id
int64 39
7.86M
| section
stringlengths 0
4.51M
| length
int64 0
50.1k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
752 |
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Visual artworks: (clockwise from upper left) an 1887 self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from *The Birth of Venus* (`{{c.|1484|lk=no}}`{=mediawiki}--1486) by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion **Art** is a diverse range of cultural activity centered around *works* utilizing creative or imaginative talents, which are expected to evoke a worthwhile experience, generally through an expression of emotional power, conceptual ideas, technical proficiency, or beauty.
There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes *art*, and its interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. In the Western tradition, the three classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture. Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of \"the arts\". Until the 17th century, *art* referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts.
The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art.
## Overview
In the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early prehistoric art to contemporary art; however, some theorists think that the typical concept of \"artistic works\" does not fit well outside modern Western societies. One early sense of the definition of *art* is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to \"skill\" or \"craft\", as associated with words such as \"artisan\". English words derived from this meaning include *artifact*, *artificial*, *artifice*, *medical arts*, and *military arts*. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.
Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Immanuel Kant, among others, questioned the meaning of art. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, while Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the *Phaedrus*(265a--c), and yet in the **Republic** wants to outlaw Homer\'s great poetic art, and laughter as well. In *Ion*, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the *Republic*. The dialogue *Ion* suggests that Homer\'s *Iliad* functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.
With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation---through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind\'s advantages over animals.
The more recent and specific sense of the word *art* as an abbreviation for *creative art* or *fine art* emerged in the early 17th century. Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist\'s creativity, or to engage the audience\'s aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or *finer* works of art.
Within this latter sense, the word *art* may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience\'s experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (*art* as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce *artworks* (*art* as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual\'s thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression.
Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.
The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as \"one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture\". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as *mimesis* or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early 20th century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as \"the art world\" has conferred \"the status of candidate for appreciation\". Larry Shiner has described fine art as \"not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old.\"
Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as \"a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science\".
| 1,244 |
Art
| 0 |
752 |
## History
thumb\|left\|upright=.8\|**\[\[Löwenmensch\]\]* figurine*, Germany, between 35,000 and 41,000 years old. One of the oldest-known examples of an artistic representation and the oldest confirmed statue ever discovered.
A shell engraved by *Homo erectus* was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry. A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old---were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.
The oldest piece of art found in Europe is the Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle, dating back 51,000 years and made by Neanderthals.
Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them.
The first undisputed sculptures and similar art pieces, like the Venus of Hohle Fels, are the numerous objects found at the Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura UNESCO World Heritage Site, where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC, so being the first centre of human art.
Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.
In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.
Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.
In the east, Islamic art\'s rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.
The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake\'s portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David\'s propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.
The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence.
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, \"It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist.\" Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.
In *The Origin of the Work of Art*, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which \"that which is\" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community\'s shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed.
Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the Silk Road, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of New York City as a cultural melting pot.
| 1,208 |
Art
| 1 |
752 |
## Forms, genres, media, and styles {#forms_genres_media_and_styles}
*Main article: The arts* The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form. *Art form* refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., figurae), such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include Design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.
In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context. Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content---i.e., denotations and connotations---while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.
Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artist\'s experience of that subject. For example, the composition of *Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne* is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres\'s representation of Napoleon as \"Emperor-God beyond time and space\". Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is \"socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise\".
Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art\'s significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work. The cultural context often reduces to the artist\'s techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art.
| 400 |
Art
| 2 |
752 |
## Forms, genres, media, and styles {#forms_genres_media_and_styles}
### Skill and craft {#skill_and_craft}
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.
There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one\'s thought processes. A common view is that the epithet *art*, particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt\'s work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era\'s most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.
A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp\'s *Fountain* is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects (\"ready-made\") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin\'s *My Bed*, or Damien Hirst\'s *The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living* follow this example. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst\'s celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating *hands-on* works of art.
| 410 |
Art
| 3 |
752 |
## Purpose
Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of art is \"vague\", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).
### Non-motivated functions {#non_motivated_functions}
The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.
1. **Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm.** Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.
> Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for \'harmony\' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. -- Aristotle
2. **Experience of the mysterious.** Art provides a way to experience one\'s self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.
> The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. -- Albert Einstein
3. **Expression of the imagination.** Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.
> Jupiter\'s eagle \[as an example of art\] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else---something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. -- Immanuel Kant
4. **Ritualistic and symbolic functions.** In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.
> Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term \'art\'. -- Silva Tomaskova
| 555 |
Art
| 4 |
752 |
## Purpose
### Motivated functions {#motivated_functions}
Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or used as a form of communication.
1. **Communication.** Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.
> \[Art is a set of\] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. -- Steve Mithen
2. **Art as entertainment**. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of motion pictures and video games.
3. **The Avant-Garde. Art for political change.** One of the defining functions of early 20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal---Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others---are collectively referred to as the *avant-garde* arts.
> By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog\'s life. -- André Breton (Surrealism)
4. **Art as a \"free zone\"**, removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction, etc.), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation.
5. **Art for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy.** While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be used to criticize some aspect of society. Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
6. **Art for social causes.** Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism, cancer, human trafficking, and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in Darfur, murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution.
7. **Art for psychological and healing purposes.** Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
8. **Art for propaganda, or commercialism.** Art is often used as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.
9. **Art as a fitness indicator.** It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the peacock\'s tail. The purpose of the male peacock\'s extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates.
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.
| 860 |
Art
| 5 |
752 |
## Steps
Art can be divided into any number of steps one can make an argument for. This section divides the creative process into broad three steps, but there is no consensus on an exact number.
### Preparation
In the first step, the artist envisions the art in their mind. By imagining what their art would look like, the artist begins the process of bringing the art into existence. Preparation of art may involve approaching and researching the subject matter. Artistic inspiration is one of the main drivers of art, and may be considered to stem from instinct, impressions, and feelings.
### Creation
In the second step, the artist executes the creation of their work. The creation of a piece can be affected by factors such as the artist\'s mood, surroundings, and mental state. For example, *The Black Paintings* by Francisco de Goya, created in the elder years of his life, are thought to be so bleak because he was in isolation and because of his experience with war. He painted them directly on the walls of his apartment in Spain, and most likely never discussed them with anyone. The Beatles stated drugs such as LSD and cannabis influenced some of their greatest hits, such as *Revolver.* Trial and error are considered an integral part of the creation process.
### Appreciation
The last step is art appreciation, which has the sub-topic of critique. In one study, over half of visual arts students agreed that reflection is an essential step of the art process. According to education journals, the reflection of art is considered an essential part of the experience. However an important aspect of art is that others may view and appreciate it as well. While many focus on whether those viewing/listening/etc. believe the art to be good/successful or not, art has profound value beyond its commercial success as a provider of information and health in society. Art enjoyment can bring about a wide spectrum of emotion due to beauty. Some art is meant to be practical, with its analysis studious, meant to stimulate discourse.
| 345 |
Art
| 6 |
752 |
## Public access {#public_access}
Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society.
Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite, though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East. Once coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society.
Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries.
In 1661, the city of Basel, in Switzerland, opened the first public museum of art in the world, the Kunstmuseum Basel. Today, its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries.
Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside.
Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants\' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established.
Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. However, museums do not only provide availability to art, but do also influence the way art is being perceived by the audience, as studies found. Thus, the museum itself is not only a blunt stage for the presentation of art, but plays an active and vital role in the overall perception of art in modern society.
Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.
There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is \"necessary to present something more than mere objects\" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was an idea, it could not be bought and sold. \"Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art \... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form \... \[have\] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object.\" upright=2\|thumb\|250px\|Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance *cour d\'honneur*, later copied all over Europe.In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. \"With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors.\"
| 1,227 |
Art
| 7 |
752 |
## Controversies
Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The *Last Judgment* by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ.
The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists\' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore Géricault\'s *Raft of the Medusa* (`{{c.|1820|lk=no}}`{=mediawiki}), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. Édouard Manet\'s *Le Déjeuner sur l\'Herbe* (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent\'s *Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X)* (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman\'s ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model\'s reputation. The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. In the 20th century, Pablo Picasso\'s *Guernica* (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub\'s *Interrogation III* (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano\'s *Piss Christ* (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ\'s sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist\'s own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.
| 493 |
Art
| 8 |
752 |
## Theory
Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art\'s role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.
The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.
### Arrival of Modernism {#arrival_of_modernism}
The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th century led to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg\'s 1960 article \"Modernist Painting\" defines modern art as \"the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself\". Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:
> Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting---the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment---were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.
After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg\'s definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.
Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond *high art* to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.
Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In *The Invention of Art: A Cultural History*, Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term *art*, but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking, medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming, etc.
| 590 |
Art
| 9 |
752 |
## Theory
### New Criticism and the \"intentional fallacy\" {#new_criticism_and_the_intentional_fallacy}
Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning *the intentional fallacy*. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled \"The Intentional Fallacy\", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author\'s intention, or \"intended meaning\" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
In another essay, \"The Affective Fallacy\", which served as a kind of sister essay to \"The Intentional Fallacy\" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader\'s personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay \"Literature in the Reader\".
As summarized by Berys Gaut and Paisley Livingston in their essay \"The Creation of Art\": \"Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms\' assumption that the artist\'s activities and experience were a privileged critical topic.\" These authors contend that: \"Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work.\"
Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: \"Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works.\" They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, \"The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself.\"
### \"Linguistic turn\" and its debate {#linguistic_turn_and_its_debate}
The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the \"innocent eye debate\" in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.
Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled *The Innocent Eye* as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is `{{em|not}}`{=mediawiki} a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt. Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book *Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols* came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry\'s view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.
| 804 |
Art
| 10 |
752 |
## Classification disputes {#classification_disputes}
Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp\'s *Fountain*, the movies, J. S. G. Boggs\' superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, \"the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life\" are \"so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art.\" According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the *Daily Mail* criticized Hirst\'s and Emin\'s work by arguing \"For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all\" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst\'s and Emin\'s work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that \"the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object\'s arthood.\"
*Anti-art* is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is a term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I, when he was making art from found objects. One of these, *Fountain* (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International, the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists, who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.
Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example.
| 366 |
Art
| 11 |
752 |
## Classification disputes {#classification_disputes}
### Value judgment {#value_judgment}
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word *art* is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as \"that meal was a work of art\" (the cook is an artist), or \"the art of deception\" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered *art* is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, \"good\" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist\'s prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya\'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya\'s keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define \'art\'.
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the *zeitgeist*. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human.
By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of generative artificial intelligence, especially in regard to artificial intelligence art, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity. Music and artificial intelligence has taken a similar path. So too has the use of large language models in generating creative texts.
| 535 |
Art
| 12 |
752 |
## Art and law {#art_and_law}
An essential legal issue are art forgeries, plagiarism, replicas and works that are strongly based on other works of art.
Intellectual property law plays a significant role in the art world. Copyright protection is granted to artists for their original works, providing them with exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and display their creations. This safeguard empowers artists to govern the usage of their work and safeguard against unauthorized copying or infringement.
The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The UN, UNESCO and Blue Shield International try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives, art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: \"Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland.\" In order to preserve the diversity of cultural identity, UNESCO protects the living human treasure through the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
| 269 |
Art
| 13 |
764 |
**Agnostida** are an order of extinct arthropods which have classically been seen as a group of highly modified trilobites, though some recent research has doubted this placement. Regardless, they appear to be close relatives as part of the Artiopoda. They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record along with trilobites from the Redlichiida, Corynexochida, and Ptychopariida orders, and were highly diverse throughout the Cambrian. Agnostidan diversity severely declined during the Cambrian-Ordovician transition, and the last agnostidans went extinct in the Late Ordovician.
## Systematics
The Agnostida are divided into two suborders --- Agnostina and Eodiscina --- which are then subdivided into a number of families. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning their pygidium is similar in size and shape to their cephalon. Most agnostid species were eyeless.
The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a stem group. The challenge to the status has focused on Agnostina partly due to the juveniles of one genus have been found with legs differing dramatically from those of adult trilobites, suggesting they are not members of the lamellipedian clade, of which trilobites are a part. Instead, the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans, although they lack the proximal endite, which defines that group. The study suggested that they were likely the sister taxon to the crustacean stem lineage, and, as such, part of the clade, Crustaceomorpha. Other researchers have suggested, based on a cladistic analyses of dorsal exoskeletal features, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order Ptychopariida. A 2019 study of adult specimens with preserved soft tissue from the Burgess Shale found that agnostidans shared morphological similarities to trilobites and other related artiopodans like nektaspids, and their placement as stem-crustaceans was unsupported. The study recovered agnostidans as the sister group to other trilobites within the Artiopoda.
## Ecology
Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a pelagic or a benthic lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites suggest a benthic (bottom-dwelling) mode of life. They are likely to have lived on areas of the ocean floor which received little or no light and fed on detritus which descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. Their wide geographic dispersion in the fossil record is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved ostracodan-type lifestyle. The orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill-suited for benthic living. Recent work suggests that some agnostids were benthic predators, engaging in cannibalism and possibly pack-hunting behavior.
They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty hyolith conchs, within sponges, worm tubes and under the carapaces of bivalved arthropods, presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food. In the case of the tapering worm tubes *Selkirkia*, trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter
| 551 |
Agnostida
| 0 |
766 |
In law, an **abstract** is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers.
## Types of legislation {#types_of_legislation}
The abstract of title, used in real estate transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all deeds, wills, mortgages, and other documents that affect ownership of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners.
## Patent law {#patent_law}
In the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step (or non-obviousness in United States patent law) of an invention. Under United States patent law, the abstract may be called \"Abstract of the Disclosure\"
| 173 |
Abstract (law)
| 0 |
772 |
The **ampere** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|m|p|ɛər|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-ampere.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AM|pair}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|us|ˈ|æ|m|p|ɪər|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-ampere (alt).wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AM|peer}}`{=mediawiki}; symbol: **A**), often shortened to **amp**, is the unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). One ampere is equal to 1 coulomb (C) moving past a point per second. It is named after French mathematician and physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775--1836), considered the father of electromagnetism along with Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted.
As of the 2019 revision of the SI, the ampere is defined by fixing the elementary charge `{{var|e}}`{=mediawiki} to be exactly `{{physical constants|e|ref=no}}`{=mediawiki}, which means an ampere is an electric current equivalent to `{{val|e=19}}`{=mediawiki} elementary charges moving every `{{val|1.602176634}}`{=mediawiki} seconds, or approximately `{{val|6.241509074|e=18}}`{=mediawiki} elementary charges moving in a second. Prior to the redefinition, the ampere was defined as the current passing through two parallel wires 1 metre apart that produces a magnetic force of `{{val|2|e=-7}}`{=mediawiki} newtons per metre.
The earlier CGS system has two units of current, one structured similarly to the SI\'s and the other using Coulomb\'s law as a fundamental relationship, with the CGS unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The CGS unit of current is then defined as one unit of charge per second.
## History
The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère (1775--1836), who studied electromagnetism and laid the foundation of electrodynamics. In recognition of Ampère\'s contributions to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current.
The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre--gram--second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized.
The \"international ampere\" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit `{{val|0.001118|u=grams}}`{=mediawiki} of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is `{{val|0.99985|u=A}}`{=mediawiki}.
Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship `{{math|1=''I'' = ''P''/''V''}}`{=mediawiki}, and thus 1 A = 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter, a device that can measure electrical voltage, current, and resistance.
### Former definition in the SI {#former_definition_in_the_si}
Until 2019, the SI defined the ampere as follows:
> The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to `{{val|2|e=-7}}`{=mediawiki} newtons per metre of length.
Ampère\'s force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force was used in the formal definition of the ampere, giving the vacuum magnetic permeability (magnetic constant, `{{math|''μ''<sub>0</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}) a value of exactly 4π × 10^−7^ henries per metre (H/m, equivalent to N/A^2^). The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, was then defined as \"the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere\". In general, charge `{{mvar|Q}}`{=mediawiki} was determined by steady current `{{mvar|I}}`{=mediawiki} flowing for a time `{{mvar|t}}`{=mediawiki} as `{{math|1=''Q'' = ''It''}}`{=mediawiki}.
This definition of the ampere was most accurately realised using a Kibble balance, but in practice the unit was maintained via Ohm\'s law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and the ohm, since the latter two could be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.
Techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere had a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10`{{sup|7}}`{=mediawiki}, and involved realisations of the watt, the ohm and the volt.
| 675 |
Ampere
| 0 |
772 |
## History
### Present definition {#present_definition}
The 2019 revision of the SI defined the ampere by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge `{{mvar|e}}`{=mediawiki} to be `{{physical constants|e|ref=no|unit=no}}`{=mediawiki} when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, where the second is defined in terms of `{{math|∆''ν''<sub>Cs</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom.
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, \"is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere\". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge (approximately `{{Val|6.241509E18}}`{=mediawiki} elementary charges) going past a given point per second, or equivalently 10^19^ elementary charges every `{{val|1.602176634}}`{=mediawiki} seconds:
$$1\text{ A} = 1\text{ C/s} = \frac{1}{1.602\,176\,634\times10^{-19}}\,e\text{/s} = \frac{10^{19}\,e}{1.602\,176\,634\text{ s}}.$$ With the second defined in terms of `{{math|∆''ν''<sub>Cs</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, the caesium-133 hyperfine transition frequency, the ampere can be expressed in terms of `{{mvar|e}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|∆''ν''<sub>Cs</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}:$1\text{ A} = 1\text{ C/s} = \Big(\frac{10^{19}\,e}{1.602\,176\,634}\Big)\Big(\frac{\Delta\nu_\text{Cs}}{9\,192\,631\,770}\Big) \approx 6.789\,6868\times10^{8}\,e\,\Delta\nu_\text{Cs}.$Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in \"the charging current is 1.2 A\") and the charge accumulated (or passed through a circuit) over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in \"the battery charge is `{{val|30000|u=C}}`{=mediawiki}\"). The relation of the ampere (A = C/s) to the coulomb (C) is the same as that of the watt (W = J/s) to the joule (J).
## Units derived from the ampere {#units_derived_from_the_ampere}
The international system of units (SI) is based on seven SI base units the second, metre, kilogram, kelvin, ampere, mole, and candela representing seven fundamental types of physical quantity, or \"dimensions\", (time, length, mass, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity respectively) with all other SI units being defined using these. These SI derived units can either be given special names e.g. watt, volt, lux, etc. or defined in terms of others, e.g. metre per second. The units with special names derived from the ampere are:
Quantity Unit Symbol Meaning In SI base units
------------------------------- --------- -------- -------------------------------- ------------------------
Electric charge coulomb C ampere second A⋅s
Electric potential difference volt V joule per coulomb kg⋅m^2^⋅s^−3^⋅A^−1^
Electrical resistance ohm Ω volt per ampere kg⋅m^2^⋅s^−3^⋅A^−2^
Electrical conductance siemens S ampere per volt or inverse ohm s^3^⋅A^2^⋅kg^−1^⋅m^−2^
Electrical inductance henry H ohm second kg⋅m^2^⋅s^−2^⋅A^−2^
Electrical capacitance farad F coulomb per volt s^4^⋅A^2^⋅kg^−1^⋅m^−2^
Magnetic flux weber Wb volt second kg⋅m^2^⋅s^−2^⋅A^−1^
Magnetic flux density tesla T weber per square metre kg⋅s^−2^⋅A^−1^
There are also some SI units that are frequently used in the context of electrical engineering and electrical appliances, but are defined independently of the ampere, notably the hertz, joule, watt, candela, lumen, and lux.
| 433 |
Ampere
| 1 |
772 |
## SI prefixes {#si_prefixes}
Like other SI units, the ampere can be modified by adding a prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10
| 25 |
Ampere
| 2 |
779 |
The **anthophytes** are a paraphyletic grouping of plant taxa bearing flower-like reproductive structures. The group, once thought to be a clade, contained the angiosperms -- the extant flowering plants, such as roses and grasses -- as well as the Gnetales and the extinct Bennettitales.
Detailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually monophyletic, with proposed floral homologies of the gnetophytes and the angiosperms having evolved in parallel. This makes it easier to reconcile molecular clock data that suggests that the angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms around 320-300 mya.
Some more recent studies have used the word anthophyte to describe a hypothetical group which includes the angiosperms and a variety of extinct seed plant groups (with various suggestions including at least some of the following groups: glossopterids, corystosperms, Petriellales Pentoxylales, Bennettitales and Caytoniales), but not the Gnetales
| 141 |
Anthophyta
| 0 |
787 |
The **Alismatales** (**alismatids**) are an order of flowering plants including about 4,500 species. Plants assigned to this order are mostly tropical or aquatic. Some grow in fresh water, some in marine habitats. Perhaps the most important food crop in the order is the taro plant, *Colocasia esculenta*.
## Description
The Alismatales comprise herbaceous flowering plants of often aquatic and marshy habitats, and the only monocots known to have green embryos other than the Amaryllidaceae. They also include the only marine angiosperms growing completely submerged, the seagrasses. The flowers are usually arranged in inflorescences, and the mature seeds lack endosperm.
Both marine and freshwater forms include those with staminate flowers that detach from the parent plant and float to the surface. There they can pollinate carpellate flowers floating on the surface via long pedicels. In others, pollination occurs underwater, where pollen may form elongated strands, increasing chance of success. Most aquatic species have a totally submerged juvenile phase, and flowers are either floating or emerge above the water\'s surface. Vegetation may be totally submersed, have floating leaves, or protrude from the water. Collectively, they are commonly known as \"water plantain\".
## Taxonomy
The Alismatales contain about 165 genera in 13 families, with a cosmopolitan distribution. Phylogenetically, they are basal monocots, diverging early in evolution relative to the lilioid and commelinid monocot lineages. Together with the Acorales, the Alismatales are referred to informally as the alismatid monocots.
### Early systems {#early_systems}
The Cronquist system (1981) places the Alismatales in subclass Alismatidae, class Liliopsida \[= monocotyledons\] and includes only three families as shown:
- Alismataceae
- Butomaceae
- Limnocharitaceae
Cronquist\'s subclass Alismatidae conformed fairly closely to the order Alismatales as defined by APG, minus the Araceae.
The Dahlgren system places the Alismatales in the superorder Alismatanae in the subclass Liliidae \[= monocotyledons\] in the class Magnoliopsida \[= angiosperms\] with the following families included:
- Alismataceae
- Aponogetonaceae
- Butomaceae
- Hydrocharitaceae
- Limnocharitaceae
In Tahktajan\'s classification (1997), the order Alismatales contains only the Alismataceae and Limnocharitaceae, making it equivalent to the Alismataceae as revised in APG-III. Other families included in the Alismatates as currently defined are here distributed among 10 additional orders, all of which are assigned, with the following exception, to the Subclass Alismatidae. Araceae in Tahktajan 1997 is assigned to the Arales and placed in the Subclass Aridae; Tofieldiaceae to the Melanthiales and placed in the Liliidae.
### Angiosperm Phylogeny Group {#angiosperm_phylogeny_group}
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system (APG) of 1998 and APG II (2003) assigned the Alismatales to the monocots, which may be thought of as an unranked clade containing the families listed below. The biggest departure from earlier systems (see below) is the inclusion of family Araceae. By its inclusion, the order has grown enormously in number of species. The family Araceae alone accounts for about a hundred genera, totaling over two thousand species. The rest of the families together contain only about five hundred species, many of which are in very small families.
The APG III system (2009) differs only in that the Limnocharitaceae are combined with the Alismataceae; it was also suggested that the genus *Maundia* (of the Juncaginaceae) could be separated into a monogeneric family, the Maundiaceae, but the authors noted that more study was necessary before the Maundiaceae could be recognized.
- order Alismatales *sensu* APG III
: family Alismataceae (*including* Limnocharitaceae)
: family Aponogetonaceae
: family Araceae
: family Butomaceae
: family Cymodoceaceae
: family Hydrocharitaceae
: family Juncaginaceae
: family Posidoniaceae
: family Potamogetonaceae
: family Ruppiaceae
: family Scheuchzeriaceae
: family Tofieldiaceae
: family Zosteraceae
In APG IV (2016), it was decided that evidence was sufficient to elevate *Maundia* to family level as the monogeneric Maundiaceae. The authors considered including a number of the smaller orders within the Juncaginaceae, but an online survey of botanists and other users found little support for this \"lumping\" approach
| 642 |
Alismatales
| 0 |
788 |
The **Apiales** are an order of flowering plants, included in the asterid group of dicotyledons. Well-known members of Apiales include carrots, celery, coriander, parsley, parsnips, poison hemlock, ginseng, ivies, and pittosporums.
Apiales consist of nine families, with the type family being the celery, carrot or parsley family, Apiaceae.
## Taxonomy
There are nine accepted families within the Apiales, though there is some slight variation and in particular, the Torriceliaceae may also be divided.
- Apiaceae (carrot family)
- Araliaceae (ginseng family)
- Griseliniaceae
- Myodocarpaceae
- Pennantiaceae
- Pittosporaceae
- Torricelliaceae
The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods. The circumscriptions of some of the families have changed. In 2009, one of the subfamilies of Araliaceae was shown to be polyphyletic.
The order Apiales is placed within the asterid group of eudicots as circumscribed by the APG III system. Within the asterids, Apiales belongs to an unranked group called the campanulids, and within the campanulids, it belongs to a clade known in phylogenetic nomenclature as Apiidae. In 2010, a subclade of Apiidae named Dipsapiidae was defined to consist of the three orders: Apiales, Paracryphiales, and Dipsacales.
Under the Cronquist system, only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The Pittosporaceae were placed within the Rosales, and many of the other forms within the family Cornaceae. *Pennantia* was in the family Icacinaceae. In the classification system of Dahlgren the families Apiaceae and Araliaceae were placed in the order Ariales, in the superorder Araliiflorae (also called Aralianae).
## Gynoecia
The largest and obviously closely related families of Apiales are Araliaceae, Myodocarpaceae and Apiaceae, which resemble each other in the structure of their gynoecia. In this respect however, the Pittosporaceae is notably distinct from them.
Typical syncarpous gynoecia exhibit four vertical zones, determined by the extent of fusion of the carpels. In most plants, the synascidiate (i.e. \"united bottle-shaped\") and symplicate zones are fertile and bear the ovules. Each of the first three families possess mainly bi- or multilocular ovaries in a gynoecium with a long synascidiate, but very short symplicate zone, where the ovules are inserted at their transition, the so-called cross-zone (or \"Querzone\").
In gynoecia of the Pittosporaceae, the symplicate is much longer than the synascidiate zone, and the ovules are arranged along the first. Members of the latter family consequently have unilocular ovaries with a single cavity between adjacent carpels
| 415 |
Apiales
| 0 |
789 |
**Asterales** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|s|t|ə|ˈ|r|eɪ|l|iː|z|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Asterales.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ASS|tər|RAY|leez}}`{=mediawiki}) is an order of dicotyledonous flowering plants that includes the large family Asteraceae (or Compositae) known for composite flowers made of florets, and ten families related to the Asteraceae. While asterids in general are characterized by fused petals, composite flowers consisting of many florets create the false appearance of separate petals (as found in the rosids).
The order is cosmopolitan (plants found throughout most of the world including desert and frigid zones), and includes mostly herbaceous species, although a small number of trees (such as the *Lobelia deckenii*, the giant lobelia, and *Dendrosenecio*, giant groundsels) and shrubs are also present.
Asterales are organisms that seem to have evolved from one common ancestor. Asterales share characteristics on morphological and biochemical levels. Synapomorphies (a character that is shared by two or more groups through evolutionary development) include the presence in the plants of oligosaccharide inulin, a nutrient storage molecule used instead of starch; and unique stamen morphology. The stamens are usually found around the style, either aggregated densely or fused into a tube, probably an adaptation in association with the plunger (brush; or secondary) pollination that is common among the families of the order, wherein pollen is collected and stored on the length of the pistil.
## Taxonomy
The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable, dating back to at least 1926 in the Hutchinson system of plant taxonomy when it contained only five families, of which only two are retained in the APG III classification. Under the Cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants, Asteraceae was the only family in the group, but newer systems (such as APG II and APG III) have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of Rolf Dahlgren the Asterales were in the superorder Asteriflorae (also called Asteranae).
The order **Asterales** currently includes 11 families, the largest of which are the Asteraceae, with about 25,000 species, and the Campanulaceae (bellflowers), with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 1500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitan, with many of their species found in the Northern Hemisphere, and the smaller families are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes South America.
Only the Asteraceae have composite flower heads; the other families do not, but share other characteristics such as storage of inulin that define the 11 families as more closely related to each other than to other plant families or orders such as the rosids.
The phylogenetic tree according to APG III for the Campanulid clade is as below.
| 428 |
Asterales
| 0 |
789 |
## Taxonomy
### Phylogeny
Although most extant species of Asteraceae are herbaceous, the examination of the basal members in the family suggests that the common ancestor of the family was an arborescent plant, a tree or shrub, perhaps adapted to dry conditions, radiating from South America. Less can be said about the Asterales themselves with certainty, although since several families in Asterales contain trees, the ancestral member is most likely to have been a tree or shrub.
Because all clades are represented in the Southern Hemisphere but many not in the Northern Hemisphere, it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them. Asterales belong to angiosperms or flowering plants, a clade that appeared about 140 million years ago. The Asterales order probably originated in the Cretaceous (145 -- 66 Mya) on the supercontinent Gondwana which broke up from 184 -- 80 Mya, forming the area that is now Australia, South America, Africa, India and Antarctica.
Asterales contain about 14% of eudicot diversity. From an analysis of relationships and diversities within the Asterales and with their superorders, estimates of the age of the beginning of the Asterales have been made, which range from 116 Mya to 82Mya. However few fossils have been found, of the Menyanthaceae-Asteraceae clade in the Oligocene, about 29 Mya.
Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs, so the precise estimation of the order\'s age is quite difficult. An Oligocene (34 -- 23 Mya) pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and Miocene (23 -- 5.3 Mya) are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively. According to molecular clock calculations, the lineage that led to Asterales split from other plants about 112 million years ago or 94 million years ago.
## Biogeography
The core Asterales are Stylidiaceae (six genera), APA clade (Alseuosmiaceae, Phellinaceae and Argophyllaceae, together seven genera), MGCA clade (Menyanthaceae, Goodeniaceae, Calyceraceae, in total twenty genera), and Asteraceae (about sixteen hundred genera). Other Asterales are Rousseaceae (four genera), Campanulaceae (eighty-four genera) and Pentaphragmataceae (one genus).
All Asterales families are represented in the Southern Hemisphere; however, Asteraceae and Campanulaceae are cosmopolitan and Menyanthaceae nearly so.
| 361 |
Asterales
| 1 |
789 |
## Uses
The Asterales, by dint of being a super-set of the family Asteraceae, include some species grown for food, including the sunflower (*Helianthus annuus*), lettuce (*Lactuca sativa*) and chicory (*Cichorium*). Many are also used as spices and traditional medicines.
Asterales are common plants and have many known uses. For example, pyrethrum (derived from Old World members of the genus *Chrysanthemum*) is a natural insecticide with minimal environmental impact. Wormwood, derived from a genus that includes the sagebrush, is used as a source of flavoring for absinthe, a bitter classical liquor of European origin
| 94 |
Asterales
| 2 |
794 |
An **allocution**, or **allocutus**, is a formal statement made to a court by the defendant who has been found guilty before being sentenced. It is part of the criminal procedure in some jurisdictions using common law.
## Concept
An allocution allows the defendant to explain why the sentence should be lenient. In plea bargains, an allocution may be required of the defendant. The defendant explicitly admits specifically and in detail the actions and their reasons in exchange for a reduced sentence.
In principle, that removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant\'s guilt in the matter.
The term *allocution* is used generally only in jurisdictions in the United States, but there are vaguely similar processes in other common law countries. In many other jurisdictions, it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on their client\'s behalf, and the defendant rarely has the opportunity to speak.
## Australia
In Australia, the term *allocutus* is used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the court.
It is generally phrased as: \"Prisoner at the Bar, you have been found Guilty by a jury of your peers of the offence of XYZ. Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you?\"
The defense counsel will then make a *plea in mitigation* (also called *submissions on penalty*) in an attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense, and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendant\'s previous good character and good works, if any.
The right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute: if a judge or magistrate refuses to hear such a plea or does not properly consider it, the sentence can be overturned on appeal.
## United States {#united_states}
In most of the United States, defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right. In its absence, a sentence but not the conviction may be overturned, resulting in the need for a new sentencing hearing. In the federal system, Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure 32(i)(4) provides that the court must \"address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence\".
The Federal Public Defender recommends that defendants speak in terms of how a lenient sentence will be sufficient but not greater than necessary to comply with the statutory directives set forth in `{{uscsub|18|3553|a}}`{=mediawiki}
| 411 |
Allocution
| 0 |
795 |
An ***italic=no*** (`{{IPAc-en|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Back ache-affidavit.wav|ˌ|æ|f|ɪ|ˈ|d|eɪ|v|ɪ|t}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AF|ih|DAY|vit}}`{=mediawiki}; Medieval Latin for \"he has declared under oath\") is a written statement voluntarily made by an *affiant* or *deponent* under an oath or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law. Such a statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiant\'s signature by a taker of oaths, such as a notary public or commissioner of oaths. An affidavit is a type of verified statement or showing, or containing a verification, meaning it is made under oath on penalty of perjury. It serves as evidence for its veracity and is required in court proceedings.
## Definition
An affidavit is typically defined as a written declaration or statement that is sworn or affirmed before a person who has authority to administer an oath. There is no general defined form for an affidavit, although for some proceedings an affidavit must satisfy legal or statutory requirements in order to be considered. An affidavit may include,
- a *commencement* which identifies the affiant;
- an *attestation* clause, usually a jurat, at the end certifying that the affiant made the statement under oath on the specified date;
- signatures of the affiant and person who administered the oath.
In some cases, an introductory clause, called a *preamble*, is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority. An affidavit may also recite that the statement it records was made under penalty of perjury.
An affidavit that is prepared for use within the context of litigation may also include a caption that identifies the venue and parties to the relevant judicial proceedings.
| 272 |
Affidavit
| 0 |
795 |
## Worldwide
### Australia
On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight.
### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
The term \"affidavit\" is used in the UK. According to the UK government website, \"The affidavit can be sworn or affirmed by a solicitor, notary or commissioner for oaths (for a charge) or by an authorised member of court staff.\"
### India
In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, the courts have no jurisdiction to admit evidence by way of affidavit. Affidavit is not treated as \"evidence\" within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. However, it was held by the Supreme Court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the court so orders for sufficient reasons, namely, the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for cross-examination. Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of a specific order of the court.
### Sri Lanka {#sri_lanka}
In Sri Lanka, under the Oaths Ordinance, with the exception of a court-martial, a person may submit an affidavit signed in the presence of a commissioner for oaths or a justice of the peace.
### Ireland
Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales, although \"make oath\" is sometimes omitted. An affirmed affidavit may be substituted for an sworn affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths. The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent and signs the affidavit. The affidavit concludes in the standard format \"sworn/affirmed (declared) before me, \[name of commissioner for oaths/solicitor\], a commissioner for oaths (solicitor), on the \[date\] at \[location\] in the county/city of \[county/city\], and I know the deponent\", and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths. It is important that the Commissioner states his/her name clearly, sometimes documents are rejected when the name cannot be ascertained.
In August 2020, a new method of filing affidavits came into force. Under Section 21 of the Civil Law and Criminal Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2020 witnesses are no longer required to swear before God or make an affirmation when filing an affidavit. Instead, witnesses will make a non-religious \"statement of truth\" and, if it is breached, will be liable for up to one year in prison if convicted summarily or, upon conviction on indictment, to a maximum fine of €250,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years, or both.
This is designed to replace affidavits and statutory declarations in situations where the electronic means of lodgement or filing of documents with the Court provided for in Section 20 is utilised. As of January 2022, it has yet to be adopted widely, and it is expected it will not be used for some time by lay litigants who will still lodge papers in person.
| 498 |
Affidavit
| 1 |
795 |
## Worldwide
### United States {#united_states}
thumb\|upright=0.9\|Affidavit signed by Harriet Tubman
In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual (especially if the affiant is not available for cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness\'s recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. If the affiant is a party in the case, the affiant\'s opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence, as statements by a party-opponent are admissible through an exception to the hearsay rule.
Affidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories. Requests for admissions under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn.
When a person signs an affidavit, that person is eligible to take the stand at a trial or evidentiary hearing. One party may wish to summon the affiant to verify the contents of the affidavit, while the other party may want to cross-examine the affiant about the affidavit.
Some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by them, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit.
Affidavits should not be confused with unsworn declarations under penalty of perjury. In federal courts and about 20 states as of 2006, unsworn declarations under penalty of perjury are authorized by statute as acceptable in lieu of affidavits. The key differences are that an unsworn declaration does not bear the jurat of a notary public and the declarant is not required to swear an oath or affirmation. Rather, the signature of the declarant under a carefully worded phrase binding them to the truth of their statements \"under penalty of perjury\" is deemed as a matter of law to be sufficiently solemn to remind the declarant of their duty to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth (that is, the oath they would normally swear if they were testifying in person in a court of law). The point of such affidavit substitution statutes is that unsworn declarations can be prepared and executed far more quickly and economically than affidavits, in that the witness need not meet personally with a notary public for the notarization process.
The acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court (for swearing the affidavit) is not a given. This matter is addressed by the use of the apostille, a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the 1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents. Documents which have been notarized by a notary public, and certain other documents, and then certified with a conformant apostille, are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the Hague Convention. Thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues
| 653 |
Affidavit
| 2 |
843 |
***A Clockwork Orange*** is a dystopian satirical black comedy novel by English writer Anthony Burgess, published on March 17, 1962. It is set in a near-future society that has a youth subculture of extreme violence. The teenage protagonist, Alex, narrates his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities intent on reforming him. The book is partially written in a Russian-influenced argot called \"Nadsat\", which takes its name from the Russian suffix that is equivalent to \'-teen\' in English. According to Burgess, the novel was a *jeu d\'esprit* written in just three weeks.
In 2005, *A Clockwork Orange* was included on *Time* magazine\'s list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923, and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. The original manuscript of the book has been kept at McMaster University\'s William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada since the institution purchased the documents in 1971. It is considered one of the most influential dystopian books.
In 2022, the novel was included on the \"Big Jubilee Read\" list of 70 books by Commonwealth authors selected to celebrate the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II.
## Plot summary {#plot_summary}
### Part 1: Alex\'s world {#part_1_alexs_world}
Alex is a 15-year-old gang leader living in a near-future dystopian city. His friends (\"droogs\" in the novel\'s Anglo-Russian slang, \"Nadsat\") and fellow gang members are Dim, a slow-witted bruiser, who is the gang\'s muscle; Georgie, an ambitious second-in-command; and Pete, who mostly plays along as the droogs indulge their taste for \"ultra-violence\" (random, violent mayhem). Characterised as a sociopath and hardened juvenile delinquent, Alex is also intelligent, quick-witted, and enjoys classical music; he is particularly fond of Beethoven, whom he calls \"Lovely Ludwig Van\".
The droogs sit in their favourite hangout, the Korova Milk Bar, drinking \"milk-plus\" (milk laced with the customer\'s drug of choice) to prepare for a night of ultra-violence. They assault a scholar walking home from the public library; rob a shop, leaving the owner and his wife bloodied and unconscious; beat up a beggar; then scuffle with a rival gang. Joyriding through the countryside in a stolen car, they break into an isolated cottage and terrorise the young couple living there, beating the husband and gang-raping his wife. The husband is a writer working on a manuscript entitled *A Clockwork Orange*, and Alex contemptuously reads out a paragraph that states the novel\'s main theme before shredding the manuscript. At the Korova, Alex strikes Dim for his crude response to a woman\'s singing of an operatic passage, and strains within the gang become apparent. At home in his parents\' flat, Alex plays classical music at top volume, which he describes as giving him orgasmic bliss before falling asleep.
Alex feigns illness to his parents to stay out of school the next day. Following an unexpected visit from P. R. Deltoid, his \"post-corrective adviser\", Alex visits a record store, where he meets two pre-teen girls. He invites them back to the flat, where he drugs and rapes them. That night after a nap, Alex finds his droogs in a mutinous mood, waiting downstairs in the torn-up and graffitied lobby. Georgie challenges Alex for leadership of the gang, demanding that they focus on higher-value targets in their robberies. Alex quells the rebellion by slashing Dim\'s hand and fighting with Georgie, then soothes the gang by agreeing to Georgie\'s plan to rob the home of a wealthy elderly woman. Alex breaks in and knocks the woman unconscious, but when he hears sirens and opens the door to flee, Dim strikes him as revenge for the earlier fight. The gang abandons Alex on the front step to be arrested by the police; while in custody, he learns that the woman has died from her injuries.
### Part 2: The Ludovico Technique {#part_2_the_ludovico_technique}
Alex is convicted of murder and sentenced to 14 years in prison. His parents visit one day to inform him that Georgie has been killed in a botched robbery. Two years into his term, he has obtained a job in one of the prison chapels, playing music on the stereo to accompany the Sunday Christian services. After his fellow cellmates blame him for beating a troublesome cellmate to death, he is chosen to undergo an experimental behaviour modification treatment called the Ludovico Technique in exchange for having the remainder of his sentence commuted. The technique is a form of aversion therapy in which Alex is injected with nausea-inducing drugs while watching graphically violent films, eventually conditioning him to become severely ill at the mere thought of violence. As an unintended consequence, the soundtrack to one of the films, Beethoven\'s Fifth Symphony, renders Alex unable to enjoy his beloved classical music as before.
The technique\'s effectiveness is demonstrated to a group of VIPs, who watch as Alex collapses before a man who slaps him and abases himself before a scantily clad young woman. Although the prison chaplain accuses the state of stripping Alex of free will, the government officials on the scene are pleased with the results, and Alex is released from prison.
| 858 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 0 |
843 |
## Plot summary {#plot_summary}
### Part 3: After prison {#part_3_after_prison}
Alex returns to his parents\' flat, only to find that they are letting his room to a lodger. Now homeless, he wanders the streets and enters a public library, hoping to learn of a painless method for committing suicide. The old scholar whom Alex had assaulted in Part 1 finds him and beats him with the help of several friends. Two policemen come to Alex\'s rescue, but they turn out to be Dim and Billyboy, a former rival gang leader. They take Alex outside town, brutalise him, and abandon him there. Alex collapses at the door of an isolated cottage, realising too late that it is the one he and his droogs invaded in Part 1.
The writer, F. Alexander, still lives here, but his wife has since died of what he believes to be injuries she sustained in the rape. He does not recognise Alex but gives him shelter and questions him about the conditioning he has undergone. Alexander and his colleagues, all highly critical of the government, plan to use Alex as a symbol of state brutality and thus prevent the incumbent government from being re-elected. After Alex inadvertently reveals that he was the ringleader of the home invasion, he is removed from the cottage and locked in an upper-storey bedroom as a relentless barrage of classical music plays over speakers. He attempts suicide by leaping from the window.
Alex wakes up in a hospital, where he is courted by government officials, anxious to counter the bad publicity created by his suicide attempt. He is informed that F. Alexander has been \"put away\" for Alex\'s protection and his own. Alex is offered a well-paying job if he agrees to side with the government once discharged. A round of tests reveals that his old violent impulses have returned, indicating that the hospital doctors have undone the effects of his conditioning. As photographers snap pictures, Alex daydreams of orgiastic violence and reflects, \"I was cured all right.\"
In the final chapter, Alex---now 18 years old and working for the nation\'s musical recording archives---finds himself halfheartedly preparing for another night of crime with a new gang (Len, Rick, and Bully). After a chance encounter with Pete, who has reformed and married, Alex finds himself taking less and less pleasure in acts of senseless violence. He begins contemplating giving up crime himself to become a productive member of society and start a family of his own while reflecting on the notion that his children could end up being just as destructive as he has been, if not more so.
| 437 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 1 |
843 |
## Omission of the final chapter in the US {#omission_of_the_final_chapter_in_the_us}
The book has three parts, each with seven chapters. Burgess has stated that the total of 21 chapters was an intentional nod to the age of 21 being recognised as a milestone in human maturation. The 21st chapter was omitted from the editions published in the United States prior to 1986. In the introduction to the updated American text (these newer editions include the missing 21st chapter), Burgess explains that when he first brought the book to an American publisher, he was told that US audiences would never go for the final chapter, in which Alex sees the error of his ways, decides he has lost his taste for violence and resolves to turn his life around.
At the American publisher\'s insistence, Burgess allowed its editors to cut the redeeming final chapter from the US version, so that the tale would end on a darker note, with Alex becoming his old, ultraviolent self again -- an ending which the publisher insisted would be \"more realistic\" and appealing to a US audience. The film adaptation, directed by Stanley Kubrick, is based on the American edition of the book, and is considered to be \"badly flawed\" by Burgess. Kubrick called Chapter 21 \"an extra chapter\" and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay and that he had never given serious consideration to using it. In Kubrick\'s opinion -- as in the opinion of other readers, including the original American editor -- the final chapter was unconvincing and inconsistent with the book. Kubrick\'s stance was unusual when compared to the standard Hollywood practice of producing films with the familiar tropes of resolving moral messages and good triumphing over evil before the film\'s end.
| 299 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 2 |
843 |
## Characters
- **Alex**: The novel\'s protagonist and leader among his droogs. He often refers to himself as \"Your Humble Narrator\". Having coaxed two ten-year-old girls into his bedroom, Alex refers to himself as \"Alexander the Large\" while raping them; this was later the basis for Alex\'s claimed surname *DeLarge* in the 1971 film.
- **George**, **Georgie** or **Georgie Boy**: Effectively Alex\'s greedy second-in-command. Georgie attempts to undermine Alex\'s status as leader of the gang and take over their gang as the new leader. He is later killed during a botched robbery while Alex is in prison.
- **Pete**: The only one who does not take particular sides when the droogs fight among themselves. He later meets and marries a girl named Georgina, renouncing his violent ways and even losing his former (Nadsat) speech patterns. A chance encounter with Pete in the final chapter influences Alex to realise that he has grown bored with violence and recognise that human energy is better expended on creation than destruction.
- **Dim**: An idiotic and thoroughly gormless member of the gang, persistently condescended to by Alex, but respected to some extent by his droogs for his formidable fighting abilities, his weapon of choice being a length of bike chain. He later becomes a police officer, exacting his revenge on Alex for the abuse he once suffered under his command.
- **P. R. Deltoid**: A criminal rehabilitation social worker assigned the task of keeping Alex on the straight and narrow. He seemingly has no clue about dealing with young people, and is devoid of empathy or understanding for his troublesome charge. Indeed, when Alex is arrested for murdering an old woman and then ferociously beaten by several police officers, Deltoid simply spits on him.
- **Prison Chaplain**: The character who first questions whether it is moral to turn a violent person into a behavioural automaton who can make no choice in such matters. This is the only character who is truly concerned about Alex\'s welfare; he is not taken seriously by Alex, though. He is nicknamed by Alex \"prison charlie\" or \"chaplin\", a pun on Charlie Chaplin.
- **Billyboy**: A rival of Alex\'s. Early on in the story, Alex and his droogs battle Billyboy and his droogs, which ends abruptly when the police arrive. Later, after Alex is released from prison, Billyboy (along with Dim, who like Billyboy has become a police officer) rescues Alex from a mob, then subsequently beats him in a location out of town.
- **Prison Governor**: The man who decides to let Alex \"choose\" to be the first reformed by the Ludovico technique.
- **The Minister of the Interior**: The government high-official who determined that the Ludovico\'s technique will be used to cut recidivism. He is referred to as *the Minister of Interior or Inferior* by Alex.
- **Dr Branom**: A scientist, co-developer of the Ludovico technique. He appears friendly and almost paternal towards Alex at first, before forcing him into the theatre and what Alex calls the \"chair of torture\".
- **Dr Brodsky**: Branom\'s colleague and co-developer of the Ludovico technique. He seems much more passive than Branom and says considerably less.
- **F. Alexander**: An author who was in the process of typing his magnum opus *A Clockwork Orange* when Alex and his droogs broke into his house, beat him, tore up his work and then brutally gang-raped his wife, which caused her subsequent death. He is left deeply scarred by these events and when he encounters Alex two years later, he uses him as a guinea pig in a sadistic experiment intended to prove the Ludovico technique unsound. The government imprisons him afterwards. He is given the name Frank Alexander in the film.
- **Cat Woman**: An indirectly named woman who blocks Alex\'s gang\'s entrance scheme, and threatens to shoot Alex and set her cats on him if he does not leave. After Alex breaks into her house, she fights with him, ordering her cats to join the melee, but reprimands Alex for fighting them off. She sustains a fatal blow to the head during the scuffle. She is given the name Miss Weathers in the film.
| 691 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 3 |
843 |
## Analysis
### Background
*A Clockwork Orange* was written in Hove, then a senescent English seaside town. Burgess had arrived back in Britain after his stint abroad to see that much had changed. A youth culture had developed, based around coffee bars, pop music and teenage gangs. England was gripped by fears over juvenile delinquency. Burgess stated that the novel\'s inspiration was his first wife Lynne\'s beating by a gang of drunk American servicemen stationed in England during World War II. She subsequently miscarried. In its investigation of free will, the book\'s target is ostensibly the concept of behaviourism, pioneered by such figures as B. F. Skinner. Burgess later stated that he wrote the book in three weeks.
### Title
Burgess has offered several clarifications about the meaning and origin of its title:
- He had overheard the phrase \"as queer as a clockwork orange\" in a London pub in 1945 and assumed it was a Cockney expression. In *Clockwork Marmalade*, an essay published in the *Listener* in 1972, he said that he had heard the phrase several times since that occasion. He also explained the title in response to a question from William Everson on the television programme *Camera Three* in 1972, `{{blockquote |text = Well, the title has a very different meaning but only to a particular generation of London Cockneys. It's a phrase which I heard many years ago and so fell in love with, I wanted to use it, the title of the book. But the phrase itself I did not make up. The phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" is good old East London slang and it didn't seem to me necessary to explain it. Now, obviously, I have to give it an extra meaning. I've implied an extra dimension. I've implied the junction of the organic, the lively, the sweet – in other words, life, the orange – and the mechanical, the cold, the disciplined. I've brought them together in this kind of [[oxymoron]], this sour-sweet word.
|author = Anthony Burgess
|title = An examination of Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejM3odcn3Tk#t=7m23s ''An examination of Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109093620/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejM3odcn3Tk=7m23s |date=9 November 2016}} ''Camera Three'': Creative Arts Television, 2010-08-04. '''(Video)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.malcolmtribute.freeiz.com/aco/review.html ''Clockwork Orange: A review with William Everson''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710224804/http://www.malcolmtribute.freeiz.com/aco/review.html |date=10 July 2012}}. Retrieved: 2012-03-11.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
No other record of the expression being used before 1962 has ever appeared, with Kingsley Amis going so far as to note in his *Memoirs* (1991) that no trace of it appears in Eric Partridge\'s *Dictionary of Historical Slang*. However, saying \"as queer as \...\" followed by an improbable object: \"\... a clockwork orange\", or \"\... a four-speed walking stick\" or \"\... a left-handed corkscrew\" etc. predates Burgess\'s novel. An early example, \"as queer as Dick\'s hatband\", appeared in 1796, and was alluded to in 1757.
- His second explanation was that it was a pun on the Malay word *orang*, meaning \"man\". The novella contains no other Malay words or links.
- In a prefatory note to *A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music*, he wrote that the title was a metaphor for \"an organic entity, full of juice and sweetness and agreeable odour, being turned into a mechanism\".
- In his essay *Clockwork Oranges*, Burgess asserts that \"this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of Pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was capable of colour and sweetness\".
- While addressing the reader in a letter before some editions of the book, the author says that when a man ceases to have free will, they are no longer a man. \"Just a clockwork orange\", a shiny, appealing object, but \"just a toy to be wound-up by either God or the Devil, or (what is increasingly replacing both) the State.\"
This title alludes to the protagonist\'s negative emotional responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will subsequent to the administration of the Ludovico Technique. To induce this conditioning, Alex is forced to watch scenes of violence on a screen that are systematically paired with negative physical stimulation. The negative physical stimulation takes the form of nausea and \"feelings of terror\", which are caused by an emetic medicine administered just before the presentation of the films.
In its original drafts, Burgess used the working title \'The Ludovico Technique,\' as he himself described in the foreword in the April 1995 publication. Along with removing the 21st chapter as insisted by his publisher in the original 1962 edition, he would also change the finished product\'s name to its current title.
### Use of slang {#use_of_slang}
The book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang argot which Burgess invented for the book, called Nadsat. It is a mix of modified Slavic words, Cockney rhyming slang and derived Russian (like *baboochka*). For instance, these terms have the following meanings in Nadsat: *droog* (друг) = friend; *moloko* (молоко) = milk; *gulliver* (голова) = head; *malchick* (мальчик) or *malchickiwick* = boy; *soomka* (сумка) = sack or bag; *Bog* (Бог) = God; *horrorshow* (хорошо) = good; *prestoopnick* (преступник) = criminal; *rooker* (рука) = hand; *cal* (кал) = crap; *veck* (человек) = man or guy; *litso* (лицо) = face; *malenky* (маленький) = little; and so on. Some words Burgess invented himself or just adapted from existing languages. Compare Polari.
One of Alex\'s doctors explains the language to a colleague as \"odd bits of old rhyming slang; a bit of gypsy talk, too. But most of the roots are Slav propaganda. Subliminal penetration.\" Some words are not derived from anything, but merely easy to guess, e.g. \"in-out, in-out\" or \"the old in-out\" means sexual intercourse. *Cutter*, however, means \"money\", because \"cutter\" rhymes with \"bread-and-butter\"; this is rhyming slang, which is intended to be impenetrable to outsiders (especially eavesdropping policemen). Additionally, slang like *appypolly loggy* (\"apology\") seems to derive from school boy slang. This reflects Alex\'s age of 15.
In the first edition of the book, no key was provided, and the reader was left to interpret the meaning from the context. In his appendix to the restored edition, Burgess explained that the slang would keep the book from seeming dated, and served to muffle \"the raw response of pornography\" from the acts of violence.
The term `{{anchor|Ultraviolence}}`{=mediawiki}\"ultraviolence\", referring to excessive or unjustified violence, was coined by Burgess in the book, which includes the phrase \"do the ultra-violent\". The term\'s association with aesthetic violence has led to its use in the media.
| 1,075 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 4 |
843 |
## Analysis
### Banning and censorship history in the US {#banning_and_censorship_history_in_the_us}
The first major incident of censorship of *A Clockwork Orange* took place in 1973, when a bookseller was arrested for selling the novel (although the charges were later dropped). In 1976, *A Clockwork Orange* was removed from an Aurora, Colorado high school because of \"objectionable language\". A year later in 1977 it was removed from high school classrooms in Westport, Massachusetts over similar concerns with \"objectionable\" language. In 1982, it was removed from two Anniston, Alabama libraries, later to be reinstated on a restricted basis. However, each of these instances came after the release of Stanley Kubrick\'s popular 1971 film adaptation of *A Clockwork Orange*, itself the subject of much controversy after exposing a much larger part of the populace to the themes of the novel. In 2024 the book was banned in Texas by the Katy Independent School District on the basis that the novel is \"adopting, supporting, or promoting gender fluidity\" despite also pronouncing a bullying policy that protects infringements on the rights of the student.
| 179 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 5 |
843 |
## Reception
### Initial response {#initial_response}
*The Sunday Telegraph* review was positive, and described the book as \"entertaining \... even profound\". Kingsley Amis in *The Observer* acclaimed the novel as \"cheerful horror\", writing \"Mr Burgess has written a fine farrago of outrageousness, one which incidentally suggests a view of juvenile violence I can\'t remember having met before\". Malcolm Bradbury wrote \"All of Mr Burgess\'s powers as a comic writer, which are considerable, have gone into the rich language of his inverted Utopia. If you can stomach the horrors, you\'ll enjoy the manner\". Roald Dahl called it \"a terrifying and marvellous book\". Many reviewers praised the inventiveness of the language, but expressed unease at the violent subject matter. *The Spectator* praised Burgess\'s \"extraordinary technical feat\" but was uncomfortable with \"a certain arbitrariness about the plot which is slightly irritating\". *New Statesman* acclaimed Burgess for addressing \"acutely and savagely the tendencies of our time\" but called the book \"a great strain to read\". *The Sunday Times* review was negative, and described the book as \"a very ordinary, brutal and psychologically shallow story\". *The Times* also reviewed the book negatively, describing it as \"a somewhat clumsy experiment with science fiction \[with\] clumsy cliches about juvenile delinquency\". The violence was criticised as \"unconvincing in detail\".
### Writer\'s appraisal {#writers_appraisal}
Burgess dismissed *A Clockwork Orange* as \"too didactic to be artistic\". He said that the violent content of the novel \"nauseated\" him.
In 1985, Burgess published *Flame into Being: The Life and Work of D. H. Lawrence* and while discussing *Lady Chatterley\'s Lover* in his biography, Burgess compared the notoriety of D. H. Lawrence\'s novel with *A Clockwork Orange*: \"We all suffer from the popular desire to make the known notorious. The book I am best known for, or only known for, is a novel I am prepared to repudiate: written a quarter of a century ago, a *jeu d\'esprit* knocked off for money in three weeks, it became known as the raw material for a film which seemed to glorify sex and violence. The film made it easy for readers of the book to misunderstand what it was about, and the misunderstanding will pursue me until I die. I should not have written the book because of this danger of misinterpretation, and the same may be said of Lawrence and *Lady Chatterley\'s Lover*.\"
### Awards and nominations and rankings {#awards_and_nominations_and_rankings}
- 1983 -- Prometheus Award (Preliminary Nominee)
- 1999 -- Prometheus Award (Nomination)
- 2002 -- Prometheus Award (Nomination)
- 2003 -- Prometheus Award (Nomination)
- 2006 -- Prometheus Award (Nomination)
- 2008 -- Prometheus Award (Hall of Fame Award)
*A Clockwork Orange* was chosen by *Time* magazine as one of the 100 best English-language books from 1923 to 2005.
| 456 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 6 |
843 |
## Adaptations
A 1965 film by Andy Warhol entitled *Vinyl* was an adaptation of Burgess\'s novel.
The best known adaptation of the novel is the 1971 film *A Clockwork Orange* by Stanley Kubrick, with Malcolm McDowell as Alex. In 1987, Burgess published a stage play titled *A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music*. The play includes songs, written by Burgess, which are inspired by Beethoven and Nadsat slang.
A manga anthology by Osamu Tezuka entitled *Tokeijikake no Ringo* (Clockwork Apple) was released in 1983.
In 1988, a German adaptation of *A Clockwork Orange* at the intimate theatre of Bad Godesberg featured a musical score by the German punk rock band Die Toten Hosen which, combined with orchestral clips of Beethoven\'s Ninth Symphony and \"other dirty melodies\" (so stated by the subtitle), was released on the album *Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau*. The track *Hier kommt Alex* became one of the band\'s signature songs.
In February 1990, another musical version was produced at the Barbican Theatre in London by the Royal Shakespeare Company. Titled *A Clockwork Orange: 2004*, it received mostly negative reviews, with John Peter of *The Sunday Times* of London calling it \"only an intellectual *Rocky Horror Show*\", and John Gross of *The Sunday Telegraph* calling it \"a clockwork lemon\". Even Burgess himself, who wrote the script based on his novel, was disappointed. According to *The Evening Standard*, he called the score, written by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2, \"neo-wallpaper\". Burgess had originally worked alongside the director of the production, Ron Daniels, and envisioned a musical score that was entirely classical. Unhappy with the decision to abandon that score, he heavily criticised the band\'s experimental mix of hip-hop, liturgical, and gothic music. Lise Hand of *The Irish Independent* reported The Edge as saying that Burgess\'s original conception was \"a score written by a novelist rather than a songwriter\". Calling it \"meaningless glitz\", Jane Edwardes of *20/20* magazine said that watching this production was \"like being invited to an expensive French Restaurant -- and being served with a Big Mac.\"
In 1994, Chicago\'s Steppenwolf Theater put on a production of *A Clockwork Orange* directed by Terry Kinney. The American premiere of novelist Anthony Burgess\'s own adaptation of his *A Clockwork Orange* starred K. Todd Freeman as Alex. In 2001, UNI Theatre (Mississauga, Ontario) presented the Canadian premiere of the play under the direction of Terry Costa.
In 2002, Godlight Theatre Company presented the New York Premiere adaptation of *A Clockwork Orange* at Manhattan Theatre Source. The production went on to play at the SoHo Playhouse (2002), Ensemble Studio Theatre (2004), 59E59 Theaters (2005) and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe (2005). While at Edinburgh, the production received rave reviews from the press while playing to sold-out audiences. The production was directed by Godlight\'s artistic director, Joe Tantalo.
In 2003, Los Angeles director Brad Mays and the ARK Theatre Company staged a multi-media adaptation of *A Clockwork Orange*, which was named \"Pick of the Week\" by the *LA Weekly* and nominated for three of the 2004 LA Weekly Theater Awards: Direction, Revival Production (of a 20th-century work), and Leading Female Performance. Vanessa Claire Smith won Best Actress for her gender-bending portrayal of Alex, the music-loving teenage sociopath. This production utilised three separate video streams outputted to seven onstage video monitors -- six 19-inch and one 40-inch. In order to preserve the first-person narrative of the book, a pre-recorded video stream of Alex, \"your humble narrator\", was projected onto the 40-inch monitor, thereby freeing the onstage character during passages which would have been awkward or impossible to sustain in the breaking of the fourth wall.
An adaptation of the work, based on the original novel, the film and Burgess\'s own stage version, was performed by the SiLo Theatre in Auckland, New Zealand in early 2007.
In 2021, the International Anthony Burgess Foundation premiered a webpage cataloging various productions of *A Clockwork Orange* from around the world
| 655 |
A Clockwork Orange (novel)
| 7 |
846 |
The **Museum of Work** (*Arbetets museum*) is a museum located in Norrköping, Sweden. The museum is located in the *Strykjärn* (Clothes iron), a former weaving mill in the old industrial area on the Motala ström river in the city centre of Norrköping. The former textile factory Holmens Bruk (sv) operated in the building from 1917 to 1962.
The museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories about people\'s professional lives from both the past and the present. The museum\'s archive contain material from memory collections and documentation projects.
Since 2009, the museum also houses the EWK -- Center for Political Illustration Art, which is based on work of the satirist Ewert Karlsson (1918--2004). For decades he was frequently published in the Swedish tabloid, *Aftonbladet*.
## Overview
The museum is a national central museum with the task of preserving and telling about work and everyday life. It has, among other things, exhibitions on the terms and conditions of the work and the history of the industrial society. The museum is also known to highlight gender perspective in their exhibitions.
The work museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories, including people\'s professional life from both the past and present. In the museum\'s archive, there is a rich material of memory collections and documentation projects -- over 2600 interviews, stories and photodocumentations have been collected since the museum opened.
The museum is also a support for the country\'s approximately 1,500 working life museums that are old workplaces preserved to convey their history.
## Exhibitions
The Museum of Work shows exhibitions going on over several years, but also shorter exhibitions -- including several photo exhibitions on themes that can be linked to work and everyday life.
### The history of Alva {#the_history_of_alva}
The history of Alva Karlsson is the only exhibition in the museum that is permanent. The exhibition connects to the museum\'s building and its history as part of the textile industry in Norrköping. Alva worked as a rollers between the years 1927 -- 1962.
### Industriland
One of the museum long-term exhibitions is Industriland -- when Sweden became modern, the exhibition was in 2007--2013 and consisted of an ongoing bond with various objects that were somehow significant both for working life and everyday during the period 1930--1980. The exhibition also consisted of presentations of the working life museums in Sweden and a number of rooms with themes such as: leisure, world, living and consumption.
### Framtidsland (Future country) {#framtidsland_future_country}
In 2014, the exhibition was inaugurated that takes by where Industriland ends: Future country. It is an exhibition that investigates what a sustainable society is will be part of the museum\'s exhibitions until 2019. The exhibition consists of materials that are designed based on conversations between young people and researchers around Sweden. The exhibition addresses themes such as work, environment and everyday life. A tour version of the exhibition is given in the locations Falun, Kristianstad and Örebro.
## EWK -- The Center for Political Illustration Art {#ewk_the_center_for_political_illustration_art}
Since 2009, the Museum also houses EWK -- center for political illustration art. The museum preserves, develops and conveys the political illustrator Ewert Karlsson\'s production. The museum also holds theme exhibitions with national and international political illustrators with the aim of highlighting and strengthening the political art
| 547 |
Museum of Work
| 0 |
859 |
**Aztlan Underground** is a band from Los Angeles, California that combines Hip-Hop, Punk Rock, Jazz, and electronic music with Chicano and Native American themes, and indigenous instrumentation. They are often cited as progenitors of Chicano rap.
## Background
The band traces its roots to the late-1980s hardcore scene in the Eastside of Los Angeles. They have played rapcore, with elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, indigenous music, and spoken word. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are also commonly used in their music. Their lyrics often address the family and economic issues faced by the Chicano community, and they have been noted as activists for that community.
As an example of the politically active and culturally important artists in Los Angeles in the 1990s, Aztlan Underground appeared on *Culture Clash* on Fox in 1993; and was part of *Breaking Out*, a concert on pay per view in 1998, The band was featured in the independent films *Algun Dia* and *Frontierland* in the 1990s, and on the upcoming *Studio 49*. The band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: *the Vancouver Sun*, *New Times*, *BLU Magazine* (an underground hip hop magazine), *BAM Magazine*, *La Banda Elastica Magazine*, and the *Los Angeles Times* calendar section. The band is also the subject of a chapter in the book *It\'s Not About a Salary*, by Brian Cross.
Aztlan Underground remains active in the community, lending their voice to annual events such as The Farce of July, and the recent movement to recognize Indigenous People\'s Day in Los Angeles and beyond.
In addition to forming their own label, Xicano Records and Film, Aztlan Underground were signed to the Basque record label Esan Ozenki in 1999 which enabled them to tour Spain extensively and perform in France and Portugal. Aztlan Underground have also performed in Canada, Australia, and Venezuela. The band has been recognized for their music with nominations in the *New Times* 1998 \"Best Latin Influenced\" category, the *BAM Magazine* 1999 \"Best Rock en Español\" category, and the *LA Weekly* 1999 \"Best Hip Hop\" category. The release of their eponymous third album on August 29, 2009, was met with positive reviews and earned the band four Native American Music Award (NAMMY) nominations in 2010.
## Discography
### *Decolonize*
Year:1995
1. \"Teteu Innan\"
2. \"Killing Season\"
3. \"Lost Souls\"
4. \"My Blood Is Red\"
5. \"Natural Enemy\"
6. \"Sacred Circle\"
7. \"Blood On Your Hands\"
8. \"Interlude\"
9. \"Aug 2 the 9\"
10. \"Indigena\"
11. \"Lyrical Drive By\"
### *Sub-Verses* {#sub_verses}
Year:1998
1. \"Permiso\"
2. \"They Move In Silence\"
3. \"No Soy Animal\"
4. \"Killing Season\"
5. \"Blood On Your Hands\"
6. \"Reality Check\"
7. \"Lemon Pledge\"
8. \"Revolution\"
9. \"Preachers of the Blind State\"
10. \"Lyrical Drive-By\"
11. \"Nahui Ollin\"
12. \"How to Catch a Bullet\"
13. \"Ik Otik\"
14. \"Obsolete Man\"
15. \"Decolonize\"
16. \"War Flowers\"
### *Aztlan Underground* {#aztlan_underground}
Year: 2009
1. \"Moztlitta\"
2. \"Be God\"
3. \"Light Shines\"
4. \"Prey\"
5. \"In the Field\"
6. \"9 10 11 12\"
7. \"Smell the Dead\"
8. \"Sprung\"
9. \"Medicine\"
10. \"Acabando\"
11
| 512 |
Aztlan Underground
| 0 |
875 |
**Analog Brothers** were an experimental hip hop band featuring Tracy \"Ice-T\" Marrow (Ice Oscillator) on keyboards, drums and vocals, Keith \"Kool Keith\" Thornton (Keith Korg) on bass, strings and vocals, Marc Live (Marc Moog) on drums, violins and vocals, Christopher \"Black Silver\" Rodgers (Silver Synth) on synthesizer, lazar bell and vocals, and Rex Colonel \"Pimpin\' Rex\" Doby Jr. (Rex Roland JX3P) on keyboards, vocals and production.
## Music
The group\'s only studio album *Pimp to Eat* featured guest appearances by various members of Rhyme Syndicate, Odd Oberheim, Jacky Jasper (who appears as Jacky Jasper on the song \"We Sleep Days\" and H-Bomb on \"War\"), D.J. Cisco from S.M., Synth-A-Size Sisters and Teflon.
## Legacy
While the group only recorded one album together as the Analog Brothers, a few bootlegs of its live concert performances, including freestyles with original lyrics, have occasionally surfaced online. After *Pimp to Eat*, the Analog Brothers continued performing together in various line ups. Kool Keith and Marc Live joined with Jacky Jasper to release two albums as KHM. Marc Live rapped with Ice-T\'s group SMG. Marc also formed a group with Black Silver called Live Black, but while five of their tracks were released on a demo CD sold at concerts, Live Black\'s first album has yet to be released.
In 2008, Ice-T and Black Silver toured together as Black Ice, and released an album together called *Urban Legends*.
In 2013, Black Silver and newest member to Analog Brothers, Kiew Kurzweil (Kiew Nikon of Kinetic) collaborated on the joint album called *Slang Banging (Return to Analog)* with production by Junkadelic Music. In addition to all this, the Analog Brothers continue to make frequent appearances on each other\'s solo albums.
## Discography
- 2000 - *2005 A.D
| 290 |
Analog Brothers
| 0 |
890 |
**Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova Iglesias** (née **Kournikova**; *Анна Сергеевна Курникова*; `{{IPA|ru|ˈanːə sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvnə ˈkurnʲɪkəvə|lang|Anna_kournikova.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; born 7 June 1981) is a Russian model and television personality, and former professional tennis player. Her appearance and celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis stars worldwide. At the peak of her fame, fans looking for images of Kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on Google Search.
Despite never winning a singles title, she reached No. 8 in the world in 2000. She achieved greater success playing doubles, where she was at times the world No. 1 player. With Martina Hingis as her partner, she won Grand Slam titles in Australia in 1999 and 2002, and the WTA Championships in 1999 and 2000. They referred to themselves as the \"Spice Girls of Tennis\".
Kournikova retired from professional tennis in 2003 due to serious back and spinal problems, including a herniated disk. She lives in Miami Beach, Florida, and played in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the St. Louis Aces of World TeamTennis before the team folded in 2011. She was a new trainer for season 12 of the television show *The Biggest Loser*, replacing Jillian Michaels, but did not return for season 13. In addition to her tennis and television work, Kournikova serves as a Global Ambassador for Population Services International\'s \"Five & Alive\" program, which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families.
## Early life {#early_life}
Kournikova was born in Moscow, Russia, on 7 June 1981. Her father, Sergei Kournikov (born 1961), a former Greco-Roman wrestling champion, eventually earned a PhD and was a professor at the University of Physical Culture and Sport in Moscow. As of 2001, he was still a part-time martial arts instructor there. Her mother Alla (born 1963) had been a 400-metre runner. Her younger half-brother, Allan, is a youth golf world champion who was featured in the 2013 documentary film *The Short Game*.
Sergei Kournikov has said, \"We were young and we liked the clean, physical life, so Anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning\".
Kournikova received her first tennis racquet as a New Year gift in 1986 at the age of five. Describing her early regimen, she said, \"I played two times a week from age six. It was a children\'s program. And it was just for fun; my parents didn\'t know I was going to play professionally, they just wanted me to do something because I had lots of energy. It was only when I started playing well at seven that I went to a professional academy. I would go to school, and then my parents would take me to the club, and I\'d spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids.\" In 1986, Kournikova became a member of the Spartak Tennis Club, coached by Larissa Preobrazhenskaya. In 1989, at the age of eight, Kournikova began appearing in junior tournaments, and by the following year, was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world. She signed a management deal at age ten and went to Bradenton, Florida, to train at Nick Bollettieri\'s celebrated tennis academy.
| 529 |
Anna Kournikova
| 0 |
890 |
## Tennis career {#tennis_career}
### 1989--1997: early years and breakthrough {#early_years_and_breakthrough}
Following her arrival in the United States, she became prominent on the tennis scene. At the age of 14, she won the European Championships and the Italian Open Junior tournament. In December 1995, she became the youngest player to win the 18-and-under division of the Junior Orange Bowl tennis tournament. By the end of the year, Kournikova was crowned the ITF Junior World Champion U-18 and Junior European Champion U-18.
Earlier, in September 1995, Kournikova, still only 14 years of age, debuted in the WTA Tour, when she received a wildcard into the qualifications at the WTA tournament in Moscow, the Moscow Ladies Open, and qualified before losing in the second round of the main draw to third-seeded Sabine Appelmans. She also reached her first WTA Tour doubles final in that debut appearance -- partnering with 1995 Wimbledon girls\' champion in both singles and doubles Aleksandra Olsza, she lost the title match to Meredith McGrath and Larisa Savchenko-Neiland.
In February--March 1996, Kournikova won two ITF titles, in Midland, Michigan and Rockford, Illinois. Still only 14 years of age, in April 1996 she debuted at the Fed Cup for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win a match.
In 1996, she started playing under a new coach, Ed Nagel. Her six-year association with Nagel was successful. At 15, she made her Grand Slam debut, reaching the fourth round of the 1996 US Open, losing to Steffi Graf, the eventual champion. After this tournament, Kournikova\'s ranking jumped from No. 144 to debut in the Top 100 at No. 69. Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1996, she was named WTA Newcomer of the Year, and she was ranked No. 57 in the end of the season.
Kournikova entered the 1997 Australian Open as world No. 67, where she lost in the first round to world No. 12, Amanda Coetzer. At the Italian Open, Kournikova lost to Amanda Coetzer in the second round. She reached the semi-finals in the doubles partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, before losing to the sixth seeds Mary Joe Fernández and Patricia Tarabini.
At the French Open, Kournikova made it to the third round before losing to world No. 1, Martina Hingis. She also reached the third round in doubles with Likhovtseva. At the Wimbledon Championships, Kournikova became only the second woman in the open era to reach the semi-finals in her Wimbledon debut, the first being Chris Evert in 1972. There she lost to eventual champion Martina Hingis.
At the US Open, she lost in the second round to the eleventh seed Irina Spîrlea. Partnering with Likhovtseva, she reached the third round of the women\'s doubles event. Kournikova played her last WTA Tour event of 1997 at Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt, losing to Amanda Coetzer in the second round of singles, and in the first round of doubles to Lindsay Davenport and Jana Novotná partnering with Likhovtseva. She broke into the top 50 on 19 May, and was ranked No. 32 in singles and No. 41 in doubles at the end of the season.
| 531 |
Anna Kournikova
| 1 |
890 |
## Tennis career {#tennis_career}
### 1998--2000: success and stardom {#success_and_stardom}
In 1998, Kournikova broke into the WTA\'s top 20 rankings for the first time, when she was ranked No. 16. At the Australian Open, Kournikova lost in the third round to world No. 1 player, Martina Hingis. She also partnered with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland in women\'s doubles, and they lost to eventual champions Hingis and Mirjana Lučić in the second round. Although she lost in the second round of the Paris Open to Anke Huber in singles, Kournikova reached her second doubles WTA Tour final, partnering with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. They lost to Sabine Appelmans and Miriam Oremans. Kournikova and Savchenko-Neiland reached their second consecutive final at the Linz Open, losing to Alexandra Fusai and Nathalie Tauziat. At the Miami Open, Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour singles final, before losing to Venus Williams in the final.
Kournikova then reached two consecutive quarterfinals, at Amelia Island and the Italian Open, losing respectively to Lindsay Davenport and Martina Hingis. At the German Open, she reached the semi-finals in both singles and doubles, partnering with Larisa Savchenko-Neiland. At the French Open Kournikova had her best result at this tournament, making it to the fourth round before losing to Jana Novotná. She also reached her first Grand Slam doubles semi-finals, losing with Savchenko-Neiland to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva. During her quarterfinals match at the grass-court Eastbourne Open versus Steffi Graf, Kournikova injured her thumb, which would eventually force her to withdraw from the 1998 Wimbledon Championships. However, she won that match, but then withdrew from her semi-finals match against Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Kournikova returned for the Du Maurier Open and made it to the third round, before losing to Conchita Martínez. At the US Open Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Her strong year qualified her for the year-end 1998 WTA Tour Championships, but she lost to Monica Seles in the first round. However, with Seles, she won her first WTA doubles title, in Tokyo, beating Mary Joe Fernández and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the final. At the end of the season, she was ranked No. 10 in doubles.
At the start of the 1999 season, Kournikova advanced to the fourth round in singles at the Australian Open before losing to Mary Pierce. In the doubles Kournikova won her first Grand Slam title, partnering with Martina Hingis to defeat Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva in the final. At the Tier I Family Circle Cup, Kournikova reached her second WTA Tour final, but lost to Martina Hingis. She then defeated Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport and Patty Schnyder on her route to the Bausch & Lomb Championships semi-finals, losing to Ruxandra Dragomir. At The French Open, Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Steffi Graf. Once the grass-court season commenced in England, Kournikova lost to Nathalie Tauziat in the semi-finals in Eastbourne. At Wimbledon, Kournikova lost to Venus Williams in the fourth round. She also reached the final in mixed doubles, partnering with Jonas Björkman, but they lost to Leander Paes and Lisa Raymond. Kournikova again qualified for year-end WTA Tour Championships, but lost to Mary Pierce in the first round, and ended the season as World No. 12.
While Kournikova had a successful singles season, she was even more successful in doubles. After their victory at the Australian Open, she and Martina Hingis won tournaments in Indian Wells, Rome, Eastbourne and the WTA Tour Championships, and reached the final of The French Open where they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, Kournikova also reached the final in Stanford. On 22 November 1999 she reached the world No. 1 ranking in doubles, and ended the season at this ranking. Kournikova and Hingis were presented with the WTA Award for Doubles Team of the Year.
Kournikova opened her 2000 season winning the Gold Coast Open doubles tournament partnering with Julie Halard. She then reached the singles semi-finals at the Medibank International Sydney, losing to Lindsay Davenport. At the Australian Open, she reached the fourth round in singles and the semi-finals in doubles. That season, Kournikova reached eight semi-finals (Sydney, Scottsdale, Stanford, San Diego, Luxembourg, Leipzig and Tour Championships), seven quarterfinals (Gold Coast, Tokyo, Amelia Island, Hamburg, Eastbourne, Zürich and Philadelphia) and one final. On 20 November 2000 she broke into top 10 for the first time, reaching No. 8. She was also ranked No. 4 in doubles at the end of the season. Kournikova was once again, more successful in doubles. She reached the final of the US Open in mixed doubles, partnering with Max Mirnyi, but they lost to Jared Palmer and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. She also won six doubles titles -- Gold Coast (with Julie Halard), Hamburg (with Natasha Zvereva), Filderstadt, Zürich, Philadelphia and the Tour Championships (with Martina Hingis).
| 807 |
Anna Kournikova
| 2 |
890 |
## Tennis career {#tennis_career}
### 2001--2003: injuries and final years {#injuries_and_final_years}
Her 2001 season was plagued by injuries, including a left foot stress fracture which made her withdraw from 12 tournaments, including the French Open and Wimbledon. She underwent surgery in April. She reached her second career grand slam quarterfinals, at the Australian Open. Kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until Leipzig. With Barbara Schett, she won the doubles title in Sydney. She then lost in the finals in Tokyo, partnering with Iroda Tulyaganova, and at San Diego, partnering with Martina Hingis. Hingis and Kournikova also won the Kremlin Cup. At the end of the 2001 season, she was ranked No. 74 in singles and No. 26 in doubles.
Kournikova regained some success in 2002. She reached the semi-finals of Auckland, Tokyo, Acapulco and San Diego, and the final of the China Open, losing to Anna Smashnova. This was Kournikova\'s last singles final. With Martina Hingis, she lost in the final at Sydney, but they won their second Grand Slam title together, the Australian Open. They also lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open. With Chanda Rubin, Kournikova played the semi-finals of Wimbledon, but they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Janet Lee, she won the Shanghai title. At the end of 2002 season, she was ranked No. 35 in singles and No. 11 in doubles.
In 2003, Anna Kournikova achieved her first Grand Slam match victory in two years at the Australian Open. She defeated Henrieta Nagyová in the first round, and then lost to Justine Henin-Hardenne in the 2nd round. She withdrew from Tokyo due to a sprained back suffered at the Australian Open and did not return to Tour until Miami. On 9 April, in what would be the final WTA match of her career, Kournikova dropped out in the first round of the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, due to a left adductor strain. Her singles world ranking was 67. She reached the semi-finals at the ITF tournament in Sea Island, before withdrawing from a match versus Maria Sharapova due to the adductor injury. She lost in the first round of the ITF tournament in Charlottesville. She did not compete for the rest of the season due to a continuing back injury. At the end of the 2003 season and her professional career, she was ranked No. 305 in singles and No. 176 in doubles.
Kournikova\'s two Grand Slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002, both at the Australian Open in the Women\'s Doubles event with partner Martina Hingis. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the US Open and at Wimbledon, and reaching the No. 1 ranking in doubles in the WTA Tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200--71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 (her career high singles ranking was No.8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one.
Her singles record is 209--129. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which caused her ranking to erode gradually. As a personality Kournikova was among the most common search strings for both articles and images in her prime.
| 593 |
Anna Kournikova
| 3 |
890 |
## Tennis career {#tennis_career}
### 2004--present: exhibitions and World Team Tennis {#present_exhibitions_and_world_team_tennis}
Kournikova has not played on the WTA Tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by Elton John and by fellow tennis players Serena Williams and Andy Roddick. In January 2005, she played in a doubles charity event for the Indian Ocean tsunami with John McEnroe, Andy Roddick, and Chris Evert. In November 2005, she teamed up with Martina Hingis, playing against Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur in the WTT finals for charity. Kournikova is also a member of the St. Louis Aces in the World Team Tennis (WTT), playing doubles only.
In September 2008, Kournikova showed up for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu, California. The Race raised funds for children\'s Hospital Los Angeles. She won that race for women\'s K-Swiss team. On 27 September 2008, Kournikova played exhibition mixed doubles matches in Charlotte, North Carolina, partnering with Tim Wilkison and Karel Nováček. Kournikova and Wilkison defeated Jimmy Arias and Chanda Rubin, and then Kournikova and Novacek defeated Rubin and Wilkison.
On 12 October 2008, Anna Kournikova played one exhibition match for the annual charity event, hosted by Billie Jean King and Elton John, and raised more than \$400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund. She played doubles with Andy Roddick (they were coached by David Chang) versus Martina Navratilova and Jesse Levine (coached by Billie Jean King); Kournikova and Roddick won.
Kournikova was one of \"four former world No. 1 players\" who participated in \"Legendary Night\", held on 2 May 2009, at the Turning Stone Event Center in Verona, New York, the others being John McEnroe (who had been No. 1 in both singles and doubles), Tracy Austin and Jim Courier (both of whom who had been No. 1 in singles but not doubles). The exhibition included a mixed doubles match in which McEnroe and Kournikova defeated Courier and Austin.
In 2008, she was named a spokesperson for K-Swiss. In 2005, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again.
In June 2010, Kournikova reunited with her doubles partner Martina Hingis to participate in competitive tennis for the first time in seven years in the Invitational Ladies Doubles event at Wimbledon. On 29 June 2010 they defeated the British pair Samantha Smith and Anne Hobbs.
| 409 |
Anna Kournikova
| 4 |
890 |
## Playing style {#playing_style}
Kournikova plays right-handed with a two-handed backhand. She is a great player at the net. She can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots.
Her playing style fits the profile for a doubles player, and is complemented by her height. She has been compared to such doubles specialists as Pam Shriver and Peter Fleming.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Kournikova was in a relationship with fellow Russian, Pavel Bure, an NHL ice hockey player. The two met in 1999, when Kournikova was still linked to Bure\'s former Russian teammate Sergei Fedorov. Bure and Kournikova were reported to have been engaged in 2000 after a reporter took a photo of them together in a Florida restaurant where Bure supposedly asked Kournikova to marry him. As the story made headlines in Russia, where they were both heavily followed in the media as celebrities, Bure and Kournikova both denied any engagement. Kournikova, 10 years younger than Bure, was 18 years old at the time.
Fedorov claimed that he and Kournikova were married in 2001, and divorced in 2003. Kournikova\'s representatives deny any marriage to Fedorov; however, Fedorov\'s agent Pat Brisson claims that although he does not know when they got married, he knew \"Fedorov was married\".
Kournikova started dating singer Enrique Iglesias in late 2001 after she had appeared in his music video for \"Escape\". The couple have three children together, fraternal twins, a son and daughter, born on 16 December 2017, and another daughter born on 30 January 2020.
It was reported in 2010 that Kournikova had become an American citizen.
## Media publicity {#media_publicity}
In 2000, Kournikova became the new face for Berlei\'s shock absorber sports bras, and appeared in the \"only the ball should bounce\" billboard campaign. Following that, she was cast by the Farrelly brothers for a minor role in the 2000 film *Me, Myself & Irene* starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger. Photographs of her have appeared on covers of various publications, including men\'s magazines, such as one in the much-publicized 2004 *Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue*, where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, as well as in *FHM* and *Maxim*.
Kournikova was named one of *People*{{\'}}s 50 Most Beautiful People in 1998 and was voted \"hottest female athlete\" on ESPN.com. In 2002, she also placed first in *FHM\'s 100 Sexiest Women in the World* in US and UK editions. By contrast, ESPN -- citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player -- ranked Kournikova 18th in its \"25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years\". Kournikova was also ranked No. 1 in the ESPN Classic series \"Who\'s number 1?\" when the series featured sport\'s most overrated athletes.
In 2002, *Penthouse* magazine published paparazzi photographs that purported to show Kournikova sunbathing topless on a Florida beach. Stating that the images were not of her, Kournikova sued the magazine\'s parent company, seeking damages of \$10 million. The woman featured in the images, Judith E. Soltesz-Benetton, daughter-in-law of fashion designer Luciano Benetton, also sued for \$10 million, saying the photos had been taken without her knowledge seven years earlier. *Penthouse* issued apologies to both women, withdrew the issue from further distribution, and settled the cases out of court.
She continued to be the most searched athlete on the Internet through 2008 even though she had retired from the professional tennis circuit years earlier. After slipping from first to sixth among athletes in 2009, she moved back up to third place among athletes in terms of search popularity in 2010.
In October 2010, Kournikova headed to NBC\'s *The Biggest Loser* where she led the contestants in a tennis-workout challenge. In May 2011, it was announced that Kournikova would join *The Biggest Loser* as a regular celebrity trainer in season 12. She did not return for season 13.
## Legacy and influence on popular culture {#legacy_and_influence_on_popular_culture}
- A variation of a White Russian made with skim milk is known as an Anna Kournikova.
- A video game featuring Kournikova\'s licensed appearance, titled *Anna Kournikova\'s Smash Court Tennis*, was developed by Namco and released for the PlayStation in Japan and Europe in November 1998.
- A computer virus named after her spread worldwide beginning on 12 February 2001 infecting computers through email in a matter of hours
| 713 |
Anna Kournikova
| 5 |
892 |
**Alfons Maria Jakob** (2 July 1884 -- 17 October 1931) was a German neurologist who worked in the field of neuropathology.
He was born in Aschaffenburg, Bavaria and educated in medicine at the universities of Munich, Berlin, and Strasbourg, where he received his doctorate in 1908. During the following year, he began clinical work under the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin and did laboratory work with Franz Nissl and Alois Alzheimer in Munich.
In 1911, by way of an invitation from Wilhelm Weygandt, he relocated to Hamburg, where he worked with Theodor Kaes and eventually became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric State Hospital Hamburg-Friedrichsberg. Following the death of Kaes in 1913, Jakob succeeded him as prosector. During World War I he served as an army physician in Belgium, and afterwards returned to Hamburg. In 1919, he obtained his habilitation for neurology and in 1924 became a professor of neurology. Under Jakob\'s guidance the department grew rapidly. He made significant contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology.
Jakob was the author of five monographs and nearly 80 scientific papers. His neuropathological research contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis and Friedreich\'s ataxia. He first recognised and described Alper\'s disease and Creutzfeldt--Jakob disease (named along with Munich neuropathologist Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt). He gained experience in neurosyphilis, having a 200-bed ward devoted entirely to that disorder. Jakob made a lecture tour of the United States (1924) and South America (1928), of which, he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever.
He suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last seven years of his life. This eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation.
## Associated eponym {#associated_eponym}
- Creutzfeldt--Jakob disease: A very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disease. It is the most common form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions. Eponym introduced by Walther Spielmeyer in 1922
| 327 |
Alfons Maria Jakob
| 0 |
903 |
upright=1.25\|thumb\| Modern mechanised agriculture permits large fields like this one in Dorset, England **Arable land** (from the *arabilis\]\]*, \"able to be ploughed\") is any land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops. Alternatively, for the purposes of agricultural statistics, the term often has a more precise definition: `{{blockquote|Arable land is the land under temporary agricultural crops (multiple-cropped areas are counted only once), temporary [[meadow]]s for mowing or [[pasture]], land under [[market garden|market]] and [[kitchen garden]]s and land temporarily [[fallow]] (less than five years). The abandoned land resulting from [[shifting cultivation]] is not included in this category. Data for 'Arable land' are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable.<ref>FAOSTAT. [Statistical database of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations] Glossary. http://faostat3.fao.org/{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601235945/http://faostat3.fao.org/mes/glossary/E |date= 1 June 2015 }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} A more concise definition appearing in the Eurostat glossary similarly refers to actual rather than potential uses: \"land worked (ploughed or tilled) regularly, generally under a system of crop rotation\". In Britain, arable land has traditionally been contrasted with pasturable land such as heaths, which could be used for sheep-rearing but not as farmland.
Arable land is vulnerable to land degradation and some types of un-arable land can be enriched to create useful land. Climate change and biodiversity loss are driving pressure on arable land.
## By country {#by_country}
thumb\|upright=1.8\|Share of land area used for arable agriculture, OWID Further information: Land use statistics by country According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, in 2013, the world\'s arable land amounted to 1.407 billion hectares, out of a total of 4.924 billion hectares of land used for agriculture.
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Rank Country or region 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 |
| ------ ------------------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- |
| 1 156,645 157,191 157,737 157,737 157,737 |
| 2 156,413 156,317 156,317 156,317 156,067 |
| 3 121,649 121,649 121,649 121,649 121,649 |
| 4 119,593 119,512 119,477 119,475 119,474 |
| 5 54,518 55,140 55,762 55,762 55,762 |
| 6 38,282 38,530 38,509 38,690 38,648 |
| 7 34,000 34,000 34,000 34,000 34,000 |
| 8 32,775 32,776 32,773 32,889 32,924 |
| 9 36,688 35,337 33,985 32,633 32,633 |
| 10 31,090 30,057 30,752 30,974 30,573 |
| |
| |
| : Arable land area (1000 ha) |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 388 |
Arable land
| 0 |
903 |
## By country {#by_country}
### Arable land (hectares per person) {#arable_land_hectares_per_person}
upright=1.35\|thumb\|Fields in the region of Záhorie in Western Slovakia thumb\|right\|upright=1.35\|A field of sunflowers in Cardejón, Spain
Country Name 2013
-------------------------------- -------
Afghanistan 0.254
Albania 0.213
Algeria 0.196
American Samoa 0.054
Andorra 0.038
Angola 0.209
Antigua and Barbuda 0.044
Argentina 0.933
Armenia 0.150
Aruba 0.019
Australia 1.999
Austria 0.160
Azerbaijan 0.204
Bahamas, The 0.021
Bahrain 0.001
Bangladesh 0.049
Barbados 0.039
Belarus 0.589
Belgium 0.073
Belize 0.227
Benin 0.262
Bermuda 0.005
Bhutan 0.133
Bolivia 0.427
Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.264
Botswana 0.125
Brazil 0.372
British Virgin Islands 0.034
Brunei Darussalam 0.012
Bulgaria 0.479
Burkina Faso 0.363
Burundi 0.115
Cabo Verde 0.108
Cambodia 0.275
Cameroon 0.279
Canada 1.306
Cayman Islands 0.003
Central African Republic 0.382
Chad 0.373
Channel Islands 0.026
Chile 0.074
China 0.078
Colombia 0.036
Comoros 0.086
Congo, Dem. Rep. 0.098
Congo, Rep. 0.125
Costa Rica 0.049
Côte d\'Ivoire 0.134
Croatia 0.206
Cuba 0.278
Curaçao
Cyprus 0.070
Czech Republic 0.299
Denmark 0.429
Djibouti 0.002
Dominica 0.083
Dominican Republic 0.078
Ecuador 0.076
Egypt, Arab Rep. 0.031
El Salvador 0.120
Equatorial Guinea 0.151
Eritrea
Estonia 0.480
Ethiopia 0.160
Faroe Islands 0.062
Fiji 0.187
Finland 0.409
France 0.277
French Polynesia 0.009
Gabon 0.197
Gambia, The 0.236
Georgia 0.119
Germany 0.145
Ghana 0.180
Gibraltar
Greece 0.232
Greenland 0.016
Grenada 0.028
Guam 0.006
Guatemala 0.064
Guinea 0.259
Guinea-Bissau 0.171
Guyana 0.552
Haiti 0.103
Honduras 0.130
Hong Kong SAR, China 0.000
Hungary 0.445
Iceland 0.374
India 0.123
Indonesia 0.094
Iran, Islamic Rep. 0.193
Iraq 0.147
Ireland 0.242
Isle of Man 0.253
Israel 0.035
Italy 0.113
Jamaica 0.044
Japan 0.033
Jordan 0.032
Kazakhstan 1.726
Kenya 0.133
Kiribati 0.018
Korea, Dem. People\'s Rep. 0.094
Korea, Rep. 0.030
Kosovo
Kuwait 0.003
Kyrgyz Republic 0.223
Lao PDR 0.226
Latvia 0.600
Lebanon 0.025
Lesotho 0.119
Liberia 0.116
Libya 0.274
Liechtenstein 0.070
Lithuania 0.774
Luxembourg 0.115
Macao SAR, China
Macedonia, FYR 0.199
Madagascar 0.153
Malawi 0.235
Malaysia 0.032
Maldives 0.010
Mali 0.386
Malta 0.021
Marshall Islands 0.038
Mauritania 0.116
Mauritius 0.060
Mexico 0.186
Micronesia, Fed. Sts. 0.019
Moldova 0.510
Monaco
Mongolia 0.198
Montenegro 0.013
Morocco 0.240
Mozambique 0.213
Myanmar 0.203
Namibia 0.341
Nauru
Nepal 0.076
Netherlands 0.062
New Caledonia 0.024
New Zealand 0.123
Nicaragua 0.253
Niger 0.866
Nigeria 0.197
Northern Mariana Islands 0.019
Norway 0.159
Oman 0.010
Pakistan 0.168
Palau 0.048
Panama 0.148
Papua New Guinea 0.041
Paraguay 0.696
Peru 0.136
Philippines 0.057
Poland 0.284
Portugal 0.107
Puerto Rico 0.017
Qatar 0.007
Romania 0.438
Russian Federation 0.852
Rwanda 0.107
Samoa 0.042
San Marino 0.032
São Tomé and Príncipe 0.048
Saudi Arabia 0.102
Senegal 0.229
Serbia 0.460
Seychelles 0.001
Sierra Leone 0.256
Singapore 0.000
Sint Maarten (Dutch part)
Slovak Republic 0.258
Slovenia 0.085
Solomon Islands 0.036
Somalia 0.107
South Africa 0.235
South Sudan
Spain 0.270
Sri Lanka 0.063
St. Kitts and Nevis 0.092
St. Lucia 0.016
St. Martin (French part)
St. Vincent and the Grenadines 0.046
Sudan 0.345
Suriname 0.112
Swaziland 0.140
Sweden 0.270
Switzerland 0.050
Syrian Arab Republic 0.241
Tajikistan 0.106
Tanzania 0.269
Thailand 0.249
Timor-Leste 0.131
Togo 0.382
Tonga 0.152
Trinidad and Tobago 0.019
Tunisia 0.262
Turkey 0.270
Turkmenistan 0.370
Turks and Caicos Islands 0.030
Tuvalu
Uganda 0.189
Ukraine 0.715
United Arab Emirates 0.004
United Kingdom 0.098
United States 0.480
Uruguay 0.682
Uzbekistan 0.145
Vanuatu 0.079
Venezuela, RB 0.089
Vietnam 0.071
Virgin Islands (US) 0.010
West Bank and Gaza 0.011
Yemen, Rep. 0.049
Zambia 0.243
Zimbabwe 0.268
: `{{nowrap|Arable land (hectares per person)<ref name="faostat_old" />}}`{=mediawiki}
## Non-arable land {#non_arable_land}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Water buffalo ploughing rice fields near Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia thumb\|upright=1.25\|A pasture in the East Riding of Yorkshire in England Agricultural land that is not arable according to the FAO definition above includes:
- Meadows and pastures`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}land used as pasture and grazed range, and those natural grasslands and sedge meadows that are used for hay production in some regions.
- Permanent crop`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}land that produces crops from woody vegetation, e.g. orchard land, vineyards, coffee plantations, rubber plantations, and land producing nut trees;
Other non-arable land includes land that is not suitable for any agricultural use. Land that is not arable, in the sense of lacking capability or suitability for cultivation for crop production, has one or more limitations`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}a lack of sufficient freshwater for irrigation, stoniness, steepness, adverse climate, excessive wetness with the impracticality of drainage, excessive salts, or a combination of these, among others. Although such limitations may preclude cultivation, and some will in some cases preclude any agricultural use, large areas unsuitable for cultivation may still be agriculturally productive. For example, United States NRCS statistics indicate that about 59 percent of US non-federal pasture and unforested rangeland is unsuitable for cultivation, yet such land has value for grazing of livestock. In British Columbia, Canada, 41 percent of the provincial Agricultural Land Reserve area is unsuitable for the production of cultivated crops, but is suitable for uncultivated production of forage usable by grazing livestock. Similar examples can be found in many rangeland areas elsewhere.
| 809 |
Arable land
| 1 |
903 |
## Changes in arability {#changes_in_arability}
### Land conversion {#land_conversion}
Land incapable of being cultivated for the production of crops can sometimes be converted to arable land. New arable land makes more food and can reduce starvation. This outcome also makes a country more self-sufficient and politically independent, because food importation is reduced. Making non-arable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aqueducts, desalination plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, hydroponics, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, pesticides, reverse osmosis water processors, PET film insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and installing greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas. Such modifications are often prohibitively expensive. An alternative is the seawater greenhouse, which desalinates water through evaporation and condensation using solar energy as the only energy input. This technology is optimized to grow crops on desert land close to the sea.
The use of artifices does not make the land arable. Rock still remains rock, and shallow`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}less than 6 feet`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}turnable soil is still not considered toilable. The use of artifice is an open-air non-recycled water hydroponics relationship.`{{clarify |date=November 2019 |reason=Unclear what this sentence means}}`{=mediawiki} The below described circumstances are not in perspective, have limited duration, and have a tendency to accumulate trace materials in soil that either there or elsewhere cause deoxygenation. The use of vast amounts of fertilizer may have unintended consequences for the environment by devastating rivers, waterways, and river endings through the accumulation of non-degradable toxins and nitrogen-bearing molecules that remove oxygen and cause non-aerobic processes to form.
Examples of infertile non-arable land being turned into fertile arable land include:
- Aran Islands: These islands off the west coast of Ireland (not to be confused with the Isle of Arran in Scotland\'s Firth of Clyde) were unsuitable for arable farming because they were too rocky. The people covered the islands with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. Today,`{{When|date=July 2021}}`{=mediawiki} crops are grown there, even though the islands are still considered non-arable.
- Israel: The construction of desalination plants along Israel\'s coast allowed agriculture in some areas that were formerly desert. The desalination plants, which remove the salt from ocean water, have produced a new source of water for farming, drinking, and washing.
- Slash and burn agriculture uses nutrients from the wood ash, but these are exhausted within a few years.
- Terra preta, fertile tropical soils produced by adding charcoal.
### Land degradation {#land_degradation}
#### Examples
Examples of fertile arable land being turned into infertile land include:
- Droughts such as the \"Dust Bowl\" of the Great Depression in the US turned farmland into desert.
- Each year, arable land is lost due to desertification and human-induced erosion. Improper irrigation of farmland can wick the sodium, calcium, and magnesium from the soil and water to the surface. This process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.
- Rainforest deforestation: The fertile tropical forests are converted into infertile desert land. For example, Madagascar\'s central highland plateau has become virtually totally barren (about ten percent of the country) as a result of slash-and-burn deforestation, an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives.
- According to a study published in the journal, *Science*, toxic heavy metals can contaminate arable land
| 568 |
Arable land
| 2 |
905 |
**Advanced Chemistry** is a German hip hop group from Heidelberg in Baden-Württemberg, South Germany. Advanced Chemistry was founded in 1987 by Toni L, Linguist, Gee-One, DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) and MC Torch. Each member of the group holds German citizenship, and Toni L, Linguist, and Torch are of Italian, Ghanaian, and Haitian backgrounds, respectively.
Influenced by North American socially conscious rap and the Native tongues movement, Advanced Chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in German hip hop. They were one of the first groups to rap in German (although their name is in English). Furthermore, their songs tackled controversial social and political issues, distinguishing them from early German hip hop group \"Die Fantastischen Vier\" (The Fantastic Four), which had a more light-hearted, playful, party image.
## Career
Advanced Chemistry frequently rapped about their lives and experiences as children of immigrants, exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in Germany, and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a German identity can cause. The song \"Fremd im eigenen Land\" (Foreign in your own nation) was released by Advanced Chemistry in November 1992. The single became a staple in the German hip hop scene. It made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout Germany, as the group was composed of multi-national and multi-racial members. The video shows several members brandishing their German passports as a demonstration of their German citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting \'ethnic\' Germans.
This idea of national identity is important, as many rap artists in Germany have been of foreign origin. These so-called *Gastarbeiter* (guest workers) children saw breakdance, graffiti, rap music, and hip hop culture as a means of expressing themselves. Since the release of \"Fremd im eigenen Land\", many other German-language rappers have also tried to confront anti-immigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship. However, though many ethnic minority youth in Germany find these German identity themes appealing, others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as German negatively, and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins.
Advanced Chemistry helped to found the German chapter of the Zulu nation.
The rivalry between Advanced Chemistry and Die Fantastischen Vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the German soundscape. While Die Fantastischen Vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an aesthetic art form, Advanced Chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created. For Advanced Chemistry, hip hop is a "vehicle of general human emancipation". In their undertaking of social and political issues, the band introduced the term \"Afro-German\" into the context of German hip hop, and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music.
With the release of the single "Fremd im eigenen Land", Advanced Chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in Germany. This single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating US rap and addressed the current issues of the time. Fremd im eigenen Land which translates to "foreign in my own country" dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. This change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of German identification with rap. The sound of "Fremd im eigenen Land" was influenced by the \'wall of noise\' created by Public Enemy\'s producers, The Bomb Squad.
After the reunification of Germany, an abundance of anti-immigrant sentiment emerged, as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 1990s. Advanced Chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their pro-multicultural society stance in their music. Advanced Chemistry\'s attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct \"Germanness\" in hip hop, as opposed to imitating American hip hop as other groups had done. Torch has said, \"What the Americans do is exotic for us because we don\'t live like they do. What they do seems to be more interesting and newer. But not for me. For me it\'s more exciting to experience my fellow Germans in new contexts\...For me, it\'s interesting to see what the kids try to do that\'s different from what I know.\" Advanced Chemistry were the first to use the term \"Afro-German\" in a hip hop context. This was part of the pro-immigrant political message they sent via their music.
While Advanced Chemistry\'s use of the German language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true German heritage, bolstering pro-immigration sentiment, their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots. Indeed, part of the Turkish ethnic minority of Frankfurt views Advanced Chemistry\'s appeal to the German image as a \"symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to \'roots\' or to any expression of cultural heritage.\" In this sense, their rap represents a complex social discourse internal to the German soundscape in which they attempt to negotiate immigrant assimilation into a xenophobic German culture with the maintenance of their own separate cultural traditions. It is quite possibly the feelings of alienation from the pure-blooded German demographic that drive Advanced Chemistry to attack nationalistic ideologies by asserting their \"Germanness\" as a group composed primarily of ethnic others. The response to this pseudo-German authenticity can be seen in what Andy Bennett refers to as \"alternative forms of local hip hop culture which actively seek to rediscover and, in many cases, reconstruct notions of identity tied to cultural roots.\" These alternative local hip hop cultures include oriental hip hop, the members of which cling to their Turkish heritage and are confused by Advanced Chemistry\'s elicitation of a German identity politics to which they technically do not belong. This cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in Germany and that, even among an already isolated immigrant population, there is still disunity and, especially, disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance. According to German hip hop enthusiast 9@home, Advanced Chemistry is part of a \"hip-hop movement \[which\] took a clear stance for the minorities and against the \[marginalization\] of immigrants who\...might be German on paper, but not in real life,\" which speaks to the group\'s hope of actually being recognized as German citizens and not foreigners, despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties.
## Influences
Advanced Chemistry\'s work was rooted in German history and the country\'s specific political realities. However, they also drew inspiration from African-American hip-hop acts like A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy, who had helped bring a soulful sound and political consciousness to American hip-hop. One member, Torch, later explicitly listed his references on his solo song \"Als (When I Was in School):\" \"My favorite subject, which was quickly discovered poetry in load Poets, awakens the intellect or policy at Chuck D I\'ll never forget the lyrics by Public Enemy.\" Torch goes on to list other American rappers like Biz Markie, Big Daddy Kane and Dr. Dre as influences
| 1,176 |
Advanced Chemistry
| 0 |
910 |
**Arne Kaijser** (born 1950) is a professor emeritus of history of technology at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, and a former president of the Society for the History of Technology.
Kaijser has published two books in Swedish: *Stadens ljus. Etableringen av de första svenska gasverken* and *I fädrens spår. Den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar*, and has co-edited several anthologies. Kaijser is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences since 2007 and also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals: *Journal of Urban Technology* and *Centaurus*. Lately, he has been occupied with the history of Large Technical Systems
| 109 |
Arne Kaijser
| 0 |
911 |
thumb\|upright=1.6\|The Indonesian Archipelago, located in Asia and Oceania, is the largest archipelagic state in the world. An **archipelago** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑːr|k|ə|ˈ|p|ɛ|l|ə|ɡ|oʊ|audio=en-us-archipelago.ogg}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AR|kə|PEL|ə|goh}}`{=mediawiki}), sometimes called an **island group** or **island chain**, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the origin of the term), the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Stockholm Archipelago, the Malay Archipelago (which includes the Indonesian and Philippine Archipelagos), the Lucayan (Bahamian) Archipelago, the Japanese archipelago, and the Hawaiian Archipelago.
## Etymology
The word *archipelago* is derived from the Italian *arcipelago*, used as a proper name for the Aegean Sea, itself perhaps a deformation of the Greek Αιγαίον Πέλαγος. Later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea has a large number of islands). The erudite paretymology, deriving the word from Ancient Greek ἄρχι-(*arkhi-*, \"chief\") and πέλαγος (*pélagos*, \"sea\"), proposed by Buondelmonti, can still be found.
## Geographic types {#geographic_types}
Archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighboring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland, which form an archipelago.
Depending on their geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as *oceanic islands*, *continental fragments*, or *continental islands*.
### Oceanic islands {#oceanic_islands}
Oceanic islands are formed by volcanoes erupting from the ocean floor. The Hawaiian Islands and Galapagos Islands in the Pacific, and Mascarene Islands in the south Indian Ocean are examples.
### Continental fragments {#continental_fragments}
Continental fragments are islands that were once part of a continent, and became separated due to natural disasters. The fragments may also be formed by moving glaciers which cut out land, which then fills with water. The Farallon Islands off the coast of California are examples of continental islands.
### Continental Islands {#continental_islands}
Continental islands are islands that were once part of a continent and still sit on the continental shelf, which is the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean. The islands of the Inside Passage off the coast of British Columbia and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago are examples.
### Artificial archipelagos {#artificial_archipelagos}
Artificial archipelagos have been created in various countries for different purposes. Palm Islands and The World Islands in Dubai were or are being created for leisure and tourism purposes. Marker Wadden in the Netherlands is being built as a conservation area for birds and other wildlife.
## Superlatives
The largest archipelago in the world by number of islands is the Archipelago Sea, which is part of Finland. There are approximately 40,000 islands, mostly uninhabited.
The largest archipelagic state in the world by area, and by population, is Indonesia
| 446 |
Archipelago
| 0 |
921 |
`{{Emotion}}`{=mediawiki}
**Angst** is a feeling of anxiety, apprehension, or insecurity. *Anguish* is its Latinate equivalent, and the words *anxious* and *anxiety* are of similar origin.
## Etymology
The word *angst* was introduced into English from the Danish, Norwegian, and Dutch word *angst* and the German word *Angst*. It is attested since the 19th century in English translations of the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Sigmund Freud. It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil.
In other languages (with words from the Latin *pavor* for \"fear\" or \"panic\"), the derived words differ in meaning; for example, as in the French *anxiété* and *peur*. The word *angst* has existed in German since the 8th century, from the Proto-Indo-European root *anghu-*, \"restraint\" from which Old High German *angust* developed. It is pre-cognate with the Latin *angustia*, \"tensity, tightness\" and `{{wikt-lang|la|angor}}`{=mediawiki}, \"choking, clogging\"; compare to the Ancient Greek `{{wikt-lang|grc|ἄγχω}}`{=mediawiki} (*ánkhō*) \"strangle\". It entered English in the 19th century as a technical term used in psychiatry, though earlier cognates existed, such as *ange*.
## Existentialism
In existentialist philosophy, the term *angst* carries a specific conceptual meaning. The use of the term was first attributed to Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813--1855). In *The Concept of Anxiety* (originally translated as *The Concept of Dread*), Kierkegaard used the word *Angest* (in common Danish, *angst*, meaning \"dread\" or \"anxiety\") to describe a profound and deep-seated condition. Where non-human animals are guided solely by instinct, said Kierkegaard, human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying. It is the anxiety of understanding of being free when considering undefined possibilities of one\'s life and the immense responsibility of having the power of choice over them. Kierkegaard\'s concept of angst reappeared in the works of existentialist philosophers who followed, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Martin Heidegger, each of whom developed the idea further in individual ways. While Kierkegaard\'s angst referred mainly to ambiguous feelings about moral freedom within a religious personal belief system, later existentialists discussed conflicts of personal principles, cultural norms, and existential despair.
## Music
Existential angst makes its appearance in classical musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the war-torn times. Notable composers whose works are often linked with the concept include Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss (operas **Elektra\]\]** and **Salome\]\]**), Claude Debussy (opera **Pelléas et Mélisande\]\]**, ballet *Jeux*), Jean Sibelius (especially the Fourth Symphony), Arnold Schoenberg (*A Survivor from Warsaw*), Alban Berg, Francis Poulenc (opera *Dialogues of the Carmelites*), Dmitri Shostakovich (opera *Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk*, symphonies and chamber music), Béla Bartók (opera *Bluebeard\'s Castle*), and Krzysztof Penderecki (especially *Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima*).
Angst began to be discussed in reference to popular music in the mid- to late 1950s, amid widespread concerns over international tensions and nuclear proliferation. Jeff Nuttall\'s book *Bomb Culture* (1968) traced angst in popular culture to Hiroshima. Dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as Bob Dylan\'s \"Masters of War\" (1963) and \"A Hard Rain\'s a-Gonna Fall\". The term often makes an appearance in reference to punk rock, grunge, nu metal, and works of emo where expressions of melancholy, existential despair, or nihilism predominate
| 540 |
Angst
| 0 |
924 |
**Alan Alexander Milne** (`{{IPAc-en|m|ɪ|l|n|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Milne.wav}}`{=mediawiki}; 18 January 1882 -- 31 January 1956) was an English writer best known for his books about the teddy bear Winnie-the-Pooh, as well as children\'s poetry. Milne was primarily a playwright before the huge success of Winnie-the-Pooh overshadowed his previous work. He served as a lieutenant in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in the First World War and as a captain in the Home Guard in the Second World War.
Milne was the father of bookseller Christopher Robin Milne, upon whom the character Christopher Robin is based. It was during a visit to London Zoo, where Christopher became enamoured with the tame and amiable bear Winnipeg, that Milne was inspired to write the story of Winnie-the-Pooh for his son. Milne bequeathed the original manuscripts of the Winnie-the-Pooh stories to the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge, his alma mater.
## Early life and military career {#early_life_and_military_career}
Alan Alexander Milne was born in Kilburn, London, to John Vine Milne, who was born in Jamaica, and Sarah Marie Milne (née Heginbotham), on 18 January 1882. He grew up at Henley House School, 6/7 Mortimer Road (now Crescent), Kilburn, a small independent school run by his father. He taught himself to read at the age of two. One of his teachers was H. G. Wells, who taught there in 1889--90. Milne attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied on a mathematics scholarship, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in Mathematics in 1903, though he was always interested in writing. He edited and wrote for *Granta*, a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne\'s work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine *Punch*, where Milne was to become a contributor and later an assistant editor. Considered a talented cricket fielder, Milne played for two amateur teams that were largely composed of British writers: the Allahakbarries and the Authors XI. His teammates included fellow writers J. M. Barrie, Arthur Conan Doyle and P. G. Wodehouse.
Milne joined the British Army during World War I and served as an officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. He was commissioned into the 4th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment, on 1 February 1915 as a second lieutenant (on probation). His commission was confirmed on 20 December 1915. He served on the Somme as a signals officer from July--November 1916, but caught trench fever and was invalided back to England. Having recuperated, he worked as a signals instructor, before being recruited into military intelligence to write propaganda articles for MI7 (b) between 1917 and 1918. He was discharged on 14 February 1919, and settled in Mallord Street, Chelsea. He relinquished his commission on 19 February 1920, retaining the rank of lieutenant.
After the war, he wrote a denunciation of war titled *Peace with Honour* (1934), which he retracted somewhat with 1940\'s *War with Honour*. During World War II, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of fellow English writer (and Authors XI cricket teammate) P. G. Wodehouse, who was captured at his country home in France by the Nazis and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the light-hearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country\'s enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge on his former friend (e.g. in *The Mating Season*) by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories, and claiming that Milne \"was probably jealous of all other writers\.... But I loved his stuff.\"
Milne married Dorothy \"Daphne\" de Sélincourt (1890--1971) in 1913 and their son Christopher Robin Milne was born in 1920. In 1925, Milne bought a country home, Cotchford Farm, in Hartfield, East Sussex.
During World War II, Milne was a captain in the British Home Guard in Hartfield & Forest Row, insisting on being plain \"Mr. Milne\" to the members of his platoon. He retired to the farm after a stroke and brain surgery in 1952 left him an invalid; and by August 1953, \"he seemed very old and disenchanted.\" Milne died in January 1956, aged 74.
| 704 |
A. A. Milne
| 0 |
924 |
## Literary career {#literary_career}
### 1903 to 1925 {#to_1925}
After graduating from Cambridge University in 1903, A. A. Milne contributed humorous verse and whimsical essays to *Punch*, joining the staff in 1906 and becoming an assistant editor.
During this period he published 18 plays and three novels, including the murder mystery *The Red House Mystery* (1922). His son was born in August 1920 and in 1924 Milne produced a collection of children\'s poems, *When We Were Very Young*, which were illustrated by *Punch* staff cartoonist E. H. Shepard. A collection of short stories for children *A Gallery of Children*, and other stories that became part of the Winnie-the-Pooh books, were first published in 1925.
Milne was an early screenwriter for the nascent British film industry, writing four stories filmed in 1920 for the company Minerva Films (founded in 1920 by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel). These were *The Bump*, starring Aubrey Smith; *Twice Two*; *Five Pound Reward*; and *Bookworms*. Some of these films survive in the archives of the British Film Institute. Milne had met Howard when the actor starred in Milne\'s play *Mr Pim Passes By* in London.
Looking back on this period (in 1926), Milne observed that when he told his agent that he was going to write a detective story, he was told that what the country wanted from a \"*Punch* humorist\" was a humorous story; when two years later he said he was writing nursery rhymes, his agent and publisher were convinced he should write another detective story; and after another two years, he was being told that writing a detective story would be in the worst of taste given the demand for children\'s books. He concluded that \"the only excuse which I have yet discovered for writing anything is that I want to write it; and I should be as proud to be delivered of a Telephone Directory *con amore* as I should be ashamed to create a Blank Verse Tragedy at the bidding of others.\"
### 1926 to 1928 {#to_1928}
Milne is most famous for his two *Pooh* books about a boy named Christopher Robin after his son, Christopher Robin Milne (1920--1996), and various characters inspired by his son\'s stuffed animals, most notably the bear named Winnie-the-Pooh. Christopher Robin Milne\'s stuffed bear, originally named Edward, was renamed Winnie after a Canadian black bear named Winnie (after Winnipeg), which was used as a military mascot in World War I, and left to London Zoo during the war. \"The Pooh\" comes from a swan the young Milne named \"Pooh\". E. H. Shepard illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own son\'s teddy Growler (\"a magnificent bear\") as the model. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne\'s toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into A. A. Milne\'s stories, and two more characters -- Rabbit and Owl -- were created by Milne\'s imagination. Christopher Robin Milne\'s own toys are now on display in New York where 750,000 people visit them every year. The fictional Hundred Acre Wood of the Pooh stories derives from Five Hundred Acre Wood in Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, South East England, where the Pooh stories were set. Milne lived on the northern edge of the forest at Cotchford Farm, 51.090 0.107 display=inline, and took his son on walking trips there. E. H. Shepard drew on the landscapes of Ashdown Forest as inspiration for many of the illustrations he provided for the Pooh books. The adult Christopher Robin commented: \"Pooh\'s Forest and Ashdown Forest are identical.\" Popular tourist locations at Ashdown Forest include: *Galleon\'s Lap*, *The Enchanted Place*, the *Heffalump Trap* and *Lone Pine*, *Eeyore\'s Sad and Gloomy Place*, and the wooden *Pooh Bridge* where Pooh and Piglet invented Poohsticks.
Not yet known as Pooh, he made his first appearance in a poem, \"Teddy Bear\", published in *Punch* magazine in February 1924 and republished that year in *When We Were Very Young*. Pooh first appeared in the *London Evening News* on Christmas Eve, 1925, in a story called \"The Wrong Sort of Bees\". *Winnie-the-Pooh* was published in 1926, followed by *The House at Pooh Corner* in 1928. A second collection of nursery rhymes, *Now We Are Six*, was published in 1927. All four books were illustrated by E. H. Shepard. Milne also published four plays in this period. He also \"gallantly stepped forward\" to contribute a quarter of the costs of dramatising P. G. Wodehouse\'s *A Damsel in Distress*. *The World of Pooh* won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958.
| 756 |
A. A. Milne
| 1 |
924 |
## Literary career {#literary_career}
### 1929 onward
The success of his children\'s books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who had, until then, found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war *Punch* from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol J. M. Barrie) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a witty piece of detective writing in *The Red House Mystery* (although this was severely criticised by Raymond Chandler for the implausibility of its plot in his essay *The Simple Art of Murder* in the eponymous collection that appeared in 1950). But once Milne had, in his own words, \"said goodbye to all that in 70,000 words\" (the approximate length of his four principal children\'s books), he had no intention of producing any reworkings lacking in originality, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older.
Another reason Milne stopped writing children\'s books, and especially about Winnie-the-Pooh, was that he felt \"amazement and disgust\" over the immense fame his son was exposed to, and said that \"I feel that the legal Christopher Robin has already had more publicity than I want for him. I do not want CR Milne to ever wish that his name were Charles Robert.\"
In his literary home, *Punch*, where the *When We Were Very Young* verses had first appeared, Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem \"The Norman Church\" and an assembly of articles entitled *Year In, Year Out* (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author).
In 1929, Milne adapted Kenneth Grahame\'s novel *The Wind in the Willows* for the stage as *Toad of Toad Hall*. The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as Chapter 7, \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn,\" could not survive translation to the theatre. A special introduction written by Milne is included in some editions of Grahame\'s novel. It was first performed at the Playhouse Theatre, Liverpool, on 21 December 1929 before it made its West End debut the following year at the Lyric Theatre on 17 December 1930. The play was revived in the West End from 1931 to 1935, and since the 1960s there have been West End revivals during the Christmas season; actors who have performed in the play include Judi Dench and Ian McKellen.
Milne and his wife became estranged from their son, who came to resent what he saw as his father\'s exploitation of his childhood and came to hate the books that had thrust him into the public eye. Christopher\'s marriage to his first cousin, Lesley de Sélincourt, distanced him still further from his parents -- Lesley\'s father and Christopher\'s mother had not spoken to each other for 30 years.
| 479 |
A. A. Milne
| 2 |
924 |
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
### Commemoration
Milne died at his home in Hartfield, Sussex, on 31 January 1956, 13 days after his 74th birthday. A memorial service took place on 10 February at All Hallows-by-the-Tower church in London.
The rights to A. A. Milne\'s Pooh books were left to four beneficiaries: his family, the Royal Literary Fund, Westminster School and the Garrick Club. After Milne\'s death in 1956, his widow sold her rights to the Pooh characters to Stephen Slesinger, whose widow sold the rights after Slesinger\'s death to Walt Disney Productions, which has made many Pooh cartoon movies, a Disney Channel television show, as well as Pooh-related merchandise. In 2001, the other beneficiaries sold their interest in the estate to the Disney Corporation for \$350m. Previously Disney had been paying twice-yearly royalties to these beneficiaries. The estate of E. H. Shepard also received a sum in the deal. The UK copyright on the text of the original Winnie the Pooh books expires on 1 January 2027; at the beginning of the year after the 70th anniversary of the author\'s death (PMA-70), and has already expired in those countries with a PMA-50 rule. This applies to all of Milne\'s works except those first published posthumously. The illustrations in the Pooh books will remain under copyright until the same amount of time after the illustrator\'s death has passed; in the UK, this will be 1 January 2047.
In the US, copyright on the four children\'s books (including the illustrations) expired 95 years after publication of each of the books. Specifically: copyright on the book *When We Were Very Young* expired in 2020; copyright on the book *Winnie-the-Pooh* expired in 2022; copyright on the book *Now We Are Six* expired in 2023; and copyright on the book *The House at Pooh Corner* expired in 2024.
In 2008, a collection of original illustrations featuring Winnie-the-Pooh and his animal friends sold for more than £1.2 million at auction at Sotheby\'s, London. *Forbes* magazine ranked Winnie the Pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002; Winnie the Pooh merchandising products alone had annual sales of more than \$5.9 billion. In 2005, Winnie the Pooh generated \$6 billion, a figure surpassed only by Mickey Mouse.
A memorial plaque in Ashdown Forest, unveiled by Christopher Robin in 1979, commemorates the work of A. A. Milne and Shepard in creating the world of Pooh. The inscription states they \"captured the magic of Ashdown Forest, and gave it to the world\". Milne once wrote of Ashdown Forest: \"In that enchanted place on the top of the forest a little boy and his bear will always be playing.\"
In 2003, *Winnie-the-Pooh* was ranked number 7 on the BBC\'s The Big Read poll which determined the UK\'s \"best-loved novels\". In 2006, Winnie-the-Pooh received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, marking the 80th birthday of Milne\'s creation.
Marking the 90th anniversary of Milne\'s creation of the character, and the 90th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II, *Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen* (2016) sees Pooh meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace. The illustrated and audio adventure is narrated by the actor Jim Broadbent. Also in 2016, a new character, a Penguin, was unveiled in *The Best Bear in All the World*, which was inspired by a long-lost photograph of Milne and his son Christopher with a toy penguin.
An exhibition entitled *Winnie-the-Pooh: Exploring a Classic* appeared at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London from 9 December 2017 to 8 April 2018.
The composer Harold Fraser-Simson, a near neighbour, produced six books of Milne songs between 1924 and 1932. The poems have been parodied many times, including in the books *When We Were Rather Older* and *Now We Are Sixty*. The 1963 film *The King\'s Breakfast* was based on Milne\'s poem of the same name.
Milne has been portrayed in television and film. Domhnall Gleeson plays him in *Goodbye Christopher Robin*, a 2017 biographical drama film. In the 2018 fantasy film *Christopher Robin*, an extension of the Disney Winnie the Pooh franchise, Tristan Sturrock plays Milne, and filming took place at Ashdown Forest.
An elementary school in Houston, Texas, operated by the Houston Independent School District (HISD), is named after Milne. The school, A. A. Milne Elementary School in Brays Oaks, opened in 1991.
## Archive
thumb\|right\|Milne bequeathed his Winnie-the-Pooh manuscripts to the Wren Library *(pictured)* at Trinity College, Cambridge
The original manuscripts for *Winnie-the-Pooh* and *The House at Pooh Corner* are archived at Trinity College Library, Cambridge.
The bulk of A. A. Milne\'s papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. The collection, established at the centre in 1964, consists of manuscript drafts and fragments for over 150 of Milne\'s works, as well as correspondence, legal documents, genealogical records, and some personal effects. The library division holds several books formerly belonging to Milne and his wife Dorothy. The center also has small collections of correspondence from Christopher Robin Milne and Milne\'s frequent illustrator E. H. Shepard.
| 832 |
A. A. Milne
| 3 |
924 |
## Religious views {#religious_views}
Milne did not speak out much on the subject of religion, although he used religious terms to explain his decision, while remaining a pacifist, to join the British Home Guard. He wrote: \"In fighting Hitler we are truly fighting the Devil, the Anti-Christ \... Hitler was a crusader against God.\"
His best known comment on the subject was recalled on his death: `{{blockquote|The Old Testament is responsible for more atheism, agnosticism, disbelief – call it what you will{{snd}}than any book ever written; it has emptied more churches than all the counter-attractions of cinema, motor bicycle and golf course.<ref>{{cite book|last=Simpson |first=James B. |title=Simpson's Contemporary Quotations |url=http://www.bartleby.com/63/93/4393.html |year=1988 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |location=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=0-395-43085-2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122122546/http://www.bartleby.com/63/93/4393.html |archive-date=22 January 2009 }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
He wrote in the poem \"Explained\":
He also wrote in the poem \"Vespers\":
## Works
### Novels
- *Lovers in London* (1905. Some consider this more of a short story collection; Milne did not like it and considered *The Day\'s Play* as his first book.)
- *Once on a Time* (1917)
- *Mr. Pim* (1921) (A novelisation of his 1919 play *Mr. Pim Passes By*)
- *The Red House Mystery* (1922). Serialised: London (Daily News), serialised daily from 3 to 28 August 1921
- *Two People* (1931) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne\'s first attempt at a novel.)
- *Four Days\' Wonder* (1933)
- *Chloe Marr* (1946)
### Non-fiction {#non_fiction}
- *Peace With Honour* (1934)
- *It\'s Too Late Now: The Autobiography of a Writer* (1939)
- *War With Honour* (1940)
- *War Aims Unlimited* (1941)
- *Year In, Year Out* (1952) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)
#### *Punch* articles {#punch_articles}
- *The Day\'s Play* (1910)
- *The Holiday Round* (1912)
- *Once a Week* (1914)
- *The Sunny Side* (1921)
- *Those Were the Days* (1929) \[The four volumes above, compiled\]
### Newspaper articles and book introductions {#newspaper_articles_and_book_introductions}
- *The Chronicles of Clovis* by \"Saki\" (1911) \[Introduction to\]
- *Not That It Matters* (1919)
- *If I May* (1920)
- *By Way of Introduction* (1929)
- *Women and Children First!*. John Bull, 10 November 1934
- *It Depends on the Book* (1943, in September issue of Red Cross Newspaper *The Prisoner of War*)
### Story collections for children {#story_collections_for_children}
- *A Gallery of Children* (1925)
- *Winnie-the-Pooh* (1926) (illustrated by Ernest H. Shepard)
- *The House at Pooh Corner* (1928) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)
- *Short Stories*
### Poetry collections for children {#poetry_collections_for_children}
- *When We Were Very Young* (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)
- *Now We Are Six* (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)
### Story collections {#story_collections}
- *The Secret and other stories* (1929)
- *The Birthday Party* (1948)
- *A Table Near the Band* (1950)
### Poetry
- *When We Were Very Young* (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)
- *For the Luncheon Interval* (1925) \[poems from *Punch*\]
- *Now We Are Six* (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)
- *Behind the Lines* (1940)
- *The Norman Church* (1948)
### Screenplays and plays {#screenplays_and_plays}
- *Wurzel-Flummery* (1917)
- *Belinda* (1918)
- *The Boy Comes Home* (1918)
- *Make-Believe* (1918) (children\'s play)
- *The Camberley Triangle* (1919)
- *Mr. Pim Passes By* (1919)
- *The Red Feathers* (1920)
- *The Romantic Age* (1920)
- *The Stepmother* (1920)
- *The Truth About Blayds* (1920)
- *The Bump* (1920, Minerva Films), starring C. Aubrey Smith and Faith Celli
- *Twice Two* (1920, Minerva Films)
- *Five Pound Reward* (1920, Minerva Films)
- *Bookworms* (1920, Minerva Films)
- *The Great Broxopp* (1921)
- *The Dover Road* (1921)
- *The Lucky One* (1922)
- *The Truth About Blayds* (1922)
- *The Artist: A Duologue* (1923)
- *Give Me Yesterday* (1923) (a.k.a. *Success* in the UK)
- *Ariadne* (1924)
- *The Man in the Bowler Hat: A Terribly Exciting Affair* (1924)
- *To Have the Honour* (1924)
- *Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers* (1926)
- *Success* (1926)
- *Miss Marlow at Play* (1927)
- *Winnie the Pooh*. Written specially by Milne for a \'Winnie the Pooh Party\' in aid of the National Mother-Saving Campaign, and performed once at Seaford House on 17 March 1928
- *The Fourth Wall* or *The Perfect Alibi* (1928) (later adapted for the film *Birds of Prey* (1930), directed by Basil Dean)
- *The Ivory Door* (1929)
- *Toad of Toad Hall* (1929) (adaptation of *The Wind in the Willows*)
- *Michael and Mary* (1930)
- *Other People\'s Lives* (1933) (a.k.a. *They Don\'t Mean Any Harm*)
- *Miss Elizabeth Bennet* (1936) \[based on *Pride and Prejudice*\]
- *Sarah Simple* (1937)
- *Gentleman Unknown* (1938)
- *The General Takes Off His Helmet* (1939) in *The Queen\'s Book of the Red Cross*
- *The Ugly Duckling* (1941)
- *Before the Flood* (1951)
| 785 |
A. A. Milne
| 4 |
925 |
**Asociación Alumni**, usually just **Alumni**, is an Argentine rugby union club located in Tortuguitas, Greater Buenos Aires. The senior squad currently competes at Top 12, the first division of the Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires league system.
The club has ties with former football club Alumni because both were established by Buenos Aires English High School students.
## History
### Background
The first club with the name \"Alumni\" played association football, having been found in 1898 by students of Buenos Aires English High School (BAEHS) along with director Alexander Watson Hutton. Originally under the name \"English High School A.C.\", the team would be later obliged by the Association to change its name, therefore \"Alumni\" was chosen, following a proposal by Carlos Bowers, a former student of the school.
Alumni was the most successful team during the first years of Argentine football, winning 10 of 14 league championships contested. Alumni is still considered the first great football team in the country. Alumni was reorganised in 1908, \"in order to encourage people to practise all kinds of sports, specially football\". This was the last try to develop itself as a sports club rather than just as a football team, as Lomas, Belgrano and Quilmes had successfully done in the past, but the efforts were not enough. Alumni played its last game in 1911 and was definitely dissolved on April 24, 1913.
### Rebirth through rugby {#rebirth_through_rugby}
In 1951, two guards of the BAEHS, Daniel Ginhson (also a former player of Buenos Aires F.C.) and Guillermo Cubelli, supported by the school\'s alumni and fathers of the students, decided to establish a club focused on rugby union exclusively. Former players of Alumni football club and descendants of other players already dead gave their permission to use the name \"Alumni\".
On December 13, in a meeting presided by Carlos Bowers himself (who had proposed the name \"Alumni\" to the original football team 50 years before), the club was officially established under the name \"Asociación Juvenil Alumni\", also adopting the same colors as its predecessor.
The team achieved good results and in 1960 the club presented a team that won the third division of the Buenos Aires league, reaching the second division. Since then, Alumni has played at the highest level of Argentine rugby and its rivalry with Belgrano Athletic Club is one of the fiercest local derbies in Buenos Aires. Alumni would later climb up to the first division winning 5 titles: 4 consecutive between 1989 and 1992, and the other in 2001.
In 2002, Alumni won its first Nacional de Clubes title, defeating Jockey Club de Rosario 23--21 in the final.
## Players
### Current roster {#current_roster}
As of January 2018: `{{div col|colwidth=22em}}`{=mediawiki}
- Federico Lucca
- Gaspar Baldunciel
- Guido Cambareri
- Iñaki Etchegaray
- Bernardo Quaranta
- Tobias Moyano
- Mariano Romanini
- Santiago Montagner
- Tomas Passerotti
- Lucas Frana
- Luca Sabato
- Franco Batezzatti
- Franco Sabato
- Rafael Desanto
- Nito Provenzano
- Tomas Bivort
- Juan.P Ceraso
- Santiago Alduncin
- Juan
| 506 |
Asociación Alumni
| 0 |
929 |
**Alpha** `{{IPAc-en|'|æ|l|f|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Alpha.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ALF|ə}}`{=mediawiki} (uppercase `{{Script|Grek|'''Α'''}}`{=mediawiki}, lowercase `{{Script|Grek|'''α'''}}`{=mediawiki}) is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of one. Alpha is derived from the Phoenician letter *aleph* `{{angbr|𐤀}}`{=mediawiki}, whose name comes from the West Semitic word for \'ox\'. Letters that arose from alpha include the Latin letter `{{angbr|[[A]]}}`{=mediawiki} and the Cyrillic letter `{{angbr|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Uses
### Greek
In Ancient Greek, alpha was pronounced `{{IPAblink|ä|a}}`{=mediawiki} and could be either phonemically long (\[aː\]) or short (\[a\]). Where there is ambiguity, long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today: *italic=no*.
- = *italic=no* **hōrā** `{{IPA|el|hɔ́ːraː}}`{=mediawiki} \"a time\"
- = *italic=no* **glôssa** `{{IPA|el|ɡlɔ̂ːssa}}`{=mediawiki} \"tongue\"
In Modern Greek, vowel length has been lost, and all instances of alpha simply represent the open front unrounded vowel `{{IPA|el|a|IPA}}`{=mediawiki}.
In the polytonic orthography of Greek, alpha, like other vowel letters, can occur with several diacritic marks: any of three accent symbols (*ά, ὰ, ᾶ*), and either of two breathing marks (*ἁ, ἀ*), as well as combinations of these. It can also combine with the iota subscript (*ᾳ*).
#### Greek grammar {#greek_grammar}
In the Attic--Ionic dialect of Ancient Greek, long alpha `{{IPA|[aː]}}`{=mediawiki} fronted to `{{IPAblink|ɛː}}`{=mediawiki} (eta). In Ionic, the shift took place in all positions. In Attic, the shift did not take place after epsilon, iota, and rho (*italic=no*; *e, i, r*). In Doric and Aeolic, long alpha is preserved in all positions.
- Doric, Aeolic, Attic *χώρᾱ* **chṓrā** -- Ionic *χώρη* **chṓrē**, \"country\"
- Doric, Aeolic *φᾱ́μᾱ* **phā́mā** -- Attic, Ionic *φήμη* **phḗmē**, \"report\"
Privative a is the Ancient Greek prefix *italic=no* or *italic=no* *a-, an-*, added to words to negate them. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European *\*n̥-* (syllabic nasal) and is cognate with English *un-*.
Copulative a is the Greek prefix *italic=no* or *italic=no* *ha-, a-*. It comes from Proto-Indo-European *\*sm̥*.
### Mathematics and science {#mathematics_and_science}
The letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry, including alpha radiation, angular acceleration, alpha particles, alpha carbon and strength of electromagnetic interaction (as fine-structure constant). Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry. In ethology, it is used to name the dominant individual in a group of animals. In aerodynamics, the letter is used as a symbol for the angle of attack of an aircraft and the word \"alpha\" is used as a synonym for this property.
In astronomy, α is often used to designate the brightest star in a constellation.
In mathematics, the letter alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level when proving null and alternative hypotheses. It is also commonly used in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. In mathematical logic, α is sometimes used as a placeholder for ordinal numbers. It is used for Stoneham numbers.
Most occurrences of alpha in science are the lowercase alpha. The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A.
The proportionality operator \"∝\" (in Unicode: U+221D) is sometimes mistaken for alpha.
### International Phonetic Alphabet {#international_phonetic_alphabet}
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter ɑ, which looks similar to the lower-case alpha, represents the open back unrounded vowel.
| 544 |
Alpha
| 0 |
929 |
## History and symbolism {#history_and_symbolism}
### Origin
The Phoenician alphabet was adopted for Greek in the early 8th century BC, perhaps in Euboea. The majority of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet were adopted into Greek with much the same sounds as they had had in Phoenician, but *ʼāleph*, the Phoenician letter representing the glottal stop `{{IPA|[ʔ]}}`{=mediawiki}, was adopted as representing the vowel `{{IPA|[a]}}`{=mediawiki}; similarly, *hē* `{{IPA|[h]}}`{=mediawiki} and *ʽayin* `{{IPA|[ʕ]}}`{=mediawiki} are Phoenician consonants that became Greek vowels, epsilon `{{IPA|[e]}}`{=mediawiki} and omicron `{{IPA|[o]}}`{=mediawiki}, respectively.
### Plutarch
Plutarch, in *Moralia*, presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Ammonius asks Plutarch what he, being a Boeotian, has to say for Cadmus, the Phoenician who reputedly settled in Thebes and introduced the alphabet to Greece, placing *alpha* first because it is the Phoenician name for ox---which, unlike Hesiod, the Phoenicians considered not the second or third, but the first of all necessities. \"Nothing at all,\" Plutarch replied. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus\' grandfather, i.e. Cadmus. For Lamprias had said that the first articulate sound made is \"alpha\", because it is very plain and simple---the air coming off the mouth does not require any motion of the tongue---and therefore this is the first sound that children make.
According to Plutarch\'s natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon.
### Alpha and Omega {#alpha_and_omega}
*Main article: Alpha and Omega*
As the first letter of the alphabet, Alpha as a Greek numeral came to represent the number 1. Therefore, Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to the \"first\", or \"primary\", or \"principal\" (most significant) occurrence or status of a thing.
The New Testament has God declaring himself to be the \"Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last.\" (Revelation 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8).
Consequently, the term \"alpha\" has also come to be used to denote \"primary\" position in social hierarchy, examples being the concept of dominant \"alpha\" members in groups of animals
| 353 |
Alpha
| 1 |
930 |
\| signature = }} **Alvin Eugene Toffler** (October 4, 1928 -- June 27, 2016) was an American writer, futurist, and businessman known for his works discussing modern technologies, including the digital revolution and the communication revolution, with emphasis on their effects on cultures worldwide. He is regarded as one of the world\'s outstanding futurists.
Toffler was an associate editor of *Fortune* magazine. In his early works he focused on technology and its impact, which he termed \"information overload\". In 1970, his first major book about the future, *Future Shock*, became a worldwide best-seller and has sold over 6 million copies.
He and his wife Heidi Toffler (1929--2019), who collaborated with him for most of his writings, moved on to examining the reaction to changes in society with another best-selling book, *The Third Wave*, in 1980. In it, he foresaw such technological advances as cloning, personal computers, the Internet, cable television and mobile communication. His later focus, via their other best-seller, *Powershift*, (1990), was on the increasing power of 21st-century military hardware and the proliferation of new technologies.
He founded Toffler Associates, a management consulting company, and was a visiting scholar at the Russell Sage Foundation, visiting professor at Cornell University, faculty member of the New School for Social Research, a White House correspondent, and a business consultant. Toffler\'s ideas and writings were a significant influence on the thinking of business and government leaders worldwide, including China\'s Zhao Ziyang, and AOL founder Steve Case.
## Early life {#early_life}
Alvin Toffler was born on October 4, 1928, in New York City, and raised in Brooklyn. He was the son of Rose (Albaum) and Sam Toffler, a furrier, both Polish Jews who had migrated to America. He had one younger sister. He was inspired to become a writer at the age of 7 by his aunt and uncle, who lived with the Tofflers. \"They were Depression-era literary intellectuals,\" Toffler said, \"and they always talked about exciting ideas.\"
Toffler graduated from New York University in 1950 as an English major, though by his own account he was more focused on political activism than grades. He met his future wife, Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell (nicknamed \"Heidi\"), when she was starting a graduate course in linguistics. Being radical students, they decided against further graduate work and moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where they married on April 29, 1950.
| 390 |
Alvin Toffler
| 0 |
930 |
## Career
Seeking experiences to write about, Alvin and Heidi Toffler spent the next five years as blue collar workers on assembly lines while studying industrial mass production in their daily work. He compared his own desire for experience to other writers, such as Jack London, who in his quest for subjects to write about sailed the seas, and John Steinbeck, who went to pick grapes with migrant workers. In their first factory jobs, Heidi became a union shop steward in the aluminum foundry where she worked. Alvin became a millwright and welder. In the evenings Alvin would write poetry and fiction, but discovered he was proficient at neither.
His hands-on practical labor experience helped Alvin Toffler land a position at a union-backed newspaper, a transfer to its Washington bureau in 1957, then three years as a White House correspondent, covering Congress and the White House for a Pennsylvania daily newspaper.
They returned to New York City in 1959 when *Fortune* magazine invited Alvin to become its labor columnist, later having him write about business and management. After leaving *Fortune* magazine in 1962, Toffler began a freelance career, writing long form articles for scholarly journals and magazines. His 1964 *Playboy interviews* with Russian novelist Vladimir Nabokov and Ayn Rand were considered among the magazine\'s best. His interview with Rand was the first time the magazine had given such a platform to a female intellectual, which as one commentator said, \"the real bird of paradise Toffler captured for Playboy in 1964 was Ayn Rand.\"
Toffler was hired by IBM to conduct research and write a paper on the social and organizational impact of computers, leading to his contact with the earliest computer \"gurus\" and artificial intelligence researchers and proponents. Xerox invited him to write about its research laboratory and AT&T consulted him for strategic advice. This AT&T work led to a study of telecommunications, which advised the company\'s top management to break up the company more than a decade before the government forced AT&T to break up.
In the mid-1960s, the Tofflers began five years of research on what would become *Future Shock*, published in 1970. It has sold over 6 million copies worldwide, according to the *New York Times,* or over 15 million copies according to the Tofflers\' Web site. Toffler coined the term \"future shock\" to refer to what happens to a society when change happens too fast, which results in social confusion and normal decision-making processes breaking down. The book has never been out of print and has been translated into dozens of languages.
He continued the theme in *The Third Wave* in 1980. While he describes the first and second waves as the agricultural and industrial revolutions, the \"third wave,\" a phrase he coined, represents the current information, computer-based revolution. He forecast the spread of the Internet and email, interactive media, cable television, cloning, and other digital advancements. He claimed that one of the side effects of the digital age has been \"information overload,\" another term he coined. In 1990, he wrote *Powershift*, also with the help of his wife, Heidi.
In 1996, with American business consultant Tom Johnson, they co-founded Toffler Associates, an advisory firm designed to implement many of the ideas the Tofflers had written on. The firm worked with businesses, NGOs, and governments in the United States, South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, Singapore, Australia, and other countries. During this period in his career, Toffler lectured worldwide, taught at several schools and met world leaders, such as Mikhail Gorbachev, along with key executives and military officials.
| 590 |
Alvin Toffler
| 1 |
930 |
## Career
### Ideas and opinions {#ideas_and_opinions}
Toffler stated many of his ideas during an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1998. \"Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest,\" he said. \"Society needs people who work in hospitals. Society needs all kinds of skills that are not just cognitive; they\'re emotional, they\'re affectional. You can\'t run the society on data and computers alone.\"
His opinions about the future of education, many of which were in *Future Shock*, have often been quoted. An often misattributed quote, however, is that of psychologist Herbert Gerjuoy: \"Tomorrow\'s illiterate will not be the man who can\'t read; he will be the man who has not learned how to learn.\"
Early in his career, after traveling to other countries, he became aware of the new and myriad inputs that visitors received from these other cultures. He explained during an interview that some visitors would become \"truly disoriented and upset\" by the strange environment, which he described as a reaction to culture shock. From that issue, he foresaw another problem for the future, when a culturally \"new environment comes to you \... and comes to you rapidly.\" That kind of sudden cultural change within one\'s own country, which he felt many would not understand, would lead to a similar reaction, one of \"future shock\", which he wrote about in his book by that title. Toffler writes: `{{blockquote|We must search out totally new ways to anchor ourselves, for all the old roots—religion, nation, community, family, or profession—are now shaking under the hurricane impact of the accelerative thrust.<ref name=CBC/><ref name=AP>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/alvin-toffler-author-obit-1.3659263|title=Alvin Toffler, Future Shock and Third Wave author, dead at 87|date=June 29, 2016|publisher=[[CBC News]]|agency=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813081640/https://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/alvin-toffler-author-obit-1.3659263|archive-date=August 13, 2016}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
In *The Third Wave*, Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of \"waves\"---each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside. He describes the \"First Wave\" as the society after agrarian revolution and replaced the first hunter-gatherer cultures. The \"Second Wave,\" he labels society during the Industrial Revolution (ca. late 17th century through the mid-20th century). That period saw the increase of urban industrial populations which had undermined the traditional nuclear family, and initiated a factory-like education system, and the growth of the corporation. Toffler said:
The \"Third Wave\" was a term he coined to describe the post-industrial society, which began in the late 1950s. His description of this period dovetails with other futurist writers, who also wrote about the Information Age, Space Age, Electronic Era, Global Village, terms which highlighted a scientific-technological revolution. The Tofflers claimed to have predicted a number of geopolitical events, such as the collapse of the Soviet Union, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the future economic growth in the Asia-Pacific region.
| 461 |
Alvin Toffler
| 2 |
930 |
## Influences and popular culture {#influences_and_popular_culture}
Toffler often visited with dignitaries in Asia, including China\'s Zhao Ziyang, Singapore\'s Lee Kuan Yew and South Korea\'s Kim Dae Jung, all of whom were influenced by his views as Asia\'s emerging markets increased in global significance during the 1980s and 1990s. Although they had originally censored some of his books and ideas, China\'s government cited him along with Franklin Roosevelt and Bill Gates as being among the Westerners who had most influenced their country. *The Third Wave* along with a video documentary based on it became best-sellers in China and were widely distributed to schools. The video\'s success inspired the marketing of videos on related themes in the late 1990s by Infowars, whose name is derived from the term coined by Toffler in the book. Toffler\'s influence on Asian thinkers was summed up in an article in *Daedalus*, published by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences: `{{blockquote|Where an earlier generation of Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese revolutionaries wanted to re-enact the [[Paris Commune]] as imagined by [[Karl Marx]], their post-revolutionary successors now want to re-enact [[Silicon Valley]] as imagined by Alvin Toffler.<ref name=Denver/>}}`{=mediawiki}
U.S. House Speaker Newt Gingrich publicly lauded his ideas about the future, and urged members of Congress to read Toffler\'s book, *Creating a New Civilization* (1995). Others, such as AOL founder Steve Case, cited Toffler\'s *The Third Wave* as a formative influence on his thinking, which inspired him to write *The Third Wave: An Entrepreneur\'s Vision of the Future* in 2016. Case said that Toffler was a \"real pioneer in helping people, companies and even countries lean into the future.\"
In 1980, Ted Turner founded CNN, which he said was inspired by Toffler\'s forecasting the end of the dominance of the three main television networks. Turner\'s company, Turner Broadcasting, published Toffler\'s *Creating a New Civilization* in 1995. Shortly after the book was released, the former Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev hosted the Global Governance Conference in San Francisco with the theme, *Toward a New Civilization*, which was attended by dozens of world figures, including the Tofflers, George H. W. Bush, Margaret Thatcher, Carl Sagan, Abba Eban and Turner with his then-wife, actress Jane Fonda.
Mexican billionaire Carlos Slim was influenced by his works, and became a friend of the writer. Global marketer J.D. Power also said he was inspired by Toffler\'s works.
Since the 1960s, people had tried to make sense out of the effect of new technologies and social change, a problem which made Toffler\'s writings widely influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic, and public policy. His works and ideas have been subject to various criticisms, usually with the same argumentation used against futurology: that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible.
Techno music pioneer Juan Atkins cites Toffler\'s phrase \"techno rebels\" in *The Third Wave* as inspiring him to use the word \"techno\" to describe the musical style he helped to create Musician Curtis Mayfield released a disco song called \"Future Shock,\" later covered in an electro version by Herbie Hancock. Science fiction author John Brunner wrote \"The Shockwave Rider,\" from the concept of \"future shock.\"
The nightclub Toffler, in Rotterdam, is named after him.
In the song \"Victoria\" by The Exponents, the protagonist\'s daily routine and cultural interests are described: \"She\'s up in time to watch the soap operas, reads Cosmopolitan and Alvin Toffler\".
| 556 |
Alvin Toffler
| 3 |
930 |
## Critical assessment {#critical_assessment}
Accenture, the management consultancy firm, identified Toffler in 2002 as being among the most influential voices in business leaders, along with Bill Gates and Peter Drucker. Toffler has also been described in a *Financial Times* interview as the \"world\'s most famous futurologist\". In 2006, the *People\'s Daily* classed him among the 50 foreigners who shaped modern China, which one U.S. newspaper notes made him a \"guru of sorts to world statesmen.\" Chinese Premier and General Secretary Zhao Ziyang was greatly influenced by Toffler. He convened conferences to discuss *The Third Wave* in the early 1980s, and in 1985 the book was the No. 2 best seller in China.
Author Mark Satin characterizes Toffler as an important early influence on radical centrist political thought.
Newt Gingrich became close to the Tofflers in the 1970s and said *The Third Wave* had immensely influenced his own thinking and was \"one of the great seminal works of our time.\"
## Selected awards {#selected_awards}
Toffler has received several prestigious prizes and awards, including the McKinsey Foundation Book Award for Contributions to Management Literature, Officier de L\'Ordre des Arts et Lettres, and appointments, including Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the International Institute for Strategic Studies.
In 2006, Alvin and Heidi Toffler were recipients of Brown University\'s Independent Award.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Toffler was married to Heidi Toffler (born Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell), also a writer and futurist. They lived in the Bel Air section of Los Angeles, California, and previously lived in Redding, Connecticut.
The couple\'s only child, Karen Toffler (1954--2000), died at age 46 after more than a decade suffering from Guillain--Barré syndrome.
Alvin Toffler died in his sleep on June 27, 2016, at his home in Los Angeles. No cause of death was given. He is buried at Westwood Memorial Park
| 307 |
Alvin Toffler
| 4 |
953 |
**Azincourt** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|z|ɪ|n|k|ɔːr|(|t|)|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Azincourt.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AZ|in|kor(t)}}`{=mediawiki} ; `{{IPA|fr|azɛ̃kuʁ}}`{=mediawiki}) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. It is situated 12 mi north-west of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise on the D71 road between Hesdin and Fruges.
The Late Medieval Battle of Agincourt between the English and the French took place in the commune in 1415.
## Toponym
The name is attested as *Aisincurt* in 1175, derived from a Germanic masculine name Aizo, Aizino and the early Northern French word *curt* (which meant a farm with a courtyard; derived from the Late Latin *cortem*). It is often known as **Agincourt** in English. There is a village that is named \"Agincourt\", located in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in Eastern France. The name has no etymological link with Azincourt, and is derived separately from another male name *\*Ingin-*.
## History
Azincourt is known for being near the site of the battle fought on 25 October 1415 in which the army led by King Henry V of England defeated the forces led by Charles d\'Albret on behalf of Charles VI of France, which has gone down in history as the Battle of Agincourt. According to M. Forrest, the French knights were so encumbered by their armour that they were exhausted even before the start of the battle.
After he became king in 1509, Henry VIII is purported to have commissioned an English translation of a Life of Henry V so that he could emulate him, on the grounds that he thought that launching a campaign against France would help him to impose himself on the European stage. In 1513, Henry VIII crossed the English Channel, stopping by at Azincourt.
The battle, as was the tradition, was named after a nearby castle called Azincourt. The castle has since disappeared and the settlement now known as Azincourt adopted the name in the seventeenth century.
John Cassell wrote in 1857 that \"the village of Azincourt itself is now a group of dirty farmhouses and wretched cottages, but where the hottest of the battle raged, between that village and the commune of Tramecourt, there still remains a wood precisely corresponding with the one in which Henry placed his ambush; and there are yet existing the foundations of the castle of Azincourt, from which the king named the field.\"
## Population
## Sights
The original battlefield museum in the village featured model knights made out of Action Man figures. This has now been replaced by the Centre historique médiéval d\'Azincourt (CHM)---a more professional museum, conference centre and exhibition space incorporating laser, video, slide shows, audio commentaries, and some interactive elements. The museum building is shaped like a longbow similar to those used at the battle by archers under King Henry.
Since 2004 a large medieval festival organised by the local community, the CHM, The Azincourt Alliance, and various other UK societies commemorating the battle, local history and medieval life, arts and crafts has been held in the village. Prior to this date the festival was held in October, but due to the inclement weather and local heavy clay soil (like the battle) making the festival difficult, it was moved to the last Sunday in July.
## International relations {#international_relations}
Azincourt is twinned with Middleham, United Kingdom
| 535 |
Azincourt
| 0 |
958 |
An **axon** (from Greek ἄξων *áxōn*, axis) or **nerve fiber** (or **nerve** **fibre**: see spelling differences) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, in vertebrates, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as action potentials away from the nerve cell body. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands. In certain sensory neurons (pseudounipolar neurons), such as those for touch and warmth, the axons are called afferent nerve fibers and the electrical impulse travels along these from the periphery to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both the peripheral and central neurons. Nerve fibers are classed into three types`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}group A nerve fibers, group B nerve fibers, and group C nerve fibers. Groups A and B are myelinated, and group C are unmyelinated. These groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers. Another classification groups only the sensory fibers as Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV.
An axon is one of two types of cytoplasmic protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a dendrite. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. In some species, axons can emanate from dendrites known as axon-carrying dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other.
Axons are covered by a membrane known as an axolemma; the cytoplasm within an axon is called axoplasm. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely. The end branches of an axon are called telodendria. The swollen end of a telodendron is known as the axon terminal or end-foot which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a synaptic connection. Axons usually make contact with other neurons at junctions called synapses but can also make contact with muscle or gland cells. In some circumstances, the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron, resulting in an autapse. At a synapse, the membrane of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called *en passant boutons* (\"in passing boutons\") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon. Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches.
A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals. A bundle of axons make a nerve tract in the central nervous system, and a fascicle in the peripheral nervous system. In placental mammals the largest white matter tract in the brain is the corpus callosum, formed of some 200 million axons in the human brain.
| 564 |
Axon
| 0 |
958 |
## Anatomy
thumb\|upright=1.4\|Structure of a typical neuron in the peripheral nervous system
Axons are the primary transmission lines of the nervous system, and as bundles they form nerves in the peripheral nervous system, or nerve tracts in the central nervous system (CNS). Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter. The longest axons in the human body are those of the sciatic nerve, which run from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable. Most individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about one micrometer (μm) across). The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 μm. The squid giant axon, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimeter in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. The numbers of axonal telodendria (the branching structures at the end of the axon) can also differ from one nerve fiber to the next. Axons in the CNS typically show multiple telodendria, with many synaptic end points. In comparison, the cerebellar granule cell axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two parallel fibers extend. Elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target neurons within a single region of the brain.
There are two types of axons in the nervous system: myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of glial cells: Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. In the peripheral nervous system Schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon. Oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the CNS. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction.
The myelinated axons from the cortical neurons form the bulk of the neural tissue called white matter in the brain. The myelin gives the white appearance to the tissue in contrast to the grey matter of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies. A similar arrangement is seen in the cerebellum. Bundles of myelinated axons make up the nerve tracts in the CNS, and where they cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called commissures. The largest of these is the corpus callosum that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, and this has around 20 million axons.
The structure of a neuron is seen to consist of two separate functional regions, or compartments`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}the cell body together with the dendrites as one region, and the axonal region as the other.
| 456 |
Axon
| 1 |
958 |
## Anatomy
### Axonal region {#axonal_region}
The axonal region or compartment, includes the axon hillock, the initial segment, the rest of the axon, and the axon telodendria, and axon terminals. It also includes the myelin sheath. The Nissl bodies that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region. Proteins needed for the growth of the axon, and the removal of waste materials, need a framework for transport. This axonal transport is provided for in the axoplasm by arrangements of microtubules and type IV intermediate filaments known as neurofilaments.
#### Axon hillock {#axon_hillock}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.75\|Detail showing microtubules at axon hillock and initial segment The axon hillock is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon. It precedes the initial segment. The received action potentials that are summed in the neuron are transmitted to the axon hillock for the generation of an action potential from the initial segment.
#### Axonal initial segment {#axonal_initial_segment}
The **axonal initial segment** (AIS) is a structurally and functionally separate microdomain of the axon. One function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron; another function is to help initiate action potentials. Both of these functions support neuron cell polarity, in which dendrites (and, in some cases the soma) of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region, and at the apical region the neuron\'s axon provides output signals.
The axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins. It is between approximately 20 and 60 μm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation. Both the position on the axon and the length of the AIS can change showing a degree of plasticity that can fine-tune the neuronal output. A longer AIS is associated with a greater excitability. Plasticity is also seen in the ability of the AIS to change its distribution and to maintain the activity of neural circuitry at a constant level.
The AIS is highly specialized for the fast conduction of nerve impulses. This is achieved by a high concentration of voltage-gated sodium channels in the initial segment where the action potential is initiated. The ion channels are accompanied by a high number of cell adhesion molecules and scaffold proteins that anchor them to the cytoskeleton. Interactions with ankyrin-G are important as it is the major organizer in the AIS.
In other cases as seen in rat studies an axon originates from a dendrite; such axons are said to have \"dendritic origin\". Some axons with dendritic origin similarly have a \"proximal\" initial segment that starts directly at the axon origin, while others have a \"distal\" initial segment, discernibly separated from the axon origin. In many species some of the neurons have axons that emanate from the dendrite and not from the cell body, and these are known as axon-carrying dendrites. In many cases, an axon originates at an axon hillock on the soma; such axons are said to have \"somatic origin\". Some axons with somatic origin have a \"proximal\" initial segment adjacent the axon hillock, while others have a \"distal\" initial segment, separated from the soma by an extended axon hillock.
### Axonal transport {#axonal_transport}
The axoplasm is the equivalent of cytoplasm in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same direction`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}towards the axon terminals. This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body. Studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filaments`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}the microtubules, and neurofilaments, in both directions between the axon and its terminals and the cell body.
Outgoing anterograde transport from the cell body along the axon, carries mitochondria and membrane proteins needed for growth to the axon terminal. Ingoing retrograde transport carries cell waste materials from the axon terminal to the cell body. Outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of motor proteins. Outgoing transport is provided by kinesin, and ingoing return traffic is provided by dynein. Dynein is minus-end directed. There are many forms of kinesin and dynein motor proteins, and each is thought to carry a different cargo. The studies on transport in the axon led to the naming of kinesin.
### Myelination
In the nervous system, axons may be myelinated, or unmyelinated. This is the provision of an insulating layer, called a myelin sheath. The myelin membrane is unique in its relatively high lipid to protein ratio.
In the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by glial cells known as Schwann cells. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell, the oligodendrocyte. Schwann cells myelinate a single axon. An oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons.
The composition of myelin is different in the two types. In the CNS the major myelin protein is proteolipid protein, and in the PNS it is myelin basic protein.
| 852 |
Axon
| 2 |
958 |
## Anatomy
### Nodes of Ranvier {#nodes_of_ranvier}
Nodes of Ranvier (also known as *myelin sheath gaps*) are short unmyelinated segments of a myelinated axon, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter. These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In saltatory conduction, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively \"jump\" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain.
### Axon terminals {#axon_terminals}
An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greek for \'end of tree\'). At the end of each **telodendron** is an axon terminal (also called a terminal bouton or synaptic bouton, or end-foot). Axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles that store the neurotransmitter for release at the synapse. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an autapse. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called **en passant boutons** (\"in passing boutons\") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon.
#### Axonal varicosities {#axonal_varicosities}
In the normally developed brain, along the shaft of some axons are located pre-synaptic boutons also known as **axonal varicosities** and these have been found in regions of the hippocampus that function in the release of neurotransmitters. However, axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential. Axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of traumatic brain injuries. Axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport. As a consequence protein accumulations such as amyloid-beta precursor protein can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon.
| 348 |
Axon
| 3 |
958 |
## Action potentials {#action_potentials}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Synaptic connections from an axon
Most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells. The defining characteristic of an action potential is that it is \"all-or-nothing\"`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}every action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape. This all-or-nothing characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size. There are, however, some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals, of variable amplitude.
When an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium concentration causes synaptic vesicles (tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axon\'s membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through exocytosis. The neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them. Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second. Afterward, inside the presynaptic terminal, a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane, ready to be released when the next action potential arrives. The action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron.
Extracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals. While extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as place cells, axonal activity in both white and gray matter can also be recorded. Extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways: 1. The signal has a shorter peak-trough duration (\~150μs) than of pyramidal cells (\~500μs) or interneurons (\~250μs). 2. The voltage change is triphasic. 3. Activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires. In recordings from freely moving rats, axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter.
In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the digital codes in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons.
In addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms, voltage-gated sodium channels in the axons possess lower threshold and shorter refractory period in response to short-term pulses.
| 560 |
Axon
| 4 |
958 |
## Development and growth {#development_and_growth}
### Development
The development of the axon to its target, is one of the six major stages in the overall development of the nervous system. Studies done on cultured hippocampal neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple neurites that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon. It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa, although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites. Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon. Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and cytoskeletal dynamics.
#### Extracellular signaling {#extracellular_signaling}
The extracellular signals that propagate through the extracellular matrix surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development. These signaling molecules include proteins, neurotrophic factors, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. Netrin (also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the UNC-5 netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly. The neurotrophic factors`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to Trk receptors.
The ganglioside-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside sialidase (PMGS), which is involved in the activation of TrkA at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon.
#### Intracellular signaling {#intracellular_signaling}
During axonal development, the activity of PI3K is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of phosphatases that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization.
#### Cytoskeletal dynamics {#cytoskeletal_dynamics}
The neurite with the lowest actin filament content will become the axon. PGMS concentration and f-actin content are inversely correlated; when PGMS becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite, its f-actin content is substantially decreased. In addition, exposure to actin-depolimerizing drugs and toxin B (which inactivates Rho-signaling) causes the formation of multiple axons. Consequently, the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon.
| 461 |
Axon
| 5 |
958 |
## Development and growth {#development_and_growth}
### Growth
Growing axons move through their environment via the growth cone, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet-like extension called a lamellipodium which contain protrusions called filopodia. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a \"sticky\" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAMs specific to neural systems include N-CAM, TAG-1`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}an axonal glycoprotein`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}and MAG, all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Another set of molecules called extracellular matrix-adhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include laminin, fibronectin, tenascin, and perlecan. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects.
Cells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells that help axon guidance, are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature. When the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target, the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times, depending on the speed of conduction required.
It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells. This is also referred to as neuroregeneration.
Nogo-A is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo-A is blocked and neutralized, it is possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans. A recent study has also found that macrophages activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the Dectin-1 receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing neurotoxicity in the neuron.
### Length regulation {#length_regulation}
Axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals. This emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly. It was discovered that motor proteins play an important role in regulating the length of axons. Based on this observation, researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level. These studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a length-dependent frequency.
| 512 |
Axon
| 6 |
958 |
## Classification
The axons of neurons in the human peripheral nervous system can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties. Axons were known to have different thicknesses (from 0.1 to 20 μm) and these differences were thought to relate to the speed at which an action potential could travel along the axon`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}its *conductance velocity*. Erlanger and Gasser proved this hypothesis, and identified several types of nerve fiber, establishing a relationship between the diameter of an axon and its nerve conduction velocity. They published their findings in 1941 giving the first classification of axons.
Axons are classified in two systems. The first one introduced by Erlanger and Gasser, grouped the fibers into three main groups using the letters A, B, and C. These groups, group A, group B, and group C include both the sensory fibers (afferents) and the motor fibers (efferents). The first group A, was subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma, and delta fibers`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}Aα, Aβ, Aγ, and Aδ. The motor neurons of the different motor fibers, were the lower motor neurons`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}alpha motor neuron, beta motor neuron, and gamma motor neuron having the Aα, Aβ, and Aγ nerve fibers, respectively.
Later findings by other researchers identified two groups of Aa fibers that were sensory fibers. These were then introduced into a system (Lloyd classification) that only included sensory fibers (though some of these were mixed nerves and were also motor fibers). This system refers to the sensory groups as Types and uses Roman numerals: Type Ia, Type Ib, Type II, Type III, and Type IV.
### Motor
Lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers:
+------------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------------+--------------------------+
| Type | Erlanger-Gasser\ | Diameter\ | Myelin | Conduction velocity\ | Associated muscle fibers |
| | Classification | (μm) | | (meters/second) | |
+========================+==================+===========+========+======================+==========================+
| Alpha (α) motor neuron | Aα | 13--20 | Yes | 80--120 | Extrafusal muscle fibers |
+------------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------------+--------------------------+
| Beta (β) motor neuron | Aβ | | | | |
+------------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------------+--------------------------+
| Gamma (γ) motor neuron | Aγ | 5-8 | Yes | 4--24 | Intrafusal muscle fibers |
+------------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------------+--------------------------+
: Motor fiber types
### `{{Visible anchor|Sensory}}`{=mediawiki}
Different sensory receptors are innervated by different types of nerve fibers. Proprioceptors are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers, mechanoreceptors by type II and III sensory fibers and nociceptors and thermoreceptors by type III and IV sensory fibers.
+------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------+
| Type | Erlanger-Gasser\ | Diameter\ | Myelin | Conduction\ | Associated sensory receptors | Proprioceptors | Mechanoceptors | Nociceptors and\ |
| | Classification | (μm) | | velocity (m/s) | | | | thermoreceptors |
+======+==================+===========+========+================+===============================================================+================+================+==================+
| Ia | Aα | 13--20 | Yes | 80--120 | Primary receptors of muscle spindle (annulospiral ending) | ✔ | | |
+------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------+
| Ib | Aα | 13--20 | Yes | 80--120 | Golgi tendon organ | | | |
+------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------+
| II | Aβ | 6--12 | Yes | 33--75 | Secondary receptors of muscle spindle (flower-spray ending).\ | | ✔ | |
| | | | | | All cutaneous mechanoreceptors | | | |
+------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------+
| III | Aδ | 1--5 | Thin | 3--30 | Free nerve endings of touch and pressure\ | | | ✔ |
| | | | | | Nociceptors of lateral spinothalamic tract\ | | | |
| | | | | | Cold thermoreceptors | | | |
+------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------+
| IV | C | 0.2--1.5 | No | 0.5--2.0 | Nociceptors of anterior spinothalamic tract\ | | | |
| | | | | | Warmth receptors | | | |
+------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------+
: Sensory fiber types
### Autonomic
The autonomic nervous system has two kinds of peripheral fibers:
+-----------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+
| Type | Erlanger-Gasser\ | Diameter\ | Myelin | Conduction\ |
| | Classification | (μm) | | velocity (m/s) |
+=======================+==================+===========+========+================+
| preganglionic fibers | B | 1--5 | Yes | 3--15 |
+-----------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+
| postganglionic fibers | C | 0.2--1.5 | No | 0.5--2.0 |
+-----------------------+------------------+-----------+--------+----------------+
: Fiber types
| 666 |
Axon
| 7 |
958 |
## Clinical significance {#clinical_significance}
In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as neurapraxia, axonotmesis, or neurotmesis. Concussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury. Axonal injury can also cause central chromatolysis. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons.
When an axon is crushed, an active process of axonal degeneration takes place at the part of the axon furthest from the cell body. This degeneration takes place quickly following the injury, with the part of the axon being sealed off at the membranes and broken down by macrophages. This is known as Wallerian degeneration. Dying back of an axon can also take place in many neurodegenerative diseases, particularly when axonal transport is impaired, this is known as Wallerian-like degeneration. Studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein NMNAT2, being prevented from reaching all of the axon.
Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis.
Dysmyelination is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath. This is implicated in several leukodystrophies, and also in schizophrenia.
A severe traumatic brain injury can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as diffuse axonal injury. This can lead to a persistent vegetative state. It has been shown in studies on the rat that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury, can leave a susceptibility to further damage, after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries.
A nerve guidance conduit is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable neuroregeneration, and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of nerve injury.
| 301 |
Axon
| 8 |
958 |
## Terminology
Some general dictionaries define \"nerve fiber\" as any neuronal process, including both axons and dendrites. However, medical sources generally use \"nerve fiber\" to refer to the axon only.
## History
German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Kölliker named the axon in 1896. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity, myelination, fiber size etc. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin--Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser--Huxley equations. The understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further, and includes many details about individual ion channels.
## Other animals {#other_animals}
The axons in invertebrates have been extensively studied. The longfin inshore squid, often used as a model organism has the longest known axon. The giant squid has the largest axon known. Its size ranges from 0.5 (typically) to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its jet propulsion system. The fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 m/s, is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic Penaeid shrimps and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meters/s (cf 100--120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.)
## Additional images {#additional_images}
<File:Example> of Waveforms from Extracellular Tetrode Recordings in the Hippocampus from Different Cell Types and Axons
| 353 |
Axon
| 9 |
966 |
An **American shot** or **cowboy shot** is a medium-long (\"knee\") film shot of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. It is a translation of a phrase from French film criticism, **plan américain*.* The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex dialogue scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot.
One of the other main reasons why French critics called it \"American shot\" was its frequent use in the western genre. This was because a shot that started at knee level would reveal the weapon of a cowboy, usually holstered at their waist. It is the closest the camera can get to an actor while keeping both their face and their holstered gun in frame.
The French critics thought it was characteristic of American films of the 1930s or 1940s; however, it was mostly characteristic of cheaper American movies, such as Charlie Chan mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago.
Howard Hawks legitimized this style in his films, allowing characters to act, even when not talking, when most of the audience would not be paying attention. It became his trademark style
| 263 |
American shot
| 0 |
980 |
**August William Derleth** (February 24, 1909 -- July 4, 1971) was an American writer and anthologist. He was the first book publisher of the writings of H. P. Lovecraft. He made contributions to the Cthulhu Mythos and the cosmic horror genre and helped found Arkham House, a publishing company which did much to introduce hardcover prints of United Kingdom supernatural fiction works to the United States. Derleth was also a leading American regional writer of his day, as well as prolific in several other genres, including historical fiction, poetry, detective fiction, science fiction, and biography. Notably, he created the fictional detective Solar Pons, a pastiche of Arthur Conan Doyle\'s Sherlock Holmes.
A 1938 Guggenheim Fellow, Derleth considered his most serious work to be the ambitious *Sac Prairie Saga*, a series of fiction, historical fiction, poetry, and non-fiction naturalist works designed to memorialize life in the Wisconsin he knew. Derleth can also be considered a pioneering naturalist and conservationist in his writing.
## Life
The son of William Julius Derleth and Rose Louise Volk, Derleth grew up in Sauk City, Wisconsin. He was educated in local parochial and public high school. Derleth wrote his first fiction at age 13. He was interested most in reading, and he made three trips to the library a week. He would save his money to buy books (his personal library exceeded 12,000 volumes later on in life). Some of his biggest influences were Ralph Waldo Emerson\'s essays, Walt Whitman, H. L. Mencken\'s *The American Mercury*, Samuel Johnson\'s *The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia*, Alexandre Dumas, Edgar Allan Poe, Walter Scott, and Henry David Thoreau\'s Walden.
Forty rejected stories and three years later, according to anthologist Jim Stephens, he sold his first story, \"Bat\'s Belfry\", to *Weird Tales* magazine in 1926. Derleth wrote throughout his four years at the University of Wisconsin, where he received a B.A. in 1930. During this time he also served briefly as associate editor of Minneapolis-based Fawcett Publications *Mystic Magazine*.
Returning to Sauk City in the summer of 1931, Derleth worked in a local canning factory and collaborated with childhood friend Mark Schorer (later Chairman of the University of California, Berkeley English Department). They rented a cabin, writing Gothic and other horror stories and selling them to *Weird Tales* magazine. Derleth won a place on the O\'Brien Roll of Honor for *Five Alone*, published in *Place of Hawks*, but was first published in *Pagany* magazine.
As a result of his early work on the *Sac Prairie Saga*, Derleth was awarded the prestigious Guggenheim Fellowship; his sponsors were Helen C. White, Nobel Prize-winning novelist Sinclair Lewis and poet Edgar Lee Masters of *Spoon River Anthology* fame.
In the mid-1930s, Derleth organized a Ranger\'s Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local school board, served as a parole officer, organized a local men\'s club and a parent-teacher association. He also lectured in American regional literature at the University of Wisconsin and was a contributing editor of *Outdoors Magazine*.
With longtime friend Donald Wandrei, Derleth founded Arkham House in 1939. Its initial objective was to publish the works of H. P. Lovecraft, with whom Derleth had corresponded since his teenage years. At the same time, he began teaching a course in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin.
In 1941, he became literary editor of *The Capital Times* newspaper in Madison, a post he held until his resignation in 1960. His hobbies included fencing, swimming, chess, philately and comic-strips (Derleth reportedly used the funding from his Guggenheim Fellowship to bind his comic book collection, most recently valued in the millions of dollars, rather than to travel abroad as the award intended.). Derleth\'s true avocation, however, was hiking the terrain of his native Wisconsin lands, and observing and recording nature with an expert eye.
Derleth once wrote of his writing methods, \"I write very swiftly, from 750,000 to a million words yearly, very little of it pulp material.\"
In 1948, he was elected president of the Associated Fantasy Publishers at the 6th World Science Fiction Convention in Toronto.
He was married April 6, 1953, to Sandra Evelyn Winters. They divorced six years later. Derleth retained custody of the couple\'s two children, April Rose Derleth and Walden William Derleth. April earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1977. She became majority stockholder, President, and CEO of Arkham House in 1994. She remained in that capacity until her death. She was known in the community as a naturalist and humanitarian. April died on March 21, 2011.
In 1960, Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called *Hawk and Whippoorwill*, dedicated to poems of man and nature.
Derleth died of a heart attack on July 4, 1971, and is buried in St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sauk City. The U.S. 12 bridge over the Wisconsin River is named in his honor. Derleth was Roman Catholic.
In Derleth\'s biography, Dorothy M. Grobe Litersky stated that Derleth was bisexual, and maintained long-term romantic relationships with both men and women. This assertion has not been verified; no names were given of these romantic partners (in the interest of privacy according to Litersky), and no evidence or acknowledgement of Derleth having a bisexual or homosexual orientation has ever been found in his personal correspondence.
| 884 |
August Derleth
| 0 |
980 |
## Career
Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime.
### The *Sac Prairie Saga* {#the_sac_prairie_saga}
Derleth wrote an expansive series of novels, short stories, journals, poems, and other works about Sac Prairie. Derleth intended this series to comprise up to 50 novels telling the projected life-story of the region from the 19th century onwards, with analogies to Balzac\'s *Human Comedy* and Proust\'s *Remembrance of Things Past*.
This, and other early work by Derleth, made him a well-known figure among the regional literary figures of his time: early Pulitzer Prize winners Hamlin Garland and Zona Gale, as well as Sinclair Lewis, the last both an admirer and critic of Derleth.
As Edward Wagenknecht wrote in *Cavalcade of the American Novel*, \"What Mr. Derleth has that is lacking... in modern novelists generally, is a country. He belongs. He writes of a land and a people that are bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh. In his fictional world, there is a unity much deeper and more fundamental than anything that can be conferred by an ideology. It is clear, too, that he did not get the best, and most fictionally useful, part of his background material from research in the library; like Scott, in his Border novels, he gives, rather, the impression of having drunk it in with his mother\'s milk.\"
Jim Stephens, editor of *An August Derleth Reader*, (1992), argues: \"what Derleth accomplished... was to gather a Wisconsin mythos which gave respect to the ancient fundament of our contemporary life.\"
The author inaugurated the *Sac Prairie Saga* with four novellas comprising *Place of Hawks*, published by Loring & Mussey in 1935. At publication, *The Detroit News* wrote: \"Certainly with this book Mr. Derleth may be added to the American writers of distinction.\"
Derleth\'s first novel, *Still is the Summer Night*, was published two years later by the famous Charles Scribners\' editor Maxwell Perkins, and was the second in his Sac Prairie Saga.
*Village Year*, the first in a series of journals -- meditations on nature, Midwestern village American life, and more -- was published in 1941 to praise from *The New York Times Book Review*: \"A book of instant sensitive responsiveness... recreates its scene with acuteness and beauty, and makes an unusual contribution to the Americana of the present day.\" The *New York Herald Tribune* observed that \"Derleth... deepens the value of his village setting by presenting in full the enduring natural background; with the people projected against this, the writing comes to have the quality of an old Flemish picture, humanity lively and amusing and loveable in the foreground and nature magnificent beyond.\" James Grey, writing in the *St. Louis Dispatch* concluded, \"Derleth has achieved a kind of prose equivalent of the *Spoon River Anthology*.\"
In the same year, *Evening in Spring* was published by Charles Scribners & Sons. This work Derleth considered among his finest. What *The Milwaukee Journal* called \"this beautiful little love story\", is an autobiographical novel of first love beset by small-town religious bigotry. The work received critical praise: *The New Yorker* considered it a story told \"with tenderness and charm\", while the *Chicago Tribune* concluded: \"It\'s as though he turned back the pages of an old diary and told, with rekindled emotion, of the pangs of pain and the sharp, clear sweetness of a boy\'s first love.\" Helen Constance White, wrote in *The Capital Times* that it was \"... the best articulated, the most fully disciplined of his stories.\"
These were followed in 1943 with *Shadow of Night*, a Scribners\' novel of which *The Chicago Sun* wrote: \"Structurally it has the perfection of a carved jewel.... A psychological novel of the first order, and an adventure tale that is unique and inspiriting.\"
In November 1945, however, Derleth\'s work was attacked by his one-time admirer and mentor, Sinclair Lewis. Writing in *Esquire*, Lewis observed, \"It is a proof of Mr. Derleth\'s merit that he makes one want to make the journey and see his particular Avalon: The Wisconsin River shining among its islands, and the castles of Baron Pierneau and Hercules Dousman. He is a champion and a justification of regionalism. Yet he is also a burly, bounding, bustling, self-confident, opinionated, and highly-sweatered young man with faults so grievous that a melancholy perusal of them may be of more value to apprentices than a study of his serious virtues. If he could ever be persuaded that he isn\'t half as good as he thinks he is, if he would learn the art of sitting still and using a blue pencil, he might become twice as good as he thinks he is -- which would about rank him with Homer.\" Derleth good-humoredly reprinted the criticism along with a photograph of himself sans sweater, on the back cover of his 1948 country journal: *Village Daybook*.
A lighter side to the *Sac Prairie Saga* is a series of quasi-autobiographical short stories known as the \"Gus Elker Stories\", amusing tales of country life that Peter Ruber, Derleth\'s last editor, said were \"... models of construction and... fused with some of the most memorable characters in American literature.\" Most were written between 1934 and the late 1940s, though the last, \"Tail of the Dog\", was published in 1959 and won the *Scholastic Magazine* short story award for the year. The series was collected and republished in *Country Matters* in 1996.
*Walden West*, published in 1961, is considered by many Derleth\'s finest work. This prose meditation is built out of the same fundamental material as the series of Sac Prairie journals, but is organized around three themes: \"the persistence of memory... the sounds and odors of the country... and Thoreau\'s observation that the \'mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation.{{\'\"}} A blend of nature writing, philosophic musings, and careful observation of the people and place of \"Sac Prairie\". Of this work, George Vukelich, author of \"North Country Notebook\", writes: \"Derleth\'s *Walden West* is... the equal of Sherwood Anderson\'s *Winesburg,Ohio*, Thornton Wilder\'s *Our Town*, and Edgar Lee Masters\' *Spoon River Anthology*.\" This was followed eight years later by *Return to Walden West*, a work of similar quality, but with a more noticeable environmentalist edge to the writing, notes critic Norbert Blei.
A close literary relative of the *Sac Prairie Saga* was Derleth\'s *Wisconsin Saga*, which comprises several historical novels.
| 1,057 |
August Derleth
| 1 |
980 |
## Career
### Detective fiction and \"Solar Pons\" {#detective_fiction_and_solar_pons}
Detective fiction represented another substantial body of Derleth\'s work. Most notable among this work was a series of 70 stories in affectionate pastiche of Sherlock Holmes, whose creator, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, he admired greatly. The stories feature a Holmes-styled British detective named Solar Pons, of 7B Praed Street in London. These included one published novel as well (*Mr. Fairlie\'s Final Journey*). The series was greatly admired by such notable writers and critics of mystery and detective fiction as Ellery Queen (Frederic Dannay), Anthony Boucher, Vincent Starrett, and Howard Haycraft.
In his 1944 volume *The Misadventures of Sherlock Holmes*, Ellery Queen wrote of Derleth\'s \"The Norcross Riddle\", an early Pons story: \"How many budding authors, not even old enough to vote, could have captured the spirit and atmosphere with as much fidelity?\" Queen adds, \"his choice of the euphonic Solar Pons is an appealing addition to the fascinating lore of Sherlockian nomenclature.\" Vincent Starrett, in his foreword to the 1964 edition of *The Casebook of Solar Pons*, wrote that the series is \"as sparkling a galaxy of Sherlockian pastiches as we have had since the canonical entertainments came to an end.\"
Despite close similarities to Doyle\'s creation, Pons lived in the post-World War I era, in the decades of the 1920s and 1930s. Though Derleth never wrote a Pons novel to equal *The Hound of the Baskervilles*, editor Peter Ruber wrote that \"Derleth produced more than a few Solar Pons stories almost as good as Sir Arthur\'s, and many that had better plot construction.\"
Although these stories were a form of diversion for Derleth, Ruber, who edited *The Original Text Solar Pons Omnibus Edition* (2000), argued: \"Because the stories were generally of such high quality, they ought to be assessed on their own merits as a unique contribution in the annals of mystery fiction, rather than suffering comparison as one of the endless imitators of Sherlock Holmes.\"
Some of the stories were self-published, through a new imprint called \"Mycroft & Moran\", an appellation of humorous significance to Holmesian scholars. For approximately a decade, an active supporting group was the Praed Street Irregulars, patterned after the Baker Street Irregulars.
In 1946, Conan Doyle\'s two sons made some attempts to force Derleth to cease publishing the Solar Pons series, but the efforts were unsuccessful, and were eventually withdrawn.
Derleth\'s mystery and detective fiction also included a series of works set in Sac Prairie and featuring Judge Peck as the central character.
| 418 |
August Derleth
| 2 |
980 |
## Career
### Youth and children\'s fiction {#youth_and_childrens_fiction}
Derleth wrote many and varied children\'s works, including biographies meant to introduce younger readers to explorer Jacques Marquette, as well as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Arguably most important among his works for younger readers, however, is the Steve and Sim Mystery Series, also known as the Mill Creek Irregulars series. The ten-volume series, published between 1958 and 1970, is set in Sac Prairie of the 1920s and can thus be considered in its own right a part of the *Sac Prairie Saga*, as well as an extension of Derleth\'s body of mystery fiction. Robert Hood, writing in the *New York Times* said: \"Steve and Sim, the major characters, are twentieth-century cousins of Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer; Derleth\'s minor characters, little gems of comic drawing.\" The first novel in the series, *The Moon Tenders*, does, in fact, involve a rafting adventure down the Wisconsin River, which led regional writer Jesse Stuart to suggest the novel was one that \"older people might read to recapture the spirit and dream of youth.\" The connection to the *Sac Prairie Saga* was noted by the *Chicago Tribune*: \"Once again a small midwest community in 1920s is depicted with perception, skill, and dry humor.\"
### Arkham House and the \"Cthulhu Mythos\" {#arkham_house_and_the_cthulhu_mythos}
Derleth was a correspondent and friend of H. P. Lovecraft -- when Lovecraft wrote about \"le Comte d\'Erlette\" in his fiction, it was in homage to Derleth. Derleth invented the term \"Cthulhu Mythos\" to describe the fictional universe depicted in the series of stories shared by Lovecraft and other writers in his circle.
When Lovecraft died in 1937, Derleth and Donald Wandrei assembled a collection of Lovecraft\'s stories and tried to get them published. Existing publishers showed little interest, so Derleth and Wandrei founded Arkham House in 1939 for that purpose. The name of the company derived from Lovecraft\'s fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts, which features in many of his stories. In 1939, Arkham House published *The Outsider and Others*, a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft\'s known short stories. Derleth and Wandrei soon expanded Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, *Someone in the Dark*, a collection of some of Derleth\'s own horror stories, was published in 1941.
Following Lovecraft\'s death, Derleth wrote a number of stories based on fragments and notes left by Lovecraft. These were published in *Weird Tales* and later in book form, under the byline \"H. P. Lovecraft and August Derleth\", with Derleth calling himself a \"posthumous collaborator\". This practice has raised objections in some quarters that Derleth simply used Lovecraft\'s name to market what was essentially his own fiction; S. T. Joshi refers to the \"posthumous collaborations\" as marking the beginning of \"perhaps the most disreputable phase of Derleth\'s activities\".
Dirk W. Mosig, S. T. Joshi, and Richard L. Tierney were dissatisfied with Derleth\'s invention of the term *Cthulhu Mythos* (Lovecraft himself used *Yog-Sothothery*) and his presentation of Lovecraft\'s fiction as having an overall pattern reflecting Derleth\'s own Christian world view, which they contrast with Lovecraft\'s depiction of an amoral universe. However, Robert M. Price points out that while Derleth\'s tales are distinct from Lovecraft\'s in their use of hope and his depiction of a struggle between good and evil, nevertheless the basis of Derleth\'s systemization are found in Lovecraft. He also suggests that the differences can be overstated:
> Derleth *was* more optimistic than Lovecraft in his conception of the Mythos, but we are dealing with a difference more of degree than kind. There are indeed tales wherein Derleth\'s protagonists get off scot-free (like \"The Shadow in the Attic\", \"Witches\' Hollow\", or \"The Shuttered Room\"), but often the hero is doomed (e.g., \"The House in the Valley\", \"The Peabody Heritage\", \"Something in Wood\"), as in Lovecraft. And it must be remembered that an occasional Lovecraftian hero does manage to overcome the odds, e.g., in \"The Horror in the Museum\", \"The Shunned House\", and \"The Case of Charles Dexter Ward\".
Derleth also treated Lovecraft\'s Great Old Ones as representatives of elemental forces, creating new fictional entities to flesh out this framework.
Such debates aside, Derleth\'s founding of Arkham House and his successful effort to rescue Lovecraft from literary oblivion are widely acknowledged by practitioners in the horror field as seminal events in the field. For instance, Ramsey Campbell has acknowledged Derleth\'s encouragement and guidance during the early part of his own writing career, and Kirby McCauley has cited Derleth and Arkham House as an inspiration for his own anthology *Dark Forces*. Arkham House and Derleth published *Dark Carnival*, the first book by Ray Bradbury, as well. Brian Lumley cites the importance of Derleth to his own Lovecraftian work, and contends in a 2009 introduction to Derleth\'s work that he was \"... one of the first, finest, and most discerning editors and publishers of macabre fiction\".
Important as was Derleth\'s work to rescue H.P. Lovecraft from literary obscurity at the time of Lovecraft\'s death, Derleth also built a body of horror and spectral fiction of his own; still frequently anthologized. The best of this work, recently reprinted in four volumes of short stories -- most of which were originally published in *Weird Tales*, illustrates Derleth\'s original abilities in the genre. While Derleth considered his work in this genre less important than his most serious literary efforts, the compilers of these four anthologies, including Ramsey Campbell, note that the stories still resonate after more than 50 years.
In 2009, The Library of America selected Derleth\'s story *The Panelled Room* for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Fantastic Tales.
### Other works {#other_works}
Derleth also wrote many historical novels, as part of both the *Sac Prairie Saga* and the *Wisconsin Saga*. He also wrote history; arguably most notable among these was *The Wisconsin: River of a Thousand Isles*, published in 1942. The work was one in a series entitled \"The Rivers of America\", conceived by writer Constance Lindsay Skinner during the Great Depression as a series that would connect Americans to their heritage through the history of the great rivers of the nation. Skinner wanted the series to be written by artists, not academicians. Derleth, while not a trained historian, was, according to former Wisconsin state historian William F. Thompson, \"... a very competent regional historian who based his historical writing upon research in the primary documents and who regularly sought the help of professionals...\". In the foreword to the 1985 reissue of the work by The University of Wisconsin Press, Thompson concluded: \"No other writer, of whatever background or training, knew and understood his particular \'corner of the earth\' better than August Derleth.\"
Additionally, Derleth wrote a number of volumes of poetry. Three of his collections -- *Rind of Earth* (1942), *Selected Poems* (1944), and *The Edge of Night* (1945) -- were published by the Decker Press, which also printed the work of other Midwestern poets such as Edgar Lee Masters.
Derleth was also the author of several biographies of other writers, including Zona Gale, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.
He also wrote introductions to several collections of classic early 20th century comics, such as *Buster Brown*, *Little Nemo in Slumberland*, and *Katzenjammer Kids*, as well as a book of children\'s poetry entitled *A Boy\'s Way*, and the foreword to *Tales from an Indian Lodge* by Phebe Jewell Nichols*.* Derleth also wrote under the pen names Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason.
Derleth\'s papers were donated to the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison
| 1,255 |
August Derleth
| 3 |
988 |
*Practical Ethics*}} `{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}`{=mediawiki} `{{more footnotes needed|date=September 2011}}`{=mediawiki} **Applied ethics** is the practical aspect of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership. For example, bioethics is concerned with identifying the best approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution. Business ethics includes the duties of whistleblowers to the public and to their employers.
## History
Applied ethics has expanded the study of ethics beyond the realms of academic philosophical discourse. The field of applied ethics, as it appears today, emerged from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early 1970s and is now established as a subdiscipline of moral philosophy. However, applied ethics is, by its very nature, a multi-professional subject because it requires specialist understanding of the potential ethical issues in fields like medicine, business or information technology. Nowadays, ethical codes of conduct exist in almost every profession.
An applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas can take many different forms but one of the most influential and most widely utilised approaches in bioethics and health care ethics is the four-principle approach developed by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress. The four-principle approach, commonly termed principlism, entails consideration and application of four prima facie ethical principles: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice.
## Underpinning theory {#underpinning_theory}
Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.
Whilst these three areas of ethics appear to be distinct, they are also interrelated. The use of an applied ethics approach often draws upon these normative ethical theories:
1. Consequentialist ethics, which hold that the rightness of acts depends only on their consequences. The paradigmatic consequentialist theory is utilitarianism, which classically holds that whether an act is morally right depends on whether it maximizes net aggregated psychological wellbeing. This theory\'s main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between act and rule utilitarianism. Notable later developments were made by Henry Sidgwick who introduced the significance of motive or intent, and R. M. Hare who introduced the significance of preference in utilitarian decision-making. Other forms of consequentialism include prioritarianism.
2. Deontological ethics, which hold that acts have an inherent rightness or wrongness regardless of their context or consequences. This approach is epitomized by Immanuel Kant\'s notion of the categorical imperative, which was the centre of Kant\'s ethical theory based on duty. Another key deontological theory is natural law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is an important part of the Catholic Church\'s teaching on morals. Threshold deontology holds that rules ought to govern up to a point despite adverse consequences; but when the consequences become so dire that they cross a stipulated threshold, consequentialism takes over.
3. Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle\'s and Confucius\' notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably \'virtuous\' agent.
Normative ethical theories can clash when trying to resolve real-world ethical dilemmas. One approach attempting to overcome the divide between consequentialism and deontology is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (*The Abuse of Casuistry*, 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.
Applied ethics was later distinguished from the nascent applied epistemology, which is also under the umbrella of applied philosophy. While the former was concerned with the practical application of moral considerations, the latter focuses on the application of epistemology in solving practical problems
| 801 |
Applied ethics
| 0 |
993 |
An **analog signal** (American English) or **analogue signal** (British and Commonwealth English) is any signal, typically a continuous-time signal, representing some other quantity, i.e., *analogous* to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies in a manner *analogous to* the pressure of the sound waves.
In contrast, a digital signal represents the original time-varying quantity as a sampled sequence of quantized numeric values, typically but not necessarily in the form of a binary value. Digital sampling imposes some bandwidth and dynamic range constraints on the representation and adds quantization noise.
The term *analog signal* usually refers to electrical signals; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals.
## Representation
An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal\'s information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information.
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; such a signal may be a measured response to changes in a physical variable, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For example, sound striking the diaphragm of a microphone induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an *analog* of the sound.`{{fact|date=December 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
## Noise
An analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication channels, recording and signal processing operations, which can progressively degrade the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). As the signal is transmitted, copied, or processed, the unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a generation loss, progressively and irreversibly degrading the SNR, until in extreme cases, the signal can be overwhelmed. Noise can show up as hiss and intermodulation distortion in audio signals, or snow in video signals. Generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal.`{{fact|date=December 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Note that, despite a popular misconception, analog representations do not provide \"infinite\" resolution or accuracy, due to this inevitable presence of noise (and therefore error) in any real-world system.
Converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems. Once in digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, and processed without introducing additional noise or distortion using error detection and correction.
Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components
| 453 |
Analog signal
| 0 |
1,005 |
Aug}} `{{pp-move-indef}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Calendar}}`{=mediawiki}
**August** is the eighth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days.
In the Southern Hemisphere, August is the seasonal equivalent of February in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, August falls in summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, the month falls during winter. In many European countries, August is the holiday month for most workers. Numerous religious holidays occurred during August in ancient Rome.
Certain meteor showers take place in August. The Kappa Cygnids occur in August, with yearly dates varying. The Alpha Capricornids meteor shower occurs as early as July 10 and ends around August 10. The Southern Delta Aquariids occur from mid-July to mid-August, with the peak usually around July 28--29. The Perseids, a major meteor shower, typically takes place between July 17 and August 24, with the peak days varying yearly. The star cluster of Messier 30 is best observed around August.
Among the aborigines of the Canary Islands, especially among the Guanches of Tenerife, the month of August received the name of Beñesmer or Beñesmen, which was also the harvest festival held that month.
The month was originally named *Sextilis* in Latin because it was the 6th month in the original ten-month Roman calendar under Romulus in 753 BC, with March being the first month of the year. About 700 BC, it became the eighth month when January and February were added to the year before March by King Numa Pompilius, who also gave it 29 days. Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in `{{auc|46|BC|main=greg}}`{=mediawiki}, giving it its modern length of 31 days.
In 8 BC, the month was renamed in honor of Emperor Augustus. According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt. Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar\'s July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis had 31 days before it was renamed. It was not chosen for its length.
## Symbols
August\'s birthstones are the peridot, sardonyx, and spinel. Its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy, meaning beauty, strength of character, love, marriage and family. The Western zodiac signs are Leo (until August 22) and Virgo (from August 23 onward).
| 410 |
August
| 0 |
1,005 |
## Observances
*This list does not necessarily imply official status or general observance.*
### Non-Gregorian: `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki} dates {#non_gregorian_dates}
(All Baha\'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at sundown before the listed date and end at sundown on the date in question unless otherwise noted.)
- List of observances set by the Bahá\'í calendar
- List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
- List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
- List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
- List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
### Month-long {#month_long}
- Women\'s Month (South Africa)
- American Adventures Month (celebrates vacationing in the Americas)
- Children\'s Eye Health and Safety Month
- Digestive Tract Paralysis (DTP) Month
- Get Ready for Kindergarten Month
- Happiness Happens Month
- Month of Philippine Languages or Buwan ng Wika (Philippines)
- Neurosurgery Outreach Month
- Psoriasis Awareness Month
- Spinal Muscular Atrophy Awareness Month
- What Will Be Your Legacy Month
#### United States month-long {#united_states_month_long}
- National Black Business Month
- National Children\'s Vision and Learning Month
- National Immunization Awareness Month
- National Princess Peach Month
- National Water Quality Month
- National Win with Civility Month
##### Food months in the United States {#food_months_in_the_united_states}
- National Catfish Month
- National Dippin\' Dots Month
- Family Meals Month
- National Goat Cheese Month.
- National Panini Month
- Peach Month
- Sandwich Month
### Moveable Gregorian {#moveable_gregorian}
- National Science Week (Australia)
- See also Movable Western Christian observances
- See also Movable Eastern Christian observances
#### Second to last Sunday in July and the following two weeks {#second_to_last_sunday_in_july_and_the_following_two_weeks}
- Construction Holiday (Quebec)
#### 1st Saturday {#st_saturday}
- Food Day (Canada)
- Mead Day (United States)
- National Mustard Day (United States)
#### 1st Sunday {#st_sunday}
- Air Force Day (Ukraine)
- American Family Day (Arizona, United States)
- Children\'s Day (Uruguay)
- Friendship Day (United States)
- International Forgiveness Day
- Railway Workers\' Day (Russia)
#### First full week of August {#first_full_week_of_august}
- National Farmer\'s Market Week (United States)
#### 1st Monday {#st_monday}
- August Public Holiday (Ireland)
- Children\'s Day (Tuvalu)
- Civic Holiday (Canada)
- British Columbia Day (British Columbia, Canada)
- Natal Day (Nova Scotia, Canada)
- New Brunswick Day (New Brunswick, Canada)
- Saskatchewan Day (Saskatchewan, Canada
- Terry Fox Day (Manitoba, Canada)
- Commerce Day (Iceland)
- Emancipation Day (Anguilla, Antigua, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis)
- Farmer\'s Day (Zambia)
- Kadooment Day (Barbados)
- Labor Day (Samoa)
- National Day (Jamaica)
- Picnic Day (Northern Territory, Australia)
- Somers\' Day (Bermuda)
- Youth Day (Kiribati)
#### 1st Tuesday {#st_tuesday}
- National Night Out (United States)
#### 1st Friday {#st_friday}
- International Beer Day
#### 2nd Saturday {#nd_saturday}
- Sports Day (Russia)
#### Sunday on or closest to August 9 {#sunday_on_or_closest_to_august_9}
- National Peacekeepers\' Day (Canada)
#### 2nd Sunday {#nd_sunday}
- Children\'s Day (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay)
- Father\'s Day (Brazil, Samoa)
- Melon Day (Turkmenistan)
- Navy Day (Bulgaria)
- National Day (Singapore)
#### 2nd Monday {#nd_monday}
- Heroes\' Day (Zimbabwe)
- Victory Day (Hawaii and Rhode Island, United States)
#### 2nd Tuesday {#nd_tuesday}
- Defence Forces Day (Zimbabwe)
#### 3rd Saturday {#rd_saturday}
- National Honey Bee Day (United States)
#### 3rd Sunday {#rd_sunday}
- Children\'s Day (Argentina, Peru)
- Grandparents Day (Hong Kong)
#### 3rd Monday {#rd_monday}
- Discovery Day (Yukon, Canada)
- Day of Hearts (Haarlem and Amsterdam, Netherlands)
- National Mourning Day (Bangladesh)
#### 3rd Friday {#rd_friday}
- Hawaii Admission Day (Hawaii, United States)
#### Last Thursday {#last_thursday}
- National Burger Day (United Kingdom)
#### Last Sunday {#last_sunday}
- Coal Miner\'s Day (some former Soviet Union countries)
- National Grandparents Day (Taiwan)
#### Last Monday {#last_monday}
- Father\'s Day (South Sudan)
- National Heroes\' Day (Philippines)
- Liberation Day (Hong Kong)
- Late Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland and Wales)
| 647 |
August
| 1 |
1,005 |
## Observances
### Fixed Gregorian {#fixed_gregorian}
- Season of Emancipation (Barbados) (April 14 to August 23)
- International Clown Week (August 1--7)
- World Breastfeeding Week (August 1--7)
- August 1
- Armed Forces Day (China)
- Armed Forces Day (Lebanon)
- Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan)
- Emancipation Day (Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands)
- Imbolc (Neopaganism, Southern Hemisphere only)
- Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)
- Lughnasadh (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)
- Minden Day (United Kingdom)
- National Day (Benin)
- National Milkshake Day (United States)
- Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga)
- Pachamama Raymi (Quechua people in Ecuador and Peru)
- Parents\' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- Procession of the Cross and the beginning of Dormition Fast (Eastern Orthodoxy)
- Statehood Day (Colorado)
- Swiss National Day (Switzerland)
- Victory Day (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)
- World Scout Scarf Day
- Yorkshire Day (Yorkshire, England)
- August 2
- Airmobile Forces Day (Ukraine)
- Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan)
- Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica)
- Paratroopers Day (Russia)
- Republic Day (North Macedonia)
- August 3
- Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau)
- Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea)
- Esther Day (United States)
- Flag Day (Venezuela)
- Independence Day (Niger)
- Arbor Day (Niger)
- National Guard Day (Venezuela)
- National Watermelon Day (United States)
- National White Wine Day (United States)
- August 4
- Coast Guard Day (United States)
- Constitution Day (Cook Islands)
- Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia)
- Revolution Day (Burkina Faso)
- August 5
- Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major (Catholic Church)
- Independence Day (Burkina Faso)
- National Underwear Day (United States)
- Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian defenders (Croatia)
- August 6
- Feast of the Transfiguration
- Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan\'s Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)
- Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)
- Independence Day (Bolivia)
- Independence Day (Jamaica)
- Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
- August 7
- Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community)
- Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia)
- Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
- Independence Day (Ivory Coast)
- Republic Day (Ivory Coast)
- Youth Day (Kiribati)
- August 8
- Ceasefire Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
- Father\'s Day (Taiwan)
- Happiness Happens Day (International observance)
- International Cat Day
- Namesday of Queen Silvia of Sweden, (Sweden)
- Nane Nane Day (Tanzania)
- Signal Troops Day (Ukraine)
- August 9
- Battle of Gangut Day (Russia)
- International Day of the World\'s Indigenous People (United Nations)
- National Day (Singapore)
- National Women\'s Day (South Africa)
- Remembrance for Radbod, King of the Frisians (The Troth)
- August 10
- Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina)
- Constitution Day (Anguilla)
- Declaration of Independence of Quito (Ecuador)
- International Biodiesel Day
- National S\'more Day (United States)
- August 11
- Flag Day (Pakistan)
- Independence Day (Chad)
- Mountain Day (Japan)
- August 12
- Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom)
- HM the Queen\'s Birthday and National Mother\'s Day (Thailand)
- International Youth Day (United Nations)
- Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
- Sea Org Day (Scientology)
- World Elephant Day
- August 13
- Independence Day (Central African Republic)
- International Lefthanders Day
- National Filet Mignon Day (United States)
- Women\'s Day (Tunisia)
- August 14
- Anniversary Day (Tristan da Cunha)
- Commemoration of Wadi al-Dahab (Morocco)
- Day of the Defenders of the Fatherland (Abkhazia)
- Engineer\'s Day (Dominican Republic)
- Falklands Day (Falkland Islands)
- Independence Day (Pakistan)
- National Creamsicle Day (United States)
- National Navajo Code Talkers Day (United States)
- Pramuka Day (Indonesia)
- August 15
- Feast Day of the Assumption of Mary (Catholic holy days of obligation, a public holiday in many countries.)
- Ferragosto (Italy)
- Māras (Latvia)
- Mother\'s Day (Antwerp and Costa Rica)
- National Acadian Day (Acadians)
- Virgin of Candelaria, patron of the Canary Islands. (Tenerife, Spain)
- Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches)
- Navy Day (Romania)
- Armed Forces Day (Poland)
- The first day of Flooding of the Nile, or *Wafaa El-Nil* (Egypt and Coptic Church)
- The main day of Bon Festival (Japan), and its related observances:
- Awa Dance Festival (Tokushima Prefecture)
- Constitution Day (Equatorial Guinea)
- End-of-war Memorial Day, when the National Memorial Service for War Dead is held. (Japan)
- Founding of Asunción (Paraguay)
- Independence Day (Korea)
- Gwangbokjeol (South Korea)
- Jogukhaebangui nal, \"Fatherland Liberation Day\" (North Korea)
- Independence Day (India)
- Independence Day (Republic of the Congo)
- National Day (Liechtenstein)
- Victory over Japan Day (United Kingdom)
- National Lemon Meringue Pie Day (United States)
- August 16
- Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States)
- Children\'s Day (Paraguay)
- Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan)
- The first day of the Independence Days (Gabon)
- National Airborne Day (United States)
- National Rum Day (United States)
- Restoration Day (Dominican Republic)
- August 17
- The Birthday of Marcus Garvey (Rastafari)
- Engineer\'s Day (Colombia)
- Flag Day (Bolivia)
- Independence Day (Indonesia)
- Independence Days (Gabon)
- National Vanilla Custard Day (United States)
- Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia)
- San Martin Day (Argentina)
- August 18
- Arbor Day (Pakistan)
- Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia)
- Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island)
- Constitution Day (Indonesia)
- Long Tan Day (Australia)
- National Science Day (Thailand)
- August 19
- Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances:
- Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church)
- Saviour\'s Transfiguration, popularly known as the \"Apples Feast\" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church)
- Afghan Independence Day (Afghanistan)
- August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam)
- Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway)
- Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in The Philippines named after Manuel L
| 1,014 |
August
| 2 |
1,009 | 0 |
April 12
| 0 |
|
1,011 | 0 |
April 30
| 0 |
|
1,013 | 0 |
August 27
| 0 |
|
1,027 | 0 |
August 9
| 0 |
|
1,036 |
**Ålborg Municipality** (*Ålborg Kommune*) is a municipality in North Jutland Region on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark. The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of 1,143.99 km2 and a population of 224,612 (1. January 2025).
It is also the name of the municipality\'s main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport.
The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as *Aalborg*, although the new spelling *Ålborg* is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight (*Ålborg Bugt*), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.
## Municipal reform of 2007 {#municipal_reform_of_2007}
As of 1 January 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of 560 km2, with a total population of 192,353 (2005). Its last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats (**Socialdemokraterne**) political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County.
## Geography
### Surroundings
The waters in the Limfjord splitting the municipality are called Langerak to the east and *Gjøl Bredning* to the west. The island of Egholm is located in *Gjøl Bredning*, and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore.
The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west, the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is Store Vildmose (\"Greater Wild bog\"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose (\"Lesser Wild bog\"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark.
### Urban areas in Aalborg Municipality {#urban_areas_in_aalborg_municipality}
Aalborg City has a total population of 123,432. The metropolitan area is a conurbation of the Aalborg urban area in Himmerland (102,312) and the *italic=no* urban area in *italic=no* (21,120).
Nr Urban area Population (2011)
---- ------------ -------------------
1 Aalborg 103,545
2 21,376
3 Svenstrup 6,751
4 Nibe 4,987
5 Vodskov 4,399
6 Klarup 4,182
7 Gistrup 3,573
8 Storvorde 3,243
9 Vestbjerg 2,677
10 Frejlev 2,579
: The largest urban areas in Aalborg Municipality
## Economy
North Flying has its head office on the property of Aalborg Airport in *italic=no*, Aalborg Municipality.
## Politics
### Municipal council {#municipal_council}
Aalborg\'s municipal council consists of 31 members, elected every four years.
Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.
Election Party
------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------
**`{{font color|white|A}}`{=mediawiki}** **`{{font color|white|B}}`{=mediawiki}** **`{{font color|white|C}}`{=mediawiki}** **`{{font color|white|F}}`{=mediawiki}** **`{{font color|white|I}}`{=mediawiki}**
2005 15 2 3 2
2009 12 1 2 5
2013 12 2 1 1
2017 17 1 1
## Twin towns -- sister cities {#twin_towns_sister_cities}
Aalborg is twinned with 34 cities, more than any other city in Denmark. Every four years, Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin towns for a week of sports, known as Ungdomslegene (Youth Games)
| 573 |
Aalborg Municipality
| 0 |
1,043 |
The **northern cavefish** or **northern blindfish** (***Amblyopsis spelaea***) is found in caves through Kentucky and southern Indiana. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the species as near threatened.
The life cycle of northern cavefish includes a protolarval stage. In this stage, eggs and those that have recently hatched into protolarvae are kept by the mother internally in a gill chamber. Juveniles become free swimming and can leave. The northern cavefish lives to a maximum age of at least ten years and reaches sexual maturity at approximately six years of age. Some estimates suggest that speciments may live up to 30-40 years in environments with stable food supplies.
During a 2013 study of *Amblyopsis spelaea*, scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages: one north of the Ohio River, in Indiana, and one south of the river, in Kentucky. The southern population retained the name *A. spelaea* and the northern was re-designated *Amblyopsis hoosieri* in a 2014 paper published in the journal *ZooKeys*. Neither species is found north of the White River, flowing east to west south of Bedford, Indiana.
The northern cavefish was under consideration for listing under the Endangered Species Act, however, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found in 2023 that despite the loss of two metapopulations of *A. spelaea*, listing was not warranted, as the four metapopulations that still exist had sufficient redundancy of subpopulations to mitigate threats. The metapopulations are divided among two units that are separated by the Rough Creek Fault Zone. Threats to the species include habitat degradation, especially by groundwater contamination from encroaching agricultural operations, cities and industry, forest loss and surface water impoundment
| 277 |
Northern cavefish
| 0 |
1,049 |
An **amateur** (`{{ety|fr||one who loves}}`{=mediawiki}) is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, self-taught, user-generated, DIY, and hobbyist.
## History
Historically, the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent, open mind, and the interest or passion for a subject. That ideology spanned many different fields of interest. It may have its roots in the ancient Greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the Olympics. The ancient Greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits, but competed according to their natural talents and abilities.
The \"gentleman amateur\" was a phenomenon among the gentry of Great Britain from the 17th century until the 20th century. With the start of the Age of Reason, with people thinking more about how the world works around them, (see science in the Age of Enlightenment), things like the cabinets of curiosities, and the writing of the book *The Christian Virtuoso*, started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur. He was vastly interested in a particular topic, and studied, observed, and collected things and information on his topic of choice. The Royal Society in Great Britain was generally composed of these \"gentleman amateurs\", and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does. A few examples of these gentleman amateurs are Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington.
Amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often lack formal training and are self-taught, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball, or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes. On the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner. An amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession, or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante.
## Amateur athletics {#amateur_athletics}
| 369 |
Amateur
| 0 |
1,049 |
## Olympics
Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced, Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912.
Later on, the nations of the Communist Bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team\'s full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after IOC President Avery Brundage said that ice hockey\'s status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until \"open competition\" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow \"open competition\" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC\'s amateur-only policy.
Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters---one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians---ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues---such as the World Hockey Association---were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals.
After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (in the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports. The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level).
Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used because professional wrestling is largely staged with predetermined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament.
## Contribution of amateurs {#contribution_of_amateurs}
Many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, chemistry, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. Gregor Mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study. Radio astronomy was founded by Grote Reber, an amateur radio operator. Radio itself was greatly advanced by Guglielmo Marconi, a young Italian man who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. Pierre de Fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law.
In the 2000s and 2010s, the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred, especially in areas such as computer programming, music and astronomy. The term amateur professionalism, or pro-am, is used to describe these activities
| 783 |
Amateur
| 1 |
1,063 |
**Algorithms for calculating variance** play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values.
## Naïve algorithm {#naïve_algorithm}
A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size *N* is:
$$\sigma^2 = \overline{(x^2)} - \bar x^2 = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^N x_i^2}{N} - \left(\frac{\sum_{i=1}^N x_i}{N}\right)^2$$
Using Bessel\'s correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of *n* observations, the formula is:
$$s^2 = \left(\frac {\sum_{i=1}^n x_i^2} n - \left( \frac {\sum_{i=1}^n x_i} n \right)^2\right) \cdot \frac {n}{n-1}.$$
Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following:
- Let `{{math|''n'' ← 0, Sum ← 0, SumSq ← 0}}`{=mediawiki}
- For each datum `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki}:
-
-
-
- (SumSq − (Sum × Sum) / n) / (n − 1)}}
This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by *n* instead of *n* − 1 on the last line.
Because `{{math|SumSq}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|(Sum×Sum)/''n''}}`{=mediawiki} can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice, and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean.
### Computing shifted data {#computing_shifted_data}
The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula.
$$\operatorname{Var}(X-K)=\operatorname{Var}(X).$$
with $K$ any constant, which leads to the new formula
$$\sigma^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i-K)^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i-K))^2/n}{n-1}.$$
the closer $K$ is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values $(x_i - K)$ are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur.
If just the first sample is taken as $K$ the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as
``` python
def shifted_data_variance(data):
if len(data) < 2:
return 0.0
K = data[0]
n = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0
for x in data:
n += 1
Ex += x - K
Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2
variance = (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
# use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data
# use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population
return variance
```
This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as
``` python
K = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0
n = 0
def add_variable(x):
global K, n, Ex, Ex2
if n == 0:
K = x
n += 1
Ex += x - K
Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2
def remove_variable(x):
global K, n, Ex, Ex2
n -= 1
Ex -= x - K
Ex2 -= (x - K) ** 2
def get_mean():
global K, n, Ex
return K + Ex / n
def get_variance():
global n, Ex, Ex2
return (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
```
## Two-pass algorithm {#two_pass_algorithm}
An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean,
$$\bar x = \frac {\sum_{j=1}^n x_j} n,$$ and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean,
$$\text{sample variance} = s^2 = \dfrac {\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar x)^2}{n-1},$$ where *s* is the standard deviation. This is given by the following code:
``` python
def two_pass_variance(data):
n = len(data)
mean = sum(data) / n
variance = sum((x - mean) ** 2 for x in data) / (n - 1)
return variance
```
This algorithm is numerically stable if *n* is small. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms (\"naïve\" and \"two-pass\") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.
| 758 |
Algorithms for calculating variance
| 0 |
1,063 |
## Welford\'s online algorithm {#welfords_online_algorithm}
It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value $x_i$ only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion.
The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element *x*~*n*~. Here, $\overline{x}_n = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n x_i$ denotes the sample mean of the first *n* samples $(x_1,\dots,x_n)$, $\sigma^2_n = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n \left(x_i - \overline{x}_n \right)^2$ their biased sample variance, and $s^2_n = \frac{1}{n - 1} \sum_{i=1}^n \left(x_i - \overline{x}_n \right)^2$ their unbiased sample variance.
$$\bar x_n = \frac{(n-1) \, \bar x_{n-1} + x_n}{n} = \bar x_{n-1} + \frac{x_n - \bar x_{n-1}}{n}$$
$$\sigma^2_n = \frac{(n-1) \, \sigma^2_{n-1} + (x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(x_n - \bar x_n)}{n} = \sigma^2_{n-1} + \frac{(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(x_n - \bar x_n) - \sigma^2_{n-1}}{n}.$$
$$s^2_n = \frac{n-2}{n-1} \, s^2_{n-1} + \frac{(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})^2}{n} = s^2_{n-1} + \frac{(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})^2}{n} - \frac{s^2_{n-1}}{n-1}, \quad n>1$$
These formulas suffer from numerical instability , as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with *n*. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, $\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar x_n)^2$, here denoted $M_{2,n}$:
: \\begin{align}
M\_{2,n} & = M\_{2,n-1} + (x_n - \\bar x\_{n-1})(x_n - \\bar x_n) \\\\\[4pt\] \\sigma\^2_n & = \\frac{M\_{2,n}}{n} \\\\\[4pt\] s\^2_n & = \\frac{M\_{2,n}}{n-1} \\end{align}
This algorithm was found by Welford, and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote $M_k = \bar x_k$ and $S_k = M_{2,k}$.
An example Python implementation for Welford\'s algorithm is given below.
``` python
# For a new value new_value, compute the new count, new mean, the new M2.
# mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset
# M2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean
# count aggregates the number of samples seen so far
def update(existing_aggregate, new_value):
(count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate
count += 1
delta = new_value - mean
mean += delta / count
delta2 = new_value - mean
M2 += delta * delta2
return (count, mean, M2)
# Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate
def finalize(existing_aggregate):
(count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate
if count < 2:
return float("nan")
else:
(mean, variance, sample_variance) = (mean, M2 / count, M2 / (count - 1))
return (mean, variance, sample_variance)
```
This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals.
The parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online.
## Weighted incremental algorithm {#weighted_incremental_algorithm}
The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter *n* with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm:
``` python
def weighted_incremental_variance(data_weight_pairs):
w_sum = w_sum2 = mean = S = 0
for x, w in data_weight_pairs:
w_sum = w_sum + w
w_sum2 = w_sum2 + w**2
mean_old = mean
mean = mean_old + (w / w_sum) * (x - mean_old)
S = S + w * (x - mean_old) * (x - mean)
population_variance = S / w_sum
# Bessel's correction for weighted samples
# Frequency weights
sample_frequency_variance = S / (w_sum - 1)
# Reliability weights
sample_reliability_variance = S / (1 - w_sum2 / (w_sum**2))
```
## Parallel algorithm {#parallel_algorithm}
Chan et al. note that Welford\'s online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets $A$ and $B$:
$$\begin{align}
n_{AB} & = n_A + n_B \\
\delta & = \bar x_B - \bar x_A \\
\bar x_{AB} & = \bar x_A + \delta\cdot\frac{n_B}{n_{AB}} \\
M_{2,AB} & = M_{2,A} + M_{2,B} + \delta^2\cdot\frac{n_A n_B}{n_{AB}} \\
\end{align}$$. This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input.
Chan\'s method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when $n_A \approx n_B$ and both are large, because the numerical error in $\delta = \bar x_B - \bar x_A$ is not scaled down in the way that it is in the $n_B = 1$ case. In such cases, prefer $\bar x_{AB} = \frac{n_A \bar x_A + n_B \bar x_B}{n_{AB}}$.
``` python
def parallel_variance(n_a, avg_a, M2_a, n_b, avg_b, M2_b):
n = n_a + n_b
delta = avg_b - avg_a
M2 = M2_a + M2_b + delta**2 * n_a * n_b / n
var_ab = M2 / (n - 1)
return var_ab
```
This can be generalized to allow parallelization with AVX, with GPUs, and computer clusters, and to covariance.
| 832 |
Algorithms for calculating variance
| 1 |
1,063 |
# Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate
## Example
Assume that all floating point operations use standard IEEE 754 double-precision`{{Broken anchor|date=2025-06-11|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=IEEE 754#Double-precision 64 bit|reason= }}`{=mediawiki} arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both the naïve algorithm and two-pass algorithm compute these values correctly.
Next consider the sample (`{{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup> + 4}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup> + 7}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup> + 13}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup> + 16}}`{=mediawiki}), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. The two-pass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but the naïve algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30.
While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm, further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic. Consider the sample (`{{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup> + 4}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup> + 7}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup> + 13}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup> + 16}}`{=mediawiki}). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the two-pass algorithm, but the naïve algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm.
## Higher-order statistics {#higher_order_statistics}
Terriberry extends Chan\'s formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis:
$$\begin{align}
M_{3,X} = M_{3,A} + M_{3,B} & {} + \delta^3\frac{n_A n_B (n_A - n_B)}{n_X^2} + 3\delta\frac{n_AM_{2,B} - n_BM_{2,A}}{n_X} \\[6pt]
M_{4,X} = M_{4,A} + M_{4,B} & {} + \delta^4\frac{n_A n_B \left(n_A^2 - n_A n_B + n_B^2\right)}{n_X^3} \\[6pt]
& {} + 6\delta^2\frac{n_A^2 M_{2,B} + n_B^2 M_{2,A}}{n_X^2} + 4\delta\frac{n_AM_{3,B} - n_BM_{3,A}}{n_X}
\end{align}$$
Here the $M_k$ are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean $\sum(x - \overline{x})^k$, giving
:
\\begin{align} & \\text{skewness} = g_1 = \\frac{\\sqrt{n} M_3}{M_2\^{3/2}}, \\\\\[4pt\] & \\text{kurtosis} = g_2 = \\frac{n M_4}{M_2\^2}-3. \\end{align}
For the incremental case (i.e., $B = \{x\}$), this simplifies to:
:
\\begin{align} \\delta & = x - m \\\\\[5pt\] m\' & = m + \\frac{\\delta}{n} \\\\\[5pt\] M_2\' & = M_2 + \\delta\^2 \\frac{n-1}{n} \\\\\[5pt\] M_3\' & = M_3 + \\delta\^3 \\frac{ (n - 1) (n - 2)}{n\^2} - \\frac{3\\delta M_2}{n} \\\\\[5pt\] M_4\' & = M_4 + \\frac{\\delta\^4 (n - 1) (n\^2 - 3n + 3)}{n\^3} + \\frac{6\\delta\^2 M_2}{n\^2} - \\frac{4\\delta M_3}{n} \\end{align}
By preserving the value $\delta / n$, only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost.
An example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is:
``` python
def online_kurtosis(data):
n = mean = M2 = M3 = M4 = 0
for x in data:
n1 = n
n = n + 1
delta = x - mean
delta_n = delta / n
delta_n2 = delta_n**2
term1 = delta * delta_n * n1
mean = mean + delta_n
M4 = M4 + term1 * delta_n2 * (n**2 - 3*n + 3) + 6 * delta_n2 * M2 - 4 * delta_n * M3
M3 = M3 + term1 * delta_n * (n - 2) - 3 * delta_n * M2
M2 = M2 + term1
# Note, you may also calculate variance using M2, and skewness using M3
# Caution: If all the inputs are the same, M2 will be 0, resulting in a division by 0.
kurtosis = (n * M4) / (M2**2) - 3
return kurtosis
```
Pébaÿ further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al. for weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance.
Choi and Sweetman offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware. A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way: the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin:
: $H(x_k)=\frac{h(x_k)}{A}$
where $h(x_k)$ and $H(x_k)$ represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin $x_k$ and $A= \sum_{k=1}^K h(x_k) \,\Delta x_k$ is the total area of the histogram. After this normalization, the $n$ raw moments and central moments of $x(t)$ can be calculated from the relative histogram:
:
`m_n^{(h)} = \sum_{k=1}^{K} x_k^n H(x_k) \, \Delta x_k`\
` = \frac{1}{A} \sum_{k=1}^K x_k^n h(x_k) \, \Delta x_k`
:
`\theta_n^{(h)}= \sum_{k=1}^{K} \Big(x_k-m_1^{(h)}\Big)^n \, H(x_k) \, \Delta x_k`\
` = \frac{1}{A} \sum_{k=1}^{K} \Big(x_k-m_1^{(h)}\Big)^n h(x_k) \, \Delta x_k`
where the superscript $^{(h)}$ indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram. For constant bin width $\Delta x_k=\Delta x$ these two expressions can be simplified using $I= A/\Delta x$:
:
`m_n^{(h)}= \frac{1}{I} \sum_{k=1}^K x_k^n \, h(x_k)`
:
`\theta_n^{(h)}= \frac{1}{I} \sum_{k=1}^K \Big(x_k-m_1^{(h)}\Big)^n h(x_k)`
The second approach from Choi and Sweetman is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times.
If $Q$ sets of statistical moments are known: $(\gamma_{0,q},\mu_{q},\sigma^2_{q},\alpha_{3,q},\alpha_{4,q})
\quad$ for $q=1,2,\ldots,Q$, then each $\gamma_n$ can be expressed in terms of the equivalent $n$ raw moments:
:
\\gamma\_{n,q}= m\_{n,q} \\gamma\_{0,q} \\qquad \\quad \\textrm{for} \\quad n=1,2,3,4 \\quad \\text{ and } \\quad q = 1,2, \\dots ,Q
where $\gamma_{0,q}$ is generally taken to be the duration of the $q^{th}$ time-history, or the number of points if $\Delta t$ is constant.
The benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of $\gamma$ is that the $Q$ sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of $Q$.
:
`\gamma_{n,c}= \sum_{q=1}^Q \gamma_{n,q} \quad \quad \text{for } n=0,1,2,3,4`
where the subscript $_c$ represents the concatenated time-history or combined $\gamma$. These combined values of $\gamma$ can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history
:
`m_{n,c}=\frac{\gamma_{n,c}}{\gamma_{0,c}} \quad \text{for } n=1,2,3,4`
Known relationships between the raw moments ($m_n$) and the central moments ($\theta_n = \operatorname E[(x-\mu)^n])$) are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history. Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments:
:
`\mu_c=m_{1,c}`\
`\qquad \sigma^2_c=\theta_{2,c}`\
`\qquad \alpha_{3,c}=\frac{\theta_{3,c}}{\sigma_c^3}`\
`\qquad \alpha_{4,c}={\frac{\theta_{4,c}}{\sigma_c^4}}-3`
| 1,120 |
Algorithms for calculating variance
| 2 |
1,063 |
# Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate
## Covariance
Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance.
### Naïve algorithm {#naïve_algorithm_1}
The naïve algorithm is
$$\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^n x_i y_i - (\sum_{i=1}^n x_i)(\sum_{i=1}^n y_i)/n}{n}.$$
For the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code:
``` python
def naive_covariance(data1, data2):
n = len(data1)
sum1 = sum(data1)
sum2 = sum(data2)
sum12 = sum([i1 * i2 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2)])
covariance = (sum12 - sum1 * sum2 / n) / n
return covariance
```
### With estimate of the mean {#with_estimate_of_the_mean}
As for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given any two constant values $k_x$ and $k_y,$ it can be written:
$$\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) = \operatorname{Cov}(X-k_x,Y-k_y) = \dfrac {\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i-k_x) (y_i-k_y) - (\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i-k_x))(\sum_{i=1}^n (y_i-k_y))/n}{n}.$$
and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as:
``` python
def shifted_data_covariance(data_x, data_y):
n = len(data_x)
if n < 2:
return 0
kx = data_x[0]
ky = data_y[0]
Ex = Ey = Exy = 0
for ix, iy in zip(data_x, data_y):
Ex += ix - kx
Ey += iy - ky
Exy += (ix - kx) * (iy - ky)
return (Exy - Ex * Ey / n) / n
```
### Two-pass {#two_pass}
The two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance:
$$\bar x = \sum_{i=1}^n x_i/n$$
$$\bar y = \sum_{i=1}^n y_i/n$$
$$\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar x)(y_i - \bar y)}{n}.$$
The two-pass algorithm may be written as:
``` python
def two_pass_covariance(data1, data2):
n = len(data1)
mean1 = sum(data1) / n
mean2 = sum(data2) / n
covariance = 0
for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2):
a = i1 - mean1
b = i2 - mean2
covariance += a * b / n
return covariance
```
A slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals. The final sums $\sum_i x_i$ and $\sum_i y_i$ *should* be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error.
| 364 |
Algorithms for calculating variance
| 3 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.