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# Geography of Antarctica
## Volcanoes
Volcanic activity occurring beneath glacial ice sheets is known as glaciovolcanism. An article published in 2017 claims that researchers from the University of Edinburgh discovered 91 new volcanoes below the Antarctic ice sheet, adding to the 47 volcanoes that were already known. As of 2017, 138 possible volcanoes have been identified in West Antarctica. There is limited knowledge about West Antarctic Volcanoes due to the presence of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which heavily covers the West Antarctic Rift System --- a likely hub for volcanic activity. Researchers find it difficult to properly identify volcanic activity due to the comprehensive ice covering.
East Antarctica is significantly larger than West Antarctica, and similarly remains widely unexplored in terms of its volcanic potential. While there are some indications that there is volcanic activity under the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, there is not a significant amount of present information on the subject.
Mount Erebus, as the southernmost historically active volcanic site on the planet, is one of the most notable sites in the study of Antarctic volcanism.
Deception Island is another active Antarctic volcano. It is one of the most protected areas in the Antarctic, given its situation between the South Shetland Islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. As the most active volcano in the Antarctic Peninsula, it has been studied closely since its initial discovery in 1820.
There are four volcanoes on the mainland of Antarctica that are considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or \"recent\" tephra deposits:
1. Mount Melbourne (2,730 m) (74°21\'S., 164°42\'E.), a stratovolcano;
2. Mount Berlin (3,500 m) (76°03\'S., 135°52\'W.), a stratovolcano;
3. Mount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37\'S., 132°25\'W.), a stratovolcano; and
4. Mount Hampton (3,325 m) (76°29\'S., 125°48\'W.), a volcanic caldera.
Mount Rittmann (2,600 m) (73.45°S 165.5° E), a volcanic caldera, is dormant.
Several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity. Mount Erebus (3,795 m), a stratovolcano on Ross Island with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption. On the opposite side of the continent, Deception Island (62°57\'S., 60°38\'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known and 4 suspected eruptions, has been the most active. Buckle Island in the Balleny Islands (66°50\'S., 163°12\'E.), Penguin Island (62°06\'S., 57°54\'W.), Paulet Island (63°35\'S., 55°47\'W.), and Lindenberg Island (64°55\'S., 59°40\'W.) are also considered to be active. In 2017, the researchers of Edinburgh University discovered 91 underwater volcanoes under West Antarctica.
### Marie Byrd Land {#marie_byrd_land}
Marie Byrd Land makes up a large portion of West Antarctica, consisting of the Area below the Antarctic Peninsula. The Marie Byrd Land is a large formation of volcanic rock, characterized by 18 exposed and subglacial volcanoes. 16 of the 18 volcanoes are entirely covered by the antarctic ice sheet. There have been no eruptions recorded from any of the volcanoes in this area, however scientists believe that some of the volcanoes may be potentially active.
### Activity
Scientists and researchers debate whether or not the 138 identified possible volcanoes are active or dormant. It is very hard to definitively say, given that many of these volcanic structures are buried underneath several kilometers of ice. However, ash layers within the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, as well as deformations in the ice surface indicate that the West Antarctic Rift System could be active and contain erupting volcanoes. Additionally, seismic activity in the region hints at magma movement beneath the crust, a sign of volcanic activity. Despite this, however, there is not yet definitive evidence of presently active volcanoes.
Subglacial volcanism is often characterized by ice melt and subglacial water. Though there are other sources of subglacial water, such as geothermal heat, it almost always is a condition of volcanism. Scientists remain uncertain about the presence of liquid water underneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, with some claiming to have found evidence indicating its existence.
### Conditions of formation {#conditions_of_formation}
In West Antarctica\'s Marie Byrd Land, volcanoes are typically composed of alkaline and basaltic lava. Sometimes, the volcanoes are entirely basaltic in composition. Due to the geographic similarity of the Marie Byrd Land, it is believed that the volcanoes in the West Antarctic Rift System are also composed of basalt.
Above-ice basaltic volcanoes, also known as subaerial basaltic volcanoes, generally form in tall, broad cone shapes. Since they are formed from repeated piling of liquid magma sourced from the center, they spread widely and grow upwards relatively slowly. However, West Antarctic Volcanoes form underneath ice sheets, and are thus categorized as subglacial volcanoes. Subglacial volcanoes that are monogenetic are far more narrow, steeper, flat topped structures. Polygenetic subglacial volcanoes have a wider variety of shapes and sizes due to being made up of many different eruptions. Often, they look more cone shaped, like stratovolcanoes.
### Hazards
#### Hazardous ash {#hazardous_ash}
Little has been studied about the implications of volcanic ash from eruptions within the Antarctic Circle. It is likely that an eruption at lower latitudes would cause global health and aviation hazards due to ash disbursement. The clockwise air circulation around the low pressure system at the South Pole forces air upwards, hypothetically sending ash upwards towards the Stratospheric jet streams, and thus quickly dispersing it throughout the globe.
#### Melting ice {#melting_ice}
Recently, in 2017, a study found evidence of subglacial volcanic activity within the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. This activity poses a threat to the stability of the Ice Sheet, as volcanic activity leads to increased melting. This could possibly plunge the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into a positive feedback loop of rising temperatures and increased melting.
## Canyons
There are three vast canyons that run for hundreds of kilometers, cutting through tall mountains. None of the canyons are visible at the snow-covered surface of the continent since they are buried under hundreds of meters of ice. The largest of the canyons is called Foundation Trough and is over 350 km long and 35 km wide. The Patuxent Trough is more than 300 km long and over 15 km wide, while the Offset Rift Basin is 150 km long and 30 km wide. These three troughs all lie under and cross the so-called \"ice divide\" -- the high ice ridge that runs all the way from the South Pole out towards the coast of West Antarctica.
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# Geography of Antarctica
## West Antarctica {#west_antarctica}
West Antarctica is the smaller part of the continent, (50° -- 180°W), divided into:
### Areas
- Antarctic Peninsula (55° -- 75°W)
- Graham Land
- Palmer Land
- Queen Elizabeth Land (20°W -- 80°W)
- Ellsworth Land (79°45\' -- 103°24\'W)
- English Coast
- Bryan Coast
- Eights Coast
- Marie Byrd Land (103°24\' -- 158°W)
- Walgreen Coast
- Bakutis Coast
- Hobbs Coast
- Ruppert Coast
- Saunders Coast
- King Edward VII Land (166°E -- 155°W)
- Shirase Coast
### Seas
- Scotia Sea (26°30\' -- 65°W)
- Weddell Sea (57°18\' -- 102°20\'W)
- Bellingshausen Sea (57°18\' -- 102°20\'W)
- Amundsen Sea (102°20′ -- 126°W)
### Ice shelves {#ice_shelves}
Larger ice shelves are:
- Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf (30° -- 83°W)
- Larsen Ice Shelf
- Abbot Ice Shelf (89°35\' -- 103°W)
- Getz Ice Shelf (114°30\' -- 136°W)
- Sulzberger Ice Shelf
- Ross Ice Shelf (166°E -- 155°W)
For all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves.
### Islands
For a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.
## East Antarctica {#east_antarctica}
East Antarctica is the larger part of the continent, (50°W -- 180°E), both the South Magnetic Pole and geographic South Pole are situated here. Divided into:
### Areas {#areas_1}
- Coats Land (20° -- 36°W)
- Queen Maud Land (20°W -- 45°E)
- Princess Martha Coast
- Princess Astrid Coast
- Princess Ragnhild Coast
- Prince Harald Coast
- Prince Olav Coast
- Enderby Land (44°38\' -- 56°25\'E)
- Kemp Land (56°25\' -- 59°34\'E)
- Mac. Robertson Land (59°34\' -- 73°E)
- Princess Elizabeth Land (73° -- 87°43\'E)
- Wilhelm II Land (87°43\' -- 91°54\'E)
- Queen Mary Land (91°54\' -- 100°30\'E)
- Wilkes Land (100°31\' -- 136°11\'E)
- Adélie Land (136°11′ -- 142°02′E)
- George V Land (142°02\' -- 153°45\'E)
- George V Coast
- Zélée Subglacial Trench
- Oates Land (153°45\' -- 160°E)
- Victoria Land (70°30\' -- 78°\'S)
### Seas {#seas_1}
- Weddell Sea (57°18\' -- 102°20\'W)
- King Haakon VII Sea (20°W -- 45°E)
- Davis Sea (82° -- 96°E)
- Mawson Sea (95°45\' -- 113°E)
- D\'Urville Sea (140°E)
- Ross Sea (166°E -- 155°W)
- Bellingshausen Sea (57°18\' -- 102°20\'W)
- Scotia Sea (26°30\' -- 65°W)
### Ice shelves {#ice_shelves_1}
Larger ice shelves are:
- Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf
- Ekstrom Ice Shelf
- Amery Ice Shelf
- West Ice Shelf
- Shackleton Ice Shelf
- Voyeykov Ice Shelf
For all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves.
### Islands {#islands_1}
For a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.
## Research stations {#research_stations}
## Territorial landclaims {#territorial_landclaims}
Seven nations have made official Territorial claims in Antarctica
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# Transport in Antarctica
**Transport in Antarctica** has transformed from explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica by foot to a more open era due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport, predominantly by air and water, but also by land as well. Transportation technologies on a remote area like Antarctica need to be able to deal with extremely low temperatures and continuous winds to ensure the travelers\' safety. Due to the fragility of the Antarctic environment, only a limited amount of transport movements can take place and sustainable transportation technologies have to be used to reduce the ecological footprint. The infrastructure of land, water and air transport needs to be safe and sustainable. Currently thousands of tourists and hundreds of scientists a year depend on the Antarctic transportation system.
Important parts of Antarctic transport include ships, but unlike warmer areas access may also require an icebreaker ship. Aircraft and airports are important but have some unique aspects; airstrips may be built on ice or compacted snow and aircraft with ski may be used. On the ground, transport includes traditionally wheeled vehicles adapted to the cold, but also vehicles with skis, such as snowmobiles are important as are towed sleds.
## Land transport {#land_transport}
### Roads and traverses {#roads_and_traverses}
Winds continuously blow snow on roads in Antarctica.
The South Pole Traverse (McMurdo--South Pole highway) is approximately 1450 km long and links the United States McMurdo Station on the coast to the Amundsen--Scott South Pole Station. It was constructed by leveling snow and in crevasses, but is not paved. There are flags to mark the road.
Also, the United States Antarctic Program maintains two ice roads during the austral summer. One provides access to Pegasus Field on the Ross Ice Shelf. The ice road between Pegasus Field and McMurdo Station is about 14 mi. The other road provides access to the Ice Runway, which is on sea ice. The road between the Ice Runway and McMurdo Station varies in length from year to year depending on many factors, including ice stability. These roads are critical for resupplying McMurdo Station, Scott Base, and Amundsen--Scott South Pole Station.
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# Transport in Antarctica
## Land transport {#land_transport}
### Vehicles
The scarcity and poor quality of road infrastructure limits land transportation by conventional vehicles.
A normal car on tires has very limited capability in Antarctic conditions. Scientific bases are often built on snow-free areas (oases) close to the ocean. Around these stations and on a hard packed snow or ice, tire based vehicles can drive but on deeper and softer snow, a normal tire-based vehicle cannot travel. Due to these limitations, vehicles on belts have been the preferred option in Antarctica. In 1997, two specialized cars with very large tires running tire pressure as low as 1.5 psi travelled onto the high Antarctica Plateau, giving strong indication that tire based vehicles could be an option for efficient travelling in Antarctica. Mawson Station used classic Volkswagen Beetles, the first production cars to be utilized in Antarctica, from 1963 to 1970. The first of these was named the *Antarctica 1*.
In December 1997 into February 1998 two AT44, 4x4 cars (built in Iceland by Arctic Trucks with tire size of 44-inch tall) joined an expedition by the Swedish Polar Institution (SWEA). The cars got used to transport people and supplies from the Ice shelf to WASA station, to perform scanning of the snow and support a drilling expedition to on the Antarctica Plateau 76°S 8°03\'W. This is the first time tire based vehicles successfully travel on the Antarctica high plateau. In 2005, a team of six people took part in the Ice Challenger Expedition. Travelling in a specially designed six wheel drive vehicle, the team completed the journey from the Antarctic coast at Patriot Hills to the geographic South Pole in 69 hours. In doing so they easily beat the previous record of 24 days. They arrived at the South Pole on December 12, 2005. The team members on that expedition were Andrew Regan, Jason De Carteret, Andrew Moon, Richard Griffiths, Gunnar Egilsson and Andrew Miles. The expedition successfully showed that wheeled transport on the continent is not only possible but also often more practical. The expedition also hoped to raise awareness about global warming and climate change.
From start of December 2008 into February 2009, four AT44, 4x4 cars were used to support a ski race by Amundsen Omega 3, from S82° 41\' E17° 43\' to South Pole. A film was made of this race by BBC called \"On Thin Ice\" with Ben Fogle and James Cracknell. The cars started from Novo airbase at S70° 49\' E11° 38\', establish a route onto the plateau through the crevasse areas in the Shcherbakov Mountain Range driving nearly 1500 km to the start line of the ski race. For the return journey each car covered between 5400 and with one fuel depot on the way.
From 2008 to date (Dec 2015) tire based cars, AT44 4x4 and AT44 6x6 have been used every season to support various NGO and scientific expedition/projects, supporting flights, fuel drops, filming, skiers, biker, a tractor, collecting snow samples and more. The combined distance covered on the Antarctica Plateau is over 220,000 km and even though towing capacity is much lower than for most belt based vehicles, the tire based cars multiply the travel speed and use only a fraction of the fuel making this an option for some expeditions/projects.
A second expedition led by Andrew Regan and Andrew Moon departed in November 2010. The Moon-Regan Trans Antarctic Expedition this time traversed the entire continent twice, using two six-wheel-drive vehicles and a Concept Ice Vehicle designed by Lotus. This time the team used the expedition to raise awareness about the global environmental importance of the Antarctic region and to show that biofuel can be a viable and environmentally friendly option.
## Water transport {#water_transport}
Antarctica\'s only harbour is at McMurdo Station. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty. Offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent, but poses no problem to sailboats designed for the ice, typically with lifting keels and long shorelines. McMurdo Station (77 51 S 166 40 E), Palmer Station (64 43 S 64 03 W); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under \"Legal System\"). A number of tour boats, ranging from large motorized vessels to small sailing yachts, visit the Antarctic Peninsula during the summer months (January--March). Most are based in Ushuaia, Argentina.
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# Transport in Antarctica
## Air transport {#air_transport}
Transport in Antarctica takes place by air, using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. Runways and helicopter pads have to be kept snow-free to ensure safe take off and landing conditions.
Antarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. Thirty stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have landing facilities for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities. Helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, one is greater than 3 km in length, six are between 2 and in length, three are between 1 and in length, three are less than 1 km in length, and two are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, four are greater than 3 km in length, three are between 2 km and 3 km in length, two are between 1 km and 2 km in length, two are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining four.
Antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet ICAO standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.) Flights to the continent in the permanent darkness of the winter are normally only undertaken in an emergency, with burning barrels of fuel to outline a runway. On September 11, 2008, a United States Air Force C-17 Globemaster III successfully completed the first landing in Antarctica using night-vision goggles at Pegasus Field.
In April 2001 an emergency evacuation of Dr. Ronald Shemenski was needed from Amundsen--Scott South Pole Station when he contracted pancreatitis. Three C-130 Hercules were called back before their final leg because of weather. Organizers then called on Kenn Borek Air based in Calgary, Alberta. Two de Havilland Twin Otters were dispatched out of Calgary with one being back-up. Twin Otters are specifically designed for the Canadian north and Kenn Borek Air\'s motto is \"Anywhere, Anytime, World-Wide\". The mission was a success but not without difficulties and drawbacks. Ground crews needed to create a 2 km runway with tracked equipment not designed to operate in the low temperatures at that time of year, the aircraft controls had to be \"jerry-rigged\" when the flaps were frozen in position after landing, and instruments were not reliable because of the cold. When they saw a \"faint pink line on the horizon\" they knew they were going in the right direction. This was the first rescue from the South Pole during winter. Canada honoured the Otter crew for bravery.
In 2021, an Airbus A340 aeroplane operated by Portuguese charter airline Hi Fly landed in Antarctica for the first time
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# Geography of Alabama
The **geography of Alabama** describes a state in the Southeastern United States in North America. It extends from high mountains to low valleys and sandy beaches. Alabama is 30th in size and borders four U.S. states: Mississippi, Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida. It also borders the Gulf of Mexico.
## Physical features {#physical_features}
Extending entirely across the state of Alabama for about 20 mi northern boundary, and in the middle stretching 60 mi farther north, is the Cumberland Plateau, or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad tablelands by the dissection of rivers. In the northern part of this plateau, west of Jackson county, there are about 1000 sqmi of level highlands from 700 to above sea level. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee River, is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to. To the northeast of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from 400 to. In the remainder of this region, the southern portion, the most prominent feature is *Little Mountain*, extending about 80 mi from east to west between two valleys, and rising precipitously on the north side 500 ft above them or 1000 ft above the sea.
Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the southeast is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountains, and occupies an area within the state of about 8000 sqmi. This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges, and valleys is northeast and southwest, irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics. In the northeast are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than 1800 ft and gradually decreasing in height toward the southwest, where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep northwest sides, sharp crests and gently sloping southeast sides.
Southeast of the Appalachian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together with the northern part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about 1000 ft above sea level. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau.
The remainder of the state is occupied by the *Coastal Plain*. This is crossed by foothills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about 600 ft, becomes lower and more level toward the southwest, and in the extreme south is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the west-northwest by the Tennessee River and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the southwest. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa River is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa River. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee River in the west, the Alabama River (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the western central, and in the east the Chattahoochee River, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The Tombigbee and Alabama rivers unite near the southwest corner of the state, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior River is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the east.
The valleys in the north and northeast are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast.
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# Geography of Alabama
## Flora and fauna {#flora_and_fauna}
The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. However, the Mobile River system has a high incidence of endemism among freshwater mollusks and biodiversity is high.
In Alabama, vast forests of pine constitute the largest proportion of the state\'s forest growth. There is also an abundance of cypress, hickory, oak, populus, and eastern redcedar trees. In other areas, hemlock growths in the north and southern white cedar in the southwest. Other native trees include ash, hackberry, and holly. In the Gulf region of the state grow various species of palmetto and palm. In Alabama there are more than 150 shrubs, including mountain laurel and rhododendron. Among cultivated plants are wisteria and camellia.
While in the past the state enjoyed a variety of mammals such as plains bison, eastern elk, North American cougar, bear, and deer, only the white-tailed deer remains abundant. Still fairly common are the bobcat, American beaver, muskrat, raccoon, Virginia opossum, rabbit, squirrel, red and gray foxes, and long-tailed weasel. Coypu and nine-banded armadillo have been introduced to the state and now also common.
Alabama\'s birds include golden and bald eagles, osprey and other hawks, yellow-shafted flickers, and black-and-white warblers. Game birds include bobwhite quail, duck, wild turkey, and goose. Freshwater fish such as bream, shad, bass, and sucker are common. Along the Gulf Coast there are seasonal runs of tarpon, pompano, red drum, and bonito.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists as endangered 99 animals, fish, and birds, and 18 plant species. The endangered animals include the Alabama beach mouse, gray bat, Alabama red-bellied turtle, fin and humpback whales, bald eagle, and wood stork.
American black bear, racking horse, yellow-shafted flicker, wild turkey, Atlantic tarpon, largemouth bass, southern longleaf pine, eastern tiger swallowtail, monarch butterfly, Alabama red-bellied turtle, Red Hills salamander, camellia, oak-leaf hydrangea, peach, pecan, and blackberry are Alabama\'s state symbols.
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# Geography of Alabama
## Climate and soil {#climate_and_soil}
The climate of Alabama is humid subtropical.
The heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast, and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 °F, the mean for the summer 81 °F, and for the winter 52 °F; and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59 °F, the mean for the summer 75 °F, and for the winter 41 °F. At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is 66 °F, with a winter average of 49 °F, and a summer average of 81 °F. The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35 °F, and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18 °C), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13 February 1899, when an absolute minimum of -17 °F was registered at Valley Head. The highest temperature ever recorded was 109 °F in Talladega county in 1902.
The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. Heavy snowfall can occur, such as during the New Year\'s Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. Hailstorms occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year - they are most common in the summer, but most severe in the spring and fall, when destructive winds and tornadoes occasionally occur. The prevailing winds are from the news. Hurricanes are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive.
As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for about 150 mi is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the *Timber Belt,* whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the *Black Prairie,* which includes some 13000 sqmi and seventeen counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the *Cotton Belt.* Between the *Cotton Belt* and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the *Old Land* area---a region of resistant rocks---whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region is the *Cereal Belt,* embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.
## Wetumpka Meteor Crater {#wetumpka_meteor_crater}
Wetumpka is the home of \"Alabama\'s greatest natural disaster.\" A 1000 ft-wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown showcase the eroded remains of the 5 mi wide impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme (\"star-wound\") for the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as an internationally recognized impact crater.
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# Geography of Alabama
## Public lands {#public_lands}
Alabama includes several types of public use lands. These include four national forests and one national preserve within state borders that provide over 25% of the state\'s public recreation land.
- land regions
- Alabama State Parks
- Alabama Public Fishing Lakes
- Alabama Wildlife Management Areas
- Little River Canyon National Preserve
- Russell Cave National Monument
- National Forests
- Conecuh National Forest
- Talladega National Forest
- Tuskegee National Forest
- William B
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# Alfred Lawson
**Alfred William Lawson** (March 24, 1869 -- November 29, 1954) was an English-born professional baseball player, aviator, and utopian philosopher. He played baseball, managed and promoted leagues from 1887 through 1916, and pioneered the U.S. aircraft industry. He also published two early aviation trade journals.
Lawson is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner and received several of the first air mail contracts, which he ultimately did not fulfill. He founded the Lawson Aircraft Company in Green Bay, Wisconsin, to build military training aircraft and later the Lawson Airplane Company in South Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to build airliners.
The crash of his ambitious Lawson L-4 \"Midnight Liner\" during its trial flight takeoff on May 8, 1921, ended his best chance for commercial aviation success.
In 1904, he wrote a utopian novel, *Born Again*, in which he developed the philosophy which later became Lawsonomy.
## Baseball career (1888--1907) {#baseball_career_18881907}
Lawson made one start for the Boston Beaneaters and two for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys during the 1890 season. His minor league playing career lasted through 1895. Lawson later managed in the minors from 1905 to 1907.
### Union Professional League {#union_professional_league}
In 1908, Lawson started a new professional baseball league called the Union Professional League. The league took the field in April but folded one month later because of financial difficulties.
## Aviation career (1908--1928) {#aviation_career_19081928}
An early aviation advocate, in October 1908, Lawson started the magazine *Fly* to stimulate public interest and educate readers on the new aviation science fundamentals. It sold for 10 cents a copy from newsstands across the country. In 1910, moving to New York City, he renamed the magazine *Aircraft* and published it until 1914. The magazine chronicled the technical developments of the early aviation pioneers.
Lawson was the first advocate for commercial air travel, coining the term \"airline.\" He also advocated for a strong American flying force, lobbying Congress in 1913 to expand its appropriations for Army aircraft.
In early 1913, Lawson learned to fly the Sloan-Deperdussin and the Moisant-Bleriot monoplanes, becoming an accomplished pilot. Later that year, he bought a Thomas flying boat and became the first air commuter to regularly fly from his country house in Seidler\'s Beach, New Jersey, to the foot of 75th Street in New York City (about 35 miles).
In 1917, utilizing the knowledge gained from ten years of advocating aviation, he built his first airplane, the Lawson Military Tractor 1 (MT-1) trainer, and founded the Lawson Aircraft Corporation. The company\'s plant was in Green Bay, Wisconsin. There, Lawson secured a contract and built the Lawson MT-2. He also designed the steel fuselage Lawson Armored Battler, which never got beyond the drafting board, given doubts within the Army aviation community and the signing of the armistice.
After the war, in 1919, Lawson started a project to build America\'s first airline. He secured financial backing, and in five months, he had built and demonstrated in flight his biplane airliner, the 18-passenger Lawson L-2. He demonstrated its capabilities in a 2000-mile multi-city tour from Milwaukee to Chicago-Toledo-Cleveland-Buffalo-Syracuse-New York City-Washington, D.C.-Collinsville-Dayton-Chicago and back to Milwaukee, creating a buzz of positive press.
The publicity allowed Lawson to secure an additional \$1 million to build the 26-passenger Midnight Liner. The aircraft crashed on takeoff on its maiden flight.
In late 1920, he secured government contracts for three airmail routes and to deliver ten warplanes. However, because of the fall 1920 recession, he could not secure the necessary \$100,000 in cash reserves and had to decline the contracts.
In 1926, he started his last airliner, the 56-seat, two-tier Lawson super airliner.
In this phase of his life, he was considered one of the leading thinkers in the budding American commercial aviation community; however, his inability to secure financial backing for his ideas led him to turn to economics, philosophy, and organization.
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# Alfred Lawson
## Lawsonomy (1929--1954) {#lawsonomy_19291954}
In the 1920s, Lawson promoted health practices, including vegetarianism, and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as \"penetrability\", \"suction and pressure\" and \"zig-zag-and-swirl\" were discoveries on par with Einstein\'s theory of relativity. He published numerous books on these concepts, all set in a distinctive typography.
He later propounded a philosophy, Lawsonomy, and the Lawsonian religion. He also developed, during the Great Depression, the populist economic theory of \"Direct Credits\", according to which banks are the cause of all economic woes, the oppressors of both capital and labor. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. He predicted the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles once \"everybody understands this subject\". His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 1930s, mainly in the upper Midwest, but by the late 1930s the crowds had dwindled.
His claims about his greatness became increasingly hyperbolic. The *Lawsonomy trilogy*, which Lawson considered his intellectual masterpiece, is replete with such self-referential statements as \"About every two thousand years a new teacher with advanced intellectual equipment appears upon earth to lead the people a step or two nearer the one God of everybody\".
In 1943, he founded the Humanity Benefactor Foundation and University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines, on the site of Des Moines University, to spread his teachings and offer the degree of \"Knowledgian\", but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson\'s death. His financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day, and in later years, he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his far-flung acolytes. In 1952, he testified before a United States Senate investigative committee on allegations that his organization had bought war surplus machines and then sold them for a profit despite claiming non-profit status. His attempt to explain Lawsonomy to the senators ended in mutual frustration and bafflement.
A farm near Racine, Wisconsin, is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas. The large sign, formerly reading \"University of Lawsonomy\", was a familiar landmark for motorists in the region for many years and was visible from Interstate 94 about 13 mi north of the Illinois state line, on the east side of the highway. A storm in the spring of 2009 destroyed the sign, although the supporting posts are still visible. On the northbound side of Interstate 94, a sign on the roof of the building nearest the freeway said \"Study Natural Law\" until being shingled over in October 2014.
In 2018, the Town of Mount Pleasant paid \$933,000 to purchase the property on the northbound side of Interstate 94 for the Foxconn project. All remaining buildings were demolished and removed. Lawsonomy maintains a small following to this day
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# Abbess
An **abbess** (Latin: *abbatissa*) is the female superior of a community of nuns in an abbey.
## Description
In the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Coptic, Lutheran and Anglican abbeys, the mode of election, position, rights, and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an abbot. She must be at least 40 years old and have been a nun for 10 years. The age requirement in the Catholic Church has evolved over time, ranging from 30 to 60. The requirement of 10 years as a nun is only eight in Catholicism. In the rare case of there not being a nun with the qualifications, the requirements may be lowered to 30 years of age and five of those in an \"upright manner\", as determined by the superior. A woman who is of illegitimate birth, is not a virgin, has undergone non-salutory public penance, is a widow, or is blind or deaf, is typically disqualified for the position, saving by permission of the Holy See. The office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the nuns belonging to the community. Like an abbot, after being confirmed in her office by the Holy See, an abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by a formal blessing, conferred by the bishop in whose territory the monastery is located, or by an abbot or another bishop with appropriate permission. Unlike the abbot, the abbess receives only the ring, the crosier, and a copy of the rule of the order. She does not receive a mitre as part of the ceremony. The abbess also traditionally adds a pectoral cross to the outside of her habit as a symbol of office, though she continues to wear a modified form of her religious habit or dress, as she is unordained---females cannot be ordained---and so does not vest or use choir dress in the liturgy.`{{Failed verification|date=February 2024|reason=Source doesn't mention vestments or dress.}}`{=mediawiki} An abbess serves for life, except in Italy and some adjacent islands.
### Roles and responsibilities {#roles_and_responsibilities}
Abbesses are, like abbots, major superiors according to canon law, the equivalents of abbots or bishops (the ordained male members of the church hierarchy who have, by right of their own office, executive jurisdiction over a building, diocesan territory, or a communal or non-communal group of persons---juridical entities under church law). They receive the vows of the nuns of the abbey; they may admit candidates to their order\'s novitiate; they may send them to study; and they may send them to do pastoral or missionary, or to work or assist---to the extent allowed by canon and civil law---in the administration and ministry of a parish or diocese (these activities could be inside or outside the community\'s territory). They have full authority in its administration.
However, there are significant limitations.
- They may not administer the sacraments, whose celebration is reserved to bishops, priests, deacons (clerics), namely, those in Holy Orders.
- They may make provision for an ordained cleric to help train and to admit some of their members, if needed, as altar servers, extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, or lectors---all ministries which are now open to the unordained.
- They may not serve as a witness to a marriage except by special rescript.
- They may not administer Penance (Reconciliation), Anointing of the Sick (Extreme Unction), or function as an ordained celebrant or concelebrant of the Mass (by virtue of their office and their training and institution, they may act, if the need arises, as altar servers, lectors, ushers, porters, or extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, and if need be, the Host).
- They may preside over the Liturgy of the Hours which they are obliged to say with their community, speak on Scripture to their community, and give certain types of blessings not reserved to the clergy. On the other hand, they may not ordinarily preach a sermon or homily, nor read the Gospel during Mass.
- As they do not receive episcopal ordination in the Catholic, Orthodox and Oriental Churches, they do not possess the ability to ordain others, nor do they exercise the authority they do possess under canon law over any territories outside of their monastery and its territory (though non-cloistered, non-contemplative female religious members who are based in a convent or monastery but who participate in external affairs may assist as needed by the diocesan bishop and local secular clergy and laity, in certain pastoral ministries and administrative and non-administrative functions not requiring ordained ministry or status as a male cleric in those churches or programs).
There are exigent circumstances, where due to Apostolical privilege, certain Abbesses have been granted rights and responsibilities above the normal, such as the Abbess of the Cistercian Monastery of the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas near Burgos, Spain. Also granted exceptional rights was the Abbess of the Cistercian order in Conversano Italy. She was granted the ability to appoint her own vicar-general, select and approve the confessors, along with the practice of receiving the public homage of her clergy. This practice continued until some of the duties were modified due to an appeal by the clergy to Rome. Finally in 1750, the public homage was abolished.
During the Middle Ages (7th--10th centuries) in the Catholic Church, greater restrictions on abbesses\' spiritual independence gained pace. Instruments of church authority, from papal bulls down to local sanctions, were increasingly used to restrict their freedom to dispense blessings, administer sacraments, including the veiling of nuns, and publicly read the gospels or preach. Such spiritual---and even temporal---authority had in earlier church history, largely been unremarkable. As Thomas Oestereich, contributor to the *Catholic Encyclopedia* (1913), makes clear, abbesses\' past spiritual authority was increasingly seen as the \"usurpation\" of corresponding priestly power, and a solely male privilege. He gives an example of the attitude toward such practice, from the 9th century, which persists in church administrative control into the modern era:
Similarly, in 1210, Innocent III (died 1216) expressed his view of the Cistercian Abbesses of Burgos and Palencia in Spain, who preached and heard confessions of their own religious, characterizing these acts as \"unheard of, most indecorous, and highly preposterous.\"
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# Abbess
## History
Historically, in some Celtic monasteries, abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns, the most famous example being Saint Brigid of Kildare\'s leadership in the founding of the monastery at Kildare in Ireland. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France, Spain, and even to Rome itself. In 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France, committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior.
In Lutheran churches, the title of abbess (*Äbtissin*) has in some cases survived (for example, in the Itzehoe Convent to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant Reformation have continued as monasteries or convents (*\[\[Stift\]\]e*). These positions continued, merely changing from Catholic to Lutheran. The first to make this change was the Abbey of Quedlinburg, whose last Catholic Abbess died in 1514. These are collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses (*Kanonissinen*), or more usually, *Stiftsdamen* or *Kapitularinnen*. The office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and in the past, was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. Until the dissolution of Holy Roman Empire and mediatisation of smaller imperial fiefs by Napoleon, the evangelical Abbess of Quedlinburg was also per officio the head of that *\[\[reichsunmittelbar\]\]* state. The last such ruling abbess was Sofia Albertina, Princess of Sweden. The abess Hildegard of Fraunmünster Abbey sat in the Imperial Diet among other princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The oldest women\'s abbey in Germany is St. Marienthal Abbey of Cistercian nuns, near Ostritz, established during the early 13th century.
In the Hradčany of Prague is a Catholic institute whose mistress is titled an Abbess. It was founded in 1755 by the Empress Maria Theresa, and traditionally was responsible for the coronation of the Queen of Bohemia. The Abbess is required to be an Austrian Archduchess.
it was estimated the Catholic Church had around 200 presiding abbesses.
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# Abbess
## Abbas placename {#abbas_placename}
The word \'Abbas\' is used as part of a place name (for example, the English villages of Compton Abbas and Milton Abbas). The name usually relates to land previously owned by an abbess
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# Abdominal surgery
The term **abdominal surgery** broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the abdomen (laparotomy). Surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ (see stomach, kidney, liver, etc.) Diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names.
## Types
The most common abdominal surgeries are described below.
- Appendectomy: surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the appendix. Typically performed as definitive treatment for appendicitis, although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure.
- Caesarean section (also known as C-section): a surgical procedure in which one or more incisions are made through a mother\'s abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies, or, rarely, to remove a dead fetus.
- Inguinal hernia surgery: the repair of an inguinal hernia.
- Exploratory laparotomy: the opening of the abdominal cavity for direct examination of its contents; for example, to locate a source of bleeding or trauma. It may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem.
- Laparoscopy: a minimally invasive approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity. The tubes allow introduction of a small camera, surgical instruments, and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen. The abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and, often, a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room. The surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal), the most common laparoscopic procedure. The laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduces blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional \"open\" method.
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# Abdominal surgery
## Complications
Complications of abdominal surgery include, but are not limited to:
- Adhesions (also called scar tissue): complications of postoperative adhesion formation are frequent, they have a large negative effect on patients' health, and increase workload in clinical practice
- Bleeding
- Infection
- Paralytic ileus: short-term paralysis of the bowel
- Perioperative mortality, any death occurring within 30 days after surgery
- Shock
Sterile technique, aseptic post-operative care, antibiotics, use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist, and vigilant post-operative monitoring greatly reduce the risk of these complications. Planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions. The contents of the bowel are unsterile, and thus leakage of bowel contents, as from trauma, substantially increases the risk of infection.
Globally, there are few studies comparing perioperative mortality following abdominal surgery across different health systems. One major prospective study of 10,745 adult patients undergoing emergency laparotomy from 357 centres in 58 high-, middle-, and low-income countries found that mortality is three times higher in low- compared with high-HDI countries even when adjusted for prognostic factors. In this study the overall global mortality rate was 1.6 percent at 24 hours (high 1.1 percent, middle 1.9 percent, low 3.4 percent), increasing to 5.4 percent by 30 days (high 4.5 percent, middle 6.0 percent, low 8.6 percent). Of the 578 patients who died, 404 (69.9 percent) did so between 24 hours and 30 days following surgery (high 74.2 percent, middle 68.8 percent, low 60.5 percent). Patient safety factors were suggested to play an important role, with use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist associated with reduced mortality at 30 days.
Taking a similar approach, a unique global study of 1,409 children undergoing emergency laparotomy from 253 centres in 43 countries showed that adjusted mortality in children following surgery may be as high as 7 times greater in low-HDI and middle-HDI countries compared with high-HDI countries, translating to 40 excess deaths per 1,000 procedures performed in these settings. Internationally, the most common operations performed were appendectomy, small bowel resection, pyloromyotomy and correction of intussusception. After adjustment for patient and hospital risk factors, child mortality at 30 days was significantly higher in low-HDI (adjusted OR 7.14 (95% CI 2.52 to 20.23)) and middle-HDI (4.42 (1.44 to 13.56)) countries compared with high-HDI countries.
Absorption of drugs administered orally was shown to be significantly affected following abdominal surgery.
There is low-certainty evidence that there is no difference between using scalpel and electrosurgery in infection rates during major abdominal surgeries
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# Abensberg
**Abensberg** (`{{IPA|de|ˈaːbənsˌbɛʁk|-|De-Abensberg.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) is a town in the Lower Bavarian district of Kelheim, in Bavaria, Germany, lying around 30 km southwest of Regensburg, 40 km east of Ingolstadt, 50 km northwest of Landshut and 100 km north of Munich. It is situated on the river Abens, a tributary of the Danube.
## Geography
The town lies on the Abens river, a tributary of the Danube, around eight kilometres from the river\'s source. The area around Abensberg is characterized by the narrow valley of the Danube, where the Weltenburg Abbey stands, the valley of the Altmühl in the north, a left tributary of the Danube, and the famous Hallertau hops-planting region in the south. The town is divided into the municipalities of Abensberg, Arnhofen, Holzharlanden, Hörlbach, Offenstetten, Pullach and Sandharland.
### Divisions
Since the administrative reforms in Bavaria in the 1970s, the town also encompasses the following *Ortsteile*:
- In the town: Abensberg (main settlement), Aunkofen (civil parish), Badhaus (village)
- To the east: Gaden (village), See (village), Offenstetten (civil parish)
- To the north east: Arnhofen (civil parish), Baiern (village), Pullach (civil parish), Kleedorf (village)
- To the north: Sandharlanden (civil parish), Holzharlanden (civil parish), Buchhof (small hamlet)
- To the west: Schwaighausen (village), Schillhof (hamlet), Gilla (small hamlet)
- To the south: Aumühle (small hamlet), Allersdorf (hamlet)
- To the south east: Lehen (small hamlet), Mitterhörlbach (hamlet), Upper Hörlbach (village), Lower Hörlbach (hamlet)
## History
There had been settlement on this part of the Abens river since long before the High Middle Ages, dating back to Neolithic times. Of particular interest and national importance are the Neolithic flint mines at Arnhofen, where, around 7,000 years ago, Stone Age people made flint, which was fashioned into drills, blades and arrowheads, and was regarded as the steel of the Stone Age. Traces of over 20,000 individuals were found on this site. The modern history of Abensberg, which is often incorrectly compared with that of the third century Roman castra (military outpost) of Abusina, begins with Gebhard, who was the first to mention Abensberg as a town, in the middle of the 12th century. The earliest written reference to the town, under the name of *Habensperch*, came from this time, in around 1138. Gebhard was from the Babonen clan.
In 1256, the castrum of *Abensprech* was first mentioned, and on 12 June 1348, Margrave Ludwig of Brandenburg, and his brother, Duke Stephen of Bavaria, raised Abensberg to the status of a city, giving it the right to operate lower courts, enclose itself with a wall and hold markets. The wall was built by Count Ulrich III of Abensberg. Some of the thirty-two round towers and eight turrets are still preserved to this day.
In the Middle Ages, the people of Abensberg enjoyed a level of autonomy above their lord. They elected a city council, although only a small number of rich families were eligible for election.
In around 1390, the Carmelite Monastery of Our Lady of Abensberg was founded by Count John II and his wife, Agnes. Although Abensberg was an autonomous city, it remained dependent on the powerful Dukes of Bavaria. The last Lord of Abensberg, Niclas, Graf von Abensberg, supposedly named after his godfather, Nicholas of Kues, a Catholic cardinal, was murdered in 1485 by Christopher, a Duke of Bavaria-Munich. The year before, Niclas had unchivalrously taken Christopher captive as he bathed before a tournament in Munich. Although Christopher renounced his claim for revenge, he lay in wait for Niclas in Freising. When the latter arrived, he was killed by Seitz von Frauenberg. He is buried in the former convent of Abensberg.
Abensberg then lost its independence and became a part of the Duchy of Bavaria, and from then on was administered by a ducal official, the so-called caretaker. The castle of Abensberg was destroyed during the Thirty Years\' War, although the city had bought a guarantee of protection from the Swedish general, Carl Gustaf Wrangel. During the War of the Spanish Succession emperor Leopold I, who had occupied Bavaria, granted the fief of Abensberg to count Ernst von Abensperg und Traun (1608--1668) from an Austrian noble family named Traun that now received the name of the former counts of Abensberg (who were believed to be distant relatives). After the occupation ended, he was however dispossessed.
Johannes Aventinus (1477--1534) is the city\'s most famous son, the founder of the study of history in Bavaria. Aventinus, whose name was real name is Johann or Johannes Turmair (*Aventinus* being the Latin name of his birthplace) wrote the *Annals of Bavaria*, a valuable record of the early history of Germany and the first major written work on the subject. He is commemorated in the Walhalla temple, a monument near Regensburg to the distinguished figures of German history. Until 1800, Abensberg was a municipality belonging to the Straubing district of the Electorate of Bavaria. Abensberg also contained a magistrates\' court. In the Battle of Abensberg on 19--20 April 1809, Napoleon gained a significant victory over the Austrians under Archduke Ludwig of Austria and General Johann von Hiller.
### Coat of arms {#coat_of_arms}
The arms of the city are divided into two halves. On the left are the blue and white rhombuses of Bavaria, while the right half is split into two silver and black triangles. Two diagonally-crossed silver swords with golden handles rest on top.
The town has had a coat of arms since 1338, that of the Counts of Abensberg. With the death of the last Count, Nicholas of Abensberg, in 1485, the estates fell to the Duchy of Bavaria-Munich, meaning that henceforth only the Bavarian coat of arms was ever used.
On 31 December 1809, a decree of King Maximilian of Bavaria granted the city a new coat of arms, as a recognition of their (mainly humanitarian and logistic) services in the Battle of Abensberg the same year. The diagonally divided field in silver and black came from the old crest of the Counts of Abensberg, while the white and blue diamonds came from that of the House of Wittelsbach, the rulers of Bavaria. The swords recall the Battle of Abensberg.
The district of Offenstetten previously possessed its own coat of arms.
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# Abensberg
## History
### Twinning
- Parga, Greece since 1986
- Lonigo, Italy since 1999
- Saint-Gilles, Gard, France since 2016
## Economy and Infrastructure {#economy_and_infrastructure}
The area around Abensberg, the so-called sand belt between Siegburg, Neustadt an der Donau, Abensberg and Langquaid, is used for the intensive farming of asparagus, due to the optimal soil condition and climate. 212 hectares of land can produce ninety-four asparagus plants. Abensberg asparagus enjoys a reputation among connoisseurs as a particular delicacy. In addition to asparagus, the production of hops plays a major role locally, the region having its own label, and there are still three independent breweries in the area. The town of Abensberg marks the start of the *Deutsche Hopfenstraße* (*German Hops Road*), a nickname given to the Bundesstraße 301, a German federal highway which runs through the heartland of Germany\'s hops-growing industry, ending in Freising.
### Transport
The Abensberg railway station is located on the Regensburg--Ingolstadt railway from Regensburg to Ingolstadt. The city can be reached via the A-93 Holledau-Regensburg road (exit Abensberg). Three Bundesstraße (German federal highways) cross south of Abensberg: B 16, B 299 and B 301.
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# Abensberg
## Public facilities {#public_facilities}
### Schools
Abensberg has two Grundschulen (primary school) and Mittelschule (open admission secondary school), and the Johann-Turmair-Realschule (secondary modern school). There is also a College of Agriculture and Home Economics. Since 2007, the Kelheim Berufsschule has had a campus in Abensberg, and outside the state sector is the St. Francis Vocational Training Centre, run by a Catholic youth organisation. In addition, there are two special schools, one near Abensberg, the other in the civil parish of Offenstetten.
## Culture and sightseeing {#culture_and_sightseeing}
### Theatre
In 2008, a former goods shed by the main railway station of Abensberg was converted into a theatre by local volunteers. The \"Theater am Bahnhof\" (*Theatre at the Railway Station*) is mostly used by the *Theatergruppe Lampenfieber* and was opened on 19 October 2008.
### Museums
Abensberg has a long tradition of museums. In the nineteenth century, Nicholas Stark und Peter Paul Dollinger began a collection based on local history. This collection and the collection of the *Heimatverein* (local history society) were united in 1963 into the Aventinus Museum, in the cloister of the former Carmelite monastery. On 7 July 2006, the new Town Museum of Abensberg was opened in the former duke\'s castle in the town.
### Kuchlbauer Brewery {#kuchlbauer_brewery}
Two blocks west of the Old Town is the Kuchlbauer Brewery and beer garden featuring the Kuchlbauer Tower, a colorful and unconventional observation tower designed by Viennese architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser. The brewery and tower are open to the public.
### Image gallery {#image_gallery}
<File:Abensberg> Stadtansicht.jpg\|View of the Old Town <File:Abensberg> Klosterkirche.jpg\|Carmelite Monastery <File:Abensberg> Stadtplatz.jpg\|Town Centre with Rathaus (town hall) <File:Abensberg> RegensburgerTor.jpg\|Regensburg Gate <File:SchlossAbensberg> LandkreisKelheim Niederbayern.JPG\|Site of the former castle <File:Herzogskasten> Abensberg.JPG\|Herzogskasten (Duke\'s storage house) <File:Abensberg> Kuchlbauerturm von Hundertwasser.JPG\|Kuchlbauer Tower
### Missing memorial {#missing_memorial}
Up until the 1950s, Abensberg and the surrounding villages contained a number of graves of victims of a Death March in the spring of 1945 from the Hersbruck sub-camp of the Dachau concentration camp, who were either murdered by the SS or died of exhaustion. They were originally buried where they died, but were later moved on the orders of the US military government to the cemeteries of their previous homes. At the cemetery in what is now the district of Pullach stood a memorial stone which was mentioned as recently as 1967, but which is no longer at the site. The suffering of ten unknown victims of the camp was recorded on the stone.
### Regular events {#regular_events}
- The Abensberger events calendar begins in February with the *Faschingsgillamoos* funfair, which reaches its high point on Mad Thursday.
- There then follows the *Frühjahrsmarkt* (Spring market) two weeks before Easter, when all the shops in the town are permitted to open on Sunday (which is normally prohibited in Germany).
-
- The *Bürgerfest* is celebrated on the first weekend of July, when the palace gardens with their ancient walls are transformed into a medieval camp.
- The *Schlossgartenfest* (Palace Garden Festival) takes place every year at the beginning of August. It is organised since 1977 by the Junge Union, the youth branch of Germany\'s two main conservative political parties, the CDU and CSU, and attracts all age groups from Abensberg and surrounding areas.
- On the second Saturday in August, people can wander through the Night Market in the balmy Summer evening.
- The *Gillamoos*, the oldest and largest funfair in the Hallertau opens on the Thursday before the first Sunday in September and runs until the Monday thereafter. It is the highlight of the year in Abensberg and is a celebration of the people of Abensberg and the surrounding area.
- The *Herbstmarkt* (autumn market), another Sunday shopping day, is on the first weekend in October.
- Since 1997, a series of cultural, art, music and entertainment events have taken place in November at various locations in the town, under the title, *Novembernebel* (November fog)
- On Saint Nicholas Day (6 December), the *Niklasmarkt* (Nicholas Market) commemorates the *Niklasspende*, a medieval foundation for the poor. This heralds the beginning of Advent and the Christmas period.
## Sport
### Speedway and football {#speedway_and_football}
The Wack Hofmeister Stadium, formerly the Altes Stadion Abensberg (the Old Stadium) is a motorcycle speedway and association football stadium located slightly east of the centre of Abensberg in Germany. It hosts the speedway team MSC Abensberg and the football team TSV Abensberg 1862
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# Almost all
In mathematics, the term \"**almost all**\" means \"all but a negligible quantity\". More precisely, if $X$ is a set, \"almost all elements of $X$\" means \"all elements of $X$ but those in a negligible subset of $X$\". The meaning of \"negligible\" depends on the mathematical context; for instance, it can mean finite, countable, or null.
In contrast, \"**almost no**\" means \"a negligible quantity\"; that is, \"almost no elements of $X$\" means \"a negligible quantity of elements of $X$\".
## Meanings in different areas of mathematics {#meanings_in_different_areas_of_mathematics}
### Prevalent meaning {#prevalent_meaning}
Throughout mathematics, \"almost all\" is sometimes used to mean \"all (elements of an infinite set) except for finitely many\".`{{r|Cahen1|Cahen2}}`{=mediawiki} This use occurs in philosophy as well.`{{r|Gardenfors}}`{=mediawiki} Similarly, \"almost all\" can mean \"all (elements of an uncountable set) except for countably many\".`{{r|Schwartzman|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki}
Examples:
- Almost all positive integers are greater than 10^12^.`{{r|Courant|page=293}}`{=mediawiki}
- Almost all prime numbers are odd (2 is the only exception).
- Almost all polyhedra are irregular (as there are only nine exceptions: the five platonic solids and the four Kepler--Poinsot polyhedra).
- If P is a nonzero polynomial, then P(x) ≠ 0 for almost all x (if not all *x*).
### Meaning in measure theory {#meaning_in_measure_theory}
When speaking about the reals, sometimes \"almost all\" can mean \"all reals except for a null set\".`{{r|Korevaar|Natanson}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|Clapham|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki} Similarly, if S is some set of reals, \"almost all numbers in S\" can mean \"all numbers in S except for those in a null set\".`{{r|Sohrab}}`{=mediawiki} The real line can be thought of as a one-dimensional Euclidean space. In the more general case of an n-dimensional space (where n is a positive integer), these definitions can be generalised to \"all points except for those in a null set\"`{{r|James|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki} or \"all points in S except for those in a null set\" (this time, S is a set of points in the space).`{{r|Helmberg}}`{=mediawiki} Even more generally, \"almost all\" is sometimes used in the sense of \"almost everywhere\" in measure theory,`{{r|Vestrup|Billingsley}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|Bityutskov|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki} or in the closely related sense of \"almost surely\" in probability theory.`{{r|Billingsley}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|Ito2|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki}
Examples:
- In a measure space, such as the real line, countable sets are null. The set of rational numbers is countable, so almost all real numbers are irrational.`{{r|Niven}}`{=mediawiki}
- Georg Cantor\'s first set theory article proved that the set of algebraic numbers is countable as well, so almost all reals are transcendental.`{{r|Baker}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|group=sec|RealTrans}}`{=mediawiki}
- Almost all reals are normal.`{{r|Granville}}`{=mediawiki}
- The Cantor set is also null. Thus, almost all reals are not in it even though it is uncountable.`{{r|Korevaar}}`{=mediawiki}
- The derivative of the Cantor function is 0 for almost all numbers in the unit interval.`{{r|Burk}}`{=mediawiki} It follows from the previous example because the Cantor function is locally constant, and thus has derivative 0 outside the Cantor set.
### Meaning in number theory {#meaning_in_number_theory}
In number theory, \"almost all positive integers\" can mean \"the positive integers in a set whose natural density is 1\". That is, if A is a set of positive integers, and if the proportion of positive integers in *A* below n (out of all positive integers below n) tends to 1 as n tends to infinity, then almost all positive integers are in A.`{{r|Hardy1|Hardy2}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|Weisstein|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki}
More generally, let S be an infinite set of positive integers, such as the set of even positive numbers or the set of primes, if A is a subset of S, and if the proportion of elements of S below n that are in A (out of all elements of S below n) tends to 1 as n tends to infinity, then it can be said that almost all elements of S are in A.
Examples:
- The natural density of cofinite sets of positive integers is 1, so each of them contains almost all positive integers.
- Almost all positive integers are composite.`{{r|Weisstein|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn |group=proof |The [[prime number theorem]] shows that the number of primes less than or equal to <var>n</var> is asymptotically equal to <var>n</var>/ln(<var>n</var>). Therefore, the proportion of primes is roughly ln(<var>n</var>)/<var>n</var>, which tends to 0 as <var>n</var> tends to [[infinity]], so the proportion of composite numbers less than or equal to <var>n</var> tends to 1 as <var>n</var> tends to infinity.{{r|Hardy2}}}}`{=mediawiki}
- Almost all even positive numbers can be expressed as the sum of two primes.`{{r|Courant|page=489}}`{=mediawiki}
- Almost all primes are isolated. Moreover, for every positive integer `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki}, almost all primes have prime gaps of more than `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} both to their left and to their right; that is, there is no other prime between `{{math|''p'' − ''g''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''p'' + ''g''}}`{=mediawiki}.`{{r|Prachar}}`{=mediawiki}
### Meaning in graph theory {#meaning_in_graph_theory}
In graph theory, if A is a set of (finite labelled) graphs, it can be said to contain almost all graphs, if the proportion of graphs with n vertices that are in A tends to 1 as n tends to infinity.`{{r|Babai}}`{=mediawiki} However, it is sometimes easier to work with probabilities,`{{r|Spencer}}`{=mediawiki} so the definition is reformulated as follows. The proportion of graphs with n vertices that are in A equals the probability that a random graph with n vertices (chosen with the uniform distribution) is in A, and choosing a graph in this way has the same outcome as generating a graph by flipping a coin for each pair of vertices to decide whether to connect them.`{{r|Bollobas}}`{=mediawiki} Therefore, equivalently to the preceding definition, the set *A* contains almost all graphs if the probability that a coin-flip--generated graph with n vertices is in A tends to 1 as n tends to infinity.`{{r|Spencer|Gradel}}`{=mediawiki} Sometimes, the latter definition is modified so that the graph is chosen randomly in some other way, where not all graphs with n vertices have the same probability,`{{r|Bollobas}}`{=mediawiki} and those modified definitions are not always equivalent to the main one.
The use of the term \"almost all\" in graph theory is not standard; the term \"asymptotically almost surely\" is more commonly used for this concept.`{{r|Spencer}}`{=mediawiki}
Example:
- Almost all graphs are asymmetric.`{{r|Babai}}`{=mediawiki}
- Almost all graphs have diameter 2.`{{r|Buckley}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Almost all
## Meanings in different areas of mathematics {#meanings_in_different_areas_of_mathematics}
### Meaning in topology {#meaning_in_topology}
In topology`{{r|Oxtoby}}`{=mediawiki} and especially dynamical systems theory`{{r|Baratchart|Broer|Sharkovsky}}`{=mediawiki} (including applications in economics),`{{r|Yuan}}`{=mediawiki} \"almost all\" of a topological space\'s points can mean \"all of the space\'s points except for those in a meagre set\". Some use a more limited definition, where a subset contains almost all of the space\'s points only if it contains some open dense set.`{{r|Broer|Albertini|Fuente}}`{=mediawiki}
Example:
- Given an irreducible algebraic variety, the properties that hold for almost all points in the variety are exactly the generic properties.`{{r|Ito1|group=sec}}`{=mediawiki} This is due to the fact that in an irreducible algebraic variety equipped with the Zariski topology, all nonempty open sets are dense.
### Meaning in algebra {#meaning_in_algebra}
In abstract algebra and mathematical logic, if U is an ultrafilter on a set X, \"almost all elements of X\" sometimes means \"the elements of some *element* of U\".`{{r|Komjath|Salzmann|Schoutens|Rautenberg}}`{=mediawiki} For any partition of X into two disjoint sets, one of them will necessarily contain almost all elements of X. It is possible to think of the elements of a filter on X as containing almost all elements of X, even if it isn\'t an ultrafilter
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# Aromatic compound
**Aromatic compounds** or **arenes** are organic compounds \"with a chemistry typified by benzene\" and \"cyclically conjugated.\" The word \"aromatic\" originates from the past grouping of molecules based on odor, before their general chemical properties were understood. The current definition of aromatic compounds does not have any relation to their odor. Aromatic compounds are now defined as cyclic compounds satisfying Hückel\'s rule. Aromatic compounds have the following general properties:
- Typically unreactive
- Often non polar and hydrophobic
- High carbon-hydrogen ratio
- Burn with a strong sooty yellow flame, due to high C:H ratio
- Undergo electrophilic substitution reactions and nucleophilic aromatic substitutions
Arenes are typically split into two categories - benzoids, that contain a benzene derivative and follow the benzene ring model, and non-benzoids that contain other aromatic cyclic derivatives. Aromatic compounds are commonly used in organic synthesis and are involved in many reaction types, following both additions and removals, as well as saturation and dearomatization.
## Heteroarenes
**Heteroarenes** are aromatic compounds, where at least one methine or vinylene (-C= or -CH=CH-) group is replaced by a heteroatom: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. Examples of non-benzene compounds with aromatic properties are furan, a heterocyclic compound with a five-membered ring that includes a single oxygen atom, and pyridine, a heterocyclic compound with a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom. Hydrocarbons without an aromatic ring are called aliphatic. Approximately half of compounds known in 2000 are described as aromatic to some extent.
## Applications
Aromatic compounds are pervasive in nature and industry. Key industrial aromatic hydrocarbons are benzene, toluene, xylene called BTX. Many biomolecules have phenyl groups including the so-called aromatic amino acids.
## Benzene ring model {#benzene_ring_model}
Benzene, C~6~H~6~, is the least complex aromatic hydrocarbon, and it was the first one defined as such. Its bonding nature was first recognized independently by Joseph Loschmidt and August Kekulé in the 19th century. Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One electron forms a sigma bond with the hydrogen atom, and one is used in covalently bonding to each of the two neighboring carbons. This leaves six electrons, shared equally around the ring in delocalized pi molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This represents the equivalent nature of the six carbon-carbon bonds all of bond order 1.5. This equivalency can also explained by resonance forms. The electrons are visualized as floating above and below the ring, with the electromagnetic fields they generate acting to keep the ring flat.
The circle symbol for aromaticity was introduced by Sir Robert Robinson and his student James Armit in 1925 and popularized starting in 1959 by the Morrison & Boyd textbook on organic chemistry. The proper use of the symbol is debated: some publications use it to *any* cyclic π system, while others use it only for those π systems that obey Hückel\'s rule. Some argue that, in order to stay in line with Robinson\'s originally intended proposal, the use of the circle symbol should be limited to monocyclic 6 π-electron systems. In this way the circle symbol for a six-center six-electron bond can be compared to the Y symbol for a three-center two-electron bond.
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# Aromatic compound
## Benzene and derivatives of benzene {#benzene_and_derivatives_of_benzene}
Benzene derivatives have from one to six substituents attached to the central benzene core. Examples of benzene compounds with just one substituent are phenol, which carries a hydroxyl group, and toluene with a methyl group. When there is more than one substituent present on the ring, their spatial relationship becomes important for which the arene substitution patterns *ortho*, *meta*, and *para* are devised. When reacting to form more complex benzene derivatives, the substituents on a benzene ring can be described as either activated or deactivated, which are electron donating and electron withdrawing respectively. Activators are known as ortho-para directors, and deactivators are known as meta directors. Upon reacting, substituents will be added at the ortho, para or meta positions, depending on the directivity of the current substituents to make more complex benzene derivatives, often with several isomers. Electron flow leading to re-aromatization is key in ensuring the stability of such products.
For example, three isomers exist for cresol because the methyl group and the hydroxyl group (both ortho para directors) can be placed next to each other (*ortho*), one position removed from each other (*meta*), or two positions removed from each other (*para*). Given that both the methyl and hydroxyl group are ortho-para directors, the ortho and para isomers are typically favoured. Xylenol has two methyl groups in addition to the hydroxyl group, and, for this structure, 6 isomers exist.
Arene rings can stabilize charges, as seen in, for example, phenol (C~6~H~5~--OH), which is acidic at the hydroxyl (OH), as charge on the oxygen (alkoxide --O^−^) is partially delocalized into the benzene ring.
<File:Benzene-Kekule-2D-skeletal.png>\|Benzene <File:Toluol.svg>\|Toluene <File:Ethylbenzol.svg>\|Ethylbenzene <File:Cumol.svg>\|Cumene <File:Para-Xylol> - para-xylene.svg\|*p*-Xylene <File:Meta-Xylol> - meta-xylene.svg\|*m*-Xylene <File:Ortho-Xylol> - ortho-xylene.svg\|*o*-Xylene <File:Mesitylen.svg>\|Mesitylene <File:1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzol.svg>\|Durene <File:Biphenyl.svg>\|Biphenyl <File:Phenol.svg>\|Phenol <File:Aniline.svg>\|Aniline <File:Benzaldehyde.svg>\|Benzaldehyde <File:Benzoic> acid.svg\|Benzoic acid <File:Benzamide.svg>\|Benzamide <File:Acetophenone> structure.svg\|Acetophenone
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# Aromatic compound
## Non-benzylic arenes {#non_benzylic_arenes}
Although benzylic arenes are common, non-benzylic compounds are also exceedingly important. Any compound containing a cyclic portion that conforms to Hückel\'s rule and is not a benzene derivative can be considered a non-benzylic aromatic compound.
### Monocyclic arenes {#monocyclic_arenes}
Of annulenes larger than benzene, \[12\]annulene and \[14\]annulene are weakly aromatic compounds and \[18\]annulene, Cyclooctadecanonaene, is aromatic, though strain within the structure causes a slight deviation from the precisely planar structure necessary for aromatic categorization. Another example of a non-benzylic monocyclic arene is the cyclopropenyl (cyclopropenium cation), which satisfies Hückel\'s rule with an n equal to 0. Note, only the cationic form of this cyclic propenyl is aromatic, given that neutrality in this compound would violate either the octet rule or Hückel\'s rule.
Other non-benzylic monocyclic arenes include the aforementioned heteroarenes that can replace carbon atoms with other heteroatoms such as N, O or S. Common examples of these are the five-membered pyrrole and six-membered pyridine, both of which have a substituted nitrogen
### Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons {#polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbons}
*Main article: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon*
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as polynuclear aromatic compounds (PAHs) are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused aromatic rings and do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents. Naphthalene is the simplest example of a PAH. PAHs occur in oil, coal, and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass). As pollutants, they are of concern because some compounds have been identified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish. They are also a good candidate molecule to act as a basis for the earliest forms of life. In graphene the PAH motif is extended to large 2D sheets.
## Reactions
Aromatic ring systems participate in many organic reactions.
### Substitution
In aromatic substitution, one substituent on the arene ring, usually hydrogen, is replaced by another reagent. The two main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution, when the active reagent is an electrophile, and nucleophilic aromatic substitution, when the reagent is a nucleophile. In radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, the active reagent is a radical.
An example of electrophilic aromatic substitution is the nitration of salicylic acid, where a nitro group is added para to the hydroxide substituent:
:
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution involves displacement of a leaving group, such as a halide, on an aromatic ring. Aromatic rings usually nucleophilic, but in the presence of electron-withdrawing groups aromatic compounds undergo nucleophilic substitution. Mechanistically, this reaction differs from a common S~N~2 reaction, because it occurs at a trigonal carbon atom (sp^2^ hybridization).
### Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation of arenes create saturated rings. The compound 1-naphthol is completely reduced to a mixture of decalin-ol isomers.
:
The compound resorcinol, hydrogenated with Raney nickel in presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide forms an enolate which is alkylated with methyl iodide to 2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexandione:
:
### Dearomatization
In dearomatization reactions the aromaticity of the reactant is lost. In this regard, the dearomatization is related to hydrogenation. A classic approach is Birch reduction. The methodology is used in synthesis.
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# Aromatic compound
## Arene-arene interactions {#arene_arene_interactions}
Arene-arene interactions have attracted much attention. Pi-stacking (also called **π--π stacking**) refers to the presumptively attractive, noncovalent pi interactions between the pi bonds of aromatic rings, because of orbital overlap. According to some authors direct stacking of aromatic rings (the \"sandwich interaction\") is electrostatically repulsive.
More commonly observed are either a **staggered stacking** (parallel displaced) or **pi-teeing** (perpendicular T-shaped) interaction both of which are electrostatic attractive For example, the most commonly observed interactions between aromatic rings of amino acid residues in proteins is a staggered stacked followed by a perpendicular orientation. Sandwiched orientations are relatively rare.
Pi stacking is repulsive as it places carbon atoms with partial negative charges from one ring on top of other partial negatively charged carbon atoms from the second ring and hydrogen atoms with partial positive charges on top of other hydrogen atoms that likewise carry partial positive charges. In staggered stacking, one of the two aromatic rings is offset sideways so that the carbon atoms with partial negative charge in the first ring are placed above hydrogen atoms with partial positive charge in the second ring so that the electrostatic interactions become attractive. Likewise, pi-teeing interactions in which the two rings are oriented perpendicular to either other is electrostatically attractive as it places partial positively charged hydrogen atoms in close proximity to partially negatively charged carbon atoms. An alternative explanation for the preference for staggered stacking is due to the balance between van der Waals interactions (attractive dispersion plus Pauli repulsion).
These staggered stacking and π-teeing interactions between aromatic rings are important in nucleobase stacking within DNA and RNA molecules, protein folding, template-directed synthesis, materials science, and molecular recognition. Despite the wide use of term pi stacking in the scientific literature, there is no theoretical justification for its use.
### Benzene dimer {#benzene_dimer}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.8\|Three representative conformations of the benzene dimer
The benzene dimer is the prototypical system for the study of pi stacking, and is experimentally bound by 8--12 kJ/mol (2--3 kcal/mol) in the gas phase with a separation of 4.96 Å between the centers of mass for the T-shaped dimer. X-ray crystallography reveals perpendicular and offset parallel configurations for many simple aromatic compounds. Similar offset parallel or perpendicular geometries were observed in a survey of high-resolution x-ray protein crystal structures in the Protein Data Bank. Analysis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, histidine, and tryptophan indicates that dimers of these side chains have many stabilizing interactions at distances larger than the average van der Waals radii.
The relative binding energies of the three geometries of the benzene dimer can be explained by a balance of quadrupole/quadrupole and London dispersion forces. While benzene does not have a dipole moment, it has a strong quadrupole moment. The local C--H dipole means that there is positive charge on the atoms in the ring and a correspondingly negative charge representing an electron cloud above and below the ring. The quadrupole moment is reversed for hexafluorobenzene due to the electronegativity of fluorine. The benzene dimer in the sandwich configuration is stabilized by London dispersion forces but destabilized by repulsive quadrupole/quadrupole interactions. By offsetting one of the benzene rings, the parallel displaced configuration reduces these repulsive interactions and is stabilized. The large polarizability of aromatic rings lead to dispersive interactions as major contribution to stacking effects. These play a major role for interactions of nucleobases e.g. in DNA. The T-shaped configuration enjoys favorable quadrupole/quadrupole interactions, as the positive quadrupole of one benzene ring interacts with the negative quadrupole of the other. The benzene rings are furthest apart in this configuration, so the favorable quadrupole/quadrupole interactions evidently compensate for diminished dispersion forces.
According to one model, electron-withdrawing substituents lowers the negative quadrupole of the aromatic ring and thereby favor parallel displaced and sandwich conformations. By contrast, electron donating groups increase the negative quadrupole, which may stabilize a T-shaped configuration with the proper geometry. They used a simple mathematical model based on sigma and pi atomic charges, relative orientations, and van der Waals interactions to qualitatively determine that electrostatics are dominant in substituent effects.
thumb\|right\|upright=2.3\|Double mutant cycle used by Hunter et al. to probe T-shaped π-stacking interactions Hunter *et al.* applied a more sophisticated chemical double mutant cycle with a hydrogen-bonded \"zipper\" to the issue of substituent effects in pi stacking interactions in proteins. However, the authors note that direct interactions with the ring substituents, discussed below, also make important contributions. Indeed, the interplay of these two factors may result in the complicated substituent- and geometry-dependent behavior of pi stacking interactions.
Some experimental and computational evidence suggests that pi stacking interactions are not governed primarily by electrostatic effects..
The relative contributions pi stacking have been borne out by computation. Trends based on electron donating or withdrawing substituents can be explained by exchange-repulsion and dispersion terms.
A molecular torsion balance from an aryl ester with two conformational states. The folded state had a well-defined pi stacking interaction with a T-shaped geometry, whereas the unfolded state had no aryl--aryl interactions. The NMR chemical shifts of the two conformations were distinct and could be used to determine the ratio of the two states, which was interpreted as a measure of intramolecular forces. The authors report that a preference for the folded state is not unique to aryl esters. For example, the cyclohexyl ester favored the folded state more so than the phenyl ester, and the tert-butyl ester favored the folded state by a preference greater than that shown by any aryl ester. This suggests that aromaticity is not a strict requirement for favorable interaction with an aromatic ring.
Other evidence for non-aromatic pi stacking interactions results include critical studies in theoretical chemistry, explaining the underlying mechanisms of empirical observations. Grimme reported that the interaction energies of smaller dimers consisting of one or two rings are very similar for both aromatic and saturated compounds. This finding is of particular relevance to biology, and suggests that the contribution of pi systems to phenomena such as stacked nucleobases may be overestimated. However, it was shown that an increased stabilizing interaction is seen for large aromatic dimers. As previously noted, this interaction energy is highly dependent on geometry. Indeed, large aromatic dimers are only stabilized relative to their saturated counterparts in a sandwich geometry, while their energies are similar in a T-shaped interaction.
A more direct approach to modeling the role of aromaticity was taken by Bloom and Wheeler. The authors compared the interactions between benzene and either 2-methylnaphthalene or its non-aromatic isomer, 2-methylene-2,3-dihydronaphthalene. The latter compound provides a means of conserving the number of p-electrons while, however, removing the effects of delocalization. Surprisingly, the interaction energies with benzene are higher for the non-aromatic compound, suggesting that pi-bond localization is favorable in pi stacking interactions. The authors also considered a homodesmotic dissection of benzene into ethylene and 1,3-butadiene and compared these interactions in a sandwich with benzene. Their calculation indicates that the interaction energy between benzene and homodesmotic benzene is higher than that of a benzene dimer in both sandwich and parallel displaced conformations, again highlighting the favorability of localized pi-bond interactions. These results strongly suggest that aromaticity is not required for pi stacking interactions in this model.
Even in light of this evidence, Grimme concludes that pi stacking does indeed exist. However, he cautions that smaller rings, particularly those in T-shaped conformations, do not behave significantly differently from their saturated counterparts, and that the term should be specified for larger rings in stacked conformations which do seem to exhibit a cooperative pi electron effect
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# Annales school
The ***Annales* school** (`{{IPA|fr|a'nal}}`{=mediawiki}) is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history. It is named after its scholarly journal *Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales*, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and monographs. The school has been influential in setting the agenda for historiography in France and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social and economic rather than political or diplomatic themes.
The school deals primarily with late medieval and early modern Europe (before the French Revolution), with little interest in later topics. It has dominated French social history and heavily influenced historiography in Europe and Latin America. Prominent leaders include co-founders Lucien Febvre (1878--1956), Henri Hauser (1866--1946) and Marc Bloch (1886--1944). The second generation was led by Fernand Braudel (1902--1985) and included Georges Duby (1919--1996), Pierre Goubert (1915--2012), Robert Mandrou (1921--1984), Pierre Chaunu (1923--2009), Jacques Le Goff (1924--2014), and Ernest Labrousse (1895--1988). Institutionally it is based on the *Annales* journal, the SEVPEN publishing house, the *Fondation Maison des sciences de l\'homme* (FMSH), and especially the 6th Section of the École pratique des hautes études, all based in Paris. A third generation was led by Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (1929--2023) and includes Jacques Revel, and Philippe Ariès (1914--1984), who joined the group in 1978. The third generation stressed history from the point of view of mentalities, or *mentalités*. The fourth generation of *Annales* historians, led by Roger Chartier (born 1945), clearly distanced itself from the *mentalités* approach, replaced by the cultural and linguistic turn, which emphasizes the social history of cultural practices.
The main scholarly outlet has been the journal *Annales d\'Histoire Economique et Sociale* (\"Annals of Economic and Social History\"), founded in 1929 by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch, which broke radically with traditional historiography by insisting on the importance of taking all levels of society into consideration and emphasized the collective nature of mentalities. Its contributors viewed events as less fundamental than the mental frameworks that shaped decisions and practices. However, informal successor as head of the school was Le Roy Ladurie. Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of the crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history. However, the *Annales* ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political, and demographic research. An attempt to require an *Annales*-written textbook for French schools was rejected by the government. By 1980 postmodern sensibilities undercut confidence in overarching metanarratives. As Jacques Revel notes, the success of the *Annales* school, especially its use of social structures as explanatory forces, contained the seeds of its own downfall, for there is \"no longer any implicit consensus on which to base the unity of the social, identified with the real\". The *Annales* school kept its infrastructure, but lost its *mentalités*.
## The journal {#the_journal}
The journal began in Strasbourg as *Annales d\'histoire économique et sociale*; it moved to Paris and kept the same name from 1929 to 1939. It was successively renamed *Annales d\'histoire sociale* (1939--1942, 1945), *Mélanges d\'histoire sociale* (1942--1944), *Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations* (1946--1994), and *Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales* (1994-- ).
In 1962, Braudel and Gaston Berger used Ford Foundation money and government funds to create a new independent foundation, the *Fondation Maison des sciences de l\'homme* (FMSH), which Braudel directed from 1970 until his death. In 1970, the 6th Section and the *Annales* relocated to the FMSH building. FMSH set up elaborate international networks to spread the *Annales* gospel across Europe and the world. In 2013, it began publication of an English language edition, with all the articles translated.
The scope of topics covered by the journal is vast and experimental---there is a search for total history and new approaches. The emphasis is on social history, and very long-term trends, often using quantification and paying special attention to geography and to the intellectual world view of common people, or \"mentality\" (*mentalité*). Little attention is paid to political, diplomatic, or military history, or to biographies of famous men. Instead the *Annales* focused attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis.
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# Annales school
## Origins
The *Annales* was founded and edited by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre in 1929, while they were teaching at the University of Strasbourg and later in Paris. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive *Annales* approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the *\[\[Année Sociologique\]\]* (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (*la \[\[longue durée\]\]*) over events and political transformations. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called *mentalités*, or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.
Co-founder Marc Bloch (1886--1944) was a quintessential modernist who studied at the elite École Normale Supérieure, and in Germany, serving as a professor at the University of Strasbourg until he was called to the Sorbonne in Paris in 1936 as professor of economic history. Bloch\'s interests were highly interdisciplinary, influenced by the geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845--1918) and the sociology of Émile Durkheim (1858--1917). His own ideas, especially those expressed in his masterworks, *French Rural History* (*Les caractères originaux de l\'histoire rurale française*, 1931) and *Feudal Society*, were incorporated by the second-generation Annalistes, led by Fernand Braudel.
## Precepts
Georges Duby, a leader of the school, wrote that the history he taught:
: relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strove on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.
The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a *histoire totale*, or *histoire tout court*, a complete study of a historic problem.
## Postwar
Bloch was shot by the Gestapo during the German occupation of France in World War II for his active membership of the French Resistance, and Febvre carried on the *Annales* approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he mentored Braudel, who would become one of the best-known exponents of this school. Braudel\'s work came to define a \"second\" era of *Annales* historiography and was influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: *l\'histoire quasi immobile* (the quasi motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (*la \[\[longue durée\]\]*), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures.
While authors such as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Marc Ferro and Jacques Le Goff continue to carry the *Annales* banner, today the *Annales* approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in cultural history, political history and economic history.
## *Mentalités* {#section}
Bloch\'s *\[\[Les Rois thaumaturges\]\]* (1924) looked at the long-standing folk belief that the king could cure scrofula by his thaumaturgic touch. The kings of France and England indeed regularly practiced the ritual. Bloch was not concerned with the effectiveness of the royal touch---he acted instead like an anthropologist in asking why people believed it and how it shaped relations between king and commoner. The book was highly influential in introducing comparative studies (in this case France and England), as well as long durations (\"longue durée\") studies spanning several centuries, even up to a thousand years, downplaying short-term events. Bloch\'s revolutionary charting of mentalities, or *mentalités*, resonated with scholars who were reading Freud and Proust. In the 1960s, Robert Mandrou and Georges Duby harmonized the concept of *mentalité* history with Fernand Braudel\'s structures of historical time and linked mentalities with changing social conditions. A flood of *mentalité* studies based on these approaches appeared during the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1990s, however, *mentalité* history had become interdisciplinary to the point of fragmentation, but still lacked a solid theoretical basis. While not explicitly rejecting *mentalité* history, younger historians increasingly turned to other approaches.
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# Annales school
## Braudel
Fernand Braudel became the leader of the second generation after 1945. He obtained funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in New York and founded the 6th Section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, which was devoted to the study of history and the social sciences. It became an independent degree-granting institution in 1975 under the name École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). Braudel\'s followers admired his use of the *longue durée* approach to stress slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The *Annales* historians, after living through two world wars and incredible political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress inertia and the longue durée. Special attention was paid to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They believed the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. They rejected the Marxist idea that history should be used as a tool to foment and foster revolutions. In turn the Marxists called them conservatives.
Braudel\'s first book, *La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l\'Epoque de Philippe II* (1949) (*The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II*), was his most influential. This vast panoramic view used ideas from other social sciences, employed effectively the technique of the longue durée, and downplayed the importance of specific events and individuals. It stressed geography but not *mentalité*. It was widely admired, but most historians did not try to replicate it and instead focused on their specialized monographs. The book dramatically raised the worldwide profile of the Annales School.
In 1951, historian Bernard Bailyn published a critique of *La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l\'Epoque de Philippe II*, which he framed as dichotomizing politics and society.
## Regionalism
Before *Annales*, French history supposedly happened in Paris. Febvre broke decisively with this paradigm in 1912, with his sweeping doctoral thesis on *Philippe II\]\] et la \[\[Franche-Comté\]\]*. The geography and social structure of this region overwhelmed and shaped the king\'s policies.
The *Annales* historians did not try to replicate Braudel\'s vast geographical scope in *La Méditerranée*. Instead they focused on regions in France over long stretches of time. The most important was the study of *The Peasants of Languedoc* by Braudel\'s star pupil and successor Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. The regionalist tradition flourished especially in the 1960s and 1970s in the work of Pierre Goubert in 1960 on Beauvais and René Baehrel on Basse-Provence. *Annales* historians in the 1970s and 1980s turned to urban regions, including Pierre Deyon (Amiens), Maurice Garden (Lyon), Jean-Pierre Bardet (Rouen), Georges Freche (Toulouse), Gregory Hanlon (Agen and Layrac), and Jean-Claude Perrot (Caen). By the 1970s the shift was underway from the earlier economic history to cultural history and the history of mentalities.
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# Annales school
## Impact outside France {#impact_outside_france}
The *Annales* school systematically reached out to create an impact on other countries. Its success varied widely. The *Annales* approach was especially well received in Italy and Poland. Franciszek Bujak (1875--1953) and Jan Rutkowski (1886--1949), the founders of modern economic history in Poland and of the journal *Roczniki Dziejów Spolecznych i Gospodarczych* (1931-- ), were attracted to the innovations of the Annales school. Rutkowski was in contact with Bloch and others, and published in the *Annales*. After the Communists took control in the 1940s Polish scholars were safer working on the Middle Ages and the early modern era rather than contemporary history. After the \"Polish October\" of 1956 the Sixth Section in Paris welcomed Polish historians and exchanges between the circle of the *Annales* and Polish scholars continued until the early 1980s. The reciprocal influence between the French school and Polish historiography was particularly evident in studies on the Middle Ages and the early modern era studied by Braudel.
In South America the *Annales* approach became popular. From the 1950s Federico Brito Figueroa was the founder of a new Venezuelan historiography based largely on the ideas of the Annales School. Brito Figueroa carried his conception of the field to all levels of university study, emphasizing a systematic and scientific approach to history and placing it squarely in the social sciences. Spanish historiography was influenced by the \"Annales School\" starting in 1950 with Jaume Vicens Vives (1910--1960). In Mexico, exiled Republican intellectuals extended the Annales approach, particularly from the Center for Historical Studies of El Colegio de México, the leading graduate studies institution of Latin America.
British historians, apart from a few Marxists, were generally hostile. Academic historians decidedly sided with Geoffrey Elton\'s *The Practice of History* against Edward Hallett Carr\'s *What Is History?* One of the few British historians who were sympathetic towards the work of the *Annales* school was Hugh Trevor-Roper. Among American academics, founding figure in American history of technology Lynn White Jr. dedicated his seminal and controversial book *Medieval Technology and Social Change* to *Annales* founder Marc Bloch. Both the American and the *Annales* historians picked up important family reconstitution techniques from French demographer Louis Henry.
The Wageningen school centered on Bernard Slicher van Bath was viewed internationally as a Dutch counterpart of the Annales school, although Slicher van Bath himself vehemently rejected the idea of a quantitative \"school\" of historiography.
The *Annales* school has been cited as a key influence in the development of World Systems Theory by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein.
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# Annales school
## Current
The current leader is Roger Chartier, who is Directeur d\'Études at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, Professeur in the Collège de France, and Annenberg Visiting professor of history at the University of Pennsylvania. He frequently lectures and teaches in the United States, Spain, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. His work in Early Modern European History focuses on the history of education, the history of the book and the history of reading. Recently, he has been concerned with the relationship between written culture as a whole and literature (particularly theatrical plays) for France, England and Spain. His work in this specific field (based on the criss-crossing between literary criticism, bibliography, and sociocultural history) is connected to broader historiographical and methodological interests which deal with the relation between history and other disciplines: philosophy, sociology, anthropology.
Chartier\'s typical undergraduate course focuses upon the making, remaking, dissemination, and reading of texts in early modern Europe and America. Under the heading of \"practices\", his class considers how readers read and marked up their books, forms of note-taking, and the interrelation between reading and writing from copying and translating to composing new texts. Under the heading of \"materials\", his class examines the relations between different kinds of writing surfaces (including stone, wax, parchment, paper, walls, textiles, the body, and the heart), writing implements (including styluses, pens, pencils, needles, and brushes), and material forms (including scrolls, erasable tables, codices, broadsides and printed forms and books). Under the heading of \"places\", his class explores where texts were made, read, and listened to, including monasteries, schools and universities, offices of the state, the shops of merchants and booksellers, printing houses, theaters, libraries, studies, and closets. The texts for his course include the *Bible*, translations of Ovid, *Hamlet*, *Don Quixote*, Montaigne\'s essays, Pepys\'s diary, Richardson\'s *Pamela*, and Franklin\'s autobiography
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# Casa Batlló
***italic=no*** (`{{IPA|ca|ˈkazə βəˈʎːo|-|Ca-Casa Batlló.oga}}`{=mediawiki}) is a building in the center of Barcelona, Spain. It was designed by Antoni Gaudí, and is considered one of his masterpieces. A remodel of a previously built house, it was redesigned in 1904 by Gaudí (but the actual construction works hadn\'t begun at this point) and has been refurbished several times since. Gaudí\'s assistants Domènec Sugrañes i Gras, Josep Canaleta and Joan Rubió also contributed to the renovation project.
The local name for the building is **Casa dels ossos** (House of Bones), as it has a visceral, skeletal organic quality. It is located on the *italic=no* in the Eixample district, and forms part of a row of houses known as the *\[\[Illa de la Discòrdia\]\]* (or *Mansana de la Discòrdia*, the \"Block of Discord\"), which consists of four buildings by noted *Modernista\]\]* architects of Barcelona.
Like everything Gaudí designed, *italic=no* is only identifiable as *\[\[Modernisme\]\]* in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, has unusual tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work. There are few straight lines, and much of the façade is decorated with a colorful mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles (*\[\[trencadís\]\]*). The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the lance of Saint George (patron saint of Catalonia, Gaudí\'s home), which has been plunged into the back of the dragon.
In 2005, *italic=no* became an UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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# Casa Batlló
## History
### Initial construction (1877) {#initial_construction_1877}
The building that is now *italic=no* was built in 1877, commissioned by Lluís Sala Sánchez. It was a classical building without remarkable characteristics within the eclecticism traditional by the end of the 19th century. The building had a basement, a ground floor, four other floors and a garden in the back.
### Batlló family {#batlló_family}
The house was bought by Josep Batlló in 1903. The design of the house made the home undesirable to buyers but the Batlló family decided to buy the place due to its centralized location. It is located in the middle of *italic=no*, which in the early 20th century was known as a very prestigious and fashionable area. It was an area where the prestigious family could draw attention to themselves.
In 1906, Josep Batlló still owned the home. The Batlló family was very well known in Barcelona for its contribution to the textile industry in the city. Josep Batlló i Casanovas was a textile industrialist who owned a few factories in the city. Batlló married Amàlia Godó Belaunzarán, from the family that founded the newspaper *La Vanguardia*. Josep wanted an architect that would design a house that was like no other and stood out as being audacious and creative. Both Josep and his wife were open to anything and they decided not to limit Gaudí. Josep did not want his house to resemble any of the houses of the rest of the Batlló family, such as Casa Pía, built by the Josep Vilaseca. He chose the architect who had designed Park Güell because he wanted him to come up with a risky plan. The family lived on the principal floor of *italic=no* until the middle of the 1950s.
### Renovation (1904-1906) {#renovation_1904_1906}
In 1904, Josep Batlló hired Gaudí to design his home; at first his plans were to tear down the building and construct a completely new house. Gaudí convinced Josep that a renovation was sufficient and was also able to submit the planning application the same year. The building was completed and refurbished in 1906. He completely changed the main apartment which became the residence for the Batlló family. He expanded the central well in order to supply light to the whole building and also added new floors. In the same year the Barcelona City Council selected the house as a candidate for that year\'s best building award. The award was given to another architect that year despite Gaudí\'s design.
### Refurbishments
Josep Batlló died in 1934 and the house was kept in order by the wife until her death in 1940. After the death of the two parents, the house was kept and managed by the children until 1954. In 1954, an insurance company named Seguros Iberia acquired Casa Batlló and set up offices there. In 1970, the first refurbishment occurred mainly in several of the interior rooms of the house. In 1983, the exterior balconies were restored to their original colour and a year later the exterior façade was illuminated in the ceremony of La Mercè.
### Multiple uses {#multiple_uses}
In 1993, the current owners of Casa Batlló bought the home and continued refurbishments throughout the whole building. Two years later, in 1995, Casa Batlló began to hire out its facilities for different events. More than 2,500 square meters of rooms within the building were rented out for many different functions. Due to the building\'s location and the beauty of the facilities being rented, the rooms of Casa Batlló were in very high demand and hosted many important events for the city.
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# Casa Batlló
## Design
### Overview
The local name for the building is *Casa dels ossos* (House of Bones), as it has a visceral, skeletal organic quality. The building looks very remarkable --- like everything Gaudí designed, only identifiable as Modernisme or Art Nouveau in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work.
It seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely. Much of the façade is decorated with a mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles (trencadís) that starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the lance of Saint George (patron saint of Catalonia, Gaudí\'s home), which has been plunged into the back of the dragon.
### Loft
The loft is considered to be one of the most unusual spaces. It was formerly a service area for the tenants of the different apartments in the building which contained laundry rooms and storage areas. It is known for its simplicity of shapes and its Mediterranean influence through the use of white on the walls. It contains a series of sixty catenary arches that creates a space which represents the ribcage of an animal. Some people believe that the "ribcage" design of the arches is a ribcage for the dragon\'s spine that is represented in the roof.
### The Atrium (light well) {#the_atrium_light_well}
The Atrium or the light well is in the central part of the house and delivers air and lighting to all corners of the house. Gaudí had an obsession with light and how it reflected off certain surfaces. The wall of the atrium has different tones of blue as well as a diamond textile pattern all around the walls. The blue tiles allow an equal distribution of light to all the floors. The well has windows with wooden splits to allow them to be open and closed for ventilation. Gaudí wanted to make the bottom of the well feel like the bottom of the sea. The skylight allows light to come in and reflect off the ceramic tiles into the windows to naturally illuminate the house. The blue tiles are more intensely colored at the top and get opaquer towards the bottom. The diamond textiles match the rest of the house\'s use of different, functional shapes.
### Noble floor and museum {#noble_floor_and_museum}
The noble floor is larger than seven-hundred square meters. It is the main floor of the building. The noble floor is accessed through a private entrance hall that uses skylights resembling tortoise shells and vaulted walls in curving shapes. On the noble floor there is a spacious landing with direct views of the blue tiling of the building well. On the Passeig de Gracia side is Batlló\'s study, a dining room, and a secluded spot for courting couples, decorated with a mushroom-shaped fireplace. The elaborate and animal-like décor continues throughout the whole noble floor.
In 2002, as part of the celebration of the International Year of Gaudí, the house opened its doors to the public and people were allowed to visit the noble floor. Casa Batlló met with great unanticipated success, and visitors became eager to see the rest of the house. Two years later, in celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the beginning of work on Casa Batlló, the fifth floor was restored and the house extended its visit to the loft and the well. In 2005, Casa Batlló became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
### Roof
The roof terrace is one of the most popular features of the entire house due to its famous dragon back design. Gaudí represents an animal\'s spine by using tiles of different colors on one side. The roof is decorated with four chimney stacks designed to prevent backdraughts.
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# Casa Batlló
## Design
### Exterior façade {#exterior_façade}
The façade has three distinct sections which are harmoniously integrated. The lower ground floor with the main floor and two first-floor galleries are contained in a structure of Montjuïc sandstone with undulating lines. The central part, which reaches the last floor, is a multicolored section with protruding balconies. The top of the building is a crown, like a huge gable, which is at the same level as the roof and helps to conceal the room where there used to be water tanks. This room is currently empty. The top displays a trim with ceramic pieces that has attracted multiple interpretations.
#### Roof tile {#roof_tile}
The roof\'s arched profile recalls the spine of a dragon with ceramic tiles for scales, and a small triangular window towards the right of the structure simulates the eye. Legend has it that it was once possible to see the Sagrada Família through this window, which was being built simultaneously. As of 2022, the partial view of the Sagrada Família is available from this vantage point, with its spires visible over newer buildings. The tiles were given a metallic sheen to simulate the varying scales of the monster, with the color grading from green on the right side, where the head begins, to deep blue and violet in the center, to red and pink on the left side of the building.
#### Tower and bulb {#tower_and_bulb}
One of the highlights of the façade is a tower topped with a cross of four arms oriented to the cardinal directions. It is a bulbous, root-like structure that evokes plant life. There is a second bulb-shaped structure similarly reminiscent of a thalamus flower, which is represented by a cross with arms that are actually buds announcing the next flowering. The tower is decorated with monograms of Jesus (JHS), Maria (M with the ducal crown) and Joseph (JHP), made of ceramic pieces that stand out golden on the green background that covers the façade. These symbols show the deep religiosity of Gaudí, who was inspired by the contemporaneous construction of his basilica to choose the theme of the holy family.
The bulb was broken when it was delivered, perhaps during transportation. Although the manufacturer committed to re-do the broken parts, Gaudí liked the aesthetic of the broken masonry and asked that the pieces be stuck to the main structure with lime mortar and held in with a brass ring.
#### Central section {#central_section}
The central part of the façade evokes the surface of a lake with water lilies, reminiscent of Monet\'s *Nymphéas*, with gentle ripples and reflections caused by the glass and ceramic mosaic. It is a great undulating surface covered with plaster fragments of colored glass discs combined with 330 rounds of polychrome pottery. The discs were designed by Gaudí and Jujol between tests during their stay in Majorca, while working on the restoration of the Cathedral of Palma.
#### Balcony
Finally, above the central part of the façade is a smaller balcony, also iron, with a different exterior aesthetic, closer to a local type of lily. Two iron arms were installed here to support a pulley to raise and lower furniture.
#### Main floor {#main_floor}
The façade of the main floor, made entirely in sandstone, and is supported by two columns. The design is complemented by joinery windows set with multicolored stained glass. In front of the large windows, as if they were pillars that support the complex stone structure, there are six fine columns that seem to simulate the bones of a limb, with an apparent central articulation; in fact, this is a floral decoration. The rounded shapes of the gaps and the lip-like edges carved into the stone surrounding them create a semblance of a fully open mouth, for which the Casa Batlló has been nicknamed the \"house of yawns\". The structure repeats on the first floor and in the design of two windows at the ends forming galleries, but on the large central window there are two balconies as described above.
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# Casa Batlló
## Gallery
<File:CasaBatlló> NobleFloor saloon stainedglass.jpg\|Stained glass noblefloor of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatlló> NobleFloor saloon side.jpg\|Noblefloor of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> rooftop chimneys dragon.jpg\|Chimneys of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> rooftop chimneys.jpg\|Rooftop of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> inner courtyard bottom.jpg\|Inner lightwell of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> inner courtyard.jpg\|Blue lightwell of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> attic arcs.jpg\|Catenary arcs of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> back dragon roof.jpg\|Dragon roof of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> dragon stairs.jpg\|Dragon stairs of Casa Batlló <File:CasaBatllo> NobleFloor saloon.jpg\|Saloon noble floor of Casa Batlló <File:Facade> of Casa Batlló - 2013.07 - panoramio.jpg\|Façade of Casa Batlló <File:Close> up Casa Batlo.JPG\|Façade close-up <File:Casa> batllo chimney.jpg\|Close-up of a chimney <File:Casa> Batlló Fireplace.jpg\|Casa Batlló fireplace <File:Casa> Batlló Light Well.jpg\|Casa Batlló central light well <File:Casa> Batlló - Barcelona.jpg\|Casa Batlló - Night View <File:Casa> Batlló (Antoni Gaudi) (atrium), 43, Passeig de Gràcia, Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg\|Atrium of Casa Batlló <File:Casa> Batlló (Antoni Gaudi) (interior, ceiling close up), 43, Passeig de Gràcia, Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg\|Ceiling close-up <File:Casa> Batlló (Antoni Gaudi) (interior, stained-glass window close up), 43, Passeig de Gràcia, Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg\|Stained-glass window close-up <File:Casa> Batlló chair.JPG\|Chair in oak, designed 1906 <File:Gaudi-prie-dieu.jpg%7CPrie> Dieu, or prayer desk, designed 1906 <File:Casa> Batlló - Night View with Flowers.jpg\|Casa Batlló - Night View with Flowers <File:Casa> Batlló - Night View Corner.jpg\|Casa Batlló - Night View Corner <File:Casa> Batlló light show
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# Casa Milà
**Casa Milà** (`{{IPA|ca|ˈkazə miˈla|lang}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|es|ˈkasa miˈla|lang}}`{=mediawiki}), popularly known as *La Pedrera* (`{{IPA|ca|lə pəˈðɾeɾə|lang}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|es|la peˈðɾeɾa|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; \"the stone quarry\") in reference to its unconventional rough-hewn appearance, is a *Modernista* building in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It was the last private residence designed by architect Antoni Gaudí and was built between 1906 and 1912.
The building was commissioned in 1906 by `{{interlanguage link|Pere Milà|ca|Pere Milà i Camps|es|Pere Milà i Camps}}`{=mediawiki} and his wife `{{interlanguage link|Roser Segimon|ca|Roser Segimon i Artells|5=Roser Segimon i Artells}}`{=mediawiki}. At the time, it was controversial because of its undulating stone facade, twisting wrought iron balconies, and design by Josep Maria Jujol. Several structural innovations include a self-supporting stone façade, and a free-plan floor, underground garage and the spectacular terrace on the roof.
In 1984, it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Since 2013 it has been the headquarters of the Fundació Catalunya La Pedrera, which manages visits to the building, exhibitions and other cultural and educational activities at Casa Milà.
## Building history {#building_history}
### Architect
Antoni Gaudí i Cornet was born on June 25, 1852, in Catalonia, Spain. As a child, Gaudí\'s health was poor, suffering from rheumatism. Because of this, he was afforded lengthy periods of time resting at his summer house in Riudoms. Here he spent a large portion of his time outdoors, allowing him to deeply study nature. This would become one of the major influences in his architecture to come.
Gaudí was a very practical man and a craftsman at his core. In his work he followed impulses and turned creative plans into reality. His openness to embrace new styles combined with a vivid imagination helped mold new styles of architecture and consequently helped push the limits of construction. Today he is regarded as a pioneer of the modern architecture style.
In 1870, Gaudí moved to Barcelona to study architecture. He was an inconsistent student who showed flashes of brilliance. It took him eight years to graduate due to a mix of health complications, military service as well as other activities.
After completion of his education he became a prolific architect as well as designing gardens, sculptures and all other decorative arts. Gaudí\'s most famous works consisted of several buildings: Parque Güell; Palacio Güell; Casa Mila; Casa Vicens. He also is attributed for his work on the Crypt of La Sagrada Familia and the Nativity facade. Gaudí\'s work at the time was both admired and criticized for his bold, innovative solutions.
Gaudí was injured on June 7, 1926, when he was run over by a tram. He later died in the hospital due to his injuries on June 10, 1926, at the age of 73. A few years after his death, his fame became renowned by critics and the general public alike.
### Building owners {#building_owners}
Casa Milà was built for Roser Segimón and her husband Pere Milà. Roser Segimón was the wealthy widow of Josep Guardiola, an *Indiano* or *Americano*, or former colonist returned from the Americas, who had made his fortune with a coffee plantation in Guatemala. Her second husband, Pere Milà, was a developer known for his flamboyant lifestyle.
### Construction process {#construction_process}
In 1905, Milà and Segimón married and on June 9, Roser Segimón bought a house with garden which occupied an area of 1,835 square meters, located on Paseo de Gracia, 92. In September, they commissioned Gaudí for building them a new house with the idea of living in the main floor and renting out the rest of the apartments. On February 2, 1906, the project was presented to the Barcelona City Council and the works began, demolishing the pre-existing building instead of reforming it, as in the case of the Casa Batlló.
The building was completed in December 1910 and the owner asked Gaudí to make a certificate to inhabit the main floor, which the City Council authorized in October 1911, and the couple moved in. On October 31, 1912, Gaudí issued the certificate stating that, in accordance with his plans and his direction, the work had been completed and the whole house was ready to be rented.
### Critics and controversies {#critics_and_controversies}
The building did not respect any rules of conventional style, for which Gaudí received much criticism. To begin with, the name \"La Pedrera\" is in fact a nickname assigned by the citizens who disapproved of its unusualness. The unique structure of the building and the relationship between the building\'s architect and Pere Milà became the object of ridicule for the people of Barcelona and many humorous publications of the time.
#### Catholic symbols {#catholic_symbols}
Gaudí, a Catholic and a devotee of the Virgin Mary, planned for the Casa Milà to be a spiritual symbol. Overt religious elements include an excerpt from the Rosary on the cornice and planned statues of Mary, specifically Our Lady of the Rosary, and two archangels, St. Michael and St. Gabriel.
However, the Casa Milà was not built entirely to Gaudí\'s specifications. The local government ordered the demolition of elements that exceeded the height standard for the city, and fined the Milàs for many infractions of building codes. After Semana Trágica, an outbreak of anticlericalism in the city, Milà prudently decided to forgo the religious statues. Gaudí contemplated abandoning the project but a priest persuaded him to continue.
### Change of ownership {#change_of_ownership}
In 1940, Milà died. Segimon sold the property in 1946 for 18 million pesetas to Josep Ballvé i Pellisé, known for his department stores on `{{Interlanguage link|Ronda de Sant Antoni|ca}}`{=mediawiki}, in partnership with the family of Pío Rubert Laporta. The Compañía Inmobiliaria Provenza, SA (CIPSA) was founded to administer the building. Roser Segimon continued to live on the main floor until her death in 1964.
The new owners divided the first floor facing `{{Interlanguage link|Carrer de Provença|ca}}`{=mediawiki} into five apartments instead of the original two. In 1953, they commissioned `{{Interlanguage link|Francisco Juan Barba Corsini|es}}`{=mediawiki} to convert 13 rubbish-filled attic laundry rooms to street-facing apartments, leaving a communal hallway on the side facing the courtyards. Some of these two or three room apartments had a loft and were designed and furnished in a typical early 1950s style using brick, ceramic and wood. Items of furniture, such as the `{{Interlanguage link|Pedrera chair|ca|3=Cadira Pedrera}}`{=mediawiki}, were reminiscent of Eero Saarinen\'s work.
The insurance company Northern took over the main floor in 1966. By then, Casa Milà had housed a bingo hall, an academy and the offices of Cementos Molins and Inoxcrom among others. Maintenance costs were high and the owners had allowed the building to become dilapidated, causing stones to loosen in 1971. Josep Anton Comas made some emergency repairs, especially to the paintings in the courtyards, while respecting the original design.
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# Casa Milà
## Building history {#building_history}
### Restoration
Gaudí\'s work was designated a historic and artistic monument on July 24, 1969. Casa Milà was in poor condition in the early 1980s. It had been painted a dreary brown and many of its interior color schemes had been abandoned or allowed to deteriorate, but it has been restored since including restoring many of the original colors.
In 1984, the building became part of a World Heritage Site encompassing some of Gaudí\'s works. The Barcelonan city council tried to rent the main floor as an office for the 1992 Olympic bid. Finally, the day before Christmas 1986, Caixa Catalunya bought La Pedrera for 900 million pesetas. On February 19, 1987, urgently needed work began on the restoration and cleaning of the façade. The work was done by the architects Joseph Emilio Hernández-Cros and Rafael Vila. The renovated main floor opened in 1990 as part of the Cultural Olympiad of Barcelona. The floor became an exhibition room with an example of modernism in the Eixample.
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# Casa Milà
## Design
The building is 1,323 m^2^ per floor on a plot of 1,620 m^2^. Gaudí made the first sketches in his workshop in the Sagrada Família. He designed the house as a constant curve, both outside and inside, incorporating ruled geometry and naturalistic elements.
Casa Milà consists of two buildings, which are structured around two courtyards that provide light to the nine stories: basement, ground floor, mezzanine, main (or noble) floor, four upper floors, and an attic. The basement was intended to be the garage, the main floor the residence of the Milàs (a flat of all 1,323 m^2^), and the rest distributed over 20 apartments. The resulting layout is shaped like an asymmetrical \"8\" because of the different shapes and sizes of the courtyards. The attic housed the laundry and drying areas, forming an insulating space for the building and simultaneously determining the levels of the roof.
One of the most notable elements of the building is the roof, crowned with skylights, staircase exits, fans, and chimneys. All of these elements, constructed out of brick covered with lime, broken marble, or glass have a specific architectural function but are also real sculptures integrated into the building.
The apartments feature plastered ceilings with dynamic reliefs, handcrafted wooden doors, windows, and furniture, as well as hydraulic tiles and various ornamental elements.
The stairways were intended as service entries, with the main access to the apartments by elevator except for the noble floor, where Gaudí added a prominent interior staircase. Gaudí wanted the people who lived in the flats to all know each other. Therefore, there were only elevators on every other floor, so people on different floors would meet one another.
### Structure
Casa Milà is characterized by its self-supporting stone facade, meaning that it is free of load-bearing walls. The facade connects to the internal structure of each floor by means of curved iron beams surrounding the perimeter of each floor. This construction system allows, on one hand, large openings in the facade which give light to the homes, and on the other, free structuring of the different levels, so that internal walls can be added and demolished without affecting the stability of the building. This allows the owners to change their minds at will and to modify, without problems, the interior layout of the homes.
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# Casa Milà
## Design
### Constructive and decorative items {#constructive_and_decorative_items}
#### Facade
The facade is composed of large blocks of limestone from the Garraf Massif on the first floor and from the Villefranche quarry for the higher levels. The blocks were cut to follow the plot of the projection of the model, then raised to their location and adjusted to align in a continuous curve to the pieces around them.
The windows of La Pedrera are an integral part of the overall facade design. Gaudí made sure that the windows were of varying sizes, designed to optimize the amount of natural light that could enter the building.
Viewed from the outside the building has three parts: the main body of the six-storey blocks with winding stone floors, two floors set a block back with a different curve, similar to waves, a smoother texture and whiter color, and with small holes that look like embrasures, and finally the body of the roof.
Gaudí\'s original facade had some of its lower-level ironwork removed. In 1928, the tailor Mosella opened the first store in La Pedrera, and he eliminated the bars. This did not concern anyone, because in the middle of twentieth century, wrought ironwork had little importance. The ironwork was lost until a few years later, when Americans donated one of them to the MoMa, where it is on display.
With restoration initiatives launched in 1987, the facade was rejoined to some pieces of stone that had fallen. In order to respect the fidelity of the original, material was obtained from the Villefranche quarry, even though by then it was no longer operating.
#### Hall and courtyards {#hall_and_courtyards}
The building uses a completely original solution to solve the issue of a lobby being too closed and dark. Its open and airy courtyards provide a place of transit and are directly visible to those accessing the building. There are two patios on the side of the Passeig de Gracia and of the street Provence.
Patios
Patios, structurally, are key as supporting loads of interior facades. The floor of the courtyard is supported by pillars of cast iron. In the courtyard, there are traditional elliptical beams and girders but Gaudí applied an ingenious solution of using two concentric cylindrical beams with stretched radial beams, like the spokes of a bicycle. They form a point outside of the beam to two points above and below, making the function of the central girder a keystone and working in tension and compression simultaneously. This supported structure is twelve feet in diameter and is considered \"the soul of the building\" with a clear resemblance to Gothic crypts. The centerpiece was built in a shipyard by Josep Maria Carandell who copied a steering wheel, interpreting Gaudí\'s intent as to represent the helm of the ship of life.
Interior, gates
Access is protected by a massive iron gate with a design attributed to Jujol. It was originally used by both people and cars, as access to the garage is in the basement, now an auditorium.
The two halls are fully polychrome with oil paintings on the plaster surfaces, with eclectic references to mythology and flowers.
During construction there was a problem including a basement as a garage for cars, the new invention that was thrilling the bourgeois at the time. The future neighbor Felix Anthony Meadows, owner of Industrial Linera, requested a change because his Rolls-Royce could not access it. Gaudí agreed to remove a pillar on the ramp that led into the garage so that Felix, who was establishing sales and factory in Parets del Vallès, could go to both places with his car from La Pedrera.
For the floors of Casa Milà, Gaudí used a model of floor forms of square timbers with two colors, and the hydraulic pavement hexagonal pieces of blue and sea motifs that had originally been designed for the Batllo house. The wax was designed in gray by John Bertrand under the supervision of Gaudí who \"touched up with their own fingers,\" in the words of the manufacturer Josep Bay.
#### Loft
Like in Casa Batlló, Gaudí shows the application of the catenary arch as a support structure for the roof, a form which he had already used shortly after graduating in the wood frameworks of Mataró\'s cooperative known as \"L\'Obrera Mataronense.\" In this case, Gaudí used the Catalan technique of timbrel, imported from Italy in the fourteenth century.
The attic, where the laundry rooms were located, was a clear room under a Catalan vault roof supported by 270 parabolic vaults of different heights and spaced by about 80 cm. The roof resembles both the ribs of a huge animal and a palm, giving the roof-deck a very unconventional shape similar to a landscape of hills and valleys. The shape and location of the courtyards makes the arches higher when the space is narrowed and lower when the space expands.
The builder Bayó explained its construction: \"First the face of a wide wall was filled with mortar and plastered. Then Canaleta indicated the opening of each arch and Bayó put a nail at each starting point of the arch at the top of the wall. From these nails was dangled a chain so that the lowest point coincided with the deflection of the arch. Then the profile displayed on the wall by the chain was drawn and on this profile the carpenter marked and placed the corresponding centering, and the timbrel vault was started with three rows of plane bricks. Gaudí wanted to add a longitudinal axis of bricks connecting all vaults at their keystones\".
#### Roof and chimneys {#roof_and_chimneys}
The work of Gaudí on the rooftop of La Pedrera brought his experience at Palau Güell together with solutions that were clearly more innovative -- this time creating shapes and volumes with more body, more prominence, and less polychromasia.
On the rooftop there are six skylights/staircase exits (four of which were covered with broken pottery and some that ended in a double cross typical of Gaudí), twenty-eight chimneys in several groupings, two half-hidden vents whose function is to renew the air in the building, and four domes that discharged to the facade. The staircases also house the water tanks; some of which are snail-shaped.
The stepped roof of La Pedrera, called \"the garden of warriors\" by the poet Pere Gimferrer because the chimneys appear to be protecting the skylights, has undergone a radical restoration, removing chimneys added in interventions after Gaudí, television antennas, and other elements that degraded the space. The restoration brought back the splendor to the chimneys and the skylights that were covered with fragments of marble and broken Valencia tiles. One of the chimneys was topped with glass pieces -- it was said that Gaudí did that the day after the inauguration of the building, taking advantage of the empty bottles from the party. It was restored with the bases of champagne bottles from the early twentieth century. The repair work has enabled the restoration of the original impact of the overhangs made of stone from Ulldecona with fragments of tiles. This whole set is more colorful than the facade, although here the creamy tones are dominant.
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# Casa Milà
## Design
### Constructive and decorative items {#constructive_and_decorative_items}
#### Furniture
Gaudí, as he had done in Casa Batlló, designed furniture specifically for the main floor. This was part of the concept artwork itself integral to modernism in which the architect assumed responsibility for global issues such as the structure and the facade, as well as every detail of the decor, designing furniture and accessories such as lamps, planters, floors or ceilings.
This was another point of friction with Segimon, who complained that there was no straight wall to place her Steinway piano. Gaudí\'s response was blunt: \"So play the violin.\" The result of these disagreements has been the loss of the decorative legacy of Gaudí, as most of the furniture was removed due to climate change and the changes she made to the main floor when Gaudí died. Some remain in private collections, including a curtain made of oak 4 m. long by 1.96 m. high in the Museum of Catalan Modernism; and a chair and desktop of Milà.
Gaudí carved oak doors similar to what he had done for the Casa y Bardes, but these were only included on two floors as when Segimon discovered the price, she decided there would be no more at that quality.
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# Casa Milà
## Architecture
*Casa Milà* is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site \"Works of Antoni Gaudí\". It was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar biomorphic appearance:
- the 1921 Einstein Tower in Potsdam, designed by Erich Mendelsohn
- Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in Manhattan, New York, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright
- Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France, designed by Le Corbusier
- the Hundertwasserhaus and other works by Austrian architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser
- Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, by Frank Gehry
Free exhibitions often are held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge for entrance to the apartment on the fourth floor and the roof. The other floors are not open to visitors.
### Constructive similarities {#constructive_similarities}
Gaudí\'s La Pedrera was inspired by a mountain, but there is no agreement as to which mountain was the reference model. Joan Bergós thought it was the rocks of Fray Guerau in Prades mountains. Joan Matamala thought that the model could have been St. Miquel del Fai, while the sculptor Vicente Vilarubias believed it was inspired by the cliffs Torrent Pareis in Menorca. Other options include the mountains of Uçhisar in Cappadocia, suggested by Juan Goytisolo, or Mola Gallifa, suggested by Louis Permanyer, based on the fact that Gaudí visited the area in 1885 to escape an outbreak of cholera in Barcelona.
Some people say that the interior layout of La Pedrera comes from studies that Gaudí made of medieval fortresses. This image is reinforced by the seeming appearance of the rooftop chimneys as \"sentinels\" with great helmets. The structure of the iron door in the lobby does not follow any symmetry, straight or repetitive pattern. Rather, it evokes bubbles of soap that are formed between the hands or the structures of a plant cell.
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# Casa Milà
## Criticism and controversy {#criticism_and_controversy}
The building\'s unconventional style made it the subject of much criticism. It was given the nickname \"La Pedrera\", meaning \"the quarry\". Casa Milà appeared in many satirical magazines. Joan Junceda presented it as a traditional \"Easter cake\" by means of cartoons in *Patufet*. Joaquim Garcia made a joke about the difficulty of setting the damask wrought iron balconies in his magazine. Homeowners in Passeig de Gracia became angry with Milà and ceased to greet him, arguing that the weird building by Gaudí would lower the price of land in the area.
### Administrative problems {#administrative_problems}
Casa Milà also caused some administrative problems. In December 1907 the City Hall stopped work on the building because of a pillar which occupied part of the sidewalk, not respecting the alignment of facades. Again on August 17, 1908, more problems occurred when the building surpassed the predicted height and borders of its construction site by 4000 m2. The Council called for a fine of 100,000 pesetas (approximately 25% of the cost of work) or for the demolition of the attic and roof. The dispute was resolved a year and a half later, December 28, 1909, when the Commission certified that it was a monumental building and thus not required to have a \'strict compliance\' with the bylaws.
### Design competitions {#design_competitions}
The owner entered La Pedrera in the annual `{{interlanguage link|Barcelona Artistic Buildings Competition|ca|Concurs anual d'edificis artístics|es|Concurso anual de edificios artísticos (Barcelona)}}`{=mediawiki} sponsored by the Barcelona City Council (*Ayuntament*). Other entries in the competition included two works by Sagnier (Calle Mallorca 264, and one on Corsica and Av. Diagonal), the Casa Gustà by architect `{{interlanguage link|Jaume Gustà|ca|Jaume Gustà i Bondia|es|Jaume Gustà}}`{=mediawiki}, and the Casa Pérez Samanillo, designed by `{{interlanguage link|Joan Josep Hervàs|ca|Joan Josep Hervás i Arizmendi|es|Joan Josep Hervàs}}`{=mediawiki}. Although the most dramatic and clear favorite was Casa Milà,`{{According to whom|date=February 2017}}`{=mediawiki} the jury opined that even though the facades were complete, \"there\'s still a lot left to do before it\'s fully completed, finalized and in a perfect state of appreciation.\"`{{Verify quote|type=translation|date=February 2017}}`{=mediawiki} The winner in 1910 was Samanillo Perez, for his building which now houses the headquarters of the [1](https://web.archive.org/web/20170807152135/http://guiadenoticias.net/2017/04/21/gustavo-mirabal-le-da-valor-a-la-hipica-espanola/) [Circulo Ecuestre](https://web.archive.org/web/20170807152135/http://guiadenoticias.net/2017/04/21/gustavo-mirabal-le-da-valor-a-la-hipica-espanola/).
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# Casa Milà
## Criticism and controversy {#criticism_and_controversy}
### Design disagreements {#design_disagreements}
Gaudí\'s relations with Segimon deteriorated during the construction and decoration of the house. There were many disagreements between them, one example being the monumental bronze virgin del Rosario, which Gaudí wanted as the statue on the front of the building in homage to the name of the owner, that the artist Carles Mani i Roig was to sculpt. The statue was not made although the words \"*Ave gratia M plena Dominus tecum*\" were written at the top of the facade. Continuing disagreements led Gaudí to take Milà to court over his fees. The lawsuit was won by Gaudí in 1916, and he gave the 105,000 pesetas he won in the case to charity, stating that \"the principles mattered more than money.\" Milà was having to pay the mortgage.
After Gaudí\'s death in 1926, Segimon got rid of most of the furniture that Gaudí had designed and covered over parts of Gaudí\'s designs with new decorations in the style of Louis XVI. La Pedrera was acquired in 1986 by Caixa Catalunya and when restoration was done four years later, some of the original decorations re-emerged.
When the Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Milàs were on vacation. Part of the building was collectivized by the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia; the Milàs fled the area with some artwork.
## In media and literature {#in_media_and_literature}
- A scene in *The Passenger* (Italian: *Professione: reporter*), a film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni and starring Jack Nicholson and Maria Schneider, was filmed on the roof of the building.
- A scene filmed on the roof in the 2008 film *Vicky Cristina Barcelona*, directed by Woody Allen.
- A major part in the story \"A murderer is born\" in the novel *Seiobo There Below* by László Krasznahorkai happens here
- Mentioned in the book by Eoin Colfer *Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony*
- Mentioned in the book by Trudi Alexy *The Mezuzah in the Madonna\'s Foot*
- Mentioned in the \'Ballrooms and Biscotti\' episode (season 4, episode 1) of *Gilmore Girls*
- Several scenes in the film, *Gaudi Afternoon*
- A scale model exhibited at the Catalunya en Miniatura park.
- Featured in the music video for Deep Forest\'s song \'Sweet Lullaby\'
- The home of Edmond Kirsch in Dan Brown\'s novel *Origin*, the 5th book featuring Robert Langdon.
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# Casa Milà
## Gallery
<File:Milà> plano sótano.jpg\|Design in 1906 <File:Barcelona> Part Deux - 65 (3466899772).jpg\|Ironwork on the main gate <File:LaPedreraParabola.jpg>\|Catenary arches under the terrace of *Casa Milà* <File:Casa> mila atrium.jpg\|*Casa Milà* atrium at dusk, after restoration <File:Casa> Mila Rooftop.jpg\|*Casa Milà* rooftop in Spring <File:Catenary> arch - Roof of Casa Milà - Barcelona 2014 (2).jpg\|Arch on the roof <File:Casa> Milà 01.jpg\|Ventilation towers <File:Casa> Milà (Barcelona) - 9.jpg\|Glass towers on the roof <File:La> Pedrera Staircase (5837381385).jpg\|Staircase <File:Barcelona> Part Deux - 63 (3466899120).jpg\|Paintings on the ceiling <File:CaMilá25062006(005).JPG%7CDetail> of an original balcony <File:Casa> Milà (Antoni Gaudi) (atrium), 92, Passeig de Gràcia. Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain-2.jpg\|Atrium <File:Casa> Milà (Antoni Gaudi) (atrium), 92, Passeig de Gràcia. Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg\|Atrium <File:Casa> Milà (Antoni Gaudi) (atrium, reflections), 92, Passeig de Gràcia. Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg\|Atrium reflections <File:Casa> Milà (Antoni Gaudi) (exterior details), 92, Passeig de Gràcia. Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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# Antiparticle
`{{antimatter}}`{=mediawiki} In particle physics, every type of particle of \"ordinary\" matter (as opposed to antimatter) is associated with an **antiparticle** with the same mass but with opposite physical charges (such as electric charge). For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positron (also known as an antielectron). While the electron has a negative electric charge, the positron has a positive electric charge, and is produced naturally in certain types of radioactive decay. The opposite is also true: the antiparticle of the positron is the electron.
Some particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle. Otherwise, for each pair of antiparticle partners, one is designated as the normal particle (the one that occurs in matter usually interacted with in daily life). The other (usually given the prefix \"anti-\") is designated the *antiparticle*.
Particle--antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, total charge is conserved. For example, the positrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly annihilate themselves with electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays, a process exploited in positron emission tomography.
The laws of nature are very nearly symmetrical with respect to particles and antiparticles. For example, an antiproton and a positron can form an antihydrogen atom, which is believed to have the same properties as a hydrogen atom. This leads to the question of why the formation of matter after the Big Bang resulted in a universe consisting almost entirely of matter, rather than being a half-and-half mixture of matter and antimatter. The discovery of charge parity violation helped to shed light on this problem by showing that this symmetry, originally thought to be perfect, was only approximate. The question about how the formation of matter after the Big Bang resulted in a universe consisting almost entirely of matter remains an unanswered one, and explanations so far are not truly satisfactory, overall.
Because charge is conserved, it is not possible to create an antiparticle without either destroying another particle of the same charge (as is for instance the case when antiparticles are produced naturally via beta decay or the collision of cosmic rays with Earth\'s atmosphere), or by the simultaneous creation of both a particle *and* its antiparticle (pair production), which can occur in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.
Particles and their antiparticles have equal and opposite charges, so that an uncharged particle also gives rise to an uncharged antiparticle. In many cases, the antiparticle and the particle coincide: pairs of photons, Z^0^ bosons, `{{SubatomicParticle|Pion0}}`{=mediawiki} mesons, and hypothetical gravitons and some hypothetical WIMPs all self-annihilate. However, electrically neutral particles need not be identical to their antiparticles: for example, the neutron and antineutron are distinct.
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# Antiparticle
## History
### Experiment
In 1932, soon after the prediction of positrons by Paul Dirac, Carl D. Anderson found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a cloud chamber -- a particle detector in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The electric charge-to-mass ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the radius of curling of its cloud-chamber track in a magnetic field. Positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were at first mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction. Positron paths in a cloud-chamber trace the same helical path as an electron but rotate in the opposite direction with respect to the magnetic field direction due to their having the same magnitude of charge-to-mass ratio but with opposite charge and, therefore, opposite signed charge-to-mass ratios.
The antiproton and antineutron were found by Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain in 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. Since then, the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments. In recent years, complete atoms of antimatter have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.
### Dirac hole theory {#dirac_hole_theory}
Solutions of the Dirac equation contain negative energy quantum states. As a result, an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state. Even worse, it could keep radiating infinite amounts of energy because there were infinitely many negative energy states available. To prevent this unphysical situation from happening, Dirac proposed that a \"sea\" of negative-energy electrons fills the universe, already occupying all of the lower-energy states so that, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, no other electron could fall into them. Sometimes, however, one of these negative-energy particles could be lifted out of this Dirac sea to become a positive-energy particle. But, when lifted out, it would leave behind a *hole* in the sea that would act exactly like a positive-energy electron with a reversed charge. These holes were interpreted as \"negative-energy electrons\" by Paul Dirac and mistakenly identified with protons in his 1930 paper *A Theory of Electrons and Protons* However, these \"negative-energy electrons\" turned out to be positrons, and not protons.
This picture implied an infinite negative charge for the universe`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}a problem of which Dirac was aware. Dirac tried to argue that we would perceive this as the normal state of zero charge. Another difficulty was the difference in masses of the electron and the proton. Dirac tried to argue that this was due to the electromagnetic interactions with the sea, until Hermann Weyl proved that hole theory was completely symmetric between negative and positive charges. Dirac also predicted a reaction `{{Subatomic particle|Electron}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{Subatomic particle|Proton+}}`{=mediawiki} → `{{Subatomic particle|Photon}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{Subatomic particle|Photon}}`{=mediawiki}, where an electron and a proton annihilate to give two photons. Robert Oppenheimer and Igor Tamm, however, proved that this would cause ordinary matter to disappear too fast. A year later, in 1931, Dirac modified his theory and postulated the positron, a new particle of the same mass as the electron. The discovery of this particle the next year removed the last two objections to his theory.
Within Dirac\'s theory, the problem of infinite charge of the universe remains. Some bosons also have antiparticles, but since bosons do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle (only fermions do), hole theory does not work for them. A unified interpretation of antiparticles is now available in quantum field theory, which solves both these problems by describing antimatter as negative energy states of the same underlying matter field, i.e. particles moving backwards in time.
## Elementary antiparticles {#elementary_antiparticles}
Generation Name Symbol Spin Charge (e) Mass (MeV/*c*^2^) Observed
------------ ------------------- -------- ------ ------------------------------ -------------------- ----------
1 up antiquark −`{{frac|2|3}}`{=mediawiki} Yes
down antiquark \+`{{frac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} Yes
2 charm antiquark −`{{frac|2|3}}`{=mediawiki} Yes
strange antiquark \+`{{frac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} Yes
3 top antiquark −`{{frac|2|3}}`{=mediawiki} Yes
bottom antiquark \+`{{frac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} Yes
: Antiquarks
Generation Name Symbol Spin Charge (e) Mass (MeV/*c*^2^) Observed
------------ ----------------------- -------- ------ ------------ -------------------- ----------
1 positron +1 0.511 Yes
electron antineutrino 0 Yes
2 antimuon +1 105.7 Yes
muon antineutrino 0 Yes
3 antitau +1 Yes
tau antineutrino 0 Yes
: Antileptons
Name Symbol Spin Charge (*e*) Mass (GeV/*c*^2^) Interaction mediated Observed
-------------- -------- ------ -------------- -------------------- ---------------------- ----------
anti W boson 1 +1 weak interaction Yes
: Antibosons
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# Antiparticle
## Composite antiparticles {#composite_antiparticles}
Class Subclass Name Symbol Spin Charge (*e*) Mass (MeV/*c*^2^) Mass (kg) Observed
------------ ------------ ------------- -------- ------ -------------- ------------------- --------------------------- ----------
Antihadron Antibaryon Antiproton −1 938.27208943(29) 1.67262192595(52)×10^−27^ Yes
Antineutron 0 939.56542194(48) ? Yes
## Particle--antiparticle annihilation {#particleantiparticle_annihilation}
If a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can annihilate each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as `{{Subatomic particle|Electron}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{Subatomic particle|Positron}}`{=mediawiki} → `{{Subatomic particle|Photon}}`{=mediawiki}`{{Subatomic particle|Photon}}`{=mediawiki} (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) are an example. The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, `{{Subatomic particle|Electron}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{Subatomic particle|Positron}}`{=mediawiki} → `{{Subatomic particle|Photon}}`{=mediawiki}, cannot occur in free space because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. However, in the Coulomb field of a nucleus the translational invariance is broken and single-photon annihilation may occur. The reverse reaction (in free space, without an atomic nucleus) is also impossible for this reason. In quantum field theory, this process is allowed only as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the uncertainty principle. This opens the way for virtual pair production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may *fluctuate* into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the vacuum state and renormalization of a quantum field theory. It also opens the way for neutral particle mixing through processes such as the one pictured here, which is a complicated example of mass renormalization.
## Properties
Quantum states of a particle and an antiparticle are interchanged by the combined application of charge conjugation $C$, parity $P$ and time reversal $T$. $C$ and $P$ are linear, unitary operators, $T$ is antilinear and antiunitary, $\langle \Psi | T\,\Phi\rangle = \langle \Phi | T^{-1}\,\Psi\rangle$. If $|p,\sigma ,n \rangle$ denotes the quantum state of a particle $n$ with momentum $p$ and spin $J$ whose component in the z-direction is $\sigma$, then one has
$$CPT \ |p,\sigma,n \rangle\ =\ (-1)^{J-\sigma}\ |p,-\sigma,n^c \rangle ,$$ where $n^c$ denotes the charge conjugate state, that is, the antiparticle. In particular a massive particle and its antiparticle transform under the same irreducible representation of the Poincaré group which means the antiparticle has the same mass and the same spin.
If $C$, $P$ and $T$ can be defined separately on the particles and antiparticles, then
$$T\ |p,\sigma,n\rangle \ \propto \ |-p,-\sigma,n\rangle ,$$
$$CP\ |p,\sigma,n\rangle \ \propto \ |-p,\sigma,n^c\rangle ,$$
$$C\ |p,\sigma,n\rangle \ \propto \ |p,\sigma,n^c\rangle ,$$ where the proportionality sign indicates that there might be a phase on the right hand side.
As $CPT$ anticommutes with the charges, $CPT\,Q = - Q\, CPT$, particle and antiparticle have opposite electric charges q and -q.
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# Antiparticle
## Quantum field theory {#quantum_field_theory}
: *This section draws upon the ideas, language and notation of canonical quantization of a quantum field theory.*
One may try to quantize an electron field without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing
$$\psi (x)=\sum_{k}u_k (x)a_k e^{-iE(k)t},\,$$
where we use the symbol *k* to denote the quantum numbers *p* and σ of the previous section and the sign of the energy, *E(k)*, and *a~k~* denotes the corresponding annihilation operators. Of course, since we are dealing with fermions, we have to have the operators satisfy canonical anti-commutation relations. However, if one now writes down the Hamiltonian
$$H=\sum_{k} E(k) a^\dagger_k a_k,\,$$
then one sees immediately that the expectation value of *H* need not be positive. This is because *E(k)* can have any sign whatsoever, and the combination of creation and annihilation operators has expectation value 1 or 0.
So one has to introduce the charge conjugate *antiparticle* field, with its own creation and annihilation operators satisfying the relations
$$b_{k\prime} = a^\dagger_k\ \mathrm{and}\ b^\dagger_{k\prime}=a_k,\,$$
where *k* has the same *p*, and opposite σ and sign of the energy. Then one can rewrite the field in the form
$$\psi(x)=\sum_{k_+} u_k (x)a_k e^{-iE(k)t}+\sum_{k_-} u_k (x)b^\dagger _k e^{-iE(k)t},\,$$
where the first sum is over positive energy states and the second over those of negative energy. The energy becomes
$$H=\sum_{k_+} E_k a^\dagger _k a_k + \sum_{k_-} |E(k)|b^\dagger_k b_k + E_0,\,$$
where *E~0~* is an infinite negative constant. The vacuum state is defined as the state with no particle or antiparticle, *i.e.*, $a_k |0\rangle=0$ and $b_k |0\rangle=0$. Then the energy of the vacuum is exactly *E~0~*. Since all energies are measured relative to the vacuum, **H** is positive definite. Analysis of the properties of *a~k~* and *b~k~* shows that one is the annihilation operator for particles and the other for antiparticles. This is the case of a fermion.
This approach is due to Vladimir Fock, Wendell Furry and Robert Oppenheimer. If one quantizes a real scalar field, then one finds that there is only one kind of annihilation operator; therefore, real scalar fields describe neutral bosons. Since complex scalar fields admit two different kinds of annihilation operators, which are related by conjugation, such fields describe charged bosons.
### Feynman--Stückelberg interpretation {#feynmanstückelberg_interpretation}
By considering the propagation of the negative energy modes of the electron field backward in time, Ernst Stückelberg reached a pictorial understanding of the fact that the particle and antiparticle have equal mass **m** and spin **J** but opposite charges **q**. This allowed him to rewrite perturbation theory precisely in the form of diagrams. Richard Feynman later gave an independent systematic derivation of these diagrams from a particle formalism, and they are now called Feynman diagrams. Each line of a diagram represents a particle propagating either backward or forward in time. In Feynman diagrams, anti-particles are shown traveling backwards in time relative to normal matter, and vice versa. This technique is the most widespread method of computing amplitudes in quantum field theory today.
Since this picture was first developed by Stückelberg, and acquired its modern form in Feynman\'s work, it is called the **Feynman--Stückelberg interpretation** of antiparticles to honor both scientists
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# The Apache Software Foundation
**The Apache Software Foundation** (`{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|p|æ|tʃ|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ə|PATCH|ee}}`{=mediawiki}; **ASF**) is an American nonprofit corporation (classified as a 501(c)(3) organization in the United States) to support a number of open-source software projects. The ASF was formed from a group of developers of the Apache HTTP Server, and incorporated on March 25, 1999. `{{As of|2021|post=,}}`{=mediawiki} it includes approximately 1000 members.
The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized open source community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the Apache License, a permissive open-source license for free and open-source software (FOSS). The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus-based development process and an open and pragmatic software license, which is to say that it allows developers, who receive the software freely, to redistribute it under non-free terms. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a meritocracy, implying that membership of the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects.
Among the ASF\'s objectives are: to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects, and to prevent the \"Apache\" brand name from being used by other organizations without permission.
The ASF also holds several ApacheCon conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects and related technology.
## History
The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, development beginning in February 1993. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the NCSA HTTPd daemon. They came to be known as the Apache Group. On March 25, 1999, the Apache Software Foundation was formed. The first official meeting of the Apache Software Foundation was held on April 13, 1999. The initial members of the Apache Software Foundation consisted of the Apache Group: Brian Behlendorf, Ken Coar, Miguel Gonzales, Mark Cox, Lars Eilebrecht, Ralf S. Engelschall, Roy T. Fielding, Dean Gaudet, Ben Hyde, Jim Jagielski, Alexei Kosut, Martin Kraemer, Ben Laurie, Doug MacEachern, Aram Mirzadeh, Sameer Parekh, Cliff Skolnick, Marc Slemko, William (Bill) Stoddard, Paul Sutton, Randy Terbush and Dirk-Willem van Gulik. After a series of additional meetings to elect board members and resolve other legal matters regarding incorporation, the effective incorporation date of the Apache Software Foundation was set to June 1, 1999.
Co-founder Brian Behlendorf states how the name \'Apache\' was chosen: \"I suggested the name Apache partly because the web technologies at the time that were launching were being called cyber this or spider that or something on those themes and I was like we need something a little more interesting, a little more romantic, not to be a cultural appropriator or anything like that, I had just seen a documentary about Geronimo and the last days of a Native American tribe called the Apaches right, who succumbed to the invasion from the West, from the United States, and they were the last tribe to give up their territory and for me that almost romantically represented what I felt we were doing with this web-server project\...\"
## Projects
Apache divides its software development activities into separate semi-autonomous areas called \"top-level projects\" (formally known as a \"Project Management Committee\" in the bylaws), some of which have a number of sub-projects. Unlike some other organizations that host FOSS projects, before a project is hosted at Apache it has to be licensed to the ASF with a grant or contributor agreement. In this way, the ASF gains the necessary intellectual property rights for the development and distribution of all its projects.
## Board of directors {#board_of_directors}
The board of directors of The Apache Software Foundation (ASF) is responsible for management and oversight of the business and affairs of the corporation in accordance with the Bylaws. This includes management of the corporate assets (funds, intellectual property, trademarks, and support equipment), appointment of a President and corporate officers managing the core operations of the ASF, and allocation of corporate resources for the benefit of Apache projects. Technical decision-making authority for every Apache project is assigned to their independent project management committee; the participants in each project provide direction, not the board. The board is elected annually by the ASF membership
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# Ancylopoda
**Ancylopoda** is a group of browsing, herbivorous, mammals in the Perissodactyla that show long, curved and cleft claws. Morphological evidence indicates the Ancylopoda diverged from the tapirs, rhinoceroses and horses (Euperissodactyla) after the Brontotheria; however, earlier authorities such as Osborn sometimes considered the Ancylopoda to be outside Perissodactyla or, as was popular more recently, to be related to Brontotheriidae.
*Macrotherium*, which is typically from the middle Miocene of Sansan, in Gers, France, may indicate a distinct genus. Limb-bones resembling those of *Macrotherium*, but relatively stouter, have been described from the Pliocene beds of Attica and Samos as *Ancylotherium*. In the Americas, the names *Morothorium* and *Moropus* have been applied to similar bones, in the belief that they indicated xenarthrans. *Macrotherium magnum* must have been an animal of about 9 ft in length
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# Anchor
An **anchor** is a device, normally made of metal, used to secure a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin **ancora**, which itself comes from the Greek *italic=no* (*ankȳra*).
Anchors can either be temporary or permanent. Permanent anchors are used in the creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved; a specialist service is normally needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one or more temporary anchors, which may be of different designs and weights.
A sea anchor is a drag device, not in contact with the seabed, used to minimize drift of a vessel relative to the water. A drogue is a drag device used to slow or help steer a vessel running before a storm in a following or overtaking sea, or when crossing a bar in a breaking sea.
## Anchoring
Anchors achieve holding power either by \"hooking\" into the seabed, or weight, or a combination of the two. The weight of the anchor chain can be more than that of the anchor and is critical to proper holding. Permanent moorings use large masses (commonly a block or slab of concrete) resting on the seabed. Semi-permanent mooring anchors (such as mushroom anchors) and large ship\'s anchors derive a significant portion of their holding power from their weight, while also hooking or embedding in the bottom. Modern anchors for smaller vessels have metal *flukes* that hook on to rocks on the bottom or bury themselves in soft seabed.
The vessel is attached to the anchor by the *rode* (also called a *cable* or a *warp*). It can be made of rope, chain or a combination of rope and chain. The ratio of the length of rode to the water depth is known as the scope.
Holding ground is the area of sea floor that holds an anchor, and thus the attached ship or boat. Different types of anchor are designed to hold in different types of holding ground. Some bottom materials hold better than others; for instance, hard sand holds well, shell holds poorly. Holding ground may be fouled with obstacles. An anchorage location may be chosen for its holding ground. In poor holding ground, only the weight of an anchor and chain matters; in good holding ground, it is able to dig in, and the holding power can be significantly higher. The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. The ship seeks a location that is sufficiently protected; has suitable holding ground, enough depth at low tide and enough room for the boat to swing.
The location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should initially be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom (see anchor windlass). The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control (slowly) so it is relatively straight.
Once the desired scope is laid out, the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)
### Using an anchor weight, kellet or sentinel {#using_an_anchor_weight_kellet_or_sentinel}
Lowering a concentrated, heavy weight down the anchor line -- rope or chain -- directly in front of the bow to the seabed behaves like a heavy chain rode and lowers the angle of pull on the anchor. If the weight is suspended off the seabed it acts as a spring or shock absorber to dampen the sudden actions that are normally transmitted to the anchor and can cause it to dislodge and drag. In light conditions, a kellet reduces the swing of the vessel considerably. In heavier conditions these effects disappear as the rode becomes straightened and the weight ineffective. Known as an \"anchor chum weight\" or \"angel\" in the UK.
### Forked moor {#forked_moor}
Using two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable. This moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel\'s swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels do not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range.
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# Anchor
## Anchoring
### Bow and stern {#bow_and_stern}
(Not to be mistaken with the *Bahamian moor*, below.) In the *bow and stern* technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel\'s swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel.
### Bahamian moor {#bahamian_moor}
Similar to the above, a *Bahamian moor* is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that.
The vessel now swings in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents, but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors, as they are not aligned for this load.
### Backing an anchor {#backing_an_anchor}
Also known as *tandem anchoring*, in this technique two anchors are deployed in line with each other, on the same rode. With the foremost anchor reducing the load on the aft-most, this technique can develop great holding power and may be appropriate in \"ultimate storm\" circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be suitable in some circumstances. There are complications, and the technique requires careful preparation and a level of skill and experience above that required for a single anchor.
### Kedging
*Kedging* or *warping* is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor.
In yachts, a kedge anchor is an anchor carried in addition to the main, or bower, anchor, and usually stowed aft. Every yacht should carry at least two anchors -- the main or *bower* anchor and a second lighter *kedge* anchor.`{{clarify|according to whom?|date=June 2023}}`{=mediawiki} It is used occasionally when it is necessary to limit the turning circle as the yacht swings when it is anchored, such as in a narrow river or a deep pool in an otherwise shallow area. Kedge anchors are sometimes used to recover vessels that have run aground.
For ships, a kedge may be dropped while a ship is underway, or carried out in a suitable direction by a tender or ship\'s boat to enable the ship to be winched off if aground or swung into a particular heading, or even to be held steady against a tidal or other stream.
Historically, it was of particular relevance to sailing warships that used them to outmaneuver opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower.
#### Club hauling {#club_hauling}
Club hauling is an archaic technique. When a vessel is in a narrow channel or on a lee shore so that there is no room to tack the vessel in a conventional manner, an anchor attached to the lee quarter may be dropped from the lee bow. This is deployed when the vessel is head to wind and has lost headway. As the vessel gathers sternway the strain on the cable pivots the vessel around what is now the weather quarter turning the vessel onto the other tack. The anchor is then normally cut away (the ship\'s momentum prevents recovery without aborting the maneuver).
### Multiple anchor patterns {#multiple_anchor_patterns}
When it is necessary to moor a ship or floating platform with precise positioning and alignment, such as when drilling the seabed, for some types of salvage work, and for some types of diving operation, several anchors are set in a pattern which allows the vessel to be positioned by shortening and lengthening the scope of the anchors, and adjusting the tension on the rodes. The anchors are usually laid in prearranged positions by an anchor tender, and the moored vessel uses its own winches to adjust position and tension.
Similar arrangements are used for some types of single buoy moorings, like the catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM) used for loading and unloading liquid cargoes.
### Weighing anchor {#weighing_anchor}
Since all anchors that embed themselves in the bottom require the strain to be along the seabed, anchors can be broken out of the bottom by shortening the rope until the vessel is directly above the anchor; at this point the anchor chain is \"up and down\", in naval parlance. If necessary, motoring slowly around the location of the anchor also helps dislodge it. Anchors are sometimes fitted with a trip line attached to the crown, by which they can be unhooked from underwater hazards.
The term *aweigh* describes an anchor when it is hanging on the rope and not resting on the bottom. This is linked to the term *to weigh anchor*, meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is described as *aweigh* when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to be *stowed*. *Aweigh* should not be confused with *under way*, which describes a vessel that is not *moored* to a dock or *anchored*, whether or not the vessel is moving through the water. *Aweigh* is also often confused with *away*, which is incorrect.
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# Anchor
## History
### Evolution of the anchor {#evolution_of_the_anchor}
thumb\|upright=2\|left\|Anchors come in a wide variety of shapes, types, and sizes for different conditions, functions and vessels.
The earliest anchors were probably rocks, and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the Bronze Age. Pre-European Māori waka (canoes) used one or more hollowed stones, tied with flax ropes, as anchors. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. However, using pure weight to resist the forces of a storm works well only as a permanent mooring; a large enough rock would be nearly impossible to move to a new location.
The ancient Greeks used baskets of stones, large sacks filled with sand, and wooden logs filled with lead. According to Apollonius Rhodius and Stephen of Byzantium, anchors were formed of stone, and Athenaeus states that they were also sometimes made of wood. Such anchors held the vessel merely by their weight and by their friction along the bottom.`{{clarify|How a wood anchor would hold. Most wood floats, and even dense wood has very little negative buoyancy and would be ineffective without some ballast weight|date=June 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
### Fluked anchors {#fluked_anchors}
Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them with teeth, or \"flukes\", to fasten themselves into the bottom. This is the iconic anchor shape most familiar to non-sailors.
This form has been used since antiquity. The Roman Nemi ships of the 1st century AD used this form. The Viking Ladby ship (probably 10th century) used a fluked anchor of this type, made of iron, which would have had a wooden stock mounted perpendicular to the shank and flukes to make the flukes contact the bottom at a suitable angle to hook or penetrate.
### Admiralty anchor {#admiralty_anchor}
The Admiralty Pattern anchor, or simply \"Admiralty\", also known as a \"Fisherman\", consists of a central shank with a ring or shackle for attaching the rode (the rope, chain, or cable connecting the ship and the anchor). At the other end of the shank there are two arms, carrying the flukes, while the stock is mounted to the shackle end, at ninety degrees to the arms. When the anchor lands on the bottom, it generally falls over with the arms parallel to the seabed. As a strain comes onto the rope, the stock digs into the bottom, canting the anchor until one of the flukes catches and digs into the bottom.
The Admiralty Anchor is an entirely independent reinvention of a classical design, as seen in one of the Nemi ship anchors. This basic design remained unchanged for centuries, with the most significant changes being to the overall proportions, and a move from stocks made of wood to iron stocks in the late 1830s and early 1840s.
Since one fluke always protrudes up from the set anchor, there is a great tendency of the rode to foul the anchor as the vessel swings due to wind or current shifts. When this happens, the anchor may be pulled out of the bottom, and in some cases may need to be hauled up to be re-set. In the mid-19th century, numerous modifications were attempted to alleviate these problems, as well as improve holding power, including one-armed mooring anchors. The most successful of these *patent anchors*, the Trotman Anchor, introduced a pivot at the centre of the crown where the arms join the shank, allowing the \"idle\" upper arm to fold against the shank. When deployed the lower arm may fold against the shank tilting the tip of the fluke upwards, so each fluke has a tripping palm at its base, to hook on the bottom as the folded arm drags along the seabed, which unfolds the downward oriented arm until the tip of the fluke can engage the bottom.
Handling and storage of these anchors requires special equipment and procedures. Once the anchor is hauled up to the hawsepipe, the ring end is hoisted up to the end of a timber projecting from the bow known as the cathead. The crown of the anchor is then hauled up with a heavy tackle until one fluke can be hooked over the rail. This is known as \"catting and fishing\" the anchor. Before dropping the anchor, the fishing process is reversed, and the anchor is dropped from the end of the cathead.
### Stockless anchor {#stockless_anchor}
The stockless anchor, patented in England in 1821, represented the first significant departure in anchor design in centuries. Although their holding-power-to-weight ratio is significantly lower than admiralty pattern anchors, their ease of handling and stowage aboard large ships led to almost universal adoption. In contrast to the elaborate stowage procedures for earlier anchors, stockless anchors are simply hauled up until they rest with the shank inside the hawsepipes, and the flukes against the hull (or inside a recess in the hull called the anchor box).
While there are numerous variations, stockless anchors consist of a set of heavy flukes connected by a pivot or ball and socket joint to a shank. Cast into the crown of the anchor is a set of tripping palms, projections that drag on the bottom, forcing the main flukes to dig in.
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# Anchor
## Small boat anchors {#small_boat_anchors}
Until the mid-20th century, anchors for smaller vessels were either scaled-down versions of admiralty anchors, or simple grapnels. As new designs with greater holding-power-to-weight ratios were sought, a great variety of anchor designs have emerged. Many of these designs are still under patent, and other types are best known by their original trademarked names.
### Grapnel anchor / drag`{{anchor|grapnel}}`{=mediawiki} {#grapnel_anchor_drag}
A traditional design, the grapnel is merely a shank (no stock) with four or more tines, also known as a *drag*. It has a benefit in that, no matter how it reaches the bottom, one or more tines are aimed to set. In coral, or rock, it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard. Its weight also makes it relatively easy to move and carry, however its shape is generally not compact and it may be awkward to stow unless a collapsing model is used.
Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. On the other hand, it is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line from the crown, it is impossible to retrieve.
### Herreshoff anchor {#herreshoff_anchor}
Designed by yacht designer L. Francis Herreshoff, this is essentially the same pattern as an admiralty anchor, albeit with small diamond-shaped flukes or palms. The novelty of the design lay in the means by which it could be broken down into three pieces for stowage. In use, it still presents all the issues of the admiralty pattern anchor.
### Northill anchor {#northill_anchor}
Originally designed as a lightweight anchor for seaplanes, this design consists of two plough-like blades mounted to a shank, with a folding stock crossing through the crown of the anchor.
### CQR plough anchor {#cqr_plough_anchor}
Many manufacturers produce a plough-type anchor, so-named after its resemblance to an agricultural plough. All such anchors are copied from the original CQR (*Coastal Quick Release*, or *Clyde Quick Release*, later rebranded as \'secure\' by Lewmar), a 1933 design patented in the UK by mathematician Geoffrey Ingram Taylor.
Plough anchors stow conveniently in a roller at the bow, and have been popular with cruising sailors and private boaters. Ploughs can be moderately good in all types of seafloor, though not exceptional in any. Contrary to popular belief, the CQR\'s hinged shank is not to allow the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, but actually to prevent the shank\'s weight from disrupting the fluke\'s orientation while setting. The hinge can wear out and may trap a sailor\'s fingers. Some later plough anchors have a rigid shank, such as the Lewmar\'s \"Delta\".
A plough anchor has a fundamental flaw: like its namesake, the agricultural plough, it digs in but then tends to break out back to the surface. Plough anchors sometimes have difficulty setting at all, and instead skip across the seafloor. By contrast, modern efficient anchors tend to be \"scoop\" types that dig ever deeper.
### Delta anchor {#delta_anchor}
The Delta anchor was derived from the CQR. It was patented by Philip McCarron, James Stewart, and Gordon Lyall of British marine manufacturer Simpson-Lawrence Ltd in 1992. It was designed as an advance over the anchors used for floating systems such as oil rigs. It retains the weighted tip of the CQR but has a much higher fluke area to weight ratio than its predecessor. The designers also eliminated the sometimes troublesome hinge. It is a plough anchor with a rigid, arched shank. It is described as *self-launching* because it can be dropped from a bow roller simply by paying out the rode, without manual assistance. This is an oft copied design with the European Brake and Australian Sarca Excel being two of the more notable ones. Although it is a plough type anchor, it sets and holds reasonably well in hard bottoms.
### Danforth anchor {#danforth_anchor}
American Richard Danforth invented the Danforth Anchor in the 1940s for use aboard landing craft. It uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat triangular flukes are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type). Tripping palms at the crown act to tip the flukes into the seabed. The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop high resistance. Its lightweight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawsepipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor.
A Danforth does not usually penetrate or hold in gravel or weeds. In boulders and coral it may hold by acting as a hook. If there is much current, or if the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor, it may \"kite\" or \"skate\" over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing.
The FOB HP anchor designed in Brittany in the 1970s is a Danforth variant designed to give increased holding through its use of rounded flukes setting at a 30° angle.
The Fortress is an American aluminum alloy Danforth variant that can be disassembled for storage and it features an adjustable 32° and 45° shank/fluke angle to improve holding capability in common sea bottoms such as hard sand and soft mud. This anchor performed well in a 1989 US Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) test and in an August 2014 holding power test that was conducted in the soft mud bottoms of the Chesapeake Bay.
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# Anchor
## Small boat anchors {#small_boat_anchors}
### Bruce or claw anchor {#bruce_or_claw_anchor}
This claw-shaped anchor was designed by Peter Bruce from Scotland in the 1970s. Bruce gained his early reputation from the production of large-scale commercial anchors for ships and fixed installations such as oil rigs. It was later scaled down for small boats, and copies of this popular design abound. The Bruce and its copies, known generically as \"claw type anchors\", have been adopted on smaller boats (partly because they stow easily on a bow roller) but they are most effective in larger sizes. Claw anchors are quite popular on charter fleets as they have a high chance to set on the first try in many bottoms. They have the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force.
Bruce anchors can have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms and grass. They offer a fairly low holding-power-to-weight ratio and generally have to be oversized to compete with newer types.
### Scoop type anchors {#scoop_type_anchors}
Three time circumnavigator German Rolf Kaczirek invented the Bügel Anker in the 1980s. Kaczirek wanted an anchor that was self-righting without necessitating a ballasted tip. Instead, he added a roll bar and switched out the plough share for a flat blade design. As none of the innovations of this anchor were patented, copies of it abound.
Alain Poiraud of France introduced the scoop type anchor in 1996. Similar in design to the Bügel anchor, Poiraud\'s design features a concave fluke shaped like the blade of a shovel, with a shank attached parallel to the fluke, and the load applied toward the digging end. It is designed to dig into the bottom like a shovel, and dig deeper as more pressure is applied. The common challenge with all the scoop type anchors is that they set so well, they can be difficult to weigh.
- *Bügelanker*, or *Wasi*: This German-designed bow anchor has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar that allows the correct setting attitude to be achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip.
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- *Spade*: This is a French design that has proven successful since 1996. It features a demountable shank (hollow in some instances) and the choice of galvanized steel, stainless steel, or aluminum construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor. The geometry also makes this anchor self stowing on a single roller. The Spade anchor is the anchor of choice for Rubicon 3, one of Europe\'s largest adventure sailing companies
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- *Rocna*: This New Zealand spade design, available in galvanised or stainless steel, has been produced since 2004. It has a roll-bar (similar to that of the Bügel), a large spade-like fluke area, and a sharp toe for penetrating weed and grass. The Rocna sets quickly and holds well.
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- *Mantus*: This is claimed to be a fast setting anchor with high holding power. It is designed as an all round anchor capable of setting even in challenging bottoms such as hard sand/clay bottoms and grass. The shank is made out of a high tensile steel capable of withstanding high loads. It is similar in design to the Rocna but has a larger and wider roll-bar that reduces the risk of fouling and increases the angle of the fluke that results in improved penetration in some bottoms.
- *Ultra*: This is an innovative spade design that dispenses with a roll-bar. Made primarily of stainless steel, its main arm is hollow, while the fluke tip has lead within it. It is similar in appearance to the Spade anchor.
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- *Vulcan*: A recent sibling to the Rocna, this anchor performs similarly but does not have a roll-bar. Instead the Vulcan has patented design features such as the \"V-bulb\" and the \"Roll Palm\" that allow it to dig in deeply. The Vulcan was designed primarily for sailors who had difficulties accommodating the roll-bar Rocna on their bow. Peter Smith (originator of the Rocna) designed it specifically for larger powerboats. Both Vulcans and Rocnas are available in galvanised steel, or in stainless steel. The Vulcan is similar in appearance to the Spade anchor.
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- *Knox Anchor*: This is produced in Scotland and was invented by Professor John Knox. It has a divided concave large area fluke arrangement and a shank in high tensile steel. A roll bar similar to the Rocna gives fast setting and a holding power of about 40 times anchor weight.`{{clarify|40 times weight on what bottom, with what scope. claim is meaningless without specifying the conditions of testing|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
### Other temporary anchors {#other_temporary_anchors}
- *Mud weight*: Consists of a blunt heavy weight, usually cast iron or cast lead, that sinks into the mud and resist lateral movement. It is suitable only for soft silt bottoms and in mild conditions. Sizes range between 5 and 20 kg for small craft. Various designs exist and many are home produced from lead or improvised with heavy objects. This is a commonly used method on the Norfolk Broads in England.
- *Bulwagga*: This is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the usual two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine *Practical Sailor*.
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# Anchor
## Permanent anchors {#permanent_anchors}
These are used where the vessel is permanently or semi-permanently sited, for example in the case of lightvessels or channel marker buoys. The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe storm, but needs to be lifted only occasionally, at most -- for example, only if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances, especially if the anchor need never be lifted at all, may be to use a pile that is driven into the seabed.
Permanent anchors come in a wide range of types and have no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron staple in it to attach a chain to would serve the purpose, as would any dense object of appropriate weight (for instance, an engine block). Modern moorings may be anchored by augers, which look and act like oversized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or by a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more conventional anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves, one or more anchors are aligned to resist the force.
### Mushroom
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Mushroom anchor (right) on the lightship *Portsmouth* at Portsmouth, Virginia
The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand. It was invented by Robert Stevenson, for use by an 82-ton converted fishing boat, *Pharos*, which was used as a lightvessel between 1807 and 1810 near to Bell Rock whilst the lighthouse was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5-ton example.
It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt. A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried.
A mushroom anchor normally sinks in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material, thus greatly increasing its holding power. These anchors are suitable only for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight until it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight. They are available in sizes from about 5 kg up to several tons.
### Deadweight
A deadweight is an anchor that relies solely on being a heavy weight. It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain. Its holding power is defined by its weight underwater (i.e., taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried. Consequently, deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does drag, it continues to provide its original holding force. The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor.
### Auger
Auger anchors can be used to anchor permanent moorings, floating docks, fish farms, etc. These anchors, which have one or more slightly pitched self-drilling threads, must be screwed into the seabed with the use of a tool, so require access to the bottom, either at low tide or by use of a diver. Hence they can be difficult to install in deep water without special equipment.
Weight for weight, augers have a higher holding than other permanent designs, and so can be cheap and relatively easily installed, although difficult to set in extremely soft mud.
### High-holding-types {#high_holding_types}
There is a need in the oil-and-gas industry to resist large anchoring forces when laying pipelines and for drilling vessels. These anchors are installed and removed using a support tug and pennant/pendant wire. Some examples are the Stevin range supplied by Vrijhof Ankers. Large plate anchors such as the Stevmanta are used for permanent moorings.
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# Anchor
## Anchoring gear {#anchoring_gear}
The elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a *rode*), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water.
Vessels may carry a number of anchors: *bower anchors* are the main anchors used by a vessel and normally carried at the bow of the vessel. A *kedge anchor* is a light anchor used for warping an anchor, also known as *kedging*, or more commonly on yachts for mooring quickly or in benign conditions. A *stream anchor*, which is usually heavier than a *kedge anchor*, can be used for kedging or warping in addition to temporary mooring and restraining stern movement in tidal conditions or in waters where vessel movement needs to be restricted, such as rivers and channels.
Charts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them.
### Anchor rode {#anchor_rode}
The anchor rode (or \"cable\" or \"warp\") that connects the anchor to the vessel is usually made up of chain, rope, or a combination of those. Large ships use only chain rode. Smaller craft might use a rope/chain combination or an all chain rode. All rodes should have some chain; chain is heavy but it resists abrasion from coral, sharp rocks, or shellfish beds, whereas a rope warp is susceptible to abrasion and can fail in a short time when stretched against an abrasive surface. The weight of the chain also helps keep the direction of pull on the anchor closer to horizontal, which improves holding, and absorbs part of snubbing loads. Where weight is not an issue, a heavier chain provides better holding by forming a catenary curve through the water and resting as much of its length on the bottom as would not be lifted by tension of the mooring load. Any changes to the tension are accommodated by additional chain being lifted or settling on the bottom, and this absorbs shock loads until the chain is straight, at which point the full load is taken by the anchor. Additional dissipation of shock loads can be achieved by fitting a snubber between the chain and a bollard or cleat on deck. This also reduces shock loads on the deck fittings, and the vessel usually lies more comfortably and quietly.
Being strong and elastic, nylon rope is the most suitable as an anchor rode. Polyester (terylene) is stronger but less elastic than nylon. Both materials sink, so they avoid fouling other craft in crowded anchorages and do not absorb much water. Neither breaks down quickly in sunlight. Elasticity helps absorb shock loading, but causes faster abrasive wear when the rope stretches over an abrasive surface, like a coral bottom or a poorly designed chock. Polypropylene (\"polyprop\") is not suited to rodes because it floats and is much weaker than nylon, being barely stronger than natural fibres. Some grades of polypropylene break down in sunlight and become hard, weak, and unpleasant to handle. Natural fibres such as manila or hemp are still used in developing nations but absorb a lot of water, are relatively weak, and rot, although they do give good handling grip and are often relatively cheap. Ropes that have little or no elasticity are not suitable as anchor rodes. Elasticity is partly a function of the fibre material and partly of the rope structure.
All anchors should have chain at least equal to the boat\'s length.`{{clarify|explain why|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki} Some skippers prefer an all chain warp for greater security on coral or sharp edged rock bottoms. The chain should be shackled to the warp through a steel eye or spliced to the chain using a chain splice. The shackle pin should be securely wired or moused. Either galvanized or stainless steel is suitable for eyes and shackles, galvanized steel being the stronger of the two. Some skippers prefer to add a swivel to the rode. There is a school of thought that says these should not be connected to the anchor itself,`{{clarify|Why should the swivel be in the chain?|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki} but should be somewhere in the chain. However, most skippers connect the swivel directly to the anchor.
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# Anchor
## Anchoring gear {#anchoring_gear}
### Anchor rode {#anchor_rode}
#### Scope
Scope is the ratio of length of the rode to the depth of the water measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed, making allowance for the highest expected tide. When making this ratio large enough, one can ensure that the pull on the anchor is as horizontal as possible. This will make it unlikely for the anchor to break out of the bottom and drag, if it was properly embedded in the seabed to begin with. When deploying chain, a large enough scope leads to a load that is entirely horizontal, whilst an anchor rode made only of rope will never achieve a strictly horizontal pull.
In moderate conditions, the ratio of rode to water depth should be 4:1 -- where there is sufficient swing-room, a greater scope is always better. In rougher conditions it should be up to twice this with the extra length giving more stretch and a smaller angle to the bottom to resist the anchor breaking out. For example, if the water is 8 m deep, and the anchor roller is 1 m above the water, then the \'depth\' is 9 meters (\~30 feet). The amount of rode to let out in moderate conditions is thus 36 meters (120 feet). (For this reason, it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water.)
When using a rope rode, there is a simple way to estimate the scope: The ratio of bow height of the rode to length of rode above the water while lying back hard on the anchor is the same or less than the scope ratio. The basis for this is simple geometry (Intercept Theorem): The ratio between two sides of a triangle stays the same regardless of the size of the triangle as long as the angles do not change.
Generally, the rode should be between 5 and 10 times the depth to the seabed, giving a scope of 5:1 or 10:1; the larger the number, the shallower the angle is between the cable and the seafloor, and the less upwards force is acting on the anchor. A 10:1 scope gives the greatest holding power, but also allows for much more drifting about due to the longer amount of cable paid out. Anchoring with sufficient scope and/or heavy chain rode brings the direction of strain close to parallel with the seabed. This is particularly important for light, modern anchors designed to bury in the bottom, where scopes of 5:1 to 7:1 are common, whereas heavy anchors and moorings can use a scope of 3:1, or less. Some modern anchors, such as the Ultra holds with a scope of 3:1; but, unless the anchorage is crowded, a longer scope always reduces shock stresses.`{{clarify|stresses in what? |date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
A major disadvantage of the concept of scope is that it does not take into account the fact that a chain is forming a catenary when hanging between two points (i.e., bow roller and the point where the chain hits the seabed), and thus is a non-linear curve (in fact, a cosh() function), whereas scope is a linear function. As a consequence, in deep water the scope needed will be less, whilst in very shallow water the scope must be chosen much larger to achieve the same pulling angle at the anchor shank. For this reason, the British Admiralty does not use a linear scope formula, but a square root formula instead.
A couple of online calculators exist to work out the amount of chain and rope needed to achieve a (possibly nearly) horizontal pull at the anchor shank, and the associated anchor load. `{{expand section|explain the function of scope|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
## As symbol {#as_symbol}
An anchor frequently appears on the flags and coats of arms of institutions involved with the sea, as well as of port cities and seacoast regions and provinces in various countries. There also exists in heraldry the \"Anchored Cross\", or Mariner\'s Cross, a stylized cross in the shape of an anchor. The symbol can be used to signify \'fresh start\' or \'hope\'.
The Mariner\'s Cross is also referred to as St. Clement\'s Cross, in reference to the way this saint was killed (being tied to an anchor and thrown from a boat into the Black Sea in 102). Anchored crosses are occasionally a feature of coats of arms in which context they are referred to by the heraldic terms *anchry* or *ancre*. The Unicode anchor (Miscellaneous Symbols) is represented by: `{{unichar|2693}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Anbar (town)
**Anbar** (*al-Anbār*, *Anbar*) was an ancient and medieval town in central Iraq. It played a role in the Roman--Persian Wars of the 3rd--4th centuries, and briefly became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate before the founding of Baghdad in 762. It remained a moderately prosperous town through the 10th century, but quickly declined thereafter. As a local administrative centre, it survived until the 14th century, but was later abandoned.
Its ruins are near modern Fallujah. The city gives its name to the Al-Anbar Governorate.
## History
### Origins
The city is located on the left bank of the Middle Euphrates, at the junction with the Nahr Isa canal, the first of the navigable canals that link the Euphrates to the River Tigris to the east. The origins of the city are unknown, but ancient, perhaps dating to the Babylonian era and even earlier: the local artificial mound of Tell Aswad dates to c. 3000 BC.
### Sasanian period {#sasanian_period}
The town was originally known as **Misiche** (Greek: *Μισιχή*), **Mesiche** (*Μεσιχή*), or **Massice** (*𐭬𐭱{{lrm}}𐭩{{lrm}}𐭪{{lrm}}{{lrm}}{{lrm}}{{lrm}}* mšyk; *𐭌{{lrm}}𐭔{{lrm}}𐭉{{lrm}}𐭊{{lrm}}* mšyk). As a major crossing point of the Euphrates, and occupying the northernmost point of the complex irrigation network of the Sawad, the town was of considerable strategic significance. As the western gate to central Mesopotamia, it was fortified by the Sasanian ruler Shapur I (`{{reign|241|272}}`{=mediawiki}) to shield his capital, Ctesiphon, from the Roman Empire. After his decisive victory over the Roman emperor Gordian III at the Battle of Misiche in 244, Shapur renamed the town to **Peroz-Shapur** (*Pērōz-Šāpūr* or *Pērōz-Šābuhr*, from *𐭯𐭥𐭩𐭥𐭦𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩*, meaning \"victorious Shapur\"; in *prgwzšhypwhr*; in *פירוז שבור*). It became known as **Pirisapora** or **Bersabora** (*Βηρσαβῶρα*) to the Greeks and Romans.
The city was fortified by a double wall, possibly through the use of Roman prisoner labour; it was sacked and burned after an agreement with its garrison in March 363 by the Roman emperor Julian during his invasion of the Sasanian Empire. It was rebuilt by Shapur II. By 420, it is attested as a bishopric, both for the Church of the East and for the Syriac Orthodox Church. The town\'s garrison was Persian, but it also contained sizeable Arab and Jewish populations. Anbar was adjacent or identical to the Babylonian Jewish center of Nehardea (*נהרדעא*), and lies a short distance from the present-day town of Fallujah, formerly the Babylonian Jewish center of Pumbedita (*פומבדיתא*).
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# Anbar (town)
## History
### Islamic period {#islamic_period}
The city fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in July 633, after a fiercely fought siege. When Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656--661) passed through the city, he was warmly welcomed by ninety-thousand Jews who then lived there, and he \"received them with great friendliness.\"
The Arabs retained the name (*Fīrūz Shābūr*) for the surrounding district, but the town itself became known as **Anbar** (Middle Persian word for \"granary\" or \"storehouse\") from the granaries in its citadel, a name that had appeared already during the 6th century. According to Baladhuri, the third mosque to be built in Iraq was erected in the city by Sa\'d ibn Abi Waqqas. Ibn Abi Waqqas initially considered Anbar as a candidate for the location of one of the first Muslim garrison towns, but the fever and fleas endemic in the area persuaded him otherwise.
According to medieval Arabic sources, most of the inhabitants of the town migrated north to found the city of Hdatta south of Mosul. The famous governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf cleared the canals of the city.
Abu\'l-Abbas as-Saffah (`{{reign|749|754}}`{=mediawiki}), the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, made it his capital in 752, constructing a new town half a *farsakh* (c. {{convert) to the north for his Khurasani troops. There he died and was buried at the palace he had built. His successor, al-Mansur (`{{Reign|754|775}}`{=mediawiki}), remained in the city until the founding of Baghdad in 762. The Abbasids also dug the great Nahr Isa canal to the south of the city, which carried water and commerce east to Baghdad. The Nahr al-Saqlawiyya or Nahr al-Qarma canal, which branches off from the Euphrates to the west of the city, is sometimes erroneously held to be the Nahr Isa, but it is more likely that it is to be identified with the pre-Islamic Nahr al-Rufayl.
It continued to be a place of much importance throughout the Abbasid period. Caliph Harun al-Rashid (`{{reign|786|809}}`{=mediawiki}) stayed at the town in 799 and in 803. The town\'s prosperity was founded on agricultural activities, but also on trade between Iraq and Syria. The town was still prosperous in the early 9th century, but the decline of Abbasid authority during the later 9th century exposed it to Bedouin attacks in 882 and 899. In 927, the Qarmatians under Abu Tahir al-Jannabi sacked the city during their invasion of Iraq, and the devastation was compounded by another Bedouin attack two years later. The town\'s decline accelerated after that: while the early 10th-century geographer Istakhri still calls the town modest but populous, with the ruins of the buildings of as-Saffah still visible, Ibn Hawqal and al-Maqdisi, who wrote a generation later, attest to its decline, and the diminution of its population.
The town was sacked again in 1262 by the Mongols under Kerboka. The Ilkhanids retained Anbar as an administrative centre, a role it retained until the first half of the 14th century; the Ilkhanid minister Shams al-Din Juvayni had a canal dug from the city to Najaf, and the city was surrounded by a wall of sun-dried bricks.
## Ecclesiastical history {#ecclesiastical_history}
Anbar used to host an Assyrian community from the fifth century: the town was the seat of a bishopric of the Church of the East. The names of fourteen of its bishops of the period 486--1074 are known, three of whom became Chaldean Patriarchs of Babylon.
- Narses `{{fl.|540}}`{=mediawiki}
- Simeon `{{fl.|553}}`{=mediawiki}
- Salibazachi `{{fl.|714}}`{=mediawiki}
- Paul `{{fl.|740}}`{=mediawiki}
- Theodosius
- John `{{fl.|885}}`{=mediawiki}
- Enos 890
- Elias `{{fl.|906-920}}`{=mediawiki}
- Jaballaha `{{fl.|960}}`{=mediawiki}
- Sebarjesus
- Elias II `{{fl.|987}}`{=mediawiki}
- Unnamed bishop `{{fl.|1021}}`{=mediawiki}
- Mundar `{{fl.|1028}}`{=mediawiki}
- Maris `{{fl.|1075}}`{=mediawiki}
- Zacharias `{{fl.|1111}}`{=mediawiki}
### Titular see {#titular_see}
Anbar is listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see of the Chaldean Catholic Church, established as titular bishopric in 1980.
It has had the following incumbents:
- Titular Archbishop Stéphane Katchou (1980.10.03 -- 1981.11.10), as Coadjutor Archeparch of Bassorah of the Chaldeans (Iraq) (1980.10.03 -- 1981.11.10)
- Titular Bishop Ibrahim Namo Ibrahim (1982.01.11 -- 1985.08.03), as Apostolic Exarch in the United States of America (1982.01.11 -- 1985.08.03)
- Titular Bishop Shlemon Warduni (since 2001.01.12), Curial Bishop of the Chaldean Catholic Church
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# Anbar (town)
## Today
It is now entirely deserted, occupied only by mounds of ruins, whose great number indicate the city\'s former importance. Its ruins are 5 km northwest of Fallujah, with a circumference of some 6 km. The remains include traces of the late medieval wall, a square fortification, and the early Islamic mosque
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# Anazarbus
**Anazarbus**, also known as **Justinopolis**(*Ἀναζαρβός / Ίουστινούπολις*, medieval **Ain Zarba**; modern **Anavarza**; *عَيْنُ زَرْبَة*), was an ancient Cilician city. Under the late Roman Empire, it was the capital of Cilicia Secunda. Roman emperor Justinian I rebuilt the city in 527 after a strong earthquake hit it. It was destroyed in 1374 by the forces of the Mamluk Empire, after their conquest of Cilician Armenia.
## Location
It was situated in Anatolia in modern Turkey, in the present Çukurova (or classical Aleian plain) about 15 km west of the main stream of the present Ceyhan River (or classical Pyramus river) and near its tributary the Sempas Su.
A lofty isolated ridge formed its acropolis. Though some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, the Suda\'s identification of it with Cyinda, famous as a treasure city in the wars of Eumenes of Cardia, cannot be accepted in the face of Strabo\'s express location of Cyinda in western Cilicia.
## History
According to the *Suda*, the original name of the place was **Cyinda** or **Kyinda** or **Quinda** (*Κύϊνδα*); and that it was next called **Diocaesarea** (Διοκαισάρεια). A city in Cilicia called **Kundu** rebelled against the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 7th century BC, but it\'s unclear if there is a connection. At least it\'s known a city called **Anazarbus** (Ἀνάζαρβος) and **Anazarba** (Ἀνάζαρβα) and **Anazarbon** (Ἀνάζαρβον), situated on the river Pyramus, existed in the first century BC and was a part of the small client-kingdom of Tarcondimotus I until it was annexed by Rome. How the city obtained the name is a matter of conjecture. According to Stephanus of Byzantium, after the city was destroyed by an earthquake, the emperor Nerva sent thither one Anazarbus, a man of senatorial rank, who rebuilt the city, and gave to it his name. This account cannot be accurate, as Valesius remarks, for it was called Anazarbus in Pliny\'s time. There are three writers of antiquity from this city. Pedanius Dioscorides is called a native of Anazarbus; but the period of Dioscorides is not certain. It was also the home of the poet Oppian and the historian Asclepiades of Anazarba. Its later name was **Caesarea ad Anazarbum**, and there are many medals of the place in which it is both named Anazarbus and Caesarea at or under Anazarbus. On the division of Cilicia it became the chief place of the Roman province of Cilicia Secunda, with the title of Metropolis. Early in the sixth century, in the reign of Eastern Roman emperor Justin I, it was named **Justinopolis** or **Ioustinoupolis** (Ἰουστινούπολις). The city suffered from an earthquake in 526 and was rebuilt by Justinian I and renamed **Justinianopolis** or **Ioustinianoupolis** (Ἰουστινιανούπολις); but the old name persisted, and when Thoros I, king of Lesser Armenia, made it his capital early in the 12th century, it was known as **Anazarva**.
Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis pass, and near the great road which debouched from the Cilician Gates, made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the Eastern Roman Empire and the early Muslim invaders. It had been rebuilt by Harun al-Rashid in 796, refortified at great expense by the Hamdanid Sayf al-Dawla (mid-10th century) and again destroyed in 962 by Nikephoros II Phokas. In the 11th century it was again a major fortress, comparable to Tarsos and Marash, and belonged to the realm of Philaretos Brachamios before it was captured around 1084 by the Seljuk Turks. In late 1097 or early 1098 it was captured by the armies of the First Crusade and after the conquest of Antioch it was incorporated into Bohemond of Taranto\'s Principality of Antioch. The site briefly exchanged hands between the Byzantine Empire and Armenians, until it was formally part of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Anazarbus was one of a chain of Armenian fortifications stretching through Cilicia. The castle of Sis (modern Kozan, Adana) lies to the north while Tumlu Castle and Yilankale are to the south, and the fortresses of Amouda and Sarvandikar are to the east. The Mamluk Empire of Egypt finally destroyed the city in 1374.
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# Anazarbus
## Remains
The Crusaders are probably responsible for the construction of an impressive donjon atop the center of the outcrop. Most of the remaining fortifications, including the curtain walls, massive horseshoe-shaped towers, undercrofts, cisterns, and free-standing structures date from the Armenian periods of occupation, which began with the arrival of the Rubenid Baron T‛oros I, c. 1111. Within the fortress are two Armenian chapels and the magnificent (but severely damaged) three-aisle church built by T‛oros I to celebrate his conquests. The church was once surrounded by a continuous, well-executed dedicatory inscription in Armenian.
The present wall of the lower city is of late construction. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in which are a fine triumphal arch, the colonnades of two streets, a gymnasium, etc. A stadium and a theatre lie outside the walls to the south. The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock. There are no notable structures in the upper town. For picturesqueness the site is not equaled in Cilicia, and it is worthwhile to trace the three fine aqueducts to their sources. A necropolis on the escarpment to the south of the curtain wall can also be seen complete with signs of illegal modern excavations.
A modest Turkish farming village (Dilekkaya) lies to the southwest of the ancient city. A small outdoor museum with some of the artifacts collected in the area can be viewed for a small fee. Also nearby are some beautiful mosaics discovered in a farmers field.
A visit in December 2002 showed that the three aqueducts mentioned above have been nearly completely destroyed. Only small, isolated sections are left standing with the largest portion lying in a pile of rubble that stretches the length of where the aqueducts once stood. A powerful earthquake that struck the area in 1945 is thought to be responsible for the destruction.
In 2013, excavations uncovered the first known colonnaded double-lane road of the ancient world, 34 meters wide and 2700 meters long, also uncovered the ruins of a church and a bathhouse.
In 2017, archaeologists discovered a limestone statue of the goddess Hygieia and the god Eros. The statue is thought to date to the third or fourth century B.C.
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# Anazarbus
## Ecclesiastical history {#ecclesiastical_history}
Anazarbus was the capital and so also from 553 (the date of the Second Council of Constantinople) the metropolitan see of the Late Roman province of Cilicia Secunda.
In the 4th century, one of the bishops of Anazarbus was Athanasius, a \"consistent expounder of the theology of Arius.\" His theological opponent, Athanasius of Alexandria, in *De Synodis* 17, 1 refers to Anazarbus as Ναζαρβῶν.
Maximin of Anazarbus attended the Council of Chalcedon.
A 6th century *Notitia Episcopatuum* indicates that it had as suffragan sees Epiphania, Alexandria Minor, Irenopolis, Flavias, Castabala and Aegeae. Rhosus was also subject to Anazarbus, but after the 6th century was made exempt, and Mopsuestia was raised to the rank of autocephalous metropolitan see, though without suffragans.
### Latin Catholic titular see {#latin_catholic_titular_see}
The titular archbishopric was revived in the 18th century as a see of the Latin Catholic church, Anazarbus.
It is vacant, having had the following incumbents, generally of the highest (Metropolitan) rank, *with an episcopal (lowest rank) exception:*
- Titular Archbishop Giuseppe Maria Saporiti (1726.04.08 -- 1743.12.02)
- *Titular Bishop Isidro Alfonso Cavanillas (1753.04.09 -- 1755.05.12)*
- Titular Archbishop Gerolamo Formagliari (1760.07.21 -- 1781)
- Titular Archbishop Romain-Frédéric Gallard (1839.02.21 -- 1839.09.28)
- Titular Archbishop Andon Bedros Hassoun (1842.06.07 -- 1846.08.02), as Coadjutor Archeparch of Istanbul of the Armenians (Turkey) (1842.06.07 -- 1846.08.02), succeeded as Archeparch of Istanbul of the Armenians (Turkey) (1846.08.02 -- 1866.09.14), later Patriarch of Cilicia of the Armenians (Lebanon) (\[1866.09.14\] 1867.07.12 -- 1881.06), created Cardinal-Priest of Ss. Vitale, Valeria, Gervasio e Protasio (1880.12.16 -- 1884.02.28)
- Titular Archbishop Giorgio Labella, Friars Minor (O.F.M.) (1847.06.04 -- 1860.10.27)
- Titular Archbishop Charles Petre Eyre (1868.12.03 -- 1878.03.15)
- Titular Archbishop John Baptist Salpointe (1884.04.22 -- 1885.08.18)
- Titular Archbishop Michael Logue (1887.04.19 -- 1887.12.03) (later Cardinal)\*
- Titular Archbishop François Laurencin (1888.06.01 -- 1892.12.18)
- Titular Archbishop Joaquín Larraín Gandarillas (1893.06.15 -- 1897.09.26)
- Titular Archbishop Raimondo Ingheo (1907.12.16 -- 1911.07.08)
- Titular Archbishop Cláudio José Gonçalves Ponce de Leon, Lazarists (C.M.) (1912.01.09 -- 1924.05.26)
- Titular Archbishop Raymund Netzhammer, Benedictine Order(\] O.S.B.) (1924.07.14 -- 1945.09.18)
- Titular Archbishop Michele Akras (1945.10.27 -- 1947.02.05)
- Titular Archbishop Heinrich Döring (ハインリヒ・デーリング), S.J. (1948.01.15 -- 1951.12.17)
- Titular Archbishop Joseph-Marie Le Gouaze (1955.06.24 -- 1964.07.31)
### Armenian Catholic titular see {#armenian_catholic_titular_see}
In the 19th century, an Armenian Catholic titular bishopric of **Anazarbus (of the Armenians)** (**Anazarbus degli Armeni** in Curiate Italian) was established.
It was a suppressed in 1933, having had a single incumbent, of the intermediary (archiepiscopal) rank :
- Titular Archbishop Avedis Arpiarian (1898.04.05 -- 1911.08.27), previously Eparch of Kharput of the Armenians (1890.09.23 -- 1898.04.05); later Eparch of Marasc of the Armenians (1911.08.27 -- 1928.06.29), Auxiliary Eparch of the patriarchate Cilicia of the Armenians (Lebanon) (1928.06.29 -- 1931.10.17), Armenian Catholic Patriarch of Cilicia (Lebanon) (\[1931.10.17\] 1933.03.13 -- 1937.10.26)
## Notable locals {#notable_locals}
- Pedanius Dioscorides (1st century) Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist
- St. Domnina of Anazarbus
- St
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# Anadyr (river)
The **Anadyr** (*Ана́дырь*; Yukaghir: Онандырь; *Йъаайваам*) is a river in the far northeast of Siberia which flows into the Gulf of Anadyr of the Bering Sea and drains much of the interior of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Its basin corresponds to the Anadyrsky District of Chukotka.
## Geography
The Anadyr is 1150 km long and has a basin of 191000 km2. It is frozen from October to late May and has a maximum flow in June with the snowmelt. It is navigable in small boats for about 570 km to near Markovo. West of Markovo it is in the Anadyr Highlands (moderate mountains and valleys with a few trees) and east of Markovo it moves into the Anadyr Lowlands (very flat treeless tundra with lakes and bogs). The drop from Markovo to the sea is less than 100 ft.
It rises at about 67°N latitude and 171°E longitude in the Anadyr Highlands, near the headwaters of the Maly Anyuy, flows southwest receiving the waters of the rivers Yablon and Yeropol, turns east around the Shchuchy Range and passes Markvovo and the old site of Anadyrsk, turns north and east and receives the Mayn from the south, thereby encircling the Lebediny Zakaznik, turns northeast to receive the Belaya from the north in the Parapol-Belsky Lowlands, then past Ust-Belaya it turns southeast into the Anadyr Lowlands past the Ust-Tanyurer Zakaznik and receives the Tanyurer from the north. At Lake Krasnoye, it turns east and flows into the Onemen Bay of the Anadyr Estuary. If the Onemen Bay is considered part of the river, it also receives the Velikaya from the south and the Kanchalan from the north. Other important tributaries are the Yablon, Yeropol and Mamolina from the right and the Chineyveyem and Ubiyenka from the left.
Its basin is surrounded by the Amguema and Palyavaam basins to the north, the Bolshoy Anyuy, Oloy and Kolyma basins to the northwest, and the Penzhina basin to the southwest.
-- --
-- --
## History
In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev reached the mouth of the Anadyr after being shipwrecked on the coast. In 1649, he went upriver and built winter quarters at Anadyrsk. For the next 100 years, the Anadyr was the main route from the Arctic to the Pacific and Kamchatka. In the 18th century, the Anadyr was described by the polar explorer Dmitry Laptev.
## Ecology
The country through which it passes is thinly populated, and is dominated by tundra, with a rich variety of plant life. Much of the region\'s landscapes are dominated by rugged mountains. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow, and the frozen rivers become navigable roads. George Kennan, an American working on the Western Union Telegraph Expedition in the late 1860s, found that dog sled travel on the lower Anadyr was limited by lack of firewood.
Reindeer, upon which the local inhabitants subsisted, were once found in considerable numbers, but the domestic reindeer population has collapsed dramatically since the reorganization and privatization of state-run collective farms beginning in 1992. As herds of domestic reindeer have declined, herds of wild caribou have increased.
There are ten species of salmon inhabiting the Anadyr river basin. Every year, on the last Sunday in April, there is an ice fishing competition in the frozen estuarine waters of the Anadyr\'s mouth. This festival is locally known as **Korfest**.
The area is a summering place for a number of migratory birds including brent geese, Eurasian wigeons, and the pintails of California
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# Albertosaurus
***Albertosaurus*** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˌ|b|ɜːr|t|ə|ˈ|s|ɔːr|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; meaning \"Alberta lizard\") is a genus of large tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in northwestern North America during the early to middle Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous period, about 71 million years ago. The type species, *A. sarcophagus*, was apparently restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta, after which the genus is named, although an indeterminate species (\"cf. *Albertosaurus* sp.\") has been discovered in the Corral de Enmedio and Packard Formations of Mexico. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus and some recognize *Gorgosaurus libratus* as a second species.
As a tyrannosaurid, *Albertosaurus* was a bipedal predator with short arms, two-fingered hands, and a massive head with dozens of large, sharp teeth, a strong sense of smell, powerful binocular vision, and a bone crushing bite force. It may have even been the apex predator in its local ecosystem. While *Albertosaurus* was certainly large for a theropod, it was still much smaller than its larger and more famous relative *Tyrannosaurus rex*, growing up to 8 - in length and weighing 1.7 -.
Since the first discovery in 1884, fossils of more than 30 individuals have been recovered that provide scientists with a more detailed knowledge of *Albertosaurus* anatomy than what is available for most other tyrannosaurids. The discovery of 26 individuals in one particular site provides evidence of gregarious behavior and allows for studies of ontogeny and population biology. These are near impossible with lesser-known dinosaurs because their remains are rarer and more fragmentary when compared to those of *Albertosaurus*.
## History of discovery {#history_of_discovery}
### Naming
*Albertosaurus* was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in a one-page note at the end of his 1905 description of *Tyrannosaurus rex*. Its namesake is Alberta, the Canadian province established the very same year where the first remains were found. The generic name also incorporates the Greek word *σαυρος*/*sauros*, meaning \"lizard\", which is the most common suffix in dinosaur names. The type species is *Albertosaurus sarcophagus* and the specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek term σαρκοφάγος (**sarkophagos**), meaning \"flesh-eating\", and having the same etymology as the funeral container with which it shares its name, which is a combination of the Greek words σαρξ/**sarx** (\"flesh\") and *φαγειν*/**phagein** (\"to eat\"). More than 30 specimens of all ages are known to science.
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# Albertosaurus
## History of discovery {#history_of_discovery}
### Early discoveries {#early_discoveries}
The type specimen is a partial skull collected on June 9, 1884, from an outcrop of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation alongside the Red Deer River in Alberta. It was recovered by an expedition of the Geological Survey of Canada, led by the famous geologist Joseph Burr Tyrrell. Due to a lack of specialised equipment, the almost complete skull could only be partially secured. In 1889, Tyrrell\'s colleague Thomas Chesmer Weston found an incomplete smaller skull associated with some skeletal material at a location nearby. The two skulls were assigned to the preexisting species *Laelaps incrassatus* by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892. Although the name *Laelaps* was preoccupied by a genus of mite and had been changed to *Dryptosaurus* in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh, Cope stubbornly refused to recognize the new name created by his archrival. However, Lawrence Lambe used the name *Dryptosaurus incrassatus* instead of *Laelaps incrassatus* when he described the remains in detail in 1903 and 1904, which was a combination first coined by Oliver Perry Hay in 1902.
Shortly later, Osborn pointed out that *D. incrassatus* was based on generic tyrannosaurid teeth, so the two Horseshoe Canyon skulls could not be confidently referred to that species. The Horseshoe Canyon skulls also differed markedly from the remains of *D. aquilunguis*, type species of *Dryptosaurus*, so Osborn gave them the new name *Albertosaurus sarcophagus* in 1905. He did not describe the remains in any great detail, citing Lambe\'s complete description the year before. Both specimens, the holotype CMN 5600 and the paratype CMN 5601, are stored in the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa. By the early twenty-first century, some concerns had arisen that, due to the damaged state of the holotype, *Albertosaurus* might be a *nomen dubium* that could only be used for the type specimen itself because other fossils could not reliably be assigned to it. However, in 2010, Thomas Carr established that the holotype, the paratype, and comparable later finds all shared a single common unique trait, or autapomorphy. The possession of an enlarged pneumatic opening in the back rim of the side of the palatine bone proves that *Albertosaurus* is a valid taxon.
### Dry Island bone bed {#dry_island_bone_bed}
On August 11, 1910, American paleontologist Barnum Brown discovered the remains of a large group of *Albertosaurus* at another quarry alongside the Red Deer River. Because of the large number of bones and the limited time available, Brown\'s party did not collect every specimen, but made sure to collect remains from all of the individuals that they could identify in the bone bed. Among the bones deposited in the American Museum of Natural History collections in New York City are seven sets of right metatarsals, along with two isolated toe bones that did not match any of the metatarsals in size. This indicated the presence of at least nine individuals in the quarry. Palaeontologist Philip J. Currie of the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology rediscovered the bonebed in 1997 and resumed fieldwork at the site, which is now located inside Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park. Further excavation from 1997 to 2005 turned up the remains of 13 more individuals of various ages, including a diminutive two-year-old and a very old individual estimated at over 10 m long. None of these individuals are known from complete skeletons and most are represented by remains in both museums. Excavations continued until 2008, when the minimum number of individuals present had been established at 12 (on the basis of preserved elements that occur only once in a skeleton) and at 26 if mirrored elements were counted when differing in size due to ontogeny. A total of 1,128 *Albertosaurus* bones had been secured, which is the largest concentration of large theropod fossils known from the Cretaceous.
### Other discoveries {#other_discoveries}
In 1911, Barnum Brown, during the second year of the American Museum of Natural History\'s operations in Alberta, uncovered a fragmentary partial *Albertosaurus* skull at the Red Deer River near Tolman Bridge (specimen AMNH 5222).
William Parks described a new species in 1928, *Albertosaurus arctunguis*, based on a partial skeleton lacking a skull that was excavated by Gus Lindblad and Ralph Hornell near the Red Deer River in 1923, but this species has been considered identical to *A. sarcophagus* since 1970. Parks\' specimen (ROM 807) is housed in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.
No *Albertosaurus* fossils were found from 1926 to 1972, but there has been an increase in findings since then. Apart from the Dry Island bonebed, six more skulls and skeletons have since been discovered in Alberta and are housed in various Canadian museums. Specimen RTMP 81.010.001 was found in 1978 by amateur paleontologist Maurice Stefanuk. RTMP 85.098.001 was found by Stefanuk on June 16, 1985. RTMP 86.64.001 was found in December 1985. RTMP 86.205.001 was found in 1986. RTMP 97.058.0001 was found in 1996 and then there is CMN 11315. Unfortunately, none of these skeletons were found with complete skulls. Fossils have also been reported from the American states of Montana, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Missouri, but they are doubted to be from *A. sarcophagus* and may not even belong to the genus *Albertosaurus*.
Two specimens from \"cf *Albertosaurus* \".sp\" have been found in Mexico (Packard Formation and Corral de Enmedio Formation).
### *Gorgosaurus libratus* {#gorgosaurus_libratus}
In 1913, paleontologist Charles H. Sternberg recovered another tyrannosaurid skeleton from the slightly older Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. Lawrence Lambe named this dinosaur *Gorgosaurus libratus* in 1914. Other specimens were later found in Alberta and the US state of Montana. Finding no significant differences to separate the two taxa (due mostly to a lack of good *Albertosaurus* skull material), Dale Russell declared the name *Gorgosaurus* a junior synonym of *Albertosaurus*, which had been named first, and *G. libratus* was renamed *Albertosaurus libratus* in 1970. A species distinction was maintained because of the age difference. The addition extended the temporal range of the genus *Albertosaurus* earlier by several million years and its geographic range southwards by hundreds of kilometres.
In 2003, Philip J. Currie, benefiting from much more extensive finds and a general increase in anatomical knowledge of theropods, compared several tyrannosaurid skulls and came to the conclusion that the two species are more distinct than previously thought. As the two species are sister taxa, they are more closely related to each other than to any other species of tyrannosaurid. Recognizing this, Currie nevertheless recommended that *Albertosaurus* and *Gorgosaurus* be kept as separate genera, as he concluded that they were no more similar than *Daspletosaurus* and *Tyrannosaurus*, which are almost always separated. In addition to this, several albertosaurine specimens have been recovered from Alaska and New Mexico. Currie suggested that the *Albertosaurus*-*Gorgosaurus* situation may be clarified once these are fully described. Most authors have followed Currie\'s recommendation, but some have not.
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# Albertosaurus
## History of discovery {#history_of_discovery}
### Other species {#other_species}
In 1930, Anatoly Nikolaevich Riabinin named *Albertosaurus pericolosus* based on a tooth from China that probably belonged to *Tarbosaurus*. In 1932, Friedrich von Huene renamed *Dryptosaurus incrassatus*, not considered a *nomen dubium* by him, to *Albertosaurus incrassatus*. Because he had identified *Gorgosaurus* with *Albertosaurus*, in 1970, Russell also renamed *Gorgosaurus sternbergi* (Matthew & Brown 1922) into *Albertosaurus sternbergi* and *Gorgosaurus lancensis* (Gilmore 1946) into *Albertosaurus lancensis*. The former species is today seen as a juvenile form of *Gorgosaurus libratus* and the latter is seen as either identical to *Tyrannosaurus* or representing a separate genus, *Nanotyrannus*. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul based *Albertosaurus megagracilis* on a small tyrannosaurid skeleton, specimen LACM 28345, from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. It was renamed *Dinotyrannus* in 1995, but is now thought to represent a juvenile *Tyrannosaurus rex*. Also in 1988, Paul renamed *Alectrosaurus olseni* (Gilmore 1933) into *Albertosaurus olseni*, but this has found no general acceptance. In 1989, *Gorgosaurus novojilovi* (Maleev 1955) was renamed by Bryn Mader and Robert Bradley as *Albertosaurus novojilovi*.
On two occasions, species based on valid *Albertosaurus* material were reassigned to a different genus, *Deinodon*. In 1922, William Diller Matthew renamed *A. sarcophagus* into *Deinodon sarcophagus*. In 1939, German paleontologist Oskar Kuhn renamed *A. arctunguis* into *Deinodon arctunguis*.
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# Albertosaurus
## Description
*Albertosaurus* was a fairly large bipedal predator, but smaller than *Tarbosaurus* and *Tyrannosaurus rex*. Typical *Albertosaurus* adults measured up to 8 - long and weighed between 1.7 and in body mass.
*Albertosaurus* shared a similar body appearance with all other tyrannosaurids, *Gorgosaurus* in particular. Typical for a theropod, *Albertosaurus* was bipedal and balanced its large, heavy head and torso with a long, muscular tail. However, tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two functional fingers, the second being longer than the first. The legs were long and ended in a four-toed foot on which the first toe, the hallux, was very short and did not reach the ground. The third toe was longer than the rest. *Albertosaurus* may have been able to reach walking speeds of 14--21 km/hour (8--13 mi/hour). At least for the younger individuals, a high running speed is plausible.
Two skin impressions from *Albertosaurus* are known, and both show scales. One patch was found associated with some gastralic ribs and the impression of a long, unknown bone, indicating that the patch is from the belly. The scales are pebbly and gradually become larger and somewhat hexagonal in shape. Also preserved are two larger feature scales, placed 4.5 cm apart from each other, making *Albertosaurus*, along with *Carnotaurus*, the only known theropods with preserved feature scales. Another skin impression is from an unknown part of the body. These scales are small, diamond-shaped, and arranged in rows.
### Skull and teeth {#skull_and_teeth}
The massive skull of *Albertosaurus*, which was perched on a muscular, short, S-shaped neck, was about 1 m long in the largest adults. Wide openings in the skull, called fenestrae, provided space for muscle attachment sites and sensory organs that reduced its overall weight. Its long jaws contained, both sides combined, 58 or more banana-shaped teeth. Larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth, but *Gorgosaurus* had 62. Unlike most theropods, *Albertosaurus* and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont, with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth. The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the upper jaw, four per side, were much smaller than the rest, more closely packed, and D-shaped in cross section. Like with *Tyrannosaurus rex*, the maxillary (cheek) teeth of *Albertosaurus* were adapted in general form to resist lateral forces exerted by a struggling prey animal. The bite force of *Albertosaurus* was less formidable, however, with the maximum force, by the back teeth, reaching 3,413 Newtons. Above the eyes were short bony crests that may have been brightly coloured in life and possibly used, by males in particular, in courtship to attract a mate.
In 2001, William Abler observed that *Albertosaurus* tooth serrations resemble a crack in the tooth ending in a round void called an ampulla. Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling flesh off a body, so when a tyrannosaur pulled back on a piece of meat, the tension could cause a purely crack-like serration to spread through the tooth. However, the presence of the ampulla distributed these forces over a larger surface area and lessened the risk of damage to the tooth under strain. The presence of incisions ending in voids has parallels in human engineering. Guitar makers use incisions ending in voids to, as Abler describes, \"impart alternating regions of flexibility and rigidity\" to wood that they work on. The use of a drill to create an \"ampulla\" of sorts and prevent the propagation of cracks through material is also used to protect aircraft surfaces. Abler demonstrated that a plexiglass bar with incisions called \"kerfs\" and drilled holes was more than 25% stronger than one with only regularly placed incisions. Unlike tyrannosaurs, more ancient predators, like phytosaurs and *Dimetrodon*, had no adaptations to prevent the crack-like serrations of their teeth from spreading when subjected to the forces of feeding.
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# Albertosaurus
## Classification and systematics {#classification_and_systematics}
*Albertosaurus* is a member of the theropod family Tyrannosauridae, specifically the subfamily Albertosaurinae. Its closest relative is the slightly older *Gorgosaurus libratus* (sometimes called *Albertosaurus libratus*; see below). These two species are the only described albertosaurines, but other undescribed species may exist. Thomas Holtz found *Appalachiosaurus* to be an albertosaurine in 2004, but his more recent unpublished work places it as a basal eotyrannosaurian just outside of Tyrannosauridae, in agreement with other authors.
The other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is Tyrannosaurinae, which includes members like *Daspletosaurus*, *Tarbosaurus*, and *Tyrannosaurus*. Compared with the more robust tyrannosaurines, albertosaurines had slender builds, with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower legs (tibia) and feet (metatarsals and phalanges). Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen *et al.* in 2013.
## Palaeobiology
### Growth pattern {#growth_pattern}
Most age categories of *Albertosaurus* are represented in the fossil record. Using bone histology, the age of an individual animal at the time of death can often be determined, allowing growth rates to be estimated and compared with other species. The youngest known *Albertosaurus* is a two-year-old discovered in the Dry Island bonebed, which would have weighed about 50 kilograms (110 lb) and measured slightly more than 2 m long. The 10 m specimen from the same quarry is 28 years old, the oldest and largest one known. When specimens of intermediate age and size are plotted on a graph, an *S*-shaped growth curve results, with the most rapid growth occurring in a four-year period ending around the sixteenth year of life, a pattern also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The growth rate during this phase was 122 kg per year, based on an adult weighing 1.3 tonnes. Other studies have suggested higher adult weights, which would affect the magnitude of the growth rate, but not the overall pattern. Tyrannosaurids similar in size to *Albertosaurus* had similar growth rates, although the much larger *Tyrannosaurus rex* grew at almost five times this rate (601 kg per year) at its peak. The end of the rapid growth phase suggests the onset of sexual maturity in *Albertosaurus*, although growth continued at a slower rate throughout the animals\' lives. Sexual maturation while still actively growing appears to be a shared trait among small and large dinosaurs, as well as in large mammals like humans and elephants. This pattern of relatively early sexual maturation differs strikingly from the pattern in birds, which delay their sexual maturity until after they have finished growing.
During growth, thickening of the tooth morphology changed so much that, had the association of young and adult skeletons on the Dry Island bonebed not proven that they belonged to the same taxon, the teeth of juveniles would likely have been identified by statistical analysis as those of a different species.
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# Albertosaurus
## Palaeobiology
### Life history {#life_history}
Most known *Albertosaurus* individuals were aged 14 years or older at the time of death. Juvenile animals are rarely fossilized for several reasons, mainly preservation bias, where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field. Young *Albertosaurus* are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record when compared to adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history, rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile *Albertosaurus* are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did.
A hypothesis of *Albertosaurus* life history postulates that hatchlings died in large numbers, but have not been preserved in the fossil record because of their small size and fragile construction. After just two years, juveniles were larger than any other predator in the region, aside from adult *Albertosaurus*, and more fleet-footed than most of their prey animals. This resulted in a dramatic decrease in their mortality rate and a corresponding rarity of fossil remains. Mortality rates doubled at age twelve, perhaps the result of the physiological demands of the rapid growth phase, and then doubled again with the onset of sexual maturity between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. This elevated mortality rate continued throughout adulthood, perhaps due to the high physiological demands of procreation, including stress and injuries received during intraspecific competition for mates and resources, and the eventual, ever-increasing effects of senescence. The higher mortality rate in adults may explain their more common preservation. Very large animals were rare because few individuals survived long enough to attain such size. High infant mortality rates, followed by reduced mortality among juveniles and a sudden increase in mortality after sexual maturity, with very few animals reaching maximum size, is a pattern observed in many modern large mammals, including elephants, African buffalo, and rhinoceros. The same pattern is also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The comparison with modern animals and other tyrannosaurids lends support to this life history hypothesis, but bias in the fossil record may still play a large role, especially since more than two-thirds of all *Albertosaurus* specimens are known from the exact same locality.
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# Albertosaurus
## Palaeobiology
### Social behaviour {#social_behaviour}
The Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 26 *Albertosaurus*, the most individuals found in one locality of any large Cretaceous theropod and the second-most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the *Allosaurus* assemblage at the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah. The group seems to be composed of one very old adult, eight adults between 17 and 23 years old, seven sub-adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old, and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years old that had not yet reached the growth phase.
The near-absence of herbivore remains and the similar state of preservation common to the many individuals at the *Albertosaurus* bonebed quarry led Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap, such as the La Brea Tar Pits in California, and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time. Currie claims this as evidence of pack behavior. Other scientists are skeptical, observing that the animals may have been driven together by a drought, flood, or other reasons.
There is plentiful evidence for gregarious behaviour among herbivorous dinosaurs, including ceratopsians and hadrosaurs. However, only rarely are so many dinosaurian predators found at the same site. Small theropods, like *Deinonychus* and *Coelophysis*, have been found in aggregations, as have larger predators, such as *Allosaurus* and *Mapusaurus*. There is some evidence of gregarious behaviour in other tyrannosaurids as well, as fragmentary remains of smaller individuals were found alongside \"Sue\", the *Tyrannosaurus* mounted in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, and a bonebed in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana contains at least three specimens of *Daspletosaurus* preserved alongside several hadrosaurs. These findings may corroborate the evidence for social behaviour in *Albertosaurus*, although some or all of the above localities may represent temporary or unnatural aggregations. Others have speculated that, instead of social groups, at least some of these finds represent Komodo dragon-like mobbing of carcasses, where aggressive competition leads to some of the predators being killed and even cannibalized. The evidence of cannibalism was later reported in 2024 by Coppock and Currie.
Currie has also speculated on the pack-hunting habits of *Albertosaurus*. The leg proportions of the smaller individuals were comparable to those of ornithomimids, which were probably among the fastest dinosaurs. Younger *Albertosaurus* were probably equally fleet-footed or at least faster than their prey. Currie hypothesized that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults, who were larger and more powerful, but also slower. Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults, filling predator niches between the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods, the largest of which were two orders of magnitude smaller than adult *Albertosaurus* in mass. A similar situation is observed in modern Komodo dragons, with hatchlings beginning life as small insectivores before growing to become the dominant predators on their islands. However, as the preservation of behaviour in the fossil record is exceedingly rare, these ideas cannot readily be tested. In 2010, Currie, though still favouring the hunting pack hypothesis, admitted that the concentration could have been brought about by other causes, such as a slowly rising water level during an extended flood.
### Palaeopathology
In 2009, researchers hypothesized that smooth-edged holes found in the fossil jaws of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs, such as *Albertosaurus*, were caused by a parasite similar to *Trichomonas gallinae*, which infects birds. They suggested that tyrannosaurids transmitted the infection by biting each other and that the infection impaired their ability to eat.
In 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. They found that only one of the 319 *Albertosaurus* foot bones checked for stress fractures actually had them and none of the four hand bones did. The scientists found that stress fractures were \"significantly\" less common in *Albertosaurus* than in the carnosaur *Allosaurus*. ROM 807, the holotype of *A. arctunguis* (now referred to *A. sarcophagus*), had a abbr=on 2.5 by 3.5 deep hole in the iliac blade, although the describer of the species did not recognize this as pathological. The specimen also contains some exostosis on the fourth left metatarsal. In 1970, two of the five *Albertosaurus sarcophagus* specimens with humeri were reported by Dale Russel as having pathological damage to them.
In 2010, the health of the Dry Island *Albertosaurus* assembly was reported upon. Most specimens showed no sign of disease. On three phalanges of the foot, strange bony spurs that consisted of abnormal ossifications of the tendons, so-called enthesophytes, were present, but their cause is unknown. Two ribs and a belly-rib showed signs of breaking and healing. One adult specimen had a left lower jaw showing a puncture wound and both healed and unhealed bite marks. The low number of abnormalities compares favourably with the health condition of a *Majungasaurus* population of which it was established, in 2007, that 19% of individuals showed bone pathologies.
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# Albertosaurus
## Palaeoecology
Most fossils of *Albertosaurus sarcophagus* are known from the upper Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta. These younger units of this geologic formation date to the early Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous period, about 70 to 68 million years ago. Immediately below this formation is the Bearpaw Shale, a marine formation representing a section of the Western Interior Seaway. The Inland Sea was receding as the climate cooled and sea levels subsided towards the end of the Cretaceous, thus exposing land that had previously been underwater. It was not a smooth process, however, and the seaway would periodically rise to cover parts of the region throughout Horseshoe Canyon before finally receding altogether in the years after. Due to the changing sea levels, many different environments are represented in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, including offshore and near-shore marine habitats and coastal habitats, such as lagoons, estuaries, and tidal flats. Numerous coal seams represent ancient peat swamps. Like most of the other vertebrate fossils from the formation, *Albertosaurus* remains are found in deposits laid down in the deltas and floodplains of large rivers during the later half of Horseshoe Canyon times.
The fauna of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well-known, as vertebrate fossils, including those of dinosaurs, are very common. Sharks, rays, sturgeons, bowfins, gars, and the gar-like *Aspidorhynchus* made up the fish fauna. Mammals included multituberculates and the marsupial *Didelphodon*. The saltwater plesiosaur *Leurospondylus* has been found in marine sediments in the Horseshoe Canyon, while freshwater environments were populated by turtles, *Champsosaurus*, and crocodilians like *Leidyosuchus* and *Stangerochampsa*. Dinosaurs dominate the fauna, especially hadrosaurs, which make up half of all dinosaurs known. These include the genera *Edmontosaurus*, *Saurolophus*, and *Hypacrosaurus*. Ceratopsians and ornithomimids were also very common, together making up another third of the known fauna. Along with much rarer ankylosaurians and pachycephalosaurs, all of these animals would have been prey for a diverse array of carnivorous theropods, including troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and caenagnathids. Intermingled with the *Albertosaurus* remains of the Dry Island bonebed, the bones of the small theropod *Albertonykus* were found. Adult *Albertosaurus* were the apex predators in their environment, with intermediate niches possibly filled by juvenile *Albertosaurus*
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# Ambrosia
thumb\|upright=1.2\|*The Food of the Gods on Olympus* (1530), majolica dish attributed to Nicola da Urbino
In the ancient Greek myths, **ambrosia** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|m|ˈ|b|r|oʊ|z|i|ə|,_|-|ʒ|ə}}`{=mediawiki}, *ἀμβροσία \'immortality\'*) is the food or drink of the Greek gods, and is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it. It was brought to the gods in Olympus by doves and served either by Hebe or by Ganymede at the heavenly feast.
Ancient art sometimes depicted ambrosia as distributed by the nymph named Ambrosia, a nurse of Dionysus.
## Definition
Ambrosia is very closely related to the gods\' other form of sustenance, *nectar*. The two terms may not have originally been distinguished; though in Homer\'s poems nectar is usually the drink and ambrosia the food of the gods; it was with ambrosia that Hera \"cleansed all defilement from her lovely flesh\", and with ambrosia Athena prepared Penelope in her sleep, so that when she appeared for the final time before her suitors, the effects of years had been stripped away, and they were inflamed with passion at the sight of her. On the other hand, in Alcman, nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides, ambrosia is the drink. A character in Aristophanes\' *Knights* says, \"I dreamed the goddess poured ambrosia over your head---out of a ladle.\" Both descriptions could be correct, as ambrosia could be a liquid considered a food (such as honey).
The consumption of ambrosia was typically reserved for divine beings. Upon his assumption into immortality on Olympus, Heracles is given ambrosia by Athena, while the hero Tydeus is denied the same thing when the goddess discovers him eating human brains. In one version of the myth of Tantalus, part of Tantalus\' crime is that after tasting ambrosia himself, he attempts to steal some to give to other mortals. Those who consume ambrosia typically have ichor, not blood, in their veins.
Both nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume: in the *Odyssey* Menelaus and his men are disguised as seals in untanned seal skins, \"and the deadly smell of the seal skins vexed us sore; but the goddess saved us; she brought ambrosia and put it under our nostrils.\" Homer speaks of ambrosial raiment, ambrosial locks of hair, even the gods\' ambrosial sandals.
Among later writers, ambrosia has been so often used with generic meanings of \"delightful liquid\" that such late writers as Athenaeus, Paulus and Dioscurides employ it as a technical term in contexts of cookery, medicine, and botany. Pliny used the term in connection with different plants, as did early herbalists.
Additionally, some modern ethnomycologists, such as Danny Staples, identify ambrosia with the hallucinogenic mushroom *Amanita muscaria*: \"it was the food of the gods, their ambrosia, and nectar was the pressed sap of its juices\", Staples asserts.
W. H. Roscher thinks that both nectar and ambrosia were kinds of honey, in which case their power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing powers of honey, and because fermented honey (mead) preceded wine as an entheogen in the Aegean world; on some Minoan seals, goddesses were represented with bee faces (compare Merope and Melissa).
## Etymology
The concept of an immortality drink is attested in at least two ancient Indo-European languages: Greek and Sanskrit. The Greek ἀμβροσία (*ambrosia*) is semantically linked to the Sanskrit *अमृत* (*amṛta*) as both words denote a drink or food that gods use to achieve immortality. The two words appear to be derived from the same Indo-European form \**ṇ-mṛ-tós*, \"un-dying\" (*n-*: negative prefix from which the prefix *a-* in both Greek and Sanskrit are derived; *mṛ*: zero grade of \**mer-*, \"to die\"; and *-to-*: adjectival suffix). A semantically similar etymology exists for nectar, the beverage of the gods (Greek: νέκταρ *néktar*) presumed to be a compound of the PIE roots *\*nek-*, \"death\", and *-\*tar*, \"overcoming\".
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# Ambrosia
## Other examples in mythology {#other_examples_in_mythology}
- In one version of the story of the birth of Achilles, Thetis anoints the infant with ambrosia and passes the child through the fire to make him immortal but Peleus, appalled, stops her, leaving only his heel unimmortalised (*Argonautica* 4.869--879).
- In the *Iliad* xvi, Apollo washes the black blood from the corpse of Sarpedon and anoints it with ambrosia, readying it for its dreamlike return to Sarpedon\'s native Lycia. Similarly, Thetis anoints the corpse of Patroclus in order to preserve it. Ambrosia and nectar are depicted as unguents (xiv. 170; xix. 38).
- In the *Odyssey*, Calypso is described as having \"spread a table with ambrosia and set it by Hermes, and mixed the rosy-red nectar.\" It is ambiguous whether he means the ambrosia itself is rosy-red, or if he is describing a rosy-red nectar Hermes drinks along with the ambrosia. Later, Circe mentions to Odysseus that a flock of doves are the bringers of ambrosia to Olympus.
- In the *Odyssey* (ix.345--359), Polyphemus likens the wine given to him by Odysseus to ambrosia and nectar.
- One of the impieties of Tantalus, according to Pindar, was that he offered to his guests the ambrosia of the Deathless Ones, a theft akin to that of Prometheus, Karl Kerenyi noted (in *Heroes of the Greeks*).
- In the Homeric hymn to Aphrodite, the goddess uses \"ambrosial bridal oil that she had ready perfumed.\"
- In the story of *Eros and Psyche* as told by Apuleius, Psyche is given ambrosia upon her completion of the quests set by Aphrodite and her acceptance on Olympus. After she partakes, she and Eros are wed as gods.
- In the *Aeneid*, Aeneas encounters his mother in an alternate, or illusory form. When she became her godly form \"Her hair\'s ambrosia breathed a holy fragrance.\"
## Ambrosia (nymph) {#ambrosia_nymph}
Lycurgus, king of Thrace, forbade the cult of Dionysus, whom he drove from Thrace, and attacked the gods\' entourage when they celebrated the god. Among them was Ambrosia, who turned herself into a grapevine to hide from his wrath. Dionysus, enraged by the king\'s actions, drove him mad. In his fit of insanity he killed his son, whom he mistook for a stock of ivy, and then himself
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# Ambracia
**Ambracia** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|m|ˈ|b|r|eɪ|ʃ|ə}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἀμβρακία*, occasionally *Ἀμπρακία*, *Ampracia*) was a city of ancient Greece on the site of modern Arta. It was founded by the Corinthians in 625 BC and was situated about 11 km from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend of the navigable river Arachthos (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain.
## Name
It was named after Ambracia, who according to some myths was Augeas daughter, while others describe her as Apollo\'s granddaughter and the daughter of Melaneus, king of the Dryope.
According to a different story, the town was named after Ambrax, Thesprotus son and Lycaon\'s grandson.
## History
Ambracia was founded between 650 and 625 BC by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus, at which time its economy was based on farmlands, fishing, timber for shipbuilding, and the exportation of the produce of Epirus. After the expulsion of Gorgus\'s son Periander its government developed into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the Epirus trade), and its consequent aversion to Corcyra (as Ambracia participated on the Corinthian side at the Battle of Sybota, which took place in 433 BC between the rebellious Corinthian colony of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and Corinth).
Ambraciot politics featured many frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the Peloponnesian War until the crushing defeat at Idomene (426), which crippled its resources.
In the 4th century BC, it continued its traditional policy but in 338 was besieged by Philip II of Macedon. With the assistance of Corinth and Athens, it escaped complete domination at Philip\'s hands but was nevertheless forced to accept a Macedonian garrison. In 294 BC, after forty-three years of semi-autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty, Ambracia was given by the son of Cassander to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who made it his capital and adorned it with palaces, temples, and theatres. In the wars of Philip V of Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian League (220--205), Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the Aetolians against Rome, it withstood a stubborn siege, including the first known use of poison gas against the Romans\' siege tunnels. There was an ancient book, titled *Ambrakika* (Ἀμβρακικά), by the writer Athanadas, that detailed the history of Ambracia. No copies of the work survive, but it was referred to by later writers such as Antoninus Liberalis as an authority on the subject.
Ambracia was captured and plundered by Marcus Fulvius Nobilior in 189 BC, after which it was declared by Rome a \"free city\" and gradually fell into insignificance. The foundation by Augustus of Nicopolis, into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate. In Byzantine times a new settlement took its place under the name of Arta. Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia.
## Ambraciotes
### Artists
- Epigonus of Ambracia, 6th BC musician
- Nicocles, auletes
- Hippasus, tragic actor
- Epicrates of Ambracia, c
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# Alphorn
The **alphorn** (*\'\'\'Alphorn\'\'\', \'\'\'Alpenhorn\'\'\'*; *\'\'\'cor des Alpes\'\'\'*; *\'\'\'corno alpino\'\'\'*) is a traditional lip-reed wind instrument. It consists of a very long straight wooden natural horn, with a length of 3 to, a conical bore and a wooden cup-shaped mouthpiece. Traditionally the alphorn was made in one piece from the trunk of a pine. Modern alphorns are usually made in three detachable sections for easier transport and handling, carved from blocks of spruce. The alphorn is used by rural communities in the Alps. Similar wooden horns were used for communication in most mountainous regions of Europe, from the Alps to the Carpathians.
## History
The alphorn may have developed from instruments like the *\[\[lituus\]\]*, a similarly shaped Etruscan instrument of classical antiquity, although there is little documented evidence of a continuous connection between them. A 2nd century Roman mosaic, found in Boscéaz, depicts a shepherd using a similar straight horn. The use of long signal horns in mountainous areas throughout Europe and Asia may indicate a long history of cultural cross-influences regarding their construction and usage.
The first documented use of the German word *Alphorn* is in a payment recorded in the 1527 accounts ledger of Saint Urban\'s Abbey in Pfaffnau. Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner used the words *lituum alpinum* for the first known detailed description of the alphorn, in his *De raris et admirandis herbis* (1555); in his time, the word *lituus* was used for several other wind instruments, like the horn, crumhorn, or cornett. In the early 17th century, music scholar Michael Praetorius in his treatise *Syntagma Musicum* (1614--1620) depicts an alphorn-like instrument he called a *Hölzern Trummet* (\"wooden trumpet\"), noting they are used by shepherds.
From the 17th to 19th century, alphorns were used in rural areas of the Alps, for signalling between high pastures across the valleys and to communities on the valley floor. The alphorn sounds can carry for several kilometres, and were even used to collect together dispersed herds. Although use by herdsmen had waned by the early 19th century, a revival of interest in the musical qualities of the instrument followed by the end of the century, and the alphorn became important in tourism, and inspired Romantic composers such as Beethoven and Gustav Mahler to add alphorn, or traditional alphorn melodies, to their pieces.
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# Alphorn
## Construction and qualities {#construction_and_qualities}
The alphorn is carved from solid softwood, usually pine or spruce. Traditionally, the alphorn maker would find a tree growing on a slope and bent at the base providing the curved shape for the bell. The long trunk would be cut in half longways, the bore hollowed out, then glued and bound back together with outer layers of stripped bark. Modern instruments are made in several sections for more convenient handling and transport, each turned and bored from solid blocks of spruce. An integrated cup-shaped mouthpiece was traditionally carved into the narrow end, while modern instruments have a separate removable mouthpiece carved from hard wood.
An alphorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwyz, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, measures 8 ft in length and has a straight tube. The Swiss alphorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland.
The alphorn is a simple tube with no lateral openings or means of adjusting the pitch, so only the notes of the natural harmonic series are available. As with other natural labrosones, some of the notes do not correspond to the Western equal tempered chromatic scale, particularly the 7th and 11th partials.
Accomplished alphornists can command a range of nearly three octaves, consisting of the 2nd through the 16th partials. The availability of the higher tones is due in part to the relatively small diameter of the bore of the mouthpiece and tubing in relation to the overall length of the horn.
The well-known \"Ranz des Vaches\" ([score](https://web.archive.org/web/19980214205945/http://www.lyoba.ch/culture/desalpe/ranz.htm#PARTITION); [audio](http://www.bavarianinfo.ch/eng/bavarianinfo.html?sid=7020216&cKey=1183635931000&ty=st&rubricId=25004&siteSect=25001)`{{Dead link|date=February 2023}}`{=mediawiki}) is a traditional Swiss melody often heard on the alphorn. The song describes the time of bringing the cows to the high country at milk making time.`{{clarify|date=October 2023}}`{=mediawiki} Rossini introduced the \"Ranz des Vaches\" into his masterpiece *William Tell*, along with many other melodies scattered throughout the opera in vocal and instrumental parts that are well-suited to the alphorn. Brahms wrote to Clara Schumann that the inspiration for the dramatic entry of the horn in the introduction to the last movement of his First Symphony was an alphorn melody he heard while vacationing in the Rigi area of Switzerland. For Clara\'s birthday in 1868 Brahms sent her a greeting that was to be sung with the melody.
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# Alphorn
## Repertoire
Among music composed for the alphorn:
- Concerto Grosso No. 1 (2013) for four alphorns and orchestra by Georg Friedrich Haas
- *Sinfonia pastorale* for corno pastoriccio in G (alphorn) and string orchestra (1755) by Leopold Mozart
- Concerto for alphorn and orchestra (1970) by Jean Daetwyler
- Concerto No. 2 for alphorn (with flute, string orchestra and percussion) (1983) by Daetwyler
- *Dialogue with Nature* for alphorn, flute, and orchestra by Daetwyler
- *Super Alpen King* for three alphorns and orchestra by Ghislain Muller (2001) VSP orkestra / Arkady Shilkloper, Renaud Leipp
- *Concertino rustico* (1977) by Ferenc Farkas
- *Begegnung* for three alphorns and concert band, by Kurt Gable.
- *Säumerweg-Blues* [(audio played by Kurt Ott)](https://www.alphornmusik.ch/noten/alphorn-mit-orgel-klavier/saeumerweg-blues.php) among many compositions by Hans-Jürg Sommer, [Alphorn Musik](http://www.alphornmusik.ch)
- *Messe* for alphorn and choir by Franz Schüssele [Alphorn-Center](http://www.alphorn-center.de)
- *Erbauliche Studie für 12 Alphörner in Abwesenheit von Bergen* by Mathias Rüegg (1998)
- *Wolf Music: Tapio* for alphorn and echoing instruments (2003) by R. Murray Schafer
- *Le Berger fantaisiste* for three alphorns and orchestra by Ghislain Muller, Arkady Shilkloper, Renaud Leipp, Serge Haessler, VSP orkestra (2001)
- *Bob Downes & The Alphorn Brothers* (2015) by Bob Downes Open Music (CD rec. 2004)
- Concerto for alphorn in F and orchestra by Daniel Schnyder (2004)
- *Matterhorn* (a prelude for alphorn and wind orchestra) by Robert Litton (2013)
- *Alpine Trail* for alphorn and orchestra by Arkady Shilkloper
- \'\'Alpine Sketch\" for alphorn and big band by Arkady Shilkloper
- *Lai nair* for alphorn and contrabass by John Wolf Brennan (2015)
- *Der Bergschuh* for alphorn and marching band by Daniel Schnyder
- *Crested Butte Mountain* for alphorn and wind band (or brass sextet, strings, or horn septet) by Arkady Shilkloper
- *Robin* for alphorn and wind band (big band) by Arkady Shilkloper
- Fanfare for four alphorns by Arkady Shilkloper
- Tanz der Kuhe by Carlo Brunner/Lisa Stoll
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
- The alphorn is prominently featured in advertisements for Ricola cough drops
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# Alligatoridae
The family **Alligatoridae** of crocodylians includes alligators, caimans and their extinct relatives.
## Phylogeny
The superfamily Alligatoroidea includes all crocodilians (fossil and extant) that are more closely related to the American alligator than to either the Nile crocodile or the gharial. This is a stem-based definition for alligators, and is more inclusive than the crown group Alligatoridae. As a crown group, Alligatoridae only includes the last common ancestor of all extant (living) alligators, caimans, and their descendants (living or extinct), whereas Alligatoroidea, as a stem-based group, also includes more basal extinct alligator ancestors that are more closely related to living alligators than to crocodiles or gavialids. When considering only living taxa (neontology), Alligatoroidea and Alligatoridae contain the same species.
The simplified cladogram below shows Alligatoridae\'s relationships to other extant (living) crocodilians. `{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1='''[[Crocodylia]]'''
|sublabel1=([[crown group]])
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Alligatoroidea]]
|sublabel1=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|1={{clade |state1=dashed
|1=''[[Leidyosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Diplocynodontinae]]{{extinct}}
|1=''[[Diplocynodon]]''{{extinct}}
|label2=[[Globidonta]]
|sublabel2=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|2={{clade
|1=extinct [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Alligatoroid Globidontans{{extinct}}
|label2='''Alligatoridae'''
|sublabel2=([[crown group]])
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Caimaninae]]
|sublabel1=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Caiman (genus)|Caiman]]'' [[File:Caiman crocodilus llanos white background.JPG|90 px]]
|2=''[[Melanosuchus]]'' [[File:Melanosuchus niger white background.jpg|120 px]] }}
|2=''[[Paleosuchus]]'' [[File:Dwarf Caiman white background.jpg|90 px]] }}
|label2=[[Alligatorinae]]
|sublabel2=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|2=''[[Alligator]]'' [[File:Alligator white background.jpg|100 px]] }} }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1=extinct [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Crocodilians{{extinct}} (possibly including [[Mekosuchinae]]{{extinct}})
|label2=[[Longirostres]]
|sublabel2=([[crown group]])
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Crocodyloidea]]
|sublabel1=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|1={{clade
|1=extinct [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] crocodiles{{extinct}}
|2=[[Crocodylidae]] ([[crown group]]) [[File:Siamese Crocodile white background.jpg|90 px]] }}
|label2=[[Gavialoidea]]
|sublabel2=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|2={{clade
|1=extinct [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Gavialoids{{extinct}}
|label2=[[Gavialidae]]
|sublabel2=([[crown group]])
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Gavialis]]'' [[File:Gavialis gangeticus (Gharial, Gavial) white background.jpg|110 px]]
|2=''[[Tomistoma]]'' [[File:Tomistoma schlegelii. white background.JPG|90 px]] }} }} }} }} }} }}`{=mediawiki}
Alligatoridae contains eight living species: two alligators within Alligatorinae, and the six caimans of Caimaninae. Phylogenetic studies using molecular DNA consistently resolve their relationships as follows: `{{clade
|label1='''Alligatoridae'''
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Caimaninae]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Paleosuchus palpebrosus'' [[Cuvier's dwarf caiman]]
|2=''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' [[Schneider's dwarf caiman]] }}
|label2=[[Jacarea]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Caiman crocodilus'' [[Spectacled caiman]]
|2=''Caiman yacare'' [[Yacare caiman]] }}
|2=''Caiman latirostris'' [[Broad-snouted caiman]] }}
|2=''Melanosuchus niger'' [[Black caiman]] }} }}
|label2=[[Alligatorinae]]
|2={{clade
|1=''Alligator sinensis'' [[Chinese alligator]]
|2=''Alligator mississippiensis'' [[American alligator]] }} }} }}`{=mediawiki}
The below detailed cladogram shows one proposal for the internal relationships within Alligatoridae including fossil species, based on morphological analysis (although the exact alligatoroid phylogeny is still disputed). `{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1='''[[Alligatoroidea]]'''
|sublabel1=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Leidyosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Diplocynodon]]''{{extinct}}
|label2='''Alligatoridae'''
|sublabel2=([[crown group]])
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Alligatorinae]]
|sublabel1=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Ceratosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Allognathosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|3=''[[Navajosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|4=''[[Arambourgia]]''{{extinct}}
|5=''[[Procaimanoidea]]''{{extinct}}
|6={{clade
|1=''[[Wannaganosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Alligator prenasalis]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Alligator mcgrewi]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Alligator olseni]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''Alligator sinensis'' [[Chinese alligator]]
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Culebrasuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''Alligator mississippiensis'' [[American alligator]]
|2=''[[Alligator mefferdi]]''{{extinct}}
|3=''[[Alligator thomsoni]]''{{extinct}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}
|label2=[[Caimaninae]]
|sublabel2=([[stem-based taxon|stem-based group]])
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Stangerochampsa]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Albertochampsa]]''{{extinct}}
|3=''[[Brachychampsa]]''{{extinct}} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Protocaiman]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Gnatusuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Globidentosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Eocaiman]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Notocaiman]]''{{extinct}} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Kuttanacaiman]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Purussaurus]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Mourasuchus]]''{{extinct}} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Necrosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Tsoabichi]]''{{extinct}}
|3={{clade
|1=''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' [[Smooth-fronted caiman]]
|2=''Paleosuchus palpebrosus'' [[Cuvier's dwarf caiman]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Centenariosuchus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Caiman latirostris'' [[Broad-snouted caiman]]
|2=''Melanosuchus niger'' [[Black caiman]] }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Caiman yacare'' [[Yacare caiman]]
|2=''Caiman crocodilus'' [[Spectacled caiman]] }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Caiman brevirostris]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=La Venta Caiman{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Caiman wannlangstoni]]''{{extinct}}
}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}`{=mediawiki}
## Evolution
The superfamily Alligatoroidea is thought to have split from the crocodile-gharial lineage in the late Cretaceous, about 87 million years ago. *Leidyosuchus* of Alberta is among the earliest known genera. Fossil alligatoroids have been found throughout Eurasia as land bridges across both the North Atlantic and the Bering Strait have connected North America to Eurasia during the Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Neogene periods. Alligators and caimans split in North America during the early Tertiary or late Cretaceous (about 53 million to about 65 million years ago) and the latter reached South America by the Paleogene, before the closure of the Isthmus of Panama during the Neogene period. The Chinese alligator split from the American alligator about 33 million years ago and likely descended from a lineage that crossed the Bering land bridge during the Neogene. The modern American alligator is well represented in the fossil record of the Pleistocene. The alligator\'s full mitochondrial genome was sequenced in the 1990s. The full genome, published in 2014, suggests that the alligator evolved much more slowly than mammals and birds.
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# Alligatoridae
## True alligators {#true_alligators}
The lineage including alligators proper (Alligatorinae) occurs in the fluvial deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they died out in the Pliocene age. The true alligators are today represented by two species, *A. mississippiensis* in the southeastern United States which can grow to 15.6 ft and weigh 1000 lb, with unverified sizes of up to 19.2 ft, and the small *A. sinensis* in the Yangtze River, China, which grows to an average of 5 ft. Their name derives from the Spanish *el lagarto*, which means \"the lizard\".
## Caimans
In Central and South America, the alligator family is represented by six species of the subfamily Caimaninae, which differ from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and having ventral armour composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Besides the three species in *Caiman*, the smooth-fronted caimans in genus *Paleosuchus* and the black caiman in *Melanosuchus* are described. Caimans tend to be more agile and crocodile-like in their movements, and have longer, sharper teeth than alligators.
*C. crocodilus*, the spectacled caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 2.2 m. The largest is the near-threatened *Melanosuchus niger*, the *jacaré-açu* or large or black caiman of the Amazon River basin. Black caimans grow to 14.5 ft, with the unverified size of up to 5.7 m. The black caiman and American alligator are the only members of the alligator family that pose the same danger to humans as the larger species of the crocodile family.
Although caimans have not been studied in depth, scientists have learned their mating cycles (previously thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels, which increases chances of survival for their offspring
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# Alder
**Alders** are trees of the genus ***Alnus*** in the birch family Betulaceae. The genus includes about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone with a few species extending into Central America, as well as the northern and southern Andes.
## Description
With a few exceptions, alders are deciduous, and the leaves are alternate, simple, and serrated. The flowers are catkins with elongate male catkins on the same plant as shorter female catkins, often before leaves appear; they are mainly wind-pollinated, but also visited by bees to a small extent. These trees differ from the birches (*Betula*, another genus in the family) in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many conifer cones.
The largest species are red alder (*A. rubra*) on the west coast of North America, and black alder (*A. glutinosa*), native to most of Europe and widely introduced elsewhere, both reaching over 30 m. By contrast, the widespread *Alnus alnobetula* (green alder) is rarely more than a 5 m shrub.
## Phylogeny
### Classification
The genus is divided into three subgenera:
#### Subgenus *Alnus* {#subgenus_alnus}
Trees with stalked shoot buds, male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) but stay closed over winter, pollinating in late winter or early spring, about 15--25 species, including:
- *Alnus acuminata* `{{small|Kunth}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *acuminata* `{{small|Kunth}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *arguta* `{{small|(Schltdl.) Furlow}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *glabrata* `{{small|(Fernald) Furlow}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus cordata* `{{small|(Loisel.) Duby}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus cremastogyne* `{{small|Burkill}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus firma* `{{small|Siebold & Zucc.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus glutinosa* `{{small|(L.) Gaertn.}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *barbata* `{{small|(C.A.Mey.) Yalt.}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *glutinosa* `{{small|(L.) Gaertn.}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *incisa* `{{small|(Willd.) Regel}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *laciniata* `{{small|(Willd.) Regel}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus hirsuta* `{{small|(Spach) Rupr.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus incana* `{{small|(L.) Moench}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *incana* `{{small|(L.) Moench}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *kolaensis* `{{small|(Orlova) Á.Löve & D.Löve}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *rugosa* `{{small|(Du Roi) R.T.Clausen}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *tenuifolia* `{{small|(Nutt.) Breitung}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus japonica* `{{small|(Thunb.) Steud.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus jorullensis* `{{small|Kunth}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *lutea* `{{small|Furlow}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *jorullensis* `{{small|Kunth}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus lusitanica* `{{small|Vít, Douda, & Mandák}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus matsumurae* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus nepalensis* `{{small|D.Don}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus oblongifolia* `{{small|Torr.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus orientalis* `{{small|Decne.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus rhombifolia* `{{small|Nutt.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus rohlenae* `{{small|Vít, Douda, & Mandák}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus rubra* `{{small|Bong.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus serrulata* `{{small|(Aiton) Willd.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus subcordata* `{{small|C.A.Mey.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus tenuifolia* `{{small|Nutt.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus trabeculosa* `{{small|Hand.-Mazz.}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Subgenus *Clethropsis* {#subgenus_clethropsis}
Trees or shrubs with stalked shoot buds, male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) and expanding and pollinating then, three species:
- *Alnus formosana* `{{small|(Burkill) Makino}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus maritima* `{{small|(Marshall) Muhl. ex Nutt.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus nitida* `{{small|(Spach) Endl.}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Subgenus *Alnobetula* {#subgenus_alnobetula}
Shrubs with shoot buds not stalked, male and female catkins produced in late spring (after leaves appear) and expanding and pollinating then, one to four species:
- *Alnus alnobetula* `{{small|(Ehrh.) K.Koch}}`{=mediawiki} (synonym-*Alnus viridis*)
- subsp. *alnobetula* `{{small|(Ehrh.) K.Koch}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *crispa* `{{small|(Aiton) Raus}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *fruticosa* `{{small|(Rupr.) Raus}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *sinuata* `{{small|(Regel) Raus}}`{=mediawiki}
- subsp. *suaveolens* `{{small|(Req.) Lambinon & Kerguélen}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus firma* `{{small|Siebold & Zucc.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus mandshurica* `{{small|(Callier) Hand.-Mazz.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus maximowiczii* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus pendula* `{{small| Matsum.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus sieboldiana* `{{small| Matsum.}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Not assigned to a subgenus {#not_assigned_to_a_subgenus}
- *Alnus fauriei* `{{small|H.Lév. & Vaniot}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus ferdinandi-coburgii* `{{small|C.K.Schneid.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus glutipes* `{{small|(Jarm. ex Czerpek) Vorosch.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus hakkodensis* `{{small|Hayashi}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus henryi* `{{small|C.K.Schneid.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus lanata* `{{small|Duthie ex Bean}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus mairei* `{{small|H.Lév.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus paniculata* `{{small|Nakai}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus serrulatoides* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus vermicularis* `{{small|Nakai}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Species names with uncertain taxonomic status {#species_names_with_uncertain_taxonomic_status}
The status of the following species is unresolved:
- *Alnus balatonialis* `{{small|Borbás}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus cuneata* `{{small|Geyer ex Walp.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus dimitrovii* `{{small|Jordanov & Kitanov}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus djavanshirii* `{{small|H.Zare}}`{=mediawiki} -- Iran
- *Alnus dolichocarpa* `{{small|H.Zare, Amini & Assadi}}`{=mediawiki} -- Iran
- *Alnus figerti* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus frangula* `{{small|L. ex Huth}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus gigantea* `{{small|Nakai}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus glandulosa* `{{small|Sarg.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus henedae* `{{small|Sugim.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus hybrida* `{{small|Rchb.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus laciniata* `{{small|Ehrh.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus lobata* `{{small|Nyman}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus microphylla* `{{small|Arv.-Touv.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus obtusifolia* `{{small|Mert. ex Regel}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus oxyacantha* `{{small|Lavalle}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus subrotunda* `{{small|Desf.}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus vilmoriana* `{{small|Lebas}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus washingtonia* `{{small|Wetzel}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Hybrids
The following hybrids have been described:
- *Alnus × elliptica* `{{small|Req.}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. cordata* × *A. glutinosa*)
- *Alnus × fallacina* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. incana* subsp. *rugosa* × *A. serrulata*)
- *Alnus × hanedae* `{{small|Suyinata}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. firma* × *A. sieboldiana*)
- *Alnus × hosoii* `{{small|Mizush.}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. maximowiczii* × *A. pendula*)
- *Alnus × mayrii* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. hirsuta* × *A. japonica*)
- *Alnus × peculiaris* `{{small|Hiyama}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. firma* × *A. pendula*)
- *Alnus × pubescens* `{{small|Tausch.}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. glutinosa* × *A. incana*)
- *Alnus × suginoi* `{{small|Sugim.}}`{=mediawiki}
The status of the following hybrids is unresolved:
- *Alnus* × *aschersoniana* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus* × *koehnei* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus* × *ljungeri* `{{small|Murai}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus* × *purpusii* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus* × *silesiaca* `{{small|Fiek}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Alnus* × *spaethii* `{{small|Callier}}`{=mediawiki} (*A. japonica* × *A. subcordata*)
### Fossil record {#fossil_record}
The oldest fossil pollen that can be identified as *Alnus* is from northern Bohemia, dating to the late Paleocene, around 58 million years ago.
- †*Alnus fairi* `{{small|([[Frank Knowlton|Knowlton]]) Wolfe, 1966}}`{=mediawiki} - Miocene; Western North America
- †*Alnus heterodonta* `{{small|(Newberry) Meyer & Manchester 1987}}`{=mediawiki} -- Oligocene; Fossil, Oregon
- †*Alnus hollandiana* `{{small|Jennings, 1920}}`{=mediawiki} - Miocene; Western North America
- †*Alnus largei* `{{small|([[Frank Knowlton|Knowlton]]) Wolfe, 1966}}`{=mediawiki} - Miocene; Western North America
- †*Alnus parvifolia* `{{small|([[Edward W. Berry|Berry]]) [[Jack A. Wolfe|Wolfe]] & [[Wesley Wehr|Wehr]], 1987}}`{=mediawiki} - Ypresian; Okanagan Highlands
- †*Alnus relatus* `{{small|(Knowlton) [[Roland W. Brown|Brown]], 1937}}`{=mediawiki} - Miocene; Western North America
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# Alder
## Phylogeny
### Etymology
The common name *alder* evolved from the Old English word *alor*, which in turn is derived from Proto-Germanic root *aliso*. The generic name *Alnus* is the equivalent Latin name, from whence French *aulne* and Spanish *Alamo* (Spanish term for \"poplar\").
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# Alder
## Ecology
Alders are commonly found near streams, rivers, and wetlands. Sometimes where the prevalence of alders is particularly prominent these are called alder carrs. In the Pacific Northwest of North America, the white alder (*Alnus rhombifolia*) unlike other northwest alders, has an affinity for warm, dry climates, where it grows along watercourses, such as along the lower Columbia River east of the Cascades and the Snake River, including Hells Canyon.
Alder leaves and sometimes catkins are used as food by numerous butterflies and moths.
*A. glutinosa* and *A. viridis* are classed as environmental weeds in New Zealand. Alder leaves and especially the roots are important to the ecosystem because they enrich the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients.
### Nitrogen fixation and succession of woodland species {#nitrogen_fixation_and_succession_of_woodland_species}
Alder is particularly noted for its important symbiotic relationship with *Frankia alni*, an actinomycete, filamentous, nitrogen-fixing bacterium. This bacterium is found in root nodules, which may be as large as a human fist, with many small lobes, and light brown in colour. The bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and makes it available to the tree. Alder, in turn, provides the bacterium with sugars, which it produces through photosynthesis. As a result of this mutually beneficial relationship, alder improves the fertility of the soil where it grows, and as a pioneer species, it helps provide additional nitrogen for the successional species to follow.
Because of its abundance, red alder delivers large amounts of nitrogen to enrich forest soils. Red alder stands have been found to supply between 130 and of nitrogen annually to the soil. From Alaska to Oregon, *Alnus viridis* subsp. *sinuata* (*A. sinuata*, Sitka alder or slide alder), characteristically pioneer fresh, gravelly sites at the foot of retreating glaciers. Studies show that Sitka alder, a more shrubby variety of alder, adds nitrogen to the soil at an average rate of 60 kg/ha per year, helping convert the sterile glacial terrain to soil capable of supporting a conifer forest. Alders are common among the first species to colonize disturbed areas from floods, windstorms, fires, landslides, etc. Alder groves often serve as natural firebreaks since these broad-leaved trees are much less flammable than conifers. Their foliage and leaf litter does not carry a fire well, and their thin bark is sufficiently resistant to protect them from light surface fires. In addition, the light weight of alder seeds`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}numbering 1.5 e6/kg`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}allows for easy dispersal by the wind. Although it outgrows coastal Douglas-fir for the first 25 years, it is very shade intolerant and seldom lives more than 100 years. Red alder is the Pacific Northwest\'s largest alder and the most plentiful and commercially important broad-leaved tree in the coastal Northwest. Groves of red alder 25 to in diameter intermingle with young Douglas-fir forests west of the Cascades, attaining a maximum height of 30 to in about sixty years, and then are afflicted by heart rot. Alders largely help create conditions favorable for giant conifers that replace them.
An alder root nodule gall.JPG\|alt=An alder root nodule\|Whole root nodule A sectioned alder root nodule gall.JPG\|alt=A sectioned alder root nodule\|Sectioned root nodules
### Parasites
Alder roots are parasitized by northern groundcone.
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# Alder
## Uses
The catkins of some alder species have a degree of edibility, and may be rich in protein. Reported to have a bitter and unpleasant taste, they are more useful for survival purposes. The wood of certain alder species is often used to smoke various food items such as coffee, salmon, and other seafood.
Alder is notably stable when immersed, and has been used for millennia as a material for pilings for piers and wharves. Most of the pilings that form the foundation of Venice were made from alder trees.
Alder bark contains the anti-inflammatory salicin, which is metabolized into salicylic acid in the body. Some Native American cultures use red alder bark (*Alnus rubra*) to treat poison oak, insect bites, and skin irritations. Blackfeet Indians have traditionally used an infusion made from the bark of red alder to treat lymphatic disorders and tuberculosis. Recent clinical studies have verified that red alder contains betulin and lupeol, compounds shown to be effective against a variety of tumors.
The inner bark of the alder, as well as red osier dogwood, or chokecherry, is used by some Indigenous peoples of the Americas in smoking mixtures, known as *kinnikinnick*, to improve the taste of the bearberry leaf.
Alder is illustrated in the coat of arms for the Austrian town of Grossarl.
Electric guitars, most notably those manufactured by the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, have been built with alder bodies since the 1950s. Alder is appreciated for its tone that is claimed to be tight and evenly balanced, especially when compared to mahogany, and has been adopted by many electric guitar manufacturers. It usually is finished in opaque lacquer (nitrocellulose, polyurethane, or polyester), as it does not have a prominent grain.
As a hardwood, alder is used in making furniture, cabinets, and other woodworking products. In these applications, its aforementioned lack of prominent grain means that it is often veneered, either by stained light woods such as oak, ash, or figured maple, or by darker woods such as teak or walnut.
Alder bark and wood (like oak and sweet chestnut) contain tannin and are traditionally used to tan leather.
A red dye can also be extracted from the outer bark, and a yellow dye from the inner bark.
## Culture
Ermanno Olmi\'s movie *The Tree of Wooden Clogs* (*L\' Albero Degli Zoccoli*, 1978) refers in its title to alder, typically used to make clogs as in this movie\'s plot
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# Arachnophobia
**Arachnophobia** is the fear of spiders and other arachnids such as scorpions and ticks. The word \"arachnophobia\" comes from the Greek words arachne and phobia.
## Signs and symptoms {#signs_and_symptoms}
People with arachnophobia tend to feel uneasy in any area they believe could harbour spiders or that has visible signs of their presence, such as webs. If arachnophobes see a spider, they may not enter the general vicinity until they have overcome the panic attack that is often associated with their phobia. Some people scream, cry, have emotional outbursts, experience trouble breathing, sweat and experience increased heart rates when they come in contact with an area near spiders or their webs. In some extreme cases, even a picture, a toy, or a realistic drawing of a spider can trigger intense fear.
## Reasons
Arachnophobia may be an exaggerated form of an instinctive response that helped early humans to survive or a cultural phenomenon that is most common in predominantly European societies.
### Evolutionary
An evolutionary reason for the phobia remains unresolved. One view, especially held in evolutionary psychology, is that the presence of venomous spiders led to the evolution of a fear of spiders, or made the acquisition of a fear of spiders especially easy. However, there is no evidence that during the Pleistocene there were a sufficient number of venomous African spider fauna to trigger such an evolutionary fear. Like all traits, there is variability in the intensity of fear of spiders, and those with more intense fears are classified as phobic. Being relatively small, spiders do not fit the usual criterion for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a factor, but they can have medically significant venom and/or cause skin irritation with their setae. However, a phobia is an irrational fear as opposed to a rational fear.
By ensuring that their surroundings were free from spiders, arachnophobes would have had a reduced risk of being bitten in ancestral environments, giving them a slight advantage over non-arachnophobes in terms of survival. However, having a disproportionate fear of spiders in comparison to other, potentially dangerous creatures present during *Homo sapiens*\' environment of evolutionary adaptiveness may have had drawbacks.
In *The Handbook of the Emotions* (1993), psychologist Arne Öhman studied pairing an unconditioned stimulus with evolutionarily-relevant fear-response neutral stimuli (snakes and spiders) versus evolutionarily-irrelevant fear-response neutral stimuli (mushrooms, flowers, physical representation of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets) on human subjects and found that ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) and arachnophobia required only one pairing to develop a conditioned response while mycophobia, anthophobia, phobias of physical representations of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets required multiple pairings and went extinct without continued conditioning while the conditioned ophidiophobia and arachnophobia were permanent.
Psychiatrist Randolph M. Nesse notes that while conditioned fear responses to evolutionarily novel dangerous objects such as electrical outlets is possible, the conditioning is slower because such cues have no prewired connection to fear, noting further that despite the emphasis of the risks of speeding and drunk driving in driver\'s education, it alone does not provide reliable protection against traffic collisions and that nearly one-quarter of all deaths in 2014 of people aged 15 to 24 in the United States were in traffic collisions. Nesse, psychiatrist Isaac Marks, and evolutionary biologist George C. Williams have noted that people with systematically deficient responses to various adaptive phobias (e.g. arachnophobia, ophidiophobia, basophobia) are more temperamentally careless and more likely to receive unintentional injuries that are potentially fatal and have proposed that such deficient phobia should be classified as \"**hypophobia**\" due to its selfish genetic consequences.
A 2001 study found that people could detect images of spiders among images of flowers and mushrooms more quickly than they could detect images of flowers or mushrooms among images of spiders. The researchers suggested that this was because fast response to spiders was more relevant to human evolution.
### Cultural
An alternative view is that the dangers, such as from spiders, are overrated and not sufficient to influence evolution.`{{Attribution needed|date=June 2018}}`{=mediawiki} Instead, inheriting phobias would have restrictive and debilitating effects upon survival, rather than being an aid. For some communities, such as in Papua New Guinea and Cambodia, spiders are included in traditional foods. This suggests arachnophobia may, at least in part, be a cultural rather than genetic trait.
Stories about spiders in the media often contain errors and use sensationalistic vocabulary, which could contribute to the fear of spiders.
## Treatments
The fear of spiders can be treated by any of the general techniques suggested for specific phobias. The first line of treatment is systematic desensitization -- also known as exposure therapy. Before engaging in systematic desensitization, it is common to train the individual with arachnophobia in relaxation techniques, which will help keep the patient calm. Systematic desensitization can be done in vivo (with live spiders) or by getting the individual to imagine situations involving spiders, then modelling interaction with spiders for the person affected and eventually interacting with real spiders. This technique can be effective in just one session, although it generally takes more time.
Recent advances in technology have enabled the use of virtual or augmented reality spiders for use in therapy. These techniques have proven to be effective. It has been suggested that exposure to short clips from the *Spider-Man* movies may help to reduce an individual\'s arachnophobia.
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# Arachnophobia
## Epidemiology
Arachnophobia affects 3.5 to 6.1 percent of the global population.
Even though most spiders are small and not venomous, they still trigger intense fear in many people, making arachnophobia one of the most widespread anxiety disorders. It is strongly linked to sociodemographic factors like gender, age, education, and an individual\'s tendency toward disgust. The majority of studies show that females are more likely to develop this phobia
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# Alabaster
**Alabaster** is a mineral and a soft rock used for carvings and as a source of plaster powder. Archaeologists, geologists, and the stone industry have different definitions for the word *alabaster*. In archaeology, the term *alabaster* includes objects and artefacts made from two different minerals: (i) the fine-grained, massive type of gypsum, and (ii) the fine-grained, banded type of calcite.
Chemically, gypsum is a hydrous sulfate of calcium, whereas calcite is a carbonate of calcium. As types of alabaster, gypsum and calcite have similar properties, such as light color, translucence, and soft stones that can be carved and sculpted; thus the historical use and application of alabaster for the production of carved, decorative artefacts and *objets d'art*. Calcite alabaster also is known as onyx-marble, Egyptian alabaster, and Oriental alabaster, which terms usually describe either a compact, banded travertine stone or a stalagmitic limestone colored with swirling bands of cream and brown.
In general, ancient alabaster is calcite in the wider Middle East, including Egypt and Mesopotamia, while it is gypsum in medieval Europe. Modern alabaster is most likely calcite but may be either. Both are easy to work and slightly soluble in water. They have been used for making a variety of indoor artwork and carving, as they will not survive long outdoors.
The two types are readily distinguished by their different hardness: gypsum alabaster (Mohs hardness 1.5 to 2) is so soft that a fingernail scratches it, while calcite (Mohs hardness 3) cannot be scratched in this way but yields to a knife. Moreover, calcite alabaster, being a carbonate, effervesces when treated with hydrochloric acid while gypsum alabaster remains almost unaffected.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Alabaster|volume=1|pages=466-467|first=Frederick William|last=Rudler}}`{=mediawiki} Endnotes:
- M. Carmichael, *Report on the Volterra Alabaster Industry*, Foreign Office, Miscellaneous Series, No. 352 (London, 1895)
- A. T. Metcalfe, \"The Gypsum Deposits of Nottingham and Derbyshire,\" *Transactions of the Federated Institution*, vol. xii. (1896), p. 107
- J. G. Goodchild, \"The Natural History of Gypsum,\" *Proceedings of the Geologists\' Association*, vol. x. (1888), p. 425
- George P. Merrill, \"The Onyx Marbles,\" *Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1893*, p. 539.
## Etymology
thumb\|upright=1.1\|Alabaster windows in the Church of Santa Maria la Mayor of Morella, Spain (built 13th--16th centuries) The English word \"alabaster\" was borrowed from Old French **alabastre**, in turn derived from Latin **alabaster**, and that from Greek **italic=no** (**alábastros**) or **italic=no** (**alábastos**). The Greek words denoted a vase of alabaster.
The name may be derived further from ancient Egyptian **a-labaste**, which refers to vessels of the Egyptian goddess Bast. She was represented as a lioness and frequently depicted as such in figures placed atop these alabaster vessels. Ancient Roman authors Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy wrote that the stone used for ointment jars called *alabastra* came from a region of Egypt known as Alabastron or Alabastrites.
## Properties and usability {#properties_and_usability}
The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine uniform grain, but it often is associated with an oxide of iron, which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of gypsum alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of Paris, and are sometimes known as \"plaster stone\".
The softness of alabaster enables it to be carved readily into elaborate forms, but its solubility in water renders it unsuitable for outdoor work. If alabaster with a smooth, polished surface is washed with dishwashing liquid, it will become rough, dull and whiter, losing most of its translucency and lustre. The finer kinds of alabaster are employed largely as an ornamental stone, especially for ecclesiastical decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls.
## Modern processing {#modern_processing}
### Working techniques {#working_techniques}
Alabaster is mined and then sold in blocks to alabaster workshops. There they are cut to the needed size (\"squaring\"), and then are processed in different techniques: turned on a lathe for round shapes, carved into three-dimensional sculptures, chiselled to produce low relief figures or decoration; and then given an elaborate finish that reveals its transparency, colour, and texture.
### Marble imitation {#marble_imitation}
In order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and heated gradually---nearly to the boiling point---in an operation requiring great care, because if the temperature is not regulated carefully, the stone acquires a dead-white, chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it closely resembles true marble and is known as \"marmo di Castellina\".
### Dyeing
Alabaster is a porous stone and can be dyed into any colour or shade, a technique used for centuries. For this the stone needs to be fully immersed in various pigment solutions and heated to a specific temperature. The technique can be used to disguise alabaster. In this way an imitation of coral that is called \"alabaster coral\" is produced.
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# Alabaster
## Types, occurrence, history {#types_occurrence_history}
Typically only one type is sculpted in any particular cultural environment, but sometimes both have been worked to make similar pieces in the same place and time. This was the case with small flasks of the alabastron type made in Cyprus from the Bronze Age into the Classical period.
### Window panels {#window_panels}
When cut into thin sheets, alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows. It was used for this purpose in Byzantine churches and later in medieval ones, especially in Italy. Large sheets of Aragonese gypsum alabaster are used extensively in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, dedicated in 2002 by the Los Angeles, California, Archdiocese. The cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque. The ancients used the calcite type, while the modern Los Angeles cathedral employs gypsum alabaster. There are also multiple examples of alabaster windows in ordinary village churches and monasteries in northern Spain.
### Calcite alabaster {#calcite_alabaster}
Calcite alabaster, harder than the gypsum variety, was used in ancient Egypt and the wider Middle East (except Assyrian palace reliefs), and also in modern times. It is found as either a stalagmitic deposit from the floor and walls of limestone caverns, or as a kind of travertine, similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on cross-section, from which its name is derived: onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply (and wrongly) as onyx.
#### Egypt and the Middle East {#egypt_and_the_middle_east}
Egyptian alabaster has been worked extensively near Suez and Assiut.
This stone variety is the \"alabaster\" of the ancient Egyptians and Bible and is often termed *Oriental alabaster*, since the early examples came from the Far East. The Greek name *alabastrites* is said to be derived from the town of Alabastron in Egypt, where the stone was quarried. The locality may owe its name to the mineral;`{{dubious|Circular argumentation...|date=July 2016}}`{=mediawiki} though the origin of the mineral name is obscure
The \"Oriental\" alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume bottles or ointment vases called alabastra; the vessel name has been suggested as a possible source of the mineral name. In Egypt, craftsmen used alabaster for canopic jars and various other sacred and sepulchral objects. The sarcophagus of Seti I, found in his tomb near Thebes, is on display in Sir John Soane\'s Museum, London; it is carved in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from Alabastron.
Algerian onyx-marble has been quarried largely in the province of Oran.
Calcite alabaster was quarried in ancient Israel in the cave known as the Twins Cave near Beit Shemesh. Herod used this alabaster for baths in his palaces.
#### North America {#north_america}
In Mexico, there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla. Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of Tehuacán and at several localities in the US including California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia.
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# Alabaster
## Types, occurrence, history {#types_occurrence_history}
### Gypsum alabaster {#gypsum_alabaster}
Gypsum alabaster is softer than calcite alabaster. It was used primarily in medieval Europe, and is also used in modern times.
#### Ancient and Classical Near East {#ancient_and_classical_near_east}
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Wounded lion, detail from the *Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal*, 7th century BC, British Museum \"Mosul marble\" is a kind of gypsum alabaster found in the north of modern Iraq, which was used for the Assyrian palace reliefs of the 9th to 7th centuries BC; these are the largest type of alabaster sculptures to have been regularly made. The relief is very low and the carving detailed, but large rooms were lined with continuous compositions on slabs around 7 ft high. The *Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal* and military Lachish reliefs, both 7th century BC and in the British Museum, are some of the best known.
Gypsum alabaster was widely used for small sculpture for indoor use in the ancient world, especially in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Fine detail could be obtained in a material with an attractive finish without iron or steel tools. Alabaster was used for vessels dedicated for use in the cult of the deity Bast in the culture of the ancient Egyptians, and thousands of gypsum alabaster artifacts dating to the late 4th millennium BC also have been found in Tell Brak (modern Nagar), in Syria.
In Mesopotamia, gypsum alabaster was the material of choice for figures of deities and devotees in temples, as in a figure believed to represent the deity Abu dating to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, which is kept in New York.
#### Aragon, Spain {#aragon_spain}
Much of the world\'s alabaster is extracted from the centre of the Ebro Valley in Aragon, Spain, which has the world\'s largest known exploitable deposits. According to a brochure published by the Aragon government, alabaster has elsewhere either been depleted, or its extraction is so difficult that it has almost been abandoned or is carried out at a very high cost.`{{unreliable_source?|reason=Commercial motivation to mislead is probable.|certain=yes|date=April 2018|}}`{=mediawiki} There are two separate sites in Aragon, both are located in Tertiary basins. The most important site is the Fuentes-Azaila area, in the Tertiary Ebro Basin. The other is the Calatayud-Teruel Basin, which divides the Iberian Range in two main sectors (NW and SE).
The abundance of Aragonese alabaster was crucial for its use in architecture, sculpture and decoration. There is no record of use by pre-Roman cultures, so the first ones to use alabaster from Aragon may have been the Romans, who produced vessels from alabaster following the Greek and Egyptian models. It seems that since the reconstruction of the Roman Wall in Zaragoza in the 3rd century AD with alabaster, the use of this material became common in building for centuries. Muslim Saraqusta (Zaragoza) was also called \"Medina Albaida\", the White City, due to the appearance of its alabaster walls and palaces, which stood out among gardens, groves and orchards by the Ebro and Huerva Rivers.
The oldest remains in the Aljafería Palace, together with other interesting elements like capitals, reliefs and inscriptions, were made using alabaster, but it was during the artistic and economic blossoming of the Renaissance that Aragonese alabaster reached its golden age. In the 16th century sculptors in Aragon chose alabaster for their best works. They were adept at exploiting its lighting qualities and generally speaking the finished art pieces retained their natural color.
#### Volterra (Tuscany) {#volterra_tuscany}
In modern Europe, the centre of the alabaster trade is Florence, Italy. Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene and Pliocene age. The mineral is worked largely by means of underground galleries, in the district of Volterra. Several varieties are recognized---veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, and others. The finest kind, obtained principally from Castellina, is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, while the common kinds are carved locally, into vases, lights, and various ornamental objects. These items are objects of extensive trade, especially in Florence, Pisa, and Livorno.
In the 3rd century BC the Etruscans used the alabaster of Tuscany from the area of modern-day Volterra to produce funeral urns, possibly taught by Greek artists. During the Middle Ages the craft of alabaster was almost completely forgotten. A revival started in the mid-16th century, and until the beginning of the 17th century alabaster work was strictly artistic and did not expand to form a large industry.
In the 17th and 18th centuries production of artistic, high-quality Renaissance-style artifacts stopped altogether, replaced by less sophisticated, cheaper items better suited for large-scale production and commerce. The new industry prospered, but the reduced need for skilled craftsmen left few of them still working. The 19th century brought a boom to the industry, largely due to the \"traveling artisans\" who offered their wares to the palaces of Europe, as well as to America and the East.
In the 19th century new processing technology was also introduced, allowing for the production of custom-made, unique pieces, as well as the combination of alabaster with other materials. Apart from the newly developed craft, artistic work became again possible, chiefly by Volterran sculptor Albino Funaioli. After a short slump, the industry was revived again by the sale of mass-produced mannerist Expressionist sculptures. It was further enhanced in the 1920s by a new branch that created ceiling and wall lamps in the Art Deco style, culminating in participation at the 1925 International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts in Paris. Important names in the evolution of alabaster use after World War II are Volterran Umberto Borgna, the \"first alabaster designer\", and later on the architect and industrial designer Angelo Mangiarotti.
#### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
thumb\|upright=1.1\|Resurrection of Christ, typical Nottingham alabaster panel from an altarpiece set, 1450--1490, showing remnants of its painted decoration Gypsum alabaster is a common mineral, which occurs in England in the Keuper marls of the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in Derbyshire, at Fauld in Staffordshire, and near Newark in Nottinghamshire. Deposits at all of these localities have been worked extensively.
In the 14th and 15th centuries the carving into small statues and sets of relief panels for altarpieces was a valuable local industry in Nottingham, as well as a major English export. These were usually painted, or partly painted. It was also used for the effigies, often life size, on tomb monuments, as the typical recumbent position suited the material\'s lack of strength, and it was cheaper and easier to work than good marble. After the English Reformation the making of altarpiece sets was discontinued, but funerary monument work in reliefs and statues continued.
In addition to the carvings still in Britain (particularly the Nottingham Castle Museum, British Museum, and Victoria and Albert Museum), trade in mineral alabaster (other than the antiques trade) is ongoing as far afield as the Musée de Cluny, Spain, and Scandinavia.
Alabaster is also found, in smaller quantity, at Watchet in Somerset, near Penarth in Glamorganshire, and elsewhere. In Cumbria it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or \"floors\" in spheroidal masses known as \"balls\" or \"bowls\" and in smaller lenticular masses termed \"cakes\". At Chellaston, where the local alabaster is known as \"Patrick\", it has been worked into ornaments under the name of \"Derbyshire spar\"―a term more properly applied to fluorspar.
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# Alabaster
## Types, occurrence, history {#types_occurrence_history}
### Gypsum alabaster {#gypsum_alabaster}
#### Black alabaster {#black_alabaster}
*Black alabaster* is a rare anhydrite form of the gypsum-based mineral. The black form is found in only three veins in the world, one each in United States, Italy, and China.
Alabaster Caverns State Park, near Freedom, Oklahoma, is home to a natural gypsum cave in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster. There are several types of alabaster found at the site, including pink, white, and the rare black alabaster.
### Gallery
#### Ancient and Classical Near East {#ancient_and_classical_near_east_1}
Ebih-Il Louvre AO17551 n01.jpg\|*Statue of Ebih-Il*, Mari on the Euphrates, made of gypsum alabaster (25th century BC) <File:Statuette_Goddess_Louvre_AO20127.jpg%7CNecropolis> of Hillah, near Babylon. Alabaster, gold, terracotta and rubies. Musée du Louvre Statue Ammaalay Louvre AO20282.jpg\|Alabaster statue, Yemen (1st century BC) <File:Assyrian> royal lion Hunt19.JPG\|Assyrian relief; King Ashurbanipal spears a lion
#### European Middle Ages {#european_middle_ages}
Norbury, Derbyshire - Nicholas Fitzherbert.jpg\|Alabaster sepulchral monument of Nicholas Fitzherbert, d. AD 1473, in St Mary and St Barlock\'s Church, Norbury, Derbyshire, England <File:Fossanova> Abbey fc02.jpg\|Alabaster windows in the choir of Fossanova Abbey church (12th century) in Latina, Italy <File:Casamari> coro.jpg\|Alabaster windows and rosette in the central apse of Casamari Abbey church (1203--1217) in Lazio, Italy <File:Orvieto083.jpg%7CAlabaster> window in Orvieto Cathedral (14th century), Italy
#### Modern
Archaizing Relief of a Seated King and Attendants, late 19th century.jpg\|Archaizing Relief of a Seated King and Attendants, Iran, Qajar period (late 19th century CE, in the style of 5th--4th century BC). Brooklyn Museum. Alabasterlampe Umgang Oktogon erleuchtet.jpg\|Alabaster lamp, Aachen Cathedral, Germany (early 20th century) alabaster-satin spar
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# Ahab
**Ahab** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|h|æ|b}}`{=mediawiki}; *ʾAḥʾāḇ*; *Aḫâbbu*; *Akhaáb*; *Achab*) was a king of the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), the son and successor of King Omri, and the husband of Jezebel of Sidon, according to the Hebrew Bible. He is depicted in the Bible as a Baal worshipper and is criticized for causing moral decline in Israel, though modern scholars argue that Ahab was a Yahwist himself.
The existence of Ahab is historically supported outside the Bible. The contemporary Kurkh Monolith inscription of king Shalmaneser III from the Neo-Assyrian Empire documented in 853 BC that Shalmaneser III defeated an alliance of a dozen kings in the Battle of Qarqar; one of these was Ahab. Though not named, he is also mentioned on the inscriptions of the Mesha Stele.
Ahab became king of Israel in the thirty-eighth year of King Asa of Judah, and reigned for twenty-two years, according to 1 Kings 16:29. William F. Albright dated his reign to 869--850 BC, while Edwin R. Thiele offered the dates 874--853 BC. Most recently, Michael Coogan has dated Ahab\'s reign to 871--852 BC.
## Reign
As Omri\'s successor, Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of Ithobaal I of Tyre. Under Jezebel\'s influence, he abandoned Yahweh and established Baal and Asherah cults in Israel according to 1 Kings 16:29--33. For example, he allowed Hiel the Bethelite to rebuild Jericho, even though it was \'cursed\' by Yahweh (1 Kings 16:34), and helped his wife kill opponents, such as the \"servants of Yahweh\" and possibly, the priests of Jeroboam\'s cult (1 Kings 18:3--16). Edward Lipiński argues that the \"Baal\" worshipped by Ahab and Jezebel was the \"YHWH of Samaria\", which was opposed as Yahwist heresy by the Judean priests. Others disagree based on archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources about Jezebel\'s upbringing.
In terms of foreign policy, Ahab continued Omri\'s policies against Moab, which was a tributary state of Israel (2 Kings 1:1). According to the Moabite Mesha Stele, Omri and Ahab \"oppressed Moab for many days\". By marriage, he allied with Jehoshaphat, who was the king of Judah (2 Kings 8:16--18). Aram-Damascus was the only foreign state that Ahab opposed but he made peace with them after their king promised to withdraw from conquered territory. He also allowed Ahab to conquer Aramean territory to compensate (1 Kings 20:34).
### Battle of Qarqar {#battle_of_qarqar}
The Battle of Qarqar is mentioned in extra-biblical records, and occurred at Apamea, where Shalmaneser III of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes from Cilicia, northern Syria, Israel, Ammon, and the tribes of the Syrian desert (853 BCE), including Arabs, Ahab the Israelite (*A-ha-ab-bu ^mat^Sir-\'a-la-a-a*) and Hadadezer (*Adad-\'idri*).
Ahab\'s contribution was estimated at 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men. In reality, however, the number of chariots in Ahab\'s forces was probably closer to a number in the hundreds (based upon archaeological excavations of the area and the foundations of stables that have been found). If, however, the numbers are referring to allies, they could include forces from Tyre, Judah, Edom, and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed victory, but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849 BC and 846 BC against a similar but unspecified coalition implied that the victory had no lasting impact.
Jezreel was identified as Ahab\'s fortified chariot and cavalry base.
### Ahab and the prophets {#ahab_and_the_prophets}
In the Biblical text, Ahab has four important encounters with prophets:
1. The first encounter is with Elijah, who predicts a drought because of Ahab\'s sins. Because of this, Ahab blames Elijah for Israel\'s misfortunes but Elijah proclaims the supremacy of Yahweh so that Ahab could repent.
2. The second encounter is between Ahab and an unnamed prophet, who criticized him for sparing Ben-hadad and told him that Israel would be invaded by the Arameans as punishment.
3. The third is with Elijah, who criticized his role in Naboth\'s unjust execution. Ahab sincerely repents, which Yahweh relays to Elijah.
4. The fourth encounter is with Micaiah, who initially tells Ahab that he would re-capture Ramoth-Gilead before revealing that Ahab was deceived by his Yahwistic court prophets who had a lying spirit in their mouths which was sent by Yahweh himself. Instead of victory, he would die in battle.
### Death of Ahab {#death_of_ahab}
Ahab is mortally wounded by an unaimed arrow after he and Jehoshaphat tried to re-capture Ramoth-Gilead from the Arameans. Depending on translation, Ahab\'s corpse was licked by dogs or a combination of dogs and pigs, according to Elijah\'s prophecy. It marked his \"uncleanliness\" in the presence of Israelites, who abstained from pork consumption.`{{page needed|date=May 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
## Legacy
Ahab\'s reign was deeply unpopular among Yahwists and was considered to be worse than the previous kings of Israel. Whilst the previous kings followed a \"heretical\" interpretation of Yahwism, known as the \"sins of Jeroboam\", Ahab institutionalized Baalism, which was completely divorced from Yahwism. He was likewise criticized for his oppressive policies, both domestically and by the Moabites.
However, Yahwists commend him for fortifying numerous Israelite cities and building an ivory palace. Christian Frevel argues that Ahab used imperialism to introduce Yahweh to the Kingdom of Judah. To do this, he gave his children theophoric names whilst expanding in northern territories and Judah. Michael J. Stahl clarifies that this mostly occurred in the latter half of his reign, according to biblical and extrabiblical evidence.
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# Ahab
## In Rabbinic literature {#in_rabbinic_literature}
Ahab was one of the three or four wicked kings of Israel singled out by tradition as being excluded from the future world of bliss (Sanh. x. 2; Tosef., Sanh. xii. 11). Midrash Konen places him in the fifth department of Gehenna, as having the heathen under his charge. Though held up as a warning to sinners, Ahab is also described as displaying noble traits of character (Sanh. 102b; Yer. Sanh. xi. 29b). Talmudic literature represents him as an enthusiastic idolater who left no hilltop in the Land of Israel without an idol before which he bowed, and to which he or his wife, Jezebel, brought his weight in gold as a daily offering. So defiant in his apostasy was he that he had inscribed on all the doors of the city of Samaria the words, \"Ahab hath abjured the living God of Israel.\" Nevertheless, he paid great respect to the representatives of learning, \"to the Torah given in twenty-two letters,\" for which reason he was permitted to reign for twenty-two successive years. He generously supported the students of the Law out of his royal treasury, in consequence of which half his sins were forgiven him. A type of worldliness (Ber. 61b), the Crœsus of his time, he was, according to ancient tradition (Meg. 11a), ruler over the whole world. Two hundred and thirty subject kings had initiated a rebellion; but he brought their sons as hostages to Samaria and Jerusalem. All the latter turned from idolaters into worshipers of the God of Israel (Tanna debe Eliyahu, i. 9). Each of his seventy sons had an ivory palace built for him. Since, however, it was Ahab\'s idolatrous wife who was the chief instigator of his crimes (B. M. 59a), some of the ancient teachers gave him the same position in the world to come as a sinner who had repented (Sanh. 104b, Num. R. xiv). Like Manasseh, he was made a type of repentance (I Kings, xxi. 29). Accordingly, he is described as undergoing fasts and penances for a long time; praying thrice a day to God for forgiveness, until his prayer was heard (PirḲe R. El. xliii). Hence, the name of Ahab in the list of wicked kings was changed to Ahaz (Yer. Sanh. x. 28b; Tanna debe Eliyahu Rabba ix, Zuṭṭa xxiv.).
Pseudo-Epiphanius (\"Opera,\" ii. 245) makes Micah an Ephraimite. Confounding him with Micaiah, son of Imlah, he states that Micah, for his inauspicious prophecy, was killed by order of Ahab through being thrown from a precipice, and was buried at Morathi (Maroth?; Mic. i. 12), near the cemetery of Enakim (Ένακεὶμ Septuagint rendering of ; ib. i. 10). According to \"Gelilot Ereẓ Yisrael\" (quoted in \"Seder ha-Dorot,\" i. 118, Warsaw, 1889), Micah was buried in Chesil, a town in southern Judah (Josh. xv. 30). Naboth\'s soul was the lying spirit that was permitted to deceive Ahab to his death.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Ahab is portrayed by Eduard Franz in the film *Sins of Jezebel* (1953). He is also the namesake of Captain Ahab in *Moby Dick* by Herman Melville
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# Dasyproctidae
**Dasyproctidae** is a family of large South American rodents, comprising the agoutis and acouchis. Their fur is a reddish or dark colour above, with a paler underside. They are herbivorous, often feeding on ripe fruit that falls from trees. They live in burrows, and, like squirrels, will bury some of their food for later use.
Dasyproctids exist in Central and South America, which are the tropical parts of the New World. The fossil record of this family can be traced back to the Late Oligocene (Deseadan in the SALMA classification).
As with all rodents, members of this family have incisors, pre-molars, and molars, but no canines. The cheek teeth are hypsodont and flat-crowned.
## Classification
Fossil taxa follow McKenna and Bell, with modifications following Kramarz.
- **Family Dasyproctidae**
- Genus †*Alloiomys*
- Genus †*Australoprocta*
- Genus †*Branisamys*
- Genus †*Incamys*
- Genus †*Neoreomys*
- Genus †*Megastus*
- Genus †*Palmiramys*
- Genus *Dasyprocta*
- Azara\'s agouti, *D. azarae*
- Coiban agouti, *D. coibae*
- Crested agouti, *D. cristata*
- Black agouti, *D. fuliginosa*
- Orinoco agouti, *D. guamara*
- Kalinowski\'s agouti, *D. kalinowskii*
- Red-rumped agouti, *D. leporina*
- Mexican agouti, *D. mexicana*
- Black-rumped agouti, *D. prymnolopha*
- Central American agouti, *D. punctata*
- Ruatan Island agouti, *D. ruatanica*
- Genus *Myoprocta*
- Green acouchi, *M. pratti*
- Red acouchi, *M. acouchy*
The pacas (genus *Cuniculus*) are placed by some authorities in Dasyproctidae, but molecular studies have demonstrated they do not form a monophyletic group
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# Algol
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|-
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# Amazing Grace
\"**Amazing Grace**\" is a Christian hymn written in 1772 and published in 1779 by English Anglican clergyman and poet John Newton (1725--1807). It is possibly the most sung and most recorded hymn in the world, and especially popular in the United States, where it is used for both religious and secular purposes.
Newton wrote the words from personal experience; he grew up without any particular religious conviction, but his life\'s path was formed by a variety of twists and coincidences that were often put into motion by others\' reactions to what they took as his recalcitrant insubordination. He was pressed into service with the Royal Navy, and after leaving the service, he became involved in the Atlantic slave trade. In 1748, a violent storm battered his vessel off the coast of County Donegal, Ireland, so severely that he called out to God for mercy. While this moment marked his spiritual conversion, he continued slave trading until 1754 or 1755, when he ended his seafaring altogether. Newton began studying Christian theology and later became an abolitionist.
Ordained in the Church of England in 1764, Newton became the curate of Olney, Buckinghamshire, where he began to write hymns with poet William Cowper. \"Amazing Grace\" was written to illustrate a sermon on New Year\'s Day of 1773. It is unknown if there was any music accompanying the verses; it may have been chanted by the congregation. It debuted in print in 1779 in Newton\'s and Cowper\'s *Olney Hymns*, but settled into relative obscurity in England. In the United States, \"Amazing Grace\" became a popular song used by Baptist and Methodist preachers as part of their evangelizing, especially in the American South, during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. It has been associated with more than 20 melodies. In 1835, American composer William Walker set it to the tune known as \"New Britain\" in a shape note format; this is the version most frequently sung today.
With the message that forgiveness and redemption are possible regardless of sins committed and that the soul can be delivered from despair through the mercy of God, \"Amazing Grace\" is one of the most recognisable songs in the English-speaking world. American historian Gilbert Chase writes that it is \"without a doubt the most famous of all the folk hymns\" and Jonathan Aitken, a Newton biographer, estimates that the song is performed about 10 million times annually.
It has had particular influence in folk music, and has become an emblematic black spiritual. Its universal message has been a significant factor in its crossover into secular music. \"Amazing Grace\" became newly popular during the 1960s revival of American folk music, and it has been recorded thousands of times during and since the 20th century.
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# Amazing Grace
## John Newton\'s conversion {#john_newtons_conversion}
According to the *Dictionary of American Hymnology*, \"Amazing Grace\" is John Newton\'s spiritual autobiography in verse.
In 1725, Newton was born in Wapping, a district in London near the Thames. His father was a shipping merchant who was brought up as a Catholic but had Protestant sympathies, and his mother was a devout Independent, unaffiliated with the Anglican Church. She had intended Newton to become a clergyman, but she died of tuberculosis when he was six years old. For the next few years, while his father was at sea Newton was raised by his emotionally distant stepmother. He was also sent to boarding school, where he was mistreated. At the age of eleven, he joined his father on a ship as an apprentice; his seagoing career would be marked by headstrong disobedience.
As a youth, Newton began a pattern of coming very close to death, examining his relationship with God, then relapsing into bad habits. As a sailor, he denounced his faith after being influenced by a shipmate who discussed with him *Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times*, a book by the Third Earl of Shaftesbury. In a series of letters Newton later wrote, \"Like an unwary sailor who quits his port just before a rising storm, I renounced the hopes and comforts of the Gospel at the very time when every other comfort was about to fail me.\" His disobedience caused him to be pressed into the Royal Navy, and he took advantage of opportunities to overstay his leave.
He deserted the navy to visit Mary \"Polly\" Catlett, a family friend with whom he had fallen in love. After enduring humiliation for deserting, he was traded as crew to a slave ship.
He began a career in slave trading.
Newton often openly mocked the captain by creating obscene poems and songs about him, which became so popular that the crew began to join in. His disagreements with several colleagues resulted in his being starved almost to death, imprisoned while at sea, and chained like the slaves they carried. He was himself enslaved by the Sherbro and forced to work on a plantation in Sierra Leone near the Sherbro River. After several months he came to think of Sierra Leone as his home, but his father intervened after Newton sent him a letter describing his circumstances, and crew from another ship happened to find him. Newton claimed the only reason he left Sierra Leone was because of Polly.
While aboard the ship *Greyhound*, Newton gained notoriety as being one of the most profane men the captain had ever met. In a culture where sailors habitually swore, Newton was admonished several times for not only using the worst words the captain had ever heard, but creating new ones to exceed the limits of verbal debauchery. In March 1748, while the *Greyhound* was in the North Atlantic, a violent storm came upon the ship that was so rough it swept overboard a crew member who was standing where Newton had been moments before. After hours of the crew emptying water from the ship and expecting to be capsized, Newton and another mate tied themselves to the ship\'s pump to keep from being washed overboard, working for several hours. After proposing the measure to the captain, Newton had turned and said, \"If this will not do, then Lord have mercy upon us!\" Newton rested briefly before returning to the deck to steer for the next eleven hours. During his time at the wheel, he pondered his divine challenge.
About two weeks later, the battered ship and starving crew landed in Lough Swilly, Ireland. For several weeks before the storm, Newton had been reading *The Christian\'s Pattern*, a summary of the 15th-century *The Imitation of Christ* by Thomas à Kempis. The memory of his own \"Lord have mercy upon us!\" uttered during a moment of desperation in the storm did not leave him; he began to ask if he was worthy of God\'s mercy or in any way redeemable. Not only had he neglected his faith but directly opposed it, mocking others who showed theirs, deriding and denouncing God as a myth. He came to believe that God had sent him a profound message and had begun to work through him.
Newton\'s conversion was not immediate, but he contacted Polly\'s family and announced his intention to marry her. Her parents were hesitant as he was known to be unreliable and impetuous. They knew he was profane too but allowed him to write to Polly, and he set to begin to submit to authority for her sake. He sought a place on a slave ship bound for Africa, and Newton and his crewmates participated in most of the same activities he had written about before; the only immorality from which he was able to free himself was profanity. After a severe illness his resolve was renewed, yet he retained the same attitude towards slavery as was held by his contemporaries. Newton continued in the slave trade through several voyages where he sailed the coasts of Africa, now as a captain, and procured slaves being offered for sale in larger ports, transporting them to North America.
In between voyages, he married Polly in 1750, and he found it more difficult to leave her at the beginning of each trip. After three shipping voyages in the slave trade, Newton was promised a position as ship\'s captain with cargo unrelated to slavery. But at the age of thirty, he collapsed and never sailed again.
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# Amazing Grace
## Olney curate {#olney_curate}
Working as a customs agent in Liverpool starting in 1756, Newton began to teach himself Latin, Greek, and theology. He and Polly immersed themselves in the church community, and Newton\'s passion was so impressive that his friends suggested he become a priest in the Church of England. He was turned down by John Gilbert, Archbishop of York, in 1758, ostensibly for having no university degree, although the more likely reasons were his leanings toward evangelism and tendency to socialise with Methodists. Newton continued his devotions, and after being encouraged by a friend, he wrote about his experiences in the slave trade and his conversion. William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth, impressed with his story, sponsored Newton for ordination by John Green, Bishop of Lincoln, and offered him the curacy of Olney, Buckinghamshire, in 1764.
### *Olney Hymns* {#olney_hymns}
Olney was a village of about 2,500 residents whose main industry was making lace by hand. The people were mostly illiterate and many of them were poor. Newton\'s preaching was unique in that he shared many of his own experiences from the pulpit; many clergy preached from a distance, not admitting any intimacy with temptation or sin. He was involved in his parishioners\' lives and was much loved, although his writing and delivery were sometimes unpolished. But his devotion and conviction were apparent and forceful, and he often said his mission was to \"break a hard heart and to heal a broken heart\". He struck a friendship with William Cowper, a gifted writer who had failed at a career in law and suffered bouts of insanity, attempting suicide several times. Cowper enjoyed Olney`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} and Newton\'s company; he was also new to Olney and had gone through a spiritual conversion similar to Newton\'s. Together, their effect on the local congregation was impressive. In 1768, they found it necessary to start a weekly prayer meeting to meet the needs of an increasing number of parishioners. They also began writing lessons for children.
Partly from Cowper\'s literary influence, and partly because learned vicars were expected to write verses, Newton began to try his hand at hymns, which had become popular through the language, made plain for common people to understand. Several prolific hymn writers were at their most productive in the 18th century, including Isaac Watts`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} whose hymns Newton had grown up hearing`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} and Charles Wesley, with whom Newton was familiar. Wesley\'s brother John, the eventual founder of the Methodist Church, had encouraged Newton to go into the clergy. Watts was a pioneer in English hymn writing, basing his work after the Psalms. The most prevalent hymns by Watts and others were written in the common meter in 8.6.8.6: the first line is eight syllables and the second is six.
Newton and Cowper attempted to present a poem or hymn for each prayer meeting. The lyrics to \"Amazing Grace\" were written in late 1772 and probably used in a prayer meeting for the first time on 1 January 1773. A collection of the poems Newton and Cowper had written for use in services at Olney was bound and published anonymously in 1779 under the title *Olney Hymns*. Newton contributed 280 of the 348 texts in *Olney Hymns*; \"1 Chronicles 17:16--17, Faith\'s Review and Expectation\" was the title of the poem with the first line \"Amazing grace! (how sweet the sound)\".
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# Amazing Grace
## Olney curate {#olney_curate}
### Critical analysis {#critical_analysis}
The general impact of *Olney Hymns* was immediate and it became a widely popular tool for evangelicals in Britain for many years. Scholars appreciated Cowper\'s poetry somewhat more than Newton\'s plaintive and plain language, expressing his forceful personality. The most prevalent themes in the verses written by Newton in *Olney Hymns* are faith in salvation, wonder at God\'s grace, his love for Jesus, and his cheerful exclamations of the joy he found in his faith. As a reflection of Newton\'s connection to his parishioners, he wrote many of the hymns in first person, admitting his own experience with sin. Bruce Hindmarsh in *Sing Them Over Again To Me: Hymns and Hymnbooks in America* considers \"Amazing Grace\" an excellent example of Newton\'s testimonial style afforded by the use of this perspective. Several of Newton\'s hymns were recognised as great work (\"Amazing Grace\" was not among them), while others seem to have been included to fill in when Cowper was unable to write. Jonathan Aitken calls Newton, specifically referring to \"Amazing Grace\", an \"unashamedly middlebrow lyricist writing for a lowbrow congregation\", noting that only twenty-one of the nearly 150 words used in all six verses have more than one syllable.
William Phipps in the *Anglican Theological Review* and author James Basker have interpreted the first stanza of \"Amazing Grace\" as evidence of Newton\'s realisation that his participation in the slave trade was his wretchedness, perhaps representing a wider common understanding of Newton\'s motivations. Newton joined forces with William Wilberforce, the British Member of Parliament who led the Parliamentarian campaign to abolish the slave trade in the British Empire, culminating in the Slave Trade Act 1807. But Newton did not become an ardent and outspoken abolitionist until after he left Olney in the 1780s; he is not known to have connected writing the hymn known as \"Amazing Grace\" to anti-slavery sentiments.
The lyrics in *Olney Hymns* were arranged by their association to the Biblical verses that would be used by Newton and Cowper in their prayer meetings, and did not address any political objective. For Newton, the beginning of the year was a time to reflect on one\'s spiritual progress. At the same time he completed a diary`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} which has since been lost`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} that he had begun 17 years before, two years after he quit sailing. The last entry of 1772 was a recounting of how much he had changed since then.
The title ascribed to the hymn, \"1 Chronicles 17:16--17\", refers to David\'s reaction to the prophet Nathan telling him that God intends to maintain his family line forever. Some Christians interpret this as a prediction that Jesus Christ, as a descendant of David, was promised by God as the salvation for all people. Newton\'s sermon on that January day in 1773 focused on the necessity to express one\'s gratitude for God\'s guidance, that God is involved in the daily lives of Christians though they may not be aware of it, and that patience for deliverance from the daily trials of life is warranted when the glories of eternity await. Newton saw himself a sinner like David who had been chosen, perhaps undeservedly, and was humbled by it. According to Newton, unconverted sinners were \"blinded by the god of this world\" until \"mercy came to us not only undeserved but undesired \... our hearts endeavored to shut him out till he overcame us by the power of his grace.\"
The New Testament served as the basis for many of the lyrics of \"Amazing Grace\". The first verse, for example, can be traced to the story of the Prodigal Son. In the Gospel of Luke the father says, \"For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost, and is found\". The story of Jesus healing a blind man who tells the Pharisees that he can now see is told in the Gospel of John. Newton used the words \"I was blind but now I see\" and declared \"Oh to grace how great a debtor!\" in his letters and diary entries as early as 1752. The effect of the lyrical arrangement, according to Bruce Hindmarsh, allows an instant release of energy in the exclamation \"Amazing grace!\", to be followed by a qualifying reply in \"how sweet the sound\". In *An Annotated Anthology of Hymns*, Newton\'s use of an exclamation at the beginning of his verse is called \"crude but effective\" in an overall composition that \"suggest(s) a forceful, if simple, statement of faith\". Grace is recalled three times in the following verse, culminating in Newton\'s most personal story of his conversion, underscoring the use of his personal testimony with his parishioners.
The sermon preached by Newton was his last of those that William Cowper heard in Olney, since Cowper\'s mental instability returned shortly thereafter. One author suggests Newton may have had his friend in mind, employing the themes of assurance and deliverance from despair for Cowper\'s benefit.
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# Amazing Grace
## Dissemination
More than 60 of Newton and Cowper\'s hymns were republished in other British hymnals and magazines, but \"Amazing Grace\" was not, appearing only once in a 1780 hymnal sponsored by the Countess of Huntingdon. Scholar John Julian commented in his 1892 *A Dictionary of Hymnology* that outside of the United States, the song was unknown and it was \"far from being a good example of Newton\'s finest work\". Between 1789 and 1799, four variations of Newton\'s hymn were published in the US in Baptist, Dutch Reformed, and Congregationalist hymnodies; by 1830 Presbyterians and Methodists also included Newton\'s verses in their hymnals.
Although it had its roots in England, \"Amazing Grace\" became an integral part of the Christian tapestry in the United States. The greatest influences in the 19th century that propelled \"Amazing Grace\" to spread across the US and become a staple of religious services in many denominations and regions were the Second Great Awakening and the development of shape note singing communities. A tremendous religious movement swept the US in the early 19th century, marked by the growth and popularity of churches and religious revivals that got their start on the frontier in Kentucky and Tennessee. Unprecedented gatherings of thousands of people attended camp meetings where they came to experience salvation; preaching was fiery and focused on saving the sinner from temptation and backsliding. Religion was stripped of ornament and ceremony, and made as plain and simple as possible; sermons and songs often used repetition to get across to a rural population of poor and mostly uneducated people the necessity of turning away from sin. Witnessing and testifying became an integral component to these meetings, where a congregation member or stranger would rise and recount his turn from a sinful life to one of piety and peace. \"Amazing Grace\" was one of many hymns that punctuated fervent sermons, although the contemporary style used a refrain, borrowed from other hymns, that employed simplicity and repetition such as:
Simultaneously, an unrelated movement of communal singing was established throughout the South and Western states. A format of teaching music to illiterate people appeared in 1800. It used four syllables to distinguish the intervals of the major scale: fa-sol-la-fa-sol-la-mi-fa. Each syllable was associated with a specifically shaped note, and thus the use of books printed in this format became known as shape note singing. The method was simple to learn and teach, and schools were established throughout the South and West. Communities would come together for an entire day of singing in a large building where they sat in four distinct areas surrounding an open space, one member directing the entire gathering. Some groups sang outdoors, on benches set up in a square. Preachers used shape note music to teach hymns to people on the frontier and to raise the emotion of camp meetings. Most of the music was Christian, but the purpose of communal singing was not primarily spiritual. Communities either could not afford instruments for accompaniment, or rejected their use due to a Calvinistic sense of simplicity, so the songs were sung a cappella.
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