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# BPP (complexity)
## Complexity-theoretic properties {#complexity_theoretic_properties}
### Relativization
Relative to oracles, we know that there exist oracles A and B, such that **P**^A^ = **BPP**^A^ and **P**^B^ ≠ **BPP**^B^. Moreover, relative to a random oracle with probability 1, **P** = **BPP** and **BPP** is strictly contained in **NP** and **co-NP**.
There is even an oracle in which `{{tmath|1=\mathsf{BPP}=\mathsf{EXP}^\mathsf{NP} }}`{=mediawiki} (and hence `{{tmath|1=\mathsf{P<NP<BPP=EXP=NEXP} }}`{=mediawiki}), which can be iteratively constructed as follows. For a fixed E^NP^ (relativized) complete problem, the oracle will give correct answers with high probability if queried with the problem instance followed by a random string of length *kn* (*n* is instance length; *k* is an appropriate small constant). Start with *n*=1. For every instance of the problem of length *n* fix oracle answers (see lemma below) to fix the instance output. Next, provide the instance outputs for queries consisting of the instance followed by *kn*-length string, and then treat output for queries of length ≤(*k*+1)*n* as fixed, and proceed with instances of length *n*+1.
The lemma ensures that (for a large enough *k*), it is possible to do the construction while leaving enough strings for the relativized `{{math|{{sans-serif|E<sup>NP</sup>}}}}`{=mediawiki} answers. Also, we can ensure that for the relativized `{{math|{{sans-serif|E<sup>NP</sup>}}}}`{=mediawiki}, linear time suffices, even for function problems (if given a function oracle and linear output size) and with exponentially small (with linear exponent) error probability. Also, this construction is effective in that given an arbitrary oracle A we can arrange the oracle B to have `{{math|{{sans-serif|P}}<sup>A</sup>≤{{sans-serif|P}}<sup>B</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|1={{sans-serif|EXP}}<sup>{{sans-serif|NP}}<sup>A</sup></sup>={{sans-serif|EXP}}<sup>{{sans-serif|NP}}<sup>B</sup></sup>={{sans-serif|BPP}}<sup>B</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}. Also, for a `{{math|{{sans-serif|1=[[ZPP (complexity)|ZPP]]=EXP}}}}`{=mediawiki} oracle (and hence `{{math|{{sans-serif|1=ZPP=BPP=EXP<NEXP}}}}`{=mediawiki}), one would fix the answers in the relativized E computation to a special nonanswer, thus ensuring that no fake answers are given.
## Derandomization
The existence of certain strong pseudorandom number generators is conjectured by most experts of the field. Such generators could replace true random numbers in any polynomial-time randomized algorithm, producing indistinguishable results. The conjecture that these generators exist implies that randomness does not give additional computational power to polynomial time computation, that is, **P** = **RP** = **BPP**. More strongly, the assumption that **P** = **BPP** is in some sense equivalent to the existence of strong pseudorandom number generators.
László Babai, Lance Fortnow, Noam Nisan, and Avi Wigderson showed that unless **EXPTIME** collapses to **MA**, **BPP** is contained in
$$\textsf{i.o.-SUBEXP} = \bigcap\nolimits_{\varepsilon>0} \textsf{i.o.-DTIME} \left (2^{n^\varepsilon} \right).$$ The class **i.o.-SUBEXP**, which stands for infinitely often **SUBEXP**, contains problems which have sub-exponential time algorithms for infinitely many input sizes. They also showed that **P** = **BPP** if the exponential-time hierarchy, which is defined in terms of the polynomial hierarchy and **E** as **E^PH^**, collapses to **E**; however, note that the exponential-time hierarchy is usually conjectured *not* to collapse.
Russell Impagliazzo and Avi Wigderson showed that if any problem in **E**, where
$$\mathsf{E} = \mathsf{DTIME} \left( 2^{O(n)} \right),$$ has circuit complexity 2^Ω(*n*)^ then **P** = **BPP**
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# BQP
alt=Diagram of randomised complexity classes\|thumb\|upright=1.25\|BQP in relation to other probabilistic complexity classes (ZPP, RP, co-RP, BPP, PP), which generalise P within PSPACE. It is unknown if any of these containments are strict. In computational complexity theory, **bounded-error quantum polynomial time** (**BQP**) is the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances. It is the quantum analogue to the complexity class **BPP**.
A decision problem is a member of **BQP** if there exists a quantum algorithm (an algorithm that runs on a quantum computer) that solves the decision problem with high probability and is guaranteed to run in polynomial time. A run of the algorithm will correctly solve the decision problem with a probability of at least 2/3.
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## Definition
**BQP** can be viewed as the languages associated with certain bounded-error uniform families of quantum circuits. A language *L* is in **BQP** if and only if there exists a polynomial-time uniform family of quantum circuits $\{Q_n\colon n \in \mathbb{N}\}$, such that
- For all $n \in \mathbb{N}$, *Q~n~* takes *n* qubits as input and outputs 1 bit
- For all *x* in *L*, $\mathrm{Pr}(Q_{|x|}(x)=1)\geq \tfrac{2}{3}$
- For all *x* not in *L*, $\mathrm{Pr}(Q_{|x|}(x)=0)\geq \tfrac{2}{3}$
Alternatively, one can define **BQP** in terms of quantum Turing machines. A language *L* is in **BQP** if and only if there exists a polynomial quantum Turing machine that accepts *L* with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances.
Similarly to other \"bounded error\" probabilistic classes, the choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary. We can run the algorithm a constant number of times and take a majority vote to achieve any desired probability of correctness less than 1, using the Chernoff bound. The complexity class is unchanged by allowing error as high as 1/2 − *n*^−*c*^ on the one hand, or requiring error as small as 2^−*n^c^*^ on the other hand, where *c* is any positive constant, and *n* is the length of input.
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# BQP
## Relationship to other complexity classes {#relationship_to_other_complexity_classes}
BQP is defined for quantum computers; the corresponding complexity class for classical computers (or more formally for probabilistic Turing machines) is **BPP**. Just like **P** and **BPP**, **BQP** is low for itself, which means `{{math|{{sans-serif|1=BQP<sup>BQP</sup> = BQP}}}}`{=mediawiki}. Informally, this is true because polynomial time algorithms are closed under composition. If a polynomial time algorithm calls polynomial time algorithms as subroutines, the resulting algorithm is still polynomial time.
**BQP** contains **P** and **BPP** and is contained in **AWPP**, **PP** and **PSPACE**. In fact, **BQP** is low for **PP**, meaning that a **PP** machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve **BQP** problems instantly, an indication of the possible difference in power between these similar classes. The known relationships with classic complexity classes are:
$$\mathsf{P \subseteq BPP \subseteq BQP\subseteq AWPP \subseteq PP \subseteq PSPACE\subseteq EXP}$$
As the problem of `{{tmath|1=\mathsf{P}\ \stackrel{?}{=}\ \mathsf{PSPACE} }}`{=mediawiki} has not yet been solved, the proof of inequality between **BQP** and classes mentioned above is supposed to be difficult. The relation between **BQP** and **NP** is not known. In May 2018, computer scientists Ran Raz of Princeton University and Avishay Tal of Stanford University published a paper which showed that, relative to an oracle, BQP was not contained in PH. It can be proven that there exists an oracle A such that $\mathsf{BQP}^\mathrm{A}\nsubseteq\mathsf{PH}^\mathrm{A}$. In an extremely informal sense, this can be thought of as giving PH and BQP an identical, but additional, capability and verifying that BQP with the oracle (BQP^A^) can do things PH^A^ cannot. While an oracle separation has been proven, the fact that BQP is not contained in PH has not been proven. An oracle separation does not prove whether or not complexity classes are the same. The oracle separation gives intuition that BQP may not be contained in PH.
It has been suspected for many years that Fourier Sampling is a problem that exists within BQP, but not within the polynomial hierarchy. Recent conjectures have provided evidence that a similar problem, Fourier Checking, also exists in the class BQP without being contained in the polynomial hierarchy. This conjecture is especially notable because it suggests that problems existing in BQP could be classified as harder than NP-Complete problems. Paired with the fact that many practical BQP problems are suspected to exist outside of P (it is suspected and not verified because there is no proof that P ≠ NP), this illustrates the potential power of quantum computing in relation to classical computing.
Adding postselection to **BQP** results in the complexity class **PostBQP** which is equal to **PP**.
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# BQP
## Relationship to other complexity classes {#relationship_to_other_complexity_classes}
### A complete problem for Promise-BQP {#a_complete_problem_for_promise_bqp}
Promise-BQP is the class of promise problems that can be solved by a uniform family of quantum circuits (i.e., within BQP). Completeness proofs focus on this version of BQP. Similar to the notion of NP-completeness and other complete problems, we can define a complete problem as a problem that is in Promise-BQP and that every other problem in Promise-BQP reduces to it in polynomial time.
#### APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB {#approx_qcircuit_prob}
The APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB problem is complete for efficient quantum computation, and the version presented below is complete for the Promise-BQP complexity class (and not for the total BQP complexity class, for which no complete problems are known). APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB\'s completeness makes it useful for proofs showing the relationships between other complexity classes and BQP.
Given a description of a quantum circuit `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki} acting on `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} qubits with `{{mvar|m}}`{=mediawiki} gates, where `{{mvar|m}}`{=mediawiki} is a polynomial in `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} and each gate acts on one or two qubits, and two numbers $\alpha, \beta \in [0,1], \alpha > \beta$, distinguish between the following two cases:
- measuring the first qubit of the state $C|0\rangle^{\otimes n}$ yields $|1\rangle$ with probability $\geq \alpha$
- measuring the first qubit of the state $C|0\rangle^{\otimes n}$ yields $|1\rangle$ with probability $\leq \beta$
Here, there is a promise on the inputs as the problem does not specify the behavior if an instance is not covered by these two cases.
**Claim.** Any BQP problem reduces to APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB.
**Proof.** Suppose we have an algorithm `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} that solves APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB, i.e., given a quantum circuit `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki} acting on `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} qubits, and two numbers $\alpha, \beta \in [0,1], \alpha > \beta$, `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} distinguishes between the above two cases. We can solve any problem in BQP with this oracle, by setting $\alpha = 2/3, \beta = 1/3$.
For any $L \in \mathsf{BQP}$, there exists family of quantum circuits $\{Q_n\colon n \in \mathbb{N}\}$ such that for all $n \in \mathbb{N}$, a state $|x\rangle$ of $n$ qubits, if $x \in L, Pr(Q_n(|x\rangle)=1) \geq 2/3$; else if $x \notin L, Pr(Q_n(|x\rangle)=0) \geq 2/3$. Fix an input $|x\rangle$ of `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} qubits, and the corresponding quantum circuit $Q_n$. We can first construct a circuit $C_x$ such that $C_x|0\rangle^{\otimes n} = |x\rangle$. This can be done easily by hardwiring $|x\rangle$ and apply a sequence of CNOT gates to flip the qubits. Then we can combine two circuits to get $C' = Q_nC_x$, and now $C'|0\rangle^{\otimes n} = Q_n|x\rangle$. And finally, necessarily the results of $Q_n$ is obtained by measuring several qubits and apply some (classical) logic gates to them. We can always defer the measurement and reroute the circuits so that by measuring the first qubit of $C'|0\rangle^{\otimes n} = Q_n|x\rangle$, we get the output. This will be our circuit `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki}, and we decide the membership of $x \in L$ by running $A(C)$ with $\alpha = 2/3, \beta = 1/3$. By definition of BQP, we will either fall into the first case (acceptance), or the second case (rejection), so $L \in \mathsf{BQP}$ reduces to APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB.
### BQP and EXP {#bqp_and_exp}
We begin with an easier containment. To show that $\mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{EXP}$, it suffices to show that APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB is in EXP since APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB is BQP-complete.
Note that this algorithm also requires $2^{O(n)}$ space to store the vectors and the matrices. We will show in the following section that we can improve upon the space complexity.
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# BQP
## Relationship to other complexity classes {#relationship_to_other_complexity_classes}
### BQP and PSPACE {#bqp_and_pspace}
Sum of histories is a technique introduced by physicist Richard Feynman for path integral formulation. APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB can be formulated in the sum of histories technique to show that $\mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{PSPACE}$.
Consider a quantum circuit `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki}, which consists of `{{mvar|t}}`{=mediawiki} gates, $g_1, g_2, \cdots, g_m$, where each $g_j$ comes from a universal gate set and acts on at most two qubits. To understand what the sum of histories is, we visualize the evolution of a quantum state given a quantum circuit as a tree. The root is the input $|0\rangle^{\otimes n}$, and each node in the tree has $2^n$ children, each representing a state in $\mathbb C^n$. The weight on a tree edge from a node in `{{mvar|j}}`{=mediawiki}-th level representing a state $|x\rangle$ to a node in $j+1$-th level representing a state $|y\rangle$ is $\langle y|g_{j+1}|x\rangle$, the amplitude of $|y\rangle$ after applying $g_{j+1}$ on $|x\rangle$. The transition amplitude of a root-to-leaf path is the product of all the weights on the edges along the path. To get the probability of the final state being $|\psi\rangle$, we sum up the amplitudes of all root-to-leave paths that ends at a node representing $|\psi\rangle$.
More formally, for the quantum circuit `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki}, its sum over histories tree is a tree of depth `{{mvar|m}}`{=mediawiki}, with one level for each gate $g_i$ in addition to the root, and with branching factor $2^n$.
Notice in the sum over histories algorithm to compute some amplitude $\alpha_x$, only one history is stored at any point in the computation. Hence, the sum over histories algorithm uses $O(nm)$ space to compute $\alpha_x$ for any `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} since $O(nm)$ bits are needed to store the histories in addition to some workspace variables.
Therefore, in polynomial space, we may compute $\sum_x |\alpha_x|^2$ over all `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} with the first qubit being `{{val|1}}`{=mediawiki}, which is the probability that the first qubit is measured to be 1 by the end of the circuit.
Notice that compared with the simulation given for the proof that $\mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{EXP}$, our algorithm here takes far less space but far more time instead. In fact it takes $O(m\cdot 2^{mn} )$ time to calculate a single amplitude!
### BQP and PP {#bqp_and_pp}
A similar sum-over-histories argument can be used to show that $\mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{PP}$.
### P and BQP `{{anchor|BQP, P, and NP}}`{=mediawiki} {#p_and_bqp}
We know $\mathsf{P} \subseteq \mathsf{BQP}$, since every classical circuit can be simulated by a quantum circuit.
It is conjectured that BQP solves hard problems outside of P, specifically, problems in NP. The claim is indefinite because we don\'t know if P=NP, so we don\'t know if those problems are actually in P
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# Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human
***Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human*** (1995) is a science fiction novel by American writer K. W. Jeter. It is a continuation of both the film *Blade Runner* and the novel upon which the film was based, Philip K. Dick\'s *Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?*
## Plot
Several months after the events depicted in *Blade Runner*, Deckard has retired to an isolated shack outside the city, taking the replicant Rachael with him in a Tyrell transport container, which slows down the replicant aging process. He is approached by a woman who explains she is Sarah Tyrell, niece of Eldon Tyrell, heiress to the Tyrell Corporation and the human template (\"templant\") for the Rachael replicant. She asks Deckard to hunt down the \"missing\" sixth replicant. At the same time, the templant for Roy Batty hires Dave Holden, the blade runner attacked by Leon, to help him hunt down the man he believes is the sixth replicant---Deckard.
Deckard and Holden\'s investigations lead them to re-visit Sebastian, Bryant, and John Isidore (from the book *Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?*), learning more about the nature of the blade runners and the replicants.
When Deckard, Batty, and Holden finally clash, Batty\'s super-human fighting prowess leads Holden to believe he has been duped all along and that Batty is the sixth replicant, leading to Holden shooting him. Deckard returns to Sarah with his suspicion: there is *no* sixth replicant. Sarah, speaking via a remote camera, confesses that she invented and maintained the rumor herself in order to deliberately discredit and eventually destroy the Tyrell Corporation because her uncle Eldon had based Rachel on her and then abandoned the real Sarah. Sarah brings Rachael back to the Corporation to meet with Deckard, and they escape.
However, Holden, recovering from his injuries during the fight, later uncovers the truth: Rachael has been killed by Tyrell agents, and the \"Rachael\" who escaped with Deckard was actually Sarah. She has completed her revenge by both destroying Tyrell and taking back Rachael\'s place.
## Characters
- Rick Deckard: The Tyrell Corporation finally locates him, residing at a cabin in the woods with the frozen Rachael. In exchange for getting Rachael back, Deckard agrees to hunt the missing sixth replicant.
- Roy Batty: The man which Tyrell used as the template for his combat replicants is in fact a man of considerable instability, suffering from a brain disorder that prevents him from experiencing fear.
- Sarah Tyrell: The niece of Eldon Tyrell, Sarah locates and hires Deckard to eliminate the final replicant in order to retain her corporation\'s hold over the market.
- Dave Holden: Starting off bed-ridden after his attack by the replicant Leon, Holden is rescued by Roy who in turn leads him to some startling revelations.
- J.R. Isidore: A lowly employee of a vet\'s office, Isidore also works as an underground replicant sympathizer, having made modifications to replicants in order to help them escape detection.
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# Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human
## Relationship to other works {#relationship_to_other_works}
The book\'s plot draws from other material related to *Blade Runner* in a number of ways:
- Deckard, Pris, Sebastian, Leon, Batty, and Holden all appeared in *Blade Runner*.
- Many of the parts of the \"conspiracy\" are based on errors or plot holes identified by fans of the original movie, such as Leon\'s ability to bring a gun into the Tyrell building, or the reference to the sixth replicant.
- The character of John Isidore, and his \"pet hospital\", is taken from Dick\'s original novel *Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?*, although that book contained no suggestion that the shop ran a sideline in modifying replicants.
- *Blade Runner*\'s Sebastian was based on *Electric Sheep*\'s Isidore, though Jeter features them as separate characters in *The Edge of Human*.
- The idea of replicant models being mass-produced, and in particular a woman identical to Rachael existing, is also from *Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?*; although in that book, Pris was the replicant double of Rachael, and there was no suggestion that replicants were constructed based on human templates.
- The etymology of the term \"blade runner\" is revealed to come from the German phrase *bleib ruhig*, meaning \"remain calm.\" It was supposedly developed by the Tyrell Corporation to prevent news about replicants malfunctioning.
However, it also contradicts material in some ways:
- Sebastian was stated as being dead in the movie, yet he is alive in *The Edge of Human*.
- Pris was clearly stated as being a replicant in both the movie and the original novel, yet *The Edge of Human* claims she was human.
- Pris was clearly destroyed by Deckard in both the movie and the original novel. Sebastian\'s ability to bring Pris back to life as a replicant introduces numerous problems: the book implies that Sebastian was able to do this without realising that her original body was human. It is likewise unclear why Deckard would have left her, or any suspected replicant he retired, in a state from which they could be repaired.
- \"The Final Cut\" of *Blade Runner* removed the reference of a surviving sixth replicant, as it was normally considered a leftover from an early script.
## Reception
Michael Giltz of *Entertainment Weekly* gave the book a \"C−\", feeling that \"only hardcore fans will be satisfied by this tale\" and saying Jeter\'s \"habit of echoing dialogue and scenes from the film is annoying and begs comparisons he would do well to avoid.\" Tal Cohen of *Tal Cohen\'s Bookshelf* called *The Edge of Human* \"a good book\", praising Jeter\'s \"further, and deeper, investigation of the questions Philip K. Dick originally asked\", but criticized the book for its \"needless grandioseness\" and for \"rel\[ying\] on *Blade Runner* too heavily, \[as\] the number of new characters introduced is extremely small\...\"
Ian Kaplan of BearCave.com gave the book three stars out of five, saying that while he was \"not entirely satisfied\" and felt that the \"story tends to be shallow\", \"Jeter does deal with the moral dilemma of the Blade Runners who hunt down beings that are virtually human in every way.\" J. Patton of *The Bent Cover* praised Jeter for \"\[not\] try\[ing\] to emulate Philip K. Dick\", adding, \"This book also has all the grittiness and dark edges that the movie showed off so well, along with a very fast pace that will keep you reading into the wee hours of the night.\"
## Failed film adaptation {#failed_film_adaptation}
In the late 1990s, *Edge of Human* had been adapted into a screenplay by Stuart Hazeldine, *Blade Runner Down*, that was to be filmed as the sequel to the 1982 film *Blade Runner*. Ultimately neither this script nor the Jeter novel were used for the eventual sequel, *Blade Runner 2049*, which follows a different story
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# Bartolomeo Ammannati
**Bartolomeo Ammannati** (18 June 1511 -- 13 April 1592) was an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Settignano, near Florence, Italy. He studied under Baccio Bandinelli and Jacopo Sansovino (assisting on the design of the Library of St. Mark\'s, the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice) and closely imitated the style of Michelangelo.
He was more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture. He worked in Rome in collaboration with Vignola and Vasari), including designs for the Villa Giulia, but also for works at Lucca. He labored during 1558--1570, in the refurbishment and enlargement of Pitti Palace, creating the courtyard consisting of three wings with rusticated facades, and one lower portico leading to the amphitheatre in the Boboli Gardens. His design mirrored the appearance of the main external façade of Pitti. He was also named *Consul* of Accademia delle Arti del Disegno of Florence, which had been founded by the Duke Cosimo I in 1563.
In 1569, Ammannati was commissioned to build the Ponte Santa Trinita, a bridge over the Arno River. The three arches are elliptic, and though very light and elegant, has survived, when floods had damaged other Arno bridges at different times. Santa Trinita was destroyed in 1944, during World War II, and rebuilt in 1957.
Ammannati designed what is considered a prototypic Mannerist sculptural ensemble in the Fountain of Neptune (*Fontana del Nettuno*), prominently located in the Piazza della Signoria in the center of Florence. The assignment was originally given to the aged Bartolommeo Bandinelli; however when Bandinelli died, Ammannati\'s design, bested the submissions of Benvenuto Cellini and Vincenzo Danti, to gain the commission. From 1563 and 1565, Ammannati and his assistants, among them Giambologna, sculpted the block of marble that had been chosen by Bandinelli. He took Grand Duke Cosimo I as model for Neptune\'s face. The statue was meant to highlight Cosimo\'s goal of establishing a Florentine Naval force. The ungainly sea god was placed at the corner of the Palazzo Vecchio within sight of Michelangelo\'s David statue, and the then 87-year-old sculptor is said to have scoffed at Ammannati--- saying that he had ruined a beautiful piece of marble--- with the ditty: \"Ammannati, Ammanato, che bel marmo hai rovinato!\" Ammannati continued work on this fountain for a decade, adding around the perimeter a cornucopia of demigod figures: bronze reclining river gods, laughing satyrs and marble sea horses emerging from the water.
In 1550 Ammannati married Laura Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman. Later in his life he had a religious crisis, influenced by Counter-Reformation piety, which resulted in condemning his own works depicting nudity, and he left all his possessions to the Jesuits.
He died in Florence in 1592.
## Works
- *Victory* (1540), marble, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
- *Leda with the Swan*, marble, also in Bargello, Florence
- *Venus* (1558--59), marble, Prado Museum, Madrid
- *Parnassus* (1563), marble, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
- *Allegory of Winter* (1563--65), stone, Villa Medici, Castello
- *Goddess Opi* (1572--75), bronze, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
## Gallery
<File:Pigna> - Collegio romano 1080166.JPG\|The Jesuit College in Rome, 1582--1584, was one of Ammannati\'s later designs. <File:Venus> by Baccio Bandinelli (Prado, E-171) 01.jpg\|*Venus*, a variation on the classical type known as Venus Pudica. However, the arms are the result of an 18th-century restoration, as the original had the arms cut off in order to allow water to flow out. <File:Bartolomeo> ammannati (attr.), vasca con arme busdraghi e dragone, 04.JPG\|Dragon <File:Parco> di Castello, fontana del Gennaio 1.JPG\|Parco di Villa Reale di Castello (Villa di Castello), Fountain of January (*Fontana del Gennaio*) in Florence, Italy <File:Da> bartolomeo ammannati, giustizia, firenze tardo 16mo secolo.JPG\|Justice <File:Cristo> e la cananea di Alessandro Allori detail.jpg\|Christ and Canaanite woman by Alessandro Allori. Commissioned by Ammannati for funeral of his wife poet Laura Battiferri (painted as old woman with the book)
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# Bertrand Andrieu
**Bertrand Andrieu** (24 November 1761 -- 6 December 1822) was a French engraver of medals. He was born in Bordeaux. In France, he was considered as the restorer of the art, which had declined after the time of Louis XIV. During the last twenty years of his life, the French government commissioned him to undertake every major work of importance
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# Bretwalda
***Bretwalda*** (also ***brytenwalda*** and ***bretenanwealda***, sometimes capitalised) is an Old English word. The first record comes from the late 9th-century *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*. It is given to some of the rulers of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from the 5th century onwards who had achieved overlordship of some or all of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is unclear whether the word dates back to the 5th century and was used by the kings themselves or whether it is a later, 9th-century, invention. The term *bretwalda* also appears in a 10th-century charter of Æthelstan. The literal meaning of the word is disputed and may translate to either \'wide-ruler\' or \'Britain-ruler\'.
The rulers of Mercia were generally the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings from the mid 7th century to the early 9th century but are not accorded the title of *bretwalda* by the *Chronicle*, which had an anti-Mercian bias. The *Annals of Wales* continued to recognise the kings of Northumbria as \"Kings of the Saxons\" until the death of Osred I of Northumbria in 716.
## Bretwaldas
### Listed by the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* {#listed_by_the_anglo_saxon_chronicle}
- Ælle of Sussex (488--c. 514)
- Ceawlin of Wessex (560--592, died 593)
- Æthelberht of Kent (590--616)
- Rædwald of East Anglia (c. 600--around 624)
- Edwin of Deira (616--633)
- Oswald of Northumbria (633--642)
- Oswiu of Northumbria (642--670)
- Egbert of Wessex (829--839)
- Alfred of Wessex (871--899)
### Mercian rulers with similar or greater authority {#mercian_rulers_with_similar_or_greater_authority}
- Penda of Mercia (626/633--655)
- Wulfhere of Mercia (658--675)
- Æthelred of Mercia (675--704, died 716)
- Æthelbald of Mercia (716--757)
- Offa of Mercia (757--796)
- Cœnwulf of Mercia (796--821)
### Other claimants {#other_claimants}
- Æthelstan of Wessex (927--939)
## Etymology
The first syllable of the term *bretwalda* may be related to *Briton* or *Britain*. The second element is taken to mean \'ruler\' or \'sovereign\'. Thus, one interpretation might be \'sovereign of Britain\'. Otherwise, the word may be a compound containing the Old English adjective *brytten* (\'broad\', from the verb *breotan* meaning \'to break\' or \'to disperse\'), an element also found in the terms *bryten rice* (\'kingdom\'), *bryten-grund* (\'the wide expanse of the earth\') and *bryten cyning* (\'king whose authority was widely extended\'). Though the origin is ambiguous, the draughtsman of the charter issued by Æthelstan used the term in a way that can only mean \'wide-ruler\'.
The latter etymology was first suggested by John Mitchell Kemble who alluded that \"of six manuscripts in which this passage occurs, one only reads *Bretwalda*: of the remaining five, four have *Bryten-walda* or *-wealda*, and one *Breten-anweald*, which is precisely synonymous with Brytenwealda\"; that Æthelstan was called *brytenwealda ealles ðyses ealondes*, which Kemble translates as \'ruler of all these islands\'; and that *bryten-* is a common prefix to words meaning \'wide or general dispersion\' and that the similarity to the word *bretwealh* (\'Briton\') is \"merely accidental\".
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# Bretwalda
## Contemporary use {#contemporary_use}
The first recorded use of the term *Bretwalda* comes from a West Saxon chronicle of the late 9th century that applied the term to Ecgberht, who ruled Wessex from 802 to 839. The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings that Bede listed in his *Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum* in 731. All subsequent manuscripts of the *Chronicle* use the term *Brytenwalda*, which may have represented the original term or derived from a common error.
There is no evidence that the term was a title that had any practical use, with implications of formal rights, powers and office, or even that it had any existence before the 9th-century. Bede wrote in Latin and never used the term and his list of kings holding *imperium* should be treated with caution, not least in that he overlooks kings such as Penda of Mercia, who clearly held some kind of dominance during his reign. Similarly, in his list of bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignored such Mercian kings as Offa.
The use of the term *Bretwalda* was the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon kings to the whole of Great Britain. The concept of the overlordship of the whole of Britain was at least recognised in the period, whatever was meant by the term. Quite possibly it was a survival of a Roman concept of \"Britain\": it is significant that, while the hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the title *rex Britanniae*, when England was unified the title used was *rex Angulsaxonum*, (\'king of the Anglo-Saxons\'.)
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# Bretwalda
## Modern interpretation by historians {#modern_interpretation_by_historians}
For some time, the existence of the word *bretwalda* in the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, which was based in part on the list given by Bede in his *Historia Ecclesiastica*, led historians to think that there was perhaps a \"title\" held by Anglo-Saxon overlords. This was particularly attractive as it would lay the foundations for the establishment of an English monarchy. The 20th-century historian Frank Stenton said of the Anglo-Saxon chronicler that \"his inaccuracy is more than compensated by his preservation of the English title applied to these outstanding kings\". He argued that the term *bretwalda* \"falls into line with the other evidence which points to the Germanic origin of the earliest English institutions\".
Over the later 20th century, this assumption was increasingly challenged. Patrick Wormald interpreted it as \"less an objectively realized office than a subjectively perceived status\" and emphasised the partiality of its usage in favour of Southumbrian rulers. In 1991, Steven Fanning argued that \"it is unlikely that the term ever existed as a title or was in common usage in Anglo-Saxon England\". The fact that Bede never mentioned a special title for the kings in his list implies that he was unaware of one. In 1995, Simon Keynes observed that \"if Bede\'s concept of the Southumbrian overlord, and the chronicler\'s concept of the \'Bretwalda\', are to be regarded as artificial constructs, which have no validity outside the context of the literary works in which they appear, we are released from the assumptions about political development which they seem to involve\... we might ask whether kings in the eighth and ninth centuries were quite so obsessed with the establishment of a pan-Southumbrian state\".
Modern interpretations view the concept of *bretwalda* overlordship as complex and an important indicator of how a 9th-century chronicler interpreted history and attempted to insert the increasingly powerful Saxon kings into that history.
## Overlordship
A complex array of dominance and subservience existed during the Anglo-Saxon period. A king who used charters to grant land in another kingdom indicated such a relationship. If the other kingdom were fairly large, as when the Mercians dominated the East Anglians, the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of the Mercian dominance of the Hwicce, which was a comparatively small kingdom. Mercia was arguably the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom for much of the late 7th though 8th centuries, though Mercian kings are missing from the two main \"lists\". For Bede, Mercia was a traditional enemy of his native Northumbria and he regarded powerful kings such as the pagan Penda as standing in the way of the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. Bede omits them from his list, even though it is evident that Penda held a considerable degree of power. Similarly powerful Mercia kings such as Offa are missed out of the West Saxon *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, which sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of their kings to rule over other Anglo-Saxon peoples
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# Leg theory
**Leg theory** is a bowling tactic in the sport of cricket. The term *leg theory* is somewhat archaic, but the basic tactic remains a play in modern cricket.
Simply put, leg theory involves concentrating the bowling attack at or near the line of leg stump. This may or may not be accompanied by a concentration of fielders on the leg side. The line of attack aims to cramp the batsman, making him play the ball with the bat close to the body. This makes it difficult to hit the ball freely and score runs, especially on the off side. Since a leg theory attack means the batsman is more likely to hit the ball on the leg side, additional fielders on that side of the field can be effective in preventing runs and taking catches.
Stifling the batsman in this manner can lead to impatience and frustration, resulting in rash play by the batsman which in turn can lead to a quick dismissal. Concentrating attack on the leg stump is considered by many cricket fans and commentators to lead to boring play, as it stifles run scoring and encourages batsmen to play conservatively.
Leg theory can be a moderately successful tactic when used with both fast bowling and spin bowling, particularly leg spin to right-handed batsmen or off spin to left-handed batsmen. However, because it relies on lack of concentration or discipline by the batsman, it can be risky against patient and skilled players, especially batsmen who are strong on the leg side. The English opening bowlers Sydney Barnes and Frank Foster used leg theory with some success in Australia in 1911--12. In England, at around the same time, Fred Root was one of the main proponents of the same tactic.
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# Leg theory
## Fast leg theory {#fast_leg_theory}
In 1930, England captain Douglas Jardine, together with Nottinghamshire\'s captain Arthur Carr and his bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, developed a variant of leg theory in which the bowlers bowled fast, short-pitched balls that would rise into the batsman\'s body, together with a heavily stacked ring of close fielders on the leg side. The idea was that when the batsman defended against the ball, he would be likely to deflect the ball into the air for a catch.
Jardine called this modified form of the tactic *fast leg theory*. On the 1932--33 English tour of Australia, Larwood and Voce bowled fast leg theory at the Australian batsmen. It turned out to be extremely dangerous, and most Australian players sustained injuries from being hit by the ball. Wicket-keeper Bert Oldfield\'s skull was fractured by a ball hitting his head (although the ball had first glanced off the bat and Larwood had an orthodox field), almost precipitating a riot by the Australian crowd.
The Australian press dubbed the tactic *Bodyline*, and claimed it was a deliberate attempt by the English team to intimidate and injure the Australian players. Reports of the controversy reaching England at the time described the bowling as *fast leg theory*, which sounded to many people to be a harmless and well-established tactic. This led to a serious misunderstanding amongst the English public and the Marylebone Cricket Club -- the administrators of English cricket -- of the dangers posed by Bodyline. The English press and cricket authorities declared the Australian protests to be a case of sore losing and \"squealing\".
It was only with the return of the English team and the subsequent use of Bodyline against English players in England by the touring West Indian cricket team in 1933 that demonstrated to the country the dangers it posed. The MCC subsequently revised the Laws of Cricket to prevent the use of \"fast leg theory\" tactics in future, also limiting the traditional tactic
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# Bioleaching
**Bioleaching** is the extraction or liberation of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms. Bioleaching is one of several applications within biohydrometallurgy and several methods are used to treat ores or concentrates containing copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt.
Bioleaching falls into two broad categories. The first, is the use of microorganisms to oxidize refractory minerals to release valuable metals such and gold and silver. Most commonly the minerals that are the target of oxidization are pyrite and arsenopyrite.
The second category is leaching of sulphide minerals to release the associated metal, for example, leaching of pentlandite to release nickel, or the leaching of chalcocite, covellite or chalcopyrite to release copper.
## Process
Bioleaching can involve numerous ferrous iron and sulfur oxidizing bacteria, including *Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans* (formerly known as *Thiobacillus ferrooxidans*) and *Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans* (formerly known as *Thiobacillus thiooxidans*). As a general principle, in one proposed method of bacterial leaching known as Indirect Leaching, Fe^3+^ ions are used to oxidize the ore. This step is entirely independent of microbes. The role of the bacteria is further oxidation of the ore, but also the regeneration of the chemical oxidant Fe^3+^ from Fe^2+^. For example, bacteria catalyse the breakdown of the mineral pyrite (FeS~2~) by oxidising the sulfur and metal (in this case ferrous iron, (Fe^2+^)) using oxygen. This yields soluble products that can be further purified and refined to yield the desired metal.
**Pyrite leaching** (FeS~2~): In the first step, disulfide is spontaneously oxidized to thiosulfate by ferric ion (Fe^3+^), which in turn is reduced to give ferrous ion (Fe^2+^):
: (1) $\mathrm{FeS_2 + 6 \ Fe^{\,3+} + 3 \ H_2O \longrightarrow 7 \ Fe^{\,2+} + S_2O_3^{\,2-} + 6 \ H^+}$ spontaneous
The ferrous ion is then oxidized by bacteria using oxygen:
: (2) $\mathrm{4 \ Fe^{\,2+} + \ O_2 + 4 \ H^+ \longrightarrow 4 \ Fe^{\,3+} + 2 \ H_2O}$ (iron oxidizers)
Thiosulfate is also oxidized by bacteria to give sulfate:
: (3) $\mathrm{S_2O_3^{\,2-} + 2 \ O_2 + H_2O \longrightarrow 2 \ SO_4^{\,2-} + 2 \ H^+}$ (sulfur oxidizers)
The ferric ion produced in reaction (2) oxidized more sulfide as in reaction (1), closing the cycle and given the net reaction:
: (4) $\mathrm{2 \ FeS_2 + 7 \ O_2 + 2 \ H_2O \longrightarrow 2 \ Fe^{\,2+} + 4 \ SO_4^{\,2-} + 4 \ H^+}$
The net products of the reaction are soluble ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid.
The microbial oxidation process occurs at the cell membrane of the bacteria. The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce energy for the bacteria while reducing oxygen to water. The critical reaction is the oxidation of sulfide by ferric iron. The main role of the bacterial step is the regeneration of this reactant.
The process for copper is very similar, but the efficiency and kinetics depend on the copper mineralogy. The most efficient minerals are supergene minerals such as chalcocite, Cu~2~S and covellite, CuS. The main copper mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS~2~) is not leached very efficiently, which is why the dominant copper-producing technology remains flotation, followed by smelting and refining. The leaching of CuFeS~2~ follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu^2+^ ions being left in solution.
**Chalcopyrite leaching**:
: (1) $\mathrm{CuFeS_2 + 4 \ Fe^{\,3+} \longrightarrow Cu^{\,2+} + 5 \ Fe^{\,2+} + 2 \ S_0}$ spontaneous
: (2) $\mathrm{4 \ Fe^{\,2+} + O_2 + 4 \ H^+ \longrightarrow 4 \ Fe^{\,3+} + 2 \ H_2O}$ (iron oxidizers)
: (3) $\mathrm{2 \ S^0 + 3 \ O_2 + 2 \ H_2O \longrightarrow 2 \ SO_4^{\,2-} + 4 \ H^+}$ (sulfur oxidizers)
net reaction:
: (4) $\mathrm{CuFeS_2 + 4 \ O_2 \longrightarrow Cu^{\,2+} + Fe^{\,2+} + 2 \ SO_4^{\,2-}}$
In general, sulfides are first oxidized to elemental sulfur, whereas disulfides are oxidized to give thiosulfate, and the processes above can be applied to other sulfidic ores. Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores such as pitchblende also uses ferric iron as an oxidant (e.g., UO~2~ + 2 Fe^3+^ ==\> UO~2~^2+^ + 2 Fe^2+^). In this case, the sole purpose of the bacterial step is the regeneration of Fe^3+^. Sulfidic iron ores can be added to speed up the process and provide a source of iron. Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores by layering of waste sulfides and elemental sulfur, colonized by *Acidithiobacillus* spp., has been accomplished, which provides a strategy for accelerated leaching of materials that do not contain sulfide minerals.
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# Bioleaching
## Further processing {#further_processing}
The dissolved copper (Cu^2+^) ions are removed from the solution by ligand exchange solvent extraction, which leaves other ions in the solution. The copper is removed by bonding to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number of smaller groups, each possessing a lone electron pair. The ligand-copper complex is extracted from the solution using an organic solvent such as kerosene:
: Cu^2+^~(aq)~ + 2LH(organic) → CuL~2~(organic) + 2H^+^~(aq)~
The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to the ligand. Because this complex has no charge, it is no longer attracted to polar water molecules and dissolves in the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the solution. Because the initial reaction is reversible, it is determined by pH. Adding concentrated acid reverses the equation, and the copper ions go back into an aqueous solution.
Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning process to increase its purity: An electric current is passed through the resulting solution of copper ions. Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there.
The copper can also be concentrated and separated by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron:
: Cu^2+^~(aq)~ + Fe~(s)~ → Cu~(s)~ + Fe^2+^~(aq)~
The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the copper. Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses electrons).
Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution. Treating the mixture with sodium cyanide in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to charcoal.
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# Bioleaching
## With fungi {#with_fungi}
Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. Fungi can be grown on many different substrates, such as electronic scrap, catalytic converters, and fly ash from municipal waste incineration. Experiments have shown that two fungal strains (*Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum*) were able to mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than 95%. *Aspergillus niger* can produce some organic acids such as citric acid. This form of leaching does not rely on microbial oxidation of metal but rather uses microbial metabolism as source of acids that directly dissolve the metal.
## Feasibility
### Economic feasibility {#economic_feasibility}
Bioleaching is in general simpler and, therefore, cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants. And low concentrations are not a problem for bacteria because they simply ignore the waste that surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases. These microorganisms actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements. The company simply collects the ions out of the solution after the bacteria have finished.
Bioleaching can be used to extract metals from low concentration ores such as gold that are too poor for other technologies. It can be used to partially replace the extensive crushing and grinding that translates to prohibitive cost and energy consumption in a conventional process. Because the lower cost of bacterial leaching outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal.
High concentration ores, such as copper, are more economical to smelt rather bioleach due to the slow speed of the bacterial leaching process compared to smelting. The slow speed of bioleaching introduces a significant delay in cash flow for new mines. Nonetheless, at the largest copper mine of the world, Escondida in Chile the process seems to be favorable.
Economically it is also very expensive and many companies once started can not keep up with the demand and end up in debt.
### In space {#in_space}
In 2020 scientists showed, with an experiment with different gravity environments on the ISS, that microorganisms could be employed to mine useful elements from basaltic rocks via bioleaching in space.
## Environmental impact {#environmental_impact}
The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of sulfur dioxide emissions during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled.
Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. Sulfuric acid and H^+^ ions that have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming \"Yellow Boy\" pollution. For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a biosafety failure. Unlike other methods, once started, bioheap leaching cannot be quickly stopped, because leaching would still continue with rainwater and natural bacteria. Projects like Finnish Talvivaara proved to be environmentally and economically disastrous
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# Boiling point
The **boiling point** of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum, i.e., under a lower pressure, has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Because of this, water boils at 100°C (or with scientific precision: 99.97 C) under standard pressure at sea level, but at 93.4 C at 1905 m altitude. For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures.
The **normal boiling point** (also called the **atmospheric boiling point** or the **atmospheric pressure boiling point**) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, one atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The **standard boiling point** has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of one bar.
The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure).
Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid\'s edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid.
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# Boiling point
## Saturation temperature and pressure {#saturation_temperature_and_pressure}
*Main article: Vapor--liquid equilibrium* A *saturated liquid* contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a *saturated vapor* contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing).
**Saturation temperature** means *boiling point*. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition.
If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied.
The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa (1 atm), or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa (1 bar). At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point.
If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature are known, the boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius--Clapeyron equation, thus:
$$T_\text{B} = \left(\frac{1}{T_0} - \frac{R\,\ln \frac{P}{P_0}}{\Delta H_\text{vap}}\right)^{-1}$$
where:
$$T_\text{B}$$ is the boiling point at the pressure of interest,
$$R$$ is the ideal gas constant,
$$P$$ is the vapor pressure of the liquid,
$$P_0$$ is some pressure where the corresponding $T_0$ is known (usually data available at 1 atm or 100 kPa (1 bar)),
$$\Delta H_\text{vap}$$ is the heat of vaporization of the liquid,
$$T_0$$ is the boiling temperature,
$$\ln$$ is the natural logarithm.
**Saturation pressure** is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased, so is saturation temperature.
If the temperature in a system remains constant (an *isothermal* system), vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased. Similarly, a liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased.
There are two conventions regarding the *standard boiling point of water*: The *normal boiling point* is commonly given as 100 °C (actually 99.97 °C following the thermodynamic definition of the Celsius scale based on the kelvin) at a pressure of 1 atm (101.325 kPa). The IUPAC-recommended *standard boiling point of water* at a standard pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar) is 99.61 °C. For comparison, on top of Mount Everest, at 8848 m elevation, the pressure is about 34 kPa and the boiling point of water is 71 °C. The Celsius temperature scale was defined until 1954 by two points: 0 °C being defined by the water freezing point and 100 °C being defined by the water boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure.
## Relation between the normal boiling point and the vapor pressure of liquids {#relation_between_the_normal_boiling_point_and_the_vapor_pressure_of_liquids}
The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) of the liquid.
The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points.
For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point (−24.2 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure.
The critical point of a liquid is the highest temperature (and pressure) it will actually boil at.
See also Vapour pressure of water.
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# Boiling point
## Boiling point of chemical elements {#boiling_point_of_chemical_elements}
The element with the lowest boiling point is helium. Both the boiling points of rhenium and tungsten exceed 5000 K at standard pressure; because it is difficult to measure extreme temperatures precisely without bias, both have been cited in the literature as having the higher boiling point.
## Boiling point as a reference property of a pure compound {#boiling_point_as_a_reference_property_of_a_pure_compound}
As can be seen from the above plot of the logarithm of the vapor pressure vs. the temperature for any given pure chemical compound, its normal boiling point can serve as an indication of that compound\'s overall volatility. A given pure compound has only one normal boiling point, if any, and a compound\'s normal boiling point and melting point can serve as characteristic physical properties for that compound, listed in reference books. The higher a compound\'s normal boiling point, the less volatile that compound is overall, and conversely, the lower a compound\'s normal boiling point, the more volatile that compound is overall. Some compounds decompose at higher temperatures before reaching their normal boiling point, or sometimes even their melting point. For a stable compound, the boiling point ranges from its triple point to its critical point, depending on the external pressure. Beyond its triple point, a compound\'s normal boiling point, if any, is higher than its melting point. Beyond the critical point, a compound\'s liquid and vapor phases merge into one phase, which may be called a superheated gas. At any given temperature, if a compound\'s normal boiling point is lower, then that compound will generally exist as a gas at atmospheric external pressure. If the compound\'s normal boiling point is higher, then that compound can exist as a liquid or solid at that given temperature at atmospheric external pressure, and will so exist in equilibrium with its vapor (if volatile) if its vapors are contained. If a compound\'s vapors are not contained, then some volatile compounds can eventually evaporate away in spite of their higher boiling points.
In general, compounds with ionic bonds have high normal boiling points, if they do not decompose before reaching such high temperatures. Many metals have high boiling points, but not all. Very generally---with other factors being equal---in compounds with covalently bonded molecules, as the size of the molecule (or molecular mass) increases, the normal boiling point increases. When the molecular size becomes that of a macromolecule, polymer, or otherwise very large, the compound often decomposes at high temperature before the boiling point is reached. Another factor that affects the normal boiling point of a compound is the polarity of its molecules. As the polarity of a compound\'s molecules increases, its normal boiling point increases, other factors being equal. Closely related is the ability of a molecule to form hydrogen bonds (in the liquid state), which makes it harder for molecules to leave the liquid state and thus increases the normal boiling point of the compound. Simple carboxylic acids dimerize by forming hydrogen bonds between molecules. A minor factor affecting boiling points is the shape of a molecule. Making the shape of a molecule more compact tends to lower the normal boiling point slightly compared to an equivalent molecule with more surface area.
+-------------+------------+-----------------+
| Common name | *n*-butane | isobutane |
+=============+============+=================+
| IUPAC name | butane | 2-methylpropane |
+-------------+------------+-----------------+
| Molecular\ | | |
| form | | |
+-------------+------------+-----------------+
| Boiling\ | −0.5 | −11.7 |
| point (°C) | | |
+-------------+------------+-----------------+
: Comparison of butane (`{{nobold|C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}) isomer boiling points
+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------------+
| Common name | *n*-pentane | isopentane | neopentane |
+=============+=============+================+=====================+
| IUPAC name | pentane | 2-methylbutane | 2,2-dimethylpropane |
+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------------+
| Molecular\ | | | |
| form | | | |
+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------------+
| Boiling\ | 36.0 | 27.7 | 9.5 |
| point (°C) | | | |
+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------------+
: Comparison of pentane isomer boiling points
Most volatile compounds (anywhere near ambient temperatures) go through an intermediate liquid phase while warming up from a solid phase to eventually transform to a vapor phase. By comparison to boiling, a sublimation is a physical transformation in which a solid turns directly into vapor, which happens in a few select cases such as with carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure. For such compounds, a sublimation point is a temperature at which a solid turning directly into vapor has a vapor pressure equal to the external pressure.
## Impurities and mixtures {#impurities_and_mixtures}
In the preceding section, boiling points of pure compounds were covered. Vapor pressures and boiling points of substances can be affected by the presence of dissolved impurities (solutes) or other miscible compounds, the degree of effect depending on the concentration of the impurities or other compounds. The presence of non-volatile impurities such as salts or compounds of a volatility far lower than the main component compound decreases its mole fraction and the solution\'s volatility, and thus raises the normal boiling point in proportion to the concentration of the solutes. This effect is called **boiling point elevation**. As a common example, salt water boils at a higher temperature than pure water.
In other mixtures of miscible compounds (components), there may be two or more components of varying volatility, each having its own pure component boiling point at any given pressure. The presence of other volatile components in a mixture affects the vapor pressures and thus boiling points and dew points of all the components in the mixture. The dew point is a temperature at which a vapor condenses into a liquid. Furthermore, at any given temperature, the composition of the vapor is different from the composition of the liquid in most such cases. In order to illustrate these effects between the volatile components in a mixture, a **boiling point diagram** is commonly used. Distillation is a process of boiling and \[usually\] condensation which takes advantage of these differences in composition between liquid and vapor phases.
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# Boiling point
## Boiling point of water with elevation {#boiling_point_of_water_with_elevation}
Following is a table of the change in the boiling point of water with elevation, at intervals of 500 meters over the range of human habitation \[the Dead Sea at -430.5 m to La Rinconada, Peru at 5100 m\], then of 1,000 meters over the additional range of uninhabited surface elevation \[up to Mount Everest at 8849 m\], along with a similar range in Imperial.
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| Elevation\ | Boiling point\ | | Elevation\ | Boiling point\ |
| (m) | (°C) | | (ft) | (°F) |
+============+================+===+============+================+
| −500 | 101.6 | | −1,500 | 214.7 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 0 | 100.0 | | 0 | 212.0 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 500 | 98.4 | | 1,500 | 209.3 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 1,000 | 96.7 | | 3,000 | 206.6 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 1,500 | 95.1 | | 4,500 | 203.9 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 2,000 | 93.4 | | 6,000 | 201.1 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 2,500 | 91.7 | | 7,500 | 198.3 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 3,000 | 90.0 | | 9,000 | 195.5 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 3,500 | 88.2 | | 10,500 | 192.6 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 4,000 | 86.4 | | 12,000 | 189.8 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 4,500 | 84.6 | | 13,500 | 186.8 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 5,000 | 82.8 | | 15,000 | 183.9 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 6,000 | 79.1 | | 16,500 | 180.9 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 7,000 | 75.3 | | 20,000 | 173.8 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 8,000 | 71.4 | | 23,000 | 167.5 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| 9,000 | 67.4 | | 26,000 | 161.1 |
+------------+----------------+---+------------+----------------+
| | | | 29,000 | 154
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# Bock
**Bock** (`{{IPA|de|bɔk|lang|De-Bock.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) is a strong German beer, usually a dark lager.
## History
The style now known as *Bock* was first brewed in the 14th century in the Hanseatic town of Einbeck in Lower Saxony.
The style was later adopted in Bavaria by Munich brewers in the 17th century. Due to their Bavarian accent, citizens of Munich pronounced \"Einbeck\" as \"ein Bock\" (\"a billy goat\"), and thus the beer became known as \"Bock\". A goat often appears on bottle labels.
Bock is historically associated with special occasions, often religious festivals such as Christmas, Easter, or Lent (**Lentenbock**). Bock has a long history of being brewed and consumed by Bavarian monks as a source of nutrition during times of fasting.
## Styles
Substyles of Bock include:
- **Maibock** (*May Bock*), a paler, more hopped version generally made for consumption at spring festivals. Due to its lighter colour, it is also referred to as **Heller Bock**; from German *hell* (bright, light in colour).
- **Doppelbock** (*Double Bock*), a stronger and maltier version
- **Eisbock** (*Ice Bock*), a much stronger version made by partially freezing the beer and removing the ice that forms
- **Weizenbock** (*Wheat Bock*), a wheat beer made from 40 to 60% wheat
Traditionally Bock is a sweet, relatively strong (6.3--7.6% by volume), lightly hopped lager registering between 20 and 30 International Bitterness Units (IBUs). The beer should be clear, with colour ranging from light copper to brown, and a bountiful, persistent off-white head. The aroma should be malty and toasty, possibly with hints of alcohol, but no detectable hops or fruitiness. The mouthfeel is smooth, with low to moderate carbonation and no astringency. The taste is rich and toasty, sometimes with a bit of caramel. The low-to-undetectable presence of hops provides just enough bitterness so that the sweetness is not cloying and the aftertaste is muted.
### Maibock
The **Maibock** style -- also known as **Heller Bock** or **Lente Bock** in the Netherlands`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}is a strong pale lager, lighter in colour and with more hop presence.
Colour can range from deep gold to light amber with a large, creamy, persistent white head, and moderate to moderately high carbonation, while alcohol content ranges from 6.3% to 8.1% by volume. The flavour is typically less malty than a traditional Bock, and may be drier, hoppier, and more bitter, but still with a relatively low hop flavour, with a mild spicy or peppery quality from the hops, increased carbonation and alcohol content.
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# Bock
## Styles
### Doppelbock
*Doppelbock* or *Double Bock* is a stronger version of traditional Bock that was first brewed in Munich by the Paulaner Friars, a Franciscan order founded by St. Francis of Paula.
Historically, Doppelbock was high in alcohol and sweetness. The story is told that it served as \"liquid bread\" for the Friars during times of fasting when solid food was not permitted. In 2011, journalist J. Wilson proved this was at least *possible* by consuming only doppelbock and water for the 46 days of Lent. However, historian Mark Dredge, in his book *A Brief History of Lager*, says that this story is myth and that the monks produced Doppelbock to supplement their order\'s vegetarian diet all year.
Today, Doppelbock is still strong`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}ranging from 7% to 12% or more by volume. It is clear, with colour ranging from dark gold, for the paler version, to dark brown with ruby highlights for a darker version. It has a large, creamy, persistent head (although head retention may be impaired by alcohol in the stronger versions). The aroma is intensely malty, with some toasty notes, and possibly some alcohol presence as well; darker versions may have a chocolate-like or fruity aroma. The flavour is very rich and malty, with noticeable alcoholic strength, and little or no detectable hops (16--26 IBUs). Paler versions may have a drier finish.
The monks who originally brewed Doppelbock named their beer \"Sankt-vater-bier\" (\"Blessed Father beer\"). This was eventually shortened to \"Salvator\" (literally \"Savior\"), which today is trademarked by Paulaner.
Brewers of modern Doppelbock often add \"-ator\" to their beer\'s name as a signpost of the style; there are 200 \"-ator\" Doppelbock names registered with the German patent office.
The following are representative examples of the style: Paulaner Salvator, Ayinger Celebrator, Weihenstephaner Korbinian, Andechser Doppelbock Dunkel, Spaten Optimator, Augustiner Brau Maximator, Tucher Bajuvator, Weltenburger Kloster Asam-Bock, Capital Autumnal Fire, EKU 28, Eggenberg Urbock 23º, Bell\'s Consecrator, Moretti La Rossa, Samuel Adams Double Bock, Tröegs Tröegenator Double Bock, Wasatch Brewery Devastator, Great Lakes Doppelrock, Abita Andygator, Wolverine State Brewing Company Predator, Burly Brewing\'s Burlynator, Monteith\'s Doppel Bock, and Christian Moerlein Emancipator Doppelbock.
### Eisbock
Eisbock is a traditional specialty beer of the Kulmbach district of Bavaria, made by partially freezing a Doppelbock and removing the water ice to concentrate the flavour and alcohol content, which ranges from 8.6% to 14.3% by volume.
It is clear, with a colour ranging from deep copper to dark brown in colour, often with ruby highlights. Although it can pour with a thin off-white head, head retention is frequently impaired by the higher alcohol content. The aroma is intense, with no hop presence, but frequently can contain fruity notes, especially of prunes, raisins, and plums. Mouthfeel is full and smooth, with significant alcohol, although this should not be hot or sharp. The flavour is rich and sweet, often with toasty notes, and sometimes hints of chocolate, always balanced by a significant alcohol presence.
The following are representative examples of the style: Colorado Team Brew \"Warning Sign\", Kulmbacher Reichelbräu Eisbock, Eggenberg, Schneider Aventinus Eisbock, Urbock Dunkel Eisbock, Franconia Brewing Company Ice Bock 17%.
The strongest ice beer, Strength in Numbers, was a one-time collaboration in 2020 between Schorschbrau of Germany and BrewDog of Scotland, who had competed with each other in the early years of the 21st century to produce the world\'s strongest beer. *Strength in Numbers* was created using traditional ice distillation, reaching a final strength of 57.8% ABV.
### Weizenbock
Weizenbock is a style that replaces some of the barley in the grain bill with 40--60% wheat. It was first produced in Bavaria in 1907 by G. Schneider & Sohn and was named *Aventinus* after 16th-century Bavarian historian Johannes Aventinus. The style combines darker Munich malts and top-fermenting wheat beer yeast, brewed at the strength of a Doppelbock
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# Bantu languages
The **Bantu languages** (English: `{{IPA-cen|UK|ˌ|b|æ|n|ˈ|t|uː}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA-cen|US|ˈ|b|æ|n|t|uː}}`{=mediawiki} Proto-Bantu: \*bantʊ̀), or **Ntu languages** are a language family of about 600 languages of Central, Southern, Eastern and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.
The total number of Bantu languages is estimated at between 440 and 680 distinct languages, depending on the definition of \"language\" versus \"dialect\". Many Ntu languages borrow words from each other, and some are mutually intelligible. Some of the languages are spoken by a very small number of people, for example the Kabwa language was estimated in 2007 to be spoken by only 8500 people but was assessed to be a distinct language.
The total number of Ntu language speakers is estimated to be around 350 million in 2015 (roughly 30% of the population of Africa or 5% of the world population). Bantu languages are largely spoken southeast of Cameroon, and throughout Central, Southern, Eastern, and Southeast Africa. About one-sixth of Bantu speakers, and one-third of Bantu languages, are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The most widely spoken Ntu language by number of speakers is Swahili, with 16 million native speakers and 80 million L2 speakers (2015). Most native speakers of Swahili live in Tanzania, where it is a national language, while as a second language, it is taught as a mandatory subject in many schools in East Africa, and is a lingua franca of the East African Community.
Other major Ntu languages include Lingala with more than 20 million speakers (Congo, DRC), followed by Zulu with 13.56 million speakers (South Africa), Xhosa at a distant third place with 8.2 million speakers (South Africa and Zimbabwe), and Shona with less than 10 million speakers (if Manyika and Ndau are included), while Sotho-Tswana languages (Sotho, Tswana and Pedi) have more than 15 million speakers (across Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, and Zambia). Zimbabwe has Kalanga, Matebele, Nambiya, and Xhosa speakers. *Ethnologue* separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which together have 20 million speakers.
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# Bantu languages
## Name
The similarity among dispersed Bantu languages had been observed as early as the 17th century. The term *Bantu* as a name for the group was not coined but \"noticed\" or \"identified\" (as *Bâ-ntu*) by Wilhelm Bleek as the first European in 1857 or 1858, and popularized in his *Comparative Grammar* of 1862. He noticed the term to represent the word for \"people\" in loosely reconstructed Proto-Bantu, from the plural noun class prefix *\*ba-* categorizing \"people\", and the root *\*ntʊ̀-* \"some (entity), any\" (e.g. Xhosa *umntu* \"person\", *abantu* \"people\"; Zulu *umuntu* \"person\", *abantu* \"people\").
There is no native term for the people who speak Bantu languages because they are not an ethnic group. People speaking Bantu languages refer to their languages by ethnic endonyms, which did not have an indigenous concept prior to European contact for the larger ethnolinguistic phylum named by 19th-century European linguists. Bleek\'s identification was inspired by the anthropological observation of groups frequently self-identifying as \"people\" or \"the true people\" (as is the case, for example, with the term *Khoikhoi*, but this is a *kare* \"praise address\" and not an ethnic name).
The term *narrow Bantu*, excluding those languages classified as Bantoid by Malcolm Guthrie (1948), was introduced in the 1960s.
The prefix *ba-* specifically refers to people. Endonymically, the term for cultural objects, including language, is formed with the *ki-* noun class (Nguni *ísi-*), as in KiSwahili (Swahili language and culture), IsiZulu (Zulu language and culture) and KiGanda (Ganda religion and culture).
In the 1980s, South African linguists suggested referring to these languages as *KiNtu.* The word *kintu* exists in some places, but it means \"thing\", with no relation to the concept of \"language\". In addition, delegates at the African Languages Association of Southern Africa conference in 1984 reported that, in some places, the term *Kintu* has a derogatory significance. This is because *kintu* refers to \"things\" and is used as a dehumanizing term for people who have lost their dignity.
In addition, *Kintu* is a figure in some mythologies.
In the 1990s, the term *Kintu* was still occasionally used by South African linguists. But in contemporary decolonial South African linguistics, the term *Ntu languages* is used.
Within the fierce debate among linguists about the word \"Bantu\", Seidensticker (2024) indicates that there has been a \"profound conceptual trend in which a \"purely technical \[term\] without any non-linguistic connotations was transformed into a designation referring indiscriminately to language, culture, society, and race\".\"
## Origin
The Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in Central Africa. An estimated 2,500--3,000 years ago (1000 BC to 500 BC), speakers of the Proto-Bantu language began a series of migrations eastward and southward, carrying agriculture with them. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, an area where Bantu peoples now constitute nearly the entire population. Some other sources estimate the Bantu Expansion started closer to 3000 BC.
The technical term Bantu, meaning \"human beings\" or simply \"people\", was first used by Wilhelm Bleek (1827--1875), as the concept is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A common characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use words such as *muntu* or *mutu* for \"human being\" or in simplistic terms \"person\", and the plural prefix for human nouns starting with *mu-* (class 1) in most languages is *ba-* (class 2), thus giving *bantu* for \"people\". Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the grammatical structures of Bantu languages.
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# Bantu languages
## Classification
thumb\|upright=1.59\|The approximate locations of the sixteen Guthrie Bantu zones, including the addition of a zone J around the Great Lakes. The Jarawan languages are spoken in Nigeria.
The most widely used classification is an alphanumeric coding system developed by Malcolm Guthrie in his 1948 classification of the Bantu languages. It is mainly geographic. The term \"narrow Bantu\" was coined by the *Benue--Congo Working Group* to distinguish Bantu as recognized by Guthrie, from the Bantoid languages not recognized as Bantu by Guthrie.
In recent times,`{{when|date=July 2017}}`{=mediawiki} the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid languages has been called into doubt, but the term is still widely used.
There is no true genealogical classification of the (Narrow) Bantu languages. Until recently`{{when|date=July 2017}}`{=mediawiki} most attempted classifications only considered languages that happen to fall within traditional Narrow Bantu, but there seems to be a continuum with the related languages of South Bantoid.
At a broader level, the family is commonly split in two depending on the reflexes of proto-Bantu tone patterns: many Bantuists group together parts of zones A through D (the extent depending on the author) as *Northwest Bantu* or *Forest Bantu*, and the remainder as *Central Bantu* or *Savanna Bantu*. The two groups have been described as having mirror-image tone systems: where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone, and vice versa.
Northwest Bantu is more divergent internally than Central Bantu, and perhaps less conservative due to contact with non-Bantu Niger--Congo languages; Central Bantu is likely the innovative line cladistically. Northwest Bantu is not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, with little evidence that it is a historically valid group.
Another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 \"Tervuren\" proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. However, it relies on lexicostatistics, which, because of its reliance on overall similarity rather than shared innovations, may predict spurious groups of conservative languages that are not closely related. Meanwhile, *Ethnologue* has added languages to the Guthrie classification which Guthrie overlooked, while removing the Mbam languages (much of zone A), and shifting some languages between groups (much of zones D and E to a new zone J, for example, and part of zone L to K, and part of M to F) in an apparent effort at a semi-genetic, or at least semi-areal, classification. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few unambiguous ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson (2006) evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, but the result is not a complete portrayal of the family. *Glottolog* has incorporated many of these into their classification.
The languages that share Dahl\'s law may also form a valid group, Northeast Bantu. The infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger--Congo, not just Bantu, is hampered by insufficient data.
### Computational phylogenetic classifications {#computational_phylogenetic_classifications}
Simplified phylogeny of northwestern branches of Bantu by Grollemund (2012):
Other computational phylogenetic analyses of Bantu include Currie et al. (2013), Grollemund et al. (2015), Rexova et al. 2006, Holden et al., 2016, and Whiteley et al. 2018.
### Glottolog classification {#glottolog_classification}
Glottolog (**2021**) does not consider the older geographic classification by Guthrie relevant for its ongoing classification based on more recent linguistic studies, and divides Bantu into four main branches: Bantu A-B10-B20-B30, Central-Western Bantu, East Bantu and Mbam-Bube-Jarawan.
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# Bantu languages
## Language structure {#language_structure}
Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu.
The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of affixes (see Sotho grammar and Ganda noun classes for detailed discussions of these affixes). Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, somewhat like grammatical gender in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plurality is indicated by a change of class, with a resulting change of prefix. All Bantu languages are agglutinative.
The verb has a number of prefixes, though in the western languages these are often treated as independent words. In Swahili, for example, *Kitoto kidogo kimekisoma* (for comparison, *Kamwana kadoko karikuverenga* in Shona language) means \'The small child has read it \[a book\]\'. *kitoto* \'child\' governs the adjective prefix *ki-* (representing the diminutive form of the word) and the verb subject prefix *a-*. Then comes perfect tense *-me-* and an object marker *-ki-* agreeing with implicit *kitabu* \'book\' (from Arabic *kitab*). Pluralizing to \'children\' gives *Vitoto vidogo vimekisoma* (*Vana vadoko varikuverenga* in Shona), and pluralizing to \'books\' (*vitabu*) gives *vitoto vidogo vimevisoma*.
Bantu words are typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most languages having syllables exclusively of this type. The Bushong language recorded by Vansina, however, has final consonants, while slurring of the final syllable (though written) is reported as common among the Tonga of Malawi. The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc.; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly a V- syllable at the start). In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible in most of the documented languages, as far as is understood.
This tendency to avoid consonant clusters in some positions is important when words are imported from English or other non-Bantu languages. An example from Chewa: the word \"school\", borrowed from English, and then transformed to fit the sound patterns of this language, is *sukulu*. That is, *sk-* has been broken up by inserting an epenthetic *-u-*; *-u* has also been added at the end of the word. Another example is *buledi* for \"bread\". Similar effects are seen in loanwords for other non-African CV languages like Japanese. However, a clustering of sounds at the beginning of a syllable can be readily observed in such languages as Shona, and the Makua languages.
With few exceptions, such as Kiswahili and Rutooro, Bantu languages are tonal and have two to four register tones.
### Reduplication
Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem.
- Example: in Swahili, *piga* means \"strike\", *pigapiga* means \"strike repeatedly\".
Well-known words and names that have reduplication include:
- Bafana Bafana, a football team
- Chipolopolo, a football team
- Eric Djemba-Djemba, a footballer
- Lomana LuaLua, a footballer
Repetition emphasizes the repeated word in the context that it is used. For instance, \"Mwenda pole hajikwai,\" means \"He who goes slowly doesn\'t trip,\" while, \"Pole pole ndio mwendo,\" means \"A slow but steady pace wins the race.\" The latter repeats \"pole\" to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace.
As another example, \"Haraka haraka\" would mean \"hurrying just for the sake of hurrying\" (reckless hurry), as in \"Njoo! Haraka haraka\" \[come here! Hurry, hurry\].
In contrast, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the opposite meaning. It usually denotes short durations, or lower intensity of the action, and also means a few repetitions or a little bit more.
- Example 1: In (Xi)Tsonga and (Chi)Shona, *famba* means \"walk\" while *famba-famba* means \"walk around\".
- Example 2: in isiZulu and (si)Swati *hamba* means \"go\", *hambahamba* means \"go a little bit, but not much\".
- Example 3: in both of the above languages *shaya* means \"strike\", *shayashaya* means \"strike a few more times lightly, but not heavy strikes and not too many times\".
- Example 4: In Shona *`{{wikt-lang|sn|kwenya}}`{=mediawiki}* means \"scratch\", *Kwenyakwenya* means \"scratch excessively or a lot\".
- Example 5: In Luhya *cheenda* means \"walk\",*cheendacheenda* means \"take a walk but not far off\", as in buying time before something is ready or a situation or time is right.
### Noun class {#noun_class}
The following is a list of nominal classes in Bantu languages:
Singular classes Plural classes
------------------ --------- ----------------
Number Prefix Number
1 *\*mʊ-* 2
3 *\*mu-* 4
5 *\*dɪ-* 6
7 *\*ki-* 8
9 *\*n-* 10
11 *\*du-*
12 *\*ka-* 13
14 *\*bu-*
15 *\*ku-*
16 *\*pa-*
17 *\*ku-*
18 *\*mu-*
19 *\*pɪ-*
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# Bantu languages
## Language structure {#language_structure}
### Syntax
Virtually all Bantu languages have a subject--verb--object word order, with some exceptions, such as the Nen language, which has a subject--object--verb word order.
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# Bantu languages
## By country {#by_country}
Following is an incomplete list of the principal Bantu languages of each country. Included are those languages that constitute at least 1% of the population and have at least 10% the number of speakers of the largest Bantu language in the country.
Most languages are referred to in English without the class prefix (*Swahili*, *Tswana*, *Ndebele*), but are sometimes seen with the (language-specific) prefix (*Kiswahili*, *Setswana*, *Sindebele*). In a few cases prefixes are used to distinguish languages with the same root in their name, such as Tshilubà and Kiluba (both *Luba*), Umbundu and Kimbundu (both *Mbundu*). The prefixless form typically does not occur in the language itself, but is the basis for other words based on the ethnicity. So, in the country of Botswana the people are the *Batswana*, one person is a *Motswana*, and the language is *Setswana*; and in Uganda, centred on the kingdom of *Buganda*, the dominant ethnicity are the *Baganda* (singular *Muganda*), whose language is *Luganda*.
### Lingua franca {#lingua_franca}
- Swahili (Kiswahili) (350,000; tens of millions as L2)
### Angola
- South Mbundu (Umbundu) (4 million)
- Central North Mbundu (Kimbundu) (3 million)
- North Bakongo (Kikongo) (576,800)
- Ovambo (Ambo) (Oshiwambo) (500,000)
- Luvale (Chiluvale) (500,000)
- Chokwe (Chichokwe) (500,000)
### Botswana
- Tswana (Setswana) (1.6 million)
- Kalanga (Ikalanga) (150,000)
### Burundi
: *Swahili is a recognized national language*
- Kirundi (8.5 -- 10.5 million)
### Cameroon
- Beti (1.7 million: 900,000 Bulu, 600,000 Ewondo, 120,000 Fang, 60,000 Eton, 30,000 Bebele)
- Basaa (230,000)
- Duala (350,000)
- Manenguba languages (230,000)
### Central African Republic {#central_african_republic}
- Mbati (60,000)
- Aka (30,000)
- Pande (8,870)
- Ngando (5,000)
- Ukhwejo
- Kako
- Mpiemo
- Bodo
- Kari
### Comoros
- Shingazija
- Shindzuani
- Shimwali
### Democratic Republic of the Congo {#democratic_republic_of_the_congo}
: *Swahili is a recognized national language*
- Lingala (Ngala) (2 million; 7 million with L2 speakers)
- Luba-Kasai (Tshiluba) (6.5 million)
- Kituba (4.5 million), a Bantu creole
- Kongo (Kikongo) (3.5 million)
- Luba-Katanga (Kiluba) (1.5+ million)
- Songe (Lusonge) (1+ million)
- Nande (Orundandi) (1 million)
- Tetela (Otetela) (800,000)
- Yaka (Iyaka) (700,000+)
- Shi (700,000)
- Yombe (Kiyombe) (670,000)
- Lele (Bashilele) (26,000)
### Equatorial Guinea {#equatorial_guinea}
- Beti (Fang) (300,000)
- Bube (40,000)
### Eswatini
- Swazi (Siswati) (1 million)
### Gabon
- Baka
- Barama
- Bekwel
- Benga
- Bubi
- Bwisi
- Duma
- Fang (500,000)
- Kendell
- Kanin
- Sake
- Sangu
- Seki
- Sighu
- Simba
- Sira
- Northern Teke
- Western Teke
- Tsaangi
- Tsogo
- Vili (3,600)
- Vumbu
- Wandji
- Wumbvu
- Yangho
- Yasa
### India
- Sidi
### Kenya
: *Swahili is the national language. English and Swahili are official languages.*
- Gikuyu (8 million)
- Luhya (6.8 million)
- Kamba (4 million)
- Meru (Kimeru) (2.7 million)
- Gusii (2 million)
- Mijikenda (Giriama, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai, Kauma, Chonyi, Jibana, Digo and Duruma)
- Taita
- Embu
- Mbeere
- Pokomo
- Kuria
- Suba
- Swahili
### Lesotho
- Sesotho (1.8 million)
- Zulu (Isizulu) (300,000)
- Xhosa (Isixhosa)
### Madagascar
- Shimaore
- Shindzuani
### Malawi
- Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (7 million)
- Tumbuka (1 million)
- Yao (1 million)
### Mayotte
- Shimaore
### Mozambique
: *Swahili is a recognized national language*
- Makhuwa (4 million; 7.4 million all Makua)
- Tsonga (Xitsonga) (3.1 million)
- Shona (Ndau) (1.6 million)
- Lomwe (1.5 million)
- Sena (1.3 million)
- Tswa (1.2 million)
- Chuwabu (1.0 million)
- Chopi (800,000)
- Ronga (700,000)
- Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (600,000)
- Yao (Chiyao) (500,000)
- Nyungwe (Cinyungwe/Nhungue)(400,000)
- Tonga (400,000)
- Makonde (400,000)
- Nathembo (25,000)
### Namibia
- Ovambo (Ambo, Oshiwambo) (1,500,000)
- Herero (200,000)
- Kavango (100,000)
- Lozi (Silozi)
### Nigeria
- Jarawa (250,000)
- Mbula-Bwazza (100,000)
- Kulung (40,000)
- Bile (38,000)
- Lame (10,000)
- Mama (2,000--3,000)
- Shiki (1,200)
- Gwa
- Labir
- Dulbu
### Pakistan
- Sidi
### Republic of the Congo {#republic_of_the_congo}
- Kituba (1.2+ million) \[a Bantu creole\]
- Kongo (Kikongo) (1.0 million)
- Teke languages (500,000)
- Yombe (350,000)
- Suundi (120,000)
- Mbosi (110,000)
- Lingala (100,000; ? L2 speakers)
### Rwanda
: *Swahili, Kinyarwanda, English, and French are official languages*
- Kinyarwanda (Kinyarwanda) (10 -- 12 million)
| 729 |
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# Bantu languages
## By country {#by_country}
### Somalia
- Swahili (Mwini dialect)
- Chimwini
- Mushungulu
### South Africa {#south_africa}
According to the South African National Census of 2011:`{{full citation needed|date=July 2017}}`{=mediawiki}
- Zulu (Isizulu) (11,587,374)
- Xhosa (Isixhosa) (8,154,258)
- Sepedi (4,618,576)
- Tswana (Setswana) (4,067,248)
- Sotho (Sesotho) (3,849,563)
- Tsonga (Xitsonga) (2,277,148)
- Swazi (Siswati) (1,297,046)
- Venda (Tshivenda) (1,209,388)
- Southern Ndebele (Transvaal Ndebele) (1,090,223)
- Total Nguni: 22,406,049 (61.98%)
- Total Sotho-Tswana: 13,744,775 (38.02%)
- Total official indigenous language speakers: 36,150,824 (69.83%)
### Tanzania
: *Swahili is the national language*
- Sukuma (5.5 million)
- Gogo (1.5 million)
- Haya (Kihaya) (1.3 million)
- Chaga (Kichaga) (1.2+ million : 600,000 Mochi, 300,000+ Machame, 300,000+ Vunjo)
- Nyamwezi (1.0 million)
- Makonde (1.0 million)
- Ha (1.0 million)
- Nyakyusa (800,000)
- Hehe (800,000)
- Luguru (700,000)
- Bena (600,000)
- Shambala (650,000)
- Nyaturu (600,000)
### Uganda
: *Swahili and English are official languages*
- Luganda (9,295,300)
- Runyankore (4,436,000)
- Lusoga (3,904,600)
- Rukiga (3,129,000)
- Masaba (Lumasaba) (2.7 million)
- Runyoro (1,273,000)
- Konjo (1,118,000)
- Rutooro (1,111,000)
- Lugwere (816,000)
- Kinyarwanda (750,000)
- Samia (684,000)
- Ruuli (250,000)
- Talinga Bwisi (133,000)
- Gungu (110,000)
- Amba (56,000)
- Singa
### Yemen
- Socotra Swahili
### Zambia
- Aushi (Unknown)
- Bemba (3.3 million)
- Tonga (1.0 million)
- Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (800,000)
- Kaonde (240,000)
- Lozi (Silozi) (600,000)
- Lala-Bisa (600,000)
- Nsenga (550,000)
- Tumbuka (Chitumbuka) (500,000)
- Lunda (450,000)
- Nyiha (400,000+)
- Mambwe-Lungu (400,000)
### Zimbabwe
- Shona languages (15 million incl. Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Ndau, Manyika)
- Northern Ndebele (IsiNdebele) (estimated 2 million)
- Tonga
- Chewa/ Nyanja (Chichewa/ChiNyanja)
- Venda
- Kalanga
- Xhosa
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# Bantu languages
## Geographic areas {#geographic_areas}
Map 1 shows Bantu languages in Africa and map 2 a magnification of the Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon area, as of July 2017. `{{multiple image|align=none
|image1=Niger-Congo map.png
|width1=300
|image2=Nigeria Benin Cameroon languages.png
|width2=310
|footer=Localization of the Niger–Congo languages
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Bantu words popularised in western cultures {#bantu_words_popularised_in_western_cultures}
A case has been made out for borrowings of many place-names and even misremembered rhymes -- chiefly from one of the Luba varieties -- in the USA.
Some words from various Bantu languages have been borrowed into western languages. These include: `{{unreferenced section|date=September 2015}}`{=mediawiki} `{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
*{{Wikt-lang|sw|boma|Boma}}
*[[Bomba (Ecuador)|Bomba]]
*[[Bongo drum|Bongos]]
*{{Wikt-lang|sw|bwana|Bwana}}
*[[Candombe]]
*[[Chimpanzee]]
*[[Gumbo]]
*"{{lang|sw|[[Hakuna matata]]}}"
*{{lang|zu|[[Impala]]}}
*{{lang|zu|[[Indaba]]}}
*{{lang|sw|[[Jenga]]}}
*[[Jilo]]
*[[Jumbo (disambiguation)|Jumbo]]
*[[Mbira|Kalimba]]
*[[Kwanzaa]]
*[[Mamba]]
*[[wikt:mambo|Mambo]]
*[[Mbira]]
*{{lang|bnt|[[Marimba]]}}
*[[Rumba]]
*{{lang|sw|[[Safari]]}}
*{{lang|bnt|[[Samba]]}}
*{{lang|sw|[[Simba]]}}
*{{lang|zu|[[Ubuntu philosophy|Ubuntu]]}}
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Writing systems {#writing_systems}
Along with the Latin script and Arabic script orthographies, there are also some modern indigenous writing systems used for Bantu languages:
- The Mwangwego alphabet is an abugida created in 1979 that is sometimes used to write the Chewa language and other languages of Malawi.
- The Mandombe script is an abugida that is used to write the Bantu languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mainly by the Kimbanguist movement.
- The Isibheqe Sohlamvu or Ditema tsa Dinoko script is a featural syllabary used to write the Sintu or Southern Bantu languages
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# Branco River
The **Branco River** (*Rio Branco*; Engl: *White River*) is the principal affluent of the Rio Negro from the north.
## Basin
The river drains the Guayanan Highlands moist forests ecoregion. It is enriched by many streams from the Tepui highlands which separate Venezuela and Guyana from Brazil. Its two upper main tributaries are the Uraricoera and the Takutu. The latter almost links its sources with those of the Essequibo; during floods headwaters of the Branco and those of the Essequibo are connected, allowing a level of exchange in the aquatic fauna (such as fish) between the two systems.
The Branco flows nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river. It is 350 mi long, up to its Uraricoera confluence. It has numerous islands, and, 235 mi above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of rapids.
## Discharge
Average, minimum and maximum discharge of the Branco River at near mouth. Period from 1998 to 2022.
Year Discharge (m^3^/s)
------ -------------------- ------- --------
Min Mean Max Min
1998 5,664 16,435
1999 1,792 9,538 22,576
2000 2,506 9,725 28,697
2001 788 6,551 17,791
2002 1,271 5,219 18,760
2003 640 4,375 13,320
2004 756 4,244 11,959
2005 729 7,868 19,893
2006 2,457 9,899 22,644
2007 845 7,271 15,118
2008 2,739 7,630 17,280
2009 486 4,318 10,735
2010 278 2,754 8,040
## Water chemistry {#water_chemistry}
As suggested by its name, the Branco (literally \"white\" in Portuguese) has whitish water that may appear almost milky due to the inorganic sediments it carries. It is traditionally considered a whitewater river, although the major seasonal fluctuations in its physico-chemical characteristics makes a classification difficult and some consider it clearwater. Especially the river\'s upper parts at the headwaters are clear and flow through rocky country, leading to the suggestion that sediments mainly originate from the lower parts. Furthermore, its chemistry and color may contradict each other compared to the traditional Amazonian river classifications. The Branco River has pH 6--7 and low levels of dissolved organic carbon.
Alfred Russel Wallace mentioned the coloration in \"On the Rio Negro\", a paper read at the 13 June 1853 meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, in which he said: \"\[The Rio Branco\] is white to a remarkable degree, its waters being actually milky in appearance\". Alexander von Humboldt attributed the color to the presence of silicates in the water, principally mica and talc. There is a visible contrast with the waters of the Rio Negro at the confluence of the two rivers. The Rio Negro is a blackwater river with dark tea-colored acidic water (pH 3.5--4.5) that contains high levels of dissolved organic carbon.
## River capture {#river_capture}
Until approximately 20,000 years ago the headwaters of the Branco River flowed not into the Amazon, but via the Takutu Graben in the Rupununi area of Guyana towards the Caribbean. Currently in the rainy season much of the Rupununi area floods, with water draining both to the Amazon (via the Branco River) and the Essequibo River
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# Battle of Lostwithiel
The **Battle of Lostwithiel** took place over a 13-day period from 21 August to 2 September 1644, around the town of Lostwithiel and along the River Fowey valley in Cornwall during the First English Civil War. A Royalist army led by Charles I of England defeated a Parliamentarian force commanded by the Earl of Essex.
Although Essex and most of the cavalry escaped, between 5,000 and 6,000 Parliamentarian infantry were forced to surrender. Since the Royalists were unable to feed so many, they were given a pass back to their own territory, arriving in Southampton a month later having lost nearly half their number to disease and desertion.
Considered one of the worst defeats suffered by Parliament over the course of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, it secured South West England for the Royalists until early 1646.
## Background
During April and May 1644, Parliamentarian commanders Sir William Waller and the Earl of Essex combined their armies and carried out a campaign against King Charles and the Royalist garrisons surrounding Oxford. Trusting Waller to deal with the King in Oxfordshire, Essex divided the Parliamentarian army on 6 June and headed southwest to relieve the Royalist siege of Lyme in Dorset. Lyme had been under siege by King Charles\' nephew, Prince Maurice, and the Royalists for nearly two months.
South-West England at that time was largely under the control of the Royalists. The town of Lyme, however, was a Parliamentarian stronghold and served as an important seaport for the Parliamentarian fleet of the Earl of Warwick. As Essex approached Lyme in mid-June Prince Maurice ended the siege and took his troops west to Exeter.
Essex then proceeded further southwest toward Cornwall with the intent to relieve the siege of Plymouth. Plymouth was the only other significant Parliamentarian stronghold in the South-West and it was under siege by Richard Grenville and Cornish Royalists. Essex had been told by Lord Robartes, a wealthy politician and merchant from Cornwall, that the Parliamentarians would gain considerable military support if he moved against Grenville and freed Plymouth. Given Lord Robartes\' advice, Essex advanced toward Plymouth. His action caused Grenville to end the siege. Essex then advanced further west, believing that he could take full control of the South-West from the Royalists.
Meanwhile, in Oxfordshire, King Charles battled with the Parliamentarians and defeated Sir William Waller at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge on 29 June. On 12 July after a Royalist council of war recommended that Essex be dealt with before he could be reinforced, King Charles and his Oxford army departed Evesham. King Charles accepted the council\'s advice, not solely because it was good strategy, but more so because his Queen was in Exeter, where she had recently given birth to the Princess Henrietta and had been denied safe conduct to Bath by Essex.
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# Battle of Lostwithiel
## Trapped in Cornwall {#trapped_in_cornwall}
On 26 July, King Charles arrived in Exeter and joined his Oxford army with the Royalist forces commanded by Prince Maurice. On that same day, Essex and his Parliamentary force entered Cornwall. One week later, as Essex bivouacked with his army at Bodmin, he learned that King Charles had defeated Waller; brought his Oxford army to the South-West; and joined forces with Prince Maurice. Essex had also seen that he was not getting the military support from the people of Cornwall as Lord Robartes asserted. At that time, Essex understood that he and his army were trapped in Cornwall and his only salvation would be reinforcements or an escape through the port of Fowey by means of the Parliamentarian fleet.
Essex immediately marched his troops five miles south to the small town of Lostwithiel arriving on 2 August. He immediately deployed his men in a defensive arc with detachments on the high ground to the north at Restormel Castle and the high ground to the east at Beacon Hill. Essex also sent a small contingent of foot south to secure the port of Fowey aiming to eventually evacuate his infantry by sea. At Essex\'s disposal was a force of 6,500 foot and 3,000 horse.
Aided through intelligence provided by the people of Cornwall , King Charles followed westward, slowly and deliberately cutting off the potential escape routes that Essex might attempt to utilize. On 6 August King Charles communicated with Essex, calling for him to surrender. Stalling for several days, Essex considered the offer but ultimately refused.
On 11 August, Grenville and the Cornish Royalists entered Bodmin forcing out Essex\'s rear-guard cavalry. Grenville then proceeded south across Respryn Bridge to meet and join forces with King Charles and Prince Maurice. It is estimated that the Royalist forces at that time were composed of 12,000 foot and 7,000 horse. Over the next two days the Royalists deployed detachments along the east side of the River Fowey to prevent a Parliamentarian escape across country. Finally the Royalists sent 200 foot with artillery south to garrison the fort at Polruan, effectively blocking the entrance to the harbour of Fowey. At about that time, Essex learned that reinforcements under the command of Sir John Middleton were turned back by the Royalists at Bridgwater in Somerset.
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# Battle of Lostwithiel
## First battle - 21--30 August 1644 {#first_battle___2130_august_1644}
At 07:00 hours on 21 August, King Charles launched his first attack on Essex and the Parliamentarians at Lostwithiel. From the north, Grenville and the Cornish Royalists attacked Restormel Castle and easily dislodged the Parliamentarians who fell back quickly. From the east, King Charles and the Oxford army captured Beacon Hill with little resistance from the Parliamentarians. Prince Maurice and his force occupied Druid Hill. Casualties were fairly low and by nightfall the fighting ended and the Royalists held the high ground on the north and east sides of Lostwithiel.
For the next couple of days the two opposing forces exchanged fire only in a number of small skirmishes. On 24 August, King Charles further tightened the noose encircling the Parliamentarians when he sent Lord Goring and Sir Thomas Bassett to secure the town of St Blazey and the area to the southwest of Lostwithiel. This reduced the foraging area for the Parliamentarians and access to the coves and inlets in the vicinity of the port of Par.
Essex and the Parliamentarians were now totally surrounded and boxed into a two-mile by five-mile area spanning from Lostwithiel in the north to the port of Fowey in the south. Knowing that he would not be able to fight his way out, Essex made his final plans for an escape. Since a sea evacuation of his cavalry would not be possible, Essex ordered his cavalry commander William Balfour to attempt a breakout to Plymouth. For the infantry, Essex planned to retreat south and meet Lord Warwick and the Parliamentarian fleet at Fowey. At 03:00 hours on 31 August, Balfour and 2,000 members of his cavalry executed the first step of Essex\'s plan when they successfully crossed the River Fowey and escaped intact without engaging the Royalist defenders.
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# Battle of Lostwithiel
## Second battle - 31 August - 2 September 1644 {#second_battle___31_august___2_september_1644}
Early on the morning on 31 August, the Parliamentarians ransacked and looted Lostwithiel and began their withdrawal south. At 07:00 hours, the Royalists observed the actions of the Parliamentarians and immediately proceeded to attack. Grenville attacked from the north. King Charles and Prince Maurice crossed the River Fowey, joined up with Grenville, and entered Lostwithiel. Together the Royalists engaged the Parliamentarian rear-guards and quickly took possession of the town. The Royalist also sent detachments down along the east side of the River Fowey to protect against any further breakouts and to capture the town of Polruan.
The Royalists then began to pursue Essex and the Parliamentarian infantry down the river valley. At the outset the Royalist pushed the Parliamentarians nearly three miles south through the hedged fields, hills and valleys. At the narrow pass near St. Veep, Philip Skippon, Essex\'s commander of the infantry, counter-attacked the Royalists and pushed them back several fields attempting to give Essex time to set up a line of defense further south. At 11:00 hours, the Royalist cavalry mounted a charge and won back the territory lost. There was a lull in the battle at 12:00 hours as King Charles waited for his full army to come up and reform.
The fighting resumed and continued through the afternoon as the Parliamentarians tried to disengage and continue south. At 16:00 hours, the Parliamentarians tried again to counter-attack with their remaining cavalry only to be driven back by King Charles\' Life Guard. About a mile north of Castle Dore, the Parliamentarians right flank began to give way. At 18:00 hours when the Parliamentarians were pushed back to Castle Dore they made their last attempt to rally only to be pushed back and surrounded.
About that time the fighting ended with the Royalists satisfied in their accomplishments of the day. Exhausted and discouraged, the Parliamentarians hunkered down for the night. Later that evening under the darkness of night, Essex and his command staff stole away to the seashore where they used a fishing boat to flee to Plymouth, leaving Skippon in command.
Early on 1 September, Skippon met with his officers to inform them about Essex\'s escape and to discuss alternatives. It was decided that they would approach King Charles and seek terms. Concerned that Parliamentarian reinforcements might be on their way, the King quickly agreed on 2 September to generous terms. The battle was over. Six thousand Parliamentarians were taken as prisoners. Their weapons were taken away and they were marched to Southampton. They suffered the wrath of the Cornish people in route and as many as 3,000 died of exposure and disease along the way. Those that survived the journey were, however, eventually set free. Total casualties associated with the battle were extremely high especially when considering those who died on the march back to Southampton. To those numbers as many as 700 Parliamentarians are estimated to have been killed or wounded during the fighting in Cornwall along with an estimated 500 Royalists.
## Aftermath
The Battle of Lostwithiel was a great victory for King Charles and the greatest loss that the Parliamentarians would suffer in the First English Civil War. For King Charles the victory secured the South-West for the remainder of the war and mitigated criticism for a while against the Royalist war effort.
For the Parliamentarians, the defeat resulted in recriminations with Middleton ultimately being blamed for his failure to break through with reinforcements. The Parliamentarian failure at Lostwithiel along with the failure to defeat King Charles at the Second Battle of Newbury ultimately led Parliament to adopt the Self-denying Ordinance and led to the implementation of the New Model Army
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# Bill Walsh
**William Ernest Walsh** (November 30, 1931 -- July 30, 2007) was an American professional and college football coach. He served as head coach of the San Francisco 49ers and the Stanford Cardinal, during which time he popularized the West Coast offense. After retiring from the 49ers, Walsh worked as a sports broadcaster for several years and then returned as head coach at Stanford for three seasons.
Walsh went 102--63--1 (wins-losses-ties) with the 49ers, winning 10 of his 14 postseason games along with six division titles, three NFC Championship titles, and three Super Bowls. He was named NFL Coach of the Year in 1981 and 1984. In 1993, he was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He is widely considered amongst the greatest coaches in NFL history.
## Early life {#early_life}
Walsh was born in Fremont, California. He attended Hayward High School in Hayward in the San Francisco Bay Area, where he played running back. Walsh played quarterback at the College of San Mateo for two seasons. (Both John Madden and Walsh played and coached at the College of San Mateo early in their careers.) After playing at the College of San Mateo, Walsh transferred to San José State University, where he played tight end and defensive end. He also participated in intercollegiate boxing, winning the golden glove.
Walsh graduated from San Jose State with a bachelor\'s degree in physical education in 1955. After two years in the U.S. Army participating on their boxing team, Walsh built a championship team at Washington High School in Fremont before becoming an assistant coach at Cal, Stanford and then the Oakland Raiders in 1966.
## College coaching career {#college_coaching_career}
He served under Bob Bronzan as a graduate assistant coach on the Spartans football coaching staff and graduated with a master\'s degree in physical education from San Jose State in 1959. His master\'s thesis was entitled *Flank Formation Football \-- Stress: Defense*. Thesis 796.W228f.
Following graduation, Walsh coached the football and swim teams at Washington High School in Fremont, California. While there he interviewed for an assistant coaching position with the new head coach of the University of California, Berkeley California Golden Bears football team, Marv Levy.
\"I was very impressed, individually, by his knowledge, by his intelligence, by his personality, and hired him,\" Levy said. Levy and Walsh, two future NFL Hall of Famers, would never produce a winning season for the Golden Bears.
Leaving Berkeley, Walsh did a stint at Stanford University as an assistant coach of its Cardinal football team before beginning his pro coaching career.
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# Bill Walsh
## Professional coaching career {#professional_coaching_career}
### Early years {#early_years}
Walsh began his pro coaching career in 1966 as an assistant with the AFL\'s Oakland Raiders. There he was versed in the downfield-oriented \"vertical\" passing offense favored by Al Davis, an acolyte of Sid Gillman.
Walsh left the Raiders the next year to become the head coach and general manager of the San Jose Apaches of the Continental Football League (CFL). He led the Apaches to second place in the Pacific Division, but the team ceased all football operations prior to the start of the 1968 CFL season.
In 1968, Walsh joined the staff of head coach Paul Brown of the AFL expansion Cincinnati Bengals, where he coached wide receivers from 1968 to 1970. It was there that Walsh developed the philosophy now known as the \"West Coast offense\". Cincinnati\'s new quarterback, Virgil Carter, was known for his great mobility and accuracy but lacked a strong arm necessary to throw deep passes. To suit his strengths, Walsh suggested a modification of the downfield based \"vertical passing scheme\" he had learned during his time with the Raiders with one featuring a \"horizontal\" approach that relied on quick, short throws, often spreading the ball across the entire width of the field. In 1971 Walsh was given the additional responsibility of coaching the quarterbacks, and Carter went on to lead the league in pass completion percentage.
Ken Anderson eventually replaced Carter as starting quarterback, and, together with star wide receiver Isaac Curtis, produced a consistent, effective offensive attack.
When Brown retired as head coach following the 1975 season and appointed Bill \"Tiger\" Johnson as his successor, Walsh resigned and served as an assistant coach in 1976 for the San Diego Chargers under head coach Tommy Prothro. In a 2006 interview, Walsh claimed that during his tenure with the Bengals, Brown \"worked against my candidacy\" to be a head coach anywhere in the league. \"All the way through I had opportunities, and I never knew about them\", Walsh said. \"And then when I left him, he called whoever he thought was necessary to keep me out of the NFL.\" Walsh also claimed that Brown kept talking him down any time Brown was called by NFL teams considering hiring Walsh as a head coach.
In 1977, Walsh was hired by Stanford University as the head coach of its Cardinal football team, where he stayed for two seasons. He was quite successful, with his teams posting a 9--3 record in 1977 with a win in the Sun Bowl, and going 8--4 in 1978 with a win in the Bluebonnet Bowl. His notable players at Stanford included quarterbacks Guy Benjamin, Steve Dils, wide receivers James Lofton and Ken Margerum, linebacker Gordy Ceresino, and running back Darrin Nelson. Walsh was the Pac-8 Conference Coach of the Year in 1977.
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# Bill Walsh
## Professional coaching career {#professional_coaching_career}
### 49ers head coach {#ers_head_coach}
On January 9, 1979, Walsh resigned as head coach at Stanford, and San Francisco 49ers team owner Edward J. DeBartolo, Jr. fired head coach Fred O\'Connor and general manager Joe Thomas following a 2--14 in 1978 season. Walsh was appointed head coach of the 49ers the next day.
The 49ers went 2-14 again in 1979. Hidden behind that record were organizational changes made by Walsh that set the team on a better course, including selecting Notre Dame quarterback Joe Montana in the third round of the 1979 NFL draft.
In 1980, starting quarterback Steve DeBerg got the 49ers off to a 3--0 start, but after a week 6 blowout loss to the Dallas Cowboys by a score of 59--14, Walsh gave Montana a chance to start. On December 7 vs. the New Orleans Saints, the second-year player brought the 49ers back from a 35--7 halftime deficit to a 38--35 overtime win. In spite of this switch, the team struggled to a 6--10 finish -- a record that belied a championship team in the making.
#### 1981 championship
In 1981, Walsh\'s efforts as head coach led the team to a 13--3 regular season. The 13 wins were a franchise record at the time, and were three more than they had won in the previous three seasons combined. Key victories were two wins each over the Los Angeles Rams and the Dallas Cowboys. The Rams were only two seasons removed from a Super Bowl appearance, and had dominated the series with the 49ers since 1967, winning 23, losing 3 and tying 1. San Francisco\'s two wins over the Rams in 1981 marked the shift of dominance in favor of the 49ers that lasted until 1998 with 30 wins (including 17 consecutively) against only 6 defeats. The 49ers blew out the Cowboys in week 6 of the regular season. On *Monday Night Football* that week, the win was not included in the halftime highlights. Walsh felt that this was because the Cowboys were scheduled to play the Rams the next week in a Sunday night game and that showing the highlights of the 49ers\' win would potentially hurt the game\'s ratings. However, Walsh used this as a motivating factor for his team, who felt they were disrespected.
The 49ers faced the Cowboys again in the NFC title game. The contest was very close, and in the fourth quarter Walsh called a series of running plays as the 49ers marched down the field against the Cowboys\' prevent defense, which had been expecting the 49ers to mainly pass. The 49ers came from behind to win the game on Joe Montana\'s pass completion to Dwight Clark for a touchdown, a play that came to be known simply as The Catch, propelling Walsh to his first appearance in a Super Bowl. Walsh would later write that the 49ers\' two wins over the Rams showed a shift of power in their division, while the wins over the Cowboys showed a shift of power in the conference.
Two weeks later, on January 24, 1982, San Francisco faced the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XVI, winning 26--21 for the team\'s first NFL championship. Only a year removed from back-to-back two-win seasons, the 49ers had risen from the cellar to the top of the NFL in just two seasons. What came to be known as the West Coast offense developed by Walsh had proven a winner.
In all, Walsh served as 49ers head coach for 10 years, winning three Super Bowl championships, in the 1981, 1984, and 1988 seasons, and establishing a new NFL record.
Walsh had a disciplined approach to game-planning, famously scripting the first 10--15 offensive plays before the start of each game. His innovative play calling and design earned him the nickname \"The Genius\". In the ten-year span under Walsh, San Francisco scored 3,714 points (24.4 per game), the most of any team in the league.
In addition to Joe Montana, Walsh drafted Ronnie Lott, Charles Haley, and Jerry Rice, each one going on to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He also traded a 2nd and 4th round pick in the 1987 draft for Steve Young, who took over from Montana, led the team to Super Bowl success, and was enshrined in Canton after his playing career. Walsh\'s success at every level of football, especially with the 49ers, earned him his own ticket to Canton in 1993.
On January 22, 1989, Walsh coached his final game with the 49ers, the memorable Super Bowl XXIII in which San Francisco beat Cincinnati 20--16. Walsh resigned as the 49ers head coach after the game. Walsh admitted years later that he immediately regretted the decision saying that he left too soon.
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# Bill Walsh
## Professional coaching career {#professional_coaching_career}
### Coaching tree {#coaching_tree}
#### Upline
Walsh\'s upline coaching tree included working as assistant for American Football League great and Hall of Fame head coach Al Davis and NFL legend and Hall of Famer Paul Brown, and, through Davis, AFL great and Hall of Fame head coach Sid Gillman of the then AFL Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers.
#### Downline
Tree updated through December 9, 2015.
Many Walsh assistants went on to become head coaches,. including George Seifert, Mike Holmgren, Ray Rhodes, and Dennis Green. Seifert succeeded Walsh as 49ers head coach, and guided San Francisco to victories in Super Bowl XXIV and Super Bowl XXIX. Holmgren won a Super Bowl with the Green Bay Packers, and made 3 Super Bowl appearances as a head coach: 2 with the Packers, and another with the Seattle Seahawks. These coaches in turn have their own disciples who have used Walsh\'s West Coast system, such as former Denver Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan and former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak. Mike Shanahan was an offensive coordinator under George Seifert and went on to win Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXIII during his time as head coach of the Denver Broncos. Kubiak was first a quarterback coach with the 49ers, and then offensive coordinator for Shanahan with the Broncos. In 2015, he became the Broncos\' head coach and led Denver to victory in Super Bowl 50. Dennis Green trained Tony Dungy, who won a Super Bowl with the Indianapolis Colts, and Brian Billick with his brother-in law and linebackers coach Mike Smith. Billick won a Super Bowl as head coach of the Baltimore Ravens.
Mike Holmgren trained many of his assistants to become head coaches, including Jon Gruden and Andy Reid. Gruden won a Super Bowl with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Reid served as head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles from 1999 to 2012, and guided the Eagles to multiple winning seasons and numerous playoff appearances, including 1 Super Bowl appearance. Ever since 2013, Reid has served as head coach of the Kansas City Chiefs. He was finally able to win a Super Bowl, when his Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl LIV, and two consecutive when his Chiefs defeated the Eagles in Super Bowl LVII and the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl LVIII. In addition to this, Marc Trestman, former head coach of the Chicago Bears, served as offensive coordinator under Seifert in the 90\'s. Gruden himself would train Mike Tomlin, who led the Pittsburgh Steelers to their sixth Super Bowl championship, and Jim Harbaugh, whose 49ers would face his brother, John Harbaugh, whom Reid himself trained, and the Baltimore Ravens at Super Bowl XLVII, which marked the Ravens\' second World Championship.
Bill Walsh was viewed as a strong advocate for African-American head coaches in the NFL and NCAA. Thus, the impact of Walsh also changed the NFL into an equal opportunity for African-American coaches. Along with Ray Rhodes and Dennis Green, Tyrone Willingham became the head coach at Stanford, then later Notre Dame and Washington. One of Mike Shanahan\'s assistants, Karl Dorrell, went on to be the head coach at UCLA. Walsh directly helped propel Dennis Green into the NFL head coaching ranks by offering to take on the head coaching job at Stanford.
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# Bill Walsh
## Professional coaching career {#professional_coaching_career}
### Later years {#later_years}
After leaving the coaching ranks immediately following his team\'s victory in Super Bowl XXIII, Walsh went to work as a broadcaster for NBC, teaming with Dick Enberg to form the lead broadcasting team, replacing Merlin Olsen.
During his time with NBC, rumors began to surface that Walsh would coach again in the NFL. There were at least two known instances.
First, according to a February 2015 article by Mike Florio of NBC Sports, after a 5--11 season in 1989, the Patriots fired Raymond Berry and unsuccessfully attempted to lure Walsh to Foxborough to become head coach and general manager. When that failed, New England promoted defensive coordinator Rod Rust; the team split its first two games and then lost 14 straight in 1990.
Second, late in the 1990 season, Walsh was rumored to become Tampa Bay\'s next head coach and general manager after the team fired Ray Perkins and promoted Richard Williamson on an interim basis. Part of the speculation was fueled by the fact that Walsh\'s contract with NBC, which ran for 1989 and 1990, would soon be up for renewal, to say nothing of the pressure Hugh Culverhouse faced to increase fan support and to fill the seats at Tampa Stadium. However, less than a week after Super Bowl XXV, Walsh not only declined Tampa Bay\'s offer, but he and NBC agreed on a contract extension. Walsh would continue in his role with NBC for 1991. Meanwhile, after unsuccessfully courting then-recently fired Eagles coach Buddy Ryan or Giants then-defensive coordinator Bill Belichick to man the sidelines for Tampa Bay in 1991, the Bucs stuck with Williamson. Under Williamson\'s leadership, Tampa Bay won only three games in 1991.
On January 15, 1992, Walsh agreed to return to Stanford to serve as their head coach with a five-year contract with an annual salary of \$350,000 to replace Dennis Green; he immediately named Terry Shea as offensive coordinator. That year, he led the Cardinal to a 10--3 record and a Pacific-10 Conference co-championship; it was the first conference championship for the program since 1971. Stanford finished the season with a victory over Penn State in the Blockbuster Bowl on January 1, 1993, and a #9 ranking in the final AP Poll. In November 1994, after consecutive losing seasons, Walsh left Stanford and retired from coaching.
In 1996, Walsh returned to the 49ers as an administrative aide. Walsh was the vice president and general manager for the 49ers from 1999 to 2001 and was a special consultant to the team for three years afterwards.
In 2004, Walsh was appointed as special assistant to the athletic director at Stanford. In 2005, after then-athletic director Ted Leland stepped down, Walsh was named interim athletic director. He also acted as a consultant for his alma mater San Jose State University in their search for an athletic director and Head Football Coach in 2005.
Walsh was also the author of three books, a motivational speaker, and taught classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business.
Walsh was a board member for the Lott IMPACT Trophy, which is named after Pro Football Hall of Fame defensive back Ronnie Lott, and is awarded annually to college football\'s Defensive IMPACT Player of the Year. Walsh served as a keynote speaker at the award\'s banquet.
## Awards and honors {#awards_and_honors}
- 1989 -- Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
- 1993 -- Pro Football Hall of Fame
- 1998 -- San Jose State Hall of Fame and the SJSU Tower Award, the highest award given by SJSU
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# Bill Walsh
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Bill married his college sweetheart Geri, and had 3 children; Steve, Craig and Elizabeth.
## Death
Bill Walsh died of leukemia on July 30, 2007, at his home in Woodside, California.
Following Walsh\'s death, the playing field at the former Candlestick Park was renamed \"Bill Walsh Field\". Additionally, the regular San Jose State versus Stanford football game was renamed the \"Bill Walsh Legacy Game\". Super Bowl XLII was also dedicated to Walsh\'s memory; at the end of the player introduction ceremonies, his son, Craig, accompanied by Ronnie Lott, Jerry Rice and Steve Young, performed the ceremonial coin toss with New York Giants captain Michael Strahan, playing his final career NFL game, calling the toss on behalf of his Giants co-captains and the New England Patriots\' captains.
## Head coaching record {#head_coaching_record}
### College
### NFL
Team Year Regular Season
---------- ------ ---------------- -------
Won Lost Ties Win %
SF 1979 2 14
SF 1980 6 10
SF 1982 3 6
SF Total 92 59
Total 92 59
## Books
- Bill Walsh and Glenn Dickey, *Building a Champion: On Football and the Making of the 49ers*. St Martin\'s Press, 1990. (`{{ISBN|0-312-04969-2}}`{=mediawiki}).
- Bill Walsh, Brian Billick and James A. Peterson, *Finding the Winning Edge*. Sports Publishing, 1998. (`{{ISBN|1-571-67172-2}}`{=mediawiki}).
- Bill Walsh with Steve Jamison and Craig Walsh, *The Score Takes Care of Itself: My Philosophy of Leadership*. Penguin Group Publishing, 2009 (`{{ISBN|978-1-59184-266-8}}`{=mediawiki})
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# Barge
A **barge** is typically a flat-bottomed vessel which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion. Original use was on inland waterways, while modern use is on both inland and marine water environments. The first modern barges were pulled by tugs, but on inland waterways, most are pushed by pusher boats, or other vessels. The term *barge* has a rich history, and therefore there are many types of barges.
## History of the barge {#history_of_the_barge}
### Etymology
*Barge* is attested from 1300, from Old French *barge*, from Vulgar Latin *barga*. The word originally could refer to any small boat; the modern meaning arose around 1480. *Bark* \"small ship\" is attested from 1420, from Old French *barque*, from Vulgar Latin *barca* (400 AD). A more precise meaning (see Barque) arose in the 17th century and often takes the French spelling for disambiguation. Both are probably derived from the Latin *barica*, from Greek *baris* \"Egyptian boat\", from Coptic *bari* \"small boat\", hieroglyphic Egyptian D58-G29-M17-M17-D21-P1 and similar *ba-y-r* for \"basket-shaped boat\". By extension, the term \"embark\" literally means to board the kind of boat called a \"barque\".
### British river barges {#british_river_barges}
#### 18th century {#th_century}
In Great Britain, a merchant barge was originally a flat bottomed merchant vessel for use on navigable rivers. Most of these barges had sails. For traffic on the River Severn, the barge was described thus: \"The lesser sort are called barges and frigates, being from forty to sixty feet in length, having a single mast and square sail, and carrying from twenty to forty tons burthen.\" The larger vessels were called trows. On the River Irwell, there was reference to barges passing below Barton Aqueduct with their mast and sails standing. Early barges on the Thames were called west country barges.
#### 19th century {#th_century_1}
In the United Kingdom, the word barge had many meanings by the 1890s, and these varied locally. On the Mersey, a barge was called a \'Flat\', on the Thames a Lighter or barge, and on the Humber a \'Keel\'. A Lighter had neither mast nor rigging. A keel did have a single mast with sails. Barge and lighter were used indiscriminately. A local distinction was that any flat that was not propelled by steam was a barge, although it might be a sailing flat.
The term Dumb barge was probably taken into use to end the confusion. The term Dumb barge surfaced in the early nineteenth century. It first denoted the use of a barge as a mooring platform in a fixed place. As it went up and down with the tides, it made a very convenient mooring place for steam vessels. Within a few decades, the term dumb barge evolved and came to mean: \'a vessel propelled by oars only\'. By the 1890s, Dumb barge was still used only on the Thames.
By 1880, barges on British rivers and canals were often towed by steam tugboats. On the Thames, many dumb barges still relied on their poles, oars and the tide. Others dumb barges made use of about 50 tugboats to tow them to their destinations. While many coal barges were towed, many dumb barges that handled single parcels were not.
#### The Thames barge and Dutch barge today {#the_thames_barge_and_dutch_barge_today}
On the British river system and larger waterways, the Thames sailing barge, and Dutch barge and unspecified other styles of barge, are still known as barges. The term Dutch barge is nowadays often used to refer to an accommodation ship, but originally refers to the slightly larger Dutch version of the Thames sailing barge.
### British canals: narrowboats and widebeams {#british_canals_narrowboats_and_widebeams}
During the Industrial Revolution, a substantial network of canals was developed in Great Britain from 1750 onward. Whilst the largest of these could accommodate ocean-going vessels, e.g. the later Manchester Ship Canal, a complex network of smaller canals was also developed. These smaller canals had locks, bridges and tunnels that were at minimum only 7 ft wide at the waterline. On wider sections, standard barges and other vessels could trade, but full access to the network necessitated the parallel development of the narrowboat, which usually had a beam a couple of inches less to allow for clearance, e.g. 6 ft . It was soon realized that the narrow locks were too limiting, and later locks were therefore doubled in width to 14 ft. This led to the development of the widebeam canal boat. The narrowboat (one word) definition in the *Oxford English Dictionary* is: `{{Blockquote|Narrowboat: a British canal boat of traditional long, narrow design, steered with a tiller; spec. one not exceeding 7 feet (approx. 2.1 metres) in width or 72 feet (approx. 21.9 metres) in length}}`{=mediawiki}
The narrowboats were initially also known as barges, and the new canals were constructed with an adjacent towpath along which draft horses walked, towing the barges. These types of canal craft are so specific that on the British canal system the term \'barge\' is no longer used to describe narrowboats and widebeams. Narrowboats and widebeams are still seen on canals, mostly for leisure cruising, and now engine-powered.
### Crew and pole {#crew_and_pole}
The people who moved barges were known as lightermen. Poles are used on barges to fend off other nearby vessels or a wharf. These are often called \'pike poles\'. The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying \"I wouldn\'t touch that \[subject/thing\] with a barge pole.\"
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# Barge
## History of the barge {#history_of_the_barge}
### The 19th century American barge {#the_19th_century_american_barge}
In the United States a barge was not a sailing vessel by the end of the 19th century. Indeed, barges were often created by cutting down (razeeing) sailing vessels. In New York this was an accepted meaning of the term barge. The somewhat smaller scow was built as such, but the scow also had its sailing counterpart the sailing scow.
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# Barge
## The modern barge {#the_modern_barge}
### The iron barge {#the_iron_barge}
The innovation that led to the modern barge was the use of iron barges towed by a steam tugboat. These were first used to transport grain and other bulk products. From about 1840 to 1870 the towed iron barge was quickly introduced on the Rhine, Danube, Don, Dniester, and rivers in Egypt, India and Australia. Many of these barges were built in Great Britain.
Nowadays \'barge\' generally refers to a dumb barge. In Europe, a Dumb barge is: *An inland waterway transport freight vessel designed to be towed which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion*. In America, a barge is generally pushed.
### Modern use {#modern_use}
Barges are used today for transporting low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods that way is very low and for larger project cargo, such as offshore wind turbine blades. Barges are also used for very heavy or bulky items; a typical American barge measures 195 x, and can carry up to about 1500 ST of cargo. The most common European barges measure 76.5 x and can carry up to about 2450 t.
As an example, on June 26, 2006, in the US a 565 ST catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled after delivery, but shipping an assembled unit reduces costs and avoids reliance on construction labor at the delivery site, which in the case of the reactor was still recovering from Hurricane Katrina. Of the reactor\'s 700 mi journey, only about 40 miles were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery.
The Transportation Institute at Texas A&M found that inland barge transportation in the US produces far fewer emissions of carbon dioxide for each ton of cargo moved compared to transport by truck or rail. According to the study, transporting cargo by barge produces 43% less greenhouse gas emissions than rail and more than 800% less than trucks. Environmentalists claim that in areas where barges, tugboats and towboats idle may produce more emissions like in the locks and dams of the Mississippi River.
Self-propelled barges may be used for traveling downstream or upstream in placid waters; they are operated as an unpowered barge, with the assistance of a tugboat, when traveling upstream in faster waters. Canal barges are usually made for the particular canal in which they will operate.
Unpowered vessels---barges---may be used for other purposes, such as large accommodation vessels, towed to where they are needed and stationed there as long as necessary. An example is the Bibby Stockholm.
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# Barge
## Types
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In the United States, \"deck barge\" may refer to flat deck barges, work flats, fuel flats or flats. Smaller flats are used in shipyards to permit workers to access vessels in drydocks.
## Gallery
<File:PénicheRecyclageFerrailles2008Deûle2.jpg%7CA> self propelled barge carrying recycling material on Deûle channel in Lambersart, France <File:Barge> with cars.jpg\|Self-propelled car barge on the River Danube <File:Péniches> sur le Canal du Midi.jpg\|Barges near Toulouse, France <File:Andromeda> (ship, 1958) Hannover Mittellandkanal 2006 by-RaBoe.jpg\|Self-propelled barge *Andromeda* in canal at Hanover, Germany <File:Messina> Karden Bug.jpg\|Tank barge on the River Moselle, Germany <File:CrushedStoneBarge.jpg%7CSelf-propelled> barge carrying bulk crushed stone <File:IjmuidenBarge.jpg%7CSelf-propelled> barge in the port of IJmuiden, Netherlands <File:Pegasus> barge being moved by Freedom Star and towboat American 2.jpg\|Deck barge carrying the Space Shuttle external tank for STS-119 under tow to Port Canaveral, Florida, United States <File:Yangzhou-Modern-Grand-Canal-boats-3351.JPG%7CSelf-propelled> barges on the Grand Canal of China near Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China <File:CoalbargePittsburgh.JPG%7CCoal> barges passing Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on the Ohio River <File:Suphannahongsa-docked.jpg%7CRoyal> Barge *Suphannahong* docked at Wat Arun pier, one of the Thai royal barges featured in the royal barge ceremony <File:Donna> York.jpg\|Towboat *Donna York* pushing barges of coal up the Ohio River at Louisville, Kentucky, United States <File:Ilia> Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Volga Boatmen (1870-1873).jpg\|*Barge Haulers on the Volga* (1870--73), by Ilya Repin <File:Kapal> tongkang.jpg\|*Tongkang* or car barge, landed on Ketapang Port, Banyuwangi, Indonesia <File:Slipway> at portland.JPG\|Slipway at Portland Harbour, Dorset, England, holding a split dump barge (on right) <File:Barge> on Mosel by Kues (1).jpg\|Barge on the river Mosel in Germany <File:Water> Barge YW-59.jpg\|US Navy Water Type B ship Barge, YW-59, launched August 29, 1941 <File:YFN-958-Covered> Lighter Barge-Non-Self-Propelled.jpg\|YFN-958 a covered lighter barge, non-self-propelled. Built by Mare Island Navy Shipyard in 1944. <File:Concrete> Barge - Erie Canal - Lock 13 - 3.jpg\|Ferrocement Barge, US-102, in the Erie Canal <File:Ww2> concrete barge, National Waterway Museum.jpg\|WW2 concrete barge at the National Waterways Museum, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire, UK <File:Sun> Shining Into a Barge.jpg\|Sun shining into the empty asphalt barge *Endeavour* while under repair in Muskegon, Michigan <File:Pelican> Barge, Darling Harbor, Sydney, NSW, AU.jpg\|A barge decorated to look like a pelican carrying a jumbotron display, Sydney <File:AWB> Rajawali Natuna.jpg\|Accommodation Work Barge <File:Prem> Tinsulanonda International School barge in Bangkok
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# Battle
thumb\|upright=1.35\|British (red) and French (blue) armies begin engagement of the decisive Battle of Waterloo, with Prussian forces (gray) arriving from the northeast \|alt=Overhead diagram of movement of forces at Battle of Waterloo A **battle** is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force commitment. An engagement with only limited commitment between the forces and without decisive results is sometimes called a skirmish.
The word \"battle\" can also be used infrequently to refer to an entire operational campaign, although this usage greatly diverges from its conventional or customary meaning. Generally, the word \"battle\" is used for such campaigns if referring to a protracted combat encounter in which either one or both of the combatants had the same methods, resources, and strategic objectives throughout the encounter. Some prominent examples of this would be the Battle of the Atlantic, Battle of Britain, and the Battle of France, all in World War II.
Wars and military campaigns are guided by military strategy, whereas battles take place on a level of planning and execution known as operational mobility. German strategist Carl von Clausewitz stated that \"the employment of battles \... to achieve the object of war\" was the essence of strategy.
## Etymology
Battle is a loanword from the Old French *bataille*, first attested in 1297, from Late Latin *battualia*, meaning \"exercise of soldiers and gladiators in fighting and fencing\", from Late Latin (taken from Germanic) *battuere* \"beat\", from which the English word battery is also derived via Middle English *batri*.
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# Battle
## Characteristics
The defining characteristic of the fight as a concept in military science has changed with the variations in the organisation, employment and technology of military forces. The English military historian John Keegan suggested an ideal definition of battle as \"something which happens between two armies leading to the moral then physical disintegration of one or the other of them\" but the origins and outcomes of battles can rarely be summarized so neatly. Battle in the 20th and 21st centuries is defined as the combat between large components of the forces in a military campaign, used to achieve military objectives. Where the duration of the battle is longer than a week, it is often for reasons of planning called an operation. Battles can be planned, encountered or forced by one side when the other is unable to withdraw from combat.
A battle always has as its purpose the reaching of a mission goal by use of military force. A victory in the battle is achieved when one of the opposing sides forces the other to abandon its mission and surrender its forces, routs the other (i.e., forces it to retreat or renders it militarily ineffective for further combat operations) or annihilates the latter, resulting in their deaths or capture. A battle may end in a Pyrrhic victory, which ultimately favors the defeated party. If no resolution is reached in a battle, it can result in a stalemate. A conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision by a direct battle using conventional warfare often becomes an insurgency.
Until the 19th century the majority of battles were of short duration, many lasting a part of a day. (The Battle of Preston (1648), the Battle of Nations (1813) and the Battle of Gettysburg (1863) were exceptional in lasting three days.) This was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying armies in the field or conducting night operations. The means of prolonging a battle was typically with siege warfare. Improvements in transport and the sudden evolving of trench warfare, with its siege-like nature during the First World War in the 20th century, lengthened the duration of battles to days and weeks. This created the requirement for unit rotation to prevent combat fatigue, with troops preferably not remaining in a combat area of operations for more than a month.
The use of the term \"battle\" in military history has led to its misuse when referring to almost any scale of combat, notably by strategic forces involving hundreds of thousands of troops that may be engaged in either one battle at a time (Battle of Leipzig) or operations (Battle of Wuhan). The space a battle occupies depends on the range of the weapons of the combatants. A \"battle\" in this broader sense may be of long duration and take place over a large area, as in the case of the Battle of Britain or the Battle of the Atlantic. Until the advent of artillery and aircraft, battles were fought with the two sides within sight, if not reach, of each other. The depth of the battlefield has also increased in modern warfare with inclusion of the supporting units in the rear areas; supply, artillery, medical personnel etc. often outnumber the front-line combat troops.
Battles are made up of a multitude of individual combats, skirmishes and small engagements and the combatants will usually only experience a small part of the battle. To the infantryman, there may be little to distinguish between combat as part of a minor raid or a big offensive, nor is it likely that he anticipates the future course of the battle; few of the British infantry who went over the top on the first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, would have anticipated that the battle would last five months. Some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a crushing defeat to the French at the Battle of Waterloo fully expected to have to fight again the next day (at the Battle of Wavre).
## Battlespace
Battlespace is a unified strategic concept to integrate and combine armed forces for the military theatre of operations, including air, information, land, sea and space. It includes the environment, factors and conditions that must be understood to apply combat power, protect the force or complete the mission, comprising enemy and friendly armed forces; facilities; weather; terrain; and the electromagnetic spectrum.
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# Battle
## Factors
Battles are decided by various factors, the number and quality of combatants and equipment, the skill of commanders and terrain are among the most prominent. Weapons and armour can be decisive; on many occasions armies have achieved victory through more advanced weapons than those of their opponents. An extreme example was in the Battle of Omdurman, in which a large army of Sudanese Mahdists armed in a traditional manner were destroyed by an Anglo-Egyptian force equipped with Maxim machine guns and artillery.
On some occasions, simple weapons employed in an unorthodox fashion have proven advantageous; Swiss pikemen gained many victories through their ability to transform a traditionally defensive weapon into an offensive one. Zulus in the early 19th century were victorious in battles against their rivals in part because they adopted a new kind of spear, the iklwa. Forces with inferior weapons have still emerged victorious at times, for example in the Wars of Scottish Independence. Disciplined troops are often of greater importance; at the Battle of Alesia, the Romans were greatly outnumbered but won because of superior training.
Battles can also be determined by terrain. Capturing high ground has been the main tactic in innumerable battles. An army that holds the high ground forces the enemy to climb and thus wear themselves down. Areas of jungle and forest, with dense vegetation act as force-multipliers, of benefit to inferior armies. Terrain may have lost importance in modern warfare, due to the advent of aircraft, though the terrain is still vital for camouflage, especially for guerrilla warfare.
Generals and commanders also play an important role, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Khalid ibn Walid, Subutai and Napoleon Bonaparte were all skilled generals and their armies were extremely successful at times. An army that can trust the commands of their leaders with conviction in its success invariably has a higher morale than an army that doubts its every move. The British in the naval Battle of Trafalgar owed its success to the reputation of Admiral Lord Nelson.
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# Battle
## Types
Battles can be fought on land, at sea, and in the air. Naval battles have occurred since before the 5th century BC. Air battles have been far less common, due to their late conception, the most prominent being the Battle of Britain in 1940. Since the Second World War, land or sea battles have come to rely on air support. During the Battle of Midway, five aircraft carriers were sunk without either fleet coming into direct contact.
- A pitched battle is an encounter where opposing sides agree on the time and place of combat.
- A *battle of encounter* (or *encounter battle*) is a meeting engagement where the opposing sides collide in the field without either having prepared their attack or defence.
- A *battle of attrition* aims to inflict losses on an enemy that are less sustainable compared to one\'s own losses. These need not be greater numerical losses -- if one side is much more numerous than the other then pursuing a strategy based on attrition can work even if casualties on both sides are about equal. Many battles of the Western Front in the First World War were intentionally (Verdun) or unintentionally (Somme) attrition battles.
- A *battle of breakthrough* aims to pierce the enemy\'s defences, thereby exposing the vulnerable flanks which can be turned.
- A *battle of encirclement*---the `{{interlanguage link|Kesselschlacht|de}}`{=mediawiki} of the German battle of manoeuvre (*\[\[bewegungskrieg\]\]*)---surrounds the enemy in a pocket.
- A *battle of envelopment* involves an attack on one or both flanks; the classic example being the double envelopment of the Battle of Cannae.
- A *battle of annihilation* is one in which the defeated party is destroyed in the field, such as the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile.
Battles are usually hybrids of different types listed above.
A *decisive battle* is one with political effects, determining the course of the war such as the Battle of Smolensk or bringing hostilities to an end, such as the Battle of Hastings or the Battle of Hattin. A decisive battle can change the balance of power or boundaries between countries. The concept of the *decisive battle* became popular with the publication in 1851 of Edward Creasy\'s *The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World*. British military historians J.F.C. Fuller (*The Decisive Battles of the Western World*) and B.H. Liddell Hart (*Decisive Wars of History*), among many others, have written books in the style of Creasy\'s work.
### Land
There is an obvious difference in the way battles have been fought. Early battles were probably fought between rival hunting bands as unorganized crowds. During the Battle of Megiddo, the first reliably documented battle in the fifteenth century BC, both armies were organised and disciplined; during the many wars of the Roman Empire, barbarians continued to use mob tactics.
As the Age of Enlightenment dawned, armies began to fight in highly disciplined lines. Each would follow the orders from their officers and fight as a unit instead of individuals. Armies were divided into regiments, battalions, companies and platoons. These armies would march, line up and fire in divisions.
Native Americans, on the other hand, did not fight in lines, using guerrilla tactics. American colonists and European forces continued using disciplined lines into the American Civil War.
A new style arose from the 1850s to the First World War, known as trench warfare, which also led to tactical radio. Chemical warfare also began in 1915.
By the Second World War, the use of the smaller divisions, platoons and companies became much more important as precise operations became vital. Instead of the trench stalemate of 1915--1917, in the Second World War, battles developed where small groups encountered other platoons. As a result, elite squads became much more recognized and distinguishable. Maneuver warfare also returned with an astonishing pace with the advent of the tank, replacing the cannon of the Enlightenment Age. Artillery has since gradually replaced the use of frontal troops. Modern battles resemble those of the Second World War, along with indirect combat through the use of aircraft and missiles which has come to constitute a large portion of wars in place of battles, where battles are now mostly reserved for capturing cities.
### Naval
One significant difference of modern naval battles, as opposed to earlier forms of combat is the use of marines, which introduced amphibious warfare. Today, a marine is actually an infantry regiment that sometimes fights solely on land and is no longer tied to the navy. A good example of an ancient naval battle is the Battle of Salamis. Most ancient naval battles were fought by fast ships using the battering ram to sink opposing fleets or steer close enough for boarding in hand-to-hand combat. Troops were often used to storm enemy ships as used by Romans and pirates. This tactic was usually used by civilizations that could not beat the enemy with ranged weaponry. Another invention in the late Middle Ages was the use of Greek fire by the Byzantines, which was used to set enemy fleets on fire. Empty demolition ships utilized the tactic to crash into opposing ships and set it afire with an explosion. After the invention of cannons, naval warfare became useful as support units for land warfare. During the 19th century, the development of mines led to a new type of naval warfare. The ironclad, first used in the American Civil War, resistant to cannons, soon made the wooden ship obsolete. The invention of military submarines, during World War I, brought naval warfare to both above and below the surface. With the development of military aircraft during World War II, battles were fought in the sky as well as below the ocean. Aircraft carriers have since become the central unit in naval warfare, acting as a mobile base for lethal aircraft.
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# Battle
## Types
### Aerial
Although the use of aircraft has for the most part always been used as a supplement to land or naval engagements, since their first major military use in World War I aircraft have increasingly taken on larger roles in warfare. During World War I, the primary use was for reconnaissance, and small-scale bombardment. Aircraft began becoming much more prominent in the Spanish Civil War and especially World War II. Aircraft design began specializing, primarily into two types: bombers, which carried explosive payloads to bomb land targets or ships; and fighter-interceptors, which were used to either intercept incoming aircraft or to escort and protect bombers (engagements between fighter aircraft were known as dog fights). Some of the more notable aerial battles in this period include the Battle of Britain and the Battle of Midway. Another important use of aircraft came with the development of the helicopter, which first became heavily used during the Vietnam War, and still continues to be widely used today to transport and augment ground forces. Today, direct engagements between aircraft are rare -- the most modern fighter-interceptors carry much more extensive bombing payloads, and are used to bomb precision land targets, rather than to fight other aircraft. Anti-aircraft batteries are used much more extensively to defend against incoming aircraft than interceptors. Despite this, aircraft today are much more extensively used as the primary tools for both army and navy, as evidenced by the prominent use of helicopters to transport and support troops, the use of aerial bombardment as the \"first strike\" in many engagements, and the replacement of the battleship with the aircraft carrier as the center of most modern navies.
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# Battle
## Naming
Battles are usually named after some feature of the battlefield geography, such as a town, forest or river, commonly prefixed \"Battle of\...\". Occasionally battles are named after the date on which they took place, such as The Glorious First of June. In the Middle Ages it was considered important to settle on a suitable name for a battle which could be used by the chroniclers. After Henry V of England defeated a French army on October 25, 1415, he met with the senior French herald and they agreed to name the battle after the nearby castle and so it was called the Battle of Agincourt. In other cases, the sides adopted different names for the same battle, such as the Battle of Gallipoli which is known in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale. During the American Civil War, the Union tended to name the battles after the nearest watercourse, such as the Battle of Wilsons Creek and the Battle of Stones River, whereas the Confederates favoured the nearby towns, as in the Battles of Chancellorsville and Murfreesboro. Occasionally both names for the same battle entered the popular culture, such as the First Battle of Bull Run and the Second Battle of Bull Run, which are also referred to as the First and Second Battles of Manassas.
Sometimes in desert warfare, there is no nearby town name to use; map coordinates gave the name to the Battle of 73 Easting in the First Gulf War. Some place names have become synonymous with battles, such as the Passchendaele, Pearl Harbor, the Alamo, Thermopylae and Waterloo. Military operations, many of which result in battle, are given codenames, which are not necessarily meaningful or indicative of the type or the location of the battle. Operation Market Garden and Operation Rolling Thunder are examples of battles known by their military codenames. When a battleground is the site of more than one battle in the same conflict, the instances are distinguished by ordinal number, such as the First and Second Battles of Bull Run. An extreme case are the twelve Battles of the Isonzo---First to Twelfth---between Italy and Austria-Hungary during the First World War.
Some battles are named for the convenience of military historians so that periods of combat can be neatly distinguished from one another. Following the First World War, the British Battles Nomenclature Committee was formed to decide on standard names for all battles and subsidiary actions. To the soldiers who did the fighting, the distinction was usually academic; a soldier fighting at Beaumont Hamel on November 13, 1916, was probably unaware he was taking part in what the committee named the Battle of the Ancre. Many combats are too small to be battles; terms such as \"action\", \"affair\", \"skirmish\", \"firefight\", \"raid\", or \"offensive patrol\" are used to describe small military encounters. These combats often take place within the time and space of a battle and while they may have an objective, they are not necessarily \"decisive\". Sometimes the soldiers are unable to immediately gauge the significance of the combat; in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo, some British officers were in doubt as to whether the day\'s events merited the title of \"battle\" or would be called an \"action\".
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# Battle
## Effects
Battles affect the individuals who take part, as well as the political actors. Personal effects of battle range from mild psychological issues to permanent and crippling injuries. Some battle-survivors have nightmares about the conditions they encountered or abnormal reactions to certain sights or sounds and some experience flashbacks. Physical effects of battle can include scars, amputations, lesions, loss of bodily functions, blindness, paralysis and death. Battles affect politics; a decisive battle can cause the losing side to surrender, while a Pyrrhic victory such as the Battle of Asculum can cause the winning side to reconsider its goals. Battles in civil wars have often decided the fate of monarchs or political factions. Famous examples include the Wars of the Roses, as well as the Jacobite risings. Battles affect the commitment of one side or the other to the continuance of a war, for example the Battle of Inchon and the Battle of Huế during the Tet Offensive
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# Berry Berenson
**Berinthia** \"**Berry**\" **Berenson-Perkins** (`{{née}}`{=mediawiki} **Berenson**; April 14, 1948 -- September 11, 2001) was an American actress, model and photographer. She was the widow of actor Anthony Perkins.
She died in the September 11 attacks, as a passenger on American Airlines Flight 11. It crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City.
## Early life {#early_life}
Berry Berenson was born in Murray Hill, Manhattan, New York City. Her mother was born Maria-Luisa Yvonne Radha de Wendt de Kerlor, better known as Gogo Schiaparelli, a socialite of Italian, Swiss, & French ancestry. Her father, Robert Lawrence Berenson, was an American career diplomat turned shipping executive. He was of Russian-Jewish and Polish-Jewish descent, and his family\'s original surname was Valvrojenski.
Berenson\'s maternal grandmother was the Italian-born fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli, and her maternal grandfather was Wilhelm de Wendt de Kerlor, a Theosophist and psychic medium. Her elder sister, Marisa Berenson, became a well-known model and actress. She also was a great-grandniece of Giovanni Schiaparelli, an Italian astronomer who believed he had discovered canals on Mars, and a second cousin, once removed, of art expert Bernard Berenson (1865--1959), and his sister Senda Berenson (1868--1954), an athlete and educator who was one of the first two women elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame.
## Career
Following a brief modeling career in the late 1960s, Berenson became a freelance photographer. In 1972, Berenson\'s fiancé Richard Bernstein was hired as the cover artist for Andy Warhol\'s *Interview* magazine. Berenson would recruit models for the cover and photograph them, and Bernstein illustrated the images. By 1973, her photographs had been published in *Life*, *Glamour*, *Vogue* and *Newsweek*.
Berenson studied acting at New York\'s The American Place Theatre with Wynn Handman along with Richard Gere, Philip Anglim, Penelope Milford, Robert Ozn, Ingrid Boulting and her sister Marisa.
As an actress, Berenson starred opposite her husband Anthony Perkins in the 1978 Alan Rudolph film *Remember My Name*. She also appeared with Jeff Bridges in the 1979 film *Winter Kills*, and with Malcolm McDowell in *Cat People* (1982).
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Berenson was engaged to artist Richard Bernstein. In 1972, Berenson had an affair with actor Anthony Perkins and they married on August 9, 1973, in Wellfleet, Massachusetts while she was three months pregnant. The couple raised two sons: actor-director Oz Perkins and folk/rock singer-songwriter Elvis Perkins. Although Perkins was gay, they remained married until Perkins died from AIDS-related complications on September 12, 1992.
## Death
Berenson died on September 11, 2001, a day before the ninth anniversary of Perkins' death, as she was returning home to Los Angeles from a vacation on Cape Cod. She and the other passengers and crew aboard American Airlines Flight 11 died when the plane was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks on the US.
At the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, Berenson\'s name is inscribed on Panel N-76 at the North Pool
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# Bactericide
A **bactericide** or **bacteriocide**, sometimes abbreviated **Bcidal**, is a substance which kills bacteria. Bactericides are disinfectants, antiseptics, or antibiotics. However, material surfaces can also have bactericidal properties based solely on their physical surface structure, as for example biomaterials like insect wings.
## Disinfectants
The most used disinfectants are those applying
- active chlorine (i.e., hypochlorites, chloramines, dichloroisocyanurate and trichloroisocyanurate, wet chlorine, chlorine dioxide, etc.),
- active oxygen (peroxides, such as peracetic acid, potassium persulfate, sodium perborate, sodium percarbonate, and urea perhydrate),
- iodine (povidone-iodine, Lugol\'s solution, iodine tincture, iodinated nonionic surfactants),
- concentrated alcohols (mainly ethanol, 1-propanol, called also n-propanol and 2-propanol, called isopropanol and mixtures thereof; further, 2-phenoxyethanol and 1- and 2-phenoxypropanols are used),
- phenolic substances (such as phenol (also called \"carbolic acid\"), cresols such as thymol, halogenated (chlorinated, brominated) phenols, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan, trichlorophenol, tribromophenol, pentachlorophenol, salts and isomers thereof),
- cationic surfactants, such as some quaternary ammonium cations (such as benzalkonium chloride, cetyl trimethylammonium bromide or chloride, didecyldimethylammonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, benzethonium chloride) and others, non-quaternary compounds, such as chlorhexidine, glucoprotamine, octenidine dihydrochloride etc.),
- strong oxidizers, such as ozone and permanganate solutions;
- heavy metals and their salts, such as colloidal silver, silver nitrate, mercury chloride, phenylmercury salts, copper sulfate, copper oxide-chloride etc. Heavy metals and their salts are the most toxic and environment-hazardous bactericides and therefore their use is strongly discouraged or prohibited
- strong acids (phosphoric, nitric, sulfuric, amidosulfuric, toluenesulfonic acids), pH \< 1, and
- alkalis (sodium, potassium, calcium hydroxides), such as of pH \> 13, particularly under elevated temperature (above 60 °C), kills bacteria.
## Antiseptics
As antiseptics (i.e., germicide agents that can be used on human or animal body, skin, mucosae, wounds and the like), few of the above-mentioned disinfectants can be used, under proper conditions (mainly concentration, pH, temperature and toxicity toward humans and animals). Among them, some important are
- properly diluted chlorine preparations (f.e. Dakin\'s solution, 0.5% sodium or potassium hypochlorite solution, pH-adjusted to pH 7--8, or 0.5--1% solution of sodium benzenesulfochloramide (chloramine B)), some
- iodine preparations, such as iodopovidone in various galenics (ointment, solutions, wound plasters), in the past also Lugol\'s solution,
- peroxides such as urea perhydrate solutions and pH-buffered 0.1 -- 0.25% peracetic acid solutions,
- alcohols with or without antiseptic additives, used mainly for skin antisepsis,
- weak organic acids such as sorbic acid, benzoic acid, lactic acid and salicylic acid
- some phenolic compounds, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan and Dibromol, and
- cationic surfactants, such as 0.05--0.5% benzalkonium, 0.5--4% chlorhexidine, 0.1--2% octenidine solutions.
Others are generally not applicable as safe antiseptics, either because of their corrosive or toxic nature.
## Antibiotics
Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria; bacteriostatic antibiotics slow their growth or reproduction.
Bactericidal antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis: the beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins (cephems), monobactams, and carbapenems) and vancomycin.
Also bactericidal are daptomycin, fluoroquinolones, metronidazole, nitrofurantoin, co-trimoxazole, telithromycin.
Aminoglycosidic antibiotics are usually considered bactericidal, although they may be bacteriostatic with some organisms.
As of 2004, the distinction between bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents appeared to be clear according to the basic/clinical definition, but this only applies under strict laboratory conditions and it is important to distinguish microbiological and clinical definitions. The distinction is more arbitrary when agents are categorized in clinical situations. The supposed superiority of bactericidal agents over bacteriostatic agents is of little relevance when treating the vast majority of infections with gram-positive bacteria, particularly in patients with uncomplicated infections and noncompromised immune systems. Bacteriostatic agents have been effectively used for treatment that are considered to require bactericidal activity. Furthermore, some broad classes of antibacterial agents considered bacteriostatic can exhibit bactericidal activity against some bacteria on the basis of in vitro determination of MBC/MIC values. At high concentrations, bacteriostatic agents are often bactericidal against some susceptible organisms. The ultimate guide to treatment of any infection must be clinical outcome.
## Surfaces
Material surfaces can exhibit bactericidal properties because of their crystallographic surface structure.
Somewhere in the mid-2000s it was shown that metallic nanoparticles can kill bacteria. The effect of a silver nanoparticle for example depends on its size with a preferential diameter of about 1--10 nm to interact with bacteria.
In 2013, cicada wings were found to have a selective anti-gram-negative bactericidal effect based on their physical surface structure. Mechanical deformation of the more or less rigid nanopillars found on the wing releases energy, striking and killing bacteria within minutes, hence called a mechano-bactericidal effect.
In 2020 researchers combined cationic polymer adsorption and femtosecond laser surface structuring to generate a bactericidal effect against both gram-positive *Staphylococcus aureus* and gram-negative *Escherichia coli* bacteria on borosilicate glass surfaces, providing a practical platform for the study of the bacteria-surface interaction
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# Bunsen
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# Bohrium
**Bohrium** is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol **Bh** and atomic number 107. It is named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr. As a synthetic element, it can be created in particle accelerators but is not found in nature. All known isotopes of bohrium are highly radioactive; the most stable known isotope is ^270^Bh with a half-life of approximately 2.4 minutes, though the unconfirmed ^278^Bh may have a longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.
In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 7 elements as the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that bohrium behaves as the heavier homologue to rhenium in group 7. The chemical properties of bohrium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 7 elements.
## Introduction
## History
\[\[<File:Niels> Bohr.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright\|Element 107 was originally proposed to be named after Niels Bohr, a Danish nuclear/theoretical
physicist, with the name *nielsbohrium* (Ns). This name was later changed by IUPAC to *bohrium* (Bh).\]\]
### Discovery
Two groups claimed discovery of the element. Evidence of bohrium was first reported in 1976 by a Soviet research team led by Yuri Oganessian, in which targets of bismuth-209 and lead-208 were bombarded with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 and manganese-55, respectively. Two activities, one with a half-life of one to two milliseconds, and the other with an approximately five-second half-life, were seen. Since the ratio of the intensities of these two activities was constant throughout the experiment, it was proposed that the first was from the isotope bohrium-261 and that the second was from its daughter dubnium-257. Later, the dubnium isotope was corrected to dubnium-258, which indeed has a five-second half-life (dubnium-257 has a one-second half-life); however, the half-life observed for its parent is much shorter than the half-lives later observed in the definitive discovery of bohrium at Darmstadt in 1981. The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) concluded that while dubnium-258 was probably seen in this experiment, the evidence for the production of its parent bohrium-262 was not convincing enough.
In 1981, a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research (GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 to produce 5 atoms of the isotope bohrium-262:
: \+ `{{nuclide|link=yes|chromium|54}}`{=mediawiki} → `{{nuclide|link=yes|bohrium|262}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|neutron}}`{=mediawiki}
This discovery was further substantiated by their detailed measurements of the alpha decay chain of the produced bohrium atoms to previously known isotopes of fermium and californium. The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) recognised the GSI collaboration as official discoverers in their 1992 report.
### Proposed names {#proposed_names}
In September 1992, the German group suggested the name *nielsbohrium* with symbol *Ns* to honor the Danish physicist Niels Bohr. The Soviet scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia had suggested this name be given to element 105 (which was finally called dubnium) and the German team wished to recognise both Bohr and the fact that the Dubna team had been the first to propose the cold fusion reaction, and simultaneously help to solve the controversial problem of the naming of element 105. The Dubna team agreed with the German group\'s naming proposal for element 107.
There was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 104 to 106 were to be called; the IUPAC adopted *unnilseptium* (symbol *Uns*) as a temporary, systematic element name for this element. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named *bohrium*, not *nielsbohrium*, since there was no precedent for using a scientist\'s complete name in the naming of an element. This was opposed by the discoverers as there was some concern that the name might be confused with boron and in particular the distinguishing of the names of their respective oxyanions, *bohrate* and *borate*. The matter was handed to the Danish branch of IUPAC which, despite this, voted in favour of the name *bohrium*, and thus the name *bohrium* for element 107 was recognized internationally in 1997; the names of the respective oxyanions of boron and bohrium remain unchanged despite their homophony.
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# Bohrium
## Isotopes
Bohrium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Twelve different isotopes of bohrium have been reported with atomic masses 260--262, 264--267, 270--272, 274, and 278, one of which, bohrium-262, has a known metastable state. All of these but the unconfirmed ^278^Bh decay only through alpha decay, although some unknown bohrium isotopes are predicted to undergo spontaneous fission.
The lighter isotopes usually have shorter half-lives; half-lives of under 100 ms for ^260^Bh, ^261^Bh, ^262^Bh, and ^262m^Bh were observed. ^264^Bh, ^265^Bh, ^266^Bh, and ^271^Bh are more stable at around 1 s, and ^267^Bh and ^272^Bh have half-lives of about 10 s. The heaviest isotopes are the most stable, with ^270^Bh and ^274^Bh having measured half-lives of about 2.4 min and 40 s respectively, and the even heavier unconfirmed isotope ^278^Bh appearing to have an even longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.
The most proton-rich isotopes with masses 260, 261, and 262 were directly produced by cold fusion, those with mass 262 and 264 were reported in the decay chains of meitnerium and roentgenium, while the neutron-rich isotopes with masses 265, 266, 267 were created in irradiations of actinide targets. The five most neutron-rich ones with masses 270, 271, 272, 274, and 278 (unconfirmed) appear in the decay chains of ^282^Nh, ^287^Mc, ^288^Mc, ^294^Ts, and ^290^Fl respectively. The half-lives of bohrium isotopes range from about ten milliseconds for ^262m^Bh to about one minute for ^270^Bh and ^274^Bh, extending to about 11.5 minutes for the unconfirmed ^278^Bh, which may have one of the longest half-lives among reported superheavy nuclides.
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# Bohrium
## Predicted properties {#predicted_properties}
Very few properties of bohrium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that bohrium (and its parents) decays very quickly. A few singular chemistry-related properties have been measured, but properties of bohrium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.
### Chemical
Bohrium is the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest member of group 7 in the periodic table, below manganese, technetium and rhenium. All the members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of +7 and the state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus bohrium is expected to form a stable +7 state. Technetium also shows a stable +4 state whilst rhenium exhibits stable +4 and +3 states. Bohrium may therefore show these lower states as well.`{{Fricke1975}}`{=mediawiki} The higher +7 oxidation state is more likely to exist in oxyanions, such as perbohrate, `{{chem|BhO|4|-}}`{=mediawiki}, analogous to the lighter permanganate, pertechnetate, and perrhenate. Nevertheless, bohrium(VII) is likely to be unstable in aqueous solution, and would probably be easily reduced to the more stable bohrium(IV).
The lighter group 7 elements are known to form volatile heptoxides M~2~O~7~ (M = Mn, Tc, Re), so bohrium should also form the volatile oxide Bh~2~O~7~. The oxide should dissolve in water to form perbohric acid, HBhO~4~. Rhenium and technetium form a range of oxyhalides from the halogenation of the oxide. The chlorination of the oxide forms the oxychlorides MO~3~Cl, so BhO~3~Cl should be formed in this reaction. Fluorination results in MO~3~F and MO~2~F~3~ for the heavier elements in addition to the rhenium compounds ReOF~5~ and ReF~7~. Therefore, oxyfluoride formation for bohrium may help to indicate eka-rhenium properties. Since the oxychlorides are asymmetrical, and they should have increasingly large dipole moments going down the group, they should become less volatile in the order TcO~3~Cl \> ReO~3~Cl \> BhO~3~Cl: this was experimentally confirmed in 2000 by measuring the enthalpies of adsorption of these three compounds. The values are for TcO~3~Cl and ReO~3~Cl are −51 kJ/mol and −61 kJ/mol respectively; the experimental value for BhO~3~Cl is −77.8 kJ/mol, very close to the theoretically expected value of −78.5 kJ/mol.
### Physical and atomic {#physical_and_atomic}
Bohrium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and assume a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (^*c*^/~*a*~ = 1.62), similar to its lighter congener rhenium. Early predictions by Fricke estimated its density at 37.1 g/cm^3^, but newer calculations predict a somewhat lower value of 26--27 g/cm^3^.
The atomic radius of bohrium is expected to be around 128 pm. Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Bh^+^ ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of \[Rn\] 5f^14^ 6d^4^ 7s^2^, giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron, which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues manganese and technetium. Rhenium, on the other hand, follows its heavier congener bohrium in giving up a 5d electron before a 6s electron, as relativistic effects have become significant by the sixth period, where they cause among other things the yellow color of gold and the low melting point of mercury. The Bh^2+^ ion is expected to have an electron configuration of \[Rn\] 5f^14^ 6d^3^ 7s^2^; in contrast, the Re^2+^ ion is expected to have a \[Xe\] 4f^14^ 5d^5^ configuration, this time analogous to manganese and technetium. The ionic radius of hexacoordinate heptavalent bohrium is expected to be 58 pm (heptavalent manganese, technetium, and rhenium having values of 46, 57, and 53 pm respectively). Pentavalent bohrium should have a larger ionic radius of 83 pm.
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# Bohrium
## Experimental chemistry {#experimental_chemistry}
In 1995, the first report on attempted isolation of the element was unsuccessful, prompting new theoretical studies to investigate how best to investigate bohrium (using its lighter homologs technetium and rhenium for comparison) and removing unwanted contaminating elements such as the trivalent actinides, the group 5 elements, and polonium.
In 2000, it was confirmed that although relativistic effects are important, bohrium behaves like a typical group 7 element. A team at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) conducted a chemistry reaction using six atoms of ^267^Bh produced in the reaction between ^249^Bk and ^22^Ne ions. The resulting atoms were thermalised and reacted with a HCl/O~2~ mixture to form a volatile oxychloride. The reaction also produced isotopes of its lighter homologues, technetium (as ^108^Tc) and rhenium (as ^169^Re). The isothermal adsorption curves were measured and gave strong evidence for the formation of a volatile oxychloride with properties similar to that of rhenium oxychloride. This placed bohrium as a typical member of group 7. The adsorption enthalpies of the oxychlorides of technetium, rhenium, and bohrium were measured in this experiment, agreeing very well with the theoretical predictions and implying a sequence of decreasing oxychloride volatility down group 7 of TcO~3~Cl \> ReO~3~Cl \> BhO~3~Cl.
: 2 Bh + 3 `{{chem|O|2}}`{=mediawiki} + 2 HCl → 2 `{{chem|BhO|3|Cl}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{chem|H|2}}`{=mediawiki}
The longer-lived heavy isotopes of bohrium, produced as the daughters of heavier elements, offer advantages for future radiochemical experiments. Although the heavy isotope ^274^Bh requires a rare and highly radioactive berkelium target for its production, the isotopes ^272^Bh, ^271^Bh, and ^270^Bh can be readily produced as daughters of more easily produced moscovium and nihonium isotopes
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# Bayer designation
A **Bayer designation** is a stellar designation in which a specific star is identified by a Greek or Latin letter followed by the genitive form of its parent constellation\'s Latin name. The original list of Bayer designations contained 1564 stars. The brighter stars were assigned their first systematic names by the German astronomer Johann Bayer in 1603, in his star atlas *Uranometria*. Bayer catalogued only a few stars too far south to be seen from Germany, but later astronomers (including Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille and Benjamin Apthorp Gould) supplemented Bayer\'s catalog with entries for southern constellations.
## Scheme
Bayer assigned a lowercase Greek letter (alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), etc.) or a Latin letter (A, b, c, etc.) to each star he catalogued, combined with the Latin name of the star\'s parent constellation in genitive (possessive) form. The constellation name is frequently abbreviated to a standard three-letter form. For example, Aldebaran in the constellation Taurus (the Bull) is designated *α Tauri* (abbreviated *α Tau*, pronounced *Alpha Tauri*), which means \"Alpha of the Bull\".
Bayer used Greek letters for the brighter stars, but the Greek alphabet has only twenty-four letters, while a single constellation may contain fifty or more stars visible to the naked eye. When the Greek letters ran out, Bayer continued with Latin letters: uppercase *A*, followed by lowercase *b* through *z* (omitting *j* and *v*, but *o* was included), for a total of another 24 letters.
Bayer did not label \"permanent\" stars with uppercase letters (except for *A*, which he used instead of *a* to avoid confusion with *α*). However, a number of stars in southern constellations have uppercase letter designations, like B Centauri and G Scorpii. These letters were assigned by later astronomers, notably Lacaille in his *Coelum Australe Stelliferum* and Gould in his *Uranometria Argentina*. Lacaille followed Bayer\'s use of Greek letters, but this was insufficient for many constellations. He used first the lowercase letters, starting with *a*, and if needed the uppercase letters, starting with *A*, thus deviating somewhat from Bayer\'s practice. Lacaille used the Latin alphabet three times over in the large constellation Argo Navis, once for each of the three areas that are now the constellations of Carina, Puppis and Vela. That was still insufficient for the number of stars, so he also used uppercase Latin letters such as N Velorum and Q Puppis. Lacaille assigned uppercase letters between R and Z in several constellations, but these have either been dropped to allow the assignment of those letters to variable stars or have actually turned out to be variable.
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# Bayer designation
## Order by magnitude class {#order_by_magnitude_class}
In most constellations, Bayer assigned Greek and Latin letters to stars within a constellation in rough order of apparent brightness, from brightest to dimmest. The order is not necessarily a precise labeling from brightest to dimmest: in Bayer\'s day stellar brightness could not be measured precisely. Instead, stars were traditionally assigned to one of six magnitude classes (the brightest to first magnitude, the dimmest to sixth), and Bayer typically ordered stars within a constellation by class: all the first-magnitude stars (in some order), followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on. Within each magnitude class, Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness. As a result, the brightest star in each class did not always get listed first in Bayer\'s order---and the brightest star overall did not necessarily get the designation \"Alpha\". A good example is the constellation Gemini, where Pollux is Beta Geminorum and the slightly dimmer Castor is Alpha Geminorum.
In addition, Bayer did not always follow the magnitude class rule; he sometimes assigned letters to stars according to their location within a constellation, or the order of their rising, or to historical or mythological details. Occasionally the order looks quite arbitrary.
Of the 88 modern constellations, there are at least 30 in which Alpha is not the brightest star, and four of those lack a star labeled \"Alpha\" altogether. The constellations with no Alpha-designated star include Vela and Puppis---both formerly part of Argo Navis, whose Greek-letter stars were split among three constellations. Canopus, the former α Argus, is now α Carinae in the modern constellation Carina. Norma\'s Alpha and Beta were reassigned to Scorpius and re-designated N and H Scorpii respectively, leaving Norma with no Alpha. Francis Baily died before designating an Alpha in Leo Minor, so it also has no Alpha. (The star 46 Leonis Minoris would have been the obvious candidate.)
## Orion as an example {#orion_as_an_example}
In Orion, Bayer first designated Betelgeuse and Rigel, the two 1st-magnitude stars (those of magnitude 1.5 or less), as Alpha and Beta from north to south, with Betelgeuse (the shoulder) coming ahead of Rigel (the foot), even though the latter is usually the brighter. (Betelgeuse is a variable star and can at its maximum occasionally outshine Rigel.) Bayer then repeated the procedure for the stars of the 2nd magnitude, labeling them from *gamma* through *zeta* in \"top-down\" (north-to-south) order. Letters as far as Latin *p* were used for stars of the sixth magnitude. upright=1.4\|right\|thumb\|Orion constellation map
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| Bayer\ | Bayer\'s class | Apparent\ | Proper\ |
| Designation | | Magnitude | Name |
+=============+================+===========+================+
| α Orionis | First | 0.45 | Betelgeuse |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| β Orionis | First | 0.18 | Rigel |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| γ Orionis | Second | 1.64 | Bellatrix |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| δ Orionis | Second | 2.23 | Mintaka |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| ε Orionis | Second | 1.69 | Alnilam |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| ζ Orionis | Second | 1.70 | Alnitak |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| η Orionis | Third | 3.42 | Algjebbah |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| θ Orionis | Third | | (Orion nebula) |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| ι Orionis | Third | 2.77 | Hatysa |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
| κ Orionis | Third | 2.07 | Saiph |
+-------------+----------------+-----------+----------------+
: `{{nowrap|Bayer's brightest three classes of stars in Orion}}`{=mediawiki}
## Bayer\'s miscellaneous labels {#bayers_miscellaneous_labels}
Although Bayer did not use uppercase Latin letters (except *A*) for \"fixed stars\", he did use them to label other items shown on his charts, such as neighboring constellations, \"temporary stars\", miscellaneous astronomical objects, or reference lines like the Tropic of Cancer. In Cygnus, for example, Bayer\'s fixed stars run through *g*, and on this chart Bayer employs *H* through *P* as miscellaneous labels, mostly for neighboring constellations. Bayer did not intend such labels as catalog designations, but some have survived to refer to astronomical objects: P Cygni for example is still used as a designation for Nova Cyg 1600. Tycho\'s Star (SN 1572), another \"temporary star\", appears as B Cassiopeiae. In charts for constellations that did not exhaust the Greek letters, Bayer sometimes used the leftover Greek letters for miscellaneous labels as well.
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# Bayer designation
## Revised designations {#revised_designations}
Ptolemy designated four stars as \"border stars\", each shared by two constellations: Alpheratz (in Andromeda and Pegasus), Elnath (in Taurus and Auriga), Nu Boötis (Nu^1^ and Nu^2^)(in Boötes and Hercules) and Fomalhaut (in Piscis Austrinus and Aquarius). Bayer assigned the first three of these stars a Greek letter from both constellations: `{{nowrap|[[Alpha Andromedae]] {{=}}`{=mediawiki} Delta Pegasi}}, `{{nowrap|[[Beta Tauri]] {{=}}`{=mediawiki} Gamma Aurigae}}, and `{{nowrap|[[Nu Boötis]] {{=}}`{=mediawiki} Psi Herculis}}. (He catalogued Fomalhaut only once, as Alpha Piscis Austrini.) When the International Astronomical Union (IAU) assigned definite boundaries to the constellations in 1930, it declared that stars and other celestial objects can belong to only one constellation. Consequently, the redundant second designation in each pair above has dropped out of use.
Bayer assigned two stars duplicate names by mistake: `{{nowrap|[[Xi Arietis]]}}`{=mediawiki} (duplicated as `{{nowrap|Psi Ceti}}`{=mediawiki}) and `{{nowrap|[[Kappa Ceti]]}}`{=mediawiki} (Kappa^1^ and Kappa^2^) (duplicated as `{{nowrap|g Tauri}}`{=mediawiki}). He corrected these in a later atlas, and the duplicate names were no longer used.
Other cases of multiple Bayer designations arose when stars named by Bayer in one constellation were transferred by later astronomers to a different constellation. Bayer\'s Gamma and Omicron Scorpii, for example, were later reassigned from Scorpius to Libra and given the new names Sigma and Upsilon Librae. (To add to the confusion, the star now known as Omicron Scorpii was not named by Bayer but was assigned the designation o Scorpii (Latin lowercase \'o\') by Lacaille---which later astronomers misinterpreted as omicron once Bayer\'s omicron had been reassigned to Libra.)
A few stars no longer lie (according to the modern constellation boundaries) within the constellation for which they are named. The proper motion of Rho Aquilae, for example, carried it across the boundary into Delphinus in 1992.
A further complication is the use of numeric superscripts to distinguish neighboring stars that Bayer (or a later astronomer) labeled with a common letter. Usually these are double stars (mostly optical doubles rather than true binary stars), but there are some exceptions such as the chain of stars π^1^, π^2^, π^3^, π^4^, π^5^ and π^6^ Orionis. The most stars given the same Bayer designation but with an extra number attached to it is Psi Aurigae. (ψ^1^, ψ^2^, ψ^3^, ψ^4^, ψ^5^, ψ^6^, ψ^7^, ψ^8^, ψ^9^, ψ^10^, although according to the modern IAU constellation boundaries, ψ^10^ lies in Lynx)
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# Bay of Quinte
The **Bay of Quinte** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|w|ɪ|n|t|i}}`{=mediawiki}) is a long, narrow bay shaped like the letter \"Z\" on the northern shore of Lake Ontario in the province of Ontario, Canada. It is just west of the head of the Saint Lawrence River that drains the Great Lakes into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is located about 200 km east of Toronto and 350 km west of Montreal.
The name \"Quinte\" is derived from \"*Kenté*\" or Kentio, an Iroquoian village located near the south shore of the Bay. Later on, an early French Catholic mission was built at Kenté, located on the north shore of what is now Prince Edward County, leading to the Bay being named after the Mission. Officially, in the Mohawk language, the community is called ***Kenhtèːke***, which means \"the place of the bay\". The Cayuga name is *Tayędaːneːgęˀ* or *Detgayęːdaːnegęˀ*, \"land of two logs.\"
The Bay, as it is known locally, provides some of the best trophy walleye angling in North America as well as most sport fish common to the great lakes. The bay is subject to algal blooms in late summer. Zebra mussels as well as the other invasive species found in the Great Lakes are present.
The Quinte area played a vital role in bootlegging during prohibition in the United States, with large volumes of liquor being produced in the area, and shipped via boat on the bay to Lake Ontario finally arriving in New York State where it was distributed. Prohibition-era illegal sales of liquor accounted for many fortunes made in and around Belleville.
Tourism in the area is significant, especially in the summer months due to the Bay of Quinte and its fishing, local golf courses, provincial parks, and wineries.
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# Bay of Quinte
## Geography
The northern side of the bay is defined by Ontario\'s mainland, while the southern side follows the shore of the Prince Edward County headland. Beginning in the east with the outlet to Lake Ontario, the bay runs west-southwest for 25 km to Picton (although this section is also called Adolphus Reach), where it turns north-northwest for another 20 km as far as Deseronto. From there it turns south-southwest again for another 40 km, running past Big Island on the south and Belleville on the north. The width of the bay rarely exceeds 2 km. The bay ends at Trenton (Quinte West) and the Trent River, both also on the north side. The Murray Canal has been cut through the \"Carrying Place\", the few kilometres separating the end of the bay and Lake Ontario on the west side. The Trent River is part of the Trent-Severn Waterway, a canal connecting Lake Ontario to Lake Simcoe and then Georgian Bay on Lake Huron.
There are several sub-bays off the Bay of Quinte, including Hay Bay, Big Bay, and Muscote Bay. `{{OSM Location map
| width=650| height=260
| coord = {{coord|44.091|-77.18}}
| zoom =10 <!--(1=whole world, 18=a street)-->
| caption = Map of the Bay of Quinte, an arm of Lake Ontario, that runs for some 80 km between Prince Edward County and the 'mainland' of Hastings County, in south-east Ontario.
| minimap=file
| mini-file = Ontario Locator Map.svg
| mini-width = 79
| mini-height = 81
| minipog-gx = 90| minipog-gy = 88| scalemark = 76
| mark-coord = {{coord|44.0083|-77.1389}} | label=| label-pos=right| mark-size=0| label-size=12|label-color=hard grey| mark-title=[[Picton, Ontario]]| mark-image=
| label1=Bloomfield| mark-coord1={{coord|43.9856|-77.2336}}|label-color1=hard grey|label-size1=11| mark-size1=6| label-pos1=right| mark-title1=[[Bloomfield, Ontario]]
| label2= Wellington| mark-coord2={{coord|43.952|-77.3505}}| mark-title2=[[Wellington, Ontario]]
| label3=Ameliasburgh| mark-coord3={{coord|44.042|-77.38}}| label-pos3=left| jdx3=5| mark-title3=[[Ameliasburgh Township, Ontario]]
| label6=Hillier| mark-coord6={{coord|43.97244|-77.453245}}| mark-title6=[[Hillier, Ontario]]
| mark-coord9 = {{coord|44.0895|-77.0781}}| label9=Long Reach| label-pos9=center|ldy9=-14
| label-angle9=-79|label-color9=hard blue|label-size9=9| mark-size9=0|mark-title9=Long Reach
| mark-coord10 = {{coord|44.0083|-77.1389}} | label10=Picton Bay| label-pos10=center| mark-size10=0| label-size10=9| label-angle10=-59|label-color10=hard blue| ldx10=16| ldy10=-30| mark-title10=Picton Bay
| mark-coord12= {{coord|44.1472|-77.2236}}| label12=B a y o f Q u i n t e | label-pos12=center|jdx12=14
| label-angle12=-9|label-color12=dark blue|label-size12=12| mark-size12=0|mark-title12=Bay of Quinte
| mark-coord13= {{coord|44.149|-76.960}}| label13=Hay Bay | label-pos13=center|ldy13=-8
| label-angle13=-33|label-color13=hard blue|label-size13=9| mark-size13=0|mark-title13=Hay Bay
| mark-coord14= {{coord|44.198|-77.586}}| label14=River Trent | label-pos14=center|ldy14=8
| label-angle14=75|label-color14=hard blue|label-size14=9| mark-size14=0|mark-title14=River Trent
| mark-coord15= {{coord|44.0688|-76.9448}}| label15=Adolphus Reach | label-pos15=center|ldy15=-8
| label-angle15=-39|label-color15=hard blue|label-size15=9| mark-size15=0|mark-title15=Adolphus Reach
| arc-coordA= {{coord|44.0072|-76.932}}| arc-textA=LAKE ONTARIO| arc-angleA=-50|arc-gapA=2|arc-radiusA=0.8| arc-text-colorA=soft blue| arc-text-sizeA=10
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Bay of Quinte
## Bay of Quinte Region {#bay_of_quinte_region}
**Quinte** is also a region comprising several communities situated along the Bay of Quinte, including Quinte West, Brighton and the City of Belleville, which is the largest city in the Quinte Region, and represents a midpoint between Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto.
The Greater Bay of Quinte area includes the municipalities of Brighton, Quinte West, Belleville, Prince Edward County, and Greater Napanee as well as the Native Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. Overall population of the area exceeds 200,000.
### Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte {#mohawks_of_the_bay_of_quinte}
The Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (Kenhtè:ke Kanyen\'kehá:ka) live on traditional Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. Their reserve Band number 244, their current land base, is 73 km2 on the Bay of Quinte in southeastern Ontario east of Belleville and immediately to the west of Deseronto.
The community takes its name from a variant spelling of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant\'s traditional Mohawk name, Thayendanegea (standardized spelling Thayentiné:ken), which means \'two pieces of fire wood beside each other\'. Officially, in the Mohawk language, the community is called **\"Kenhtè:ke\"** (Tyendinaga), which means \"on the bay\", and was the birthplace of Tekanawí:ta. The Cayuga name is Tyendinaga, *Tayęda:ne:gęˀ or Detgayę:da:negęˀ*, \"land of two logs.\"
### Communities
- Belleville
- Quinte West
- Brighton
- Shannonville
- Napanee
- Deseronto
- Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory
- Rossmore
- Ameliasburgh
- Picton
- Consecon
- Carrying Place
### Education
The Quinte Region, specifically the City of Belleville, is home to Loyalist College of Applied Arts and Technology. Other post-secondary schools in the region include Maxwell College of Advanced Technology, CDI College, and Quinte Literacy. Secondary schools in the region include Albert College (private school) and Sir James Whitney (a school for the deaf and severely hearing-impaired).
### Industry and employment {#industry_and_employment}
The Bay of Quinte region is a hub for industry in eastern Ontario. The region is home to a diverse cluster of domestic and multi-national manufacturing and logistics companies. Sectors include; food processing, auto-parts, plastics and packaging, consumer goods, and more. The region\'s close proximity to North American markets, strong labour force and start-up and operating costs have attracted attention and new investment from companies all over the globe. Industry in the Bay of Quinte region is supported by a workforce of over 11,000.
Investment attraction and industrial retention are supported regionally by the Quinte Economic Development Commission.
Just a few of over 350 industries located in the Bay of Quinte Region include:
- Schütz Canada, German manufacturer of intermediate bulk containers
- Essroc Canada a division of Italcementi
- Magna Autosystems - lighting division (3 facilities)
- Hannon Climate Control Canada Ltd.---Automotive parts
- Procter and Gamble Inc.--- Feminine hygiene products
- Kellogg --- Breakfast cereal manufacturer
- Kruger - manufacturing facial and toilet tissue for the away from home market
- Hain Celestial - manufacturing Yves Veggie Cuisine products
- Sprague Foods - canned and jarred soups and beans
- Donini Chocolate - a division of John Vince Foods
- Redpath Sugar
- Trenton Cold Storage Group Inc.---Refrigerated warehousing and distribution. Custom co-packing
- Lactalis Canada---Black Diamond Cheese Division---Cheese manufacturing and packaging
- Avaya---A telecommunications research and product development centre
- Research Casting International---Canadian company specializing in moulding and casting for the production of museum exhibits
- Cooney Transport Ltd.---Trucking company
- Wellington Mushroom Farm / Highline Produce---Mushroom farm
- Domtech---Copper wiring
- ClearWater Design Canoe and Kayak---Boat manufacturer
- The SAB Group of Companies Limited---Consumer goods company
- Mapco Plastics---Biodegradable plastic packaging manufacturer
- Citipack Distribution---Cash and carry
- Babars Bazaar---International commodity trading
- Jobsters Staffing---Staffing agency
## Images
<File:Bay> of Quinte picnic 1909.jpg\|Picnic on the Bay in August 1909 <File:Bay> of Quinte at Night.JPG\|The Bay of Quinte at night, with a view of CFB Trenton
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# Bipedalism
**Bipedalism** is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an animal moves by means of its two rear (or lower) limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a **bipedal** manner is known as a **biped** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|aɪ|p|ɛ|d}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \'two feet\' (from Latin *bis* \'double\' and *pes* \'foot\'). Types of bipedal movement include walking or running (a **bipedal gait**) and hopping.
Several groups of modern species are habitual bipeds whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. In the Triassic period some groups of archosaurs (a group that includes crocodiles and dinosaurs) developed bipedalism; among the dinosaurs, all the early forms and many later groups were habitual or exclusive bipeds; the birds are members of a clade of exclusively bipedal dinosaurs, the theropods. Within mammals, habitual bipedalism has evolved multiple times, with the macropods, kangaroo rats and mice, springhare, hopping mice, pangolins and hominin apes (australopithecines, including humans) as well as various other extinct groups evolving the trait independently. A larger number of modern species intermittently or briefly use a bipedal gait. Several lizard species move bipedally when running, usually to escape from threats. Many primate and bear species will adopt a bipedal gait in order to reach food or explore their environment, though there are a few cases where they walk on their hind limbs only. Several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground. Many animals rear up on their hind legs while fighting or copulating. Some animals commonly stand on their hind legs to reach food, keep watch, threaten a competitor or predator, or pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally.
## Etymology
The word is derived from the Latin words *bi(s)* \'two\' and *ped-* \'foot\', as contrasted with quadruped \'four feet\'.
## Advantages
Limited and exclusive bipedalism can offer a species several advantages. Bipedalism raises the head; this allows a greater field of vision with improved detection of distant dangers or resources, access to deeper water for wading animals and allows the animals to reach higher food sources with their mouths. While upright, non-locomotory limbs become free for other uses, including manipulation (in primates and rodents), flight (in birds), digging (in the giant pangolin), combat (in bears, great apes and the large monitor lizard) or camouflage.
The maximum bipedal speed appears slower than the maximum speed of quadrupedal movement with a flexible backbone -- both the ostrich and the red kangaroo can reach speeds of 70 km/h, while the cheetah can exceed 100 km/h. Even though bipedalism is slower at first, over long distances, it has allowed humans to outrun most other animals according to the endurance running hypothesis. Bipedality in kangaroo rats has been hypothesized to improve locomotor performance, `{{Clarify|date=January 2012}}`{=mediawiki} which could aid in escaping from predators.
## Facultative and obligate bipedalism {#facultative_and_obligate_bipedalism}
Zoologists often label behaviors, including bipedalism, as \"facultative\" (i.e. optional) or \"obligate\" (the animal has no reasonable alternative). Even this distinction is not completely clear-cut --- for example, humans other than infants normally walk and run in biped fashion, but almost all can crawl on hands and knees when necessary. There are even reports of humans who normally walk on all fours with their feet but not their knees on the ground, but these cases are a result of conditions such as Uner Tan syndrome --- very rare genetic neurological disorders rather than normal behavior. Even if one ignores exceptions caused by some kind of injury or illness, there are many unclear cases, including the fact that \"normal\" humans can crawl on hands and knees. This article therefore avoids the terms \"facultative\" and \"obligate\", and focuses on the range of styles of locomotion *normally* used by various groups of animals. Normal humans may be considered \"obligate\" bipeds because the alternatives are very uncomfortable and usually only resorted to when walking is impossible.
## Movement
There are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism.
1. Standing. Staying still on both legs. In most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance.
2. Walking. One foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time.
3. Running. One foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground.
4. Jumping/hopping. Moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together.
5. Skipping. A form of bipedal locomotion that combines the step and hop.
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# Bipedalism
## Bipedal animals {#bipedal_animals}
The great majority of living terrestrial vertebrates are quadrupeds, with bipedalism exhibited by only a handful of living groups. Humans, gibbons and large birds walk by raising one foot at a time. On the other hand, most macropods, smaller birds, lemurs and bipedal rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously. Tree kangaroos are able to walk or hop, most commonly alternating feet when moving arboreally and hopping on both feet simultaneously when on the ground.
### Extant reptiles {#extant_reptiles}
Many species of lizards become bipedal during high-speed, sprint locomotion, including the world\'s fastest lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (genus *Ctenosaura*).
#### Early reptiles and lizards {#early_reptiles_and_lizards}
The first known biped is the bolosaurid *Eudibamus* whose fossils date from 290 million years ago. Its long hind-legs, short forelegs, and distinctive joints all suggest bipedalism. The species became extinct in the early Permian.
### Archosaurs (includes crocodilians and dinosaurs) {#archosaurs_includes_crocodilians_and_dinosaurs}
#### Birds
All birds are bipeds, as is the case for all theropod dinosaurs. However, hoatzin chicks have claws on their wings which they use for climbing.
#### Other archosaurs {#other_archosaurs}
Bipedalism evolved more than once in archosaurs, the group that includes both dinosaurs and crocodilians. All dinosaurs are thought to be descended from a fully bipedal ancestor, perhaps similar to *Eoraptor*.
Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the Middle to Late Triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the Permian-Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on Earth. Radiometric dating of fossils from the early dinosaur genus *Eoraptor* establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists suspect *Eoraptor* resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators. The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as *Marasuchus* and *Lagerpeton* in Argentinian Middle Triassic strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.
Bipedal movement also re-evolved in a number of other dinosaur lineages such as the iguanodonts. Some extinct members of Pseudosuchia, a sister group to the avemetatarsalians (the group including dinosaurs and relatives), also evolved bipedal forms -- a poposauroid from the Triassic, *Effigia okeeffeae*, is thought to have been bipedal. Pterosaurs were previously thought to have been bipedal, but recent trackways have all shown quadrupedal locomotion.
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# Bipedalism
## Bipedal animals {#bipedal_animals}
### Mammals
A number of groups of extant mammals have independently evolved bipedalism as their main form of locomotion`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} for example, humans, ground pangolins, the extinct giant ground sloths, numerous species of jumping rodents and macropods. Humans, as their bipedalism has been extensively studied, are documented in the next section. Macropods are believed to have evolved bipedal hopping only once in their evolution, at some time no later than 45 million years ago.
Bipedal movement is less common among mammals, most of which are quadrupedal. All primates possess some bipedal ability, though most species primarily use quadrupedal locomotion on land. Primates aside, the macropods (kangaroos, wallabies and their relatives), kangaroo rats and mice, hopping mice and springhare move bipedally by hopping. Very few non-primate mammals commonly move bipedally with an alternating leg gait. Exceptions are the ground pangolin and in some circumstances the tree kangaroo. One black bear, Pedals, became famous locally and on the internet for having a frequent bipedal gait, although this is attributed to injuries on the bear\'s front paws. A two-legged fox was filmed in a Derbyshire garden in 2023, most likely having been born that way.
#### Primates
thumb\|upright=1.15\|A Man Running; by Eadweard Muybridge Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely. Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. Chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism. On the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for balance. Geladas, although usually quadrupedal, will sometimes move between adjacent feeding patches with a squatting, shuffling bipedal form of locomotion. However, they can only do so for brief amounts, as their bodies are not adapted for constant bipedal locomotion.
Humans are the only primates who are normally biped, due to an extra curve in the spine (i.e. the lumbar lordosis) which shifts the center of gravity more dorsally and thus stabilizes the upright position, as well as shorter arms relative to the legs than is the case for the nonhuman great apes. The evolution of human bipedalism began in primates about four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with *Sahelanthropus* or about 12 million years ago with *Danuvius guggenmosi*. One hypothesis for human bipedalism is that it evolved as a result of differentially successful survival from carrying food to share with group members, although there are alternative hypotheses.
Injured individuals
Injured chimpanzees and bonobos have been capable of sustained bipedalism.
Three captive primates, one macaque Natasha and two chimps, Oliver and Poko (chimpanzee), were found to move bipedally. Natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while Poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage. Oliver reverted to knuckle-walking after developing arthritis. Non-human primates often use bipedal locomotion when carrying food, or while moving through shallow water.
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# Bipedalism
## Limited bipedalism {#limited_bipedalism}
### Limited bipedalism in mammals {#limited_bipedalism_in_mammals}
Other mammals engage in limited, non-locomotory, bipedalism. A number of other animals, such as rats, raccoons, and beavers will squat on their hindlegs to manipulate some objects but revert to four limbs when moving (the beaver will move bipedally if transporting wood for their dams, as will the raccoon when holding food). Bears will fight in a bipedal stance to use their forelegs as weapons. A number of mammals will adopt a bipedal stance in specific situations such as for feeding or fighting. Ground squirrels and meerkats will stand on hind legs to survey their surroundings, but will not walk bipedally. Dogs (e.g. Faith) can stand or move on two legs if trained, or if birth defect or injury precludes quadrupedalism. The gerenuk antelope stands on its hind legs while eating from trees, as did the extinct giant ground sloth and chalicotheres. The spotted skunk will walk on its front legs when threatened, rearing up on its front legs while facing the attacker so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, face its attacker.
### Limited bipedalism in non-mammals (and non-birds) {#limited_bipedalism_in_non_mammals_and_non_birds}
Bipedalism is unknown among the amphibians. Among the non-archosaur reptiles bipedalism is rare, but it is found in the \"reared-up\" running of lizards such as agamids and monitor lizards. Many reptile species will also temporarily adopt bipedalism while fighting. One genus of basilisk lizard can run bipedally across the surface of water for some distance. Among arthropods, cockroaches are known to move bipedally at high speeds. Bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals, though at least two species of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to be used to camouflage the octopus as a mat of algae or a floating coconut.
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# Bipedalism
## Evolution of human bipedalism {#evolution_of_human_bipedalism}
There are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans, and also some debate as to when. Bipedalism evolved well before the large human brain or the development of stone tools. Bipedal specializations are found in *Australopithecus* fossils from 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago and recent studies have suggested that obligate bipedal hominid species were present as early as 7 million years ago. Nonetheless, the evolution of bipedalism was accompanied by significant evolutions in the spine including the forward movement in position of the foramen magnum, where the spinal cord leaves the cranium. Recent evidence regarding modern human sexual dimorphism (physical differences between male and female) in the lumbar spine has been seen in pre-modern primates such as *Australopithecus africanus*. This dimorphism has been seen as an evolutionary adaptation of females to bear lumbar load better during pregnancy, an adaptation that non-bipedal primates would not need to make. Adapting bipedalism would have required less shoulder stability, which allowed the shoulder and other limbs to become more independent of each other and adapt for specific suspensory behaviors. In addition to the change in shoulder stability, changing locomotion would have increased the demand for shoulder mobility, which would have propelled the evolution of bipedalism forward. The different hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a number of selective forces may have acted together to lead to human bipedalism. It is important to distinguish between adaptations for bipedalism and adaptations for running, which came later still.
The form and function of modern-day humans\' upper bodies appear to have evolved from living in a more forested setting. Living in this kind of environment would have made it so that being able to travel arboreally would have been advantageous at the time. Although different to human walking, bipedal locomotion in trees was thought to be advantageous. It has also been proposed that, like some modern-day apes, early hominins had undergone a knuckle-walking stage prior to adapting the back limbs for bipedality while retaining forearms capable of grasping. Numerous causes for the evolution of human bipedalism involve freeing the hands for carrying and using tools, sexual dimorphism in provisioning, changes in climate and environment (from jungle to savanna) that favored a more elevated eye-position, and to reduce the amount of skin exposed to the tropical sun. It is possible that bipedalism provided a variety of benefits to the hominin species, and scientists have suggested multiple reasons for evolution of human bipedalism. There is also not only the question of why the earliest hominins were partially bipedal but also why hominins became more bipedal over time. For example, the postural feeding hypothesis describes how the earliest hominins became bipedal for the benefit of reaching food in trees while the savanna-based theory describes how the late hominins that started to settle on the ground became increasingly bipedal.
### Multiple factors {#multiple_factors}
Napier (1963) argued that it is unlikely that a single factor drove the evolution of bipedalism. He stated \"*It seems unlikely that any single factor was responsible for such a dramatic change in behaviour. In addition to the advantages of accruing from ability to carry objects -- food or otherwise -- the improvement of the visual range and the freeing of the hands for purposes of defence and offence may equally have played their part as catalysts.\"* Sigmon (1971) demonstrated that chimpanzees exhibit bipedalism in different contexts, and one single factor should be used to explain bipedalism: preadaptation for human bipedalism. Day (1986) emphasized three major pressures that drove evolution of bipedalism: food acquisition, predator avoidance, and reproductive success. Ko (2015) stated that there are two main questions regarding bipedalism 1. Why were the earliest hominins partially bipedal? and 2. Why did hominins become more bipedal over time? He argued that these questions can be answered with combination of prominent theories such as Savanna-based, Postural feeding, and Provisioning.
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# Bipedalism
## Evolution of human bipedalism {#evolution_of_human_bipedalism}
### Savannah-based theory {#savannah_based_theory}
According to the Savanna-based theory, hominines came down from the tree\'s branches and adapted to life on the savanna by walking erect on two feet. The theory suggests that early hominids were forced to adapt to bipedal locomotion on the open savanna after they left the trees. One of the proposed mechanisms was the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which states that human ancestors used quadrupedal locomotion on the savanna, as evidenced by morphological characteristics found in *Australopithecus anamensis* and *Australopithecus afarensis* forelimbs, and that it is less parsimonious to assume that knuckle walking developed twice in genera *Pan* and *Gorilla* instead of evolving it once as synapomorphy for *Pan* and *Gorilla* before losing it in Australopithecus. The evolution of an orthograde posture would have been very helpful on a savanna as it would allow the ability to look over tall grasses in order to watch out for predators, or terrestrially hunt and sneak up on prey. It was also suggested in P. E. Wheeler\'s \"The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids\", that a possible advantage of bipedalism in the savanna was reducing the amount of surface area of the body exposed to the sun, helping regulate body temperature. In fact, Elizabeth Vrba\'s turnover pulse hypothesis supports the savanna-based theory by explaining the shrinking of forested areas due to global warming and cooling, which forced animals out into the open grasslands and caused the need for hominids to acquire bipedality.
Others state hominines had already achieved the bipedal adaptation that was used in the savanna. The fossil evidence reveals that early bipedal hominins were still adapted to climbing trees at the time they were also walking upright. It is possible that bipedalism evolved in the trees, and was later applied to the savanna as a vestigial trait. Humans and orangutans are both unique to a bipedal reactive adaptation when climbing on thin branches, in which they have increased hip and knee extension in relation to the diameter of the branch, which can increase an arboreal feeding range and can be attributed to a convergent evolution of bipedalism evolving in arboreal environments. Hominine fossils found in dry grassland environments led anthropologists to believe hominines lived, slept, walked upright, and died only in those environments because no hominine fossils were found in forested areas. However, fossilization is a rare occurrence---the conditions must be just right in order for an organism that dies to become fossilized for somebody to find later, which is also a rare occurrence. The fact that no hominine fossils were found in forests does not ultimately lead to the conclusion that no hominines ever died there. The convenience of the savanna-based theory caused this point to be overlooked for over a hundred years.
Some of the fossils found actually showed that there was still an adaptation to arboreal life. For example, Lucy, the famous *Australopithecus afarensis*, found in Hadar in Ethiopia, which may have been forested at the time of Lucy\'s death, had curved fingers that would still give her the ability to grasp tree branches, but she walked bipedally. \"Little Foot\", a nearly-complete specimen of *Australopithecus africanus*, has a divergent big toe as well as the ankle strength to walk upright. \"Little Foot\" could grasp things using his feet like an ape, perhaps tree branches, and he was bipedal. Ancient pollen found in the soil in the locations in which these fossils were found suggest that the area used to be much more wet and covered in thick vegetation and has only recently become the arid desert it is now.
### Traveling efficiency hypothesis {#traveling_efficiency_hypothesis}
An alternative explanation is that the mixture of savanna and scattered forests increased terrestrial travel by proto-humans between clusters of trees, and bipedalism offered greater efficiency for long-distance travel between these clusters than quadrupedalism. In an experiment monitoring chimpanzee metabolic rate via oxygen consumption, it was found that the quadrupedal and bipedal energy costs were very similar, implying that this transition in early ape-like ancestors would not have been very difficult or energetically costing. This increased travel efficiency is likely to have been selected for as it assisted foraging across widely dispersed resources.
### Postural feeding hypothesis {#postural_feeding_hypothesis}
The postural feeding hypothesis has been recently supported by Dr. Kevin Hunt, a professor at Indiana University. This hypothesis asserts that chimpanzees were only bipedal when they eat. While on the ground, they would reach up for fruit hanging from small trees and while in trees, bipedalism was used to reach up to grab for an overhead branch. These bipedal movements may have evolved into regular habits because they were so convenient in obtaining food. Also, Hunt\'s hypotheses states that these movements coevolved with chimpanzee arm-hanging, as this movement was very effective and efficient in harvesting food. When analyzing fossil anatomy, *Australopithecus afarensis* has very similar features of the hand and shoulder to the chimpanzee, which indicates hanging arms. Also, the *Australopithecus* hip and hind limb very clearly indicate bipedalism, but these fossils also indicate very inefficient locomotive movement when compared to humans. For this reason, Hunt argues that bipedalism evolved more as a terrestrial feeding posture than as a walking posture.
A related study conducted by University of Birmingham, Professor Susannah Thorpe examined the most arboreal great ape, the orangutan, holding onto supporting branches in order to navigate branches that were too flexible or unstable otherwise. In more than 75 percent of observations, the orangutans used their forelimbs to stabilize themselves while navigating thinner branches. Increased fragmentation of forests where A. afarensis as well as other ancestors of modern humans and other apes resided could have contributed to this increase of bipedalism in order to navigate the diminishing forests. Findings also could shed light on discrepancies observed in the anatomy of A. afarensis, such as the ankle joint, which allowed it to \"wobble\" and long, highly flexible forelimbs. If bipedalism started from upright navigation in trees, it could explain both increased flexibility in the ankle as well as long forelimbs which grab hold of branches.
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# Bipedalism
## Evolution of human bipedalism {#evolution_of_human_bipedalism}
### Provisioning model {#provisioning_model}
One theory on the origin of bipedalism is the behavioral model presented by C. Owen Lovejoy, known as \"male provisioning\". Lovejoy theorizes that the evolution of bipedalism was linked to monogamy. In the face of long inter-birth intervals and low reproductive rates typical of the apes, early hominids engaged in pair-bonding that enabled greater parental effort directed towards rearing offspring. Lovejoy proposes that male provisioning of food would improve the offspring survivorship and increase the pair\'s reproductive rate. Thus the male would leave his mate and offspring to search for food and return carrying the food in his arms walking on his legs. This model is supported by the reduction (\"feminization\") of the male canine teeth in early hominids such as *Sahelanthropus tchadensis* and *Ardipithecus ramidus*, which along with low body size dimorphism in *Ardipithecus* and *Australopithecus*, suggests a reduction in inter-male antagonistic behavior in early hominids. In addition, this model is supported by a number of modern human traits associated with concealed ovulation (permanently enlarged breasts, lack of sexual swelling) and low sperm competition (moderate sized testes, low sperm mid-piece volume) that argues against recent adaptation to a polygynous reproductive system.
However, this model has been debated, as others have argued that early bipedal hominids were instead polygynous. Among most monogamous primates, males and females are about the same size. That is sexual dimorphism is minimal, and other studies have suggested that *Australopithecus afarensis* males were nearly twice the weight of females. However, Lovejoy\'s model posits that the larger range a provisioning male would have to cover (to avoid competing with the female for resources she could attain herself) would select for increased male body size to limit predation risk. Furthermore, as the species became more bipedal, specialized feet would prevent the infant from conveniently clinging to the mother`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} hampering the mother\'s freedom and thus make her and her offspring more dependent on resources collected by others. Modern monogamous primates such as gibbons tend to be also territorial, but fossil evidence indicates that *Australopithecus afarensis* lived in large groups. However, while both gibbons and hominids have reduced canine sexual dimorphism, female gibbons enlarge (\'masculinize\') their canines so they can actively share in the defense of their home territory. Instead, the reduction of the male hominid canine is consistent with reduced inter-male aggression in a pair-bonded though group living primate.
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# Bipedalism
## Evolution of human bipedalism {#evolution_of_human_bipedalism}
### Early bipedalism in homininae model {#early_bipedalism_in_homininae_model}
Recent studies of 4.4 million years old *Ardipithecus ramidus* suggest bipedalism. It is thus possible that bipedalism evolved very early in homininae and was reduced in chimpanzee and gorilla when they became more specialized. Other recent studies of the foot structure of *Ardipithecus ramidus* suggest that the species was closely related to African-ape ancestors. This possibly provides a species close to the true connection between fully bipedal hominins and quadruped apes. According to Richard Dawkins in his book \"The Ancestor\'s Tale\", chimps and bonobos are descended from *Australopithecus* gracile type species while gorillas are descended from *Paranthropus*. These apes may have once been bipedal, but then lost this ability when they were forced back into an arboreal habitat, presumably by those australopithecines from whom eventually evolved hominins. Early hominines such as *Ardipithecus ramidus* may have possessed an arboreal type of bipedalism that later independently evolved towards knuckle-walking in chimpanzees and gorillas and towards efficient walking and running in modern humans (see figure). It is also proposed that one cause of Neanderthal extinction was a less efficient running.
### Warning display (aposematic) model {#warning_display_aposematic_model}
Joseph Jordania from the University of Melbourne recently (2011) suggested that bipedalism was one of the central elements of the general defense strategy of early hominids, based on aposematism, or warning display and intimidation of potential predators and competitors with exaggerated visual and audio signals. According to this model, hominids were trying to stay as visible and as loud as possible all the time. Several morphological and behavioral developments were employed to achieve this goal: upright bipedal posture, longer legs, long tightly coiled hair on the top of the head, body painting, threatening synchronous body movements, loud voice and extremely loud rhythmic singing/stomping/drumming on external subjects. Slow locomotion and strong body odor (both characteristic for hominids and humans) are other features often employed by aposematic species to advertise their non-profitability for potential predators.
### Other behavioural models {#other_behavioural_models}
There are a variety of ideas which promote a specific change in behaviour as the key driver for the evolution of hominid bipedalism. For example, Wescott (1967) and later Jablonski & Chaplin (1993) suggest that bipedal threat displays could have been the transitional behaviour which led to some groups of apes beginning to adopt bipedal postures more often. Others (e.g. Dart 1925) have offered the idea that the need for more vigilance against predators could have provided the initial motivation. Dawkins (e.g. 2004) has argued that it could have begun as a kind of fashion that just caught on and then escalated through sexual selection. And it has even been suggested (e.g. Tanner 1981:165) that male phallic display could have been the initial incentive, as well as increased sexual signaling in upright female posture.
### Thermoregulatory model {#thermoregulatory_model}
The thermoregulatory model explaining the origin of bipedalism is one of the simplest theories so far advanced, but it is a viable explanation. Dr. Peter Wheeler, a professor of evolutionary biology, proposes that bipedalism raises the amount of body surface area higher above the ground which results in a reduction in heat gain and helps heat dissipation. When a hominid is higher above the ground, the organism accesses more favorable wind speeds and temperatures. During heat seasons, greater wind flow results in a higher heat loss, which makes the organism more comfortable. Also, Wheeler explains that a vertical posture minimizes the direct exposure to the sun whereas quadrupedalism exposes more of the body to direct exposure. Analysis and interpretations of Ardipithecus reveal that this hypothesis needs modification to consider that the forest and woodland environmental preadaptation of early-stage hominid bipedalism preceded further refinement of bipedalism by the pressure of natural selection. This then allowed for the more efficient exploitation of the hotter conditions ecological niche, rather than the hotter conditions being hypothetically bipedalism\'s initial stimulus. A feedback mechanism from the advantages of bipedality in hot and open habitats would then in turn make a forest preadaptation solidify as a permanent state.
### Carrying models {#carrying_models}
Charles Darwin wrote that \"Man could not have attained his present dominant position in the world without the use of his hands, which are so admirably adapted to the act of obedience of his will\". Darwin (1871:52) and many models on bipedal origins are based on this line of thought. Gordon Hewes (1961) suggested that the carrying of meat \"over considerable distances\" (Hewes 1961:689) was the key factor. Isaac (1978) and Sinclair et al. (1986) offered modifications of this idea, as indeed did Lovejoy (1981) with his \"provisioning model\" described above. Others, such as Nancy Tanner (1981), have suggested that infant carrying was key, while others again have suggested stone tools and weapons drove the change. This stone-tools theory is very unlikely, as though ancient humans were known to hunt, the discovery of tools was not discovered for thousands of years after the origin of bipedalism, chronologically precluding it from being a driving force of evolution. (Wooden tools and spears fossilize poorly and therefore it is difficult to make a judgment about their potential usage.)
### Wading models {#wading_models}
The observation that large primates, including especially the great apes, that predominantly move quadrupedally on dry land, tend to switch to bipedal locomotion in waist deep water, has led to the idea that the origin of human bipedalism may have been influenced by waterside environments. This idea, labelled \"the wading hypothesis\", was originally suggested by the Oxford marine biologist Alister Hardy who said: \"It seems to me likely that Man learnt to stand erect first in water and then, as his balance improved, he found he became better equipped for standing up on the shore when he came out, and indeed also for running.\" It was then promoted by Elaine Morgan, as part of the aquatic ape hypothesis, who cited bipedalism among a cluster of other human traits unique among primates, including voluntary control of breathing, hairlessness and subcutaneous fat. The \"aquatic ape hypothesis\", as originally formulated, has not been accepted or considered a serious theory within the anthropological scholarly community. Others, however, have sought to promote wading as a factor in the origin of human bipedalism without referring to further (\"aquatic ape\" related) factors. Since 2000 Carsten Niemitz has published a series of papers and a book on a variant of the wading hypothesis, which he calls the \"amphibian generalist theory\" (*Amphibische Generalistentheorie*).
Other theories have been proposed that suggest wading and the exploitation of aquatic food sources (providing essential nutrients for human brain evolution or critical fallback foods) may have exerted evolutionary pressures on human ancestors promoting adaptations which later assisted full-time bipedalism. It has also been thought that consistent water-based food sources had developed early hominid dependency and facilitated dispersal along seas and rivers.
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# Bipedalism
## Evolution of human bipedalism {#evolution_of_human_bipedalism}
### Consequences
Prehistoric fossil records show that early hominins first developed bipedalism before being followed by an increase in brain size. The consequences of these two changes in particular resulted in painful and difficult labor due to the increased favor of a narrow pelvis for bipedalism being countered by larger heads passing through the constricted birth canal. This phenomenon is commonly known as the obstetrical dilemma.
Non-human primates habitually deliver their young on their own, but the same cannot be said for modern-day humans. Isolated birth appears to be rare and actively avoided cross-culturally, even if birthing methods may differ between said cultures. This is due to the fact that the narrowing of the hips and the change in the pelvic angle caused a discrepancy in the ratio of the size of the head to the birth canal. The result of this is that there is greater difficulty in birthing for hominins in general, let alone to be doing it by oneself.
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# Bipedalism
## Physiology
Bipedal movement occurs in a number of ways and requires many mechanical and neurological adaptations. Some of these are described below.
### Biomechanics
#### Standing
Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid overcorrection. The difficulties associated with simple standing in upright humans are highlighted by the greatly increased risk of falling present in the elderly, even with minimal reductions in control system effectiveness.
#### Shoulder stability {#shoulder_stability}
Shoulder stability would decrease with the evolution of bipedalism. Shoulder mobility would increase because the need for a stable shoulder is only present in arboreal habitats. Shoulder mobility would support suspensory locomotion behaviors which are present in human bipedalism. The forelimbs are freed from weight-bearing requirements, which makes the shoulder a place of evidence for the evolution of bipedalism.
#### Walking
Unlike non-human apes that are able to practice bipedality such as *Pan* and *Gorilla*, hominins have the ability to move bipedally without the utilization of a bent-hip-bent-knee (BHBK) gait, which requires the engagement of both the hip and the knee joints. This human ability to walk is made possible by the spinal curvature humans have that non-human apes do not. Rather, walking is characterized by an \"inverted pendulum\" movement in which the center of gravity vaults over a stiff leg with each step. Force plates can be used to quantify the whole-body kinetic & potential energy, with walking displaying an out-of-phase relationship indicating exchange between the two. This model applies to all walking organisms regardless of the number of legs, and thus bipedal locomotion does not differ in terms of whole-body kinetics.
In humans, walking is composed of several separate processes:
- Vaulting over a stiff stance leg
- Passive ballistic movement of the swing leg
- A short \'push\' from the ankle prior to toe-off, propelling the swing leg
- Rotation of the hips about the axis of the spine, to increase stride length
- Rotation of the hips about the horizontal axis to improve balance during stance
#### Running
Early hominins underwent post-cranial changes in order to better adapt to bipedality, especially running. One of these changes is having longer hindlimbs proportional to the forelimbs and their effects. As previously mentioned, longer hindlimbs assist in thermoregulation by reducing the total surface area exposed to direct sunlight while simultaneously allowing for more space for cooling winds. Additionally, having longer limbs is more energy-efficient, since longer limbs mean that overall muscle strain is lessened. Better energy efficiency, in turn, means higher endurance, particularly when running long distances.
Running is characterized by a spring-mass movement. Kinetic and potential energy are in phase, and the energy is stored & released from a spring-like limb during foot contact, achieved by the plantar arch and the Achilles tendon in the foot and leg, respectively. Again, the whole-body kinetics are similar to animals with more limbs.
### Musculature
Bipedalism requires strong leg muscles, particularly in the thighs. Contrast in domesticated poultry the well muscled legs, against the small and bony wings. Likewise in humans, the quadriceps and hamstring muscles of the thigh are both so crucial to bipedal activities that each alone is much larger than the well-developed biceps of the arms. In addition to the leg muscles, the increased size of the gluteus maximus in humans is an important adaptation as it provides support and stability to the trunk and lessens the amount of stress on the joints when running.
### Respiration
Quadrupeds, have more restrictive breathing respire while moving than do bipedal humans. \"Quadrupedal species normally synchronize the locomotor and respiratory cycles at a constant ratio of 1:1 (strides per breath) in both the trot and gallop. Human runners differ from quadrupeds in that while running they employ several phase-locked patterns (4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 5:2, and 3:2), although a 2:1 coupling ratio appears to be favored. Even though the evolution of bipedal gait has reduced the mechanical constraints on respiration in man, thereby permitting greater flexibility in breathing pattern, it has seemingly not eliminated the need for the synchronization of respiration and body motion during sustained running.\"
Respiration through bipedality means that there is better breath control in bipeds, which can be associated with brain growth. The modern brain utilizes approximately 20% of energy input gained through breathing and eating, as opposed to species like chimpanzees who use up twice as much energy as humans for the same amount of movement. This excess energy, leading to brain growth, also leads to the development of verbal communication. This is because breath control means that the muscles associated with breathing can be manipulated into creating sounds. This means that the onset of bipedality, leading to more efficient breathing, may be related to the origin of verbal language.
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# Bipedalism
## Bipedal robots {#bipedal_robots}
For nearly the whole of the 20th century, bipedal robots were very difficult to construct and robot locomotion involved only wheels, treads, or multiple legs. Recent cheap and compact computing power has made two-legged robots more feasible. Some notable biped robots are ASIMO, HUBO, MABEL and QRIO. Recently, spurred by the success of creating a fully passive, un-powered bipedal walking robot, those working on such machines have begun using principles gleaned from the study of human and animal locomotion, which often relies on passive mechanisms to minimize power consumption
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# Baiuvarii
thumb\|upright=1\|Reconstruction of the grave of the Kemathen warrior, who is believed to have been a Bavarian The **Baiuvarii** or **Bavarii**, sometimes simply called **Bavarians** (*Baiuwaren*; *Bajuwaren*) were a Germanic people who lived in and near present-day southern Bavaria, which is named after them.
They began to appear in records by the 6th century AD, and their culture, language and political institutions are the predecessors of those of the medieval Duchy of Bavaria and Margraviate of Austria.
Among the Baiuvarii the Bavarian language developed, which is West Germanic language related to Standard German, still spoken not only by modern-day Bavarians, but also by Austrians and South Tyroleans.
## Name
The name of the Baiuvarii is also spelled *Baiuvari*. It probably means \"men from Bohemia\". The placename Bohemia is believed to be connected to that of the Boii, a Celtic people who partly left the region before the Roman era and then were dominated by Germanic peoples. The Baiuvarii gave their name to the region of Bavaria.
## Language
The language of the Baiuvarii is classified as Germanic. It is uncertain whether they originally spoke an East Germanic or West Germanic language. Early evidence regarding the language of the Baiuvarii is limited to personal names and a few Runic inscriptions. By the 8th century AD, the Baiuvarii were speakers of an early form of the Austro-Bavarian language within the West Germanic family.
## History
The name is first attested in Latin sources in the 6th century AD.
- The early 6th century biography of Severinus of Noricum describes the region without mentioning them.
- One of the earliest references to the Baiuvarii is the Frankish Table of Nations from about 520, which describes them as a people with kinship to the Burgundians, Thuringians and Lombards.
- In his *Getica* (551), Jordanes described how the Suebian people under the rule of the 5th century king or warlord named Hunimund moved to the southern side of the Danube to live in an Alpine area near the Alemanni, with the Franks on their west, Thuringians to their north, Burgundians to their south, and the *Baibaros* to their east, who are generally understood to have been the Bavarians.
- In a poem about a pilgrimage to Augsburg in 565, Venantius Fortunatus mentions the land Baioaria on the river Lech, which flows north from the Austrian alps to the German Danube. They were between the Allemanni on the Danube and the Breuni who were based near the river Inn.
Evidence from the etymology of their name implies that the Baiuvarii, being named after Bohemia, can not have existed under that name before the 1st century AD. During this period Maroboduus, king of the Germanic Marcomanni, lead his people into their area which had previously been inhabited by the Celtic Boii. Whether the Baiuvarii settled Bavaria in a specific later migration, after Maroboduus, either from the north (Bohemia) or from Pannonia, is uncertain.
A possible earlier record of the Baiuvarii, is the 2nd century mention of the Banochaemae, whose name appears to have a similar etymology. Claudius Ptolemy described them in his *Geography* as living near the Elbe, east of the Melibokus mountains, and north of the Asciburgius mountains.
According to Karl Bosl, Bavarian migration to present-day Bavaria is a legend. The early Baiuvarii are often associated with the Friedenhain-Přešťovice archaeological group, but this is controversial. During the time of Attila in the 5th century, the entire Middle Danube region saw the entry of many new peoples from north and east of the Carpathians, and the formation and destruction of many new and old political entities.
It is thus more probable that the Baiuvarii emerged in the provinces of Noricum ripense and Raetia secunda following Odoacer\'s withdrawal of population to Italy in 488, and the subsequent expansion of Italian Ostrogothic, and Merovingian Frankish influence into the area. They are believed to have incorporated elements from several Germanic peoples, including the Sciri, Heruli, Suebi, Alemanni, Naristi, Thuringi and Lombards. They might also have included non-Germanic Romance people (romanized Celtic people).
The region was under the influence of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Theodoric the Great. During this period, the Frankish king Theudebert I (died 548) claimed control from the North Sea to Pannonia. After his death, his uncle Chlothar I appointed Garibald I as *dux* of Bavaria. He established the Agilolfings dynasty with his power base at Augsburg or Regensburg. By the 8th century, many Baiuvarii had converted to Christianity.
Through their ruling Agilolfings dynasty, they were closely connected with the Franks.
## Culture
A collection of Bavarian tribal laws was compiled in the 8th century. This document is known as *Lex Baiuvariorum*. Elements of it possibly date back to the 6th century. It is very similar to *Lex Thuringorum*, which was the legal code of the Thuringi, with whom the Baiuvarii had close relations.
The funerary traditions of the Baiuvarii are similar to those of the Alemanni, but quite different from those of the Thuringi.
The Baiuvarii are distinguished by the presence of individuals with artificially deformed craniums in their cemeteries. These individuals were predominantly female; there is no undisputed evidence of males with artificially deformed skulls in Bavaria. Genetic and archeological evidence shows that these women were migrants from eastern cultures, who married Bavarii males, suggesting the importance of exogamy within the Bavarii culture. The migrant women were fully integrated in to Bavarii culture.
In 2018, genomic research showed that these foreign women had southeastern European and East Asian ancestry. The presence of these women among the Bavarii people indicates that men from the Bavarii culture practiced exogamy, preferentially marrying women from eastern populations.
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# Baiuvarii
## Genetics
A genetic study published in the *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America* in 2018 examined the remains of 41 individuals buried at a Bavarian cemetery ca. 500 AD. Of these, 11 whole genomes were generated. The males were found to be genetically homogeneous and of north-central European origin. The females were less homogeneous, carried less Northern European ancestry, and were found to combine Southeast European and East Asian ancestry.
There were significant gender differences in skin, hair and eye pigmentation in the sample. While 80% of the Bavarii males had blond hair and blue eyes, the women had much higher rates of brown eyes and darker hair colors. The local women with East Asian and Southern European-related ancestry, generally had brown eyes, and 60% were dark haired.
No significant admixture with Roman populations from territories further south of the area was detected. Among modern populations, the surveyed male individuals did not have modified skulls and were found to be most closely related to modern-day Germans
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# Dots and boxes
**Dots and boxes** is a pencil-and-paper game for two players (sometimes more). It was first published in the 19th century by French mathematician Édouard Lucas, who called it ***la pipopipette***. It has gone by many other names, including **dots and dashes**, **game of dots**, **dot to dot grid**, **boxes**, and **pigs in a pen**.
The game starts with an empty grid of dots. Usually two players take turns adding a single horizontal or vertical line between two unjoined adjacent dots. A player who completes the fourth side of a 1×1 box earns one point and takes another turn. A point is typically recorded by placing a mark that identifies the player in the box, such as an initial. The game ends when no more lines can be placed. The winner is the player with the most points. The board may be of any size grid. When short on time, or to learn the game, a 2×2 board (3×3 dots) is suitable. A 5×5 board, on the other hand, is good for experts.
## Strategy
upright=1.35\|thumb\|Example game of Dots and Boxes on a 2×2 square board. The second player (\"B\") plays a rotated mirror image of the first player\'s moves, hoping to divide the board into two pieces and tie the game. But the first player (\"A\") makes a *sacrifice* at move 7 and B accepts the sacrifice, getting one box. However, B must now add another line, and so B connects the center dot to the center-right dot, causing the remaining unscored boxes to be joined in a *chain* (shown at the end of move 8). With A\'s next move, A gets all three of them and ends the game, winning 3--1. thumb\|upright=1.35\|The \"double-cross\" strategy: faced with position 1, a novice player would create position 2 and lose. An experienced player would create position 3 and win. For most novice players, the game begins with a phase of more-or-less randomly connecting dots, where the only strategy is to avoid adding the third side to any box. This continues until all the remaining (potential) boxes are joined into *chains* -- groups of one or more adjacent boxes in which any move gives all the boxes in the chain to the opponent. At this point, players typically take all available boxes, then *open* the smallest available chain to their opponent. For example, a novice player faced with a situation like position 1 in the diagram on the right, in which some boxes can be captured, may take all the boxes in the chain, resulting in position 2. But with their last move, they have to open the next, larger chain, and the novice loses the game.
A more experienced player faced with position 1 will instead play the *double-cross strategy*, taking all but 2 of the boxes in the chain and leaving position 3. The opponent will take these two boxes and then be forced to open the next chain. By achieving position 3, player A wins. The same double-cross strategy applies no matter how many long chains there are: a player using this strategy will take all but two boxes in each chain and take all the boxes in the last chain. If the chains are long enough, then this player will win.
The next level of strategic complexity, between experts who would both use the double-cross strategy (if they were allowed to), is a battle for control: an expert player tries to force their opponent to open the first long chain, because the player who first opens a long chain usually loses. Against a player who does not understand the concept of a sacrifice, the expert simply has to make the correct number of sacrifices to encourage the opponent to hand them the first chain long enough to ensure a win. If the other player also sacrifices, the expert has to additionally manipulate the number of available sacrifices through earlier play.
In combinatorial game theory, Dots and Boxes is an impartial game and many positions can be analyzed using Sprague--Grundy theory. However, Dots and Boxes lacks the normal play convention of most impartial games (where the last player to move wins), which complicates the analysis considerably.
## Unusual grids and variants {#unusual_grids_and_variants}
Dots and Boxes need not be played on a rectangular grid`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}it can be played on a triangular grid or a hexagonal grid.
Dots and boxes has a dual graph form called \"Strings-and-Coins\". This game is played on a network of coins (vertices) joined by strings (edges). Players take turns cutting a string. When a cut leaves a coin with no strings, the player \"pockets\" the coin and takes another turn. The winner is the player who pockets the most coins. Strings-and-Coins can be played on an arbitrary graph.
In analyses of Dots and Boxes, a game that starts with outer lines already drawn is called a *Swedish board* while the standard version that starts fully blank is called an *American board*. An intermediate version with only the left and bottom sides starting with drawn lines is called an *Icelandic board*.
A related game is Dots, played by adding coloured dots to a blank grid, and joining them with straight or diagonal line in an attempt to surround an opponent\'s dots
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# Broadcast domain
A **broadcast domain** is a logical division of a computer network, in which all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link layer. A broadcast domain can be within the same LAN segment or it can be bridged to other LAN segments.
In terms of current popular technologies, any computer connected to the same Ethernet repeater or switch is a member of the same broadcast domain. Further, any computer connected to the same set of interconnected switches or repeaters is a member of the same broadcast domain. Routers and other network-layer devices form boundaries between broadcast domains.
The notion of a broadcast domain can be compared with a collision domain, which would be all nodes on the same set of inter-connected repeaters and divided by switches and network bridges. Collision domains are generally smaller than and contained within broadcast domains. While some data-link-layer devices are able to divide the collision domains, broadcast domains are only divided by network-layer devices such as routers or layer-3 switches. Separating VLANs divides broadcast domains as well.
## Further explanation {#further_explanation}
The distinction between broadcast and collision domains comes about because simple Ethernet and similar systems use a shared medium for communication. In simple Ethernet (without switches or bridges), data frames are transmitted to all other nodes on a network. Each receiving node checks the destination address of each frame and simply ignores any frame not addressed to its own MAC address or the broadcast address.
Switches act as buffers, receiving and analyzing the frames from each connected network segment. Frames destined for nodes connected to the originating segment are not forwarded by the switch. Frames destined for a specific node on a different segment are sent only to that segment. Only broadcast frames are forwarded to all other segments. This reduces unnecessary traffic and collisions.
In such a switched network, transmitted frames may not be received by all other reachable nodes. Nominally, only broadcast frames will be received by all other nodes. Collisions are localized to the physical-layer network segment they occur on. Thus, the broadcast domain is the entire inter-connected layer-2 network, and the segments connected to each switch or bridge port are each a collision domain. To clarify; repeaters do not divide collision domains but switches do. This means that since switches have become commonplace, collision domains are isolated to the specific segment between the switch port and the connected node. Full-duplex segments, or links, don\'t form a collision domain as there is a dedicated channel between each transmitter and receiver, eliminating the possibility of collisions.
## Broadcast domain control {#broadcast_domain_control}
With a sufficiently sophisticated switch, it is possible to create a network in which a broadcast domain is strictly controlled. One implementation of this concept is a private VLAN. Another implementation is possible with Linux and iptables. One analogy is that by creating multiple VLANs, the number of broadcast domains increases, but the size of each broadcast domain decreases. This is because a VLAN defines a broadcast domain.
This is achieved by designating one or more *provider* nodes, either by MAC address or switch port. Broadcast frames are allowed to originate from these sources and are sent to all other nodes. Broadcast frames from all other sources are directed only to the provider nodes. Traffic from other sources not destined to the provider nodes (peer-to-peer traffic) is blocked.
The result is a network based on a nominally shared transmission system; like Ethernet, but in which client nodes cannot communicate with each other, only with the provider. Allowing direct data link layer communication between client nodes exposes the network to various security attacks, such as ARP spoofing
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# Biconditional introduction
In propositional logic, **biconditional introduction** is a valid rule of inference. It allows for one to infer a biconditional from two conditional statements. The rule makes it possible to introduce a biconditional statement into a logical proof. If $P \to Q$ is true, and if $Q \to P$ is true, then one may infer that $P \leftrightarrow Q$ is true. For example, from the statements \"if I\'m breathing, then I\'m alive\" and \"if I\'m alive, then I\'m breathing\", it can be inferred that \"I\'m breathing if and only if I\'m alive\". Biconditional introduction is the converse of biconditional elimination. The rule can be stated formally as:
$$\frac{P \to Q, Q \to P}{\therefore P \leftrightarrow Q}$$
where the rule is that wherever instances of \"$P \to Q$\" and \"$Q \to P$\" appear on lines of a proof, \"$P \leftrightarrow Q$\" can validly be placed on a subsequent line.
## Formal notation {#formal_notation}
The *biconditional introduction* rule may be written in sequent notation:
$$(P \to Q), (Q \to P) \vdash (P \leftrightarrow Q)$$
where $\vdash$ is a metalogical symbol meaning that $P \leftrightarrow Q$ is a syntactic consequence when $P \to Q$ and $Q \to P$ are both in a proof;
or as the statement of a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic:
$$((P \to Q) \land (Q \to P)) \to (P \leftrightarrow Q)$$
where $P$, and $Q$ are propositions expressed in some formal system
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# Biconditional elimination
**Biconditional elimination** is the name of two valid rules of inference of propositional logic. It allows for one to infer a conditional from a biconditional. If $P \leftrightarrow Q$ is true, then one may infer that $P \to Q$ is true, and also that $Q \to P$ is true. For example, if it\'s true that I\'m breathing if and only if I\'m alive, then it\'s true that if I\'m breathing, I\'m alive; likewise, it\'s true that if I\'m alive, I\'m breathing. The rules can be stated formally as:
$$\frac{P \leftrightarrow Q}{\therefore P \to Q}$$ and
$$\frac{P \leftrightarrow Q}{\therefore Q \to P}$$
where the rule is that wherever an instance of \"$P \leftrightarrow Q$\" appears on a line of a proof, either \"$P \to Q$\" or \"$Q \to P$\" can be placed on a subsequent line.
## Formal notation {#formal_notation}
The *biconditional elimination* rule may be written in sequent notation:
$$(P \leftrightarrow Q) \vdash (P \to Q)$$ and
$$(P \leftrightarrow Q) \vdash (Q \to P)$$
where $\vdash$ is a metalogical symbol meaning that $P \to Q$, in the first case, and $Q \to P$ in the other are syntactic consequences of $P \leftrightarrow Q$ in some logical system;
or as the statement of a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic:
$$(P \leftrightarrow Q) \to (P \to Q)$$
$$(P \leftrightarrow Q) \to (Q \to P)$$
where $P$, and $Q$ are propositions expressed in some formal system
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# Batavi (Germanic tribe)
Batavia\|and\|Batavi (disambiguation){{!}}Batavi}} The **Batavi** `{{IPA|la|bäˈt̪äːu̯iː|}}`{=mediawiki} were an ancient Germanic tribe that lived around the modern Dutch Rhine delta in the area that the Romans called Batavia, from the second half of the first century BC to the third century AD. The name is also applied to several military units employed by the Romans that were originally raised among the Batavi. The tribal name, probably a derivation from *batawjō* (\"good island\", from Germanic *bat-* meaning \"good, excellent\", which is also in the English \"better\", and *awjō* meaning \"island, land near water\"), may refer to the fertile Betuwe region.
## Location
The Batavi themselves are not mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*, although he is often thought to have founded his dynasty\'s Germanic bodyguard, which was at least in later generations dominated by Batavi. But he did mention the \"Batavian island\" in the Rhine river. The island\'s easternmost point is at a split in the Rhine, one arm being the Waal the other the Lower Rhine/Old Rhine (hence the Latin name *Insula Batavorum*, \"Island of the Batavi\"). Much later Tacitus wrote that they had originally been a tribe of the Chatti, a tribe in Germany also never mentioned by Caesar (unless they were his \"Suebi\"), who were forced by internal dissension to move to their new home. The time when this happened is unknown, but Caesar does describe forced movements of tribes from the east in his time, such as the Usipetes and Tencteri.
Tacitus also reports that before their arrival the area had been \"an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side\". This view, however, is contradicted by the archeological evidence, which shows continuous habitation from at least the third century BC onward.
The strategic position, to wit the high bank of the Waal offering an unimpeded view far into Germania Transrhenana (Germania Beyond the Rhine), was recognized first by Drusus, who built a massive fortress (*castra*) and a headquarters (*praetorium*) in imperial style. The latter was in use until the Batavian revolt.
Archeological evidence suggests they lived in small villages, composed of six to 12 houses in the very fertile lands between the rivers, and lived by agriculture and cattle-raising. Finds of horse skeletons in graves suggest a strong equestrian preoccupation. On the south bank of the Waal (in what is now Nijmegen) a Roman administrative center was built, called *Oppidum Batavorum*. An Oppidum was a fortified warehouse, where a tribe\'s treasures were stored and guarded. This centre was razed during the Batavian Revolt. The Smetius Collection was instrumental in settling the debate about the exact location of the Batavians.
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# Batavi (Germanic tribe)
## Military units {#military_units}
The first Batavi commander we know of is named Chariovalda, who led a charge across the Vīsurgis (Weser) river against the Cherusci led by Arminius during the campaigns of Germanicus in *Germania Transrhenana*.
Tacitus (*De origine et situ Germanorum* XXIX) described the Batavi as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the Germanic wars, with cohorts under their own commanders transferred to Britannia. They retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: \"They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms\", Tacitus remarked. Well regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming---for men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. Dio Cassius describes this surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the \"barbarians\"---the British Celts--- at the battle of the River Medway, 43:
> The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germanic tribesmen, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. \[\...\] Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them. (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20)
It is uncertain how they were able to accomplish this feat. The late fourth century writer on Roman military affairs Vegetius mentions soldiers using reed rafts, drawn by leather leads, to transport equipment across rivers. But the sources suggest the Batavi were able to swim across rivers actually wearing full armour and weapons. This would only have been possible by the use of some kind of buoyancy device: Ammianus Marcellinus mentions that the *Cornuti* regiment swam across a river floating on their shields \"as on a canoe\" (357). Since the shields were wooden, they may have provided sufficient buoyancy
The Batavi were used to form the bulk of the Emperor\'s personal Germanic bodyguard from Augustus to Galba. They also provided a contingent for their indirect successors, the Emperor\'s horse guards, the *Equites singulares Augusti*.
A Batavian contingent was used in an amphibious assault on Ynys Mon (Anglesey), taking the assembled Druids by surprise, as they were only expecting Roman ships.
Numerous altars and tombstones of the cohorts of Batavi, dating to the second century and third century, have been found along Hadrian\'s Wall, notably at Castlecary and Carrawburgh. As well as in Germany, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Austria.
### Revolt of the Batavi {#revolt_of_the_batavi}
Despite the alliance, one of the high-ranking Batavi, Julius Paullus, to give him his Roman name, was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion. His kinsman Gaius Julius Civilis was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted by Galba, he was retained at Rome, and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the Roman Empire, 69, he headed a Batavian rebellion. He managed to capture Castra Vetera, the Romans\' lost two legions, while two others (I Germanica and XVI Gallica) were controlled by the rebels. The rebellion became a real threat to the Empire when the conflict escalated to northern Gaul and Germania. The Roman army retaliated and invaded the *insula Batavorum*. A bridge was built over the river Nabalia, where the warring parties approached each other on both sides to negotiate peace. The narrative was told in great detail in Tacitus\' History, book iv, although, unfortunately, the narrative breaks off abruptly at the climax. Following the uprising, Legio X *Gemina* was housed in a stone *castra* to keep an eye on the Batavians.
## Fate of the Batavi {#fate_of_the_batavi}
The Batavi were still mentioned in 355 during the reign of Constantius II (317--361), when their island was already dominated by the Salii, a Frankish tribe that had sought Roman protection there in 297 after having been expelled from their own country by the Saxons.
Constantius Gallus added inhabitants of Batavia to his legions, \"of whose discipline we still make use.\" It has been assumed they merged with the Salii shortly before or after and, after having been expelled by another tribe (it has been proposed this was the Chamavi), shared their subsequent migration to Toxandria. In the Late Roman army there was a unit called *Batavi*.
The name of the Bavarian town of Passau descends from the Roman *Batavis*, which was named after the Batavi. The town\'s name is old as it shows the typical effects of the High German consonant shift (b \> p, t \> ss).
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# Batavi (Germanic tribe)
## The Batavian revival {#the_batavian_revival}
In the 16th-century emergence of a popular foundation story and origin myth for the Dutch people, the Batavians came to be regarded as their ancestors during their national struggle for independence during the Eighty Years\' War. The mix of fancy and fact in the *Cronyke van Hollandt, Zeelandt ende Vriesland* (called the *Divisiekroniek*) by the Augustinian friar and humanist Cornelius Gerardi Aurelius, first published in 1517, brought the spare remarks in Tacitus\' newly rediscovered *Germania* to a popular public; it was being reprinted as late as 1802. Contemporary Dutch virtues of independence, fortitude and industry were fully recognizable among the Batavians in more scholarly history represented in Hugo Grotius\' *Liber de Antiquitate Republicae Batavicorum* (1610). The origin was perpetuated by Romeyn de Hooghe\'s *Spiegel van Staat der Vereenigden Nederlanden* (\"Mirror of the State of the United Netherlands,\" 1706), which also ran to many editions, and it was revived in the atmosphere of Romantic nationalism in the late eighteenth-century reforms that saw a short-lived Batavian Republic and, in the colony of the Dutch East Indies, a capital that was named Batavia. Though since Indonesian independence the city is called Jakarta, its inhabitants up to the present still call themselves *Betawi* or *Orang Betawi*, i.e. \"People of Batavia\" -- a name ultimately derived from the ancient Batavians.
The success of this tale of origins was mostly due to resemblance in anthropology, which was based on tribal knowledge. Being politically and geographically inclusive, this historical vision filled the needs of Dutch nation-building and integration in the 1890--1914 era.
However, a disadvantage of this historical nationalism soon became apparent. It suggested there were no strong external borders, while allowing for the fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society polarized into three parts. After 1945, the tribal knowledge lost its grip on anthropology and mostly vanished. Modern variants of the Batavian founding myth are made more accurate by pointing out that the Batavians were one part of the ancestry of the Dutch people - together with the Frisians, Franks and Saxons -- by tracing patterns of DNA. Echoes of this cultural continuity can still be found among various areas of Dutch modern culture, such as the very popular replica of the ship *Batavia* that can today be found in Lelystad
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# Bocce
***italics=no*** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɒ|tʃ|i|audio=en-us-bocce.oga}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɒ|tʃ|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|ˈbɔttʃe|lang}}`{=mediawiki}), sometimes anglicized as **bocce ball**, **bocci**, or **boccie**, is a ball sport belonging to the boules family. Developed into its present form in Italy, it is closely related to English bowls and French *\[\[pétanque\]\]*, with a common ancestry from ancient games played in the Roman Empire. Bocce is played around Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as in overseas areas with historical Italian immigrant population, including Australia, North and South America, principally Argentina and the southern Brazilian states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. Initially only played by Italian immigrants, the game has slowly gained popularity among descendant generations and outside the Italian diaspora.
## History
Having developed from games played in the Roman Empire, bocce developed into its present form in Italy, where it is called **bocce**, the plural of the Italian word **boccia** which means \'bowl\' in the general sporting sense. It spread around Europe and also in regions to which Italians have migrated. The first form of regulation was described in the book \"Gioco delle bocchie\" by Raffaele Bisteghi in 1753. In South America it is known as **bochas**, or *bolas criollas* (\'Criollo balls\') in Venezuela, and **bocha** in southern Brazil. The accessibility of bocce to people of all ages and abilities has seen it grow in popularity among Special Olympics programmes globally, and it is now the third most-played sport among Special Olympics athletes.
## Geographical spread {#geographical_spread}
The sport is also very popular on the eastern side of the Adriatic, especially in Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the sport is known in Croatian as **boćanje** (\'playing **boće**\') or **balote** (colloquially also **bućanje**). In Slovenia the sport is known as **balinanje** or colloquially \'playing **boče**\', or **bale** (from Italian **bocce** and Venetian **bałe**, meaning \'balls\'). There are numerous bocce leagues in the United States (USA).
Bocce was brought to Venezuela between 1498 and 1510 by a Spanish friar or by Priest Sojo, great-uncle of Simón Bolívar. The Venezuelan modality became popular during the 1930s and is played in several Caribbean islands, including Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire. In 1946, bocce was included in the first Venezuelan National Sports Games, and in 1956 the National Venezuelan Federation of Creole Bocce was founded.
Bocce is also played in Brazil. The sport was brought between 1880 and 1930 by the Italian families of Baggio, Zanetti, Tedesco, Merlin, Pazello, Bolisenha, Ricetti, Fressatos and Dorigos. The sport became popular on Curitiba and in 1952 the families created the bocci club Sociedade 25 de Maio. The city has also developed their own modality of bocce, \"bocha clássico\" (classic bocce). On 25 May, the city celebrates the bocce day.
Brazil is also notorious in the paralympic bocce modality. During the 2012 Summer Paralympics, the country conquered three gold medals and one bronze medal in the BC2 and BC4 categories. Brazil hosted the paralympic bocce world championship twice. On Rio 2016, Brazil conquered a gold medal and a silver medal in the BC3 and BC4 categories. On 2022, the World Championship was hosted again on Rio de Janeiro, and Brazil conquered one gold, three silver and three bronze medals. In 2025, Curitiba hosted the Youth Bocce World Cup.
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# Bocce
## Rules and play {#rules_and_play}
Bocce is traditionally played on a natural soil or asphalt court up to 27.5 m in length and 2.5 to wide. While the court walls are traditionally made of wood or stone, many social leagues and Special Olympics programs now use inflatable \'Packabocce\' PVC courts due to their portability and ease of storage. Bocce balls can be made of wood (traditional), metal, baked clay, or various kinds of plastic. Unlike lawn bowls, bocce balls are spherical and have no inbuilt bias.
A game can be conducted between two players, or two teams of two, three, or four. A match is started by a randomly chosen side being given the opportunity to throw a smaller ball, the **jack** (called a **boccino** (\'little bocce\') or **pallino** (\'bullet\' or \'little ball\') in Italian, depending on local custom), from one end of the court into a zone 5 m in length, ending 2.5 m from the far end of the court. If the first team misses twice, the other team is awarded the opportunity to place the jack anywhere they choose within the prescribed zone. Casual play is common in reasonably flat areas of parks and yards lacking a bocce court, but players should agree to the minimum and maximum distance the jack may be thrown before play begins.
The side that first attempted to place the jack is given the opportunity to bowl first. Once the first bowl has taken place, the other side has the opportunity to bowl. From then on, the side which does *not* have the ball closest to the jack has a chance to bowl, up until one side or the other has used their four balls. At that point, the other side bowls its remaining balls. The object of the game is for a team to get as many of its balls as possible closer to the target ball (jack, boccino, pallino) than the opposing team. The team with the closest ball to the jack is the only team that can score points in any frame. The scoring team receives one point for each of their balls that is closer to the jack than the closest ball of the other team. The length of a game varies by region but is typically from 7 to 13 points.
Players are permitted to throw the ball in the air using an underarm action only. This is generally used to knock either the jack or another ball away to attain a more favorable position. Tactics can get quite complex when players have sufficient control over the ball to throw or roll it accurately.
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# Bocce
## Variants
### Punto raffa volo {#punto_raffa_volo}
Also known as PRV, punto raffa volo is the main international competition form of bocce. The name refers to the three legal types of throws in the game: punto, or lagging the ball toward the pallino; raffa, shooting a ball with an aerial throw that hits the ground and rolls toward the target; and volo, hitting a ball on the fly or a short hop. The rules of PRV are strict and reward precision and accuracy. Rules violations allow the opposing team to keep the result or reset the game to its set-up before the rules violation (and pulling the foul ball off the court). This reset is accomplished by marking the ground with chalk to indicate the placement of each ball and the pallino.
Rules include (but are not limited to):
- When lagging a ball toward the target, the thrown ball may not move another ball or the pallino more than 70 cm (in Italy, some leagues enforce a 50 cm rule).
- When throwing a raffa or volo, the player must declare which ball will hit first.
- Players cannot throw a ball off the side walls.
- The back wall is dead for missed shots and any balls that hit the back wall while lagging (there are some variations of the lagging rule that may allow the pallino to be pushed into the back wall).
### Open bocce {#open_bocce}
Played mainly in the U.S. and Canada, open bocce features a basic set of rules as compared with PRV. In open bocce, there are fewer limitations on lagging (side walls are live, balls can be moved any distance), and missed targets while shooting are allowed. Some clubs play with the back wall live, while other clubs play with the back wall as dead if a ball hits the back wall on the fly without striking a ball or the pallino. Other variations include angled corners and gutters at the end of the court rather than a back wall.
### Bocce volo {#bocce_volo}
A variation called **bocce volo** uses a metal ball, which is thrown overhand (palm down), after a run-up to the throwing line. In that latter respect, it is similar to the French boules game **\[\[jeu provençal\]\]** also known as **boule lyonnaise** which is internationally called sport-boules. Another French variant of the game is called **\[\[pétanque\]\]**, and (lacking the run-up) is more similar in some respects to traditional **bocce**.
### Boccia
Another development, for persons with disabilities, is called **boccia**. It is a shorter-range game, played with leather balls on an indoor, smooth surface. Boccia was first introduced to the Paralympics at the 1984 New York/Stoke Mandeville Summer Games and is one of the only two Paralympic sports that do not have an Olympic counterpart (the other being goalball).
### Classic bocce {#classic_bocce}
A Brazilian variety of bocce where the ball is rolled on the floor instead of thrown.
### Creole bocce {#creole_bocce}
A Venezuelan variety of bocce, where 4 red balls, 4 green balls and one 5 cm ball (called Mingo) are thrown at once in the field
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# Beatmatching
**Beatmatching** or **pitch cue** is a DJ technique of pitch shifting or time stretching an upcoming track to match its tempo to that of the currently playing track, and to adjust them such that the beats (and, usually, the bars) are synchronized---e.g. the kicks and snares in two house records hit at the same time when both records are played simultaneously. Beatmatching is a component of **beatmixing** which employs beatmatching combined with equalization, attention to phrasing and track selection in an attempt to make a single mix that flows together and has a good structure.
Beatmatching is a core technique for DJing electronic dance music, and it is standard practice in clubs to keep a constant beat throughout the night, even if DJs change in the middle.
## Technique
The beatmatching technique consists of the following steps:
1. While a record is playing, start a second record playing, but only monitored through headphones, not being fed to the main PA system. Use gain (or *trim*) control on the mixer to match the levels of the two records.
2. Restart and slip-cue the new record at the right time, on beat with the record currently playing.
3. If the beat on the new record hits before the beat on the current record, then the new record is too fast; reduce the pitch and manually slow the speed of the new record to bring the beats back in sync.
4. If the beat on the new record hits after the beat on the current record, then the new record is too slow; increase the pitch and manually increase the speed of the new record to bring the beats back in sync.
5. Continue this process until the two records are in sync with each other. It can be difficult to sync the two records perfectly, so manual adjustment of the records is necessary to maintain the beat synchronization.
6. Gradually fade in parts of the new track while fading out the old track. While in the mix, ensure that the tracks are still synchronized, adjusting the records if needed.
7. The fade can be repeated several times, for example, from the first track, fade to the second track, then back to first, then to second again.
One of the key things to consider when beatmatching is the tempo of both songs, and the musical theory behind the songs. Attempting to beatmatch songs with completely different beats per minute (BPM) will result in one of the songs sounding too fast or too slow.
When beatmatching, a popular technique is to vary the equalization of both tracks. For example, when the kicks are occurring on the same beat, a more seamless transition can occur if the lower frequencies are taken out of one of the songs, and the lower frequencies of the other song is boosted. Doing so creates a smoother transition.
### Pitch and tempo {#pitch_and_tempo}
The pitch and tempo of a track are normally linked together: spin a disc 5% faster and both pitch and tempo will be 5% higher. However, some modern DJ software can change pitch and tempo independently using time-stretching and pitch-shifting, allowing harmonic mixing. There is also a feature in modern DJ software which may be called \"master tempo\" or \"key adjust\" which changes the tempo while keeping the original pitch.
## History
Francis Grasso was one of the first people to beatmatch in the late 1960s, being taught the technique by Bob Lewis.
These days`{{when|date=May 2016}}`{=mediawiki} beat-matching is considered central to DJing, and features making it possible are a requirement for DJ-oriented players. In 1978, the Technics SL-1200MK2 turntable was released, whose comfortable and precise sliding pitch control and high torque direct drive motor made beat-matching easier and it became the standard among DJs. With the advent of the compact disc, DJ-oriented compact disc players with pitch control and other features enabling beat-matching (and sometimes scratching), dubbed CDJs, were introduced by various companies. More recently, software with similar capabilities has been developed to allow manipulation of digital audio files stored on computers using turntables with special vinyl records (e.g. Final Scratch, M-Audio Torq, Serato Scratch Live) or computer interface (e.g. Traktor DJ Studio, Mixxx, VirtualDJ). Other software including algorithmic beat-matching is Ableton Live, which allows for realtime music manipulation and deconstruction. Freeware software such as Rapid Evolution can detect the beats per minute and determine the percent BPM difference between songs.
Most modern DJ hardware and software now offer a \"sync\" feature which automatically adjusts the tempo between tracks being mixed so the DJ no longer needs to beatmatch manually
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# Books of Chronicles
The **Book of Chronicles** (*דִּבְרֵי־הַיָּמִים* `{{Transliteration|he|Dīvrē-hayYāmīm}}`{=mediawiki}, \"words of the days\") is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (**1--2 Chronicles**) in the Christian Old Testament. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third section of the Jewish Tanakh, the Ketuvim (\"Writings\"). It contains a genealogy starting with Adam and a history of ancient Judah and Israel up to the Edict of Cyrus in 539 BC.
The book was translated into Greek and divided into two books in the Septuagint in the mid-3rd century BC. In Christian contexts Chronicles is referred to in the plural as the **Books of Chronicles**, after the Latin name *chronicon* given to the text by Jerome, but is also referred to by its Greek name as the **Books of Paralipomenon**. In Christian Bibles, they usually follow the two Books of Kings and precede Ezra--Nehemiah, the last history-oriented book of the Protestant Old Testament.
## Summary
The Chronicles narrative begins with Adam, Seth and Enosh, and the story is then carried forward, almost entirely through genealogical lists, down to the founding of the United Kingdom of Israel in the \"introductory chapters\", 1 Chronicles 1--9. The bulk of the remainder of 1 Chronicles, after a brief account of Saul in chapter 10, is concerned with the reign of David. The next long section concerns David\'s son Solomon, and the final part is concerned with the Kingdom of Judah, with occasional references to the northern Kingdom of Israel (2 Chronicles 10--36). The final chapter covers briefly the reigns of the last four kings, until Judah is destroyed and the people taken into exile in Babylon. In the two final verses, identical to the opening verses of the Book of Ezra, the Persian king Cyrus the Great conquers the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and authorises the restoration of the Temple in Jerusalem and the return of the exiles.
## Structure
Originally a single work, Chronicles was divided into two in the Septuagint, a Greek translation produced in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. It has three broad divisions:
1. the genealogies in chapters 1--9 of 1 Chronicles
2. the reigns of David and Solomon (constituting the remainder of 1 Chronicles, and chapters 1--9 of 2 Chronicles); and
3. the narrative of the divided kingdom, focusing on the Kingdom of Judah, in the remainder of 2 Chronicles.
Within this broad structure there are signs that the author has used various other devices to structure his work, notably through drawing parallels between David and Solomon (the first becomes king, establishes the worship of Israel\'s God in Jerusalem, and fights the wars that will enable the Temple to be built, then Solomon becomes king, builds and dedicates the Temple, and reaps the benefits of prosperity and peace).
1 Chronicles is divided into 29 chapters and 2 Chronicles into 36 chapters. Biblical commentator C. J. Ball suggests that the division into two books introduced by the translators of the Septuagint \"occurs in the most suitable place\", namely with the conclusion of David\'s reign as king and the initiation of Solomon\'s reign.
The Talmud considered Chronicles one book.
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# Books of Chronicles
## Composition
### Origins
The last events recorded in Chronicles take place in the reign of Cyrus the Great, the Persian king who conquered Babylon in 539 BC; this sets the earliest possible date for this passage of the book.
Chronicles appears to be largely the work of a single individual. The writer was probably male, probably a Levite (temple priest), and probably from Jerusalem. He was well-read, a skilled editor, and a sophisticated theologian. He aimed to use the narratives in the Torah and former prophets to convey religious messages to his peers, the literary and political elite of Jerusalem in the time of the Achaemenid Empire.
Jewish and Christian tradition identified this author as the 5th-century BC figure Ezra, who gives his name to the Book of Ezra; Ezra is also believed by the Talmudic sages to have written both his own book (i. e., Ezra--Nehemiah) and Chronicles up to his own time, the latter having been finished by Nehemiah. Later critics, skeptical of the long-maintained tradition, preferred to call the author \"the Chronicler\". However, many scholars maintain support for Ezra\'s authorship, not only based on centuries of work by Jewish historians, but also due to the consistency of language and speech patterns between Chronicles and Ezra--Nehemiah. Professor Emeritus Menahem Haran of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem explains, \"the overall unity of the Chronistic Work is ... demonstrated by a common ideology, the uniformity of legal, cultic and historical conceptions and specific style, all of which reflect one opus.\"
One of the most striking, although inconclusive, features of Chronicles is that its closing sentence is repeated as the opening of Ezra--Nehemiah. In antiquity, such repeated verses, like the \"catch-lines\" used by modern printers, often appeared at the end of a scroll to facilitate the reader\'s passing on to the correct second book-scroll after completing the first. This scribal device was employed in works that exceeded the scope of a single scroll and had to be continued on another scroll.
The latter half of the 20th century, amid growing skepticism in academia regarding history in the Biblical tradition, saw a reappraisal of the authorship question. Though there is a general lack of corroborating evidence, many now regard it as improbable that the author of Chronicles was also the author of the narrative portions of Ezra--Nehemiah. These critics suggest that *Chronicles* was probably composed between 400 and 250 BC, with the period 350--300 BC the most likely. This timeframe is achieved by estimates made based on genealogies appearing in the Greek Septuagint. This theory bases its premise on the latest person mentioned in Chronicles, Anani. Anani is an eighth-generation descendant of King Jehoiachin according to the Masoretic Text. This has persuaded many supporters of the Septuagint\'s reading to place Anani\'s likely date of birth a century later than what had been largely accepted for two millennia.
### Sources
Much of the content of Chronicles is a repetition of material from other books of the Bible, from Genesis to Kings, and so the usual scholarly view is that these books, or an early version of them, provided the author with the bulk of his material. It is, however, possible that the situation was rather more complex, and that books such as Genesis and Samuel should be regarded as contemporary with Chronicles, drawing on much of the same material, rather than a source for it. Despite much discussion of this issue, no agreement has been reached. It is also likely that Chronicles preserved ancient heterodox traditions regarding Israel\'s history.
### Genre
The translators who created the Greek version of the Jewish Bible (the Septuagint) called this book *Paralipomenon*, \"Things Left Out\", indicating that they thought of it as a supplement to another work, probably Genesis--Kings, but the idea seems inappropriate, since much of Genesis--Kings has been copied almost without change. Some modern scholars proposed that Chronicles is a midrash, or traditional Jewish commentary, on Genesis--Kings, but again this is not entirely accurate since the author or authors do not comment on the older books so much as use them to create a new work. Recent suggestions have been that it was intended as a clarification of the history in Genesis--Kings, or a replacement or alternative for it.
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# Books of Chronicles
## Themes
Presbyterian theologian Paul K. Hooker argues that the generally accepted message the author wished to give to his audience was a theological reflection, not a \"history of Israel\":
1. God is active in history, and especially the history of Israel. The faithfulness or sins of individual kings are immediately rewarded or punished by God. (This is in contrast to the theology of the Books of Kings, where the faithlessness of kings was punished on later generations through the Babylonian exile).
2. God calls Israel to a special relationship. The call begins with the genealogies, gradually narrowing the focus from all mankind to a single family, the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob. \"True\" Israel is those who continue to worship Yahweh at the Temple in Jerusalem (in the southern Kingdom of Judah), with the result that the history of the historical Kingdom of Israel is almost completely ignored.
3. God chose David and his dynasty as the agents of his will. According to the author of Chronicles, the three great events of David\'s reign were his bringing the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem, his founding of an eternal royal dynasty, and his preparations for the construction of the Temple.
4. God chose a site in Jerusalem as the location for the Temple, the place where God should be worshiped. More time and space are spent on the construction of the Temple and its rituals of worship than on any other subject. By stressing the central role of the Temple in pre-exilic Judah, the author also stresses the importance of the newly rebuilt Persian-era Second Temple to his own readers.
5. God remains active in Israel. The past is used to legitimize the author\'s present: this is seen most clearly in the detailed attention he gives to the Temple built by Solomon, but also in the genealogy and lineages, which connect his own generation to the distant past and thus make the claim that the present is a continuation of that past
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# Borel measure
In mathematics, specifically in measure theory, a **Borel measure** on a topological space is a measure that is defined on all open sets (and thus on all Borel sets). Some authors require additional restrictions on the measure, as described below.
## Formal definition {#formal_definition}
Let $X$ be a locally compact Hausdorff space, and let $\mathfrak{B}(X)$ be the smallest σ-algebra that contains the open sets of $X$; this is known as the σ-algebra of Borel sets. A Borel measure is any measure $\mu$ defined on the σ-algebra of Borel sets. A few authors require in addition that $\mu$ is locally finite, meaning that every point has an open neighborhood with finite measure. For Hausdorff spaces, this implies that $\mu(C)<\infty$ for every compact set $C$; and for locally compact Hausdorff spaces, the two conditions are equivalent. If a Borel measure $\mu$ is both inner regular and outer regular, it is called a regular Borel measure. If $\mu$ is both inner regular, outer regular, and locally finite, it is called a Radon measure. Alternatively, if a regular Borel measure $\mu$ is tight, it is a Radon measure.
If $X$ is a separable complete metric space, then every Borel measure $\mu$ on $X$ is a Radon measure.
## On the real line {#on_the_real_line}
The real line $\mathbb R$ with its usual topology is a locally compact Hausdorff space; hence we can define a Borel measure on it. In this case, $\mathfrak{B}(\mathbb R)$ is the smallest σ-algebra that contains the open intervals of $\mathbb R$. While there are many Borel measures *μ*, the choice of Borel measure that assigns $\mu((a,b])=b-a$ for every half-open interval $(a,b]$ is sometimes called \"the\" Borel measure on $\mathbb R$. This measure turns out to be the restriction to the Borel σ-algebra of the Lebesgue measure $\lambda$, which is a complete measure and is defined on the Lebesgue σ-algebra. The Lebesgue σ-algebra is actually the *completion* of the Borel σ-algebra, which means that it is the smallest σ-algebra that contains all the Borel sets and can be equipped with a complete measure. Also, the Borel measure and the Lebesgue measure coincide on the Borel sets (i.e., $\lambda(E)=\mu(E)$ for every Borel measurable set, where $\mu$ is the Borel measure described above). This idea extends to finite-dimensional spaces $\mathbb R^n$ (the Cramér--Wold theorem, below) but does not hold, in general, for infinite-dimensional spaces. Infinite-dimensional Lebesgue measures do not exist.
## Product spaces {#product_spaces}
If *X* and *Y* are second-countable, Hausdorff topological spaces, then the set of Borel subsets $B(X\times Y)$ of their product coincides with the product of the sets $B(X)\times B(Y)$ of Borel subsets of *X* and *Y*. That is, the Borel functor
: $\mathbf{Bor}\colon\mathbf{Top}_\mathrm{2CHaus}\to\mathbf{Meas}$
from the category of second-countable Hausdorff spaces to the category of measurable spaces preserves finite products.
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# Borel measure
## Applications
### Lebesgue--Stieltjes integral {#lebesguestieltjes_integral}
The Lebesgue--Stieltjes integral is the ordinary Lebesgue integral with respect to a measure known as the Lebesgue--Stieltjes measure, which may be associated to any function of bounded variation on the real line. The Lebesgue--Stieltjes measure is a regular Borel measure, and conversely every regular Borel measure on the real line is of this kind.
### Laplace transform {#laplace_transform}
One can define the Laplace transform of a finite Borel measure *μ* on the real line by the Lebesgue integral
: $(\mathcal{L}\mu)(s) = \int_{[0,\infty)} e^{-st}\,d\mu(t).$
An important special case is where *μ* is a probability measure or, even more specifically, the Dirac delta function. In operational calculus, the Laplace transform of a measure is often treated as though the measure came from a distribution function *f*. In that case, to avoid potential confusion, one often writes
: $(\mathcal{L}f)(s) = \int_{0^-}^\infty e^{-st}f(t)\,dt$
where the lower limit of 0^−^ is shorthand notation for
: $\lim_{\varepsilon\downarrow 0}\int_{-\varepsilon}^\infty.$
This limit emphasizes that any point mass located at 0 is entirely captured by the Laplace transform. Although with the Lebesgue integral, it is not necessary to take such a limit, it does appear more naturally in connection with the Laplace--Stieltjes transform.
### Moment problem {#moment_problem}
One can define the moments of a finite Borel measure *μ* on the real line by the integral
: $m_n = \int_a^b x^n\,d\mu(x).$
For $(a,b)=(-\infty,\infty),\;(0,\infty),\;(0,1)$ these correspond to the Hamburger moment problem, the Stieltjes moment problem and the Hausdorff moment problem, respectively. The question or problem to be solved is, given a collection of such moments, is there a corresponding measure? For the Hausdorff moment problem, the corresponding measure is unique. For the other variants, in general, there are an infinite number of distinct measures that give the same moments.
### Hausdorff dimension and Frostman\'s lemma {#hausdorff_dimension_and_frostmans_lemma}
Given a Borel measure *μ* on a metric space *X* such that *μ*(*X*) \> 0 and *μ*(*B*(*x*, *r*)) ≤ *r^s^* holds for some constant *s* \> 0 and for every ball *B*(*x*, *r*) in *X*, then the Hausdorff dimension dim~Haus~(*X*) ≥ *s*. A partial converse is provided by the Frostman lemma:
**Lemma:** Let *A* be a Borel subset of **R**^*n*^, and let *s* \> 0. Then the following are equivalent:
- *H*^*s*^(*A*) \> 0, where *H*^*s*^ denotes the *s*-dimensional Hausdorff measure.
- There is an (unsigned) Borel measure *μ* satisfying *μ*(*A*) \> 0, and such that
$$\mu(B(x,r))\le r^s$$
: holds for all *x* ∈ **R**^*n*^ and *r* \> 0.
### Cramér--Wold theorem {#cramérwold_theorem}
The Cramér--Wold theorem in measure theory states that a Borel probability measure on $\mathbb R^k$ is uniquely determined by the totality of its one-dimensional projections. It is used as a method for proving joint convergence results. The theorem is named after Harald Cramér and Herman Ole Andreas Wold
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# BBC Red Button
**BBC Red Button** is a brand used for digital interactive television services provided by the BBC, and broadcast in the United Kingdom. The services replaced Ceefax, the BBC\'s analogue teletext service. BBC Red Button\'s text services were due to close on 30 January 2020, but the switch-off was suspended on 29 January 2020 following protests.
## History and branding {#history_and_branding}
The service was launched on 23 September 1999 as BBC Text. It was relaunched in November 2001 under the **BBCi** brand and operated under this name until late 2008, when it was rebranded as BBC Red Button. The \"red button\" name refers to the common interface on remote controls for digital televisions and set-top boxes, a red push-button that launches digital teletext services.
Although initially marketed as a spectacular new form of television, by 2008 this had given way to positioning interactive television as \'everyday\'. This was due in part to the institutional landscape of television in the UK.
In September 2009, the BBC celebrated 10 years of the digital interactive TV service.
### BBC Text (1999--2001) {#bbc_text_19992001}
BBC Text originally launched on digital terrestrial services on 23 September 1999, and was later introduced on satellite and cable platforms. In the first phase, the service was created using content migrated from the existing analogue teletext service, Ceefax. A digital text service had been available since the launch of digital terrestrial television in November 1998, but the BBC Text service was not publicly launched until November 1999, due to a lack of availability of compatible set-top boxes.
BBC Text was considerably more advanced than Ceefax, in that it offered a richer visual interface, with the possibility of photographic images and designed graphics (as opposed to Ceefax graphics which were composed of simple blocks of colour). BBC Text also enabled channel association, the ability for the user to retain their selected television channel visible in one section of the screen whilst viewing the text service, in contrast to Ceefax, which could only be viewed as a full-screen display, or as a semitransparent overlay (i.e. opaque blocks of colour on top of the television channel, with the black background now transparent; not \'translucent blocks of colour with a translucent black background\') above the television picture. The original text service had no return path, this being made available in later phases.
BBC Text pioneered an early form of \"on-demand\" interactive television, called Enhanced TV. During the 1999 Wimbledon Championships, the BBC presented a service that allowed viewers to select a video stream of different matches, and access additional information such as player profiles, scores and interactive quizzes. Although the experimental service was publicly available, there were no digital set-top boxes or receivers available on the market that could decode the signal, and the service was presented to the public only via BBC demonstrations using prototype receivers.
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# BBC Red Button
## History and branding {#history_and_branding}
### The BBCi brand (2001--2008) {#the_bbci_brand_20012008}
The BBCi brand launched in November 2001 and was conceived as a cohesive multi-platform brand name for all the BBC\'s digital interactive services, encompassing the corporation\'s digital teletext, interactive television and website services. According to the BBC, the \"i\" in BBCi stood for \"interactivity\" as well as \"innovation\".
The various services all took on a common interface device, an \"i-bar\" branded with the BBCi logo, which sought to emphasise the brand across different technologies by providing similar navigation. For example, the BBC website, which had previously been called BBC Online, took on the BBCi brand from 2001, displaying an i-bar across the top of every page, offering category-based navigation: Categories, TV, Radio, Communicate, Where I Live, A-Z Index, and a search. Similarly, BBC interactive television services all offered a horizontal i-bar along the bottom of television screens, with four colour-coded interactions linked to the four colour buttons on TV remote controls.
In 2003 some minor changes were made to the service, which saw a new \"bridge\"-style home page (the current style still used today `{{when|date=March 2025}}`{=mediawiki}) replacing the previous i-bar, and all sections remained the same as before, but their headings along the top of the screen were colour-coded rather than using a single shade of blue. A further revamp took place in 2004 which saw a new look to all the section pages, as well as the introduction of Ceefax-style page numbers and an index page, replacing the previous BBCi menu, and an option to press \"0\" on the remote control to switch between the service and full screen TV. The previous home page was also retained in line with the new look, but with the \"MAIN MENU\" option becoming \"INDEX\". More changes took place in 2005, which included a new BBCi logo and another new \"bridge\"-style home page --- which, unlike the previous home page, doesn\'t show any references of the current channel and programme, as it instead features MHEG text overlays giving highlights of the service. Additionally, new \"Fastext\" style buttons were introduced, and the colour scheme of the index page has changed from blue to black.
After three years of consistent use across different platforms, the BBC began to drop the BBCi brand gradually; on 6 May 2004, the BBC website was renamed bbc.co.uk, after the main URL used to access the site. Interactive TV services continued under the BBCi brand until late 2008.
### The BBC Red Button brand (2008) {#the_bbc_red_button_brand_2008}
From 2008, the BBC gradually began to drop the BBCi name from its digital interactive TV services also, replacing it with the name BBC Red Button. The BBCi logo continued in on-screen presentation for some time.
### BBC Red Button HD {#bbc_red_button_hd}
In June 2013, a HD version of BBC Red Button was launched for the summertime. It closed on 25 November 2013 after the 50th anniversary of Doctor Who. It returned each year along with the other BBC Red Button channels as a temporary channel for the duration of the Wimbledon tennis tournament. On 26 March 2018, CBBC HD began its downtime and the relaunch of BBC Red Button HD took place to cover the 2018 Commonwealth Games. It was added on Sky on channel 981 and Freeview channel 602 on 3 April 2018 and closed on 16 April 2018 after the Games had concluded. Later in 2021, it was originally supposed to be closed on the end of Wimbledon but was kept on air for the 2020 Olympics.
On 15 February 2023, as part of the BBC\'s plan to upgrade all of its channels to high-definition as standard, the high-definition video feed of BBC Red Button was made the default on all television platforms, replacing the long-standing \"standard definition\" feed which was used outside of significant sporting events.
### BBC Connected Red Button (2012) {#bbc_connected_red_button_2012}
BBC Connected Red Button launched in December 2012 on Virgin TiVo and on some Freeview and Freesat \'Smart TVs\' in December 2013. The service is a composite IP and broadcast service and may be the future of Red Button on internet connected televisions.
#### BBC Red Button+ (2015) {#bbc_red_button_2015}
The service was renamed BBC Red Button+ in April 2015. It launched with an updated brand.
### Partial closure (2020) {#partial_closure_2020}
After nearly 21 years of service, the BBC announced in 2019 that due to financial cuts, the text services on Red Button on all platforms would be removed from 30 January 2020. The video services, used during events like Wimbledon and the Olympic Games, however, would continue.
On 29 January 2020, the BBC announced their suspension of the switch-off due to protests, one day before the service was due to have started being phased out. This announcement comes following a petition, organised by the National Federation of the Blind of the UK (NFBUK), which was submitted to the BBC and Downing Street. The petition expresses NFBUK\'s concerns with the switch-off, citing that the service is \"vital for visually impaired, deaf, disabled and older people, as well as many other people who want to find out information independently in an easy, convenient and accessible format, who are not online.\" They\'re concerned that the withdrawal of the service would leave many already vulnerable people into further isolation and marginalisation from society. NFBUK states they cannot understand how the BBC can meet their obligations set in the Royal Charter following the cut of the Red Button Teletext service.
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# BBC Red Button
## Availability
BBC Red Button is available on all digital television platforms in the UK, including digital cable through Virgin Media, digital satellite through Sky and Freesat and digital terrestrial television through Freeview. On Freeview interactivity does not permit users to submit data (such as answering questions in a quiz or requesting video on demand), as the platform does not provide a return path.
The BBC currently provides one video stream to all platforms, which can be accessed directly from Freeview channel 601, Freesat channel 980, Sky channel 970 (UK only) and Virgin Media UK channel 991. Until mid-February 2023, the feed provided was only in standard definition, with a high-definition version of RB 1 (the primary feed) used for high-profile sporting events, which included the Olympics and Wimbledon. Since 15 February 2023 the standard definition feed has been replaced across all platforms with a high-definition version, as part of the BBC\'s plan to upgrade its channel offering into high-definition. One advantage of the feed is the DVR ability as the conventional Red Button interaction restricts DVR record / pause / rewind functions, and is a major caveat for many.
Prior to 2023, the BBC had the ability to increase the amount of streams during major events and had done so on numerous occasions, as follows:
:\*2012 Olympics: For the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, the BBC provided 24 live streams in standard and high-definition for the duration of the games. Additional online streams could also be accessed through the internet-connected BBC Red Button+.
:\*2016 Olympics: eight red button video streams were broadcast to all platforms during the 2016 Olympics. This was in addition to BBC Four continually broadcasting Olympic coverage and either BBC One or BBC Two broadcasting main coverage during the course of the each day.
:\*The Championships, Wimbledon: six additional channels were provided for a variety of outer courts. Red Button 1 was duplicated in high definition, with RB 2 to RB 6 only in standard definition. The 2022 edition of the tournament was the last to offer this functionality.
As of 2023, the BBC will no longer be providing additional Red Button streams for any events. Instead, it will be directing viewers to watch additional feeds via the BBC iPlayer. 2023 Wimbledon was the first major tournament not to provide any additional feeds on linear television.
BBC Red Button 1 HD (originally launched as SD only) is a channel available on Freeview, Freesat, Sky, and Virgin Media. It showcases many live events, such as live music (especially from BBC Radio live shows) and sports like football and rugby. It also features an extended version of Final Score, offering more in-depth analysis of the matches they cover. When the BBC announced the closure of all their SD channels on satellite, BBC Red Button 1 became permanently HD for the first time in its history (it was occasionally in HD for certain events like Wimbledon). Virgin Media followed suit by adding BBC Red Button 1 HD to their service and removing the SD version.
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# BBC Red Button
## Content
Generally, BBC Red Button offers text and video based services, as well as enhanced television programmes which offer extra information, video or quizzes.
In September 2005, BBCi launched an update to the interactivity available from the BBC\'s Radio channels on Freeview. Originally only Radiotext was available. After the update, users could access information about the programme, schedules, news, sport and weather. From 2005, Freeview users could access the CBBC Extra video stream.
The same team behind the BBC\'s digital text service also launched the early incarnations of the BBC\'s Interactive Wimbledon and Interactive Open Golf services in 2000, which were awarded an Interactive BAFTA that year.
The News Multiscreen was removed from the digital service in October 2009, to make room for future Freeview HD broadcasts.
As of July 2022, the Question Time page on p155 appears to be outdated since January 2018, as it still states that the show will be returning on January 11 from Islington.
Here is a table of the contents of the BBC Red Button as of March 2023:
Numbers Name Category Notes
------------ ----------------------------------- --------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100 Home Page
101 News Headlines News Index of all stories on p104
102 News Index News Index of categories in News Section
104 Top News Story News Use left and right buttons to scroll through all stories indexed on 101, stories no longer have their own page
144 Index of all UK Political stories
153 Technology News
154 Science News
155 Question Time News Unedited since January 2018
160 Around the UK Index of UK Regional News sections
199 Index of all sections
200 Business Business *Loans & Home* and *Savings* were removed from the Business pages in May 2012.
201 Business news Business
204 Business top story Business
220 Shares Business
230 Markets Business
240 Currencies - Foreign Exchange Business
300 Sport index Sport
301 Sports news Sport
302 Football index Sport
304 Sport top story Sport
340 Cricket index Sport
360 Formula 1 index Sport
368 Rugby Union index Sport
370 Rugby League index Sport
390 Around the UK (Sport) Sport Regional sports headlines
400 Weather Weather
401 Forecast maps index Weather
405 Warnings Weather Severe weather warnings and flood warnings
430 Travel Travel The BBC Travel website closed in February 2017. As such there is no direct online successor to the Red Button travel pages.
431 UK motorways Travel
432 Rail Travel
435 Ferries Travel
436 London Transport Travel
437 Regional roads Travel
481 Golf Sport
485 Tennis Sport
501 Entertainment news Entertainment
504 Entertainment top story Entertainment
660 Racing Sport
700 Election Results News Only active when required (e.g. following a major UK or European election)
888 Subtitles Help Information on how subtitling can be accessed via digital TV; unlike Ceefax, subtitles cannot be accessed directly from BBC RB
1010 UK News News
1020 World News News
1030 Health News News
3901 Regional sport - England Sport
3905 Regional sport - Scotland Sport
3910 Regional sport - Wales Sport
3915 Regional sport - Northern Ireland Sport
4010 UK Summary Weather
4100 World Cities Weather
4011--4017 UK Forecast Maps Weather
9990 Help Help
## Compatibility
The service was initially compatible with ONdigital and ITV Digital boxes, though loading speeds were slower than newer Freeview boxes.
Page numbers were introduced in 2004 to aid navigation, with 3-digit page numbers matching with those of the analogue Ceefax in 2006. Pages exclusive to digital are given a four digit number. An index navigation screen was also introduced, replacing the previous BBCi Menu.
The Teletext service from the UK commercial broadcasters had stopped supporting the old boxes in 2005. As of 2010, the ONdigital boxes only load pages 100 and 199 and some interactive services that use channel 301, if any other page is loaded it exits the service.
Usage of these boxes dwindled further as technology developed. They used \"original\" technology and as such were not upgradable. Following each regional changeover to full digital TV broadcasting, the remaining units are no longer of use, as they do not support the \"8K-mode\" for DVB-T introduced across the UK as part of the digital switchover.
On Freely, the service is available to users who have an aerial
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BBC Red Button
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4,352 |
# Backplane
A **backplane** or **backplane system** is a group of electrical connectors in parallel with each other, so that each pin of each connector is linked to the same relative pin of all the other connectors, forming a computer bus. It is used to connect several printed circuit boards together to make up a complete computer system. Backplanes commonly use a printed circuit board, but wire-wrapped backplanes have also been used in minicomputers and high-reliability applications.
A backplane is generally differentiated from a motherboard by the lack of on-board processing and storage elements. A backplane uses plug-in cards for storage and processing.
## Usage
Early microcomputer systems like the Altair 8800 used a backplane for the processor and expansion cards.
Backplanes are normally used in preference to cables because of their greater reliability. In a cabled system, the cables need to be flexed every time that a card is added or removed from the system; this flexing eventually causes mechanical failures. A backplane does not suffer from this problem, so its service life is limited only by the longevity of its connectors. For example, DIN 41612 connectors (used in the VMEbus system) have three durability grades built to withstand (respectively) 50, 400 and 500 insertions and removals, or \"mating cycles\". To transmit information, Serial Back-Plane technology uses a low-voltage differential signaling transmission method for sending information.
In addition, there are bus expansion cables which will extend a computer bus to an external backplane, usually located in an enclosure, to provide more or different slots than the host computer provides. These cable sets have a transmitter board located in the computer, an expansion board in the remote backplane, and a cable between the two.
## Active vis-à-vis passive backplanes {#active_vis_à_vis_passive_backplanes}
Backplanes have grown in complexity from the simple Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) (used in the original IBM PC) or S-100 style where all the connectors were connected to a common bus. Due to limitations inherent in the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) specification for driving slots, backplanes are now offered as **passive** and **active**.
True passive backplanes offer no active bus driving circuitry. Any desired arbitration logic is placed on the daughter cards. Active backplanes include chips which buffer the various signals to the slots.
The distinction between the two isn\'t always clear, but may become an important issue if a whole system is expected to not have a single point of failure (SPOF) . Common myth around passive backplane, even if it *is* single, is not usually considered a SPOF. Active back-planes are even more complicated and thus have a non-zero risk of malfunction. However one situation that can cause disruption both in the case of Active and Passive Back-planes is while performing maintenance activities i.e. while swapping boards there is always a possibility of damaging the Pins/Connectors on the Back-plane, this may cause full outage for the system as all boards mounted on the back-plane should be removed in order to fix the system. Therefore, we are seeing newer architectures where systems use high speed redundant connectivity to interconnect system boards point to point with No Single Point of Failure anywhere in the system.
## Backplanes vis-à-vis motherboards {#backplanes_vis_à_vis_motherboards}
When a backplane is used with a plug-in single-board computer (SBC) or system host board (SHB), the combination provides the same functionality as a motherboard, providing processing power, memory, I/O and slots for plug-in cards. While there are a few motherboards that offer more than 8 slots, that is the traditional limit. In addition, as technology progresses, the availability and number of a particular slot type may be limited in terms of what is currently offered by motherboard manufacturers.
However, backplane architecture is somewhat unrelated to the SBC technology plugged into it. There are some limitations to what can be constructed, in that the SBC chip set and processor have to provide the capability of supporting the slot types. In addition, virtually an unlimited number of slots can be provided with 20, including the SBC slot, as a practical though not an absolute limit. Thus, a PICMG backplane can provide any number and any mix of ISA, PCI, PCI-X, and PCI-e slots, limited only by the ability of the SBC to interface to and drive those slots. For example, an SBC with the latest i7 processor could interface with a backplane providing up to 19 ISA slots to drive legacy I/O cards.
## Midplane
Some backplanes are constructed with slots for connecting to devices on both sides, and are referred to as midplanes. This ability to plug cards into either side of a midplane is often useful in larger systems made up primarily of modules attached to the midplane.
Midplanes are often used in computers, mostly in blade servers, where server blades reside on one side and the peripheral (power, networking, and other I/O) and service modules reside on the other. Midplanes are also popular in networking and telecommunications equipment where one side of the chassis accepts system processing cards and the other side of the chassis accepts network interface cards.
Orthogonal midplanes connect vertical cards on one side to horizontal boards on the other side. One common orthogonal midplane connects many vertical telephone line cards on one side, each one connected to copper telephone wires, to a horizontal communications card on the other side.
A \"virtual midplane\" is an imaginary plane between vertical cards on one side that directly connect to horizontal boards on the other side; the card-slot aligners of the card cage and self-aligning connectors on the cards hold the cards in position.
Some people use the term \"midplane\" to describe a board that sits between and connects a hard drive hot-swap backplane and redundant power supplies.
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