clydeiii/cybersecurity · Datasets at Hugging Face

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Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80
Copyright
2008 Jason Fritz
and widespread network intrusions suggest China is developing a cyber warfare capability.
Cyber warfare fits with China
s established patterns of asymmetry and technology transfer.
In order to grasp why Beijing would pursue cyber warfare as a means of leapfrogging, it is
essential to acknowledge the skills of hacking. Hackers utilize a wide range of tools with
highly sophisticated techniques, the scope of which is beyond this article; however some
basic understanding is necessary. Hacking is capable of causing massive damage with little
funding, it is difficult to detect and defend against, it provides a high level of deniability, and
it eliminates the problem of geographical distance.
Security Hacking
A common method used in cyber reconnaissance and attack is the security exploit. A
security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness. It is a
piece of software, data, or commands that utilize a bug, glitch, or vulnerability to cause an
unintended or unanticipated behaviour to occur on computer software, hardware, or
electronic devices. This can allow the attacker to take control of the computer, permitting its
use for other tactics, such as DDoS discussed below. An exploit may be used to gain lowlevel entrance to a computer, after which a hacker can search for further exploits to attain
high-level access such as system administrator (root). This tactic is known as privilege
escalation. Once exploit vulnerability has been identified by security experts, a patch will be
issued. For this reason hackers try to keep known exploits secret. These are known as zero
day exploits, and hackers may catalogue large numbers of them for their own use or to be
sold on the black market (Hines 2008). In 2006, Taiwan was hit with
13 PLA zero-day
attacks
, for which it took Microsoft 178 days to develop patches (Tkacik 2007).
Vulnerability scanners may be used to identify exploits. One such scanner known as a port
scanner automates the process of finding weaknesses of computers on a network. These
check to see which ports on a specified computer are
open
, available to access, and
sometimes will detect what program or service is listening on that port. Turning from
reconnaissance to attack, once an open port is found, large quantities of data can be sent in an
attempt to cause a buffer overflow. This can cause exposure of data, memory loss, and/or a
crash within the compromised system.
The primary means to identify computers used in cyber warfare is the IP address. An IP
address is a numerical identification that network management assigns to devices
participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) for
communication between nodes. In essence, each computer has its own unique IP address.
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for
global IP address allocation. ICANN, a non-profit organisation operating in the US, is under
contract with US Department of Commerce and previously with US Department of Defense.
Despite this identification tool, hackers can mask their identity by using proxy servers.
Information is routed through multiple computers, only showing each computer
s identity to
the next in line. For example, a Chinese hacker could route his or her activity through a
computer in Brazil, which routes its activity through Russia. The computer in Russia could
be used to attack a computer in the US, and the US would see it as an attack from Russia.
Perhaps through painstaking effort the American investigators can identify that the Russian
computer was a proxy, but then they are led to Brazil. If they manage to go from Brazil to
China, they are still unsure whether China was the originator or simply another link in the
chain. Proxy servers can be rented or obtained through compromised systems. Additionally,
Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80
Copyright
2008 Jason Fritz
free software such as Tor (The Onion Router), encryption, tunnelling protocol, and wireless
access points (hotspots) add additional anonymity.
A spoofing attack is when a person or program fools another into thinking it is someone or
something else. One example is the man-in-the-middle attack, in which person C gets person
A to believe they are person B, and they get person B to believe they are person A, thus
gaining access to information sent in both directions. This is accomplished by monitoring
packets sent from A to B (often involving a packet sniffer), guessing their sequence and
number, knocking them out with a SYN attack, and injecting packets from C. Firewalls may
defend against these attacks, if they have been configured to only accept IP addresses from
the intended correspondent.
Webpage spoofing, known as phishing, imitates a webpage such as a bank
s website. When
the user enters their data, such as passwords and usernames, the fake website catalogues their
information. Webpage spoofing is often used in conjunction with URL spoofing, using an
exploit to display a false URL, and DNS cache poisoning to direct the user away from their
intended site and then back again when the data has been collected. As a precaution some
websites require a user to arrive at their login page from a specified referrer page, but these
referrer pages may also be spoofed. During the 2008 Olympics net users in China received a
high volume of email spam offering video highlights of the games. Clicking on the links
brought users to spoofed CNN pages which asked them to download a codec to watch the
videos; once installed the computer was compromised and become a part of the Rustock
botnet, i.e. an automated
robot
running on the web to generate false headlines that entice
people to load harmful code (Miller 2008; Hi-tech Thieves Target Olympics 2008).
Spoofing may also be used defensively. For example, the Recording Industry Association of
America (RIAA) has practised spoofing on peer to peer networks. The RIAA floods these
communities with fake files of sought-after material. This deters down loaders by means of
fear and by wasting their time and bandwidth. This could be employed in the same manner
by militaries, or as a source of disinformation. A similar defensive tactic, known as a honey
pot, lures criminals in by offering sought-after data or what appears to be a compromised
network. The honey pot is designed to collect data on the intruder, while giving away
nothing, or giving away something that is perceived as an acceptable loss to gain something
greater in return.
Attackers may also compromise a computer or network by using a Trojan horse, often known
simply as a Trojan. A Trojan appears to perform a desirable function, while secretly
performing malicious functions. Trojans can be used to gain remote access, destroy data,
download data, serve as a proxy, falsify records, or shut down the target computer at will.
The Pentagon, defence-related think tanks, and defence-related contractors were the target of
a combined spoofing and Trojan attack in 2008. Trojans were hidden in email attachments
designed to look as if they were sent from a reliable source. The Trojan was designed to bury
itself into the system, covertly gather data, and send it to an internet address in China. Due to
the ability of hackers to route their activity through foreign computers, security experts were
unable to determine if China was the final destination, if it was an attempt at framing China,

Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80

Copyright

2008 Jason Fritz

and widespread network intrusions suggest China is developing a cyber warfare capability.

Cyber warfare fits with China

s established patterns of asymmetry and technology transfer.

In order to grasp why Beijing would pursue cyber warfare as a means of leapfrogging, it is

essential to acknowledge the skills of hacking. Hackers utilize a wide range of tools with

highly sophisticated techniques, the scope of which is beyond this article; however some

basic understanding is necessary. Hacking is capable of causing massive damage with little

funding, it is difficult to detect and defend against, it provides a high level of deniability, and

it eliminates the problem of geographical distance.

Security Hacking

A common method used in cyber reconnaissance and attack is the security exploit. A

security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness. It is a

piece of software, data, or commands that utilize a bug, glitch, or vulnerability to cause an

unintended or unanticipated behaviour to occur on computer software, hardware, or

electronic devices. This can allow the attacker to take control of the computer, permitting its

use for other tactics, such as DDoS discussed below. An exploit may be used to gain lowlevel entrance to a computer, after which a hacker can search for further exploits to attain

high-level access such as system administrator (root). This tactic is known as privilege

escalation. Once exploit vulnerability has been identified by security experts, a patch will be

issued. For this reason hackers try to keep known exploits secret. These are known as zero

day exploits, and hackers may catalogue large numbers of them for their own use or to be

sold on the black market (Hines 2008). In 2006, Taiwan was hit with

13 PLA zero-day

attacks

, for which it took Microsoft 178 days to develop patches (Tkacik 2007).

Vulnerability scanners may be used to identify exploits. One such scanner known as a port

scanner automates the process of finding weaknesses of computers on a network. These

check to see which ports on a specified computer are

open

, available to access, and

sometimes will detect what program or service is listening on that port. Turning from

reconnaissance to attack, once an open port is found, large quantities of data can be sent in an

attempt to cause a buffer overflow. This can cause exposure of data, memory loss, and/or a

crash within the compromised system.

The primary means to identify computers used in cyber warfare is the IP address. An IP

address is a numerical identification that network management assigns to devices

participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) for

communication between nodes. In essence, each computer has its own unique IP address.

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for

global IP address allocation. ICANN, a non-profit organisation operating in the US, is under

contract with US Department of Commerce and previously with US Department of Defense.

Despite this identification tool, hackers can mask their identity by using proxy servers.

Information is routed through multiple computers, only showing each computer

s identity to

the next in line. For example, a Chinese hacker could route his or her activity through a

computer in Brazil, which routes its activity through Russia. The computer in Russia could

be used to attack a computer in the US, and the US would see it as an attack from Russia.

Perhaps through painstaking effort the American investigators can identify that the Russian

computer was a proxy, but then they are led to Brazil. If they manage to go from Brazil to

China, they are still unsure whether China was the originator or simply another link in the

chain. Proxy servers can be rented or obtained through compromised systems. Additionally,

Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80

Copyright

2008 Jason Fritz

free software such as Tor (The Onion Router), encryption, tunnelling protocol, and wireless

access points (hotspots) add additional anonymity.

A spoofing attack is when a person or program fools another into thinking it is someone or

something else. One example is the man-in-the-middle attack, in which person C gets person

A to believe they are person B, and they get person B to believe they are person A, thus

gaining access to information sent in both directions. This is accomplished by monitoring

packets sent from A to B (often involving a packet sniffer), guessing their sequence and

number, knocking them out with a SYN attack, and injecting packets from C. Firewalls may

defend against these attacks, if they have been configured to only accept IP addresses from

the intended correspondent.

Webpage spoofing, known as phishing, imitates a webpage such as a bank

s website. When

the user enters their data, such as passwords and usernames, the fake website catalogues their

information. Webpage spoofing is often used in conjunction with URL spoofing, using an

exploit to display a false URL, and DNS cache poisoning to direct the user away from their

intended site and then back again when the data has been collected. As a precaution some

websites require a user to arrive at their login page from a specified referrer page, but these

referrer pages may also be spoofed. During the 2008 Olympics net users in China received a

high volume of email spam offering video highlights of the games. Clicking on the links

brought users to spoofed CNN pages which asked them to download a codec to watch the

videos; once installed the computer was compromised and become a part of the Rustock

botnet, i.e. an automated

robot

running on the web to generate false headlines that entice

people to load harmful code (Miller 2008; Hi-tech Thieves Target Olympics 2008).

Spoofing may also be used defensively. For example, the Recording Industry Association of

America (RIAA) has practised spoofing on peer to peer networks. The RIAA floods these

communities with fake files of sought-after material. This deters down loaders by means of

fear and by wasting their time and bandwidth. This could be employed in the same manner

by militaries, or as a source of disinformation. A similar defensive tactic, known as a honey

pot, lures criminals in by offering sought-after data or what appears to be a compromised

network. The honey pot is designed to collect data on the intruder, while giving away

nothing, or giving away something that is perceived as an acceptable loss to gain something

greater in return.

Attackers may also compromise a computer or network by using a Trojan horse, often known

simply as a Trojan. A Trojan appears to perform a desirable function, while secretly

performing malicious functions. Trojans can be used to gain remote access, destroy data,

download data, serve as a proxy, falsify records, or shut down the target computer at will.

The Pentagon, defence-related think tanks, and defence-related contractors were the target of

a combined spoofing and Trojan attack in 2008. Trojans were hidden in email attachments

designed to look as if they were sent from a reliable source. The Trojan was designed to bury

itself into the system, covertly gather data, and send it to an internet address in China. Due to

the ability of hackers to route their activity through foreign computers, security experts were

unable to determine if China was the final destination, if it was an attempt at framing China,