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Having gained a reputation as a leading Protestant preacher, Bullinger quickly received offers to take up the position of pastor from Zürich, Basel, Bern, and Appenzell. During his negotiations with the civic leaders of Zürich, Bullinger refused to accept their terms - they had offered him the position with the condition that he should not criticise government policy (they still blamed Zwingli for the disastrous defeat at Kappel). Bullinger insisted on his right to expound the Bible, even if it contradicted the position of the civic authorities. In a compromise, they agreed that Bullinger had the right to criticize the government privately in writing.
Bullinger took up the post of minister of Zürich; he soon gained oversight over the other Zürich ministers, a position which would later be known as the Zürich Antistes. Bullinger arrived with his wife and two little children in Zürich, where he already on the Sunday after his arrival stood in Zwingli's pulpit in the Grossmünster and, according to a contemporary description, "thundered a sermon from the pulpit that many thought Zwingli was not dead but resurrected like the phoenix". In December of the same year, he was, at the age of 27, elected to be the successor of Zwingli as antistes of the Zürich church.
He accepted the election only after the council had assured him explicitly that he was in his preaching "free, unbound and without restriction" even if it necessitated critique of the government. He kept his office up to his death in 1575. Bullinger quickly established himself as a staunch defender of the ecclesiological system developed by Zwingli. In 1532, when Jud proposed making ecclesiastical discipline entirely separate from the secular power, Bullinger argues that the need for a separate set of church courts ended when the magistrate became Christian, and that in a place with a Christian magistrate, the institutions of the Old Testament were appropriate.
However, Bullinger did not believe the church should be entirely subservient to the state. Also in 1532, he was instrumental in creating a joint committee of magistrates and ministers to oversee the church. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little sympathy. Bullinger's hospitality and charity was exemplary, and Zürich accepted many Protestant fugitives from northern Italy (Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was a descendant of such fugitives) and also from England after the passing of the Six Articles in 1539 by Henry VIII and again at the death of Edward VI.
Anne Hooper became a correspondent when she was there. Bullinger was the godparent of her daughter, and her husband returned to England to be a bishop. When these returned to England after the death of Mary I of England, they took Bullinger's writings with them who found a broad distribution. From 1550 to 1560, there were in England 77 editions of Bullinger's Latin "Decades" and 137 editions of their vernacular translation "House Book", a treatise in pastoral theology (in comparison, Calvin's Institutes had two editions in England during the same time). Some historians count Bullinger together with Bucer as the most influential theologian of the Anglican reformation.
Though Bullinger did not leave Switzerland after becoming antistes of Zürich, he conducted an extended correspondence all over Europe and was so well informed that he edited a kind of newspaper about political developments. His controversies on the Lord's Supper with Luther, and his correspondence with Lelio Sozzini, exhibit, in different connections, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he concluded (1549) the Consensus Tigurinus on the Lord's Supper. He worked closely with Thomas Erastus to promote the Reformed orientation of the Reformation of the Electorate of the Palatinate in the 1560s. Bullinger played a crucial role in the drafting of the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566.
What eventually became the Second Helvetic Confession originated in a personal statement of his faith which Bullinger intended to be presented to the Zürich Rat upon his death. In 1566, when the Frederick III, the Pious, elector palatine introduced Reformed elements into the church in his region, Bullinger felt that this statement might be useful for the elector, so he had it circulated among the Protestant cities of Switzerland who signed to indicate their assent. Later, the Reformed churches of France, Scotland, and Hungary would do likewise. He died at Zürich and was followed as antistes by Zwingli's son-in-law Rudolf Gwalther.
His circle of collaborators in the Zürich church and Carolinum academy included Gwalther, Konrad Pellikan, Theodor Bibliander, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Johannes Wolf, Josias Simler, and Ludwig Lavater. Among his descendants was the noted Biblical scholar E.W. Bullinger. See Carl Pestalozzi, Leben (1858); Raget Christoffel, H. Bullinger (1875); Justus Heer, in Hauck's Realencyklopädie (1897). Second Helvetic Confession The Second Helvetic Confession (Latin: Confessio Helvetica posterior, or CHP) was mainly written by Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575), pastor and the successor of Huldrych Zwingli in Zürich, Switzerland. The Second Helvetic Confession was written in 1561 as a private exercise. It came to the notice of the elector palatine Frederick III, who had it translated into German and published in 1566.
It gained a favourable hold on the Swiss churches in Bern, Zürich Schaffhausen St. Gallen, Chur, Geneva and other cities. The Second Helvetic Confession was adopted by the Reformed Church not only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland (1566), Hungary (1567), France (1571), Poland (1578), and next to the Heidelberg Catechism is the most generally recognized Confession of the Reformed Church. Slight variations of this confession existed in the French Confession de Foy (1559), the Scottish Confessio Fidei (1560) the Belfian Ecclasiarum Belgicarum Confessio (1561) and the Heidelberg Catechism (1563). Marian views Mary is mentioned several times in the Second Helvetic Confession, which expounds Bullinger's mariology.
Chapter Three quotes the angel’s message to the Virgin Mary, " – the Holy Spirit will come over you " - as an indication of the existence of the Holy Spirit and the Trinity. The Latin text described Mary as diva, indicating her rank as a person, who dedicated herself to God. In Chapter Nine, the Virgin birth of Jesus is said to be conceived by the Holy Spirit and born without the participation of any man. The Second Helvetic Confession accepted the "Ever Virgin" notion from John Calvin, which spread throughout much of Europe with the approbation of this document in the above-mentioned countries.
Bullinger's 1539 polemical treatise against idolatry expressed his belief that Mary's "sacrosanctum corpus" ("sacrosanct body") had been assumed into heaven by angels: Hac causa credimus et Deiparae virginis Mariae purissimum thalamum et spiritus sancti templum, hoc est, sacrosanctum corpus ejus deportatum esse ab angelis in coelum. For this reason we believe that the Virgin Mary, Begetter of God, the most pure bed and temple of the Holy Spirit, that is, her most holy body, was carried to heaven by angels. The French Confession de Foy, the Scottish Confessio Fidei, the Belgian Ecclasiarum Belgicarum Confessio and the Heidelberg Catechism, all include references to the Virgin Birth, mentioning specifically, that Jesus was born without the participation of a man.
Invocations to Mary were not tolerated, however, in light of Calvin’s position that any prayer to saints in front of an altar is prohibited. Works Bullinger's works comprise 127 titles. Already during his lifetime they were translated in several languages and counted among the best known theological works in Europe. Theological works His main work were the Decades", a treatise in pastoral theology, in the vernacular called "House Book". The (second) Helvetic Confession (1566) adopted in Switzerland, Hungary, Bohemia and elsewhere, was originally believed to be only his work. However, this has been recently challenged, in that Peter Martyr Vermigli played a decisive role in this document as well.
The volumes of the Zürich Letters, published by the Parker Society, testify to his influence on the English reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into English (reprinted, 4 vols., 1849). His works, mainly expository and polemical, have not been collected. Second decade, eighth sermon, The Magistrate Second decade, ninth sermon, "Of War; Whether it be Lawful for a Magistrate to Make War. What the Scripture Teacheth Touching War. Whether a Christian Man May Bear the Office of a Magistrate. And of the Duty of Subjects." (Emphasis added.) Fourth decade, fourth sermon, Predestination An Answer Given To A Certain Scotsman, In Reply To Some Questions Concerning The Kingdom Of Scotland And England Microfiche collection of his original works Werke - Institut für schweizerische Reformationsgeschichte, Universität Zürich Historical Besides theological works, Bullinger also wrote some historical works of value.
The main of it, the "Tiguriner Chronik" is a history of Zürich from Roman times to the Reformation, others are a history of the Reformation and a history of the Swiss confederation. Bullinger also wrote in detail on Biblical chronology, working within the framework that was universal in the Christian theological tradition until the second half of the 17th century, namely that the Bible affords a faithful and normative reference for all ancient history. Letters There exist about 12,000 letters from and to Bullinger, the most extended correspondence preserved from Reformation times. He mainly wrote in Latin with some quotes in Hebrew and Greek, with about 10 percent in Early New High German.
Bullinger was a personal friend and advisor of many leading personalities of the reformation era. He corresponded with Reformed, Anglican, Lutheran, and Baptist theologians, with Henry VIII of England, Edward VI of England, Lady Jane Grey and Elizabeth I of England, Christian II of Denmark, Philipp I of Hesse and Frederick III, Elector Palatine. Geographical overview of Bullingers correspondence Database of Bullinger's Letters References External links Heinrich Bullinger, Reformationsgeschichte, on-line Burnett, Amy Nelson and Campi, Emidio (eds). A Companion to the Swiss Reformation, Leiden - Boston: Brill, 2016. Bruce Gordon and Emidio Campi (eds) Architect of Reformation. An Introduction to Heinrich Bullinger (Baker Academic, Grand Rapids, MI, 2004) 978-0801028991 Carl Pestalozzi: Heinrich Bullinger: Leben und ausgewählte Schriften'', 1858 on-line The Successor, Magazine Reformierte Presse 2004 Heinrich Bullinger and the Reformation.
A comprehensive faith by Jean-Marc Berthoud The Civil Magistrate and the cura religionis: Heinrich Bullinger’s Prophetical Office and the English Reformation Heinrich Bullinger 1504-75: Man of Reconciliation Category:1504 births Category:1575 deaths Category:People from Bremgarten, Aargau Category:Swiss Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:Swiss Protestant Reformers Category:16th-century Swiss writers Category:16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians Category:People from Zürich Category:Carolinum, Zurich, faculty
Apex Tool Group is an American supplier of hand tools and power tools. It was formed as a joint venture of Cooper Industries and Danaher by the merger of Cooper Tools and Danaher's Tools and Components segment. In October 2012 Danaher and Cooper sold Apex to Bain Capital for about $1.6 billion. Apex is headquartered in Sparks, Maryland, and has over 20 factories globally including the United States, Canada, Mexico, Germany, China, and South America. Hand tool brands Allen – Hex keys Armstrong Tools – Industrial hand tools Atkins – Hacksaws Belzer – Mechanic's hand tools Campbell – Manufactures chains and clamps.
Winner of the "Member's Choice" award for Best New Program at the Do It Best Fall Market in Indianapolis for its chain accessories. Caulkmaster – Pneumatic dispensing guns. Collins – Machetes, shovels, and axes Crescent – Produces general hand tools and tool sets. Winner of Popular Mechanics' 2006 Breakthrough Award for its Rapid-Slide variant. Acquired by Cooper in 1968. Delta – tool boxes Erem – Precision pliers. GearWrench – Ratcheting wrenches and hand tools H.K. Porter – Bolt and cable cutters. Iseli – Precision matched parts Jacob's Chuck – drill chucks JOBOX – truck boxes and site storage K-D Tools – mechanic's hand and specialty tools K&F – files and rasps Kahnetics – Dispensing systems.
Lufkin – Manufactures measuring tools such as calipers, gauges, micrometers, and measuring tapes. Lufkin was Cooper's first hand tool acquisition in 1967. Mayle – Mechanic's hand tools Nicholson – Produces files, rasps, and saws. Acquired by Cooper in 1972. Plumb – Striking tools, such as hammers, axes, and chisels. Acquired by Cooper in 1980. SATA – Mechanic's hand tools. Spline Gauges – gauges Weller – Soldering tools. Acquired by Cooper in 1970. Wire-wrap – Electrical connection equipment. Wiss – Scissors and snips. Acquired by Cooper in 1976. Xcelite – Electronics tools such as general and specialized screwdrivers and pliers. Acquired by Cooper in 1973.
For Hand Tool portfolio, since 2018, Company has decided to focus 3 major brands such as Crescent, Gearwrench and SATA globally. Power tool brands The Apex Tool Group Power Tool Division is headquartered in Lexington, South Carolina.
It is made up of the following brands: APEX Assembly & Fabrication Tools – production impact sockets, bits, and universal joints Buckeye – material embossing Cleco – assembly tools Cooper Automation – automated fastening systems DGD – automated systems Doler – advanced drilling equipment Dotco – material removal tools Geta Master Power – industrial air tools Metronix – Servos, drivers, and speed controls Quackenbush – advanced drilling equipment Recoules – drilling tools Rotor – assembly equipment Utica – torque measurement and control tools References External links Category:Tool manufacturing companies of the United States Category:Tool manufacturing companies of China Category:Power tool manufacturers Category:Automotive tool manufacturers Category:Manufacturing companies established in 2010 Category:Bain Capital companies Category:2012 mergers and acquisitions Category:Manufacturing companies based in Maryland Category:Companies based in Baltimore County, Maryland
Route 2 is a major east–west state highway in Massachusetts. Along with Route 9 and U.S. Route 20 to the south, these highways are the main alternatives to the Massachusetts Turnpike/I-90 toll highway. Route 2 runs the entire length of the northern tier of Massachusetts, beginning at the New York border, where it connects with New York State Route 2, and ending near Boston Common in Boston. Most of the route is a freeway through central Massachusetts, with the longest non-freeway portions being the western and eastern ends. Portions of Route 2 follow the Mohawk Trail, while older alignments are known as Route 2A.
Route description Route 2 proceeds east from the New York state line on a winding, scenic path in Berkshire County through Williamstown, where it serves the Williams College area and through North Adams, where it serves the Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts. East of North Adams, Route 2 ascends via a hairpin turn into the Hoosac Range along what is known as the Mohawk Trail. Route 2 then enters Franklin County, meeting Interstate 91 at an interchange in Greenfield and briefly runs concurrently with I-91. While the old Route 2 becomes Route 2A and goes through downtown Greenfield, Route 2 exits off I-91 as a short expressway before becoming a two-lane freeway.
Outside Greenfield, Route 2A temporarily ends and merges with Route 2. Route 2 remains a regular two-lane surface road in Gill and through Erving, though it has some grade-separated interchanges in Millers Falls at its intersection with Route 63. There is another gap in the two-lane expressway in the Erving area. Recently, the road in Erving was routed to the north and straightened to avoid the paper mill next to the river. This rerouting led to the road being shortened by less than a tenth of a mile. Once the road enters the Town of Orange, Route 2A resumes and diverges from Route 2.
At this point, Route 2 again becomes a two-lane expressway. In Orange, Route 2 runs concurrently with U.S. Route 202. The road at this point enters the town of Athol in Worcester County. After its eastern interchange in Phillipston when US-202 departs to the north, Route 2 becomes a full four-lane expressway, though not to Interstate standards at most points. It continues through Gardner into Fitchburg where Route 2 has several at-grade intersections with Oak Hill Rd, Palmer Rd, Mt. Elam Rd and Abbott Ave. At the intersection with Mt. Elam Rd, a traffic light remains in use on the eastbound side.
Continuing east into Leominster, Interstate 190 splits off, heading south to Worcester. Route 2 continues east to Middlesex County and enters Boston's outer loop at the interchange with Interstate 495 in Littleton. It continues as an expressway into Acton, where the expressway ends at the traffic light intersection with Piper Rd and Taylor Rd, and Route 2 becomes a regular divided highway at most points and just a four-lane highway at other points. At the Concord Rotary, a major traffic choke point, Route 2 intersects with Route 2A and the eastern terminus of Route 119 (which is concurrent with Route 2A).
After the rotary, the road loses its dividing wall as it passes by the State Police (who have an emergency-only traffic light) and over the Assabet River. Route 2A formerly broke away from Route 2 at the next traffic light to go left into Concord but is now overlaid with Route 2. At Crosby's Corner, the sixth intersection after the rotary, Route 2A exits under the highway while Route 2 veers right (but still heads east). While the highway is divided across Lincoln, there is a single traffic light intersection at Bedford Rd. At this point, Route 2 enters Lexington and still is a divided four-lane road with surface intersections.
It then heads to Boston's inner belt, crossing Interstate 95/Route 128. In Arlington, Route 2 is a six-lane and then eight-lane limited-access highway until east of Exit 60 (Lake St), where it narrows with little warning to six lanes and then to four lanes. This section of expressway actually meets the standards of an interstate highway. The final off-ramp leads toward the large parking garage at the MBTA Alewife Station. At this point the road heads into Cambridge. The limited access highway portion ends at a signalled intersection, where it merges with U.S. Route 3 south and Route 16 west in Cambridge and continues as a four-lane surface road to the Boston Public Garden.
Route 2 follows Alewife Brook Parkway, Concord Ave, Fresh Pond Parkway, Gerry's Landing Rd, and Memorial Drive (all parkways maintained by the Department of Conservation and Recreation) through Cambridge. It crosses into Boston heading southward on the Boston University Bridge. It winds through the Boston University campus as Mountfort Street and crosses over both the Massachusetts Turnpike and Commonwealth Avenue before heading due east towards Kenmore Square, while running parallel to U.S. Route 20. Immediately east of the Boston University campus, it crosses into Kenmore Square, which is also the eastern terminus of U.S. Route 20. From Kenmore Sq, Route 2 follows Commonwealth Ave to Arlington St.
It circles the Public Garden, using Arlington St to Boylston St to Charles S. Route 2 goes along northbound Route 28 at the intersection of Charles St and Beacon St between Boston Common and the Public Garden. Shortly after, Route 2 ends on U.S. 3 or Route 3 while Route 28 north joins with the southbound of Route 3. History The route amalgamates and supersedes various named highways in some cases going back to the pre-automobile era. For example, parts of Route 2 are sometimes known as the Cambridge and Concord Turnpike and the Mohawk Trail. In the early 1920s, Route 2 was known as New England Interstate Route 7 (NE-7), a major road connecting Boston with Troy, New York.
NE-7 ran roughly where Route 2A (the original surface alignment of Route 2) does now except near the New York state line. NE-7 used current Massachusetts Route 43, New York State Route 43 and New York State Route 66 to reach Troy. Current Route 2 from Williamstown to Petersburgh was previously numbered as Route 96. Route 2 connected as a highway in its current right-of-way at Alewife Brook Parkway at some point before 1937. An upgraded Route 2 was originally planned to continue as Boston's Northwest Expressway (merging with a re-routed U.S. Route 3 at the Arlington-Lexington or Arlington-Cambridge border) to a junction with Interstate 695, the Inner Beltway, but this, along with the Inner Beltway itself, was cancelled in 1970, accounting for the abrupt narrowing at Alewife.
In place of the highway project, the MBTA Red Line was extended from Harvard to Alewife in the 1980s. Crosby's Corner intersection This major project has been planned since 1999. The intersection had an average of 90 accidents a year. The project was intended to solve the traffic and safety problems that had long occurred at the Crosby's Corner intersection (junction of Route 2 and 2A) in Concord. The project, which was expected to cost $71.9 million, widened Route 2 from Bedford Rd in Lincoln to 300 feet west of Sandy Pond Rd in Concord. The project eliminated the at grade intersection, realigned Route 2, and constructed new entrance and exit ramps along with new service roads next to Route 2.
The project was expected to begin in 2011. The state spent $25–35 million for property takings in the path of the new alignment of Route 2. In January 2010 a speeding tanker truck carrying liquid asphalt flipped over on Route 2 and crushed three cars. The truck driver was med-flighted to a Boston hospital with serious injuries. The highway was shut down for five hours causing traffic delays for the 46,000 commuters daily. The accident put the spotlight back on the Crosby's Corner project. The full project included building a new overpass bridge over Route 2 and building multiple service roads next to Route 2.
Fourteen retaining walls were built to accommodate the new interchange ramp construction. Work also consisted of a new signalized intersection. The project was put out to bid for contractors on September 19, 2011. A contractor was expected to be chosen over the winter and construction was expected to begin in Spring 2012 on the estimated $55 million project. The Army Corps of Engineers published a notice for this project, because of its impact on wetlands at Crosby's Corner. During the summer of 2012, activity on this portion of Route 2 included surveying and the installation of orange-painted stakes. Signs were added in January 2013 indicating that construction would start on January 14.
As of April 2014 the project was underway and predicted completion was Spring 2016. The project was completed in 2016, with a large improvement in traffic flow. Future Concord rotary A project to improve the Concord Rotary, at the convergence of Route 2, Route 2A/119 (Elm St), Barrett's Mill Rd and Commonwealth Ave, has been in planning since 2003 or even earlier. More than 61,000 cars use this rotary on a typical day, and the backed up traffic can be significant. The improved intersection would include overpasses for local streets, while Route 2 traffic would continue unimpeded at grade. However, the project was removed from the funded portion of the Boston Region Metropolitan Planning Organization's (MPO) Long Range Transportation Plan (LRTP) in August 2009 and is currently on hold.
Major intersections MassDOT is scheduled to replace the old sequential exit numbers with the new milepost-based exit numbers beginning in summer 2020, which have been delayed since 2016. See also Freeway and expressway revolts References External links Mass. Route 2 Current and Future Exit Numbers List 002 Category:Transportation in Berkshire County, Massachusetts Category:Transportation in Franklin County, Massachusetts Category:Transportation in Middlesex County, Massachusetts Category:Transportation in Norfolk County, Massachusetts Category:Transportation in Suffolk County, Massachusetts Category:Transportation in Worcester County, Massachusetts Massachusetts Route 2 Category:Transportation in Boston
The family of Macintosh operating systems developed by Apple Inc. includes the graphical user interface-based operating systems it has designed for use with its Macintosh series of personal computers since 1984, as well as the related system software it once created for compatible third-party systems. In 1984, Apple debuted the operating system that is now known as the "Classic" Mac OS with its release of the original Macintosh System Software. The system, rebranded "Mac OS" in 1996, was preinstalled on every Macintosh until 2002 and offered on Macintosh clones for a short time in the 1990s. Noted for its ease of use, it was also criticized for its lack of modern technologies compared to its competitors.
The current Mac operating system is macOS, originally named "Mac OS X" until 2012 and then "OS X" until 2016. Developed between 1997 and 2001 after Apple's purchase of NeXT, Mac OS X brought an entirely new architecture based on NeXTSTEP, a Unix system, that eliminated many of the technical challenges that the classic Mac OS faced. The current macOS is preinstalled with every Mac and is updated annually. It is the basis of Apple's current system software for its other devices – iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS. Prior to the introduction of Mac OS X, Apple experimented with several other concepts, releasing different products designed to bring the Macintosh interface or applications to Unix-like systems or vice versa, A/UX, MAE, and MkLinux.
Apple's effort to expand upon and develop a replacement for its classic Mac OS in the 1990s led to a few cancelled projects, code named Star Trek, Taligent, and Copland. Although they have different architectures, the Macintosh operating systems share a common set of GUI principles, including a menu bar across the top of the screen; the Finder shell, featuring a desktop metaphor that represents files and applications using icons and relates concepts like directories and file deletion to real-world objects like folders and a trash can; and overlapping windows for multitasking. Classic Mac OS The "classic" Mac OS is the original Macintosh operating system that was introduced in 1984 alongside the first Macintosh and remained in primary use on Macs until the introduction of Mac OS X in 2001.
Apple released the original Macintosh on January 24, 1984; its early system software was partially based on the Lisa OS and the Xerox PARC Alto computer, which former Apple CEO Steve Jobs previewed. It was originally named "System Software", or simply "System"; Apple rebranded it as "Mac OS" in 1996 due in part to its Macintosh clone program that ended a year later. Classic Mac OS is characterized by its monolithic design. Initial versions of the System Software run one application at a time. System 5 introduced cooperative multitasking. System 7 supports 32-bit memory addressing and virtual memory, allowing larger programs.
Later updates to the System 7 enable the transition to the PowerPC architecture. The system was considered user-friendly, but its architectural limitations were critiqued, such as limited memory management, lack of protected memory and access controls, and susceptibility to conflicts among extensions. Releases Nine major versions of the classic Mac OS were released.
The name "Classic" that now signifies the system as a whole is a reference to a compatibility layer that helped ease the transition to Mac OS X. Macintosh System Software – "System 1", released in 1984 System Software 2, 3, and 4 – released between 1985 and 1987 System Software 5 – released in 1987 System Software 6 – released in 1988 System 7 / Mac OS 7.6 – released in 1991 Mac OS 8 – released in 1997 Mac OS 9 – final major version, released in 1999 Mac OS X / OS X / macOS macOS (originally named "Mac OS X" until 2012 and then "OS X" until 2016) is the current Mac operating system that officially succeeded the classic Mac OS in 2001.
Although the system was originally marketed as simply "version 10" of Mac OS, it has a history that is largely independent of the classic Mac OS. It is a Unix-based operating system built on NeXTSTEP and other technology developed at NeXT from the late 1980s until early 1997, when Apple purchased the company and its CEO Steve Jobs returned to Apple. Precursors to the original release of Mac OS X include OpenStep, Apple's Rhapsody project, and the Mac OS X Public Beta. macOS makes use of the BSD codebase and the XNU kernel, and its core set of components is based upon Apple's open source Darwin operating system.
macOS is the basis for some of Apple's other operating systems, including iPhone OS/iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS. Releases Desktop The first desktop version of the system was released on March 24, 2001, supporting the Aqua user interface. Since then, several more versions adding newer features and technologies have been released. Since 2011, new releases have been offered on an annual basis.
Mac OS X 10.0 – code name "Cheetah", released to end users on Saturday, March 24, 2001 Mac OS X 10.1 – code name "Puma", released to end users on Tuesday, September 25, 2001 Mac OS X 10.2 – also marketed as "Jaguar", released to end users on Friday, August 23, 2002 Mac OS X Panther – version 10.3, released to end users on Friday, October 24, 2003 Mac OS X Tiger – version 10.4, released to end users on Friday, April 29, 2005 Mac OS X Leopard – version 10.5, released to end users on Friday, October 26, 2007 Mac OS X Snow Leopard – version 10.6, publicly unveiled on Monday, June 8, 2009 Mac OS X Lion – version 10.7, released to end users on Wednesday, July 20, 2011 OS X Mountain Lion – version 10.8, released to end users on Wednesday, July 25, 2012 OS X Mavericks – version 10.9, released to end users on Tuesday, October 22, 2013 OS X Yosemite – version 10.10, released to end users on Thursday, October 16, 2014 OS X El Capitan – version 10.11, released to end users on Wednesday, September 30, 2015 macOS Sierra – version 10.12, released to end users on Tuesday, September 20, 2016 macOS High Sierra – version 10.13, released to end users on Monday, September 25, 2017 macOS Mojave – version 10.14, released to end users on Monday, September 24, 2018 macOS Catalina – version 10.15, released to end users on Monday, October 7, 2019 Server An early server computing version of the system was released in 1999 as a technology preview.
It was followed by several more official server-based releases. Server functionality has instead been offered as an add-on for the desktop system since 2011. Mac OS X Server 1.0 – code name "Hera", released in 1999 macOS Server – several releases since 2001 Other projects Shipped A/ROSE The Apple Real-time Operating System Environment (A/ROSE) was a small embedded operating system which ran on the Macintosh Coprocessor Platform, an expansion card for the Macintosh. The idea was to offer a single "overdesigned" hardware platform on which third-party vendors could build practically any product, reducing the otherwise heavy workload of developing a NuBus-based expansion card.
The first version of the system was ready for use in February 1988. A/UX In 1988, Apple released its first UNIX-based OS, A/UX, which was a UNIX operating system with the Mac OS look and feel. It was not very competitive for its time, due in part to the crowded UNIX market and Macintosh hardware lacking high-end design features present on workstation-class computers. A/UX had most of its success in sales to the U.S. government, where POSIX compliance was a requirement that Mac OS could not meet. MAE The Macintosh Application Environment (MAE) was a software package introduced by Apple in 1994 that allowed users of certain Unix-based computer workstations to run Apple Macintosh application software.
MAE used the X Window System to emulate a Macintosh Finder-style graphical user interface. The last version, MAE 3.0, was compatible with System 7.5.3. MAE was available for Sun Microsystems SPARCstation and Hewlett-Packard systems. It was discontinued on May 14, 1998. MkLinux Announced at the 1996 Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC), MkLinux is an open source operating system that was started by the OSF Research Institute and Apple in February 1996 to port Linux to the PowerPC platform, and thus Macintosh computers. In mid 1998, the community-led MkLinux Developers Association took over development of the operating system. MkLinux is short for "Microkernel Linux," which refers to the project's adaptation of the Linux kernel to run as a server hosted atop the Mach microkernel.
MkLinux is based on version 3.0 of Mach. Cancelled Star Trek Star Trek (as in "to boldly go where no Mac has gone before") was a relatively unknown secret prototype beginning in 1992, whose goal was to create a version of the classic Mac OS that would run on Intel-compatible x86 personal computers. In partnership with Apple and with support from Intel, the project was instigated by Novell, which was looking to integrate its DR-DOS with the Mac OS GUI as a mutual response to the monopoly of Microsoft's Windows 3.0 and MS-DOS. A team consisting of four from Apple and four from Novell was able to get the Macintosh Finder and some basic applications such as QuickTime, running smoothly on the x86 architecture.
The project was canceled a year later in early 1993, but some of the code was later reused when porting the Mac OS to PowerPC. Taligent Taligent (a portmanteau of "talent" and "intelligent") was the name of an object-oriented operating system and the company dedicated to producing it. Started as a project within Apple to provide a replacement for the classic Mac OS, it was later spun off into a joint venture with IBM as part of the AIM alliance, with the purpose of building a competing platform to Microsoft Cairo and NeXTSTEP. The development process never worked, and Taligent is often cited as an example of a project death march.
Apple pulled out of the project in 1995 before the code had been delivered. Copland Copland was a project at Apple to create an updated version of the classic Mac OS. It was to have introduced protected memory, preemptive multitasking and a number of new underlying operating system features, yet still be compatible with existing Mac software. As originally planned, a follow-up release known as "Gershwin" would add multithreading and other advanced features. New features were added more rapidly than they could be completed, and the completion date slipped into the future with no sign of a release. In 1996, Apple decided to cancel the project outright and find a suitable third-party system to replace it.
Copland development ended in August 1996, and in December 1996, Apple announced that it was buying NeXT for its NeXTSTEP operating system. Timeline Related systems Before the arrival of the Macintosh in 1984, Apple's history of operating systems began with its Apple II series computers in 1977, which ran Apple DOS, ProDOS, and later GS/OS; the Apple III in 1980, which ran Apple SOS; and the Apple Lisa in 1983, which ran Lisa OS and later MacWorks XL, a Macintosh emulator. Apple also developed the Newton OS for its Newton personal digital assistant from 1993 to 1997.
In recent years, Apple has also launched several new operating systems based on the core of macOS, including iOS in 2007 for its iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch mobile devices and in 2017 for its HomePod smart speakers; watchOS in 2015 for the Apple Watch; tvOS in 2015 for the Apple TV set-top box. See also Comparison of operating systems History of the graphical user interface Macintosh List of Macintosh software References Category:Apple Inc. software Category:History of software Category:Lists of operating systems Category:Mac OS Category:Mac OS development Category:Operating system families Category:Software version histories
The anime series Mr. Tonegawa: Middle Management Blues is based on the manga series Chūkan Kanriroku Tonegawa, written by Tensei Hagiwara and illustrated by Tomohiro Hashimoto and Tomoki Miyoshi. It is a spin-off of the main series Kaiji by Nobuyuki Fukumoto. The anime television series adaptation by Madhouse premiered on July 4, 2018 on Nippon TV's AnichU programming block. Sentai Filmworks have licensed the anime and an English dub began streaming on Hidive on August 3, 2018. The opening theme is by Gesu no Kiwami Otome, the first ending theme is by Pistol Takehara, and the second ending is by NoisyCell.
The series ran for 24 episodes. The series also includes segments from 1-nichi Gaishutsuroku Hanchō spin-off manga about the foreman Ōtsuki. Episode list References Mr. Tonegawa: Middle Management Blues
Endurance was the three-masted barquentine in which Sir Ernest Shackleton and a crew of 27 men sailed for the Antarctic on the 1914–1917 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. She was launched in 1912 from Sandefjord in Norway; three years later, she was crushed by pack ice and sank in the Weddell Sea off Antarctica. All of her crew survived. Design and construction Designed by Ole Aanderud Larsen, Endurance was built at the Framnæs shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway, and fully completed on 17 December 1912. She was built under the supervision of master wood shipbuilder Christian Jacobsen, who was renowned for insisting that all men in his employment were not just skilled shipwrights but also be experienced in seafaring aboard whaling or sealing ships.
Every detail of her construction had been scrupulously planned to ensure maximum durability: for example, every joint and fitting was cross-braced for maximum strength. The ship was launched on 17 December 1912 and was initially christened Polaris (eponymous with Polaris, the North Star). She was long, with a beam, and measured 348 tons gross. Her original purpose to provide luxurious accommodation for small tourist and hunting parties in the Arctic as an ice-capable steam yacht. As launched she had 10 passenger cabins, a spacious dining saloon and galley (with accommodation for two cooks), a smoking room, a darkroom to allow passengers to develop photographs, electric lighting and even a small bathroom.
Though her hull looked from the outside like that of any other vessel of a comparable size, it was not. She was designed for polar conditions with a very sturdy construction. Her keel members were four pieces of solid oak, one above the other, adding up to a thickness of , while its sides were between and thick, with twice as many frames as normal and the frames being of double thickness. She was built of planks of oak and Norwegian fir up to thick, sheathed in greenheart, an exceptionally strong and heavy wood. The bow, which would meet the ice head-on, had been given special attention.
Each timber had been made from a single oak tree chosen for its shape so that its natural shape followed the curve of the ship's design. When put together, these pieces had a thickness of . Of her three masts, the forward one was square-rigged, while the after two carried fore and aft sails, like a schooner. As well as sails, Endurance had a coal-fired steam engine capable of speeds up to . By the time of her launch in 1912, Endurance was perhaps the strongest wooden ship ever built, with the possible exception of Fram, the vessel used by Fridtjof Nansen and later by Roald Amundsen.
There was one major difference between the ships. Fram was bowl-bottomed, which meant that if the ice closed in against her, the ship would be squeezed up and out and not be subject to the pressure of the ice compressing around her. Endurance, on the other hand, was designed with great inherent strength in her hull in order to resist collision with ice floes and to break through pack ice by ramming and crushing; she was therefore not intended to be frozen into heavy pack ice, and so was not designed to rise out of a crush. In such a situation she was dependent on the ultimate strength of her hull alone.
Ownership Endurance was originally built for Adrien de Gerlache and Lars Christensen, who intended to use her for polar cruises for tourists to hunt polar bears. Financial problems led to Gerlache pulling out of their partnership, leaving Christensen unable to pay the Framnæs yard the final amounts to hand over and outfit the ship. For over a year Christensen attempted unsuccessfully to sell the ship, since her unique design as an ice-capable passenger-carrying ship, with relatively little space for stores and no cargo hold, made her useless to the whaling industry. Meanwhile, she was too big, slow and uncomfortable to be a private steam yacht.
In the event, Christensen was happy to sell the ship to Ernest Shackleton for GB£11,600, which represented a significant loss to Christensen as it barely covered the outstanding payments to Framnæs, let alone the ship's total build costs. He is reported to have said he was happy to take the loss in order to further the plans of an explorer of Shackleton's stature. After Shackleton purchased the ship, she was rechristened Endurance after the Shackleton family motto, Fortitudine vincimus ("By endurance we conquer"). Shackleton had the ship relocated from Norway to London. She arrived at the Millwall Dock in the spring of 1914, where she was refitted and modified for expedition purposes.
She was stripped of most of her luxurious accommodation and fittings. This included removing many of the passenger cabins to make room for space for stores and equipment, while the crew cabins on the lower deck were removed and converted into a cargo hold – the reduced crew of sailors that Shackleton would take on the expedition would make their quarters in the cramped forecastle. The darkroom remained in its original location ahead of the boiler. The refit also saw the ship repainted from her original white color to a more austere black, which was more visible amongst ice, and features such as gilt scrollwork on the bow and stern were painted over.
Despite her change of name, she retained a large badge in the shape of a five-pointed star on her stern, which originally symbolized her name after the pole star. Her new equipment included four ship's boats. Two were transom-built rowing cutters purchased secondhand from the whaling industry. The third was a larger double-ended rowing whaleboat built for the expedition to specifications drawn up by Frank Worsley, Endurances new captain. The fourth was a smaller motorboat. After her refit, Endurance made the short coastal journey to Plymouth. In the previous 16 years, nearly two dozen wooden vessels had sailed to the icy seas of the far south.
All had returned home but Aurora. Lloyd's of London and the Indemnity Marine Assurance Company had underwritten her hull, machinery and equipment for £15,000. Just before she sailed, The Times had reported that "Hitherto the insurance of vessels taking part in Antarctic exploration has ceased at the last port touched, and Endurance will be the first vessel to be insured in the ice zone." The Times praised Endurance as "built specially for work in Polar seas", adding that "in an ice-coated sea there can be no turbulent waves which are the causes of so many disasters in warmer zones." Final voyage Endurance sailed from Plymouth on 6 August 1914 and set course for Buenos Aires, Argentina, under Worsley's command.
Shackleton remained in Britain, finalising the expedition's organization and attending to some last-minute fundraising. This was Endurance's first major voyage following its completion and amounted to a shakedown voyage. The trip across the Atlantic took more than two months. Built for the ice, her hull was considered by many of her crew too rounded for the open ocean. Shackleton took a steamer to Buenos Aires and caught up with his expedition a few days after Endurance's arrival. On 26 October 1914, Endurance sailed from Buenos Aires to what would be her last port of call, the whaling station at Grytviken on the island of South Georgia, where she arrived on 5 November.
She left Grytviken on 5 December 1914, heading for the southern regions of the Weddell Sea. Two days after leaving South Georgia, Endurance encountered polar pack ice and progress slowed to a crawl. For weeks Endurance worked its way through the pack, averaging less than per day. By 15 January 1915, Endurance was within of her destination, Vahsel Bay. By the following morning, heavy pack ice was sighted and in the afternoon a gale developed. Under these conditions it was soon evident progress could not be made, and Endurance took shelter under the lee of a large grounded iceberg. During the next two days, Endurance moved back and forth under the sheltering protection of the berg.
On 18 January, the gale began to moderate and Endurance set the topsail with the engine at slow. The pack had blown away. Progress was made slowly until hours later Endurance encountered the pack once more. It was decided to move forward and work through the pack, and at 5:00 PM Endurance entered it. This ice was different from what had been encountered before, and the ship was soon amongst thick but soft brash ice, and became beset. The gale increased in intensity and kept blowing for another six days from a northerly direction towards land. By 24 January, the wind had completely compressed the ice in the Weddell Sea against the land, leaving Endurance icebound as far as the eye could see in every direction.
All that could be done was to wait for a southerly gale to start pushing in the other direction, which would decompress and open the ice. In the early morning of 24 January, a wide crack appeared in the ice ahead of the ship. Initially across, by mid-morning the break was over a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) wide, giving the men on the Endurance hope that the ice was breaking up. But the break never reached the ship itself, and despite three hours under full sail and full speed on the engine, the ship did not budge. Over the next days, the crew waited for the southerly gale to release the pressure on the ice, but while the wind backed to the hoped-for south/southwest direction, it remained light and erratic.
Occasional breaks in the ice were spotted, but none reached the ship and all closed up within a few hours. Trials were made on January 27 with cutting and breaking the ice around the ship by manual labour but this proved futile. On 14 February, an open channel of water opened up a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) ahead of the ship and dawn showed the Endurance was afloat in a pool of soft, young ice no more than thick, but the pool was surrounded by solid pack ice of in thickness, blocking the path to the open lead.
A day's continual work by the crew saw them hack a clear channel long. This work continued through the following day (15 February) and, with steam raised, the Endurance was backed up within her pool as far as possible to allow the ship to ram her way through the channel. As the ship went astern for successive attempts, lines were attached from the bow to loosened blocks of ice, estimated to weigh 20 tons (18 tonnes), in order to clear the path. The pool proved too small for the ship to gain enough momentum to successfully ram her way clear and by the end of the day the ice began to freeze up again.
By 3:00 PM, the Endurance had made of distance through the ice, with still to go to clear water. Shackleton decided that the consumption of coal and manpower, and the risk of damage to the ship, was too great and called a halt. Drift After this frustration, Endurance's boilers were extinguished, committing the ship to drift with the ice until released naturally. On 17 February, the sun dipped below the horizon at midnight, showing the end of the Antarctic summer. On 24 February, regular watches on the ship were cancelled, with the Endurance now functioning as a shore station. The ship had slowly drifted south and at this point was within of the intended landing point at Vahsel Bay.
But the icy terrain between the ship and the shore was too arduous to travel while carrying the materials and supplies needed for the overland expedition. By March, navigational observation showed that the ship (and the mass of pack ice that contained it) was still moving, but now swinging towards the west-northwest and increasing in the speed of its drift, moving between the start of March and May 2, when the sun disappeared below the horizon and the dark Antarctic winter began. Still the men on the ship hoped for either a change in the weather which would break up the pack or that, by the spring, the warmer weather and the ship's northward drift would mean it was released.
On 14 July 1915, Endurance was swept by a southwest gale, with wind speeds of , a barometer reading of and temperatures falling to . The blizzard continued until 16 July. This broke up the pack ice into smaller, individual floes, each of which began to move semi-independently under the force of the weather, while also clearing water in the north of the Weddell Sea. This provided a long fetch for the south-setting wind to blow over and then for the broken ice to pile up against itself while individual parts moved in different directions. This caused regions of intense localised pressure in the ice field.
The ice began "working", with sounds of breaking and colliding ice audible to those on the ship through the next day. Breaks in the ice were spotted but none approached the ice holding the Endurance. During July the ship drifted a further to the north. On the morning of 1 August, a pressure wave passed through the floe holding the ship, lifting the 400-ton Endurance bodily upwards and heeling the ship sharply to its port side before it dropped into a pool of water, afloat again for the first time in nearly six months. The broken sections of floe closed in around the ship on all sides, jarring the Endurance forward, backwards and sideways in violent fashion against the other slabs of ice.
After over a quarter of an hour, a force from astern pushed the ship's bow up onto the floe, lifting the hull out of the pressure and with a list of five degrees to her port side. A gale overnight further disturbed the floe, driving it against the starboard side of the hull and forcing a sheet of ice upwards at a 45-degree angle until it reached the level of the scuppers. Despite the ordeal of the past few days the ship remained undamaged. Two pressure waves struck the ship on 29 August without incident. On the evening of 31 August, a slow-building pressure gripped the Endurance, causing her hull and timbers to creak and shudder continuously.
The ice around the ship moved and broke throughout the night, battering the port side of the hull. All was quiet again until the afternoon of 30 September, by which time there were signs of spring with ten hours of sunlight per day and occasional temperature readings above freezing. A large floe was swept against the Endurance's port bow and then gripped that side of the ship against the built-up ice and snow on her starboard beam. The ship's structure groaned and wracked under the strain. Carpenter Harry McNish noted that the solid oak beams supporting the upper deck were being visibly bent "like a piece of cane".
On deck the ship's masts were whipping back and forth as their stepping points on the keel were distorted. Despite these disconcerting signs, Captain Frank Worsley noted that the strength of the ship's structure was causing the ice itself to break up as it piled against the hull – "...just as it appears she can stand no more, the huge floe weighing possibly a million tons or more yields to our little ship by cracking across...and so relieves the pressure. The behaviour of our ship in the ice has been magnificent. Undoubtedly she is the finest little wooden vessel ever built...." Despite this, the ship's decks were permanently buckled following this ordeal.
Final destruction By October, temperatures of nearly were recorded and the ice showed further signs of opening up. The floe which had been jammed against the ship's starboard side since July broke up on 14 October, casting the Endurance afloat in a pool of open water for the first time in nine months. On 16 October, Shackleton ordered steam to be raised so the ship could take advantage of any openings in the ice. It took nearly four hours for the boilers to be filled with freshwater melted from ice, and then a leak was discovered in one of the fittings and they had to be pumped out, repaired and then refilled.
The following day a lead of open water was seen ahead of the ship. Only one boiler had been lit and there was insufficient steam to use the engine, so all the sails were set to try and force the ship into the loosening pack ice but without success. In the late afternoon of 18 October, the ice closed in around the Endurance once again. In just five seconds the ship was canted over to port by 20 degrees, and the list continued until she rested at 30 degrees, with the port bulwark resting on the pack and the boats on that side nearly touching the ice as they hung in their davits.
This put the ship in a seemingly safe position – instead of being pinched between two opposing masses of ice the Endurance had been pushed from starboard to port and further pressure from starboard would push her bodily upwards over the top of the port-side floe, which had actually collided with its counterpart under the ship's bilge. In any case, after four hours in this position, the ice drew apart and the ship returned to a level keel. The ice was relatively still for the rest of the month. On 20 October, steam was raised again and the engines tested.
On 22 October, the temperature dropped sharply from to and the wind veered from southwest to northeast. This caused the loosening pack to compress against the Antarctic coast once again. On 23 October, pressure ridges could be seen forming in the ice and moving near the ship. The next day a series of pressure waves struck the Endurance, causing the ice around the ship to fracture into separate large pieces which were then tumbled and turned in all directions. The ship was shunted back and forth before being pinched against two floes on her starboard side, one at her bow and one at her stern, while on the port side a floe impacted amidships, setting up a huge bending force on the hull.
Parts of the rigging were snapped under the strain. A large mass of ice slammed into the stern, tearing the sternpost away from the hull planking. Around the same time the bow planking was stove in, causing simultaneous flooding in the engine room and the forward hold. Despite using both the portable manual pumps and getting up steam to drive the main bilge pumps, the water level continued to rise. The main man-powered deck pumps did not work as their intakes had frozen and could only be restored by pouring buckets of boiling water onto the pump pipes from inside the coal bunkers and then playing a blowtorch over the intake valve.
McNish constructed a cofferdam in the shaft tunnel to seal off the damaged stern area while the crew were arranged in spells of 15 minutes on, 15 minutes off on the main pump. After 28 hours of continuous work, the inflow of water had only been arrested – the ship was still badly flooded. On 24 October, the damaged ship was wracked by further pressure waves. The port-side floe was pressed more heavily against the side, warping the keel along its length and causing near-continual creaks, groans, cracks and "screams" from the ship's timbers. The footplates in the engine room were pushed up and would no longer sit in place as the compartment was compressed.
The planking of the ship's port side was bowing inwards by up to . At 10 PM, Shackleton ordered the ship's boats, stores and essential equipment to be moved onto the surrounding ice. In the afternoon of 25 October, the pressure of the ice increased further. The main deck of the Endurance buckled upwards amidships and the beams sheared. As the ice moved against her stern, the aft part of the ship was lifted up and the damaged sternpost and the rudder were torn away. This angle caused all the water in the ship to run forward, collecting in the bow where it then began to freeze.
The action of the ice in the stern and the excessive weight in the bow caused the ship to sink into the ice bow-first. Under its own pressure, the ice then broke over the forecastle and piled up onto the deck in the forward part of the ship, further weighing this end of the ship down. Through all of this, the pumping operations had continued, but by the end of the day Shackleton ordered this to stop and for the men to take to the ice. During the course of the next day, parties were sent back to the ship to recover more supplies and stores.
They found that the entire port side of the Endurance had been driven inwards and compressed, and the ice had entirely filled the bow and stern sections. The ship's Blue Ensign was hoisted up her mizzen mast so that she would, in Shackleton's word's, "go down with colours flying." After a failed attempt to man-haul the boats and stores overland on sledges, Shackleton realised the effort was much too intense and that the party would have to camp on the ice until it carried them to the north and broke up. More parties were sent back to the Endurance, still with her masts and rigging intact and all but her bow above the ice, to salvage any remaining items.
A large portion of provisions had been left on the submerged lower deck. The only way to retrieve them was to cut through the main deck, which was more than a foot thick in places and itself under three feet of water. Some crates and boxes floated up once a hole had been cut, while others were retrieved with a grapple. In total, nearly 3.5 tons of stores were recovered from the wrecked ship. The party was still camped under from the remains of the Endurance on 8 November when Shackleton returned to the ship to consider further salvage. By now the ship had sunk a further into the ice and the upper deck was now almost level with the ice.
The interior of the ship was almost full of compacted ice and snow, making further work impossible. The damage to the bow and stern, and the force of the ice against the port side, had caused a large portion of the hull on that side of the ship to break free of the rest of the ship and, under the force of the ice, be moved bodily inwards in a telescoping effect. In some places, the outer hull planks were now in line with the keel. A stash of empty fuel oil cans placed against the port side wall of the deckhouse had been pushed through the wall and then the cans and the wall had come to rest against its counterpart on the starboard side of the deckhouse.
The row of five cabins that had been on the port side of the main deck above the engine room and their contents had been compressed into the space of a single cabin. On 13 November, a new pressure wave swept through the pack ice. The forward topgallant mast and topmasts collapsed as the bow was finally crushed. These moments were recorded on film by expedition photographer Frank Hurley. The mainmast was split near its base and shortly afterwards the mainmast and the mizzen mast broke and collapsed together, with this also filmed by Hurley. The ensign was re-rigged on the tip of one of the foremast yardarms which, constrained by the rigging, was now hanging vertically from the remains of the foremast and was the highest point of the wreck.
In the late afternoon of 21 November, movement of the remaining wreckage was noticed as another pressure wave hit. Within the space of a minute, the stern of the Endurance was lifted clear of the ice as the floes moved together and then, as the pressure passed and they moved apart, the entire wreck fell into the ocean. By daylight the following day, the ice surrounding the spot where the Endurance had sank had moved together again, obliterating any trace of the wreck. Worsley fixed the position as 68° 38.5'S 52° 58'W.
Crew The crew of Endurance on her final voyage was made up of the 28 men listed below: Sir Ernest Shackleton, Expedition Leader Frank Wild, Second-in-Command Frank Worsley, Captain Lionel Greenstreet, First Officer Tom Crean, Second Officer Alfred Cheetham, Third Officer Hubert Hudson, Navigator Lewis Rickinson, Engineer Alexander Kerr, Engineer Alexander Macklin, Surgeon James McIlroy, Surgeon Sir James Wordie, Geologist Leonard Hussey, Meteorologist Reginald James, Physicist Robert Clark, Biologist Frank Hurley, Photographer George Marston, Artist Thomas Orde-Lees, Motor Expert and Storekeeper Harry "Chippy" McNish, Carpenter Charles Green, Cook Walter How, Able Seaman William Bakewell, Able Seaman Timothy McCarthy, Able Seaman Thomas McLeod, Able Seaman John Vincent, Boatswain Ernest Holness, Stoker William Stephenson, Stoker Perce Blackborow, Steward Mrs Chippy, Ship's Cat Nationalities All crew members were born and resident in England before the expedition, except for the following: Shackleton, Irish Worsley, New Zealander Greenstreet, New Zealander Crean, Irish Macklin, Indian McIlroy, Irish Wordie, Scottish Hurley, Australian Clark, Scottish McNish, Scottish Bakewell, American (may have claimed to be Canadian when he applied to join the expedition in Buenos Aires) McCarthy, Irish Blackborow, Welsh Edgar Smith, Irish McCarthy, Irish Green, British Perce Blackborow was originally refused a post aboard the vessel due to his young age and inexperience, and instead decided to stowaway with help from his friend William Bakewell and Walter How.
When his presence aboard the Endurance was discovered, Shackleton decided to make him a steward rather than leave him ashore at South Georgia. Blackborow eventually proved his worth, earning the Bronze Polar Medal, and the honour of becoming the first human being ever to set foot on Elephant Island. His name is also the matter of some debate—it is sometimes spelled Percy, or Blackboro, or in other ways. Supposed advertisement To find crew for the Endurance, Shackleton reportedly placed an advertisement in the London Times, reading: When discussing the advertisement in the 1944 book Quit You like Men, Carl Hopkins Elmore quoted Shackleton as saying that "so overwhelming was the response to his appeal that it seemed as though all the men of Great Britain were determined to accompany him."
Although the advertisement was listed in Julian Watkins' The 100 Greatest Advertisements: 1852-1958, no trace has been found to date. Many sources have concluded that the story of Shackleton's advertisement is likely apocryphal. The crew did receive the recognition the advertisement promised; Time Magazine has deemed their voyage "the most storied epic of survival". Legacy American journalist Alfred Lansing's book Endurance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage, first published in 1959, described the ordeal that Shackleton and his men endured aboard the ship and quickly became a bestseller. Two Antarctic patrol ships of the British Royal Navy have been named Endurance in honour of Shackleton's ship.
The first , launched in May 1956 and awarded pennant number A171 sometime later, acted as an ice patrol and hydrographic survey ship until 1986. The second was bought from Norway in 1992 where she was named MV Polar Circle. She suffered severe flooding in 2008 due to procedural errors during maintenance and, despite being returned to the UK, was not repaired prior to being scrapped in 2016. Wreck of the Endurance In 1998, wreckage found at Stinker Point on the southwestern side of Elephant Island was incorrectly identified as flotsam from the ship. It instead was from the 1877 wreck of the Connecticut sealing ship Charles Shearer.
In 2001, wreck hunter David Mearns unsuccessfully planned an expedition to find the wreck of Endurance. By 2003, two rival groups were making plans for an expedition to find the wreck, but no expedition was actually mounted. In 2010, Mearns announced a new plan to search for the wreck. The plan is sponsored by the National Geographic Society but is subject to finding sponsorship for the balance of the US$10 million estimated cost. A 2013 study by Dr. Adrian Glover of the Natural History Museum, London suggests the Antarctic Circumpolar Current could preserve the wreck on the seabed by keeping wood-boring "ship worms" away.
A Weddell Sea Expedition to locate and possibly photograph the wreck using long-range Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) was underway in the Antarctic summer of 2018–2019. This expedition failed when the researchers' AUV was lost to the ice as well. The wreck itself is speculated to rest on flat terrain at around 3,000 metres, undisturbed by massive sediment disposition and little to no errosion. According to Professor Julian Dowdeswell of the Scott Polar Research Institute, that due to the aforementioned conditions on the sea bed, there is speculation that the Endurance shouldn't be harmed that it would be in the same state as it was when it sunk in the pack ice in 1915.
He also noted that any future attempts at finding the Endurance would be "add-ons" to other main scientific expeditions to the area such as the one in 2019, which was launched with the intention to study the melting and retreat of the Larsen ice shelves. See also Voyage of the James Caird, for what happened after Endurance broke up List of Antarctic exploration ships from the Heroic Age, 1897–1922 References Further reading External links Category:1912 ships Category:Barques Category:Exploration ships Category:Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Category:Individual sailing vessels Category:Maritime incidents in 1915 Category:Merchant ships of Norway Category:Ships built in Sandefjord Category:Shipwrecks in the Southern Ocean Category:Steamships of Norway Category:Tall ships of Norway
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie is a novel by Muriel Spark, the best known of her works. It first saw publication in The New Yorker magazine and was published as a book by Macmillan in 1961. The character of Miss Jean Brodie brought Spark international fame and brought her into the first rank of contemporary Scottish literature. In 2005, the novel was chosen by Time magazine as one of the one hundred best English-language novels from 1923 to present. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie No. 76 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.
Plot summary In 1930s Edinburgh, six ten-year-old girls, Sandy, Rose, Mary, Jenny, Monica, and Eunice are assigned Miss Jean Brodie, who describes herself as being "in my prime," as their teacher. Miss Brodie, determined that they shall receive an education in the original sense of the Latin verb educere, "to lead out," gives her students lessons about her personal love life and travels, promoting art history, classical studies, and fascism. Under her mentorship, these six girls whom Brodie singles out as the elite group among her students—known as the "Brodie set"—begin to stand out from the rest of the school.