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Advantages A fixed exchange rate may minimize instabilities in real economic activity Central banks can acquire credibility by fixing their country's currency to that of a more disciplined nation On a microeconomic level, a country with poorly developed or illiquid money markets may fix their exchange rates to provide its residents with a synthetic money market with the liquidity of the markets of the country that provides the vehicle currency A fixed exchange rate reduces volatility and fluctuations in relative prices It eliminates exchange rate risk by reducing the associated uncertainty It imposes discipline on the monetary authority International trade and investment flows between countries are facilitated Speculation in the currency markets is likely to be less destabilizing under a fixed exchange rate system than it is in a flexible one, since it does not amplify fluctuations resulting from business cycles Fixed exchange rates impose a price discipline on nations with higher inflation rates than the rest of the world, as such a nation is likely to face persistent deficits in its balance of payments and loss of reserves Prevent, debt monetization, or fiscal spending financed by debt that the monetary authority buys up.
This prevents high inflation. (11) Disadvantages Lack of automatic rebalancing One main criticism of a fixed exchange rate is that flexible exchange rates serve to adjust the balance of trade. When a trade deficit occurs under a floating exchange rate, there will be increased demand for the foreign (rather than domestic) currency which will push up the price of the foreign currency in terms of the domestic currency. That in turn makes the price of foreign goods less attractive to the domestic market and thus pushes down the trade deficit. Under fixed exchange rates, this automatic rebalancing does not occur.
Currency crisis Another major disadvantage of a fixed exchange-rate regime is the possibility of the central bank running out of foreign exchange reserves when trying to maintain the peg in the face of demand for foreign reserves exceeding their supply. This is called a currency crisis or balance of payments crisis, and when it happens the central bank must devalue the currency. When there is the prospect of this happening, private-sector agents will try to protect themselves by decreasing their holdings of the domestic currency and increasing their holdings of the foreign currency, which has the effect of increasing the likelihood that the forced devaluation will occur.
A forced devaluation will change the exchange rate by more than will the day-by-day exchange rate fluctuations under a flexible exchange rate system. Freedom to conduct monetary and fiscal policy Moreover, a government, when having a fixed rather than dynamic exchange rate, cannot use monetary or fiscal policies with a free hand. For instance, by using reflationary tools to set the economy growing faster (by decreasing taxes and injecting more money in the market), the government risks running into a trade deficit. This might occur as the purchasing power of a common household increases along with inflation, thus making imports relatively cheaper.
Additionally, the stubbornness of a government in defending a fixed exchange rate when in a trade deficit will force it to use deflationary measures (increased taxation and reduced availability of money), which can lead to unemployment. Finally, other countries with a fixed exchange rate can also retaliate in response to a certain country using the currency of theirs in defending their exchange rate.
Other disadvantages The need for a fixed exchange rate regime is challenged by the emergence of sophisticated derivatives and financial tools in recent years, which allow firms to hedge exchange rate fluctuations The announced exchange rate may not coincide with the market equilibrium exchange rate, thus leading to excess demand or excess supply The central bank needs to hold stocks of both foreign and domestic currencies at all times in order to adjust and maintain exchange rates and absorb the excess demand or supply Fixed exchange rate does not allow for automatic correction of imbalances in the nation's balance of payments since the currency cannot appreciate/depreciate as dictated by the market It fails to identify the degree of comparative advantage or disadvantage of the nation and may lead to inefficient allocation of resources throughout the world There exists the possibility of policy delays and mistakes in achieving external balance The cost of government intervention is imposed upon the foreign exchange market It does not work well in countries with dissimilar economies and thus dissimilar economic shocks (11) Fixed exchange rate regime versus capital control The belief that the fixed exchange rate regime''' brings with it stability is only partly true, since speculative attacks tend to target currencies with fixed exchange rate regimes, and in fact, the stability of the economic system is maintained mainly through capital control.
A fixed exchange rate regime should be viewed as a tool in capital control. FIX Line: Trade-off between symmetry of shocks and integration The trade-off between symmetry of shocks and market integration for countries contemplating a pegged currency is outlined in Feenstra and Taylor's 2015 publication "International Macroeconomics" through a model known as the FIX Line Diagram. This symmetry-integration diagram features two regions, divided by a 45-degree line with slope of -1. This line can shift to the left or to the right depending on extra costs or benefits of floating. The line has slope= -1 is because the larger symmetry benefits are, the less pronounced integration benefits have to be and vice versa.
The right region contains countries that have positive potential for pegging, while the left region contains countries that face significant risks and deterrents to pegging. This diagram underscores the two main factors that drive a country to contemplate pegging a currency to another, shock symmetry and market integration. Shock symmetry can be characterized as two countries having similar demand shocks due to similar industry breakdowns and economies, while market integration is a factor of the volume of trading that occurs between member nations of the peg. In extreme cases, it is possible for a country to only exhibit one of these characteristics and still have positive pegging potential.
For example, a country that exhibits complete symmetry of shocks but has zero market integration could benefit from fixing a currency. The opposite is true, a country that has zero symmetry of shocks but has maximum trade integration (effectively one market between member countries). *This can be viewed on an international scale as well as a local scale. For example, neighborhoods within a city would experience enormous benefits from a common currency, while poorly integrated and/or dissimilar countries are likely to face large costs. See also List of circulating fixed exchange rate currencies Exchange rate regime Floating exchange rate Linked exchange rate Managed float regime Gold standard Bretton Woods system Nixon Shock Smithsonian Agreement Foreign exchange fixing Currency union Black Wednesday Capital control Convertibility Currency board Impossible trinity Speculative attack Swan diagram References (11) Feenstra, Robert C., and Alan M. Taylor.
International Macroeconomics. New York: Worth, 2012. Print. Category:Foreign exchange market Category:Gold standard fr:Régime de change#Régime de change fixe
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD), formerly Theater High Altitude Area Defense, is an American anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down short-, medium-, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their terminal phase (descent or reentry) by intercepting with a hit-to-kill approach. THAAD was developed after the experience of Iraq's Scud missile attacks during the Gulf War in 1991. The THAAD interceptor carries no warhead, but relies on its kinetic energy of impact to destroy the incoming missile. A kinetic energy hit minimizes the risk of exploding conventional-warhead ballistic missiles, and the warhead of nuclear-tipped ballistic missiles will not detonate upon a kinetic-energy hit.
Originally a United States Army program, THAAD has come under the umbrella of the Missile Defense Agency. The Navy has a similar program, the sea-based Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System, which also has a land component ("Aegis ashore"). THAAD was originally scheduled for deployment in 2012, but initial deployment took place in May 2008. THAAD has been deployed in Guam, the United Arab Emirates, Israel, Romania, and South Korea. The vulnerability and lethality analyses of the THAAD have been conducted by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL). The vulnerability assessment for the THAAD featured an evaluation of the effects of major electromagnetic elements.
This included EM interference, EM radiation operations, EM radiation hazards, EM pulse, electrostatic discharge, and lightning effects on components of the THAAD system. The ARL assessments were designed to determine the THAAD system's growth potential given its tactical design as well as provide survivability analysis against threats such as conventional weapons, chemical weapons, and electronic warfare countermeasures. The data collected from the analyses were used to develop trajectory models for targets and missile as well as target trajectories using infrared scene generation of infrared countermeasures (IRCMs). The THAAD system is being designed, built, and integrated by Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control acting as prime contractor.
Key subcontractors include Raytheon, Boeing, Aerojet Rocketdyne, Honeywell, BAE Systems, Oshkosh Defense, and MiltonCAT. Development The THAAD missile defense concept was proposed in 1987, with a formal request for proposals submitted to industry in 1991. The THAAD program benefited from results of previous missile defense efforts like High Endoatmospheric Defense Interceptor (HEDI) and the Kinetic Kill Vehicle Integrated Technology Experiment (KITE). In September 1992, the US Army selected Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin) as prime contractor for THAAD development. Prior to development of a physical prototype, the Aero-Optical Effect (AOE) software code was developed to validate the intended operational profile of Lockheed's proposed design.
The first THAAD flight test occurred in April 1995, with all flight tests in the demonstration-validation (DEM-VAL) program phase occurring at White Sands Missile Range. The first six intercept attempts missed the target (Flights 4–9). The first successful intercepts were conducted on 10 June 1999 and 2 August 1999, against Hera missiles. Demonstration and validation Engineering and manufacturing In June 2000, Lockheed won the Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) contract to turn the design into a mobile tactical army fire unit. Flight tests of this system resumed with missile characterization and full system tests in 2006 at White Sands Missile Range, then moved to the Pacific Missile Range Facility.
The Interceptor was led through development and initial production by Tory Bruno, who later became CEO of United Launch Alliance. THAAD-ER Lockheed is pushing for funding for the development of an extended-range (ER) version of the THAAD to counter maturing threats posed by hypersonic glide vehicles that adversaries may deploy, namely the Chinese WU-14, to penetrate the gap between low- and high-altitude missile defenses. The company performed static fire trials of a modified THAAD booster in 2006 and continued to fund the project until 2008. The current -diameter single-stage booster design would be expanded to a first stage for greater range with a second "kick stage" to close the distance to the target and provide improved velocity at burnout and more lateral movement during an engagement.
Although the kill vehicle would not need redesign, the ground-based launcher would have only five missiles instead of eight. As of 2020, THAAD-ER is only an industry concept, but Lockheed believes that the Missile Defense Agency will show interest because of the weapons under development by potential adversaries. If funding for the THAAD-ER begins in 2020, a system could be produced by 2024 to provide an interim capability against a rudimentary hypersonic threat. The Pentagon is researching whether other technologies like directed energy weapons and railguns are better solutions for missile defense; these are expected to become available in the mid to late 2020s.
Production Sometimes called Kinetic Kill technology, the THAAD missile destroys missiles by colliding with them, using hit-to-kill technology, like the MIM-104 Patriot PAC-3 (although the PAC-3 also contains a small explosive warhead). This is unlike the Patriot PAC-2 which carried only an explosive warhead detonated using a proximity fuze. Although the actual figures are classified, THAAD missiles have an estimated range of 125 miles (200 km), and can reach an altitude of 93 miles (150 km). A THAAD battery consists of at least six launcher vehicles, each equipped with eight missiles, with two mobile tactical operations centers (TOCs) and the AN/TPY-2 ground-based radar (GBR); the U.S. Army plans to field at least six THAAD batteries, at a purchase cost of US$800 million per battery.
By September 2018 MDA plans to deliver 52 more interceptors to the Army. The THAAD missile is manufactured at a Lockheed Martin facility near Troy, Alabama. The facility performs final integration, assembly and testing of the THAAD missile. The THAAD Radar is an X-Band active electronically scanned array Radar developed and built by Raytheon at its Andover, Massachusetts Integrated Air Defense Facility. The THAAD radar and a variant developed as a forward sensor for ICBM missile defense, the Forward-Based X-Band – Transportable (FBX-T) radar, were assigned a common designator, AN/TPY-2, in late 2006/early 2007. The THAAD radar can interoperate with Aegis and Patriot systems, in a 3-layer antimissile defense.
First units equipped (FUE) On 28 May 2008, the U.S. Army activated Alpha Battery, 4th Air Defense Artillery Regiment (A-4), 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade at Fort Bliss, Texas. Battery A-4 is part of the 32nd Army Air & Missile Defense Command. At the time, the battery had 24 THAAD interceptors, three THAAD launchers based on the M1120 HEMTT Load Handling System, a THAAD Fire Control and a THAAD radar. Full fielding began in 2009. On 16 October 2009, the U.S. Army and the Missile Defense Agency activated the second Terminal High Altitude Area Defense Battery, Alpha Battery, 2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment (A-2), at Fort Bliss.
On 15 August 2012, Lockheed received a $150 million contract from the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) to produce THAAD Weapon System launchers and fire control and communications equipment for the U.S. Army. The contract included 12 launchers, two fire control and communications units, and support equipment. The contract provided six launchers for THAAD Battery 5 and an additional three launchers each to Batteries 1 and 2. These deliveries will bring all batteries to the standard six launcher configuration. General missile defense plans In May 2017, the Pentagon proposed spending $7.9 billion in its FY 2018 budget on missile defense which includes THAAD interceptors and Patriot interceptors, along with $1.5 billion for Ground-based Midcourse Defense (GMD) against intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Deployments Hawaii In June 2009, the United States deployed a THAAD unit to Hawaii, along with the SBX sea-based radar, to defend against a possible North Korean launch targeting the archipelago. Guam In April 2013, the United States declared that Alpha Battery, 4th Air Defense Artillery Regiment (A-4), would be deployed to Guam to defend against a possible North Korean IRBM attack targeting the island. In March 2014, Alpha Battery, 2nd ADA RGT (A-2), did a change of responsibility with A-4 and took over the Defense of Guam Mission. After a successful 12-month deployment by A-4, Delta 2 (D-2) took its place for a 12-month deployment.
In 2018-2019 Echo Battery, 3rd ADA Regiment (E-3) deployed to Guam. UAE The United Arab Emirates signed a deal to purchase the missile defense system on 25 December 2011. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) graduated its first two THAAD unit classes at Fort Bliss in 2015 and 2016. Its first live-fire exercises with Patriot missiles took place in 2014. Israel In March 2019, Bravo Battery, 2nd ADA Regiment (B-2 THAAD), 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade was deployed at Nevatim Airbase during a joint US-Israeli drill, after which it was to be moved to an undisclosed location in the Negev desert in southern Israel.
The X-Band radar system, which is part of the THAAD system, has been deployed at Nevatim since 2008. In 2012, the U.S. AN/TPY-2 early missile warning radar station on Mt. Keren in the Negev desert was the only active foreign military installation in Israel. Turkey According to U.S. officials the AN/TPY-2 radar was deployed at Turkey's Kürecik Air Force base. The radar was activated in January 2012. Romania In 2019, while the Aegis Ashore at NSF Deveselu is being upgraded, B Battery, 62nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment (B-62 THAAD), has emplaced in NSF Deveselu, Romania during the interim. Wake Island On 1 November 2015, a THAAD system was a key component of Campaign Fierce Sentry Flight Test Operational-02 Event 2 (FTO-02 E2), a complex $230 million missile defense system test event conducted at Wake Island and the surrounding ocean areas.
The objective was to test the ability of the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense and THAAD Weapon Systems to defeat a raid of three near-simultaneous air and missile targets, consisting of one medium-range ballistic missile, one short-range ballistic missile and one cruise missile target. During the test, a THAAD system on Wake Island detected and destroyed a short-range target simulating a short-range ballistic missile that was launched by parachute ejected from a C-17 transport plane. At the same time, the THAAD system and the USS John Paul Jones guided missile destroyer both launched missiles to intercept a medium-range ballistic missile, launched by parachute from a second C-17.
South Korea On 17 October 2013, the South Korean military asked the Pentagon to provide information on the THAAD system concerning prices and capabilities as part of efforts to strengthen defenses against North Korean ballistic missiles. However, South Korean Park Geun-hye administration decided it will develop its own indigenous long-range surface-to-air missile instead of buying the THAAD. South Korean Defense Ministry officials previously requested information on the THAAD, as well as other missile interceptors like the Israeli Arrow 3, with the intention of researching systems for domestic technology development rather than for purchase. Officials did however state that American deployment of the THAAD system would help in countering North Korean missile threats.
Later South Korea announced it would be deploying THAAD by the end of 2017. In May 2014, the Pentagon revealed it was studying sites to base THAAD batteries in South Korea. In February 2016, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi expressed concerns that deployment of THAAD in South Korea, despite being directed at North Korea, could jeopardize China's "legitimate national security interests" and in 2017 the Vice Chairman of China's Central Military Commission asserted to the Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff that deployment of THAAD around China was one of the factors which had a negative influence on "bilateral military ties and mutual trust."
The major controversy among Chinese officials is that they believe the purpose of the THAAD system, "which detects and intercepts incoming missiles at high altitudes, is actually to track missiles launched from China" not from North Korea. Chinese experts report that China is focused on the positioning of another THAAD radar system, this one on the Korean peninsula, for gleaning details about China's nuclear weapons delivery systems, such as THAAD's ability to distinguish which missiles might be carrying decoy warheads. Bruce W. Bennett pointed out that China has deployed an S-400 missile system to the Shandong peninsula, between Pyongyang and Beijing, which appears to be a defense against North Korean missiles.
In July 2016, American and South Korean military officials agreed to deploy the THAAD missile defense system in the country to counter North Korea's growing threats and use of ballistic missile and nuclear tests; each THAAD unit consists of six truck-mounted launchers, 48 interceptors, a fire control and communications unit, and an AN/TPY-2 radar. Seongju County in North Gyeongsang Province was chosen as a THAAD site, partly because it is out of range of North Korean rocket artillery along the DMZ. This sparked protests from Seongju County residents, who feared that radiation emitted by the AN/TPY-2 radar would impact their health, and damage the region's famed oriental melon crop.
On 30 September 2016, the U.S. and South Korea announced that THAAD would be relocated to Lotte Skyhill Seongju Country Club, farther from the town's main residential areas and higher in elevation, to alleviate concerns. On 6 March 2017, two THAAD launcher trucks arrived by air transport at Osan Air Base South Korea, for a deployment. Earlier that day, North Korea had launched 4 missiles. A Reuters article stated that with the THAAD defense system, a North Korean missile barrage would still pose a threat to South Korea, while an article in the International Journal of Space Politics & Policy said that South Korean forces already possess Patriot systems for point defense and Aegis destroyers capable of stopping ballistic missiles that may come from the north, in a three-layer antimissile defense for South Korea.
On 16 March 2017, a THAAD radar arrived in South Korea. The THAAD system is kept at Osan Air Base until the site where the system is due to be deployed is prepared, with an expected ready date of June 2017. Osan Air Base has blast-hardened command posts with 3 levels of blast doors. By 25 April 2017, six trailers carrying the THAAD radar, interceptor launchers, communications, and support equipment entered the Seongju site. On 30 April 2017, it was reported that South Korea would bear the cost of the land and facilities for THAAD, while the US will pay for operating it.
On 2 May 2017, Moon Sang-gyun, with the South Korean Defense Ministry and Col. Robert Manning III, a spokesman for the U.S. military announced that the THAAD system in Seongju is operational and "has the ability to intercept North Korean missiles and defend South Korea." It was reported that the system will not reach its full operational potential until later this year when additional elements of the system are onsite. On 7 June 2017 President Moon Jae-in suspended further THAAD deployment pending a review, after discovering four addition launchers had entered South Korea without the defense ministry informing him. The 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade (United States) has integrated THAAD into its layered defense on the Korean Peninsula, denoted Combined Task Force Defender, composed of both US and ROK personnel.
Even in the face of a North Korean ICBM test on 4 July 2017, which newly threatens Alaska, a Kodiak, Alaska-based THAAD interceptor test (FTT-18) against a simulated attack by an Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile had long been planned. FTT-18 was successfully completed by Battery A-2 THAAD (Battery A, 2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment, Terminal High Altitude Area Defense) of the 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade (United States) on 11 July 2017. The soldiers used the procedures of an actual combat scenario and were not aware of the IRBM's launch time. Also in 2017 another Kodiak launch of a THAAD interceptor was scheduled between 7:30PM and 1:30AM on Saturday 29 July, Sunday 30 July, or Monday 31 July, at alternative times, in preparation for a possible ICBM test by North Korea.
On 28 July 2017 North Korea launched a test ICBM capable of reaching Los Angeles. In response, President Moon Jae-in called for deployment of the four remaining THAAD launchers which were put on hold when he came to power. Lee Jong-kul, of South Korean President Moon Jae-in's Democratic Party of Korea states "The nuclear and missile capabilities of North Korea…have been upgraded to pose serious threats; the international cooperation system to keep the North in check has been nullified...", citing tensions over the U.S. deployment of the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-missile system in South Korea. The Atlantic Council, in the June 2017 memorandum "Eliminating the Growing Threat Posed by North Korean Nuclear Weapons" to President Trump, recommends a checklist of actions, including the following declarations to North Korea.
No use of WMDs, or it will result in a unified Korea under Seoul after the North's assured destruction. No export of nuclear equipment or fissile material; it will be intercepted, and the US will respond. No missile or missile test aimed at ROK (South Korea), Japan, or the US; it can then be shot down or pre-empted. On 30 July 2017, a Kodiak-sited THAAD interceptor shot down an MRBM which launched over the Pacific Ocean, the 15th successful test; the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) director emphasized the data collection from the intercept, which enhances the modelling and scenario simulation capabilities of the MDA.
John Schilling estimates the current accuracy of the North's Hwasong-14 as poor at the mooted ranges which threaten US cities (which would require more testing to prove its accuracy). On 11 August 2017, The New York Times reviewed the anti-missile options that are available to counter a planned salvo of four Hwasong-12 missiles, were they to be launched in mid-August 2017 from the North, and aimed to land just outside the territorial waters of Guam, a distance of 2100 miles, flying at altitudes exceeding 62 miles, in a flight of 1065 seconds. These options for the missile defense of South Korea include "sea-based, Patriots and THAAD" according to General John E. Hyten, commander of U.S. Strategic Command.
On 2 September 2017, the North Korean news agency KCNA released a photograph of an elongated payload, intended to fit in the warhead of one of its missiles. On 3 September 2017 both Japan's Foreign Ministry and the South Korean Joint Chiefs announced the detection of a magnitude 6.3 seismic event, centered near Punggye-ri, which is North Korea's underground nuclear test site. Japan's Foreign Ministry has concluded that the event was the North's sixth nuclear test. Choe Sang-hun of the New York Times reports that the test was a major embarrassment for China's president Xi Jinping, who was hosting a BRICS summit (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) in Xiamen, China.
Cheng Xiaohe, an expert on North Korea at China's Renmin University, said the timing of the test appears to be deliberate. China's Foreign Ministry urged the North to "stop taking wrong actions", and agreed that further UN actions are needed to resolve the impending crisis. By creating a thermonuclear-capable payload for at least one of its missiles, the North has created a need for THAAD, which is capable of intercepting ICBM threats at the lower altitudes and ranges estimated for a Hwasong-14 ICBM subjected to the load of a heavier warhead needed to carry a thermonuclear weapon. On 4 September 2017, BBC analyst Jonathan Marcus predicted a flood of several million refugees at the border of North Korea and China, were the North to be destroyed.
China has positioned only two brigades at the border. Marcus points out that China and Russia have proposed the de-nuclearization of Korea and the replacement of the armistice with a peace treaty. On 25 October 2017, Battery D, 2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment, Terminal High Altitude Area Defense, reflagged with the 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade in preparation for a permanent change of station to South Korea. In the interim before THAAD D-2's permanent transfer to South Korea with their families, THAAD Battery A-4 will deploy to South Korea. On 30 October 2017, South Korea and China agreed to normalize relations, which had rifted due to THAAD deployment.
Controversy Several communities outside of the U.S. have opposed the rollout of THAAD-type systems mostly about the pricing of the systems, such as Poland. Some critics have indicated that the rollout of THAAD along the former Iron Curtain and around China is not consistent with the stated goals of the rollout. In Korea there have been public protests against the THAAD system 2017 Korean deployment decision Korean decision to deploy THAAD to protect itself against North Korea have caused backlash and retaliation measures from China. Future deployments: firm orders and possible plans Europe and the Middle East By March 2016, Army Space and Missile Defense Command was considering THAAD deployments to Europe with EUCOM and the Middle East with CENTCOM.
Oman On 27 May 2013, Oman announced a deal for the acquisition of the THAAD air defense system. However, a sale has not been announced. Saudi Arabia On 6 October 2017, the US has reached a deal to provide Saudi Arabia with THAAD in a deal worth $15 billion. Seven fire units each with a Raytheon AN/TPY-2 radar, two mobile tactical stations (with two spares for a total of 16), and six launchers (with two spares for a total of 44), 360 interceptor missiles. Japan In November 2015, Japanese Defense Minister Gen Nakatani said he would consider the U.S. deploying the THAAD in Japan to counter the threat of North Korean ballistic missiles.
By October 2016, Japan was considering procuring either THAAD or Aegis Ashore to add a new missile defense layer. In May 2017 it was reported that Japan government officials now favor the Aegis Ashore system as it comes with a wider coverage area, which would mean fewer units needed to protect Japan, and it is also cheaper. At the Center for a New American Security 2017 conference, citing publicly available sources and simulations of strikes against US bases in Asia, two Navy Fellows, Commanders Shugart and Gonzalez, USN noted that two more Patriot batteries, two more Aegis ships, and five more THAAD batteries would counter China's published SRBM (short-range) and MRBM (medium-range) capabilities against Japan.
Russia fears that the US will have access to the management of Aegis Ashore missile defense complexes after their deployment in Japan. Russia has data that missile defense systems will have shock capabilities. "We do not know of any cases anywhere in the world when the United States deployed its weapons and transferred control over them to the country in whose territory it all happened." I very much doubt that they will make an exception and in this case, "- concluded the Russian Foreign Minister. Taiwan A Hong Kong–based media report has claimed that THAAD could be deployed in Taiwan to intercept People's Republic of China missiles.
However, Taiwan's Foreign Minister, David Lee, has said he is unaware of any talks with the US about possible deployment. Local military experts have said that it was neither necessary, nor affordable for Taiwan to deploy THAAD because China is threatening Taiwan with short-range missiles, whereas THAAD is designed to shoot down medium and long-range missiles.
The Minister of National Defense, Feng Shih-kuan, said in March 2017 that he was firmly opposed to the deployment of a THAAD system in Taiwan although comments made by Feng's deputy minister Cheng De-mei during a Foreign Affairs and National Defense Committee Q&A session that was held in April 2017 in which he said that Taiwan did not need a THAAD system in the short term because its US-made phased-array radar system at Hsinchu County’s Leshan base was on par with the THAAD system in terms of detection capability was described as "in slight contrast with Minister of National Defense Feng Shih-kuan’s last month."
It was reported that Freddy Lim urged the ministry during the same Q&A session "to procure whatever is necessary to ensure the nation’s defense capabilities, which could not be compromised due to China’s pressure." Taiwan's tracking data from its early warning system, built by the manufacturer of the THAAD radar, can serve to counter China's missile launches. In response, a retired Chinese general Wang Hongguang warned that if Taiwan were to start deploying THAAD systems then the People's Liberation Army would start the process to conquer Taiwan.
See also Arrow (Israeli missile) HQ-19, developed by China Prithvi Defence Vehicle - Indian high altitude anti-ballistic missile system M1120 HEMTT Load Handling System (launcher) NASAMS, developed by Norway, in use by Spain and US S-300VM, developed by Russia S-400 missile system, developed by Russia S-500 missile system, under development by Russia Taiwan Sky Bow Ballistic Missile Defense System L-SAM High Endoatmospheric Defense Interceptor References External links Lockheed Martin THAAD web page MDA THAAD page THAAD program details THAAD program history on, designation-systems.net TPY-2 X-band Radar on Missile Threat CSIS site DEM-VAL and EMD testing THAAD First Successful Intercept, 10 June 1999 THAAD Second Successful Intercept, 2 August 1999 THAAD Equipment Arrives in Hawaii, 18 October 2006 Successful THAAD Radar Target Tracking Test, 8 March 2007 THAAD Radar Supports Successful Aegis BMD Intercept, 22 June 2007 Category:Missile Defense Agency Category:Missile defense Category:Anti-aircraft warfare Category:Anti-ballistic missiles of the United States Category:Surface-to-air missiles of the United States Category:Lockheed Martin Category:Boeing Category:Honeywell Category:BAE Systems Category:Raytheon Category:Rocketdyne
The articular disk is a thin, oval plate, which is made from fibrous connective tissue, non vascular, placed between the condyle of the mandible and the mandibular fossa. Its upper surface is concavo-convex from before backward, to accommodate itself to the form of the mandibular fossa and the articular tubercle. Its under surface, in contact with the condyle, is concave. Its circumference is connected to the articular capsule; and in front to the tendon of the Pterygoideus externus. It is thicker at its periphery, especially behind, than at its center. The fibers of which it is composed have a concentric arrangement, more apparent at the circumference than at the center.
It divides the joint into two cavities, each of which is furnished with a synovial membrane. Attachments of Disc: Anterior portion of the disc attaches inferiorly to the anterior condyle and superiorly to the eminence by bending with the joint capsule Posteriorly, the disc attaches superiorly to the temporal bone and inferiorly to the posterior condyle (the posterior attachments are frequently called the bilaminar zone). Laterally and medially, the disc attachments blend into the joint capsule near its attachment to the condylar head See also Articular disk Temporomandibular joint#Capsule and articular disc References Further reading Category:Bones of the head and neck Category:Muscles of the head and neck
The Florida mouse (Podomys floridanus) is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is the only species in the genus Podomys, which is the only mammal genus endemic to Florida. The Florida mouse (also known as the big-eared deermouse, the Florida deermouse, and the gopher mouse) is found only in a limited area in central peninsular Florida and in one small area in the Florida panhandle. The mouse inhabits some of Florida's hottest and driest areas in the high pinelands, sandhills, flatlands, and coastal scrub. The mouse is an omnivore, measures in total length, has relatively large ears, and displays brown to orange upperparts and white underparts.
The mouse breeds throughout the year, and raises its two or three young per litter in the nesting chambers and passages it constructs in the burrow of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus). Real estate development and a decline in the gopher tortoise population threaten the mouse's future. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Description The Florida mouse displays a soft and silky pelage, brown above and orange on the cheeks, shoulders, and lower sides. Underparts are white. The young are gray. The species has a skunk-like odor. The mouse has relatively large, nearly naked ears (16 mm long or more), a relatively short tail approximately 80% of total body length, and large hind feet (24 mm long or more) with five, rather than the usual six, plantar tubercles.
There is no difference in appearance between males and females. The mouse looks like Peromyscus, and was once placed as a monotypic subgenus in the genus Peromyscus The greater size and distinctive coloration of Podomys floridanus distinguish it from the cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus) and oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), which also occur in Florida. In 1973, a biochemical polymorphism study was conducted in four sample areas of the species. Electrophoretically demonstrable variation was found in one or more populations at 15 of 39 (38%) of the loci examined, and two and sometimes three alleles per locus were detected. At the least, the findings give an indication of the kind of genetic variation that may be found between populations within a species.
The amount of variation was similar to findings in examinations of Peromyscus polionotus, Sigmodon, and Dipodomys. Average measurements reported in 1993 of 30 adults were: total length ; tail ; hind foot ; ear . The diploid number is 48 and dentition 1/1 0/0 0/0 3/3 total 16. Taxonomy The mouse was first described by Frank Chapman in 1889 in a paper in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, from a specimen collected at Gainesville, Florida. The species was named as a separate subgenus of Peromyscus by Wilfred Hudson Osgood in 1909, but generic recognition was disputed in the 1980s.
Michael Carleton and Guy Musser supported the ranking in 1993. No subspecies have been described. Distribution and habitat Podomys is the only mammal genus endemic only to Florida. The Florida mouse is found coast to coast in central peninsular Florida. An isolated population is found in the Florida panhandle at Franklin County, Florida. The species occurs from north-central Florida south to Highlands County and Sarasota County. It is found along the Atlantic coast from St. Johns County south to Miami-Dade County. The mouse inhabits some of Florida's driest locations. It is common in the sand pine (Pinus clausa) scrub and the high pinelands of turkey oak (Quercus laevis) and longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), and is found in the slash pine (Pinus elliottii) and turkey oak habitat of the southern ridge sandhills, and in scrubby flatlands, and in coastal scrub associations.
Home ranges average roughly , and are smaller in the flatlands. Populations are greater in the scrub and flatlands than in the highlands. Its largest populations may occur within Ocala National Forest and the scrubs along Lake Wales Ridge. Behavior The Florida mouse is nocturnal, and is active throughout the year except on especially cold nights. The mouse can climb, but is primarily a terrestrial species. In laboratory experiments, P. floridanus used its forepaws to dig and throw substrate backwards while other species mainly used their hindfeet to do the same. Shelter The Florida mouse has been called the gopher mouse because it shares the long, deep burrow of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus).
The mouse makes nest chambers, small side passages, sometimes a pad of oak leaves and wiregrasses for chamber floors, and small chimney openings in the roof of the burrow. It uses these openings, the main entrance, and side passages for entrance to and exit from the burrow. In the absence of gopher tortoise burrows, the mouse will use those of the oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus) or will make its own. Diet The Florida mouse is an omnivore and its diet consists of acorns when available, insects, seeds, nuts, fungi, and other plant material and vertebrates. A 1987 report indicates the mouse feeds on engorged ticks (Ornithodorus turicata americanus) that parasitize gopher frogs (Rana areolata) and gopher tortoises.
Reproduction Florida mice breed throughout the year with a peak between July and December, a lesser peak in January and February, and a lull or cessation in April and May. Unlike most murids, copulatory behavior lacks intravaginal thrusting, the intromission thrust is more intense than the dismount, there is no lock, and ejaculation occurs with every thrust. Gestation is about 23 or 24 days. The mice dig side burrows off the main burrow of the gopher tortoise, line them with shredded plant material, and use them as nurseries. In eight litters of young conceived in the wild but born in the laboratory, litter size numbers varied from two to four for an average of 3.1 per litter.
The young are born in nests in the burrow. Newborn weigh and measure in total length ; tail length ; and hind foot length . Teeth begin appearing on the fourth day, the young are active and agile about the 10th day, and the eyes open about the 16th day. Nursing is virtually non-stop for the first two weeks of life. Weaning occurs at three to four weeks, and the young display adult behavior at this time. Survival Ectoparasites are seven species of mites, five ticks, five fleas, a louse, and the subdermal botfly larva, Cuterebra. Known endoparasites are three species of protozoans found in fecal smears, one trematode, four cestodes, seven nematodes, and nymphal pentastomids found in various internal organs.
In 2010, exact population size was unknown, but estimated to be in the several thousands and decreasing. Presumed predators are snakes, birds of prey, bobcats, raccoons, and foxes. A high number of shortened tails have been observed in the mice and a modified integument in the tail facilitates tail loss, probably as an anti-predator mechanism. Few wild individuals have a lifespan of over a year, though captive individuals may live for several years. One captive male lived seven years, four months. Relations with humans and conservation The species in all probability has little or no direct impact or influence on human interests and concerns but agricultural and real estate development are a threat to the species' very narrow habitat.
Collecting specimens in the dry ridges is complicated by the millions of ants which eat the bait in the trap the moment it is set on the ground. Live collecting is the alternative, but the bait is usually digested by the time the animal is taken from the trap, making food research difficult if not impossible. As early as 1998, the Florida mouse was a federal C2 candidate taxon, and considered Threatened by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals. The mouse was named a Species of Special Concern by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission.
The Florida mouse inhabits a restricted habitat in the United States and that habitat is threatened not only by agricultural and real estate development but by wildfire suppression. Habitat decline is expected to continue into the future. The mouse is dependent upon gopher tortoise burrows, but disease and habitat loss are responsible for decline in the tortoise population. Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) threaten both tortoise and mouse populations. The IUCN has listed the species as Vulnerable and recommends further study of the species, maintenance of viable populations of gopher tortoises, and the preservation and management of suitable habitat for the species.
The mouse is protected on several conservation lands across central Florida. Occurrences of the Florida mouse are protected at Archbold Biological Station, Ocala National Forest, and others. References Footnotes Literature cited Category:Mammals described in 1889 Mouse Category:Mammals of the United States Category:Neotominae Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot Category:Taxa named by Frank Chapman (ornithologist)
The Union Pacific Railroad , legally Union Pacific Railroad Company and simply Union Pacific, is a freight-hauling railroad that operates 8,300 locomotives over routes in 23 U.S. states west of Chicago and New Orleans. The Union Pacific Railroad system is the second largest in the United States after BNSF and is one of the world's largest transportation companies. The Union Pacific Railroad is the principal operating company of the Union Pacific Corporation, both headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska. The president of Union Pacific since 2015 is Lance Fritz. Founded in 1862, the original Union Pacific Rail Road was part of the First Transcontinental Railroad project, later known as the Overland Route.
The railroad was absorbed by the Union Pacific Railway in 1880, which was absorbed by the Union Pacific Railroad in 1897. Over the next century, UP absorbed the Missouri Pacific Railroad, the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company, the Western Pacific Railroad, the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad. In 1998, the Union Pacific merged with Southern Pacific Transportation Company, itself a giant system that was absorbed by the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad maintaining the Southern Pacific name. Today, Union Pacific and its chief competitor, BNSF Railway, the nation's largest freight railroad by volume, have a duopoly on transcontinental freight rail lines in the western United States.
History Union Pacific in the 19th century The original company, the Union Pacific Rail Road was incorporated on July 1, 1862, under an act of Congress entitled Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. The act was approved by President Abraham Lincoln, and it provided for the construction of railroads from the Missouri River to the Pacific as a war measure for the preservation of the Union. It was constructed westward from Council Bluffs, Iowa to meet the Central Pacific Railroad line, which was constructed eastward from Sacramento, California. The combined Union Pacific–Central Pacific line became known as the First Transcontinental Railroad and later the Overland Route.
The line was constructed primarily by Irish labor who had learned their craft during the recent Civil War. Under the guidance of its dominant stockholder Dr. Thomas Clark Durant, the namesake of the city of Durant, Iowa, the first rails were laid in Omaha. The two lines were joined together at Promontory Summit, Utah, west of Ogden on May 10, 1869, hence creating the first transcontinental railroad in North America.Subsequently, the UP purchased three Mormon-built roads: the Utah Central Railroad extending south from Ogden to Salt Lake City, the Utah Southern Railroad extending south from Salt Lake City into the Utah Valley, and the Utah Northern Railroad extending north from Ogden into Idaho.
The original UP was entangled in the Crédit Mobilier scandal, exposed in 1872. As detailed by The Sun, Union Pacific's largest construction company, Crédit Mobilier, had overcharged Union Pacific; these costs had then been passed on to the United States government. In order to convince the federal government to accept the increased costs, Crédit Mobilier had bribed congressmen. Several prominent UP board members (including Durant) had been involved in the scheme. The ensuing financial crisis of 1873 led to a credit crunch, but not bankruptcy. As boom followed bust, the Union Pacific continued to expand. The original company was purchased by a new company on January 24, 1880, with dominant stockholder Jay Gould.
Gould already owned the Kansas Pacific (originally called the Union Pacific, Eastern Division, though in essence a separate railroad), and sought to merge it with UP. Thusly was the original "Union Pacific Rail Road" transformed into "Union Pacific Railway." Extending towards the Pacific Northwest, Union Pacific built or purchased local lines that gave it access to Portland, Oregon. Towards Colorado, it built the Union Pacific, Denver and Gulf Railway: both narrow gauge trackage into the heart of the Rockies and a standard gauge line that ran south from Denver, across New Mexico, and into Texas. The Union Pacific Railway would later declare bankruptcy during the Panic of 1893.
Again, a new Union Pacific "Railroad" was formed and Union Pacific "Railway" merged into the new corporation. Union Pacific in the 20th century In the early 20th century, Union Pacific's focus shifted from expansion to internal improvement. Recognizing that farmers in the Central and Salinas Valleys of California grew produce far in excess of local markets, Union Pacific worked with its rival Southern Pacific to develop a rail-based transport system that was not vulnerable to spoilage. These efforts came culminated in the 1906 founding of Pacific Fruit Express, soon to be the world's largest lessee of refrigerated railcars. Meanwhile, Union Pacific worked to construct a faster, and more direct substitute for the original climb to Promontory Point.
In 1904, the Lucin cutoff opened, reducing curvature and grades. The original route would eventually be stripped of track in 1942 to provide war scrap. To attract customers during the Great Depression, Union Pacific's chairman W. Averell Harriman simultaneously sought to "spruce up" the quality of its rolling stock and to make its unique locations more desirable travel destinations. The first effort resulted in the purchase of the first streamlined train: the M-10000. The latter resulted in the Sun Valley ski resort in central Idaho; it opened in 1936 and finally was sold in 1964. Despite the fact that the M-10000 and its successors were among the first diesel locomotives, Union Pacific completed dieselization relatively late.
In 1944, UP finally received delivery of its last steam locomotive: Union Pacific 844. As the 20th century waned, Union Pacific recognized—like most railroads—that remaining a regional road could only lead to bankruptcy. At the close of December 31, 1925, UP and its subsidiaries had operated routes and tracks; in 1980, these numbers had remained roughly constant (9,266 route-miles and 15,647 track-miles). But in 1982, UP acquired the Missouri Pacific and Western Pacific railroads, and 1988, the Missouri–Kansas–Texas. By 1993, Union Pacific had doubled its system to routes. By then, few large (class I) railroads remained. The same year that Union Pacific merged with the Chicago and North Western (1995), Burlington Northern and ATSF announced plans to merge.
The impending BNSF amalgamation would leave one mega-railroad in control of the west. In order to compete, UP quickly merged with Southern Pacific, thereby incorporating D&RGW and Cotton Belt, and forming a duopoly in the West. The merged railroad took the Union Pacific name. Facilities The Union Pacific system includes hundreds of yards. Most are flat yards used for local switching. Other types of yards include intermodal terminals and hump yards. Intermodal terminals are typically ports, but UP also has terminals inland for trucks, such as the terminal in San Antonio that opened in 2009. Active yards Union Pacific's active hump yards as of 2006 include: Albina Yard in Portland, Oregon, present since 1881.
Bailey Yard in North Platte, Nebraska Beaumont Yard in Beaumont, Texas Davidson Yard in Fort Worth, Texas Davis Yard in Roseville, California Englewood Yard in Houston, Texas Gateway Yard in East St Louis, Illinois, owned by subsidiary Alton and Southern Railway Livonia Yard in Livonia, Louisiana North Little Rock Yard in North Little Rock, Arkansas Proviso Yard in Northlake, Illinois, owned by Chicago and North Western Transportation Company until 1995 Strang Yard in La Porte, Texas West Colton Yard in Bloomington, California In the late 2010's hump yards were being deactivated in favor of flat switching. "“Hump yards are very complicated and expensive and work when you’re bringing things in from lots of directions,” ... “The more you do preblocking, the more you don’t need the complexity-solving machine that is a hump yard.”" The Neff Yard Kansas City, Hinkle, Oregon, and Pine Bluff, Arkansas, facilities were closed in 2019.
Locomotives and rolling stock Union Pacific has owned some of the most powerful locomotives. These include members of the Challenger-type (including the 3985), and the Northern-type (including the 844), as well as the Big Boy steam locomotives (including the 4014). Union Pacific ordered the first (diesel) streamliner, the largest fleet of turbine-electric locomotives in the world, and still owns the largest operational diesel locomotive (the 6936). Paint and colors UP's basic paint scheme for its diesel-electric locomotives is the oldest still in use by a major railroad. The middle two-thirds of the locomotive body is painted Armour Yellow, a color used by Armour and Company on the packaging of its meat products.
A thin band of Signal Red divides this from the Harbor Mist Gray (a light gray) used for the body and roof above that point. There is also a thin band of Signal Red along the bottom of the locomotive body, but this color has gradually become yellow as new Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) regulations for reflectorized tape came into effect in 2005; the trucks, underframe, fuel tanks and everything else beneath that line are also Harbor Mist Gray. Lettering and numbering are in Signal Red, with black outlines. Some locomotives have white-outlined blue "wings" on the nose, on either side of the renowned shield featuring white lettering on a blue background and, below it, red and white vertical stripes.
Beginning in early 2002, a number of units were repainted with a large, billowing American flag with the corporate motto "Building America" on the side, where the 'UNION PACIFIC' lettering is normally positioned. The Armour Yellow livery was first introduced on the UP's M-10000 streamliner train in 1934, although Leaf Brown was used instead of Harbor Mist Grey. The steam locomotive fleet had different paint schemes. Merger partner locomotives Until 2017, UP operated some locomotives still in the former railroads' paint. In addition, some locomotives were renumbered by UP, varying in the degree of the previous railroads' logos being eradicated, but always with a yellow patch applied over the locomotive's former number and a new UP number applied on the cab.
This allowed UP to number locomotives into its roster without spending the time and money necessary to perform a complete repaint. In May 2015, UP rostered 212 "patches", consisting of: 22 Chicago and North Western (whose CNW logos have been hidden by the "patches"), 174 Southern Pacific (AC4400CW, GP40-2, MP15AC, and GP60) 14 St. Louis Southwestern (GP60) 2 Denver and Rio Grande Western (GP60) While not technically a predecessor locomotive in the traditional sense, UP also rostered a single SD40-2 (3564) still in the 1970s paint scheme, not counting DDA40X No. 6936, which is part of the Union Pacific Heritage Fleet.
In 2017, Union Pacific decided to repaint all locomotives not in the current corporate colors. , only 41 locomotives remained unpainted. Commemorative color schemes From the second half of 2005 to the summer of 2006, UP unveiled a new set of six EMD SD70ACe locomotives in "Heritage Colors," painted in schemes reminiscent of railroads acquired by the Union Pacific Corporation since the 1980s. The engine numbers match the year that the predecessor railroad became part of the Union Pacific system. The locomotives commemorate the Missouri Pacific with UP 1982, the Western Pacific with UP 1983, the Missouri–Kansas–Texas with UP 1988, the Chicago and North Western with UP 1995, the Southern Pacific with UP 1996, and the Denver and Rio Grande Western with UP 1989.
In October 2005, UP unveiled SD70ACe 4141, commissioned in honor of George Bush. The locomotive has "George Bush 41" on the sides and its paint scheme resembles that of Air Force One. It was sent into storage in 2007, but returned in 2018 to power Bush's funeral train. It was donated to the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum in November 8, 2019. On March 31, 2010, UP dedicated a specially painted GE ES44AC locomotive commemorating the centennial of the Boy Scouts of America. On September 28, 2010, UP dedicated a specially painted GE ES44AC locomotive, as a tribute to Susan G. Komen for the Cure.
On October 19, 2017, Union Pacific unveiled SD70AH 1943, "The Spirit of the Union Pacific", which is painted in a scheme to honor the United States armed forces. On June 6, 2019, Union Pacific unveiled SD70ACe 1111, the "Powered By Our People" unit. UP also has a collection of locomotives painted for Operation Lifesaver. 2013 locomotive roster As of October 2013, the Union Pacific had 8,185 locomotives on its active roster. The locomotive fleet consists of 43 different models and had an average age of 17.8 years. According to Union Pacific, this is the largest fleet of diesel-electric locomotives in the US.
"Train Pride" equipment Union Pacific continues to use a small number of "heritage" steam locomotives and early streamlined diesel locomotives. This equipment is used on special charters. Union Pacific also maintains a single DDA40X locomotive, the most powerful diesel locomotive in the world. Low-emissions locomotives Union Pacific maintains an extensive fleet of low-emissions locomotives. The majority of these locomotives have been purchased via grants from the US federal government, via the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program. Most are used in Los Angeles basin rail yards, to satisfy an air quality agreement with the local authorities. Facts and figures According to UP's 2007 Annual Report to Investors, at the end of 2007 it had more than 50,000 employees, 8,721 locomotives, and 94,284 freight cars.
Broken down by specific type of car, owned and leased: 35,437 covered hoppers 12,272 boxcars 18,647 open-top hoppers 13,780 gondolas 14,148 "other" types of cars In addition, it owns 6,950 different pieces of maintenance of way work equipment. At the end of 2007, the average age of UP's locomotive fleet was 14.8 years, the freight car fleet 28 years. UP was ranked 134th on the 2019 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue and had 41,967 employees. Union Pacific has been rated the worst company to work for in 2019 by 247wallst.com, citing CEO Lance Fritz's 12% approval rating and the 22% recommendation rating from Glassdoor.com Passenger service , Union Pacific does not provide regularly-scheduled intercity passenger services.
Commuter services When Union Pacific merged with Chicago & Northwestern, it inherited C&NW's commuter rail services in the Chicago metropolitan area: Metra's UP/North, UP/Northwest, and UP/West lines, all of which operate from the Ogilvie Transportation Center (the former North Western Station–a name still used by many Chicago residents). In order to ensure uniformity across the Chicago area commuter rail system, trains are branded as Metra services and use Metra equipment. However, Union Pacific crews continue to operate the trains under a purchase-of-service agreement. Former services Between 1869 and 1971, Union Pacific operated passenger service throughout its historic "Overland Route." The last passenger train operated by UP was the westbound City of Los Angeles, arriving at LA Union Station on May 2.
Since then, Union Pacific has satisfied its common carrier requirements by hosting Amtrak trains (see § Hosted Amtrak trains).
Named passenger trains once operated by Union Pacific include the following: Butte Special (operated between Salt Lake City and Butte, Montana) Challenger (operated jointly with the Chicago and North Western Railway until October 1955, and thereafter the Milwaukee Road) City of Denver (operated jointly with the Chicago and North Western Railway until October 1955, and thereafter the Milwaukee Road) City of Las Vegas; later, the Las Vegas Holiday Special (1956–1967) City of Los Angeles (operated jointly with the Chicago and North Western Railway until October 1955, and thereafter the Milwaukee Road) City of Portland (operated jointly with the Chicago and North Western Railway until October 1955, and thereafter the Milwaukee Road) City of Salina (1934–1940) City of San Francisco (operated jointly with the Chicago and North Western Railway and the Southern Pacific Railroad; after October, 1955 the Milwaukee Road assumed operation of the Chicago-Omaha leg of the service) City of St. Louis Columbine (in service to Chicago and Denver, beginning in the 1920s) Forty-Niner (operated between Chicago and Oakland) Gold Coast (operated between Chicago and Oakland/Los Angeles) Idahoan (operated between Cheyenne and Portland) Los Angeles Limited (in service 1905) Overland Flyer; renamed the Overland Limited in 1890 (1887–1963) Pacific Limited (operated between Chicago and Ogden, Utah where it was split to serve Los Angeles and San Francisco, beginning in 1913.
It was combined with the Portland Rose in 1947.) Pony Express (operated between Kansas City and Los Angeles 1926–1954) Portland Rose (in service between Chicago and Portland, beginning in the 1920s) San Francisco Overland (originally operated between Chicago and Oakland, later terminated only at St. Louis) Spokane (operated between Spokane and Portland) Utahn (operated between Cheyenne and Los Angeles) Yellowstone Special (operated between Pocatello, Idaho and West Yellowstone, Montana) Hosted Amtrak trains Many Amtrak routes use Union Pacific rails, including: Amtrak Cascades California Zephyr Capitol Corridor Coast Starlight Lincoln Service Missouri River Runner Pacific Surfliner San Joaquin Sunset Limited Texas Eagle Notable accidents 21st century September 4, 2007: a Union Pacific train derailment split the small town of Sergeant Bluff, Iowa.
About 16 cars derailed, most carrying salt that spilled into snow-like piles. The derailment interrupted traffic for about two hours. June 24, 2012: three crew members died and caused a property damage of $15 million when two Union Pacific trains collided head-on just east of Goodwell, Oklahoma. The eastbound train passed a stop signal on the main track and struck the westbound train in a siding about east of the meeting point. The NTSB provided the probable causes as eastbound train's operator's vision problems and failure by the conductor to get backup assistance as required. NTSB stated UP did not comply with its own policies when it medically recertified the operator.
The company only had six color tests despite the policy requiring a color test for 10 signals. November 15, 2012: A UP train struck a parade float in Midland, Texas, killing four U.S. military veterans. May 25, 2013: in Chaffee, Missouri, a Union Pacific train collided with a BNSF train at a level junction, injuring seven, and causing damages exceeding $10 million. The accident caused a Missouri Route M overpass to partially collapse and caused a fire. The investigation concluded the engineer most likely fell asleep, due to sleep apnea. The uncontrolled train violated four progressively more restrictive signals before colliding with the BNSF train at roughly .
Three months later, the Route M overpass reopened with a new design. June 3, 2016: a 96-car oil train derailed in the Columbia River Gorge near Mosier, Oregon. Eleven cars derailed, at least one caught on fire, and of Bakken crude oil spilled, some going into the Columbia River. Some were eventually recovered. September 7, 2019: a Union Pacific train of two locomotives and three tank cars carrying liquefied petroleum gas derailed and crashed into an overpass support column at the Albina Yard in Portland, Oregon The support column is for the eastbound lanes of the six-lane Going Street overpass, which is the only public access to the major industrial area Swan Island for passenger vehicles and delivery vehicles.
The crash left just two lanes safe to use until repairs can be made, which is speculated to take weeks to months. Two of six lanes remain closed as of November 14th, 2019. The preliminary cause of crash as provided by Union Pacific is "broken rails". There was nobody on board the train which was remotely operated at the time of crash. A ship builder Vigor with 900 employees on the Swan Island had to adjust employee shift to stagger commute time as a result of traffic delays. San Antonio area On June 28, 2004, a UP train collided with an idle BNSF train in a San Antonio suburb.
In the course of the derailment, a 90-ton tank car carrying liquified chlorine was punctured. As the chlorine vaporized, a toxic "yellow cloud" formed, killing three and causing 43 hospitalizations. The costs of cleanup and property damaged during the incident exceeded $7 million. Investigations of the Macdona incident revealed several serious safety lapses on the part of the Union Pacific and its employees, including employees not following the company's own safety rules. While the immediate cause of the derailment was the UP crew's "fatigue," chlorine tank cars had been improperly placed near the front of the train, a danger in the case of derailment.
The Macdona incident was not the first derailment in the San Antonio area. Between May and November 1994, Union Pacific trains derailed five times, killing at least 4 people. Between June 2004 and March 2005, 10 trains derailed, killing as many people. In the aftermath of Macdona, the Federal Railroad Administration signed a compliance agreement with the railroad in which the railroad promised to rectify the "notable deficiencies" that regulators found. But the relative impunity UP seemed to exhibit regarding the derailment led to suggestions that the FRA was far "too cozy...to the railroads." In March 2005, Texas Governor Rick Perry supported a plan to reroute trains around large urban population centers in Texas, including San Antonio, but such a plan was purely voluntary and had no timetable associated.
Trains have continued to derail in the area including an incident in June 2009 where tank cars containing chlorine and petroleum naptha xylene derailed, but did not spill. Community responsibility Transient camp and graffiti issues The City of San Jose, California threatened Union Pacific with a lawsuit in 2019 after years of complaints about transient and graffiti blight going unaddressed. For the first time in many years, Union Pacific cleaned out along the tracks starting in November 2019. San Jose Councilman Sergio Jimenez said “The reality is that Union Pacific has not been a good neighbor,” San Jose's mayor Sam Liccardo said"At any given conference of mayors, you won’t hear anyone expressing confidence that Union Pacific will respond nimbly or collaboratively," and "But we are hopeful that the (memorandum of understanding) will turn a page on Union Pacific’s behavior in the past to enable a more collaborative relationship going forward.
"The Mercury News reports that company has been uncooperative and non responsive to working together, such as failing to come through with graffiti abatement as Union Pacific had promised the city. Environmental record In Eugene, Oregon, where pollution from a century-old railroad yard has been seeping into groundwater, the UP and the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality launched a study of ground contamination in 2008. The pollutants are mostly petroleum hydrocarbons, industrial solvents, and metals. In 2007, Union Pacific Railroad worked with the US EPA to develop a way to reduce locomotive exhaust emissions. They discovered that adding an oxidation catalyst filtering canister to the diesel engine's exhaust manifold and using ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuel would reduce particulate emissions by about half, unburned hydrocarbons by 38 percent, and carbon monoxide by 82 percent.
The company's Fuel Master program rewards locomotive engineers who save the most fuel each month. The program has saved the company millions of dollars, much of which has been returned to the engineers. In 2006, the program's founder, Wayne Kennedy, received the John H. Chafee Environmental Award, and the program was recognized by Transportation Secretary Norman Mineta. In January 2018, a former waste water operator at Union Pacific Albina Yard in Portland, Oregon employed by the railroad's contractor Mott MacDonald negligently released thousands of gallons of oil into the environment. The operator was distracted by a cell phone and allowed the tank to overflow for over an hour.
An engineering firm hired by Union Pacific estimates of it was released into nearby Willamette River, not including the spill that was captured by the containment booms. Employees of United States Environmental Protection Agency who were working at facilities nearby placed booms to contain the oil spill. Federal prosecutors have charged the operator Robert LaRue Webb II with violation of the Clean Water Act for releasing the oil into the environment. Webb plead guilty in August 2019 and was sentenced to two years probation and a $2,500 fine. EMP Union Pacific and Norfolk Southern Railroad are the largest owner-partners of EMP, a domestic interline intermodal freight transport service that rents and moves more than 35,000 53-foot containers and chassis throughout North America.
Other partners in the agent-owned company include Canadian National Railway, Canadian Pacific Railway, I&M Rail Link, Iowa Interstate Railroad, Wisconsin Central Ltd., and Kansas City Southern Railway. Union Pacific Railroad Museum The Union Pacific Railroad Museum is a former Carnegie library in Council Bluffs, Iowa, that houses artifacts, photographs, and documents that trace the development of the railroad and the American West. The company pays upkeep on the privately-owned building, which houses part of Union Pacific's corporate collection, one of the oldest in the United States. Holdings include weapons from the late 19th and 20th centuries, outlaw paraphernalia, a sampling of the immigrants' possessions, and a photograph collection comprising more than 500,000 images.
See also Central Pacific Railroad First Transcontinental Railroad Hell on Wheels (TV series involving Union Pacific set in 1865) History of rail transportation in California Kansas Pacific Railway Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad Missouri Pacific Railroad Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company Oregon Short Line Pacific Fruit Express Railex Southern Pacific Transportation Company Sun Valley, Idaho Western Pacific Railroad Notes References Further reading – covers impact of the railroad on the region it served from the 1860s to the 1890s.
– heavily illustrated – the standard scholarly history illustrated account of the Union Pacific and other North American Railroads External links Category:Class I railroads in North America Category:First Transcontinental Railroad Category:Arizona railroads Category:Arkansas railroads Category:California railroads Category:Colorado railroads Category:Idaho railroads Category:Illinois railroads Category:Iowa railroads Category:Kansas railroads Category:Louisiana railroads Category:Minnesota railroads Category:Missouri railroads Category:Montana railroads Category:Nebraska railroads Category:Nevada railroads Category:New Mexico railroads Category:Oklahoma railroads Category:Oregon railroads Category:Tennessee railroads Category:Texas railroads Category:Utah railroads Category:Washington (state) railroads Category:Wisconsin railroads Category:Wyoming railroads Category:Southern Pacific Railroad Category:Rail lines receiving land grants Category:Railway companies established in 1862 Category:Railway companies disestablished in 1880 Category:Railway companies established in 1897 Category:Companies based in Omaha, Nebraska Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Companies operating former Chicago and North Western Transportation Company lines Category:Companies operating former Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad lines Category:Companies operating former Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad lines Category:Companies operating former Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad lines Category:Companies operating former Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad lines Category:Companies operating former Illinois Central Railroad lines Category:Companies operating former New York Central Railroad lines Category:Companies operating former Northern Pacific Railway lines Category:Companies operating former St. Louis–San Francisco Railway lines Category:Defunct Michigan railroads Category:Defunct South Dakota railroads Category:Rail in St. Louis Category:Railway lines in Omaha, Nebraska Category:Superfund sites in Oregon Category:Economy of the Western United States Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Transportation Average Category:1862 establishments in Nebraska Territory Category:American companies established in 1862
WSOU (89.5 FM) is a non-commercial, college radio station. The station broadcasts from the campus of Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey. It is a student-run station with university administrator Mark Maben serving as its current General Manager. streams online. Programming The station currently broadcasts a modern active rock format, featuring heavy metal, punk, emo, hardcore and post-hardcore as well as other types of rock-based music. Student disc jockeys play music from this regular rotation during the vast majority of the week - with the exception of specialty shows and community programming (see below). WSOU has played a pivotal role in breaking bands and music genres within the New York City market.