cons on ants ▁and ▁v ow els ▁appear ▁in ▁long ▁and ▁short ▁forms . ▁Long ▁cons on ants ▁are ▁represented ▁in ▁writing ▁as ▁double ▁cons on ants , ▁and ▁long ▁v ow els ▁are ▁written ▁with ▁a ▁mac ron ▁( ā , ▁ ē , ▁ ī , ▁ ū ). ▁This ▁distinction ▁is ▁ph on emic , ▁and ▁is ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁gram mar , ▁for ▁example ▁ip rus u ▁(' that ▁he ▁decided ') ▁versus ▁ip rus ū ▁(' they ▁decided '). ▁ ▁St ress ▁The ▁stress ▁patterns ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian ▁are ▁disput ed , ▁with ▁some ▁authors ▁claiming ▁that ▁nothing ▁is ▁known ▁of ▁the ▁topic . ▁There ▁are ▁however ▁certain ▁points ▁of ▁reference , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁v ow el ▁syn cope , ▁and ▁some ▁forms ▁in ▁the ▁c une iform ▁that ▁might ▁represent ▁the ▁stress ing ▁of ▁certain ▁v ow els ; ▁however , ▁attempts ▁at ▁identifying ▁a ▁rule ▁for ▁stress ▁have ▁so ▁far ▁been ▁un successful . ▁ ▁Hu ener g ard ▁( 2 0 0 5 : 3 - 4 ) ▁claims ▁that ▁stress ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian ▁is ▁completely ▁predict able . ▁In ▁his ▁sy ll able ▁typ ology ▁there ▁are ▁three ▁sy ll able ▁weights : ▁light ▁( V , ▁CV ); ▁heavy ▁( C VC , ▁CV ̄ , ▁CV ̂ ), ▁and ▁super he avy ▁( CV ̂ C ). ▁If ▁the ▁last ▁sy ll able ▁is ▁super he |
avy , ▁it ▁is ▁stressed , ▁otherwise ▁the ▁right most ▁heavy ▁non - final ▁sy ll able ▁is ▁stressed . ▁If ▁a ▁word ▁contains ▁only ▁light ▁sy ll ables , ▁the ▁first ▁sy ll able ▁is ▁stressed . ▁ ▁A ▁rule ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian ▁ph on ology ▁is ▁that ▁certain ▁short ▁( and ▁probably ▁un st ressed ) ▁v ow els ▁are ▁dropped . ▁The ▁rule ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁last ▁v ow el ▁of ▁a ▁success ion ▁of ▁sy ll ables ▁that ▁end ▁in ▁a ▁short ▁v ow el ▁is ▁dropped , ▁for ▁example ▁the ▁decl in ational ▁root ▁of ▁the ▁ver bal ▁ad ject ive ▁of ▁a ▁root ▁PR S ▁is ▁Pa R i S -. ▁Thus ▁the ▁mascul ine ▁singular ▁nomin ative ▁is ▁Pa RS - um ▁( < ▁* P a R i S - um ) ▁but ▁the ▁femin ine ▁singular ▁nomin ative ▁is ▁Pa R i St um ▁( < ▁* P a R i S - at - um ). ▁Additionally ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁general ▁tendency ▁of ▁syn cope ▁of ▁short ▁v ow els ▁in ▁the ▁later ▁stages ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁ ▁Gram mar ▁ ▁Mor ph ology ▁ ▁Cons on antal ▁root ▁Most ▁roots ▁of ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁language ▁consist ▁of ▁three ▁cons on ants ▁( called ▁the ▁radical s ), ▁but ▁some ▁roots ▁are ▁composed ▁of ▁four ▁cons on ants ▁( so - called ▁quadr ir ad icals ). ▁The ▁radical s ▁are ▁occasionally ▁represented ▁in ▁trans cription |
▁in ▁upper - case ▁letters , ▁for ▁example ▁PR S ▁( to ▁decide ). ▁Between ▁and ▁around ▁these ▁radical s ▁various ▁inf ix es , ▁suffix es ▁and ▁prefix es , ▁having ▁word ▁generating ▁or ▁gram mat ical ▁functions , ▁are ▁inserted . ▁The ▁resulting ▁cons on ant - v ow el ▁pattern ▁different i ates ▁the ▁original ▁meaning ▁of ▁the ▁root . ▁Also , ▁the ▁middle ▁radical ▁can ▁be ▁gem inated , ▁which ▁is ▁represented ▁by ▁a ▁dou bled ▁cons on ant ▁in ▁trans cription ▁( and ▁sometimes ▁in ▁the ▁c une iform ▁writing ▁itself ). ▁ ▁The ▁cons on ants ▁, ▁, ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁are ▁term ed ▁" weak ▁radical s " ▁and ▁roots ▁containing ▁these ▁radical s ▁give ▁rise ▁to ▁ir regular ▁forms . ▁ ▁Case , ▁number ▁and ▁gender ▁ ▁Form ally , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁has ▁three ▁numbers ▁( sing ular , ▁dual ▁and ▁plural ) ▁and ▁three ▁cases ▁( nom in ative , ▁accus ative ▁and ▁gen itive ). ▁However , ▁even ▁in ▁the ▁earlier ▁stages ▁of ▁the ▁language , ▁the ▁dual ▁number ▁is ▁vest ig ial , ▁and ▁its ▁use ▁is ▁largely ▁conf ined ▁to ▁natural ▁pairs ▁( ey es , ▁ears , ▁etc .), ▁and ▁ad ject ives ▁are ▁never ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁dual . ▁In ▁the ▁dual ▁and ▁plural , ▁the ▁accus ative ▁and ▁gen itive ▁are ▁merged ▁into ▁a ▁single ▁ob lique ▁case . ▁ ▁Ak k ad ian , ▁unlike ▁Arab ic , ▁but ▁like ▁He brew , ▁has ▁only |
▁" sound " ▁pl ur als ▁formed ▁by ▁means ▁of ▁a ▁plural ▁ending ▁( i . e . ▁no ▁broken ▁pl ur als ▁formed ▁by ▁changing ▁the ▁word ▁stem ). ▁As ▁in ▁all ▁Sem it ic ▁languages , ▁some ▁mascul ine ▁n oun s ▁take ▁the ▁pro tot yp ically ▁femin ine ▁plural ▁ending ▁(- ā t ). ▁ ▁The ▁n oun s ▁š arr um ▁( king ) ▁and ▁š arr at um ▁( que en ) ▁and ▁the ▁ad ject ive ▁dann um ▁( strong ) ▁will ▁serve ▁to ▁illustr ate ▁the ▁case ▁system ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian . ▁ ▁As ▁is ▁clear ▁from ▁the ▁above ▁table , ▁the ▁ad ject ive ▁and ▁n oun ▁end ings ▁differ ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁mascul ine ▁plural . ▁Certain ▁n oun s , ▁primarily ▁those ▁referring ▁to ▁ge ography , ▁can ▁also ▁form ▁a ▁loc ative ▁ending ▁in ▁- um ▁in ▁the ▁singular ▁and ▁the ▁resulting ▁forms ▁serve ▁as ▁ad verb ials . ▁These ▁forms ▁are ▁generally ▁not ▁productive , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁Ne o - B ab ylon ian ▁the ▁um - loc ative ▁repl aces ▁several ▁const ructions ▁with ▁the ▁pre position ▁in a . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁later ▁stages ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian ▁the ▁m imation ▁( word - final ▁- m ) ▁- ▁along ▁with ▁nun ation ▁( du al ▁final ▁"- n ") ▁- ▁that ▁occurred ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁most ▁case ▁end ings ▁disappeared , ▁except ▁in ▁the ▁loc ative . ▁Later , ▁the ▁nomin ative |
▁and ▁accus ative ▁singular ▁of ▁mascul ine ▁n oun s ▁collapsed ▁to ▁- u ▁and ▁in ▁Ne o - B ab ylon ian ▁most ▁word - final ▁short ▁v ow els ▁were ▁dropped . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁case ▁different iation ▁disappeared ▁from ▁all ▁forms ▁except ▁mascul ine ▁plural ▁n oun s . ▁However ▁many ▁texts ▁continued ▁the ▁practice ▁of ▁writing ▁the ▁case ▁end ings ▁( although ▁often ▁sp or ad ically ▁and ▁incorrect ly ). ▁As ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁contact ▁language ▁throughout ▁this ▁period ▁was ▁Ar ama ic , ▁which ▁itself ▁lack s ▁case ▁dist in ctions , ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁Ak k ad ian ' s ▁loss ▁of ▁cases ▁was ▁an ▁are al ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁ph on ological ▁phenomenon . ▁ ▁N oun ▁states ▁and ▁nom inal ▁sentences ▁As ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁case ▁in ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁n oun s ▁may ▁appear ▁in ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁" states " ▁depending ▁on ▁their ▁gram mat ical ▁function ▁in ▁a ▁sentence . ▁The ▁basic ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁n oun ▁is ▁the ▁status ▁rect us ▁( the ▁governed ▁state ), ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁form ▁as ▁described ▁above , ▁complete ▁with ▁case ▁end ings . ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁this , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁has ▁the ▁status ▁absolut us ▁( the ▁absolute ▁state ) ▁and ▁the ▁status ▁construct us ▁( Construct ▁state ). ▁The ▁latter ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁all ▁other ▁Sem it ic ▁languages , ▁while ▁the ▁former ▁appears ▁only ▁in ▁Ak k ad ian ▁and |
▁some ▁dialect s ▁of ▁Ar ama ic . ▁ ▁The ▁status ▁absolut us ▁is ▁character ised ▁by ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁a ▁n oun ' s ▁case ▁ending ▁( e . g . ▁aw ī l ▁< ▁aw ī l um , ▁š ar ▁< ▁š arr um ). ▁It ▁is ▁relatively ▁un common , ▁and ▁is ▁used ▁chief ly ▁to ▁mark ▁the ▁pred icate ▁of ▁a ▁nom inal ▁sentence , ▁in ▁fixed ▁ad verb ial ▁expressions , ▁and ▁in ▁expressions ▁relating ▁to ▁measurements ▁of ▁length , ▁weight , ▁and ▁the ▁like . ▁ ▁( 1 ) ▁Aw ī l - um ▁š ū ▁š arr ā q ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁This ▁man ▁is ▁a ▁th ief ▁ ▁( 2 ) ▁š arr um ▁l ā ▁š an ā n ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁The ▁king ▁who ▁cannot ▁be ▁riv aled ▁ ▁The ▁status ▁construct us ▁is ▁a ▁great ▁deal ▁more ▁common , ▁and ▁has ▁a ▁much ▁wider ▁range ▁of ▁applications . ▁It ▁is ▁employed ▁when ▁a ▁n oun ▁is ▁followed ▁by ▁another ▁n oun ▁in ▁the ▁gen itive , ▁a ▁pr onom inal ▁suffix , ▁or ▁a ▁ver bal ▁clause ▁in ▁the ▁sub j unct ive , ▁and ▁typically ▁takes ▁the ▁short est ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁n oun ▁which ▁is ▁ph on et ically ▁possible . ▁In ▁general , ▁this ▁amounts ▁to ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁case ▁end ings ▁with ▁short ▁v ow els , ▁with ▁the ▁exception ▁of ▁the ▁gen itive ▁- i ▁in ▁n oun s ▁preced ing ▁a ▁pr onom |
inal ▁suffix , ▁hence : ▁ ▁( 3 ) ▁m ā ri - š u ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁His ▁son , ▁its ▁( mas cul ine ) ▁son ▁ ▁but ▁ ▁( 4 ) ▁m ā r ▁š arr - im ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁The ▁king ' s ▁son ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁numerous ▁exceptions ▁to ▁this ▁general ▁rule , ▁usually ▁involving ▁potential ▁viol ations ▁of ▁the ▁language ' s ▁ph on ological ▁limitations . ▁Most ▁obviously , ▁Ak k ad ian ▁does ▁not ▁toler ate ▁word ▁final ▁cons on ant ▁clusters , ▁so ▁n oun s ▁like ▁k album ▁( dog ) ▁and ▁ma ḫ rum ▁( front ) ▁would ▁have ▁illegal ▁construct ▁state ▁forms ▁* kal b ▁and ▁* ma ḫ r ▁unless ▁modified . ▁In ▁many ▁of ▁these ▁instances , ▁the ▁first ▁v ow el ▁of ▁the ▁word ▁is ▁simply ▁repeated ▁( e . g . ▁k al ab , ▁ma ḫ ar ). ▁This ▁rule , ▁however , ▁does ▁not ▁always ▁hold ▁true , ▁especially ▁in ▁n oun s ▁where ▁a ▁short ▁v ow el ▁has ▁histor ically ▁been ▁el ided ▁( e . g . ▁š ak num ▁< ▁* š ak in um ▁" govern or "). ▁In ▁these ▁cases , ▁the ▁lost ▁v ow el ▁is ▁restored ▁in ▁the ▁construct ▁state ▁( so ▁š ak num ▁yields ▁š ak in ). ▁ ▁( 5 ) ▁k al ab ▁bel im ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁The ▁master ' s ▁dog ▁ ▁( 6 ) ▁š ak |
in ▁ ā lim ▁ ▁A ▁gen itive ▁relation ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁expressed ▁with ▁the ▁relative ▁pre position ▁š a , ▁and ▁the ▁n oun ▁that ▁the ▁gen itive ▁phrase ▁depends ▁on ▁appears ▁in ▁status ▁rect us . ▁ ▁( 7 ) ▁sal ī m ā t um ▁š a ▁aw ī l ▁E š n un na ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁The ▁all iances ▁of ▁the ▁R uler ▁of ▁E š n un na ▁( liter ally ▁" All iances ▁which ▁man ▁of ▁E š n un na ▁( has ) ") ▁ ▁The ▁same ▁pre position ▁is ▁also ▁used ▁to ▁introduce ▁true ▁relative ▁cl auses , ▁in ▁which ▁case ▁the ▁verb ▁is ▁placed ▁in ▁the ▁sub j unct ive ▁mood . ▁ ▁( 7 ) ▁aw ī l - um ▁š a ▁m ā t - am ▁i - k š ud - Ø - u ▁ ▁Trans lation : ▁The ▁man ▁who ▁conqu ered ▁the ▁land ▁ ▁Ver bal ▁morph ology ▁ ▁Ver b ▁aspects ▁The ▁Ak k ad ian ▁verb ▁has ▁six ▁finite ▁verb ▁aspects ▁( preter ite , ▁ ▁perfect , ▁present , ▁imper ative , ▁prec ative ▁and ▁vet itive ) ▁and ▁three ▁infinite ▁forms ▁( inf init ive , ▁particip le ▁and ▁ver bal ▁ad ject ive ). ▁The ▁pre ter ite ▁is ▁used ▁for ▁actions ▁that ▁are ▁seen ▁by ▁the ▁speaker ▁as ▁having ▁occurred ▁at ▁a ▁single ▁point ▁in ▁time . ▁The ▁present ▁is ▁primarily ▁imper fect ive ▁in ▁meaning ▁and ▁is ▁used ▁for ▁con |
current ▁and ▁future ▁actions ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁past ▁actions ▁with ▁a ▁temporal ▁dimension . ▁The ▁final ▁three ▁finite ▁forms ▁are ▁inj unct ive ▁where ▁the ▁imper ative ▁and ▁the ▁prec ative ▁together ▁form ▁a ▁parad ig m ▁for ▁positive ▁commands ▁and ▁wishes , ▁and ▁the ▁vet itive ▁is ▁used ▁for ▁negative ▁wishes . ▁Additionally ▁the ▁per ip hr astic ▁prohib itive , ▁formed ▁by ▁the ▁present ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁verb ▁and ▁the ▁negative ▁ad verb ▁l ā , ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁express ▁negative ▁commands . ▁The ▁inf init ive ▁of ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁verb ▁is ▁a ▁ver bal ▁n oun , ▁and ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁some ▁other ▁languages ▁the ▁Ak k ad ian ▁inf init ive ▁can ▁be ▁declined ▁in ▁case . ▁The ▁ver bal ▁ad ject ive ▁is ▁an ▁ad ject ival ▁form ▁and ▁design ates ▁the ▁state ▁or ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁action ▁of ▁the ▁verb , ▁and ▁consequ ently ▁the ▁exact ▁meaning ▁of ▁the ▁ver bal ▁ad ject ive ▁is ▁determined ▁by ▁the ▁sem ant ics ▁of ▁the ▁verb ▁itself . ▁The ▁particip le , ▁which ▁can ▁be ▁active ▁or ▁passive , ▁is ▁another ▁ver bal ▁ad ject ive ▁and ▁its ▁meaning ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁English ▁ger und . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁table ▁shows ▁the ▁conj ug ation ▁of ▁the ▁G - st em ▁ver bs ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁root ▁PR S ▁(" to ▁decide ") ▁in ▁the ▁various ▁verb ▁aspects ▁of ▁Ak k ad ian : ▁ ▁The ▁table ▁below ▁shows ▁the ▁different ▁aff ix es |
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