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In December 2016, the first pair of P-72A aircraft were delivered to the Italian Air Force. A single ATR 72 MP was ordered by Italy's paramilitary Guardia di Finanza (GdF) in July 2019, followed by an order for a further three ATR 72s in October 2019. The aircraft will supplement the GdF's existing force of four ATR-42s in the border surveillance, maritime patrol and search and rescue roles. FedEx Express On 8 November 2017, FedEx Express launched the -600 cargo variant with 30 firm orders plus 20 options, in a freighter configuration from the factory. As of September 2018, 187 early variants had been produced with 172 operated by 55 carriers, 365 -500s were delivered with more than 350 in service at 75 operators, 444 -600s were produced and are operated by 74 carriers with a backlog of orders.
By then, with more than 60 -500s and 40 -600s in storage, new aircraft leases fell to $130,000 per month from $170,000. The -600 list price of $26.8M is typically discounted by 25% for a $M value, a 2012 aircraft is valued $13.3M and leased $115,000, falling to $10.2M and $100,000 in 2021, a D check costs $0.5M and the engine overhaul costs $0.3-1.0M. Variants ATR 72–100 Two sub-types were marketed as the 100 series (−100). ATR 72–101 Initial production variant with front and rear passenger doors, powered by two PW124B engines and certified in September 1989. ATR 72–102 Initial production variant with a front cargo door and a rear passenger door, powered by two PW124B engines and certified in December 1989.
ATR 72–200 Two sub-types were marketed as the 200 series (−200). The −200 was the original production version, powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada PW124B engines rated at . ATR 72–201 Higher maximum take-off weight variant of the −101, a PW124B-powered variant certified in September 1989. Higher maximum take-off weight variant of the −102, a PW124B-powered variant certified in December 1989. ATR 72–210 Two sub-types were marketed as the 210 series (−210): the −211 (and with an enlarged cargo door, called the −212) is a −200 with PW127 engines producing each for improved performance in hot and high-altitude conditions. The sub-types differ in the type of doors and emergency exits ATR 72–211 PW127-powered variant certified in December 1992.
ATR 72–212 PW127-powered variant certified in December 1992. ATR 72-212A Certified in January 1997 and fitted with either PW127F or PW127M engines, the −212A is an upgraded version of the −210 using six-bladed propellers on otherwise identical PW127F engines. Other improvements include higher maximum weights and superior performance, as well as greater automation of power management to ease pilot workload. ATR 72–500 Initial marketing name for the ATR 72-212A. ATR 72–600 Marketing name for ATR 72-212A with different equipment fit. The −600 series aircraft was announced in October 2007; the first deliveries were planned for the second half of 2010.
The prototype ATR 72–600 first flew on 24 July 2009; it had been converted from an ATR 72–500. The ATR 72–600 features several improvements. It is powered by the new PW127M engines, which enable a 5% increase in takeoff power via a "boost function" used only when called for by takeoff conditions. The flight deck features five wide LCD screens (improving on the EFIS of earlier versions). A multi-purpose computer (MPC) aims at increasing flight safety and operational capabilities, and new Thales-made avionics provide Required Navigation Performance (RNP) capabilities. It also features lighter seats and larger overhead baggage bins. In December 2015, the EASA approved a new high-density seating layout, raising the maximum capacity from 74 to 78 seats.
Other versions Cargo Bulk Freighter (tube versions) and ULD Freighter (Large Cargo Door). ATR unveiled a large cargo door modification for all ATR 72 at Farnborough 2002, coupled with a dedicated cargo conversion. FedEx, DHL, and UPS all operate the type. -600F Freighter variant of the -600, 8 November 2017 launch with 30 firm orders from FedEx plus 20 options. The first should be delivered in 2020. P-72A ASW The ATR 72 ASW integrates the ATR 42 MP (Maritime Patrol) mission system with identical on-board equipment, but with additional anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capabilities. A variant of the −500 (itself a version of the maritime patrol model of the ATR 42–500) is also in production.
For the ASW and ASuW missions, it is armed with a pod-mounted machine gun, lightweight aerial torpedoes, anti-surface missiles, and depth charges. They are equipped with the Thales AMASCOS (Airborne Maritime Situation and Control System) surveillance system as well as electronic warfare and reconnaissance systems, enabling the type to perform maritime search and rescue duties. Corporate A VIP version of the −500 is available with a luxury interior for executive or corporate transport. ATR 82 During the mid-1980s, the company investigated a 78-seat derivative of the ATR 72. This would have been powered by two Allison AE2100 turboprops (turbofans were also studied for a time) and would have had a cruising speed as high as 330kt.
The ATR-82 project (as it was dubbed) was suspended when was formed in early 1996. ATR Quick Change This proposed version targeted the increasing demand of worldwide cargo and express mail markets, where the aim is to allow operators to supplement their passengers flights with freighter flights. In Quick Change configuration, the smoke detector is equipped alongside other modifications required in order to meet the certification for full freight operations. The aircraft was equipped with a larger cargo door (1.27 m [50 in] wide and 1.52 m [60 in] high) and low door-sill height of an average 1.2 m (4 ft), facilitating containerized freight loading.
It takes 30 minutes to convert the aircraft on ATR 42, while for ATR 72, it takes 45 minutes. Each optimized container has of usable volume and maximum payload is 435 kg (960 lb). Major operators Civilian operations As of July 2019, 775 ATR 72s were in airline service, with a further 171 on order. Primary ATR 72 airline operators (with 15 aircraft or more) were: Wings Air (Lion Group): 64 Azul Brazilian Airlines: 33 Air New Zealand: 29 Swiftair: 28 IndiGo: 23 Firefly: 20 Cebgo: 19 Binter Canarias: 20 ASL Airlines Ireland: 18 Alliance Air (Air India): 18 Air Algérie: 15 Bangkok Airways: 15 Stobart Air: 15 Military operators Italian Air Force Guardia di Finanza Pakistan Navy Turkish Navy Accidents and incidents The ATR 72 has been involved in 46 aviation accidents and incidents including 29 hull losses.
Those resulted in 398 fatalities. Specifications (ATR 72–600) See also References Citations External links 072 Category:1980s international airliners Category:France–Italy relations Category:High-wing aircraft Category:T-tail aircraft Category:Aircraft first flown in 1988 Category:Twin-turboprop tractor aircraft
Cardiac muscle troponin T (cTnT) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TNNT2 gene. Cardiac TnT is the tropomyosin-binding subunit of the troponin complex, which is located on the thin filament of striated muscles and regulates muscle contraction in response to alterations in intracellular calcium ion concentration. The TNNT2 gene is located at 1q32 in the human chromosomal genome, encoding the cardiac muscle isoform of troponin T (cTnT). Human cTnT is an ~36-kDa protein consisting of 297 amino acids including the first methionine with an isoelectric point (pI) of 4.88. It is the tropomyosin- binding and thin filament anchoring subunit of the troponin complex in cardiac muscle cells.
TNNT2 gene is expressed in vertebrate cardiac muscles and embryonic skeletal muscles. Structure Cardiac TnT is a 35.9 kDa protein composed of 298 amino acids. Cardiac TnT is the largest of the three troponin subunits (cTnT, troponin I (TnI), troponin C (TnC)) on the actin thin filament of cardiac muscle. The structure of TnT is asymmetric; the globular C-terminal domain interacts with tropomyosin (Tm), TnI and TnC, and the N-terminal tether which strongly binds Tm. The N-terminal region of TnT is alternatively spliced, accounting for multiple isoforms observed in cardiac muscle. Function As part of the Troponin complex, the function of cTnT is to regulate muscle contraction.
The N-terminal region of TnT that strongly binds actin most likely moves with Tm and actin during strong myosin crossbridge binding and force generation. This region is likely involved in the transduction of cooperativity down the thin filament. The C-terminal region of TnT constitutes part of the globular troponin complex domain, and participates in employing the calcium sensitivity of strong myosin crossbridge binding to the thin filament. Clinical significance Mutations in this gene have been associated with familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy as well as with restrictive and dilated cardiomyopathy. Transcripts for this gene undergo alternative splicing that results in many tissue-specific isoforms, however, the full-length nature of some of these variants has not yet been determined.
Mutations of this gene may be associated with mild or absent hypertrophy and predominant restrictive disease, with a high risk of sudden cardiac death. Advancement to dilated cardiomyopathy may be more rapid in patients with TNNT2 mutations than in those with myosin heavy chain mutations. Evolution Three homologous genes have evolved in vertebrates encoding three muscle type- specific isoforms of TnT. Each of the TnT isoform genes is linked in chromosomal DNA to a troponin I (TnI) isoform gene encoding the inhibitory subunit of the troponin complex to form three gene pairs: The fast skeletal muscle TnI (fsTnI)-fsTnT, slow skeletal muscle TnI (ssTnI)-cTnT, and cTnI-ssTnT pairs.
Sequence and epitope conservation studies suggested that genes encoding the muscle type-specific TnT and TnI isoforms have originated from a TnI-like ancestor gene and duplicated and diversified from a fsTnI-like-fsTnT-like gene pair. The apparently scrambled linkage between ssTnI-cTnT and cTnI-ssTnT genes actually reflects original functional linkages as that TNNT2 gene is expressed together with ssTnI gene in embryonic cardiac muscle. Protein sequence alignment demonstrated that TNNT2 gene is conserved in vertebrate species (Fig. 2) in the middle and C-terminal regions, while the three muscle type isoforms are significantly diverged. Alternative splicing Mammalian TNNT2 gene contains 14 constitutive exons and 3 alternatively spliced exons.
Exons 4 and 5 encoding the N-terminal variable region and exon 13 between the middle and C-terminal regions are alternatively spliced. Exon 5 encodes a 9 or 10 amino acid segment that is highly acidic and negatively charged at physiological pH. Exon 5 is expressed in embryonic heart, down-regulated and ceases express during postnatal development. Embryonic cTnT with more negative charge at the N-terminal region exerts higher calcium sensitivity of actomyosin ATPase activity and myofilament force production, compared with the adult cardiac TnT, as well as a higher tolerance to acidosis. TNNT2 gene is transiently expressed in embryonic and neonatal skeletal muscles in both avian and mammalian organisms.
When TNNT2 is expressed in neonatal skeletal muscle, the alternative splicing of exon 5 exhibits a synchronized regulation to that in the heart in a species-specific manner. This phenomenon indicates that alternative splicing of TNNT2 pre-mRNA is under the control of a genetically built- in systemic biological clock. Posttranslational modifications Phosphorylation Ser2 of cTnT at the N terminus is constitutively phosphorylated by unknown mechanisms. cTnT has been found to be phosphorylated by PKC at Thr197, Ser201, Thr206, Ser208 and Thr287 in the C-terminal region. Phosphorylation of Thr206 alone was sufficient to reduce myofilament calcium sensitivity and force production. cTnT is also phosphorylated at Thr194 and Ser198 under stress conditions, leading to attenuated cardiomyocyte contractility.
Phosphorylation of cTnT at Ser278 and Thr287 by ROCK-II was shown to decrease myosin ATPase activity and myofilament force development in skinned cardiac muscle. Table 1 summarizes the phosphorylation modifications of cTnT and possible functions. O-linked GlcNAcylation cTnT is increasingly modified at Ser190 by O-GlcNAcylation during the development of heart failure in rat, accompanied by decreased phosphorylation of Ser208. Proteolytic modification In apoptotic cardiomyocytes, cTnT was cleaved by caspase 3 to generate a 25-kDa N-terminal truncated fragment. This destructive fragmentation removes a part of the middle region tropomyosin binding site 1, leading to attenuation of the myofilament force production by decreasing the myosin ATPase activity.
In cardiac muscle under stress conditions, cardiac TnT is cleaved by calpain I, restrictively removing the entire N-terminal variable region. This proteolytic modification of cTnT occurs in cardiac muscle in acute ischemia-reperfusion or pressure overload. The restrictively N-terminal truncated cTnT remains functional in the myofilaments and leads to reduced contractile velocity of the ventricular muscle, which extends the rapid ejection phase and results in an increase in stroke volume, especially under increased afterload. In vitro studies showed that N-terminal truncated cTnT preserved the overall cardiac myofilament calcium sensitivity and cooperativity, but altered TnT’s binding affinities for tropomyosin, TnI and TnC proteins, and lead to slightly decreased maximum myosin ATPase activity and myofilament force production, which forms the basis of the selective decrease in contractile velocity of ventricular muscle to increase stroke volume without significant increase in energy expenditure.
With the relatively short half life of cTnT in cardiomyocytes (3–4 days), the N-terminal truncated cTnT would be replaced by newly synthesized intact cTnT in several days. Therefore, this mechanism provides a reversible posttranslational regulation to modulate cardiac function in adaptation to stress conditions. The residues in cardiac TnT with phosphorylation regulations are summarized. The residue numbers for phosphorylatable serine and threonine are that in human cardiac TnT with the first methionine included. The phosphorylation of cardiac TnT at these residues is compared with the counterparts in fast TnT and slow TnT. C, conserved; N, non-conserved. Kinases responsible for each phosphorylation, functional effects, and references are also listed.
Mutations in cardiomyopathies Point mutations in TNNT2 gene cause various types of cardiomyopathies, including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM). The table below summarizes representative TNNT2 mutations and abnormal splicings found in human and animal cardiomyopathies. Amino Acid residues of mutations were numbered as in human cardiac TnT with the first methionine included. Mutations of cardiac TnT that caused cardiomyopathies were mostly found in the conserved middle and C-terminal regions. Notes References External links Mass spectrometry characterization of human TNNT2 at COPaKB GeneReviews/NIH/NCBI/UW entry on Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Overview
The BWF World Tour is a Grade 2 badminton tournament series, sanctioned by Badminton World Federation (BWF). It is a competition open to the top world ranked players in singles (men’s and women’s) and doubles (men’s, women’s and mixed). The competition was announced on 19 March 2017 and came into effect starting from 2018, replacing the BWF Super Series, which was held from 2007 to 2017. The BWF World Tour are divided into six levels, namely World Tour Finals, Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, and Super 300 in order (part of the HSBC World Tour). One other category of tournament, the BWF Tour Super 100 level, also offers ranking points.
Features Prize money This table shows minimum total prize money for each level of BWF World Tour tournament. All values are in United States dollar. The prize money is distributed via the following formula: World Tour Finals Super 1000 and Super 750 Super 500, Super 300, and Super 100 World Ranking points Entries Each tournament will be held in six days, with the main round in five days. Nationality separation Player commitment regulations Top fifteen singles players and top ten doubles pairs in the World Ranking will be required to play in all 3 Super 1000, all 5 Super 750, and 4 out of 7 Super 500 tournaments occurring in the full calendar year, making it a total of 12 mandatory tournaments.
A fine of US$5000 per event will be imposed upon players/pairs who fail to play. Exemption from penalty will be considered by BWF on receipt of a valid medical certificate or strong evidence that prove players unfit to participate. However, suspended or retired are not subject to these regulations. Umpires Current regulations state that at least six umpires must be from member associations other than the host member association, at least four BWF and two continental certificated umpires with well spread nationality. All umpires and service judges shall meet the eligibility criteria set for the panel of Technical Officials they belong to.
Tournaments Every four years, the BWF Council will review the countries that host a BWF World Tour tournament. There is a BWF World Tour Finals, three Super 1000, five Super 750, seven Super 500, and eleven Super 300 tournaments in a season. Although it is not concerned as BWF World Tour, BWF Tour Super 100 tournaments are still counted to earn the points to BWF World Tour Finals. Super 100 tournaments are selected in every year, 11 tournaments are selected in 2018. For 2019 onward, Scottish Open was relegated to International Challenge.
Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, and Super 300: Super 100: BWF World Tour Finals At the end of the BWF World Tour circuit, top eight players/pairs in the BWF World Tour standing of each discipline, with the maximum of two players/pairs from the same member association, are required to play in a final tournament known as the BWF World Tour Finals. It will offer minimum total prize money of USD$1,500,000. If two or more players are tie in ranking, the selection of players will based on the following criteria: The players who participated in the most BWF World Tour tournaments; The players who collected the most points in BWF World Tour tournaments starting July 1.
Performances by countries Tabulated below are the World Tour performances based on countries. Only countries who have won a title are listed: Super 1000, Super 750, Super 500, and Super 300: Super 100: Title sponsor HSBC (2018–2021) References External links Category:Badminton tours and series Category:Recurring sporting events established in 2018
Antiochus I Soter (; epithet means "the Saviour"; c. 324/32 June 261 BC), was a king of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. He succeeded his father Seleucus I Nicator in 281 BC and reigned until his death on 2 June 261 BC. He is the last known ruler to be attributed the ancient Mesopotamian title King of the Universe. Biography Antiochus I was half Sogdian, his mother Apama, daughter of Spitamenes, being one of the eastern princesses whom Alexander the Great had given as wives to his generals in 324 BC. The Seleucids fictitiously claimed that Apama was the alleged daughter of Darius III, in order to legitimise themselves as the inheritors of both the Achaemenids and Alexander, and therefore the rightful lords of western and central Asia.
In 294 BC, prior to the death of his father Seleucus I, Antiochus married his stepmother, Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes. The ancient sources report that his elderly father reportedly instigated the marriage after discovering that his son was in danger of dying of lovesickness. Stratonice bore five children to Antiochus: Seleucus (he was executed for rebellion), Laodice, Apama II, Stratonice of Macedon and Antiochus II Theos, who succeeded his father as king. On the assassination of his father in 281 BC, the task of holding together the empire was a formidable one. A revolt in Syria broke out almost immediately.
Antiochus was soon compelled to make peace with his father's murderer, Ptolemy Keraunos, apparently abandoning Macedonia and Thrace. In Anatolia he was unable to reduce Bithynia or the Persian dynasties that ruled in Cappadocia. In 278 BC the Gauls broke into Anatolia, and a victory that Antiochus won over these Gauls by using Indian war elephants (275 BC) is said to have been the origin of his title of Soter (Greek for "saviour"). At the end of 275 BC the question of Coele-Syria, which had been open between the houses of Seleucus and Ptolemy since the partition of 301 BC, led to hostilities (the First Syrian War).
It had been continuously in Ptolemaic occupation, but the house of Seleucus maintained its claim. War did not materially change the outlines of the two kingdoms, though frontier cities like Damascus and the coast districts of Asia Minor might change hands. In 268 BC Antiochus I laid the foundation for the Ezida Temple in Borsippa. His eldest son Seleucus had ruled in the east as viceroy from c. 275 BC until 268/267 BC; Antiochus put his son to death in the latter year on the charge of rebellion. Around 262 BC Antiochus tried to break the growing power of Pergamum by force of arms, but suffered defeat near Sardis and died soon afterwards.
He was succeeded in 261 BC by his second son Antiochus II Theos. Relations with India Antiochus I maintained friendly diplomatic relations with Bindusara, ruler of the Maurya Empire of India. Deimachos of Plateia was the ambassador of Antiochus at the court of Bindusara. The 3rd century Greek writer Athenaeus, in his Deipnosophistae, mentions an incident that he learned from Hegesander's writings: Bindusara requested Antiochus to send him sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. Antiochus replied that he would send the wine and the figs, but the Greek laws forbade him to sell a sophist. Neoclassical art The love between Antiochus and his stepmother Stratonice was often depicted in Neoclassical art, as in a painting by Jacques-Louis David.
References Bibliography External links Appianus' Syriaka Antiochus I Soter: fact sheet at Livius.org Babylonian Chronicles of the Hellenic Period Antiochus I Soter entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Hellenization of the Babylonian Culture? Coins of Antiochus I Category:320s BC births Category:261 BC deaths Category:3rd-century BC Babylonian kings Category:3rd-century BC Seleucid rulers Antiochus 01 Category:3rd-century BC rulers Category:Kings of the Universe
In the context of building and construction, the R-value is a measure of how well a two-dimensional barrier, such as a layer of insulation, a window or a complete wall or ceiling, resists the conductive flow of heat. R-value is the temperature difference per unit of heat flux needed to sustain one unit of heat flux between the warmer surface and colder surface of a barrier under steady-state conditions. The R-value is the building industry term for thermal resistance "per unit area." It is sometimes denoted RSI-value if the SI (metric) units are used. An R-value can be given for a material (e.g.
for polyethylene foam), or for an assembly of materials (e.g. a wall or a window). In the case of materials, it is often expressed in terms of R-value per unit length (e.g. per inch or metre of thickness). R-values are additive for layers of materials, and the higher the R-value the better the performance. The U-factor or U-value is the overall heat transfer coefficient that describes how well a building element conducts heat or the rate of transfer of heat (in watts) through one square metre of a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure. The elements are commonly assemblies of many layers of components such as those that make up walls/floors/roofs etc.
It measures the rate of heat transfer through a building element over a given area under standardised conditions. The usual standard is at a temperature difference of , at 50% humidity with no wind (a smaller U-factor is better at reducing heat transfer). It is expressed in watts per meter squared kelvin (W/m2⋅K). This means that the higher the U-value the worse the thermal performance of the building envelope. A low U-value usually indicates high levels of insulation. They are useful as it is a way of predicting the composite behavior of an entire building element rather than relying on the properties of individual materials.
R-value definition where: (K⋅m2/W) is the R-value, (K) is the temperature difference between the warmer surface and colder surface of a barrier, (W/m2) is the heat flux through the barrier. The R-value per unit of a barrier's exposed surface area measures the absolute thermal resistance of the barrier. where: is the R-value (K⋅W−1⋅m2) is the barrier's exposed surface area (m2) is the absolute thermal resistance (K⋅W−1) Absolute thermal resistance, , quantifies the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate needed to sustain one unit of heat flow rate. Confusion sometimes arises because some publications use the term thermal resistance for the temperature difference per unit of heat flux, but other publications use the term thermal resistance for the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate.
Further confusion arises because some publications use the character R to denote the temperature difference per unit of heat flux, but other publications use the character R to denote the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate. This article uses the term absolute thermal resistance for the temperature difference per unit of heat flow rate and uses the term R-value for the temperature difference per unit of heat flux. In any event, the greater the R-value, the greater the resistance, and so the better the thermal insulating properties of the barrier. R-values are used in describing the effectiveness of insulating material and in analysis of heat flow across assemblies (such as walls, roofs, and windows) under steady-state conditions.
Heat flow through a barrier is driven by temperature difference between two sides of the barrier, and the R-value quantifies how effectively the object resists this drive: The temperature difference divided by the R-value and then multiplied by the exposed surface area of the barrier gives the total rate of heat flow through the barrier, as measured in watts or in BTUs per hour. where: is the R-value (K⋅m2/W), is the temperature difference (K) between the warmer surface and colder surface of the barrier, is the exposed surface area (m2) of the barrier, is the heat flow rate (W) through the barrier.
As long as the materials involved are dense solids in direct mutual contact, R-values are additive; for example, the total R-value of a barrier composed of several layers of material is the sum of the R-values of the individual RSI value Note that the R-value is the building industry term for what is in other contexts called "thermal resistance" "for a unit It is sometimes denoted RSI-value if the SI (metric) units are used. An R-value can be given for a material (e.g. for polyethylene foam), or for an assembly of materials (e.g. a wall or a window). In the case of materials, it is often expressed in terms of R-value per unit length (e.g.
per inch of thickness). The latter can be misleading in the case of low-density building thermal insulations, for which R-values are not additive: their R-value per inch is not constant as the material gets thicker, but rather usually decreases. The units of an R-value (see below) are usually not explicitly stated, and so it is important to decide from context which units are being used: an R-value expressed in I-P (inch-pound) units is about 5.68 times larger than when expressed in SI units, so that, for example, a window that is R-2 in I-P units has an RSI of 0.35 (since 2/5.68 = 0.35).
For R-values there is no difference between US customary units and imperial units. As far as how R-values are reported, all of the following mean the same thing: "this is an R-2 window"; "this is an R2 "this window has an R-value of 2"; "this is a window with R = 2" (and similarly with RSI-values, which also include the possibility "this window provides RSI 0.35 of resistance to heat flow"). Apparent R-value The more a material is intrinsically able to conduct heat, as given by its thermal conductivity, the lower its R-value. On the other hand, the thicker the material, the higher its R-value.
Sometimes heat transfer processes other than conduction (namely, convection and radiation) significantly contribute to heat transfer within the material. In such cases, it is useful to introduce an "apparent thermal conductivity", which captures the effects of all three kinds of processes, and to define the R-value more generally as the thickness of a sample divided by its apparent thermal conductivity. Some equations relating this generalized R-value, also known as the apparent R-value, to other quantities are: where: is the apparent R-value (K/W) across the thickness of the sample, is the thickness (m) of the sample (measured on a path parallel to the heat flow) , is the apparent thermal conductivity of the material (W/(K·m)), is the thermal transmittance or "U-value" of the material (W/K), is the apparent thermal resistivity of the material (K·m/W).
An apparent R-value quantifies the physical quantity called thermal insulance. However, this generalization comes at a price because R-values that include non-conductive processes may no longer be additive and may have significant temperature dependence. In particular, for a loose or porous material, the R-value per inch generally depends on the thickness, almost always so that it decreases with increasing thickness (polyisocyanurate ("polyiso") being an exception; its R-value/inch increases with thickness). For similar reasons, the R-value per inch also depends on the temperature of the material, usually increasing with decreasing temperature (polyiso again being an exception); a nominally R-13 fiberglass batt may be R-14 at and R-12 at .
Nevertheless, in construction it is common to treat R-values as independent of temperature. Note that an R-value may not account for radiative or convective processes at the material's surface, which may be an important factor for some applications. The R-value is the reciprocal of the thermal transmittance (U-factor) of a material or assembly. The U.S. construction industry prefers to use R-values, however, because they are additive and because bigger values mean better insulation, neither of which is true for U-factors. U-factor/U-value The U-factor or U-value is the overall heat transfer coefficient that describes how well a building element conducts heat or the rate of transfer of heat (in watts) through one square metre of a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure.
The elements are commonly assemblies of many layers of components such as those that make up walls/floors/roofs etc. It measures the rate of heat transfer through a building element over a given area under standardised conditions. The usual standard is at a temperature gradient of , at 50% humidity with no wind (a smaller U-factor is better at reducing heat transfer). It is expressed in watts per meter squared kelvin (W/m2⋅K). This means that the higher the U-value the worse the thermal performance of the building envelope. A low U-value usually indicates high levels of insulation. They are useful as it is a way of predicting the composite behavior of an entire building element rather than relying on the properties of individual materials.
In most countries the properties of specific materials (such as insulation) are indicated by the thermal conductivity, sometimes called a k-value or lambda-value (lowercase λ). The thermal conductivity (k-value) is the ability of a material to conduct heat; hence, the lower the k-value, the better the material is for insulation. Expanded polystyrene (EPS) has a k-value of around 0.033 W/(m⋅K). For comparison, phenolic foam insulation has a k-value of around 0.018 W/(m⋅K), while wood varies anywhere from 0.15 to 0.75 W/(m⋅K), and steel has a k-value of approximately 50.0 W/(m⋅K). These figures vary from product to product, so the UK and EU have established a 90/90 standard which means that 90% of the product will conform to the stated k-value with a 90% confidence level so long as the figure quoted is stated as the 90/90 lambda-value.
U is the inverse of R with SI units of W/(m2⋅K) and U.S. units of BTU/(h⋅°F⋅ft2) where is the heat flux, is the temperature difference across the material, k is the material's coefficient of thermal conductivity and L is its thickness. In some contexts, U is referred to as unit surface conductance. See also: tog (unit) or thermal overall grade (where 1 tog = 0.1 m2·K/W), used for duvet rating. The term U-factor is usually used in the U.S. and Canada to express the heat flow through entire assemblies (such as roofs, walls, and windows). For example, energy codes such as ASHRAE 90.1 and the IECC prescribe U-values.
However, R-value is widely used in practice to describe the thermal resistance of insulation products, layers, and most other parts of the building enclosure (walls, floors, roofs). Other areas of the world more commonly use U-value/U-factor for elements of the entire building enclosure including windows, doors, walls, roof, and ground slabs. Units: metric (SI) vs. inch-pound (I-P) The SI (metric) unit of R-value is kelvin square-metre per watt (K·m2/W or, equally, °C·m2/W), whereas the I-P (inch-pound) unit is degree Fahrenheit square-foot hour per British thermal unit (°F·ft2·h/BTU). For R-values there is no difference between US customary units and imperial units, so the same I-P unit is used in both.
Some sources use "RSI" when referring to R-values in SI units. R-values expressed in I-P units are approximately 5.68 times as large as R-values expressed in SI units. For example, a window that is R-2 in the I-P system is about RSI 0.35, since 2/5.68 ≈ 0.35. In countries where the SI system is generally in use, the R-values will also normally be given in SI units. This includes the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. I-P values are commonly given in the United States and Canada, though in Canada normally both I-P and RSI values are listed. Because the units are usually not explicitly stated, one must decide from context which units are being used.
In this regard, it helps to keep in mind that I-P R-values are 5.68 times larger than the corresponding SI R-values. More precisely, R-value (in I-P) = RSI-value (in SI) × 5.678263337 RSI-value (in SI) = R-value (in I-P) x 0.1761101838 Different insulation types The Australian Government explains that the required total R-values for the building fabric vary depending on climate zone. "Such materials include aerated concrete blocks, hollow expanded polystyrene blocks, straw bales and rendered extruded polystyrene sheets." In Germany, after the law Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEv) introduced in 2009 (October 10) regarding energy savings, all new buildings must demonstrate an ability to remain within certain boundaries of the U-value for each particular building material.
Further, the EnEv describes the maximum coefficient for each new material if parts are replaced or added to standing structures. The U.S. Department of Energy has recommended R-values for given areas of the USA based on the general local energy costs for heating and cooling, as well as the climate of an area. There are four types of insulation: rolls and batts, loose-fill, rigid foam, and foam-in-place. Rolls and batts are typically flexible insulators that come in fibers, like fiberglass. Loose-fill insulation comes in loose fibers or pellets and should be blown into a space. Rigid foam is more expensive than fiber, but generally has a higher R-value per unit of thickness.
Foam-in-place insulation can be blown into small areas to control air leaks, like those around windows, or can be used to insulate an entire house. Thickness Increasing the thickness of an insulating layer increases the thermal resistance. For example, doubling the thickness of fiberglass batting will double its R-value, perhaps from 2.0 m2⋅K/W for 110 mm of thickness, up to 4.0 m2⋅K/W for 220 mm of thickness. Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to adding resistance to a series circuit with a fixed voltage. However, this only holds approximately because the effective thermal conductivity of some insulating materials depends on thickness.
The addition of materials to enclose the insulation such as drywall and siding provides additional but typically much smaller R-value. Factors There are many factors that come into play when using R-values to compute heat loss for a particular wall. Manufacturer R-values apply only to properly installed insulation. Squashing two layers of batting into the thickness intended for one layer will increase but not double the R-value. (In other words, compressing a fiberglass batt decreases the R-value of the batt but increases the R-value per inch.) Another important factor to consider is that studs and windows provide a parallel heat conduction path that is unaffected by the insulation's R-value.
The practical implication of this is that one could double the R-value of insulation installed between framing members and realize substantially less than a 50 percent reduction in heat loss. When installed between wall studs, even perfect wall insulation only eliminates conduction through the insulation but leaves unaffected the conductive heat loss through such materials as glass windows and studs. Insulation installed between the studs may reduce, but usually does not eliminate, heat losses due to air leakage through the building envelope. Installing a continuous layer of rigid foam insulation on the exterior side of the wall sheathing will interrupt thermal bridging through the studs while also reducing the rate of air leakage.
Primary role The R-value is a measure of an insulation sample's ability to reduce the rate of heat flow under specified test conditions. The primary mode of heat transfer impeded by insulation is conduction, but insulation also reduces heat loss by all three heat transfer modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. The primary heat loss across an uninsulated air-filled space is natural convection, which occurs because of changes in air density with temperature. Insulation greatly retards natural convection making conduction the primary mode of heat transfer. Porous insulations accomplish this by trapping air so that significant convective heat loss is eliminated, leaving only conduction and minor radiation transfer.
The primary role of such insulation is to make the thermal conductivity of the insulation that of trapped, stagnant air. However this cannot be realized fully because the glass wool or foam needed to prevent convection increases the heat conduction compared to that of still air. The minor radiative heat transfer is obtained by having many surfaces interrupting a "clear view" between the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation such as visible light is interrupted from passing through porous materials. Such multiple surfaces are abundant in batting and porous foam. Radiation is also minimized by low emissivity (highly reflective) exterior surfaces such as aluminum foil.
Lower thermal conductivity, or higher R-values, can be achieved by replacing air with argon when practical such as within special closed-pore foam insulation because argon has a lower thermal conductivity than air. General Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to electrical resistance. The heat transfers can be worked out by thinking of resistance in series with a fixed potential, except the resistances are thermal resistances and the potential is the difference in temperature from one side of the material to the other. The resistance of each material to heat transfer depends on the specific thermal resistance [R-value]/[unit thickness], which is a property of the material (see table below) and the thickness of that layer.
A thermal barrier that is composed of several layers will have several thermal resistors in the analogous with circuits, each in series. Analogous to a set of resistors in parallel, a well insulated wall with a poorly insulated window will allow proportionally more of the heat to go through the (low-R) window, and additional insulation in the wall will only minimally improve the overall R-value. As such, the least well insulated section of a wall will play the largest role in heat transfer relative to its size, similar to the way most current flows through the lowest resistance resistor in a parallel array.
Hence ensuring that windows, service breaks (around wires/pipes), doors, and other breaks in a wall are well sealed and insulated is often the most cost effective way to improve the insulation of a structure, once the walls are sufficiently insulated. Like resistance in electrical circuits, increasing the physical length (for insulation, thickness) of a resistive element, such as graphite for example, increases the resistance linearly; double the thickness of a layer means double the R-value and half the heat transfer; quadruple, quarters; etc. In practice, this linear relationship does not always hold for compressible materials such as glass wool and cotton batting whose thermal properties change when compressed.
So, for example, if one layer of fiberglass insulation in an attic provides R-20 thermal resistance, adding on a second layer will not necessarily double the thermal resistance because the first layer will be compressed by the weight of the second. Calculating heat loss To find the average heat loss per unit area, simply divide the temperature difference by the R-value for the layer. If the interior of a home is at 20 °C and the roof cavity is at 10 °C then the temperature difference is 10 °C (or 10 K). Assuming a ceiling insulated to RSI 2.0 (R = 2 m2⋅K/W), energy will be lost at a rate of 10 K / (2 K·m2/W) = 5 watts for every square meter of ceiling.
The RSI-value used here is for the actual insulating layer (and not per unit thickness of insulation). Relationships Thickness R-value should not be confused with the intrinsic property of thermal resistivity and its inverse, thermal conductivity. The SI unit of thermal resistivity is K·m/W. Thermal conductivity assumes that the heat transfer of the material is linearly related to its thickness. Multiple layers In calculating the R-value of a multi-layered installation, the R-values of the individual layers are added: R-value(outside air film) + R-value(brick) + R-value(sheathing) + R-value(insulation) + R-value(plasterboard) + R-value(inside air film) = R-value(total). To account for other components in a wall such as framing, first calculate the U-value (=1/R-value) of each component, then the area-weighted average U-value.
The average R-value will be 1/(this average U-value). For example, if 10% of the area is 4 inches of softwood (R-value 5.6) and 90% is 2 inches of silica aerogel (R-value 20), the area-weighted U-value is 0.1/5.6 + 0.9/20 = 0.0629 and the weighted R-value is 1/0.0629 = 15.9. Controversy Thermal conductivity versus apparent thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity is conventionally defined as the rate of thermal conduction through a material per unit area per unit thickness per unit temperature differential (ΔT). The inverse of conductivity is resistivity (or R per unit thickness). Thermal conductance is the rate of heat flux through a unit area at the installed thickness and any given ΔT.
Experimentally, thermal conduction is measured by placing the material in contact between two conducting plates and measuring the energy flux required to maintain a certain temperature gradient. For the most part, testing the R-value of insulation is done at a steady temperature, usually about with no surrounding air movement. Since these are ideal conditions, the listed R-value for insulation will almost certainly be higher than it would be in actual use, because most situations with insulation are under different conditions A definition of R-value based on apparent thermal conductivity has been proposed in document C168 published by the American Society for Testing and Materials.
This describes heat being transferred by all three mechanisms—conduction, radiation, and convection. Debate remains among representatives from different segments of the U.S. insulation industry during revision of the U.S. FTC's regulations about advertising R-values illustrating the complexity of the issues. Surface temperature in relationship to mode of heat transfer There are weaknesses to using a single laboratory model to simultaneously assess the properties of a material to resist conducted, radiated, and convective heating. Surface temperature varies depending on the mode of heat transfer. If we assume idealized heat transfer between the air on each side and the surface of the insulation, the surface temperature of the insulator would equal the air temperature on each side.
In response to thermal radiation, surface temperature depends on the thermal emissivity of the material. Low-emissivity surfaces such as shiny metal foil will reduce heat transfer by radiation. Convection will alter the rate of heat transfer between the air and the surface of the insulator, depending on the flow characteristics of the air (or other fluid) in contact with it. With multiple modes of heat transfer, the final surface temperature (and hence the observed energy flux and calculated R-value) will be dependent on the relative contributions of radiation, conduction, and convection, even though the total energy contribution remains the same.
This is an important consideration in building construction because heat energy arrives in different forms and proportions. The contribution of radiative and conductive heat sources also varies throughout the year and both are important contributors to thermal comfort In the hot season, solar radiation predominates as the source of heat gain. According to the Stefan–Boltzmann law, radiative heat transfer is related to the fourth power of the absolute temperature (measured in kelvins: T [K] = T [°C] + 273.16). Therefore, such transfer is at its most significant when the objective is to cool (i.e. when solar radiation has produced very warm surfaces).
On the other hand, the conductive and convective heat loss modes play a more significant role during the cooler months. At such lower ambient temperatures the traditional fibrous, plastic and cellulose insulations play by far the major role: the radiative heat transfer component is of far less importance, and the main contribution of the radiation barrier is in its superior air-tightness contribution. In summary: claims for radiant barrier insulation are justifiable at high temperatures, typically when minimizing summer heat transfer; but these claims are not justifiable in traditional winter (keeping-warm) conditions. The limitations of R-values in evaluating radiant barriers Unlike bulk insulators, radiant barriers resist conducted heat poorly.
Materials such as reflective foil have a high thermal conductivity and would function poorly as a conductive insulator. Radiant barriers retard heat transfer by two means: by reflecting radiant energy away from its irradiated surface and by reducing the emission of radiation from its opposite side. The question of how to quantify performance of other systems such as radiant barriers has resulted in controversy and confusion in the building industry with the use of R-values or 'equivalent R-values' for products which have entirely different systems of inhibiting heat transfer. (In the U.S., the federal government's R-Value Rule establishes a legal definition for the R-value of a building material; the term 'equivalent R-value' has no legal definition and is therefore meaningless.)
According to current standards, R-values are most reliably stated for bulk insulation materials. All of the products quoted at the end are examples of these. Calculating the performance of radiant barriers is more complex. With a good radiant barrier in place, most heat flow is by convection, which depends on many factors other than the radiant barrier itself. Although radiant barriers have high reflectivity (and low emissivity) over a range of electromagnetic spectra (including visible and UV light), their thermal advantages are mainly related to their emissivity in the infra-red range. Emissivity values are the appropriate metric for radiant barriers.
Their effectiveness when employed to resist heat gain in limited applications is established, even though R-value does not adequately describe them. Deterioration Insulation aging R-values of products may deteriorate over time. For instance the compaction of loose fill cellulose creates voids that reduce overall performance; this may be avoided by densely packing the initial installation. Some types of foam insulation, such as polyurethane and polyisocyanurate are blown with heavy gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) or hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs). However, over time a small amount of these gases diffuse out of the foam and are replaced by air, thus reducing the effective R-value of the product.
There are other foams which do not change significantly with aging because they are blown with water or are open-cell and contain no trapped CFCs or HFCs (e.g., half-pound low density foams). On certain brands, twenty-year tests have shown no shrinkage or reduction in insulating value. This has led to controversy as how to rate the insulation of these products. Many manufacturers will rate the R-value at the time of manufacture; critics argue that a more fair assessment would be its settled value. The foam industry adopted the LTTR (Long-Term Thermal Resistance) method, which rates the R-value based on a 15-year weighted average.
However, the LTTR effectively provides only an eight-year aged R-value, short in the scale of a building that may have a lifespan of 50 to 100 years. Infiltration Correct attention to air sealing measures and consideration of vapor transfer mechanisms are important for the optimal function of bulk insulators. Air infiltration can allow convective heat transfer or condensation formation, both of which may degrade the performance of an insulation. One of the primary values of spray-foam insulation is its ability to create an airtight (and in some cases, watertight) seal directly against the substrate to reduce the undesirable effects of air leakage.
R-value in-situ measurements The deterioration of R-values is especially a problem when defining the energy efficiency of an existing building. Especially in older or historic buildings the R-values defined before construction might be very different than the actual values. This greatly affects energy efficiency analysis. To obtain reliable data, R-values are therefore often determined via U-value measurements at the specific location (in situ). There are several potential methods to this, each with their specific trade-offs: thermography, multiple temperature measurements, and the heat flux method. Thermography Thermography is applied in the building sector to assess the quality of the thermal insulation of a room or building.
By means of a thermographic camera thermal bridges and inhomogeneous insulation parts can be identified. However, it does not produce any quantitative data. This method can only be used to approximate the U-value or the inverse R-value. Multiple temperature measurements This approach is based on three or more temperature measurements inside and outside of a building element. By synchronizing these measurements and making some basic assumptions, it is possible to calculate the heat flux indirectly, and thus deriving the U-value of a building element. The following requirements have to be fulfilled for reliable results: Difference between inside and outside temperature, ideal > 15 K Constant conditions No solar radiation No radiation heat nearby measurements Heat flux method The R-value of a building element can be determined by using a heat flux sensor in combination with two temperature sensors.
By measuring the heat that is flowing through a building element and combining this with the inside and outside temperature, it is possible to define the R-value precisely. A measurement that lasts at least 72 hours with a temperature difference of at least 5 °C is required for a reliable result according to ISO 9869 norms, but shorter measurement durations give a reliable indication of the R-value as well. The progress of the measurement can be viewed on the laptop via corresponding software and obtained data can be used for further calculations. Measuring devices for such heat flux measurements are offered by companies like FluxTeq, Ahlborn, greenTEG and Hukseflux.
Placing the heat flux sensor on either the inside or outside surface of the building element allows one to determine the heat flux through the heat flux sensor as a representative value for the heat flux through the building element. The heat flux through the heat flux sensor is the rate of heat flow through the heat flux sensor divided by the surface area of the heat flux sensor. Placing the temperature sensors on the inside and outside surfaces of the building element allows one to determine the inside surface temperature, outside surface temperature, and the temperature difference between them.
In some cases the heat flux sensor itself can serve as one of the temperature sensors. The R-value for the building element is the temperature difference between the two temperature sensors divided by the heat flux through the heat flux sensor. The mathematical formula is: where: is the R-value (K⋅W−1⋅m2), is the heat flux (W⋅m−2), is the surface area of the heat flux sensor (m2), is the rate of heat flow (W), is the inside surface temperature (K), is the outside surface temperature (K), and is the temperature difference (K) between the inside and outside surfaces. The U-value can be calculated as well by taking the reciprocal of the R-value.
That is, where is the U-value (W⋅m−2⋅K−1). The derived R-value and U-value may be accurate to the extent that the heat flux through the heat flux sensor equals the heat flux through the building element. Recording all of the available data allows one to study the dependence of the R-value and U-value on factors like the inside temperature, outside temperature, or position of the heat flux sensor. To the extent that all heat transfer processes (conduction, convection, and radiation) contribute to the measurements, the derived R-value represents an apparent R-value. Example values Vacuum insulated panels have the highest R-value, approximately R-45 (in U.S. units) per inch; aerogel has the next highest R-value (about R-10 to R-30 per inch), followed by polyurethane (PUR) and phenolic foam insulations with R-7 per inch.
They are followed closely by polyisocyanurate (PIR) at R-5.8, graphite impregnated expanded polystyrene at R-5, and expanded polystyrene (EPS) at R-4 per inch. Loose cellulose, fibreglass (both blown and in batts), and rock wool (both blown and in batts) all possess an R-value of roughly R-2.5 to R-4 per inch. Straw bales perform at about R-1.5 per inch. However, typical straw bale houses have very thick walls and thus are well insulated. Snow is roughly R-1 per inch. Brick has a very poor insulating ability at a mere R-0.2 per inch; however it does have a relatively good thermal mass.
Note that the above examples all use the U.S. (non-SI) definition for R-value. Typical R-values Typical R-values for surfaces Non-reflective surface R-values for air films When determining the overall thermal resistance of a building assembly such as a wall or roof, the insulating effect of the surface air film is added to the thermal resistance of the other materials. In practice the above surface values are used for floors, ceilings, and walls in a building, but are not accurate for enclosed air cavities, such as between panes of glass. The effective thermal resistance of an enclosed air cavity is strongly influenced by radiative heat transfer and distance between the two surfaces.
See insulated glazing for a comparison of R-values for windows, with some effective R-values that include an air cavity. Radiant barriers R-Value Rule in the U.S. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) governs claims about R-values to protect consumers against deceptive and misleading advertising claims. It issued the R-Value Rule. The primary purpose of the rule is to ensure that the home insulation marketplace provides this essential pre-purchase information to the consumer. The information gives consumers an opportunity to compare relative insulating efficiencies, to select the product with the greatest efficiency and potential for energy savings, to make a cost-effective purchase and to consider the main variables limiting insulation effectiveness and realization of claimed energy savings.
The rule mandates that specific R-value information for home insulation products be disclosed in certain ads and at the point of sale. The purpose of the R-value disclosure requirement for advertising is to prevent consumers from being misled by certain claims which have a bearing on insulating value. At the point of transaction, some consumers will be able to get the requisite R-value information from the label on the insulation package. However, since the evidence shows that packages are often unavailable for inspection prior to purchase, no labeled information would be available to consumers in many instances. As a result, the Rule requires that a fact sheet be available to consumers for inspection before they make their purchase.
Thickness The R-value Rule specifies: See also Building insulation Building insulation materials Condensation Cool roofs Heat transfer Passivhaus Passive solar design Sol-air temperature Superinsulation Thermal bridge Thermal comfort Thermal conductivity Thermal mass Thermal transmittance Tog (unit) References External links Table of Insulation R-Values at InspectApedia includes original source citations Information on the calculations, meanings, and inter-relationships of related heat transfer and resistance terms American building material R-value table Working with R-values Insulation R-value Explained Category:Building engineering Category:Insulators Category:Thermal protection Category:Heat transfer de:Wärmedurchgangskoeffizient
The ThinkPad E Series (formerly ThinkPad Edge) is a notebook computer series introduced in 2010 by Lenovo. It is marketed to small and medium-sized businesses. Launch and reviews The Edge series of ThinkPad computers was introduced at the 2010 International CES in Las Vegas and became available for sale in April of the same year. For the Thinkpad Edge 13, a review on the Engadget web site said that even though, "it may not carry the premium features of [Lenovo Thinkpad] X301..., but for a budget ultraportable... [there is] little to complain about." Engadget also tested the battery life of the Edge 13 and discovered that "Lenovo's battery life prediction of seven hours is pretty on the mark."
The Edge 13's battery lasted 5 hours and 12 minutes. Laptop Magazine reviewed the Thinkpad Edge 14 and found it was "the most compelling 14-inch small business notebook on the market today." NotebookReview reviewed the Thinkpad Edge 15 and said that its "build quality seems to be a step down from the 13 and 14 inch." The website also mentioned that the Edge series in general "feels under built...[and] the Edge 15 fares much worse". Reviews of the latest E220s and E420s have been more positive, citing better build quality than other models in the Edge line. Features The ThinkPad Edge series uses processors from both AMD and Intel.
AMD processors offered include the Athlon II dual-core, the Turion II Dual-Core, and Phenom II Triple-core. Intel processors used include the Core 2 Duo, Core i3, and Core i5. Voice Over IP (VoIP) features including high resolution cameras and an HD LED screen are also included. All four models offer a glossy LED back-lit 16:9 display capable of playing 720p video. However the Edge 11 and 13 does not include an optical drive. The laptops came in three colors: Midnight Black (Smooth), Midnight Black (Gloss), and Heatwave Red (Gloss). Design Lenovo designed the laptops to "reflect a new progressive and strikingly clean appearance while retaining ThinkPad durability and reliability".
For example, along with the new Island-style keyboard, the Edge series had some keyboard design changes: uniform black keys and the removal of the embedded number pad. The Function keys were re-designed so users could use one finger to access functions such as multimedia keys. Some keys which were rarely used like SysRq were removed. Models Battery configuration Processor Weight Screen Resolution Graphics Laptop storage combinations (excluding WWAN slot) Laptop memory Gen 1 (2010) Edge 11 The ThinkPad Edge 11 laptop was not released in the United States, with the X100e serving as an 11-inch laptop solution in the US.
The laptop was 1.1 inches thick and weighed 3.3 lbs. Like other laptops in the series, the Edge 11 was made available in glossy black, matte black and glossy red. Despite the low starting price, the Edge 11 laptop included some of the traditional ThinkPad durability features, including solid metal hinges. The battery life was better than both the IdeaPad U160 and the ThinkPad X100e laptops. Edge 11 (DER Special Edition) A special edition laptop was provided for Australian Year 9 students as part of the Digital Education Revolution (DER) program in 2011. Edge 13 The ThinkPad Edge 13 laptop was released on January 5, 2010.
It was 1.2 inches thick, weighed 3.5 lbs (1.6 kg), and fit into a backpack. The Edge 13 laptop was capable of handling Windows 7 Pro with ease, with multiple applications like Firefox, Microsoft Word 2007, GIMP, TweetDeck, and iTunes at the same time. It did not feature Intel’s Arrandale platform on release, and was launched with an older generation CULV processor. The lack of processing speed, however, was compensated by a gain in battery life. The laptop delivered 6 hours and 58 minutes of battery life in MobileMark 2007 tests.
Specifications: Processor: Intel Core2 Duo or Intel i3 380 or AMD Athlon Neo X2 Operating System: Microsoft Windows 7 Home Premium Display: 13.3" Glossy (1366×768) TN Graphics: Intel GMA 4500MHD Color: Midnight Black (Glossy, Matte), Heatwave Red (Glossy) RAM: 2GB DDR3 (1066 MHz) (2 slots), up to 8GB Storage: 250GB 5400RPM SATA HDD Networking: 10/100 Ethernet; Integrated Wireless 802.11abgn Battery: 4-Cell Li-Ion (swappable, up to 6-cell) Edge 14 and 15 The ThinkPad Edge 14 and 15 laptops were both launched on March 22, 2010. A web review noted build quality above average, yet not the same as professional grade ThinkPad laptops.
One difference was smaller screen hinges which were plastic-faced instead of metal. While the Edge 14 laptop did not have a roll cage, it was still durable, with no flex on the palm rest, keyboard and touchpad. The Edge 15 laptop was noted for having the same features as the smaller laptops in the series, with lower build quality. The right side of the palm rest displayed flex under moderate pressure. The keyboard tray also displayed slight inward flexing at the optical drive area. Some positive features included a keyboard that was noted as being very easy to type on.
The touchpad was also noticeably easy to use, with fast response time, no discernible lag, even without adjustments. But also at the support forum of Lenovo lots of keyboard failures were reported. The price was viewed favorably, with user experience and feature set receiving praise. Specifications: Processor: Intel Core i5-560M; i5-460M; i3-390M; Mobile Intel 5 Series Dicrete GFX Chipset Operating System: Microsoft Windows 7 Home Premium, or Professional (32 or 64-bit) Display: 14.0", 16:9 HD (1366×768), LED-backlight; 15.6", 16:9 HD (1366×768), LED-backlight Color: Midnight Black (Glossy, Matte), Heatwave Red (Glossy) RAM: up to 8GB DDR3 1066 MHz (2 slots) Storage: 320 (5400/7200rpm), 500GB (5400/7200rpm) SATA HDD Gen2 (2011) Edge E220s, E420s The ThinkPad Edge E220s and E420s were released in Spring 2011, as an updated, "more premium" line of the ThinkPad Edge.
These newer series are significantly thinner, and include more of the traditional ThinkPad line of features such as the integrated 720p web-cam. Also notable is the return to use of metallic hinges versus the less durable plastic seen on earlier Edge models. Both the E220s and E420s can be configured with up to an Intel Core i7 processor, which offers a higher level of performance than other notebooks of this size category. The surfaces have been accented with a chrome finish around the exterior, and the addition of the "infinity glass" screen, which features edge-to-edge glass paneling on the display.
Many design aspects of the E220s line have been seen in the recently unveiled ThinkPad X1, including the keyboard and trackpad design. Gen3 (2012) Edge 14" (E430, E431, E435) The E430 is powered by third generation Intel Core processors with integrated graphics. The E430 also includes a "hard disk drive performance booster" that Lenovo claims will generate a "184-percent increase in performance" over typical hard drives. The E430 makes use of Intel HD for fast graphics. Battery life is increased with the aid of nVidia's Optimus power management technology. Dedicated keys for controlling audio and video functions, Dolby Advanced Audio rated speakers, and an optional 720p camera were added to improve the experience for users of VOIP.
The E430 makes use of USB 3.0 to improve data transfer speeds. Edge 15" (E530, E531, E535) Gen4 (2013) Likewise a parallel T-series models (T440/T540), Gen4 E-series don't have a touchpad\trackpoint physical buttons. Edge 14" (E440) The E440 has a 14-inch display and optionally comes with a Windows 7 (Pro), Windows 8 (Pro) or Windows 8.1 64-bit system. The E440 uses Intel Core processors. Edge 15" (E540, E545) The Edge E545 is a laptop designed for home, study and work. It had a competitive list price of $499. The E540 and E545 have a 15.6-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 7 (Pro), Windows 8 (Pro) or Windows 8.1 64-bit system.
The E540 uses Intel processors. The E545 is similar to the E540 but it uses an AMD processor. Gen5 (2014) 14" (E450, E455) The E450 and E455 have a 14-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 7 (Pro) or Windows 8.1 64-bit system. The E450 uses Intel Core processors. The E455 is similar to the E450 but it uses an AMD processor. 15" (E550, E555) The E550 and E555 have a 15.6-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 7 (Pro) or Windows 8.1 64-bit system. The E550 uses Intel Core processors. The E555 is similar to the E550 but it uses an AMD processor.
Gen6 (2015) 14" (E460, E465) The E460 and E465 have a 14-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 7 (Pro) or Windows 10 64-bit system. The E460 uses Intel Skylake (6th Generation) processors. The E465 is similar to the E460 but it uses an AMD processor. 15" (E560, E565) The E560 and E565 have a 15.6-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 7 (Pro) or Windows 10 64-bit system. The E560 uses Intel Skylake (6th Generation) processors. The E565 is similar to the E560 but it uses an AMD processor. Gen7 (2016) 14" (E470, E475) The E470 and E475 have a 14-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 10 64-bit system.
The E470 uses Intel Kaby Lake (7th Generation) processors. The E475 is similar to the E470 but it uses an AMD processor. 15" (E570, E575) The E570 and E575 have a 15.6-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 10 64-bit system. The E570 uses the 7th Generation Intel Core processors. The E575 is similar to the E570 but it uses an AMD processor. Gen8 (2017) 14" (E480, E485) The E480 and E485 have a 14-inch display and optionally come with a Windows 10 64-bit system. USB type-C is used for charging for the first time in the ThinkPad E series.
The USB-C port can also connect to most USB-C docks allowing 4K display output, additional USB ports, networking, and charging from a single cable. The E480 uses Intel Core processors (up to i7-8550U), and is equipped with the integrated intel UHD 620 graphics card or optionally the AMD RX550-2gb discrete graphics card. The E480 did not have adequate cooling system on the higher end models, especially those with the dedicated AMD RX 550 graphics card, leading to unit overheating. . Lenovo released a firmware update that addressed the problem, but substantially limited the performance of the graphics card. The E485 is similar to the E480 but it uses an AMD Ryzen processor.