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How many of us really know how to use the Full-Text Search features of HTML Help?
The following topic was extracted from MSDN Library - October 2001.
Additional Notes: Updated 5-Feb-2004
A basic search of topics consists of the word or phrase you want to find. You can use wildcard expressions, nested expressions, Boolean operators, similar word matches, the previous results list, or topic titles to refine your search.
To perform a full-text search
Your search will return the first 500 hits. If you want to sort the topic list, click Title, Location, or Rank.
To refine a full-text search
You can refine a basic search by using wildcard expressions, nested expressions, and Boolean operators. You can also search only on the previous results list, request similar word matches, or search only the titles of topics in the table of contents.
When Match similar words is selected, the viewer matches minor grammatical variations of the word or phrase you entered, as well as the word or phrase itself. For example, if you entered "add" and selected this box, the Library viewer would find "add", "adds", and "added". This option is independent of other options or syntax. If you do a titles-only search, variations in titles will be matched. If you use quotes (or any other query operator) any variation of the word can appear; for example, "stemmed search" will also match "stemming search".
To highlight words in searched topics
When searching for words in Help topics, you can specify that each occurrence of the word or phrase you searched for is highlighted in the topics that are found.
The basic rules for formulating queries are as follows:
Note If you are searching for a filename with an extension, you should group the entire string in double quotes ("filename.ext"). Otherwise, the search will treat the period as an OR operator.
You can search for words or phrases and use wildcard expressions. The table below describes the results of these different kinds of searches.
|A single word||Select||Topics that contain the word "select." (You will also find its grammatical variations, such as "selector" and "selection".)|
|A phrase||"new operator"
|Topics that contain the literal phrase "new operator" and all its grammatical variations. Without the quotation marks, the query is equivalent to specifying a new AND operator, which will find topics containing both of the individual words, instead of the phrase.|
|Wildcard expressions||Esc*||Topics that contain the terms "ESC," "escape," "escalation," and so on. The asterisk cannot be the only character in the words.|
|80?86||Topics that contain the terms "80186," "80286," "80386," and so on. The question mark cannot be the only character in the term.|
|*86||Topics that contain the terms "386," "486," "x86," "QEMM386," "8086," and so on.|
The AND, OR, NOT, and NEAR operators allow you to refine your search. The following table shows how to use each of these operators.
|Both terms in the same topic||dib AND palette
dib & palette
|Topics containing both the words "dib" and "palette."|
|Either term in a topic||raster OR vector
raster | vector
|Topics containing either the word "raster" or the word "vector."|
|The first term without the second term||ole NOT dde
ole ! dde
|Topics containing the word "OLE," but not the word "DDE."|
|Both terms in the same topic, close together||user NEAR kernel||Topics containing the word "user" within eight words of the word "kernel."|
The basic rules for searching topics using nested expressions are as follows:
Q. Is searching for umlauts broken?
Posted in the MS Newsgroup:
Some of our European users have noted the following problem: The search facility disregards the difference between so-called "accented" characters and the "normal" English characters. That is, "ü" is evaluated the same as "u", "é" is the same as "e" and so forth. Thus, searching for "Müller" yields exactly the same results as "Muller"--except that in the latter hits, the word "Müller" is never highlighted. (There are, by the way, no problems rendering these characters in any of the European languages--or even Japanese.)
A. Depends on how you define broken.
From the MS help team:
This is a known issue. The search part is a feature and the highlight part is a limitation of the web browser control (or at least the way we use it). | <urn:uuid:f02088f6-60e9-4b0e-851f-682d12672dac> | {
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Before undertaking study of anti-Semitism and the Holocaust, it is important to learn about the Jewish people. Jews are an ethno-religious group, which they share an ethnic and racial heritage as well as similar religious beliefs. The Jews have been a small but notable minority group for thousands of years. Today they constitute a very low percentage of the world’s population; most studies put this at around 0.2 per cent. In 2007 the Jewish People Policy Planning Institute reported the world population of Jews to be approximately 13.2 million people, or less than three quarters of the population of Australia. North America (6.8 million) and Israel (6 million) have by far the largest Jewish populations. Approximately 9.5 million Jews lived in before World War II and the Holocaust; today there are only around 1.6 million Jews living there. Around 125,000 Jews live in Australia, many of them direct descendants of wartime refugees and Holocaust survivors.
The religion practised by Jewish people is called Judaism. Along with Christianity and Islam, Judaism is one of the three main Abrahamic religions (named because the Biblical figure Abraham is an important patriarch in all three religions). Like Christianity and Islam, Judaism is a monotheistic religion because its followers believe in and worship only one God. Religious Jews hold different beliefs about God and divinity than the other Abrahamic religions. For example, Jews do not share the Christian view that Jesus Christ was the Son of God; instead, they believe that Christ falsely claimed to be the Messiah. The most significant Jewish holy book is called the Torah, a Hebrew word that variably translates as “teaching”, “theory” or “guidance”. Religious teachers in Judaism are called rabbis, while Jewish places of worship are called synagogues. The Jewish holy day, or Sabbath, begins at sundown on Friday and continues until the first stars are seen on Saturday evening. Jews are not permitted to work or play sport on the Sabbath. Instead, they are encouraged to relax, give thanks and spend time with their family.
As in other religions, Judaism contains a considerable diversity of religious belief and worship. Not all Jews are religious or religiously active: many are atheist, agnostic or non-practising. Regardless of this, their ethnic heritage means they are still considered to be Jewish. Judaism also has different branches, based on differences of doctrine and interpretation. Orthodox Jews, for instance, embrace a much stricter interpretation of the Torah and the Talmud (Jewish oral traditions). They adhere to Jewish laws and customs more rigidly than more liberal branches of Judaism. Some of the religious customs and ceremonies observed by most Jews include:
Brit Milah. The circumcision of the penis on the eighth day of a young male’s life.
Bat Mitzvah. A graduation ceremony marking a young girl’s ascension into adulthood, generally celebrated on her twelfth birthday.
Bar Mitzvah. A graduation ceremony marking a young boy’s ascension into adulthood, generally celebrated on his thirteenth birthday.
Marriage. The happy couple are married beneath a chupah (canopy) which symbolises a happy home. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolising an act of mourning for the Great Temple and the continued struggle of the Jewish people.
Significant events in the Jewish religious calendar include:
Passover or Pesach. A week long holiday commemorating the exodus of Jewish people from Egypt.
Shavuot. A celebration of the revelation of the Torah to the Israelites on Mount Sinai, a mountain in modern day Egypt.
Sukkot. An event where Jews celebrate the resilience of their ancestors, the Israelites, who wandered the desert in search of the Holy Land promised to them by God. Jews traditionally celebrate in makeshift shelters, mimicking the shelter their ancestors would have used during their 40 years wandering the deserts.
Rosh Hashanah. The Jewish New Year, a ten day period where Jews pray for forgiveness and absolution of their sins during the previous year.
Yom Kippur. The most important of Jewish holy days, celebrated at the end of the ten days of Rosh Hashanah. Many Jews spend Yom Kippur entirely inside the synagogue, praying for their sins to be absolved. They also fast (eat no food) as a sign of their commitment to a more pious life in the following year. Jews traditionally wear white on Yom Kippur.
Perhaps the best known Jewish religious custom is adhering to kashrut, the dietary laws governing what Jews may and may not eat. Food permitted to be eaten under kashrut is described as kosher. Some of the foods Jews may not consume include meat made from the flesh of pigs (such as pork, ham or bacon), rabbit and kangaroo, food containing blood or any shellfish (including prawns, lobsters, oysters and mussels). For meat to be considered kosher, animals must be killed by religious slaughter (shechita). This involves the cutting of the throat with a very sharp blade, so that the windpipe, oesophagus and major veins are all severed and the animal bleeds to death quickly.
Contrary to myth, Jewish people have no physical stereotypes and most look no different to other members of society. Jews can occasionally be identified by their traditional items of clothing, some of which are worn on holy days or at times of worship. The best-known of these is probably the kippah or yarmulke, a small skullcap worn by males on the crown of their head. The tzitzit, or prayer shawl, has knotted fringes on its four corners; it can be worn by both males and females. Followers of Orthodox Judaism tend to dress conservatively: the men often grow a beard and wear black suits and hats, while the women dress modestly.
1. Jews are a minority group sharing both racial and religious heritage, and comprise 0.2% of the world’s population.
2. Like Christianity and Islam, Judaism emanated from Abraham and is monotheistic (belief in one god).
3. There is diversity of religious beliefs in Judaism, with mainstream and Orthodox branches and non-practising Jews.
4. Most Jews follow social and religious customs, such as circumcision, adulthood ceremonies and various holy days.
5. Jews also follow dietary restrictions, eating only kosher food and avoiding products such as pork and shellfish. | <urn:uuid:8753b3db-3dee-4254-a3ad-e46a58cb1771> | {
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To live successfully and independently, older adults need to be able to manage two different levels of life skills: basic daily care and basic housekeeping activities.
Basic daily care includes feeding yourself, bathing, dressing, and going to the toilet on your own.
You also need to handle basic housekeeping activities, such as managing your finances and having the mobility to shop and participate in social activities.
If you or someone you care for has trouble performing these two types of life skills, this may bring on problems that can reduce quality of life and independence. People 85-years-old and older form the fastest-growing age group in our society and are at higher risk for becoming less able to perform these life skills. For this reason, researchers are seeking ways to help older adults stay independent for longer. Recently, a research team focused their attention on learning whether eating more protein could contribute to helping people maintain independence. Their study was published in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. Continue reading | <urn:uuid:83a0d07a-53ef-4d9a-b44e-75cae80dab5c> | {
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In this, the first phase of his career abroad, Magellan had displayed remarkable bravery and toughness, but in the end his foreign service proved a mixed adventure. He invested most of his fortune with a merchant who soon died; in the ensuing confusion, Magellan lost most of his assets. He petitioned King Manuel for restitution, but the king refused the request. After all those years of service abroad to the crown, all the dangers he had experienced, and the wounds he had received, his relationship to the court was no better than it had been when he left home years before.
Returning to Lisbon, Magellan, still bristling with ambition, commenced a new phase in his career. Seeking to make himself useful to the crown, he involved himself with the Portuguese struggle to dominate North Africa. In 1513, he seemed to find an ideal opportunity to demonstrate his loyalty and usefulness to the crown when the city of Azamor, in Morocco, suddenly refused to pay its annual tribute to Portugal. The Moroccan governor, Muley Zayam, ringed the city with a powerful, well-equipped army. King Manuel responded to the challenge by sending the largest seaborne force ever to sail for his kingdom: five hundred ships, fifteen thousand soldiers, the entire military might of this small nation.
Among the hordes of soldiers sent to defend the honor of Portugal was Ferdinand Magellan, along with an aging steed, the only mount he could afford on his drastically reduced budget. He rode courageously into battle, only to lose his horse to the Arabs. What started so bravely for Magellan turned into a near disaster, as he barely escaped from the siege with his life. The larger picture was more favorable, as Portugal reclaimed the city, but Magellan remained indignant. He had lost his horse in the service of his country and king! And the Portuguese army was offering him only a fraction of what he considered to be his mount's true value as compensation.
Displaying a hotheadedness and tactlessness that bedeviled his entire career, Magellan wrote directly to King Manuel, insulting numerous ministers by circumventing their jealously guarded authority, and insisted on receiving full compensation for the horse. Manuel proved no more generous than he had been on the occasion of Magellan's previous demand for compensation of his lost investment. The new request was swiftly dismissed as a minor nuisance.
Magellan's reaction was telling; rather than quitting the field of battle in disgust, he stubbornly remained at his post, somehow acquired a new horse, and participated in skirmishes with the Arabs who swooped out of the desert wastes to harass Portuguese soldiers guarding Azamor. Magellan showed himself to be a fearless warrior, engaging in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy on a daily basis. In one confrontation, he received a serious wound from an Arab lance, which left him with a shattered knee and a lifelong limp; it also ended his career as a soldier. With his irrational idealism and loyalty, his wounds, and his unquenchable thirst for battle and righting perceived wrongs, Magellan came to seem like a real-life Don Quixote.
At last, he received a taste of recognition he craved when his service in battle and war wounds earned him a promotion to the rank of quartermaster. The position entitled him to a share of the spoils of war, which proved to be his undoing. In a subsequent battle, Arabs surrendered a immense herd of livestock, over 200,000 goats, camels, and horses. Magellan was among the officers responsible form distributing the spoils in an equitable fashion, and he decided to pay off tribal allies with some of the captured animals. As a result of this transaction, Magellan and another officer were indicted for selling four hundred goats to the enemy and keeping the proceeds for personal gain.
The charges were, on their face, preposterous. Magellan, as a quartermaster, was entitled to his spoils of war, and it was not clear that he received any. He failed to respond to the charges, and without authorization, left Morocco for Lisbon, where he appeared before King Manuel. Magellan did not apologize for his conduct in Morocco, but demanded an increase in the allowance he received as a member of the royal household, his moradia. Making a bad situation even worse, he lectured the king, reminding him that he, Ferdinand Magellan, was a nobleman, and had rendered lifelong service to the crown, and had the wounds to show for it. Nothing but a more generous moradia would suffice to acknowledge his stature, his sense of honor, and his idealism. Jealous rivals whispered behind Magellan's back that his limp was merely an act designed to elicit sympathy.
Members review books pre-publication. Read their opinions in First Impressions
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BookBrowse seeks out and recommends books that we believe to be best in class. Books that will whisk you to faraway places and times, that will expand your mind and challenge you -- the kinds of books you just can't wait to tell your friends about. | <urn:uuid:df6f3f6a-3146-4cec-aac7-3eb030a5afdf> | {
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The National Resources Defense Council's latest annual "Toxic Power" report contains good news for air quality, namely that toxic air pollution from power plants decreased roughly 19 percent from 2009 to 2010. The improvement came as many plants switched to burning natural gas instead of coal and as some plants installed new pollution controls looking to meet anticipated health protections set by the Environmental Protection Agency. "I was very pleased to see a drop of nearly 20 percent between 2009 and 2010, even before the EPA standards were fully finalized or the dramatic shifts had occurred in the gas market," says John Walke, the clean air director for NRDC. "We just lived through 2011 and I know that those trends only accelerated during that year. This is a good news story with isolated aberrations like Kentucky."
Toxic air pollution in Kentucky increased by about 27 percent in 2010, which led to roughly 10 million more pounds of toxins being released in the air. The increase alone matches the amount of toxic air pollution released by the state in the number 10 spot, Texas.
The other good news the NRDC is trumpeting? New EPA standards, set in 2011 to take effect in 2015, will further improve air quality. Here's a summary from the report about how the new standard will help:
Compared to 2010 levels, the standard will reduce mercury pollution from 34 tons to seven tons, a 79 percent reduction, by 2015. Sulfur dioxide pollution will be reduced from 5,140,000 tons in 2010 to 1,900,000 tons in 2015, a 63 percent reduction. Another dangerous acid gas, hydrochloric acid, will be reduced from 106,000 tons in 2010 to 5,500 tons in 2015, a 95 percent reduction.
With those and other pollution reductions resulting from the standard, as many as 11,000 premature deaths and 130,000 asthma attacks, 5,700 hospital visits, 4,700 heart attacks, and 2,800 cases of chronic bronchitis will be avoided in 2016. The public health improvements are also estimated to save $37 billion to $90 billion in health costs, and prevent up to 540,000 missed work or “sick” days each year.
The bad news? | <urn:uuid:6d8358a2-f533-4716-a13c-8d160432023e> | {
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- The Vermont State Health Department on Tuesday recommended
people not eat cheese made with milk from 3 flocks of sheep officials fear
could be infected with the sheep version of mad cow disease (Bovine Spongiform
- Health Commissioner Dr. Jan Carney said she made the
recommendation after discussing the matter with the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention in Atlanta (CDC). "This is in the tone of a
recommendation," Carney said. "There is no national or state
recall. CDC considers the risk theoretical."
- Carney said there were no known cases of people contracting
the always-fatal BSE from milk or milk products like cheese. But the disease,
which causes the brain to waste away, has a long incubation period and
it is best to err on the side of protecting the public health, she said.
- The cheese was from 2 plants whose products are distributed
to specialty stores throughout the United States. The farmers who produce
the cheese are contesting the federal government's efforts to have their
- The plants manufacturing the cheese are Three Shepherds
of the Mad River Valley, plant number 50-50, and Northeast Kingdom Sheep
Milk Cheese, plant, 50-45.
- The furor over the sheep flocks arose after tests done
several weeks ago on the carcasses of 4 sheep found evidence of disease
in their brains. Officials fear the animals were infected with a sheep
version of BSE.
- The results don't mean the animals had the same disease
that killed about 50 people in Great Britain and devastated that country's
beef industry, but they could have. [This would be the first case of sheep
acquiring this disease other than experimentally. - Mod.TG]
- [An] East Warren farmer, who produces the Three Shepherds
cheese, said his cheese was safe. He and his wife are contesting the federal
government's efforts to have their sheep destroyed; he says there is no
evidence his sheep are sick.
- Meanwhile, the owner of a Craftsbury flock of 230 sheep
scheduled to be destroyed on Friday, said he planned to go to federal court
to ask a judge for an injunction to block the slaughter of his sheep. [His]
lawyer said Tuesday he expected to file the papers Wednesday.
- The East Friesian sheep, which produce 10 times as much
milk as sheep available in North America, were imported from Belgium in
1996 to start a sheep cheese business.
- But the sheep came from an area of Europe where BSE is
known to have occurred [in cattle] and federal officials fear they [the
sheep] could have eaten contaminated feed. [This is not clear if they fear
the possibly contaminated feed was fed to these animals while in the US,
or if it was fed prior to importation into the US - Mod.TG] Last week Agriculture
Secretary Dan Glickman ordered the sheep destroyed as a precautionary measure
to ensure BSE doesn't make it into the United States.
- [The Craftsbury farmer] said appraisers visited his farm
Tuesday to determine the fair market value to pay him for the sheep slated
to be taken away and destroyed Friday. [The other farmer] said the appraisers
were due at his farm Wednesday.
- ****** Date: Thu, 20 Jul 2000 05:24:22 -0400 From:
Eleanor Kellon <[email protected]
- Clarification please. Isn't BSE now a problem for the
whole EU - at least France and Belgium in addition to England? Isn't it
true that BSE has the potential to effect any mammal and can be transmitted
from consumption of any body part, not just brain? Are there tests available
that can differentiate between BSE and scrapie? Are they proven to be different
diseases or just assumed to be?
- Why were these sheep permitted into the country in the
first place? If this was an importation allowed before it was known Belgium
had a BSE problem, why were they allowed to continue to sell cheese made
from their milk? The European experience should have dictated more caution.
- -- Eleanor Kellon, VMD
- [Eleanor, BSE is a problem for the EU. Remember BSE is
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy. It has not been identified in sheep,
only in cattle. It has been experimentally produced in sheep, but there
are no documented cases of naturally occurring cases. BSE is generally
transmitted from neurological tissue. However, because of the method of
killing cattle there is the risk of spreading microscopic particles of
neurological tissue through the blood stream, thus infecting muscle tissue,
which is most often consumed by human beings.
- There are tests capable of differentiating BSE and Scrapie.
One of those tests, I think, is the monoclonal antibody tests use on the
third eyelid of the sheep. It is my understanding the USDA did not use
this test. The most reliable test is injecting brain tissue into mice,
then waiting several months for results. This test was not used by USDA.
Hence, there is room to question the validity of tests. I think there are
some other tests, but I am not positive.
- Scrapie and BSE are different diseases. BSE may have
originated from feeding scrapie infected sheep to cattle. But the rendering
process and subsequent feed processes of temperatures and pressures resulted
in a change in the prion organism. They are different diseases.
- The sheep were imported in 1996. I don't believe Belgium
had BSE then. Since BSE has not been identified in sheep, and Belgium had
not had BSE, there appeared to be no risk with regard to importing the
sheep. There have been no cases of the human form of BSE, new variant Cruezfeld-Jakob's
Disease (nvCJD) being transmitted from milk. There are no cases of scrapie
being transmitted from milk. They were permitted to sell the milk and cheeses
because there is no risk of transmitting the disease through milk or milk
products. - Mod.TG]
- ***** Date: 20 July 2000 From: Tim Sly <[email protected]
Source: New Scientist, 22 Jul 2000
- Claims that abnormal prion proteins have been found in
American sheep are setting alarm bells ringing in the US. But [some] BSE
experts are unimpressed.
- The US government ordered the incineration of 376 sheep
from Vermont, after suggestions 4 of the flock were infected with BSE-the
brain disease in cows causing deadly new variant CJD (vCJD) in people.
If the 4 cases are confirmed as BSE, they will be the first sheep known
to be infected by farm feed, and would raise the specter of more human
- [A Vermont farmer] imported Belgian and Dutch milking
sheep to his farm in 1996. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA), fearing
the imported sheep could have eaten Belgian feed contaminated with BSE,
tested animals culled from [the] flock for prion disease. This month it
announced test results indicating 7 of the sheep had brain damage of the
type associated with prion disease. The animals had not shown symptoms
of brain disease.
- Sheep brains can be damaged in this way by both BSE and
scrapie-a prion disease affecting sheep but is not thought to harm humans.
Antibodies used to test the sheep for scrapie did not bind to the brains
of these sheep, however. Yet 4 came up positive for prions in 2 other tests:
a new assay developed by Mary Jo Schmerr of the USDA laboratory in Ames,
Iowa, and a Western blot analysis by Richard Rubenstein of the Institute
for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island.
- On 14 Jul 2000, this led US agriculture secretary Dan
Glickman to order the animals to be destroyed because they had prion disease
"of foreign origin", which might be BSE.
- Sheep deliberately fed BSE-contaminated feed will develop
prion disease. While no one has ever shown this happens on farms, some
scientists say it's possible BSE has appeared in sheep only to be mistaken
- However, many experts doubt whether the Vermont sheep
have BSE. "The connection to BSE is far-fetched speculation,"
says Tom Pringle of the Sperling Foundation in Oregon, which monitors prion
research. The 2 tests used gave inconsistent results, and the imported
animals were supposed to have been strictly grass-fed.
- Scrapie and BSE can only be reliably distinguished by
injecting brain tissue into mice, then waiting months for the result. Ian
McConnell of Cambridge University, an adviser to the British government
on vCJD/BSE, told New Scientist: "I have no idea how they would make
this distinction. It's a shambles."
- -- ProMED-mail <[email protected]
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The removal of plants exposes soil to the effects of erosion, which is caused by a variety of environmental issues including water runoff, soil disturbances and altered drainage patterns. The main result is the loss of topsoil, which makes an area difficult to plant anything in. Trees are a good solution to many erosion problems. The roots tend to stabilize the soil and pull water out of over-saturated ground. They also offer wildlife shelter and a source of food.
Seaside Tolerant Trees
Areas along the coastline suffer from storm erosion. Soil shifts when saturated with water and falls off bluffs if there are no anchoring plants. One ornamental tree that tolerates seaside conditions is the California buckeye (Aesculus californica), which grows best in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 7 and 8. This multi-trunked tree produces white bark and white, showy, fragrant fall flowers. The leaves of this tree tend to fall in the summer if the weather turns hot and dry. This native California tree reaches 10 to 25 feet tall, spreading 20 to 30 feet wide. Toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), also known as California holly, tolerates salty growing conditions, producing oblong evergreen leaves in USDA zones 9 through 11. This 25-foot-tall tree displays showy, white flowers in summer followed by red berries in the fall, which is food for wildlife.
Trees Good for Slopes
Trees with strong root systems grow well on hillsides, stabilizing the slopes. One evergreen tree suitable for hillsides is the “Dr. Hurd” manzanita (Arctostaphylos manzanita “Dr. Hurd”), which reaches 15 to 20 feet tall and wide in USDA zones 8 through 10. This tree displays glossy, oval-shaped green leaves, pinkish-white, urn-shaped spring blossoms and red-brown, smooth bark. Hairy blue elderberry (Sambucus nigra subsp. caerulea) tolerates wet growing conditions as long as the soil drains well. This deciduous tree reaches 25 feet tall in USDA zones 7 through 10, where it produces olive-green leaves and cream-colored spring blossoms followed by edible black fruit in the summer.
Trees That Tolerate Dry Soil
Areas with dry soil are prone to wind erosion where the wind picks up the topsoil and carries it away. Planting trees in this type of area creates a windbreak, while the roots hold the soil in place. For example, canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis) stays evergreen in USDA zones 8 through 10, reaching 65 feet tall. This oval-shaped tree grows holly-like, gray-green leaves and tiny spring blossoms. Western redbud (Cercis occidentalis) grows as an ornamental multi-trunked tree with deciduous blue-green leaves, which turn red and gold during autumn. In USDA zones 7 through 9, this 25-foot tree covers its canopy with showy, purple spring flowers.
Wet Soil Tolerant Trees
Areas with periodic wet spells tend to experience a lot of runoff full of soil. Trees pull the excess moisture out of the soil through their roots and into their leaves, where it evaporates. One tree good for wet areas suffering from erosion is the California laurel (Umbellularia californica), which reaches 65 feet tall in USDA zones 7 through 9 with fragrant bark and glossy, dark green leaves. During the spring, yellow flowers appear, followed by yellow or green summer fruit. Hankow willow (Salix babylonica) grows upright to 50 feet tall in USDA zones 5 through 9 with a high oval-shaped canopy made up of lance-shaped green leaves, which turn gold in the autumn before they drop.
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: California Buckeye
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: Toyon
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: Dr. Hurd Manzanita
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: Hairy Blue Elderberry
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: Canyon Live Oak
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: Western Redbud
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: California Laurel
- Cal Poly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute: Hankow Willow
- Tom Brakefield/Stockbyte/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:b9d34be4-e8a2-4850-9477-69f727bda055> | {
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Debt consolidation entails taking out one loan to pay off many others. This is often done to secure a lower interest rate, secure a fixed interest rate or for the convenience of servicing only one loan.
Debt consolidation can simply be from a number of unsecured loans into another unsecured loan, but more often it involves a secured loan against an asset that serves as collateral, most commonly a house. In this case, a mortgage is secured against the house. The collateralization of the loan allows a lower interest rate than without it, because by collateralizing, the asset owner agrees to allow the forced sale (foreclosure) of the asset to pay back the loan. The risk to the lender is reduced so the interest rate offered is lower.
Sometimes, debt consolidation companies can discount the amount of the loan. When the debtor is in danger of bankruptcy, the debt consolidator will buy the loan at a discount. A prudent debtor can shop around for consolidators who will pass along some of the savings. Consolidation can affect the ability of the debtor to discharge debts in bankruptcy, so the decision to consolidate must be weighed carefully.
Debt consolidation is often advisable in theory when someone is paying credit card debt. Credit cards can carry a much larger interest rate than even an unsecured loan from a bank. Debtors with property such as a home or car may get a lower rate through a secured loan using their property as collateral. Then the total interest and the total cash flow paid towards the debt is lower allowing the debt to be paid off sooner, incurring less interest.
Reprinted from the Internet web site Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:9190bdb4-2c18-41d7-9d00-4e0a257793ff> | {
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Discussion of everything related to the Theory of Evolution.
3 posts • Page 1 of 1
To start off with, just some basic terminology...
Evolution: changes occuring in populations of organisms over time
Populations: groups of organisms of the same species that live in a particular area... within these groups evolutionary changes are produced by various mechanisms of evolution
Mechanisms of evolution: things like natural selection and genetic drift are mechanisms of evolution.
Evolutionary changes are genetic, and environmental changes are not genetic.
Genetic variation: raw material of evolution... most natural populations have significant genetic varation.
The three mechanisms of evolution are:
1. gene flow
2. natural selecion
3. genetic drift
Gene flow: refers to changes that occur in the genetic composition of poplations as a consequence of migration of individuals among populations... for example, the population has all black hair, individuals with red hair move into the population, the genetic composition of the population has changed via gene flow
--> the absence of gene flow can cause evolution too, because if a large population gets separated into two populations and become isolated from each other, over time slowly both can evolve into separate species.
Natural Selection requires three things: 1. there must be variation in the population in some biological characteristic 2. different versions of the characteristic (eg long legs vs short legs) 3. the characteristic must be inherited by the offspring
changes in population are shown in new born offspring... individuals with characteristics that allow them to survive long enough to reproduce will have their characteristics represented in the next generation.
Biological factors of an organisms' environment includes: predators, diseases and competitors... physical factors of an organisms' environment includes: temperature, humidity and solar radiation. Any aspect of individual's environment can cause natural selection to happen.
Directional selection: Example... light fur coloured mice die more due to hawks eating them, so in the next generation dominant fur colour of mice shifts to dark
Evolutionary change that occurs in populations of organisms in response to natural selection is known as "adaptation", for example, long legs in antelopes are an adaptation for escaping predators.
Genetic Drift: is the third mechanism of evolution. It requires variation in a trait or characteristic within a population (like natural selection)... changes in genetic composition of populations occur from one generation to the next caused by random events... the genetic makeups are not favored or "selected"... example: wind pollination in a flower... a random factor (the wind), so not all members of population will reproduce in every generation.
Bottleneck/ founder effect: An example depicting this effect would be---> A current population represented by marbles has red, white and blue marbles... a natural disaster eliminates all of the red marbles and decreases the white marbles by a lot... when the new population grows back to the original size it was previously, it will mostly consist of blue marbles ---> and this is all due to pure randomness... the bottleneck effect has to do with natural disasters.
Man, oh man that was a lot of stuff... but evolution is a process with a lot of components to it, so I'm not really surprised... to summarize the relationship between the process of evolution and a mechanism:
evolution, populations, mechanisms of evolution (gene flow, natural selection, genetic drift), genetic variation...
the bottleneck/ founder effect.
Biological (or organic) evolution is change in the properties of populations of organisms or groups of such populations, over the course of generations. The development, or ontogeny, of an individual organism is not considered evolution: individual organisms do not evolve. The changes in populations that are considered evolutionary are those that are ‘heritable' via the genetic material from one generation to the next. Biological evolution may be slight or substantial; it embraces everything from slight changes in the proportions of different forms of a gene within a population, such as the alleles that determine the different human blood types, to the alterations that led from the earliest organisms to dinosaurs, bees, snapdragons, and humans.
3 posts • Page 1 of 1
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By Matt McNamara
With both the Tour of California and the Giro D’Italia capturing our attention last week it’s easy to be repeatedly impressed by the efforts and talents of the pro peloton. Rider after rider produced mind numbing efforts during both races, surely piquing the interest of aspiring racers and fans eager to baseline those efforts against their own talents and abilities.
Of course these performances are built on years and miles of consistency and diligent development of the varied physiological systems required. Chances are these riders have a keen knowledge of their training zones!
The Value of Training Zones
Nearly all training zones are based on maximums. How much, how long and how high? Heart rate based training has long been the standard of measure most often used and cited. One reason that max heart rate is so strongly held is because of its expected relationship to VO2max and other measures of physiological strain. Since VO2max represents maximal aerobic capacity it provides a great reference point for what is happening to the athlete physiologically. Lactate blood profiles, cardiac output, and other measures track similarly.
Pick up any mainstream information source, and many educational ones to boot, and they will as likely as not reference the ubiquitous 220-Age calculation as a starting point for setting up those zones, but why is this?
A Short History
Robergs and Landwehr, researchers out of the University of New Mexico, sought to find an answer via their 2002 article in the Journal of Exercise Physiology. Their paper did an exhaustive review of the literature seeking to find the roots of max heart rate calculations during exercise, especially 220-age, as well as best practices in applying the correct calculations and metrics. The eventually referenced the origin of the formula to Fox et al in 1971 and as they put it “…surprisingly, the origin of the formula is a superficial estimate, based on observation, of a linear best fit to a series of raw and mean data.”
The Fox article looked at research conducted on activity and heart disease. The original citation had a mere 35 data points and was not derived from original research. In fact Fox et al noted in their article that “…no single line will adequately represent the data on the apparent decline of maximal heart rate with age. The formula maximum heart rate=220–age in years defines a line not far from many of the data points.” So even the researchers in the original article that became the bedrock for decades worth of fitness musings, teachings and prescriptions didn’t feel that it was an absolute measure!
To try and parse out a ‘true’ Max Heart Rate (MHR) calculation, Robergs and Landwehr went back and attempted to replicate the research and cross reference with additional research that is often cited in relation to MHR estimation. They looked at over 30 different ways to calculate MHR, including the first known effort by Sid Robertson in 1938 (whose estimate was 212 – 0.77(age)). Their conclusion was that, indeed, even the original research cited by Fox had failed to support the 220-age calculation. Instead they built the following formula as the best overall starting point based on the research presented in the graph below (a reproduction of the Fox research):
HRmax=215.4 – 0.9147(age)
The Karvonen Version
The prevalence of the 220-age calculation is reinforced by another commonly referenced training zone calculator – The Karvonen Formula. Karvonen is credited with the idea of Heart Rate Reserve (HRR), which is an effort to better understand the available capacity of the individual. The HRR Calculation looks like this:
(220) – (your age) = MaxHR
(MaxHR) – (resting heart rate) = HRR
(HRR) x (60% to 80%) = training range %
(training range %) + (resting heart rate) = (your target training zone)
Interestingly, Karvonen, when asked by Robergs and Landwehr, said he had never published original research of the formula and instead referred to the work of Astrand for the original calculation. Astrand, also deferred to other researchers when asked about his role by Robergs and Landwehr in September of 2000.
Whatever the derivation, the main takeaway message seems to be that using a univariate approach to estimating maximum heart rate is open to errors due to the variability within individuals, but they do provide a good starting point
Another common metric across time has been the estimation of effort based on the athletes perceived exertion. Perceived exertion has been shown time and again to correlate well with the actual work load in experienced athletes. The work of Gunnar Borg is the most often used baseline for rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and dates to 1970.
The original Borg scale used a range of efforts between 6 – 20 to delineate subtle differences and offer a highly refined value. Some feel that taking one’s base RPE multiplied 10 should closely correlate to exercising heart rate, offering yet another way to cross reference effort. More and more athletes and coaches are using a modified Borg scale that ranks effort from 1 – 10. This is partly to ease use and interpretation for the athlete as it requires less pre-workout education and is more intuitive for many athletes.
Training zones and intervals are as common in cycling parlance as wheels and tires. Nearly every athlete uses some metric to track their training and improvement. Yet, the most common measure used over the last three decades was not built on direct scientific research, and is prone to error. The standard 220-age calculation was derived from an interpretation of unpublished research but does provide a starting point for creating ones training zones. Similarly, the Karvonen formula is a derivation of 220-age, yet also offers a form of insight. Borg’s scale of perceived exertion has also been a long standing reference of well established validity
To be sure the science of performance has made strides over the last years, but do these measures provide a more accurate baseline for training? Next time we’ll delve into the efficacy and value of power and lactate based training zones by asking some of the sports most noted coaches and physiologists their opinion!
ROBERT A. ROBERGS AND ROBERTO LANDWEHR, THE SURPRISING HISTORY OF THE “HRmax=220-age” EQUATION. ISSN 1097-9751, Volume 5 Number 2 May 2002, Official Journal of The American Society of Exercise Physiologists (ASEP).
About Matt McNamara:
Matt McNamara is a USA Cycling Level 1 coach with over 20 years of racing, coaching and team management experience. He is also the director of the Sterling p/b Sendmail Cyclocross Team and a huge fan of watching races on the internet. You can learn more about Matt and his coaching by visiting his blog | <urn:uuid:d2152b85-673e-4c86-beb8-cd551762e7d6> | {
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This epithet (Gr. Nazaraios) is applied to Christ only once ( Matthew 2:23 ). In all other cases the word is rendered "of Nazareth" ( Mark 1:24 ; 10:47 ; 14:67 , etc.). When this Greek designation was at first applied to our Lord, it was meant simply to denote the place of his residence. In course of time the word became a term of reproach. Thus the word "Nazarene" carries with it an allusion to those prophecies which speak of Christ as "despised of men" ( Isaiah 53:3 ). Some, however, think that in this name there is an allusion to the Hebrew netser , which signifies a branch or sprout. It is so applied to the Messiah ( Isaiah 11:1 ), i.e., he whom the prophets called the Netse , the "Branch."
an inhabitant of Nazareth. This appellative is applied to,Jesus in many passages in the New Testament. This name, made striking in so many ways, and which, if first given in scorn, was adopted and gloried in by the disciples, we are told in ( Matthew 2:23 ) possesses a prophetic significance. Its application to Jesus, in consequence of the providential arrangements by which his Parents were led to take up their abode in Nazareth, was the filling out of the predictions in which the promised Messiah is described as a netser i.e. a shoot, sprout , of Jesse, a humble and despised descendant of the decayed royal family. Once, ( Acts 24:5 ) the term Nazarenes is applied to the followers of Jesus by way of contempt. The name still exists in Arabic as the ordinary designation of Christians.
naz-a-ren; naz'-a-ren Nazarenos; Nazaraios in Matthew, John, Ac and Luke):
A derivative of Nazareth, the birthplace of Christ. In the New Testament it has a double meaning: it may be friendly and it may be inimical.
1. An Honourable Title:
On the lips of Christ's friends and followers, it is an honorable name. Thus Matthew sees in it a fulfillment of the old Isaiah prophecy (Isaiah 11:1 (Hebrew)):
"That it might be fulfilled which was spoken through the prophets, that he should be called a Nazarene (Matthew 2:23). According to an overwhelming array of testimony (see Meyer, Commentary, in loc.), the name Nazareth is derived from the same natsar, found in the text quoted from Isa. We have here undoubtedly to do with a permissible accommodation.
It is not quite certain that Matthew did not intend, by the use of this word, to refer to the picture of the Messiah, as drawn in Isaiah 53, on account of the low estimate in which this place was held (John 1:46). Nor is permissible, as has been done by Tertullian and Jerome, to substitute the word "Nazarite" for "Nazarene," which in every view of the case is contrary to the patent facts of the life of the Saviour.
Says Meyer, "In giving this prophetic title to the Messiah he entirely disregards the historical meaning of the same Septuagint reading in Isaiah 11:1, anthos), keeps by the relationship of the name Nazareth to the word natsar, and recognizes by virtue of the same, in that prophetic Messianic name netser, the typical reference to this--that Jesus through His settlement in Nazareth was to become a Nazoraios, a `Nazarene.'" This name clung to Jesus throughout His entire life. It became His name among the masses:
"Jesus of Nazareth passeth by" (Mark 10:47; Luke 24:19). Perhaps Matthew, who wrote after the event, may have been influenced in his application of the Isaian prophecy by the very fact that Jesus was popularly thus known. Even in the realm of spirits He was known by this appellation. Evil spirits knew and feared Him, under this name (Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34), and the angels of the resurrection morning called Him thus (Mark 16:6), while Jesus applied the title to Himself (Acts 22:8). In the light of these facts we do not wonder that the disciples, in their later lives and work, persistently used it (Acts 2:22; 3:6; 10:38).
2. A Title of Scorn:
If His friends knew Him by this name, much more His enemies, and to them it was a title of scorn and derision. Their whole attitude was compressed in that one word of Nathanael, by which he voiced his doubt, "Can any good thing come out of Nazareth?" (John 1:46). In the name "Nazarene," the Jews, who opposed and rejected Christ, poured out all the vials of their antagonism, and the word became a Jewish heritage of bitterness. It is hard to tell whether the appellation, on the lips of evil spirits, signifies dread or hatred (Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34). With the gatekeepers of the house of the high priest the case is clear. There it signifies unadulterated scorn (Matthew 26:71; Mark 14:67). Even in His death the bitter hatred of the priests caused this name to accompany Jesus, for it was at their dictation written above His cross by Pilate (John 19:19). The entire Christian community was called by the leaders of the Jewish people at Jerusalem, "the sect of the Nazarenes" (Acts 24:5). If, on the one hand, therefore, the name stands for devotion and love, it is equally certain that on the other side it represented the bitter and undying hatred of His enemies.
Henry E. Dosker
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George Eliot's women
But the effect of her being on those around her was incalculably diffusive: for the growing good of the world is partly dependent on unhistoric acts; and that things are not so ill with you and me as they might have been, is half owing to the number who lived faithfully a hidden life, and rest in unvisited tombs. (Middlemarch, Finale)
At the very end of Middlemarch George Eliot tells us what happened in later life to her heroine, Dorothea Brooke. As a young woman at the beginning of the novel, Dorothea is likened to St Teresa of Avila, the 16th-century mystic and social reformer who longed to change the world for the better. Dorothea, though, has been born three centuries too late. She lives in a grossly materialistic age in which there is ‘no coherent social faith and order which could perform the function of knowledge for the ardently willing soul’ (Prelude).
Consequently, Dorothea ends her life as a married woman whose name no one will remember. But Eliot warns the reader against feeling disappointed that such a remarkable creature should be condemned to a humdrum existence. Dorothea may not have achieved obvious greatness, but her ‘unhistoric acts’ of everyday kindness have had a profound effect on the people within her domestic circle (Finale). The role of mother, wife and friend was, in the circumstances, the best available to her.
Manuscript of Middlemarch by George Eliot
First page of Chapter One from the manuscript copy of Middlemarch.View images from this item (16)
Copyright: © Jonathan Garnault Ouvry
Women’s rights and educationEliot began working on what would become Middlemarch in 1869, the same year that J S Mill published The Subjection of Women, his passionate call for women to be allowed the same social, political and economic rights as men. With women’s emancipation at the forefront of public debate – two years previously Mill had failed to amend the 1867 Reform Bill so that women could vote – it was inevitable that the fictional Dorothea’s fate would cause a stir. For some readers, both men and women, Eliot’s refusal to grant her heroine a glorious ending in line with her extraordinary qualities seemed a betrayal of feminist principles. In an 1873 review in the Revue des Deux Mondes, T H Bentzon mourned the fact that Dorothea ‘allow[s] her life, which should have been consecrated to the whole of humanity, to be absorbed within the life of one other person’.
The Subjection of Women by J S Mill
Mill's essay The Subjection of Women was published in 1869, the year Eliot started work on Middlemarch. In it, Mill argues that 'the legal subordination of one sex to the other' is 'wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement'.View images from this item (8)
Letter from George Eliot to Emilia Francis Pattison, 16 December 1872
Though few of Eliot's female characters achieve creative and personal fulfilment, she enjoyed both with her partner, the critic and philosopher G H Lewes. In this letter to her friend Emilia Pattison, she describes their intellectual collaboration and writes that they 'must be among the happiest' people in the world.View images from this item (4)
The unhappy endings of Eliot’s womenOver the decades since Eliot’s death in 1880 many readers have complained about the fates of her female characters. Dinah Morris from Adam Bede meekly gives up preaching on the village green when the Methodist Church tells her that women no longer have the right to share the word of God in public. Armgart, the eponymous heroine of Eliot’s long dramatic poem of 1871, is punished for putting her opera career over love by losing both her would-be husband and her voice. The clever and passionate Maggie Tulliver, a character with whom so many young women readers have identified, is sent to a watery death at the end of The Mill on the Floss.
Manuscript of 'Armgart': dramatic poem by George Eliot
Manuscript of Eliot’s dramatic poem ‘Armgart’, in which a woman has to choose between marriage and her career as an opera singer.View images from this item (8)
Expectation and educationBut George Eliot doesn’t simply dole out arbitrary fates to her good and bad female characters. It was exactly that kind of nursery tale morality that she had satirised in ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’, an essay about the commercial women’s fiction of the 1850s, written during her days as a journalist at the Westminster Review. Instead, Eliot wants to explore how social environment acts to produce different outcomes for young women who, on the surface, seem to have been born in almost the same circumstances. In the manner of an experimental scientist, she pairs Dorothea Brooke with Rosamond Vincy, Hetty Sorrel with Dinah Morris and Maggie Tulliver with Lucy Deane - and then watches how differences in their upbringings result in the formation of their contrasting adult characters.
'Silly Novels by Lady Novelists': essay by George Eliot
Eliot’s essay ‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’ criticises contemporary popular fiction by women as shallow and simplistic.View images from this item (7)
Those readers who have criticised Eliot for the way she ascribes harsh outcomes to her ‘bad’ girls – Hetty, Rosamond and even Gwendolen Harleth in Daniel Deronda – are perhaps over-hasty. While there is no doubting her attitude to their solipsism and selfishness, Eliot is always insistent that it is a poor environment rather than wilful wickedness that has led to these mangled and unhappy adult lives. Hetty is repeatedly likened to a baby or an animal – both creatures without agency - while Rosamond is frequently ‘poor Rosamond’. As readers we are asked to think deeply about whether or not we can truly hold these young women accountable for their actions, given the way in which their moral development has been stunted by the expectations of their immediate family environment and the wider society.
Letter to Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon, December 1867.
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Fast prototyping of architectural designs using transputers
Authors: Skillicorn, David B.
The existence of a processor with on-board communication facilities, such as the transputer, makes it possible to prototype new hardware designs by emulating their functional units on networks of transputers. This gives better information about performance and appearance than simulation and can be considerably easier to build. It also permits software to be built and executed with performance that approximates the final system-hence, software prototyping is also possible. We describe our experiences with two different systems: an object-based vision system and an implementation of the functional language Lucid.
OUG-9: Occam and the Transputer -- Research and Applications, Charlie Askew, 1988, pp 135 - 138 published by IOS Press, Amsterdam
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Plain text: BibTEX, Refer
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Many people are willing to pay for health care services but unwilling to purchase health insurance. About half of uninsured people who could afford to purchase health coverage choose to forgo buying insurance.
The U.S. housing and agriculture departments use an “affordability” standard to allocate subsidized services to low-income households. The implementation of universal health care coverage in Massachusetts brought about a surprising use of the affordability standard. Massachusetts used affordability to determine who would be exempt from the mandate that all state residents purchase insurance. In light of what took place in Massachusetts, this article explains differences between affordability standards that measure health care costs and standards for other merit goods (i.e., food and housing). To further her explanation, the author discusses relevant patterns in the consumption of health care coverage and services.
- More than one-fourth of low-income households incur health care expenses that they cannot afford.
- Premiums that do not accurately reflect risk increase the likelihood that individuals will forgo affordable health coverage.
The range of costs for health services is much greater than for food and housing. This article examines the “affordability” standard with regard to consumption patterns for health coverage and services. | <urn:uuid:b4a91d35-0ff9-4c11-97e3-b693250adabb> | {
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FOUNDING OF THE NIGERIAN ARMY
The history of the Nigerian Army dates to 1863, when Lt Glover of the Royal Navy selected 18 indigenes from the Northern part of the country and organized them into a local force, known as the "Glover Hausas". The small force was used by Glover as governor of Lagos to mount punitive expedition in the Lagos hinterland and to protect British trade routes around Lagos. In 1865, the "Glover Hausa" became a regular force with the name "Hausa Constabulary". It performed both police and military duties for the Lagos colonial government. It later became "Lagos Constabulary". On incorporation into the West Africa Frontier Force (WAFF) in 1901, it became "Lagos Battalion". In addition to this force, the British Government included the Royal Niger Company (RNC), Constabulary Force in Northern Nigeria in 1886 and the Oil Rivers irregular in 1891. In 1889, Lord Fredrick Lugard had formed the incipient body of what was to be known in 1890, as the West Africa Frontier Force, (WAFF), in Jebba, Northern Nigeria. The new unit expanded by absorbing the Northern Nigeria-based elements of the Royal Niger Company (RNC) Constabulary. By the end of 1901, it had incorporated all paramilitary units in the other British dependencies into its command, thus fully meriting its designation "WAFF". The establishment of West Africa Frontier Force (WAFF) led to the merger of all units into regiment in each of the dependencies. The merger in Nigeria produced the Northern Nigerian Regiment and Southern Nigerian Regiment. The First commanders of the Southern Regiments of WAFF were Lt CHP Carter (1899-1901) and Col J Wilcox (1900-1909) respectively. The two regiments were later used for expeditions during the annexation of Nigeria by Lord Lugard between 1901 and 1903. | <urn:uuid:19a2b435-3258-4f2f-86f1-2297ff6fad5a> | {
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What is the Robusta coffee bean species?
Robusta is a resilient, strong coffee plant, and is the second most common species in
the world. Around 25% of all coffee sold worldwide is Robusta, which is native to
West Africa but is today also grown in Brazil, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and
The beans are dome-like and round and are light green in color. Robusta is bitter in
taste, has a high caffeine content (2%-4.5%) and a thick crema (the layer of foam on
the surface of a shot of espresso). It is considered inferior to the Arabica species. | <urn:uuid:df16c00c-a970-41b4-81a2-c04eb500f62f> | {
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RL32712 - Agriculture-Based Renewable Energy Production
16-Oct-2007; Randy Schnepf; 62 p.
Update: Previous Releases:
January 8, 2007
August 4, 2006
May 18, 2006
Abstract: Since the late 1970s, U.S. policy makers at both the federal and state levels have enacted a variety of incentives, regulations, and programs to encourage the production and use of agriculture-based renewable energy. Motivations cited for these legislative initiatives include energy security concerns, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, and raising domestic demand for U.S.-produced farm products. Agricultural households and rural communities have responded to these government incentives and have expanded their production of renewable energy, primarily in the form of biofuels and wind power, every year since 1996. The production of ethanol (the primary biofuel produced by the agricultural sector) has risen from about 175 million gallons in 1980 to 3.9 billion gallons per year in 2005. However, U.S. ethanol production capacity has been expanding rapidly. Current ethanol production capacity is 5.4 billion gallons per year (as of December 29, 2006), with another 6.0 billion gallons of capacity under construction and potentially online by early 2008. Biodiesel production is at a much smaller level, but has also shown growth rising from 0.5 million gallons in 1999 to an estimated 75 million gallons in 2005. Wind energy systems production capacity has also grown rapidly, rising from 1,706 megawatts in 1997 to an estimated 10,492 megawatts by October 23, 2006. Despite this rapid growth, agriculture- and rural-based energy production accounted for only about 0.6% of total U.S. energy consumption in 2004.
Key points that emerge from this report are:
! substantial federal and state programs and incentives have facilitated
the rapid development of agriculture’s renewable energy production
capacity (primarily as biofuels and wind);
This report provides background information on farm-based energy production and how this fits into the national energy-use picture. It briefly reviews the primary agriculture-based renewable energy types and issues of concern associated with their production, particularly their economic and energy efficiencies and long-run supply. Finally, this report examines the major legislation related to farm-based energy production and use. This report will be updated as events warrant. | <urn:uuid:e6471ae3-fa0a-42b3-9602-ebf8aa77fb46> | {
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http://eandt.theiet.org/news/2014/jun/renewables-uk.cfm Click count:1055
Wind energy has contributed the most to the rising share of renewables in the UK's energy mix
Renewable energy levels hit record high
26 June 2014
By Tereza Pultarova
Almost a fifth of the UK's electricity was generated by renewables in the first three months of this year, official figures show.
Compared with the 2013 figures, the renewable energy production, including wind, solar, biomass, wave and tidal energy, rose by seven percentage points, making up 19.4 per cent of the UK’s overall electricity generation in the first three months of 2014.
According to the report published by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (Decc), low carbon energy resources, including nuclear power, have produced more than 37 per cent of the UK’s electricity mix in the period between January and March 2014.
Increases in the number of offshore and onshore wind turbines, along with high winds, boosted wind power, while a doubling of average rainfall on the previous year in areas that have hydropower saw electricity from the technology hit record levels.
Coal, gas and nuclear power generation all fell compared to the same period in 2013.
The figures also showed that 5.2 per cent of all the UK's energy, including heating and transport, came from renewables in 2013, an increase from 4.2 per cent in 2012.
"Once again, wind delivered strongly for the UK in the first quarter of the year - when we need power most - providing nearly 12 per cent of all our electricity,” said Jennifer Webber, director of external affairs at industry body RenewableUK's.
"Offshore wind also made a significant contribution to getting us off the hook of fossil fuels and reducing our dependence on imported energy."
The UK has a legally binding target to source 15 per cent of all its energy from renewables by 2020, as part of the European Union's drive to generate 20 per cent of energy from renewables by the end of this decade.
"Without the strong performance of wind last year, the Government would have been even further behind its energy targets,” Webber said.
The latest official figures also prompted calls for national targets for European countries for generating energy from renewables for 2030, which the UK Government has argued against.
Making the call ahead of an EU summit at which leaders are expected to discuss the 2030 energy and climate package, Renewable Energy Association chief executive Nina Skorupska said: "Renewables and energy efficiency are the best no-regrets options for both reducing exposure to international energy market shocks and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
"They should be at the heart of the EU strategies to address both energy security and climate change.
"The most cost-effective way to do this that gives investors most certainty is with nationally binding 2030 targets."
She welcomed the increase in energy from renewables in 2013, saying: "Every percentage point increase in home-grown renewable energy makes us that much more energy secure. | <urn:uuid:2fbba521-b261-4461-8500-572a24217ed2> | {
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This is a Dwarf Planet.
Planet Eris, also designated 136199 Eris and formerly 2003 UB313, is the largest known dwarf planet in the solar system and the ninth largest body orbiting the Sun directly. It is between 2,400 and 3,000 kilometres (1,490 to 1,860 miles) in diameter and 27% more massive than Pluto.
Eris was discovered in 2005 by a Mount Palomar-based team led by Mike Brown. It is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) native to a region of space beyond the Kuiper belt known as the scattered disc. Eris has one moon, named Dysnomia; recent observations found no evidence of further satellites. Their current distance from the Sun is some 97 AU, or roughly three times that of Pluto. With the exception of some comets, the pair are currently the most distant known bodies in the Solar System.
Eris’ size resulted in its discoverers and NASA labelling it the solar system's 10th planet. This, along with the prospect of other similarly sized objects being discovered in the future, motivated the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term "planet" for the first time. Under a new definition approved on August 24, 2006, Eris was designated a "dwarf planet" along with Pluto and Ceres.
The planet was sometimes called Planet X (both representing the unknown and the number 10, as its discoverers considered it the 10th planet). It was informally called Xena and its moon Gabrielle, after characters in the Xena television show. It was also called Lila, which could either be a reference to discoverer Brown's daughter Lilah or to a term for a small planet.
It eventually got its official name of 136199 Eris after the goddess Eris, a personification of strife and discord who is the primary deity of the Discordians. This represented the strife caused by the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet. The name was assigned on 13 September 2006, which Discordians know as Mass of Planet Eris or as Mass of Eristotle (the dwarf Discordian oracle Eristotle was born on 13 September 1752).
We should start a Jake campaign to get the new planet named Eris, or more like "Discordia" to keep with the Roman naming scheme....
This planet was obviously not invited to the party and has been hiding out there well into our Space Age waiting to cause mischief. Also, there are no hot dog buns that far from the sun. I think the choice is obvious.
Lets just hope she doesn't roll any golden astroids[sic] our way.
This Jake became known as 'The Jake that Changed a World.'
Some Discordians, including the Harmonians and Ek-sen-trik Discordians, refer to Eris' moon Dysnomia as Shamlicht after Cherub Princess Shamlicht. | <urn:uuid:5e328770-218f-4198-a62c-c0a65e516e6b> | {
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Majdanek: When Humanity Looked
“God of our Fathers, let the ashes of the children incinerated in Auschwitz, the rivers of blood spilled at Babbi Yar or Majdanek be a warning to mankind that hatred is destructive, violence is contagious, while man has an unlimited capacity for cruelty.”
- Alexander Kimel, Holocaust Survivor
360,000 “enemies of the Third Reich,” Jews, homosexuals, gypsies, and Poles, were murdered at Majdanek. 667 acres of extermination; 22 prisoner barracks; seven gas chambers; two gallows; a crematorium—that was Majdanek. But was this concentration camp, this camp of horrors, hidden from the public eye? No, unlike many other camps, Majdanek was not hidden in a remote area, nor in a forest, nor even in a security zone; the death camp was right off a highway connecting Lublin, Zamosc, and Chelm. And, equally disturbing, Majdanek bordered a Polish town—only one fence lay between extermination and everyday life.
Majdanek not only tells a story of death and suffering, but one of terrifying acceptance. Judith Becker, survivor of the tragedies at Majdanek, watched a soldier cut off a prisoner’s fingers. The Nazi soldier had never met the prisoner before, nor had the prisoner done anything to insult him; his orders were simply to remove all belongings and, in order to remove the prisoner’s ring, the soldier cut off her finger. This story is not one of anger or even hatred; it tells the story of obeying, of a detached acceptance. Not only did soldiers take all the belongings of Majdanek prisoners, but immediately thereafter, they brought these men, women and children, whom they had never met before, to gas chambers to be killed.
Then again, these soldiers were members of the Nazi Party, men who had already dedicated themselves to the purging of such “enemies.” Their acceptance was different, as they held a truly horrifying set of beliefs. The true crime of the Holocaust extends even farther than a dangerous, radical group, but to those who accepted the rise of this racist regime. “Never again” does not mean that people will never again attempt ethnic exterminations and genocide, but that we will never again sit idly by and allow it to happen. We will not be the residents of the town bordering Majdanek, or the families who drove along the highway from Lublin to Chelm, men and women who saw smoke rise from the crematoriums and knew what it meant. I will not be one such person. We have a responsibility and, in today’s world, no matter how difficult it may seem, we must uphold this commitment.
For that reason, I traveled on the United Synagogue Youth Poland and Israel “From Darkness to Light” Pilgrimage in the summer of 2006. When I stood inside the gas chambers at Majdanek, looked at the shoes taken from the prisoners, walked through the crematorium, and stared at the spot where Jews were killed in a mass extermination, I was forced to confront the terrors men were willing to exact on others. And, standing at the entrance to Majdanek, I was able to see the town that allowed a concentration camp to sit peacefully at its border. How could they do nothing, I thought for what felt like the hundredth time that trip, and allow innocents to be slaughtered?
But how far from that have we come today? How am I fulfilling the responsibility that I have both to my ancestors and as an individual privileged to see first-hand the results of racism and power unchecked? Staring at the town neighboring Majdanek, I began to analyze what I could do, and what I was already doing. As I saw two young men biking next to Majdanek, and a couple laughing together at the camp’s entrance, I knew there was so much more to do; these people were not racist, they simply did not appreciate the warning that Majdanek provides to everyone today. That apathy gives way to the ethnic cleansing in Darfur, to the acceptance of a Holocaust Denial conference in Iran, and to a radical leader’s calls to destroy Israel, my people’s homeland. When one does not understand the Holocaust, one cannot understand the lessons learned—that is why members of the Holocaust Denial Conference in Iran are the same people who call for the destruction of Israel, the only safe haven for the Jews.
The true failure of the Holocaust was the worldwide inability to respond—not only among those living in the town bordering Majdanek, but those living in every country across the globe. As early as October 1940, the Western Allies were aware of the existence of and slaughter taking place ni Auschwitz-Birkenau and, by March 1944, had the ability to bomb the railroads leading to the death camp (Wyman). Yet the leaders of these countries chose to give priority to the land war against Germany, and the extermination of the Jews continued. We must never prioritize anything above human life. We must remember our past failures and do more than simply proclaim “never again;” we must live by that lesson, because in every aspect of our lives we have a chance to make a difference.
What many people do not know is that currently in the United States Congress there is a resolution calling for Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the Iranian president who calls for Israel’s destruction, to be tried for attempting to incite genocide under the Geneva Convention. Here, for example, is an opportunity to call your representative and tell him or her you support the bill. As an intern at a congressional office, I know that those calls make a difference. So pick up your phone, dial a telephone number, and share your support for the resolution. Three simple steps—five minutes at most—and you have brought our world a step farther from the Holocaust.
Moreover, not every action involved in living the ideal of “never again” deals with danger on such a grand scale. Nearly every high school has some form of tolerance or multicultural club. Join that club; each student’s membership alone makes a difference. And, if your school has no such club, start one—find a teacher willing to help you, and start the organization. Put posters up on school walls telling people about the genocide in Darfur, or about intolerance around the world. Most people are not intolerant, they simply are not aware of the atrocities around the world, and that ignorance can lead to apathy as well. Having led a freshmen orientation group on tolerance, I have seen that people are willing to make a difference, but just do not know how. We can show them. We can teach them to live by “never again,” to eliminate their indifference and lack of awareness before it is too late, so that humanity will never again look away.
The opinions, comments, and sentiments expressed by
the participants are not necessarily those of Holland & Knight LLP or the
Holland & Knight Charitable Foundation, Inc. | <urn:uuid:08b11958-aa84-484a-b4e9-b3f6e3b493b9> | {
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The word “drone” has several different meanings and it origins from old English word drān, drǣn, which means ‘male bee’. When talking about a drone as an electric device, we thinking of missile or a remote-controlled pilotless aircraft. So, what is a drone definition for this unmanned aerial vehicle?
One of the most used definitions for drone is: “An unmanned aircraft or ship that can navigate autonomously, without human control or beyond the line of sight”. Another frequently used definition is: “Drone is any unmanned aircraft or ship that is guided remotely”. Drones have been around for years, and they are used for different purposes and can be of help in numerous occasions. However, these devices have become more popular in recent times and their application increases rapidly in various fields.
No doubt, drones are among the most advanced devices in today’s aeronautics, electronics and robotics alike. In the following text, you can find out more about the drones, how they work, what are their main features, their applications in a variety of fields, types of drones, and the future of drones.
A drone is made from different light composite materials in order to increase maneuverability while flying and reduce weight. It can be equipped with a variety of additional equipment, including cameras, GPS guided missiles, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), navigation systems, sensors, and so on.
Drones come in a broad range of shapes, sizes, and with various functions. The vast majority of today’s models can be launched by hand, and they can be controlled by remotes or from special ground cockpits. The commercial models come in small sizes and have simplified construction, so these drones are suitable even for kids because they are very easy to control. | <urn:uuid:ed7714d3-a3d1-4309-9e6e-f2ebed335bee> | {
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Can you reproduce the Yin Yang symbol using a pair of compasses?
A first trail through the mysterious world of the Golden Section.
Published May 2006,February 2011.
There are two main forms of patchwork that I have come across. "English" patchwork is mainly based on tessellations, largely of squares and hexagons. "American" patchwork or "piecing" is usually based on patterns in squares that are built up into the finished quilt. There are many different kinds of designs. I find those based on an octagon in a square the most satisfying.
This pattern is called "Castle Wall". One square (made larger than usual) is a cushion cover.
Here are some of the stages in making the design:
My next octagon-based patchwork was a wedding present. The design is called "Kaleidoscope". Here is a small section of the finished quilt:
The basic square is shown below on the left and on the right you can see what it looks like when it is put together:
Colouring it brings out the interlocking, almost circular, shapes in the design:
Now I have started to make another quilt. It is a pattern known as "World without end" and it too is based on an octagon in a square.
The Kaleidoscope pattern is turned about so that the square is the centre of the pattern piece instead of the octagon. Two of the isosceles triangles are joined and then sliced the other way to make half of a rhombus.
These diagrams show the transformations required:
It looks like this when the squares are put together:
Again the design looks different when it is coloured. The changes are even more noticeable when the quilt is "pieced" from fabric.These are the first four squares out of thirty-six! | <urn:uuid:643100ae-4c2d-4c23-9990-2b5dcc66b5f3> | {
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- Government and society
- Cultural life
- Major rulers of France
In its classic form, bocage is found in Brittany, where small fields are surrounded by drainage ditches and high earthen banks, from which grow impenetrable hedges arching over narrow sunken lanes. Similarly enclosed land is found elsewhere, however, notably on the northern, western, and southern fringes of the Paris Basin, such as in Normandy, as well as in the western and northern parts of the Massif Central, parts of Aquitaine, and the Pyrenean region. At higher levels hedges may be replaced by stone walls. Settlement mostly takes the form of hamlets and isolated farms.
The greatest extent of open-field land is found in the Paris Basin and in northern and eastern France, but there are pockets of it elsewhere. The landscape typically lacks hedges or fences; instead, the bewildering pattern of small strips and blocks of land is defined by small boundary stones. The land of one farmer may be dispersed in parcels scattered over a wide area. The land is predominantly arable, and the farmsteads are traditionally grouped into villages, which may be irregularly clustered or, as in Lorraine, linear in form.
The generally block-shaped Mediterranean lowland parcels normally are not enclosed or are enclosed only by rough stone banks. However, in areas where delicate crops would be exposed to wind damage, there are screens of willows and tall reeds. Hillsides are frequently terraced, although much of this land type has been abandoned except in areas of intensive cultivation, such as the flower-growing region around Grasse. A very large farmhouse built on three floors is characteristic of wine-growing and sheep-raising regions, such as Provence. Rural population was formerly often clustered at high elevations, both for defense and in order to be above the malarial plains. In modern times there has been a move to more convenient lowland locations.
In the high mountains and especially in the Alps, there is the contrast between the adrets, the sunny and cultivated valley slopes, and the ubacs, the cold and humid slopes covered with forests. The variety of vegetation on the slopes of the mountains is remarkable. Cultivated fields and grasslands are found in the depths of the valleys, followed in ascending order by orchards on the first sunny embankments, then forests, Alpine pastures, bare rocks, and, finally, permanent snow. A unique aspect of the mountain environment is that Alpine villages of the lower valley sides were often combined with chalets (burons in the Massif Central), temporary dwellings used by those tending flocks on summer pastures above the tree line.
After World War II the French government instituted a program of consolidation, whereby the scattered parcels of individual farmers were grouped into larger blocks that would accommodate heavier, mechanized cultivation. Initially progress was greatest in the open-field areas, particularly the Paris Basin, where there were few physical obstacles to the process. Subsequent extension to bocage areas had more severe consequences for landscape values and ecology, as hedges, sunken lanes, and ponds disappeared in favour of a new open landscape. At the same time, the vast numbers of people abandoning agricultural pursuits enormously changed the nature of rural settlement. Particularly in the more attractive areas, abandoned farms were purchased as second homes or for retirement. Where alternative employment was available, rural people stayed and became commuters, transforming barns and stables for other uses, such as garages. On the fringes of the expanding city regions, new houses and housing subdivisions for urban commuters were built in the villages, markedly changing their character.
The primacy of Paris as the predominant urban centre of France is well known. After World War II the French government had an ambivalent attitude toward the development of the urban structure. On the one hand there was the desire to see Paris emerge as the effective capital of Europe, and on the other there was the policy of creating “métropoles d’equilibre,” through which cities such as Lille, Bordeaux, and Marseille would become growth poles of regional development. Even more evident was the unplanned urbanization of small and medium-size towns related to spontaneous industrial decentralization from Paris, such as that along the Loire valley, or to retirement migration, such as that along the coastlands of southern France.
In 1801 France was the most populous nation in Europe, containing about one-sixth of the continent’s inhabitants. By 1936 the French population had increased by 50 percent, but in the same period the number of people in Italy and Germany had nearly trebled, and in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands the population had nearly quadrupled. The marked difference in population growth between France and some of its neighbours up to the 1940s was attributed to a falling birth rate. At the same time, the mortality rate in France began its decline somewhat later than in other advanced European countries, not falling until the close of the 19th century. The birth rate was particularly affected by the practice of French peasants who deliberately limited their families in order to reduce the effect of a Napoleonic law that required the splitting of the family holdings among all heirs. Other factors may have included the rise of bourgeois individualism following the French Revolution of 1789, the decline of Roman Catholic observance (especially among the political left), and the lack of economic opportunity in the interwar years. Population growth was, of course, adversely affected by wars, including the wars of the Revolution; the wars of the First Empire; the Franco-German War (1870–71); World War I (1914–18), which cost France more than 1,500,000 lives; and World War II (1939–45), which reduced the population by 600,000.
The deficit in national growth was so drastic by 1938 that France began to give monetary and other material benefits to families with children. The policy appears to have been effective, because a rise in the birth rate occurred even during the difficult years of Nazi occupation and Vichy France, culminating in the postwar baby boom years, when soldiers and prisoners returned to a climate of economic optimism. The relative youth and high fertility of immigrants also contributed to the upsurge in the birth rate, which was coupled with a decline in mortality rates, attributable to improved public health facilities and social welfare programs.
In the second half of the 20th century, the high birth rate slowed, and about 1974 it fell into a sharp decline, eventually reaching a point insufficient for the long-term maintenance of the population. Since midcentury, because of a corresponding decline in the death rate, the rate of natural increase (balance of births against deaths) has remained positive, though in decline. By the early 21st century, France had an average population increase of roughly 300,000 people each year. These changes were not exceptional to France; the same postwar pattern was largely paralleled in neighbouring countries. A number of factors combined to reduce the birth rate, among them the introduction of the contraceptive pill and the new preference for smaller families.
|Official name||République Française (French Republic)|
|Form of government||republic with two legislative houses (Parliament; Senate , National Assembly )|
|Head of state||President: François Hollande|
|Head of government||Prime minister: Manuel Valls|
|Monetary unit||euro (€)|
|Population||(2013 est.) 63,853,000|
|Total area (sq mi)||210,026|
|Total area (sq km)||543,965|
|Urban-rural population||Urban: (2009) 84.6%|
Rural: (2009) 15.4%
|Life expectancy at birth||Male: (2012) 78.4 years|
Female: (2012) 84.8 years
|Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate||Male: (2000–2004) 98.9%|
Female: (2000–2004) 98.7%
|GNI per capita (U.S.$)||(2012) 41,750| | <urn:uuid:93f42867-005a-4bdd-987a-9c33c8ea58d5> | {
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According to new research by The Obesity Society, sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) contribute to the obesity epidemic in the United States, especially among children.
The most recent data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) shows that childhood obesity has more than doubled in children and quadrupled in adolescents in the past three decades. In 2012, nearly 18 percent of children aged 6-11 were obese, compared to 7 percent in 1980. Over that same period, the percentage of adolescents ages 12-19 who were obese increased from 5 percent to nearly 21 percent. Children who are obese have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression, and adult obesity.
More than one-third (34.9 percent) of American adults are obese, with non-Hispanic blacks having the highest age-adjusted rates of obesity (47. percent), followed by by Hispanics (42.5 percent), non-Hispanic whites (32.6 percent), and non-Hispanic Asians (10.8 percent).
While SSBs aren’t the only cause of obesity in the United States, they do comprise 6 to 7 percent of Americans’ overall calorie intake.
“Despite the challenges researchers have faced with isolating the impact of specific foods or beverages on body weight, the studies conducted on SSBs thus far have generated important and meaningful data leading to our conclusion,” said TOS spokesperson Diana Thomas, PhD, Professor at Montclair State University and Director of the Center for Quantitative Obesity Research.
So what are some healthy alternatives to sugar-sweetened beverages? There are a few, but water tops the list. At least half of your daily fluid intake, or about 10 cups for adults, should come from water. Other alternatives include unflavored low-fat or non-fat milk, and 100% fruit juices.
Some cities, states, and countries have proposed or already imposed a “soda tax” to curb obesity. In October 2013, Mexico passed legislation that created an 8 percent tax on junk food containing more than 275 calories per 100 grams, and a peso-per-liter tax — about 10 percent — on SSBs. Other places that have implemented or proposed soda taxes include Denmark, Norway, New York, and San Francisco. | <urn:uuid:1b260ed8-7719-4311-bdfd-e72a52f94096> | {
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Fields of Study
Ancient Near Eastern History offers an interdisciplinary program combining a broad view of Near Eastern history in pre-Islamic times with specialized knowledge of at least one major sub-region (e.g., Babylonia, Iran, Hatti, Egypt, or Syria-Palestine) or field (e.g., Late Bronze trade, early empires). Knowledge of two ancient languages (major and minor), Near Eastern archaeology, historiography, and historical method is required.
Comparative Semitics students are expected to achieve a Ph.D. level of competence in one of the five major Semitic languages (Akkadian, Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew, Classical Ethiopic), M.A. level competence in another, and cover the basics of the remaining languages (about a year of coursework each). In addition, students will study the basic principles of Historical Linguistics and other philological or linguistic methodologies of their interest.
Cuneiform Studies offers programs in three subfields: Assyriology, Hittitology, and Sumerology. All three programs require an advanced knowledge of the major language, and the relevant history and archaeology. In addition, Assyriology requires competence in Sumerian; Hittitology requires competence in Akkadian as well as in the smaller Anatolian languages; and Sumerology requires a thorough background in Akkadian.
Egyptology students are expected to demonstrate competence in all stages of the Egyptian language, in Egyptian and Ancient Near Eastern History, in Egyptian archaeology, and in a second ancient or related language.
Near Eastern Art and Archaeology offers programs in the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East and in the Archaeology of the Islamic Middle East. Students in the ancient program receive a broad training in Near Eastern archaeology and also specialize in a particular region: Anatolia, Egypt, Iran, Mesopotamia, or the Levant (Syria-Palestine).
Near Eastern Judaica covers a wide range of disciplines, including Modern Hebrew Studies. Hebrew Studies and Near Eastern Judaica deal with various aspects of ancient Israelite, as well as Jewish history and literature. The main branches are: Hebrew and Judeo-Arabic literature and philology, and Jewish history. A good knowledge of the relevant period of Hebrew is required for all programs, Arabic for the Medieval period, and Aramaic for periods where it is pertinent.
Northwest Semitic Philology includes primarily the linguistic philological study of Hebrew, Phoenician-Punic, Ugaritic, and Aramaic (including Syriac); one of these languages is taken as a major concentration, and the others as minor concentrations.
Medieval & Modern Programs
In the modern area there are eight principal fields of concentration, six dealing with the Islamic World and two in Modern Hebrew Studies. Each requires a major language concentration in Arabic, Persian, Turkish or Hebrew, a second-year competence in a second language of importance in the field, and a thorough grounding in Islamic and/or Jewish civilization. Each student in an area will select a major field in that area, and two minor fields relevant to the student's program. At least one of the minors must be in a different discipline (i.e., history, literature, thought, linguistics, art/archaeology) from the major.
Arabic Language and Literature aims at a solid grounding in all aspects of Classical and Modern Arabic language and literature; familiarity with the major periods and genres of Arabic literature; and a second-year competence in another Islamic language, such as Persian, Turkish, or Urdu. Possible major fields of study are: Classical Arabic Poetry, Prose, Literary Criticism - of any of the following broad periods/areas: pre-Islamic, early Islamic, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Mamluk, Andalusian, South Asian.
Islamic Archaeology covers the material culture of the Middle East from the 7th century until the modern period. The program requires a solid grounding in archaeological method and theory, the history and civilization of the Middle East, and regional languages. The field is usually taken in connection with Near Eastern Archaeology or Islamic History.
Islamic History and Civilization requires a major language concentration in the language most relevant to the major field of study. In addition, second-year level competence is required in a second language of importance in Islamic history. Possible major fields of study are: Early Islamic History, Medieval Islamic History, Ottoman History, Modern Middle Eastern History, Iranian History. Islamic Art and Archaeology is a possible minor field.
Islamic Thought requires a major language concentration in Arabic and a second-year competence in a second language with important documents relating to Islamic thought. Possible major fields of study are: Islamic Theology, Sectarianism and Heresiography, Early Islamic Intellectual History, Islamic Political Thought, Qur'anic and Exegetical Studies, Classical Arabic Prose and Islamic Thought, Islamic Civilization in the 4th/10th century.
Modern Hebrew Language and Literature require a thorough knowledge of classical and modern Hebrew language and literature, and a solid grounding in at least one earlier period of Hebrew. Competence in another principal language and in the history and culture of the principal area of concentration must be demonstrated.
Persian Language and Literature aims at a solid grounding in Persian language, and its literature, from the tenth to the twenty-first centuries. The second Middle Eastern language will be Arabic, Armenian, Turkic, or Hebrew. Possible major fields of study are: Persian Language, Classical Persian Literature, Modern Persian Literature and Cinema, Comparative Literature, Sufism.
Ottoman and Turkish Studies requires thorough training in both Ottoman and Modern Turkish, in addition to the second Islamic language. Possible major fields of study are: Ottoman and Modern Turkish History, Ottoman Language and Literature, Modern Turkish Language, Turkic Linguistics.
Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East - The function of the program entitled Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East is to allow for a basic Northwest Semitic Philology program with emphasis on the Hebrew Bible to be joined either with another field within NELC (e.g., Egyptology, Assyriology) or with training in biblical criticism and exegesis in the Divinity School.
Joint Program with Linguistics - There exists a formal joint program with the Department of Linguistics in which students complete all the requirements for both degrees. Students initially apply to only one of the departments and must complete the six foundational courses in Linguistics before formally applying for admission into the joint program. Students who originate their studies in NELC do their major language concentration in a NELC language. | <urn:uuid:209dc776-f6e1-41e6-9d1e-7695d799a16a> | {
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Achromatopsia: Patients who have achromatopsia (sometimes called achromatopia) do not have normal "cone vision.". Although the term may refer to acquired disorders such as color agnosia and cerebral achromatopsia, it typically refers to an autosomal recessive congenital color vision disorder, the inability to perceive color AND to achieve satisfactory visual acuity at high light levels (typically exterior daylight).
More detailed information about the symptoms,
causes, and treatments of Achromatopsia is available below.
Symptoms of Achromatopsia
- Colour blindness
- Visualising colour as grey
- Difficulty recognising faces (prosopagnosia)
- Weakness of one side of body (hemiparesis)
- Sensory loss of one side of body
- more symptoms...»
See full list of 27
symptoms of Achromatopsia
Treatments for Achromatopsia
See full list of 8
treatments for Achromatopsia
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Wrongly Diagnosed with Achromatopsia?
Achromatopsia: Related Patient Stories
Read more about Deaths and Achromatopsia.
Read more about complications of Achromatopsia.
Causes of Achromatopsia
- Malfunction of the retinal phototransduction pathway
- Genetic causes of this are mutations in the cone cell cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels CNGA3 (ACHM2) and CNGB3 (ACHM3) as well as the cone cell transducin, GNAT2 (ACHM4)
- Acquired- Acquired achromatopsia/dyschromatopsia is a condition associated with damage to the diencephalon (primarily the thalamus of the mid brain) or the cerebral cortex (the new brain)
- more causes...»
Read more about causes of Achromatopsia
More information about causes of Achromatopsia:
Disease Topics Related To Achromatopsia
Research the causes of these diseases that are similar to, or related to, Achromatopsia:
Achromatopsia: Undiagnosed Conditions
Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories:
Achromatopsia: Research Doctors & Specialists
Research related physicians and medical specialists:
Other doctor, physician and specialist research services:
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Read about other experiences, ask a question about Achromatopsia, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards:
Definitions of Achromatopsia:
Severely deficient color perception, typically with monochromacy and reduced visual acuity. The atypical form can include normal visual acuity with pseudomonochromacy.
- (Source - Diseases Database)
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- Ask or answer a question at the Boards: | <urn:uuid:1f827745-e7e8-4f2e-96b3-dbb9fa374a54> | {
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Helping People Through the Decision-Making Process Using a Web-Based Application
Researcher was part of inaugural group of NSF Innovation Corps awards in 2011
May 7, 2013
Not everyone likes to make decisions alone. People sometimes need feedback. Now they have a social media site that can give it to them.
"Think of it as 'Facebook for decision-making,'" says Ali Abbas, an associate professor in the Department of Industrial and Enterprise systems engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, who designed the new system. "The idea was to build a decision support site online through a social network."
Abbas studies the process of decision-making, including its many behavioral and theoretical aspects. He also teaches it, not just to his students, but to the population at large, such as teens in juvenile detention, where understanding how to make the right decisions can have a significant impact on their lives.
"It was really impressive to see these young teens think about how they were making decisions," Abbas says of his experiences teaching decision-making skills to teenagers in the Champaign County Juvenile Detention Center. "The session had some touching moments when residents shared their hopes about changing their lives. The residents in juvenile detention really got it. They began to understand that they make decisions every day, and that they bear the consequences of the decisions they make."
The idea of better understanding the decision-making process could have even broader applications in the future, including within the policymaking arena--global climate change, for example--as well as in health care, design and manufacturing, education and other important fields.
For the individual, the research has translated into a startup website, www.ahoona.com, with a unique software package of decision-making tools and templates. Users can choose to receive feedback privately from "friends," or publicly by using the "public" feature. State-of-the-art web-based decision-making software geared toward the layperson will analyze the information, and offer suggestions.
"The field of decision analysis provides a rigorous framework for effective decision-making, but, until now, it has not made its way to peoples' daily lives," Abbas says. "Now there is a way to analyze the recommendations that people give you. You can have these discussions in public, or privately. The public decisions will be stored, because chances are someone will face a similar decision in the future. That way, people can browse 'historic' decisions."
At its simplest, there are three basic elements that form the basis of any decision, he says. They include its alternatives, that is, the different actions we can take; the information, meaning what we know in order to make informed choices; and the preferences, that is, what we like.
There are additional factors involved, such as the frame, "meaning which decision we are really facing, as well as the logic used to make the decision, and the decision-maker, whose alternatives, information and preferences are incorporated," says Abbas. "When these elements are obtained, we can analyze any complex decision."
For example, someone facing medical surgery might weigh the different outcomes against their respective costs.
"Suppose there were two treatment objectives: One might cost more but be less risky. The second might cost less but be riskier. How do you choose?" Abbas says. "How do we make trade-offs between different objects, such as health state and wealth, when we are uncertain about the outcomes we get? Thinking about the elements of the decision can help us make this trade-off."
It is already known that people are risk-averse when it comes to money, he says. "They would rather have a sure thing than something uncertain with the same expected value," he says. "But sometimes there are other factors besides money."
His research focuses on "capturing peoples' preferences over multiple attributes," says Abbas. "For example, the risk attitude over money changes with your health state. Any investments you might make, in the stock market, for example, would be different if you knew you were going to live for 10 years than if you knew you would only live for two more weeks."
This change in preferences over money as health state changes is called utility dependence. "There are many things in life where a decision will change as another thing changes," he says. "It is important to capture this dependence relation between the two attributes if we wish to provide an accurate representation of our preferences in this decision problem. Otherwise, we may end up making the wrong decision."
Utility dependence is a concept that appears in many decisions, both in peoples' daily lives as well as on a broader policy scale.
"For example, in national security decisions, global warming decisions, hurricane events and earthquake recovery decisions, where the attributes may be money spent, lives saved, comfort level and many other natural resources," Abbas says.
Abbas is conducting his research under a National Science Foundation (NSF) Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) award, which he received in 2008. The award supports junior faculty who exemplify the role of teacher-scholars through outstanding research, excellent education and the integration of education and research within the context of the mission of their organization. NSF is funding his work with about $400,000 over five years.
Additionally, NSF has funded his new website as part of its new Innovation Corps, a program that takes the most promising U.S. academic research and helps turn it into startup technology enterprises. NSF selects 100 science and engineering research projects annually, and awards each $50,000. Abbas was among the first 25 selected for the inaugural group announced in 2011.
"We can go on doing advanced theory and research, but in order to have an impact on society, we have to reach out and spread this knowledge to help society at large," he says.
The online system will provide "a way to analyze the recommendations that people give you that will be relevant to your daily life," Abbas says. "In medical decisions: Which treatment should I have? In education: Which classes should I take? You will be able to make decisions aided by advanced decision analysis methodology. You will not have to make decisions on your own anymore, unless you want to."
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
#0846417 CAREER: Decisions with Multiple and Dependent Objectives
#1157409 I-Corps: IDecideFast - A web-based application for effective decision making for the layperson
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Study: Increase in Aerosols Has Offset Some Recent Climate Warming
A recent increase in the abundance of particles high in the atmosphere has offset about a third of the current climate warming influence of carbon dioxide (CO2) change during the past decade, according to a new study led by NOAA and published today in the online edition of Science.
In the stratosphere, miles above Earth’s surface, small, airborne particles reflect sunlight back into space, which leads to a cooling influence at the ground. These particles are also called “aerosols," and the new paper explores their recent climate effects -- the reasons behind their increase remain the subject of ongoing research.
“Since the year 2000, stratospheric aerosols have caused a slower rate of climate warming than we would have seen without them,” said John Daniel, a physicist at the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory (ESRL) in Boulder, Colo., and an author of the new study.
The new study focused on the most recent decade, when the amount of aerosol in the stratosphere has been in something of a “background” state, lacking sharp upward spikes from very large volcanic eruptions. The authors analyzed measurements from several independent sources – satellites and several types of ground instruments – and found a definitive increase in stratospheric aerosol since 2000.
“Stratospheric aerosol increased surprisingly rapidly in that time, almost doubling during the decade,” Daniel said. “The increase in aerosols since 2000 implies a cooling effect of about 0.1 watts per square meter – enough to offset some of the 0.28 watts per square meter warming effect from the carbon dioxide increase during that same period.”
The reasons for the 10-year increase in stratospheric aerosols are not fully understood and are the subject of ongoing research, said coauthor Ryan Neely, with the University of Colorado and the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES). Likely suspects are natural sources – smaller volcanic eruptions – and/or human activities, which could have emitted the sulfur-containing gases, such as sulfur dioxide, that react in the atmosphere to form reflective aerosol particles.
Daniel and colleagues with NOAA, CIRES, the University of Colorado, NASA, and the University of Paris used a climate model to explore how changes in the stratosphere’s aerosol content could affect global climate change – both in the last decade, and projected into the future. The team concluded that models miss an important cooling factor if they don’t account for the influence of stratospheric aerosol, or don’t include recent changes in stratospheric aerosol levels.
Moreover, future global temperatures will depend on stratospheric aerosol. The warming from greenhouse gases and aerosols calculated for the coming decade can vary by almost a factor of two — depending on whether aerosols continue to increase at the same rate as over the past decade, or if instead they decrease to very low levels, such as those experienced in 1960.
If stratospheric aerosol levels continue to increase, temperatures will not rise as quickly as they would otherwise, said Ellsworth Dutton, also with NOAA ESRL and a co-author on the paper. Conversely, if stratospheric aerosol levels decrease, temperatures would increase faster. Dutton and his colleagues use the term “persistently variable” to describe how the background levels of aerosol in Earth’s stratosphere can change from one decade to the next, even in the absence of major volcanic activity.
Ultimately, by incorporating the ups and downs of stratospheric aerosols, climate models will be able to give not only better estimates of future climate change, but also better explanations of past climate changes.
“The ‘background’ stratospheric aerosols are more of a player than we thought,” said Daniel. “The last decade has shown us that it doesn’t take an extremely large volcanic eruption for these aerosols to be important to climate.”
Authors of the paper are: Susan Solomon, University of Colorado; John Daniel, Chemical Sciences Division of NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory; Ryan Neely, CIRES-University of Colorado and NOAA-ESRL; J.P. Vernier, NASA-Langley Research Center and University of Paris; Ellsworth Dutton, Global Monitoring Division of NOAA-ESRL; and Larry Thomason, NASA-Langley. | <urn:uuid:f91dd8b4-5a4d-44aa-8bd6-afac63e0df1c> | {
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1. Establish and Refine Maintenance Plan
Cleaning of solar panels in Ghana as a routine maintenance activity (Source: Lennart Woltering)
After installation of the system an operations manual should be handed over to the producer (see SET UP
Module) by the technology supplier, or service provider. The operations manual includes instructions for operation, maintenance and troubleshooting, along with the contact details of the service provider. Based on this, the service provider and producer should develop a maintenance plan. The producer and the agricultural advisor should revise the maintenance plan regularly.
Checklists are helpful tools to ensure that maintenance is done regularly and properly. For this, the SPIS toolbox has been developed with checklists on the proper maintenance of the PV generator and the irrigation system. The following aspects are important for each of the main components of an SPIS:
- Water source and pump: Solar pumps generally do not need a lot of maintenance if used in clean water, free of sand, sediments or aquatic plant growth. The water source therefore needs to be kept clean. Under these conditions pumps can last up to 10 years.
- Solar panels and mounting structure: Solar panels and their mounting structure generally require very little maintenance since there are no moving parts. Panels need to be kept clean and free of shade however, while the mounting structures should be stable. The PV array should be protected from animals and falling objects. Well cared for solar panels and mounting structures last up to 20 years.
- Electronics and controls: As controllers/inverters are sensitive to overheating, they have to be installed in a place where faultless operation is guaranteed. Factors to be considered include the ambient temperature, the heat dissipation capability (ventilation) and the relative humidity. For service and maintenance purposes, the controller should be easily accessible. Furthermore, there has to be a circuit breaker between the PV generator and the controller. Insects and small animals, such as lizards, like to build their nests in junction boxes and may destroy electronic components (e.g. by formic acid). Proper sealing of all openings (e.g. with cable glands) is essential.
- Irrigation System: If drip irrigation is applied, the water must be filtered because the drip emitters can clog easily. Depending on the sediment load of the water, the filters must be cleaned regularly – this can be up to several times a day. This requires a certain level of technical knowledge and skills. In addition, the drip lines must be flushed regularly and the drip elements must be examined for blockages and replaced if necessary. The SPIS tool MAINTAIN – Water Application Uniformity Guide is applied to check the uniformity of water distribution in a drip irrigation system. The test is part of the system acceptance (see module SET UP) but is also part of a routine check. It should also be considered that for hard water (irrigation water with high dissolved lime concentrations), scaling up and clogging of pipes will occur if pipes are exposed to heat (direct sunshine).
On the next page an overview of common failures from the field and the associated fixes are given.
Example of Common Installation Mistakes
Example of a dangerous cable connection
Although the installer already used rubber tape to insulate the wires, the cable connection is exposed on the ground. Electrical safety is questionable, particularly during irrigation or strong rains.
Galvanic corrosion of a manual tracking system
Over time, metal objects are subject to rust and corrosion. Corrosion is normally associated with non-precious metals such as steel, zinc and aluminum. In the presence of air, water or salt, these metals will corrode rapidly and need to be covered with a protective sealant.
Limited heat dissipation capability of corroded controller housing
The metal housing of the pump controller is extensively corroded. Furthermore, the housing has no natural ventilation and after closing its front door, overheating of the controller may happen.
Examples of Inadequate Maintenance
Accumulated grime at the lower end of a PV panel
Even though only a small part of the panel is covered in grime it has a big negative impact on the efficiency of the panel. It can be easily removed through scrubbing with a cloth covered sponge or soft brush with clean water.
Example of shadowing by not maintained ground vegetation
Solar panels produce less power when they are shaded and should be placed where there is no risk of shadows on them. A shadow falling on a small part of a panel can have a surprisingly large effect on output because the cells within a panel are normally all wired in series, the shaded cells will affect the current flow of the entire panel!
Example of a dangerous cable connection; Galvanic corrosion of a manual tracking system; Limited heat dissipation capability of corroded controller housing; Examples of inadequate maintenance Accumulated grime at the lower end of a PV panel; Example of PV shadowing by not maintained ground vegetation. (Source: Andreas Hahn, 2015)
- Instructions on proper maintenance of each component of the SPIS;
- Checklist on water analysis.
- Producers / producer groups;
- Agricultural advisors;
- Technology and service providers (electricians, companies providing PV systems).
- Regular maintenance is indispensable for efficient and long term operation of any pumping and irrigation system.
- An SPIS is reliable and maintenance costs are low if maintained adequately.
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On April 12-13, 2010, President Obama is hosting a Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, DC, to enhance international cooperation to prevent nuclear terrorism. President Obama has invited over 40 nations to participate. The goals of the Nuclear Security Summit are to come to a common understanding of the threat posed by nuclear terrorism, to agree to effective measures to secure nuclear material, and to prevent nuclear smuggling and terrorism. The Summit will focus on the security of nuclear materials, leaving other broad topics such as nonproliferation, disarmament, and peaceful nuclear energy to different forums. The work of the summit began yesterday with a number of bilateral meetings, with more scheduled today. The President will welcome each head of delegation this afternoon, and the summit will commence with a working dinner tonight.
On April 8, 2010, President Obama and Russian President Medvedev signed the New START Treaty, reducing the number of strategic nuclear warheads in our arsenals to levels not seen since the first decade of the nuclear age. Secretary Clinton said, "This verifiable reduction by the world's two largest nuclear powers reflects our commitment to the basic bargain of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) -- all nations have the right to seek the peaceful use of nuclear energy, but they all also have the responsibility to prevent nuclear proliferation, and those that do possess these weapons must work toward disarmament. This agreement is just one of several concrete steps the United States is taking to make good on President Obama's pledge to make America and the world safer by reducing the threat of nuclear weapons, proliferation and terrorism." Read more about the New START Treaty here.
Two days prior to the signing of the New START Treaty, the Department of Defense released the new Nuclear Posture Review (NPR), a legislatively-mandated review that establishes U.S. nuclear policy, strategy, capabilities and force posture for the next five to ten years. Secretary of Defense Gates said, "The NPR provides a road map for implementing President Obama's agenda for reducing nuclear risks to the United States, our allies and partners and the international community. This review describes how the United States will reduce the role and numbers of nuclear weapons with a long-term goal of a nuclear-free world." Read more about the Nuclear Posture Review here.
The new Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) was released almost exactly a year after President Obama gave a major speech in Prague outlining his vision for decreasing the threat of nuclear arms to the world. In that speech, President Obama said:
"[W]e must ensure that terrorists never acquire a nuclear weapon. This is the most immediate and extreme threat to global security. One terrorist with one nuclear weapon could unleash massive destruction. Al Qaeda has said it seeks a bomb and that it would have no problem with using it. And we know that there is unsecured nuclear material across the globe. To protect our people, we must act with a sense of purpose without delay.... We will set new standards, expand our cooperation with Russia, pursue new partnerships to lock down these sensitive materials. We must also build on our efforts to break up black markets, detect and intercept materials in transit, and use financial tools to disrupt this dangerous trade. Because this threat will be lasting, we should come together to turn efforts such as the Proliferation Security Initiative and the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism into durable international institutions. And we should start by having a Global Summit on Nuclear Security that the United States will host within the next year.
"Now, I know that there are some who will question whether we can act on such a broad agenda. There are those who doubt whether true international cooperation is possible, given inevitable differences among nations. And there are those who hear talk of a world without nuclear weapons and doubt whether it's worth setting a goal that seems impossible to achieve. But make no mistake: We know where that road leads. When nations and peoples allow themselves to be defined by their differences, the gulf between them widens. When we fail to pursue peace, then it stays forever beyond our grasp. We know the path when we choose fear over hope. To denounce or shrug off a call for cooperation is an easy but also a cowardly thing to do. That's how wars begin. That's where human progress ends. There is violence and injustice in our world that must be confronted. We must confront it not by splitting apart but by standing together as free nations, as free people. I know that a call to arms can stir the souls of men and women more than a call to lay them down. But that is why the voices for peace and progress must be raised together."Related Entry:President Obama Addresses Nuclear Security Summit Opening Plenary | <urn:uuid:a48b6287-74c2-4402-a81f-94929adf714c> | {
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Sukarno's art collection
Sukarno, the first President of the Republic of Indonesia, was an art connoisseur and lover. Following the proclamation of the Republic of Indonesia in August 1945, the President purchased art works on a large scale, either personally or via an intermediary. He bought works by Indonesian artists, and also European painters such as Rudolf Bonnet, Willem Hofker, Roland Strasser, Theo Meier and the aristocratic Belgian artist Adrien Jean Le Mayeur de Merprès, who had settled on Bali and who was also known as the ‘Paul Gauguin of Bali’. He mostly painted half-naked dancers such as his Balinese wife Ni Pollok. The Dutchman Willem Hofker also painted charming bare-breasted Balinese women. Other favourite subjects for these painters included tropical landscapes, sawas (rice paddies), temples and village scenes: ‘Beautiful Indies romance’. So, how did Sukarno’s extensive art collection become established and what happened to it after his death in June 1970? | <urn:uuid:5b905345-7243-4f8f-94b0-2d5a5485382e> | {
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Thank you for the opportunity to help you with your question!
Scientists use many different instruments to determine the quality of water, including Secchi disks (measure water clarity), probes, nets, gauges and meters. Water quality is not just measured by direct sampling. Information can also be derived from aerial and satellite photographs by observing the surrounding environment and by collecting organisms that live in the body of water.
The temperature of water can affect it in many different ways. Some organisms prefer cool water, while some like it warm. Most aquatic organisms are cold-blooded. This means that the temperature of their bodies match the temperature of their surroundings. Reactions that take place in their bodies, like photosynthesis and digestion, can be affected by temperature. It is also important to know that when the temperature goes up, water will hold more dissolved solids (like salt or sugar) but fewer dissolved gases (like oxygen). The opposite is true for colder water. Plants and algae that use photosynthesis prefer to live in warm water, where there is less dissolved oxygen. Generally, bacteria tend to grow more rapidly in warm waters. Colder water contains more oxygen, which is better for animals like fish and insect larvae.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Oxygen is necessary for many aquatic species to survive. This test tells you how much oxygen is dissolved in water for fish and other organisms to breathe. Most healthy water bodies have high levels of DO. Certain water bodies, like swamps, naturally have low levels of DO in the water. Lots of organic debris (fallen leaves, sewage leak) can cause a decrease in DO concentration. Microorganisms, in the process of decomposing the organic material, use all the oxygen in water. How does oxygen get in water in the first place? Much of the oxygen in water comes from plants during photosynthesis and also from air as wind blows across the water’s surface.
The potential of Hydrogen, also known as pH, is a measure of acidity and ranges from 0 (extremely acidic) to 14 (extremely basic) with 7 being neutral. Most water is in the range of 6.5–8.5. Let’s see some examples to compare pH values. Lemon juice has a pH of 3 — this makes it an acid. We all know how it feels to accidentally get lemon juice on a cut finger. Stronger acids have the ability to eat through solid objects if spilled. Liquid bleach has a pH of 11 — this makes it a base. Strong bases, just like acids, can burn your skin. Let’s think about why. Our bodies are made mostly of water. Water has a pH of 7. Things that are close to pH 7 work well with our bodies. The same holds true for aquatic organisms. If the water becomes too acidic or basic, it can kill them. Not all acids and bases are bad. Aspirin and tomatoes are acidic, while milk of magnesia and baking soda are both bases.
Turbidity refers to the clarity of water, or how clear it is. This determines how much light gets into the water and how deep it goes. Excess soil erosion, dissolved solids or excess growth of microorganisms can cause turbidity. All of these can block light. Without light, plants die. Fewer plants mean less dissolved oxygen. Dead plants also increase the organic debris, which microorganisms feed on. This will further reduce the dissolved oxygen. No dissolved oxygen means other aquatic life forms cannot live in the water.
After testing these parameters, make a note of the time of year, current weather conditions, cloud cover, air temperature and any other environmental observations that may affect the tests.
best of luckPlease let me know if you need any clarification. I'm always happy to answer your questions.
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Dystocia occurs when a cow or heifer has a difficult time giving birth. Heifers have more of a problem with dystocia than cows, regardless of the operation’s genetic program, says Chris Reinhardt, PhD, Kansas State University. The total percent of calf mortality due to dystocia has increased between 1991 to 2005, according to data from the National Animal Health Monitoring System’s Beef 2007-2008 study. Reinhardt adds that NAHMS data shows that half of the calves in the country are from herds under 50 head, total calf mortality due to dystocia is higher in the 1-49 head herds.
Failure of passive transfer in calves can be caused by dystocia and poor cow nutrition/body score condition (BCS) at calving. Reinhardt says poor body condition at calving is a welfare issue for heifers and cows, and the follow occurs at different body condition scores:
- If under a BCS of 5, the cow or heifer will produce less and poorer quality colostrum.
- Under a 4, she will have less stamina during parturition and might quit in a difficult calving situation. The calf itself will have a lower energy supply during and after parturition.
- Under a BCS of 5 there can be decreased calf survival. | <urn:uuid:3ace6e7d-c0ab-4f33-ad74-d237ad502009> | {
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Definition - What does Grime mean?
Grime refers to surface contaminants that commonly appear as dust/dirt mixed with oil, wax, etc. It is required to be removed from a material's substrate before applying coatings or paints, in order to avoid coating failures as well as to protect from corrosion.
Grime is very dangerous in electronics circuits, for example on monitor chassis boards, where high temperatures cause the outgassing of components coated with wax. This wax creates an enabling environment to form a sticky film on the board that traps dirt. The high-voltage potential of the monitor anode causes the monitor boards to be filthy and damaged.
Corrosionpedia explains Grime
Grime is a surface contaminant that causes coating defects or paint failures. Paint, by nature, bonds to the substrate. Paint needs a clean and stable substrate surface to adhere to. The presence of any dust, dirt or grime on the substrate surface results in compromising the ability of any surface coating to stick to the material's surface.
Metal parts are normally covered with surface contaminants like grime, oil and other impurities. This grime and oil can cause a metal coating to not adhere properly to a metal part, which results in the loss of consistency and quality of the metal coat. To avoid these contaminants, proper parts cleaning is essential to clear away all grime, dirt and chemicals that are present on the substrates.
Like a dirty surface, a glossy surface does not allow the new coating to grasp the surface. De-gloss all shiny surfaces by sanding or using a proper liquid de-glosser, along with removing dirt and grime.
Since grime usually consists of some form of oil or wax, it requires a detergent followed by mild scrubbing in order to remove the surface contaminants. It can be easily done through spraying the surface with a generous amount of a household, non-phosphate-based cleaner and rinsing. Grime can also be removed by wire-brushing. | <urn:uuid:817bb976-be60-4e25-9a2c-a130a2d0177b> | {
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Managing some 35,000 archaeological sites on over 13.5 million acres of public lands in New Mexico is a daunting task. Fortunately, BLM has excellent partners who help us identify, record, and monitor cultural resources.
Learn more about our partners’ intriguing research projects and their dedicated efforts to watch for natural damage and vandalism at remote sites.
Did you know that Native New Mexicans have flourished here for thousands of years, leaving evidence of their camps, villages, and art on public lands? During the past four centuries, European explorers, soldiers, and settlers also made New Mexico their home.
Want to learn more about archaeology and history?
BLM New Mexico’s cultural resources management program is designed as a comprehensive system for identifying, planning the appropriate use of, and managing cultural resources on the public lands in New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas. Visitors can help us with this mission by treating cultural resources with respect.
Preserve Our Past / Stop Looting Brochure | <urn:uuid:7a1a1ac8-49fc-4559-885b-742e6bb7c3c1> | {
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Hydroponics, the growing of plants without soil, has developed from the findings of experiments carried out to determine what substances make plants grow and the composition of plants. Such work on plant constituents dates back as early as the 1600s. However, plants were being grown in a soilless culture far earlier than this. Hydroponics is at least as ancient as the pyramids. A primitive form has been carried on in Kashmir for centuries.
The process of hydroponics growing in our oceans goes back to about the time the earth was created. Hydroponic growing preceded soil growing. But as a farming tool, many believe it started in the ancient city of Babylon with it's famous hanging gardens, which are listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and was probably one of the first successful attempts to grow plants hydroponically. | <urn:uuid:b37b0595-1ede-424d-8323-347e9d0da6d1> | {
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Latin: ordo, rank
A sacrament of the New Law, instituted by Christ, by which spiritual power is given and grace is conferred for the performance of sacred duties. There are seven orders in the Latin Church: four minor, acolyte, exorcist, reader, and porter; and three major, or sacred orders, subdeacon, deacon, and priest. Since the episcopate is the fullness and the perfection of the priesthood, it is included in the priesthood. Though there are seven orders, there is but one Sacrament of Holy Orders. Three orders are of Divine institution, the episcopate, the priesthood, and the diaconate, and produce grace ex opere operato. Bishops are superior to priests and have greater power, while priests are in turn superior to deacons. The remaining orders are of ecclesiastical institution.
MATTER AND FORM
For minor orders, the instruments whose use is commanded by the Roman Pontifical are the matter; the words pronounced by the minister as the ordinandus touches the instruments, are the form. For the subdiaconate, the instruments used, i.e., paten and chalice, and the book of the Epistles, are the matter; the words, pronounced by the minister as he offers the instruments to the ordinandus, are the form. For the diaconate, the matter is the imposition of the right hand of the bishop on the head of the ordinandus; the words, “Receive the Holy Ghost,” spoken by tle bishop as he conforms the above action, are the form. There are two opinions regarding the matter and form of the priesthood and the episcopate. For the priesthood, some contend that the matter is the first imposition of hands made by the bishop; while the form is the prayer and the preface immediately following, as found in the Roman Pontifical. Others hold that the imposition of hands together with the giving of the instruments constitute the matter; while the form is the words pronounced by the bishop at the imposition of hands and the giving of the instruments. For the episcopate some authorities declare that the essential matter is the imposition of hands made by the consecrating bishop; and the prayer pronounced by the bishop as he imposes hands is the form. Others claim that the partial or total matter is the imposition of the book of the Gospels on the shoulders of the conseorandus, while the form is the words “Receive the Holy Ghost,” pronounced as this action is performed. In practise whatever is prescribed by the Church in ordination must be observed; thus in this, as in other sacraments, the Church insists, that anything omitted, must be supplied.
The effects of the minor orders and the subdiaconate are to confer spiritual power, enabling the recipient to discharge the duties and offices proper to each individual order. The effects of the diaconate and of the major orders are the supernatural effects proper to a sacrament:
- the increase of sanctifying grace as befits a sacrament of the living
- sacramental grace, i.e., the right to actual graces so that the Divine Office and its obligations can be rightly fulfilled
- an indelible character imprinted on the soul (according to the more common opinion, each of the above orders im- prints a new character on the soul, distinct one from the other)
- the bestowal of spiritual power, enabling the recipient to discharge the sacred offices, i.e., empowering priests to consecrate, to administer the sacraments, to preach, etc., the bishop to be the ordinary minister of Confirmation, to ordain, to consecrate, and the deacon to chant the Gospel, etc.
MINISTER AND SUBJECT
The ordinary minister of a valid ordination is a consecrated bishop; the extraordinary minister can be a priest who obtains the power to confer some orders, either from law or Apostolic indult, e.g., a cardinal or an abbot nullius can confer first tonsure and the minor orders. The minister of episcopal consecration is a bishop, who is assisted by two other bishops; the Holy See can dispense from the need of co-consecrating bishops. Only a baptized male is capable of receiving Holy Orders; also there is required in the adult recipient, an habitual intention of receiving the sacrament. For lawful ordination, the Church demands that the candidate is of due age and knowledge, is free from irregularity and excommunication, is of good life, and shows signs of a vocation, and finally that the interstices are observed, i.e., that the candidate for the priesthood shall receive and exercise the various orders, both minor and major, which precede the priesthood. | <urn:uuid:f0a9a212-65ec-4ec7-a258-007d235a40ba> | {
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07 July 2007 (07.07.07) marks the midway to the international communitys commitments for creating a better world for its citizens. What have we achieved is the BIG QUESTION now.
Keep your Promises to World's Children
There are so many pressing human needs - it is hard to prioritise them. We need to combat HIV and other epidemic diseases, as well as terrorism, drug trafficking, and military conflicts. We need clean water, sanitation, health care and immunisations, and adequate nutrition - not to mention environmental protection and
an adequate standard of living. The list goes on and is daunting. But, we ought to think of not only how many human rights issues are linked to child labour, but how many of these issues can be
addressed by redirecting millions child labourers to school - for example, HIV education, immunisations, nutrition, etc. Quality education can make an important contribution to a culture of global tolerance and world peace and security.
07 July 2007 (07.07.07) marks the midway to the international community’s commitments for creating a better world for its citizens. What have we achieved is the BIG QUESTION now.
Points of Concern
The first MDG target – to get as many girls as boys into primary and secondary school by 2005 – was missed in over 90 countries. In countries such as Niger and Burkina Faso, only one in three girls go to school at all.
In 2006, failure to reach the 2005 MDG gender-parity target will result in over 1 million unnecessary child and maternal deaths. Educated women have greater knowledge about health issues and greater bargaining power in the household, which has a positive impact on their own health and that of their children.
HIV/AIDS infection rates double among young people who do not finish primary school. If every girl and boy received a complete primary education, at least seven million new cases of HIV could be prevented in a decade.
In many countries, school fees are a major barrier that prevents children – especially girls – from going to school. When school fees were abolished in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya, seven million additional children – many of them girls –- entered school in these three countries alone.
Well-trained and well-supported teachers are essential to providing good-quality education for girls and boys. However, there is currently a global shortage of two million teachers, and at least 15 million new teachers will be needed between now and 2015 in order to achieve education for all.
Globally, an extra $7-17 billion per year is still needed to enable all girls and boys to receive a quality primary education.
We want to know what you think about this issue
Which MDG do you believe is the most achievable of all?
Can we achieve education for all in 2015?
If no what should be the change is strategy?
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Controlling Allergens in Your Home
Do your eyes water? Does your throat itch? Perhaps you get a runny nose during certain times of the year. These are some of the common signs of an allergic reaction. Others could include itchy ears, a skin rash, swollen eyes, and a host of other symptoms that suggest you may be allergic to something in your environment. If these things persist or develop over time, see your doctor about medical testing to determine whether you have true allergies or perhaps more vague sensitivities to temporary irritants, like smoke, household cleaning chemicals, or attic dust.
Experts claim that allergy diagnoses have increased significantly over the past few decades. Improved home insulation that keeps out bad weather but also seals in airborne contaminants may be one of the reasons. Another might be due to the fact that more children are receiving better and earlier health care, which reveals childhood allergies sooner than before.
Whatever the reason, if you suspect a loved one has allergic reactions in response to any type of household allergen, ask your doctor to confirm the allergy and then take steps to control or eliminate it.
1. Many people have pet allergies, which typically is a response to a dog or cat’s skin dander that dries and sloughs off, much as human skin does, usually imperceptibly. Don’t let your pets sleep in your bedroom, which will provide at least eight hours of separation daily from this allergen. Bathe and groom your pets frequently, and vacuum two or three times a week.
2. Dust mites and their excrement irritate some people’s skin and nasal passages. Encase your mattress and pillows with plastic covers to kill the tiny creatures that inhabit those areas. Or, if this is uncomfortable, wash pillows and bedding in hot water with detergent, which will help to reduce if not eliminate the mite population. At least weekly, vacuum carpets, fabric furniture, draperies, and other similar areas that house the mites.
3. Food allergies are common, especially to products like nuts, eggs, shellfish, and chocolate. When you identify specific food groups as the problem, find healthy substitutes and check all processed foods before purchasing them to be sure they do not contain even miniscule amounts of the food group allergens. For example, someone who is allergic to nuts also may be sensitive to foods cooked in peanut oil.
4. Those with seasonal allergies should stay indoors in the early morning or on windy days and run the air conditioner to clean indoor air.
Keep antihistamines on hand, along with medication to manage serious reactions if someone is prone to these. Sensitization injections are available for certain types of allergies to gradually increase a person’s tolerance of those substances. However, this can take years, so be patient. Life-threatening reactions must be managed rapidly by injecting the person with epinephrine from a kit that he or she should carry everywhere. Seek emergency treatment if you or someone else develops a rapid or irregular heartbeat, feels faint, or experiences difficulty in breathing.
Article Source: http://www.redsofts.com/articles/
For more information on how to manage allergy symptoms, visit The Allergy Directory at http://www.allergydir.com
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Why Should People Exercise ?
Exercise for Fun
Light Weight High Repetition ExercisesTo Define, Tone And Get Ripped Muscles?
Trikke Your Way to Health
Impotence Cured With Mind Power
Supersets Weight lifting For Massive Muscle Growth
High Fibre Meals and Peak Fitness
Breathing Exercises – Importance of Holding Breath
Does Your Soulder Need A Shoulder To Cry On?
Starting a Successful Fitness Program | <urn:uuid:eadc8da3-7d1f-44ac-a934-80eea7ed1451> | {
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A comprehensive, modern vocabulary.
This concise dictionary has a detailed section on Navajo pronunciation. It includes useful everyday expressions. It is designed to aid Navajos learning English as well as English speakers interested in acquiring knowledge of Navajo. The largest of all the Native American tribes, the Navajo number about 125,000 and live mostly on reservations in Arizona, New Mexico and Utah.
12 more offers below. | <urn:uuid:5569b507-0eae-4e7a-bcdf-840c2a522933> | {
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Do you know how important can be the mineral magnesium for our health? Most people don’t. They don’t know that Magnesium is involved with over 300 metabolic processes in the body, which has lead to mineral being called the “master mineral”. You should also know how to spot a magnesium deficiency, and what the symptoms are. Gor more information, keep reading.
What does magnesium do?
It is used by every organ in your body, especially your heart, muscles and kidneys and that’s why magnesium is so important. Low levels of magnesium could be a reason if you suffer from unexplained fatique or weakness, abnormal heart rhytms or even muscle spasms and eye twitches.
It is also found in more than 300 different enzymes in the body and plays a role in your body’s detoxification processes, it is important for helping to prevent damage from environmental chemicals, heavy metals and other toxins.
The other cruicial health benefits of magnesium include:
- Proper transportation of calcium, silica, vitamin D, vitamin K, and obviously magnesium.
- Activating muscles and nerves
- Creating energy in the body
- Helping digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
- Serves as building blocks for RNA and DNA synthesis
- Acting as a precursor for neurotransmitters like serotonin
Why is magnesium so hard to come by?
Magnesium is now missing from most of our topsoil, and thanks to modern farming methods that use chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides that are absorbed into the soil, out topsoil has been heavily depleted of its mineral content.
About 80% of Americans are not getting magnesium and may be deficient. Researches have shown that about 25% of US adults are getting the recommended daily amount of 310 to 320 milligrams for women and 400 to 420 for men. Even more concerning is that consuming just this amount is only enough to ward off deficiency.
Organic foods may have more magnesium if grown in nutrient-rich soils but it is very difficult to make that determination. If you opt for a supplement, be aware that there are a wide variety of magnesium supplements on the market, because magnesium must be bound to another substance, is there’s no such thing as a 100% magnesium supplement. The substance used can affect the absorption and bioavailability of the magnesium, and may provide more targeted health benefits. Magnesium threonate and citrate are some of the best sources, as it seems to penetrate cell membranes which results in higher energy levels.
Besides taking a supplement, another way to improve your magnesium status is to take regular Epsom salt baths or foot baths. Epsom salt is a magnesium sulfate that can absorb into your body through your skin. Magnesium oil can also be used for topical application and absorption. Whatever supplement you choose, be sure to avoid any containing magnesium stearate, which is a common but potentially hazardous additive.
One good thing to remember is that it’s almost impossible to overdose magnesium, but consuming too much magnesium is still not a good idea. Too much of the mineral could lead to some side effects like irregular heartbeat or slowed breathing. Similar to oral ascorbic acid C, there is a bowel tolerance threshold that brings on diarrhea if exceeded.
How to tell if you’re getting enough magnesium?
Have you heard about the “bowel test” ? It’s the best way to tell if you are getting enough magnesium. If you have too much magnesium your stools become loose. However, this may be a blessing for people with constipation which is one of the many ways magnesium deficiency manifests.
Signs of a magnesium deficiency
Magnesium is and anti-inflamatory mineral that offers protection against illnesses like arthritis and Alzheimer’s disease. It has also been used to aid problems like high pressure, diabetes, respiratory issues, and much more.
If you’ve recently had a blood test, you might assume it would show a magnesium deficiency. But only 1% of magnesium in your body is distributed in your blood, making a simple sample of magnesium from a serum magnesium blood test not very helpful.
This is because magnesium operates on a cellular level and accumulates in organ and nerve tissue, so even good results with blood testing are very often deceptive. Here are some telltale signs:
- Anxiety/Panic Attacks
- Bowel Diseases
- Blood Clots
- Calcium Deficiency
- Difficulty Swallowing
- High Blood Pressure/Heart Disease
- Liver & Kidney Disease
- Muscle Cramps
- Nerve Problems/Tremors
- Personality Changes
- PMS, Infertility & Preeclampsia)
- Poor Heart Health
- Poor Memory
- Potassium Deficiency
- Respiratory Issues
- Raynaud’s Syndrome
- Tooth Decay
- Type II Diabetes
How to get more magnesium?
The products that feature magnesium citrate, which is among the most readily absorbed forms of magnesium supplements are not that expensive.
Magnesium chloride is also known as magnesium oil, though not really an oil, more of a briny solution from ancient sea beds. It is available through various online sources, so just Google magnesium oil products to locate some. You can also apply transdermal magnesium chloride topically to be absorbed internally through the skin.
Here are some of the top foods that can relieve you of any magnesium deficiency symptoms:
- Almonds & Cashews (other nuts)
- Beans & Lentils (Kidney, Soy & Black Beans)
- Dark Chocolate
- Dried Fruit (Figs)
- Pumpkin, Sesame & Sunflower Seeds
- Spinach (Dark Leafy Greens)
- Whole Grains (Brown Rice) | <urn:uuid:a62fb458-fda0-4cb7-8022-b37135594661> | {
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WASHINGTON (WJLA) - At the Maine Avenue Fish Market in Southwest D.C., you can track the supply of blue crabs coming from the Chesapeake Bay by price.
And Ryan Evans of Jessie Tyler Seafood says that this year, customers are going to have to reach for their wallets:
"It's gonna mean an expensive crab this year because we're having to get them from so far away -- Florida and Louisiana..."
And according to a new study, it may soon get even worse.
In the middle of every winter, scientists from Maryland and Virginia head out on the bay to try and count the crab population. What they do is scrape the mud on the bottom of the bay, looking for dormant crabs. What they found this year was that many crabs have been killed.
And more concerning is that the number of spawning age female crabs has dipped to a dangerously low number, less than a third of the target number of 215 million crabs set by scientists.
The immediate reason for the die-off seems to be our record cold winter, but pollution and diminished habitat compounded the problem. State officials say they now have no choice but to tighten harvest limits.
"To provide some protection for the next spawning class of females...So those will be the females that spawn in 2015 -- they are this year's juveniles," says Lynn Fegley, Director of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources Fisheries.
By saving them, the hope is that the population can bounce back in a couple of years.
So the bottom line for your crab feasts this year? Expect bushels of crabs to zoom past $200!
"Makes me sad, man. I grew up eating crabs and now they're not available like they used to be," says disappointed customer Dave Brown. | <urn:uuid:50c2790e-ef2e-4d0d-83c9-94437d51bf0e> | {
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The degradation of the environment compromises not only our survival but also the survival of most living things here on earth. How we build our homes; the materials we use and the design we create can affect the future. Building our home doesn’t seem to affect our planet but it does it ways that we don’t know are harmful for the environment. Due to this, green home building has been created to not only satisfy the people living in it but to make the environment happy as well.
Why Build Green?
Building green homes will give residents more comfortable homes that cost less to operate, last longer, and keep occupants healthy. Through this you are also given the opportunity to help the environment by creating homes that are efficient, use less resources, and reduce their impact. Green building also helps us save energy, cut greenhouse gas emissions, conserve natural resources, improve air and water quality, and reduce waste.
A study had shown that if all buildings in the U.S. met leading green building standards, national energy use and global warming emissions would drop by ten percent. Not only that, there is the potential of reducing waste which means a lot as the rate of construction waste recycling at over 70 percent. Managing storm water is also critical in green building; once you have successfully built a green home, you can make your site work like a forest: absorbing water, nurturing trees that clean our air and cool our city, and give kids a place to safely play and explore the natural world.
Just imagine these factors: How much energy is embodied in the building materials, their transportation and assembling? And once the house is built, how much energy does it consume to keep its inhabitants comfortable? The consumption of energy plays a major role in the environment as the pollution it causes result to greenhouse gasses and many other emissions. Not only that, natural beauty is spoilt and lost and the natural balance of the earth is disrupted.
Simple Ways to Build Simple Houses
Building green homes is a process that grows out of a connection with the natural landscape. Decisions are made on the site and materials used so builders may be able to reduce the cost and maintenance as well as reduce the energy usage of the home. Conservation is key in building green homes; the result is a more comfortable, healthy and safe home that costs less to operate.
Things to consider when building a green home:
Passive Solar Design
In all climate conditions, this design is used for natural heating and cooling. It is essential to know the tips on building a solar design depending on the climate of your country. For warm climates, the broad side of the house should be faced to the north or south to avoid excessive heat gain while in cold climates solar heat should be absorbed by concrete or stone to be slowly released in the evening.
Ventilated Attic Spaces
Attic spaces accumulate heat in hot climates which will transfer to the rooms below while moisture can accumulate in unventilated attic spaces in cold climates. The house must have continuous eave and roof vents that will create natural flow through the attic. Good insulation in the attic is essential for comfortable indoor temperature.
Reduced Water Needs
Your home should have rainwater catchment systems. You may use gutters and barrels/drums to catch and store water that falls from the roofs. For home appliances, pick a front loading washing machines and dishwashers that have no heat-drying.
Small AC Systems will do
A smaller system runs long enough to reach desired cool temperature and clear the air of humidity while oversized system will cool too quickly leaving the room clammy. A smaller system also lasts longer and it is of course, cheaper.
Use Recyclable or Recycled Materials
As much as possible use locally produced and easily renewed materials like bamboo, wood, and earth. Also create a space wherein you can recycle household trash.
Use Safe Materials
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Doctors, nurses, paramedics, police officers, emergency dispatchers, firefighters, retail workers, and home health aids all have one thing in common — shift work. Shift work includes jobs where individuals are needed around the clock, generally consisting of hours outside of 9:00am-5:00pm. Approximately one in five individuals hold a job with rotating shifts, often including overnights.
3 weeks ago, Lindsay discussed the importance of getting adequate sleep, and Sheela addressed the implications of pulling an all nighter. But what about those individuals who have rotating sleep schedules and have to stay up all night? Are night shifts dangerous to health?
The Journal of Neural Transmission published an article which reviewed studies that looked at the implications of rotating between work schedules and more specifically, working night shifts. Major findings include:
- Small likelihood of developing a depressive mood in shift work over 10 years, most often seen in men over 45 years of age.
- Nurses working night shifts were significantly more apt to report symptoms of somatization, obsessive-compulsiveness, interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety, and paranoia compared to day shift workers.
- Poorer mental health was associated with shift work, however, it is unclear whether this has to do with long shifts (11-12 hours) or actual shift work.
- Difficulty maintaining a social life, due to free time that is misaligned with others working 9:00am-5:00pm.
- Reduced spouse satisfaction and an increase in divorce was found in 2 studies reviewed.
- Chronic effects included moderately increased prevalence of intestinal, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases.
- Gastrointestinal problems, such as ulcers were found widely inconsistent between studies.
- Increased risk of breast cancer in women and increased risk of prostate cancer in men, however, studies show low correlation between cancer and shift work.
- Possible increase in fatal effects on unborn children.
- Increased risk of traffic accidents after night shifts.
So, what are the possible reasons for seeing these potential health effects in shift and night workers? One reason may be due to offsetting the body’s circadian rhythm, the control of psychological and physiological functions, such as sleep, temperature, and digestion.
Humans are programmed to sleep when it’s dark out and be awake and alert when it is light out. This cycle is what makes it difficult to flip the switch and be alert at night, and have quality sleep during the day. An article published in Clinical Medicine describes the cumulative loss of sleep resulting from night shifts as, “sleep debt” and is also associated with:
- fatigue which may lead to reduced performance
- sleep deprivation
- low levels of alertness, vigilance, and cognitive reasoning
- decreased judgement on performance
- impaired knowledge that has recently been acquired
The circadian rhythm releases melatonin at night in order to assist with sleeping. Offsetting the processes of the circadian rhythm due to irregular sleep and activity may be associated with the above findings. However, keeping sleep debt to a minimum and receiving social support from family, friends and co-workers may assist in making shift work more bearable and less harmful to health.
Additional tips from the article in Clinical Medicine for shift work and balancing circadian rhythm include:
In order to ease transitioning to a night shift…
- Repay as much sleep debt as possible before switching to a night shift.
- Sleep in later the morning before your first night shift.
- Take at least a 2 hour late afternoon nap to benefit from deep sleep.
- In your bedroom, avoid watching TV, using a computer or playing video games.
- Sleep in your bed and not on the couch or in a chair.
- Try not to worry about the previous or upcoming shift.
- If after 30 minutes, you still cannot fall asleep, try getting up and listening to relaxing music or take a bath. Don’t stress about not being able to fall asleep in bed.
- If possible, take a 20-45 minute nap in a quiet and dark place to improve alertness.
- Try to nap before feeling tired.
- Maximize bright light, even if its from a desk or overhead lamp.
- Try to maintain a similar eating schedule to the one you have during day shifts.
- If you consume caffeine, have it in small doses and not within 4 hours before your shift is over to allow for being able to sleep during the day.
- Wear dark sunglasses driving home so the light doesn’t trigger alertness.
- Keep sleep debt under control.
- Avoid distractions and try going to bed right when getting home.
- If you are hungry, have something easy to digest before laying down. | <urn:uuid:f6b5ecc5-043f-4017-827f-8065d1a3a0ec> | {
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Listen to today's episode of StarDate on the web the same day it airs in high-quality streaming audio without any extra ads or announcements. Choose a $8 one-month pass, or listen every day for a year for just $30.
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The shortest season on Mars arrives today — autumn in the northern hemisphere, and spring in the south. The season will last just 142 Mars days. That’s 52 days shorter than northern spring.
The difference is the result of Mars’s lopsided orbit. The distance between Mars and the Sun varies by about 25 million miles. When Mars is farthest from the Sun, it moves slower than when it’s closest to the Sun. That stretches one season, and compresses another.
The differing seasons would make it hard to create a Martian calendar that’s tied to the seasons. That hasn’t stopped people from trying, though. They’ve come up with several ideas.
Some schemes divide the year into 12 equal months, like those on Earth. Others use 18 months, or even 24. And still others have tried months of different lengths.
The concept of a “month” wouldn’t be as important on Mars as it is on Earth. A month here is based on the Moon’s cycle of phases, which lasts 29 and a half days. But the two Martian moons move across the sky much faster. The tiny outer moon, Deimos, completes its cycle of phases in just five and a half days. And the bigger inner moon, Phobos, crosses the sky twice every day. So the moons probably won’t be much help in designing a calendar for the Red Planet.
And Mars is climbing into better view by the day. Right now, it’s about a third of the way up the southern sky at first light, and looks like a bright orange star.
Script by Damond Benningfield | <urn:uuid:f5fd88c4-db4e-4fd8-880f-c76c6d981105> | {
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The problems of the former Yugoslavia are rooted in the problems of history. The Yugoslav state was established as a unitary Slav kingdom of three nations, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes but was dominated by the Serbs until WWII. Its short history has been characterised by conflicts and crises arising in large part from the friction between Croats and Serbs.
That Yugoslavia was even allowed to remain ethnically diverse after WWII was unusual in itself. Concerned that ethnic politics were a contributor to two world wars the Allies undertook their own ethnic cleansing program in Europe. This caused enormous upheavals by forcing large emigrations in an attempt to fit populations to borders.
It could be argued that the problems of the 1990s happened because nothing was set in place which would prevent it. Ethnic cleansing has been on ongoing process within the former Yugoslavia. As an example, between the 1960s and 1980s over 200,000 people were forced to emigrate and more than 700 villages were cleansed in the predominantly Albanian area of Kosovo.
The right of secession was given to each Yugoslav nation under the 1946, 63, and 74 constitutions. Under Article One it read that Yugoslavia was,
...a community of equal peoples which, on the basis of self-determination, including the right of secession, have expressed the will to live together in a federal state
Therefore, the Croatians and Bosnians had a legal right to form their own state(s), and the underlying humans rights problem is derived from the role of ethnicity.
Human rights problems in a state derive from, and are shaped by, the nature of the society concerned, the form of the political regime, and the policies of the political rulers. Given the above background, any Yugoslav government would have faced serious problems in establishing its authority amongst the citizens who made up the former Yugoslavia. The only alternative to a strong government, who used force and repression to curb nationalism, was federal disintegration.
In the former Yugoslavia human rights problems are compounded by the impact of forty years of communist rule in a country composed of different national groupings. Socialist doctrine emphasises economic and social rights over those of civil and political rights. Until his death, the federal leadership provided by Tito was recognised and unquestioned by local leaders.
With his demise Yugoslavia lurched from one political crisis to another, the economy went into serious decline, the federation broke apart, and into eventual anarchy. Given the strife-torn background of the Yugoslav state which emerged in 1918, its chequered inter-war history, the bitter experience of Axis occupation, and its latter civil war, there would be no easy answers.
Since human rights are those basic moral rights which all persons ought to have accorded to them under law, the essential pre-condition for their implementation is a domestic legal sysytem based on the rule of law (as long as those laws are not in conflict with the requirements of the International Covenant on Civil and Polilitical rights).
The main characteristics of the rule of law are government by publicly enacted, clearly defined laws, the absence of arbitary arrest or detention without trial, and trial before independent courts which are both fair and effective. While the current state of anarchy reigns, backed by the government of Serbia, human rights can not be upheld.
Beset by these problems, what role did the United States play? There is no doubt that human rights played an important part in Bill Clintons foreign policy, although its significance varied with time and place as he steered between the courses of Jimmy Carter, who was accused of meddling with the affairs of other states, and Ronald Reagan, who chose at times to ignore human rights abuses in the guise of "moderately repressive regimes", particularly in Central America.
It began to be seen that major powers could no longer pursue alliances, international business, or foreign relations without some regard for human rights. Human rights are now intrinsically bound with national interests and can no longer be ignored. Both George Bush Snr. and Bill Clinton declared that the new enemy was instability, and that their task was nothing less than to exorcise tyranny, aggression, and instability from the world. This has clearly followed on under the current presidency.
If the U.S. were to see these as threats in themselves, it will adopt a somewhat paranoid position in a chaotic world. If President Bush equates U.S. security with world order, he may find it difficult to rein in Americas customary imperial overstretch. It should be remembered that foreign policy is primarily designed to serve defence, not ambitions of greatness.
Why is it that George Bush Snr. chose to liberate an undemocratic Kuwait and why was he more anxious to send troops to Somalia where he knew the opposition will be light? Why does the U.S. protect Kurdish enclaves in Iraq but did not institute anything as strong for Bosnians?
America is struggling to define its role as the lonely superpower. Now is the time to step back from the role of global policeman and give the U.N. greater authority. This is not only to ensure that the U.S. can not be accused of acting imperialistically or unilaterally, but that other nations are allowed to share the burden of the new world order.
We must empower the U.N. and its agencies to fulfil the role it was created for. In the long term the U.S. will not achieve anything by charging into Iraq, and the possibility of a drawn out and widening conflict is unacceptable. We must support the U.N. in its many efforts, to have displaced persons absorbed by other countries, to decry abuses by all parties to the Israel/Palestinian conflict, to fairly monitor the sanctions against Iraq, encourage the opposition of those many Iraqis who are against the ambitions of Sadaam, and ensure that aid is distributed equitably where needed. All people beset by these and other conflicts must be ensured an opportunity to have their future decided fairly, and not at the point of a gun.
© 1993-2008, Nicholas Klar, PO Box 280, Brighton SA 5048, AUSTRALIA
May be reproduced for personal use only. Any reproduction in print or in any fixed or for-profit medium is not allowed without written permission. If any of these pages are copied, downloaded or printed the copyright statement must remain attached.
Any use of this or other works for academic and/or other research must be duly acknowledged by bibliography or reference.
REF: Nicholas Klar, 1992, "U.S Foreign Policy: Human Rights, Yugoslavia and the Middle East" - http://klarbooks.com/academic/yugomehr.html + date accessed | <urn:uuid:8da57f80-58ba-404f-ad7b-d89e6c092349> | {
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Immunization management product is important and efficient if this guarantees our prime quality of vaccines guarantees continuity of immunization services rich in coverage and reduces wastage. Consequently, insufficient a highly effective immunization management system leads within the low performance because it is noted within numerous immunization management systems with poor vaccine stock monitoring at every single level, poor handling and storage of vaccine additionally to high vaccine wastage. Immunization is among the most significant public health accomplishments from the twenty-first century since immunization helps in preserving lives too as with protection against fatal illnesses. Immunization has shown to become a cost-effective public heath gauge that may be shipped effectively to people of any age including hard-to-achieve and susceptible populations. The important thing goal of immunization would be to safeguard people and also the society from vaccine avoidable ailments. Presently, immunization management systems happen to be good at getting rid of several vaccine avoidable illnesses like polio, measles and diphtheria. These illnesses happen to be controlled through effective immunization management systems. Immunization management system safeguard individuals from vaccine avoidable illnesses and simultaneously provides protection towards the bigger society by &ldquoherd immunity&rdquo, a type of community that happens once the vaccination of high number of people offers protection to venerable people. A loss of immunization rates migh result to breakouts or perhaps a reappearance of those illnesses. Consequently, upkeep of effective immunization management system rich in vaccine coverage is essential for individuals and also the bigger society. Within this paper, I’ll examine the value of a highly effective immunization management system in marketing standardized practices, regarding the required assessment of status of faculty pupils. Immunization management system gives recommendations to public health models to furthermore support Public Health Standards inside the section of immunization additionally to vaccine avoidable disease control.
Immunization management system offers the standards that establish the objectives and needs for programs, and anticipated board of health insurance and social results. Immunization management system is an element from the infectious illnesses standard. Methods within Immunization management system further define the particular particulars along with the needs in each and every sub-program.
Effective immunization management assessment
Effective immunization management assessment is really a tool that’s utilized in assessment of the standard of vaccines&rsquo logistics. It utilizes an excellent management approach structured around nine concepts through which supply chains are meant to conform.
Effective immunization management assessment can be used is assessing vaccine store across all groups from the system: in the national to health center category.
The talents of effective immunization management system bring that almost every single site that’s evaluated has good temperature monitoring, sufficient cold chain capacity, together with solid structures, equipment and transport infrastructure together with possibilities for improvement. Throughout strengthening from the system, you should catalyze the introduction of standard operating ways to enhance arrival of vaccines, management and distribution from the stock.
Board of Health Roles and Duties
It’s of health have the effect of supporting standardized practices regarding immunization management system for that evaluation and control over immunization records for that school pupils. The provided roles and needs provide a reliable method for interpretation, implementation in addition to enforcement from the standards. Public health models are needed to judge, keep and keep record and report regarding immunization status of faculty going children. It is crucial to consider a regular positive message and approach when applying the record review process, mainly throughout enforcement of ISPA. Despite the fact that collection, review and follow-up on immunization is an optimistic participation in health protection and disease prevention for kids, it might be regarded as an adverse approach. Incoherent interpretation, implementation and enforcement from the ISPA may cause confusion and frustration towards the parents, instructors as well as public health models.
At the moment, public health models take advantage of the provincial database, immunization records information system in recording and upkeep of student immunization records.
Collection, storage and revealing of immunization information
Collecting Immunization Records
Assortment of immunization specifics of children in schools should comply with the appropriate legislation. Public health models can determine the necessity to gather any a number of these details of all the student: full names, birth date, sex and also the title from the school.
All immunization information for that selected illnesses including kind of vaccine, the vaccination date and then any responses towards the vaccine, Statement of medical exemption, statement of conscience or religious belief additionally to note transfer.
Additional information at public health unit&rsquos diplomacy
All public health models are meant to talk to their information privacy office or legal counsels to make certain a legitimate justification for that assortment of personal health information for immunization management systems. Public health models are meant to have guidelines in addition to secure systems in position to guard the safety from the PHI that’s collected, for example saved with discretion and locked atmosphere. While collecting PHI, public health models are meant to provide, notice illustrating the PHI being collected, a rationale for that reason of collecting the data, specifics of the data being collected and also the means by that the information is going to be used. It’s also vital that you make certain that individuals know that they’ve the mandate of giving or withholding accept to offer PHI being asked for with no penalty and consent documents for treatment are meant to clearly differentiate accept to treatment from accept to collecting the data.
Accept to collecting personal/ health information
Consent may be necessary for situations when collecting PHI, while using the information so when revealing it. The kind of consent needed is founded on who the details are being distributed to along with the primary reason behind collecting the data. Public health models are meant to review their information gathering practices using their privacy and legal experts periodically to make certain that there’s conformity with practical laws and regulations and finest practices.
Commune cooling assessment
The objective of commune cooling assessment would be to collect specifics of the constant maintenance of vaccines at controlled temps in the commune level. The assessment also contain a temperature monitoring component which accounts for calculating temps both inside and outdoors from the cold chain.
Good storage and distribution practices
Storage, shipping additionally to storage and distribution of pharmaceutical items are the activities active in the immunization management system. The character from the risk involved might generally be individuals involved throughout the manufacturing from the vaccines. Including this mixture ups, exposure from the vaccines to extreme environment conditions in addition to both contamination and mix contamination from the vaccines.
The standard of immunization items can have insufficient enough control of several activities experienced throughout storage and distribution procedure. Furthermore the distribution procedure just been lately effectively-stressed regarding the requirement of creating, developing, maintaining and controlling of activities involved with control over immunizations. To keep the initial quality of immunization items, all activities active in the storage and distribution ought to be completed in compliance using the concepts and standards of excellent Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Storage Practice (GSP) and Good Distribution Practice (GDP).
You will find therefore, elements kept in storage additionally to distribution that concepts of excellent manufacturing practice should be applied. They include, though not restricted to, storage, distribution, moving, packaging, labeling, documentation and record-keeping practices.
Good storage and distribution practices help in making a certain the standard and integrity of immunization items when storing, shipping and disbursing these items. Effective monitoring of storage facilities in addition to distribution methods is a crucial facet of good storage and distribution practices in immunization management system. In addition, all regulating physiques give strict scrutiny during these fields and wish correct measurement and documentation too.
Immunization items should be saved within locations where stick to conditions established through the manufacturer from the immunization items. Shippers and marketers should comply and stick to the needed and appropriate storage and shipping needs as per the maker. Much more, storage and distribution is a crucial activity from the integrated logistics control over immunization items. Differing people and organizations are usually accountable for the handling, storing and disbursing the immunization items. Numerous current recommendations are available to pay attention to significant factors that help make certain the security and effectiveness of immunization items when storing, shipping and disbursing them is noted.
WHO perspective in immunization management system
Immunization programs have to face several challenges particularly in third world countries. The world goals of immunization management system for the following couple of years include
· Eliminating poliomyelitis, controlling and getting rid of measles and controlling of yellow fever and along with eradication of maternal neonatal tetanus and much more.
· Improvement of immunization coverage and extension of immunization services to remote populations, particularly among private industries.
· Introduction of several new vaccines.
Every task is new stuff that amplifies inside a cumulative fashion which managers handling immunizations and vaccines ought to be dedicated to tackle. The opinion that cold chain and immunization items&rsquo distribution systems in several nations are disintegrating has impelled WHO to mainly concentrate strengthening the immunization management system. Our prime degree of vaccine wastage, poor employment of accessible guidelines additionally to tools like vaccine Vial Monitor (VVM), and multi-dose vial policy (MDVP) also have stressed the necessity to have enhanced and immunization management practices.
Undesirable occasions due to partly inapt vaccine distribution practices will also be perceived to possess an adverse effect on immunization management system. With demands like multi-skilled health staff, high staff turnover rates, and introduction of recent vaccines and technologies, the requirement of learning enhanced immunization management practices has switched to be considered a priority. This atmosphere prompts for that establishment of the new support system to optimize immunization management systems. This therefore rationalizes the establishment of immunization management courses under WHO.
Cold chain and logistics
This refers back to the system of person, guidelines, processes, transportation, equipment additionally to technologies that actually work collectively to make sure that vaccines provided to people are effective and safe. Since the majority of the immunizations have specific temperature needs, a competent cold chain and logistics management system eliminates both extreme warmth and cold from interfering and harmful the vaccines from the moment they’re manufactured till when they’re used.
Need for Cold chain and logistics in immunization management system
A competent and competent logistics system and effectively maintained cold chain are essential and essential for effective and safe immunization service delivery. An wrongly functioning cold chain migh result into wasted immunization items, skipped possibilities to handle immunization due to insufficient vaccines, in addition to children getting vaccines that don’t safe guard them as intended or that the truth is make sure they are sick. Issues with aging or deficient cold chain equipment, additionally to move and storage gave switched to become more critical as new and pricey vaccines are now being introduced. Each immunization management system should really evaluate cold chain equipment sometimes and reinstate damaged equipment not worth repairing. Using the plans of presenting, developing, implementation of recent vaccines within the immunization management system, further devices are needed to be able to handle the elevated storage needs. Financing for cold chain and logistics can also be said to be given important. | <urn:uuid:52d6c8d0-21dd-48f7-940c-7d25bf92d268> | {
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Making students accountable for test scores works well on a bumper sticker and it allows many politicians to look good by saying that they will not tolerate failure. But it represents a hollow promise. Far from improving education, high- stakes testing marks a major retreat from fairness, from accuracy, from quality, and from equity.
– Sen. Paul Wellstone (1944-2002)
Could you imagine Joel Klein, George Bush, Barack Obama, Arne Duncan or Michelle Rhee saying anything like this?
In Alberta, Canada, we have a very strong understanding for how foolish the American Education System’s obsession with standardized test scores truly is; and yet we still have a very strong test score focus.
Mission statements are cute, but if school districts want to strive for excellence by inspiring learning and nurturing hope in every student, they have to do more than just say it – and they can’t simply resign themselves to the way they’ve always done things.
School districts need to rethink how they define and measure success. In Alberta, we still place far too much emphasis on narrow minded, paper and pencil, multiple choice exams. If we really care about excellence for all – inspiring learning in all – nurturing hope in all – then we need to define and measure success in a less standardized manner. But then that means we need to drop or obsessive need to measure our success in a way that compares one kid or one school to other kids and other schools. If we no longer feel the need to compare then we no longer feel the need to standardize.
If we no longer need to standardize for the purpose of data collections, then we can properly personalize learning in a way that is inspiring and nurturing for all. | <urn:uuid:c07547a6-e468-4a96-9108-38c1b2e479da> | {
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North America is the northern and more expansive part of the American dual continent and as such, it is the third largest continent in the world after Asia and Africa. It encompasses Greenland (a self-governing province of Denmark), Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France), Canada, the United States of America, and Mexico, with its southern border either at Golfo de Tehuantepec in Mexico or at Panama depending on purpose and context, so that it sometimes (applying the latter) also includes Central America and the West Indies (also known as the Caribbean Islands; the Antilles and the Bahama Islands).
The United Nations, applying a political perspective, includes Central America and the West Indies, but climatologically and culturally, these have more in common with South America. With the more inclusive definition, the continent covers 24,400,000 km2 and is home to some 440,000,000 people.
Located between the Atlantic Ocean in the east and the Pacific Ocean and Asia, from which it is separated by the 90 km wide Bering Strait, in the west, the continent stretches north to south some 7,000 km, thereby featuring everything from polar to subtropical and tropical climate, with most of its landmass experiencing a temperate inland climate, protected by the Rocky Mountains, Coast Mountains, the Cascade Range, the Coast Ranges, Sierra Nevada in the west and the Appalachian Mountains in the east.
The Countries of North America
plus several colonies of North and South American and European countries, always including
and sometimes including (and most likely not limited to)
Source: Alla världens länder (2000). Bonnier Lexikon AB, n.p.
Thanks to Gorgonzola for pointing out Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which I had missed. | <urn:uuid:fc8de294-fbd2-49c3-b6f9-5a662921e78f> | {
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The Works of Oscar Wilde (15 volumes)
Place Published: New York
Publisher: Lamb Publishing Co.
Date Published: 1909
Edition: Sunflower Edition, Limited Edition
Book Id: 33540
Octavo [20.5 cm] Beige cloth covered boards with green gilt stamped spine labels. Top edges gilt. Other edges deckled. Nine of the volumes in very good condition and six volumes are in good condition. The extremities are ever so slightly soiled, and have very sporadic small light stains. The spines are occasionally rolled slightly forward or back. The spine labels are rubbed, and sometimes faded. Minor bumping to the spine ends and corners. The pages are clean and bright. The text blocks of six of the volumes are cracked near the beginning or center (one is cracked twice). The majority of the bindings are very tight. There is a 1 and 1/2 inch long closed tear in the front free endsheet of The Decay of Lying. May require extra postage due to weight.
Illustrated. Number 774 of 1000 numbered sets. Oscar Wilde was deeply affected by beauty and lived and dressed flamboyantly compared to the typical Victorian fashions and mores of the time. He was widely caricatured and became the target of much moral outrage in Europe and America. His writings such as The Picture of Dorian Gray with homo erotic undertones also brought much controversy for him. Despite all of this, he played an important part in the ever-growing movement of 'decadents' who believed in pacifism, social reform, and libertarianism. | <urn:uuid:5658b50d-7ef8-4dc8-84da-84b74291cadb> | {
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The latest Library exhibit, opening May 31, 2017, presents a less-examined side of political debates and demonstrations during the Vietnam War era.
As United States military involvement in Vietnam escalated during the late 1960s, students at colleges and universities around the world mobilized against the war. From the Sorbonne in Paris to Kent State University in Ohio, campus life erupted in protest. Here at Portland State in 1970, students and faculty blockaded the South Park Blocks, demonstrating in opposition to the war, the military’s physical transport of nerve gas across Oregon, the Kent State killings, and the imprisonment of Black Panther leader Bobby Seale.
While the themes and images of those protests have become emblematic of that turbulent period, what is often overlooked is that new conservative movements rose up on campuses at the same time. In 1960, William F. Buckley Jr. and some of his contemporaries founded the Young Americans for Freedom (YAF). The group’s purpose was to promote conservative values in young people during a time of heavy political mobilization by the Left in the U.S. and abroad.
“Conservatism in a Revolutionary Era” takes its title from a manifesto of the YAF. The exhibit, curated by Honors student Mariah Denman, examines the reactions, rhetoric, and recruitment of this counter-counter-cultural student organization through its mission, publicity, and fundraising.
The Americanism Collection
The publications of the YAF are part of PSU Special Collections’ Charles M. White Americanism Collection, which contains materials related to or disseminated by American far Right conservative organizations from the 1950s through the early 1980s.
Dr. White, a long-time faculty member of Portland State’s Department of History, had focused his doctoral work on far Left movements in the United States. As a counterbalance, he shifted his scholarly focus to the other end of the political spectrum. For over three decades, Dr. White and his students gathered, organized, and preserved materials from dozens of right-wing groups.
The resulting collection records a historical spectrum of the political Right in the United States, from policy-focused economic and social conservatism to more virulent perspectives that openly draw upon legacies of exclusion and discrimination.
“Conservatism in a Revolutionary Era” is on display in the Library first floor elevator lobby starting May 31, 2017. For more information, please contact Portland State University Library Special Collections. | <urn:uuid:25c0c099-a4a1-434c-9ce5-2d6b68e2e2f3> | {
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In sports, on a game show, or just on the job, what causes people to choke when the stakes are high? A new study by researchers at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) suggests that when there are high financial incentives to succeed, people can become so afraid of losing their potentially lucrative reward that their performance suffers.
It is a somewhat unexpected conclusion. After all, you would think that the more people are paid, the harder they will work, and the better they will do their jobsuntil they reach the limits of their skills. That notion tends to hold true when the stakes are low, says Vikram Chib, a postdoctoral scholar at Caltech and lead author on a paper published in the May 10 issue of the journal Neuron. Previous research, however, has shown that if you pay people too much, their performance actually declines.
Some experts have attributed this decline to too much motivation: they think that, faced with the prospect of earning an extra chunk of cash, you might get so excited that you will fail to do the task properly. But now, after looking at brain-scan data of volunteers performing a specific motor task, the Caltech team says that what actually happens is that you become worried about losing your potential prize. The researchers also found that the more someone is afraid of loss, the worse they perform.
In the study, each participant was asked to control a virtual object on a screen by moving an index finger that had a tracking device attached to it. The virtual object consisted of two weighted balls connected by a spring. The task was to place the object, which stretched and contracted as a weighted spring would in real life, into a square target within two seconds.
The researchers controlled for individual skill levels by customizing the size of the target so that everyone would have the same success rate. That way, people who happened to be really good or bad at this task would not skew the data.
After a training period, the subjects were asked to perform the task while inside an fMRI machine, which measures blood flow in the braina proxy for brain activity, since wherever a brain is active, it needs extra oxygen, and thus a larger volume of blood. By monitoring blood flow, the researchers can pinpoint areas of the brain that turn on when a particular task is performed.
The task began with the researchers offering the participants a randomized range of rewardsfrom $0 to $100if they could successfully place the object into the square within the time limit. At the end of hundreds of trialseach with varying reward amountsthe participant was given their reward, based on the result of just one of the trials, picked at random.
As expected, the team found that performance improved as the incentives increasedbut only when the cash reward amounts were at the low end of the spectrum. Once the rewards passed a certain threshold, which depended on the individual, performance began to fall off.
Incentives are known to activate a part of your brain called the ventral striatum, Chib says; the researchers thus expected to see the ventral striatum become increasingly active as they bumped up the prizes. And if the conventional thought were correctthat the reason for the observed performance decline was over-motivationthey would expect the striatum to continue showing a lot of activation when the incentives became high enough for performance to suffer.
What they found, instead, was that when the participants were shown their potential rewards, activity in the striatum did indeed increase with rising incentives. But once the volunteers started doing the task, striatal activity decreased with rising incentives. They also noticed that the less activity they saw in a participant's striatum, the worse that person performed on the task.
Other studies have shown that decreasing striatal activity is related to fear or aversion to loss, Chib says. "When people see the incentive that they're being offered, they initially encode it as a gain," he explains. "But when they're actually doing the task, the thing that causes them to perform poorly is that they worry about losing a potential incentive they haven't even received yet." He adds, "We're showing loss aversion even though there are no explicit losses anywhere in the taskthat's very strange and something you really wouldn't expect."
To further test their hypothesis, Chib and his colleagues decided to measure how loss-averse each participant was. They had the participants play a coin-flip game in which there was an equal chance they could win or lose varying amounts of money.
Each participant was offered varying potential win-loss amounts ($20-$20, $20-$10, $20-$5, for example), and then given the opportunity to either accept each possible gamble or decline it. The win-loss ratio at which the subjects chose to take the gamble provided a measure of how loss-averse each person was; someone willing to gamble even when they might win or lose $20 is less loss-averse than someone who is only willing to gamble if they can win $20 but only lose $5.
Once the numbers had been crunched and compared to the original experiment, it turned out that the more averse a participant was, the worse they did on the task when the stakes were high. And for a particularly loss-aversive person, the threshold at which their performance started to decline did not have to be very high. "If you're more loss-averse, it really hurts you," Chib says. "You're going to reach peak performance at a lower incentive level, and your performance is also going to be worse for higher incentives."
"Previously, it's been shown that the ventral striatum is involved in mediating performance increases in response to rising incentives," says John O'Doherty, professor of psychology and coauthor of the paper. "But our study shows that changes in activity in this same region can, under certain situations, also lead to worsening performance."
While this study only involved a specific motor task and financial incentives, these results may well be universal, says Shinsuke Shimojo, the Gertrude Baltimore Professor of Experimental Psychology and another coauthor of the study. "The implications and applications can include any sort of decision making that contains high stakes and uncertainties, such as business and politics."
These findings, the researchers say, might be used to develop new ways to motivate people to perform better or to train them to be less loss-averse. "This loss aversion can be an important way of deciding how to set up incentive mechanisms and how to figure out who's going to perform well and who isn't," Chib says. "If you can train somebody to be less loss-averse, maybe you can help them avoid performing poorly in stressful situations." | <urn:uuid:c675fb03-0e84-4294-aaff-b46275078d8a> | {
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Biologists affiliated with the American Museum of Natural History and City College of the City University of New York have found that grizzly bears are roaming into what was traditionally thought of as polar bear habitat—and into the Canadian province of Manitoba, where they are officially listed as extirpated. The preliminary data was recently published in Canadian Field Naturalist and shows that sightings of Ursus arctos horribilis in Canada's Wapusk National Park are recent and appear to be increasing in frequency.
"Grizzly bears are a new guy on the scene, competition and a potential predator for the polar bears that live in this area," says Robert F. Rockwell, a research associate at the Museum and a professor of Biology at CUNY. "The first time we saw a grizzly we were flying over the middle of Wapusk, counting fox dens, when all of the sudden Linda Gormezano, a graduate student working with Rockwell and a co-author of the paper, shouted 'Over there, over there—a grizzly bear.' And it wasn't a dirty polar bear or a moose—we saw the hump."
That sighting in August 2008 spurred Rockwell and Gormezano to look through records to get a better picture of the bear population in the park. There was no evidence of grizzly bears before 1996, not even in the trapping data from centuries of Hudson Bay Company operation. But between 1996 and 2008 the team found nine confirmed sightings of grizzly bears, and in the summer of 2009 there were three additional observations.
"The opportunistic sightings seem to be increasing," says Gormezano. "This is worrying for the polar bears because grizzly bears would likely hibernate in polar bear maternity denning habitat. They would come out of hibernation at the same time and can kill polar cubs."
Before this study, researchers thought that the barren landscape north of the Hudson Bay was an impassable gap in resources for potentially migrating grizzly bears. But some U. arctos horribilis have managed to move from their historic ranges in the Rockies, the Yukon, and Nunavut, probably because of their flexible, mixed diet of berries and meat. The potential gap was navigable, and now some grizzly bears have reached the abundant caribou, moose, fish, and berries found to the south in Canada's Wapusk National Park.
"Although we don't yet know if they are wandering or staying—the proof will come from an observed den or cubs—these animals will eventually be residents of this national park," says Rockwell. "The Cree elders we talked to feel that now that grizzly bears have found this food source they will be staying."
"A big question is how to deal with these new residents," continues Gormezano. "In Canada, both the polar and grizzly bear are federally listed as species of special concern. In Manitoba, the polar bear is provincially listed as threatened while the prairie population of the grizzly bear is listed as extirpated."
Explore further: Meteorite that doomed dinosaurs remade forests | <urn:uuid:bf20accd-3c70-4f27-8653-d427bfc1fcee> | {
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Despite room for improvement, experts say Hay River is doing a good job dealing with hazardous waste in its landfill.
Last month’s dump fire ignited conversation about the potential dangers of hazardous waste in the community, with both fire chief Ross Potter and a dump employee stating that materials are indeed present in the facility that should not be there.
While acknowledging concerns, Mayor Andrew Cassidy said the town has neither the capacity nor the mandate to go through people’s trash, and that there are a number of efforts made and programs in place to help alleviate some of the pressures on the town dump.
“Twice a year, people can drop off whatever they want – paint, oil, anything – with the town and we dispose of it correctly,” he told The Hub. “If people are falling short and still throwing things out that they shouldn’t be … there’s only so much we can do as a municipality to stop that.”
In recent years, the town and the dump contractor Hay River Disposals have also worked together to separate hazardous waste from the larger pile in a distinct area of the facility and have stopped accepting commercial and industrial waste altogether. Both measures, according to Cassidy, have helped make the facility safer. However, he also noted that more public education can never be a bad thing.
“It’s great that people are talking about the proper disposal of household hazardous waste,” said Ecology North’s Kim Rapati. “The Town of Hay River has done a fantastic job of promoting this and providing convenient free disposal events. Throughout the past five years, the town has been making leaps and bounds in addressing hazardous waste issues. They have greatly improved the hazardous waste inventory and have everything accounted for, organized and labeled waiting for shipment out.”
Materials deemed household hazardous waste includes paints, stains, adhesives, solvents, fuel, oil, antifreeze, batteries (lead acid greater than 1kg, rechargeable from electronic devices), pesticides, fertilizers, expired medication, fluorescent bulbs, thermostats and thermometers, propane tanks, aerosol cans, household cleaning products and used fuel and oil.
“We can all work together to prevent these situations,” said Cassidy, referring to last month’s fire and the concerns around the safety of those working to put it out. “But there’s only so much the town and Hay River Disposals can do.”
He also noted that the landfill has been on the agenda for several previous councils along with this one, and that while they are always getting reports that it’s nearly full, administration has found ways to manage it the best they can to extend its life.
“It’s a huge undertaking,” Cassidy said. “So anytime we do build a new facility it will be the most modern and effective it can possibly be. Right now we’re dealing with a site with historic problems and doing the best we can to mitigate them.”
Gerald Enns, hazardous waste specialist with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, however, said the town is doing a remarkably good job.
“It’s a widespread problem in the Northwest Territories, but the hub has some of the best transportation links so the stockpiles are not as significant as other communities in the territory,” he said last week. “There is always concern when hazardous waste is generated, whether in a home or business, but when small amounts accumulate into piles, they become a much larger liability.” | <urn:uuid:43049852-d236-415a-860e-378f080e36cc> | {
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The grandson of the Roger Mortimer who features in the first article of three articles about the Mortimers, this man was also grandson, on his mother’s side, of King John. Like his ancestors, this Roger conducted a near life-long war against the Welsh whose leader at the time was his cousin Llewelyn ap Gruffydd. Born in 1231 he married, at 16, Maud de Braose, a granddaughter of William Marshall; Strongbow’s daughter Isabel was her grandmother. Maud brought with her the Irish lands inherited from Strongbow, including the Castle Dunamase.
(Note that this Maud de Braose should not be confused with her father’s aunt, also Maud, who incurred the wrath of King John and was starved to death in captivity. Trying to disentangle the complex family trees of medieval noble families is a brain taxing exercise, not aided by their propensity to use the same forenames in successive generations, as you will discover as you read more of the articles on this site.)
The period 1256-1265 was one of turmoil throughout the realm. In addition to the problems with the Welsh, there was, in 1258 a famine caused by the failure of the previous autumn’s harvest. Matthew Paris, writing at the time, says: “an innumerable multitude of poor people died and dead bodies were found everywhere … lying by fives and sixes in pigsties and dunghills in the muddy streets.”
Many of the barons believed that King Henry III was reneging on the principles agreed with his father in Magna Carta. The man who emerged as leader of this rebellion was Simon de Montfort. A charismatic and devoutly religious man he shares some of the characteristics of Oliver Cromwell and came close to establishing a republic in England almost four centuries before the latter. His marriage to Henry’s sister Eleanor did nothing to diminish the enmity between the two men.
The situation was further complicated by the behaviour of the king’s oldest son, Edward. He was unhappy at his father’s reluctance to grant him greater independence and, for a while, rallied to de Montfort’s cause. It did not take him long, however, to realise that the fate of the monarchy as an institution was at stake. He began to rally the lords of the marches and the Anglo-Irish and Scots barons, including Robert Bruce, in opposition to de Montfort’s threatened take-over.
The first of the two great battles of this brief civil war took place at Lewes in May 1264. Edward made a fatal tactical error; pursuing part of what he took to be a defeated army, he left his flanks exposed and de Montfort’s army routed the remainder of the royalists. Henry took refuge in Lewes priory. De Montfort demanded, and got, the surrender of the king and his son as hostages to guarantee adherence to his terms. These, agreed at Worcester in December, included the requirement that Mortimer and his allies should quit the kingdom for Ireland. It is not clear how many, if any, complied. Subsequent events show that they were able to regroup and rearm.
I like to imagine that Roger and Maud spent the winter at Castle Dunamaise. The countryside here is very similar to that around Wigmore and they would have been able to enjoy a peaceful break whilst planning their next moves against the de Montfort faction.
Meanwhile De Montfort set about raising a popular army, not unlike Cromwell’s “New Model Army”. He also drummed up prejudice against “foreigners”, especially the Jews who, according to Simon Schama, “suffered horribly from violent attacks on their property and persons … in many of the commercial towns of the country.”
Escape from Hereford
It was not long, however, before many more of the barons began to resent the power that Simon had assumed. Roger and Maud devised a plan which enabled Edward to effect his escape near Hereford in May 1265. The Prince, though not imprisoned, was kept under close supervision by de Montfort’s troops. Not close enough, however, to prevent him receiving intelligence about the movements of Mortimer and the force he was mustering north of Hereford. Pretending to inspect a batch of horses he rode all but one into the ground. This last horse he then used to escape. Joining Mortimer, he now set about running a successful campaign culminating in a bloody battle that took place during a thunderstorm at Evesham on August 4th that year. According to legend de Montfort’s head was removed from his body and dispatched to Maud at Wigmore castle.
Roger’s epitaph, engraved on his tomb at Wigmore Abbey reads: Here lies buried, glittering with praise, Roger the pure, Roger Mortimer the second, called Lord of Wigmore by those who held him dear. While he lived all Wales feared his power, and given as a gift to him all Wales remained his. It knew his campaigns, he subjected it to torment. | <urn:uuid:3b06ce56-d4a3-42b6-b079-8c390464e4c1> | {
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negotiable instruments law: an overview
Negotiable instruments are mainly governed by state statutory law. Every state has adopted Article 3 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), with some modifications, as the law governing negotiable instruments. The UCC defines a negotiable instrument as an unconditioned writing that promises or orders the payment of a fixed amount of money. Drafts and notes are the two categories of instruments. A draft is an instrument that orders a payment to be made. An example is a check. A note is an instrument that promises that a payment will be made. Certificates of deposit (CD's) are notes. Drafts and notes are commonly used in business transactions to finance the movement of goods and to secure and distribute loans. To be considered negotiable an instrument must meet the requirements stated in Article 3. Negotiable instruments do not include money, payment orders governed by article 4A (fund transfers) or to securities governed by Article 8 (investment securities).
The rule of derivative title, which is applicable in most areas of the law, does not allow a property owner to transfer rights in a piece of property greater than his own. If an instrument is negotiable this rule is suspended. A good faith purchaser, who does not have any knowledge of a defect in the title or claims against it, takes title to the instrument free of any defects or claims. In relation to the suspension of the rule of derivative title, Article 3 provides for warranties to protect the parties in transactions involving negotiable instruments.
Checks are negotiable instruments but are mainly covered by Article 4 of the UCC. See also Banking Law. Secured transactions may contain negotiable instruments but are predominantly covered by Article 9 of the UCC. See also Secured Transactions. If there is a conflict between the Articles of the UCC both Article 4 and 9 govern over Article 3.
The United Nations Convention on International Bills of Exchange and International Promissory Notes would preempt Article 3 in the case of international transactions if the United States were to join. (As of late 1994 it had not ratified the treaty.)
menu of sources
U.S. Constitution and Federal Statutes
- Title 12 C.F.R. - Banks and Banking
State Judicial Decisions
- N.Y. Court of Appeals:
- Appellate Decisions from Other States
Conventions and Treaties
Key Internet Sources
- Federal Agency:
- United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)
- Contract Law (Nolo)
Useful Offnet (or Subscription - $) Sources
- Good Starting Point in Print: James White & Robert S. Summers, Hornbook on the Uniform Commercial Code, West Group (2000)
- LII Disk Materials | <urn:uuid:4a07a32a-fee5-43ed-bc28-4674bd363ca8> | {
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Family health problems can cover a multitude of common complaints and ailments. This article is not meant to replace medical advice, and you should always seek medical advice if you are concerned about the health of your child or another family member.
Here are 10 common family health problems and ways they can be resolved.
1. Colds, coughs and runny noses will often get better by themselves in a matter of days. Some people prefer to treat colds with painkillers and cough medicine, whilst others don’t. Some people will prefer to take time off work, or school, whereas others will soldier on. There isn’t really a right way to fight colds.
2. Headaches can be caused by a number of things, such as stress, hunger, a bang on the head, or even needing to wear glasses. By finding out why your child has a headache, you can help to get rid of the headache. Perhaps a dose of painkillers is all that’s needed, or maybe your child will need a trip to the opticians if the headaches occur regularly, or whilst reading or watching TV.
3. Tummy aches can be caused by hunger or too much food, as well as for other reasons. You will want to find out what your child has eaten to establish the cause of the tummy ache.
4. Sometimes children will feign an illness or condition in order to try and get a day off school. After a while you will be able to tell when your child is genuinely ill, and when they haven’t revised for a maths test.
5. Cuts and scrapes will need to be cleaned and dressed, but unless they are serious, they probably won’t require medial attention at a hospital. By keeping a well stocked first aid kit, you will be prepared for most eventualities.
6. Schools are a breeding ground for viruses and other diseases. It’s likely that if there is an illness going round school, then your child will probably be at risk of catching it. Depending on what the condition is, other family members may be at risk too. You might need to make sure that you have the right items to treat the illness, such as camomile lotion for chicken pox, or anti-nit shampoo.
7. Sometimes your child may be generally unwell, and you might not know what’s wrong with them. If the symptoms don’t appear, and your child doesn’t get better in a couple of days, than you may want to seek professional medical advice.
8. Broken bones such as from falling out of trees or from sporting injuries are common in children, and will normally heal properly with the right medical treatment.
9. If your child needs an operation, or to spend time in hospital, it can be a very traumatic time for all concerned. You might need to reassure your child, or be reassured yourself. You might want to learn more about the procedure, how long it will be before your child is up and about again, and any other useful information to help answer you child’s questions.
10. If your child has symptoms of an illness, or looks unwell, or is clearly in agony, then you might want to seek medical attention straight away. Even it there’s nothing much wrong with your child, it’s much better to be safe than sorry.
Now you know more about some for the common family health problems, the next time your child has a cold, or a tummy ache, you will be better prepared, and know when you can treat it yourself, and when to seek medical advice. | <urn:uuid:f7a1e151-ef57-45c3-bb91-1fbc0cb89df6> | {
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Learner's definition of LOGICAL
[more logical; most logical]
agreeing with the rules of logic
sensible or reasonable
a logical argument/conclusion/decision
Since she helped us before, it's logical to assume that she'll help us again.
He seems to be a logical choice for the job.
She wasn't able to give me a logical explanation for her behavior.
a logical thinker
of or relating to the formal processes used in thinking and reasoning
His argument doesn't proceed logically.
He couldn't explain his decision logically.
Since she helped us before, we can logically assume that she'll help us again. | <urn:uuid:0bb513d6-0a81-4a39-b080-8c161abd6ad4> | {
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Excessive caution and risk aversion could stifle critical innovation in agriculture, just as the world needs more efficient food production to keep up with explosive population growth. That was the theme of last week’s National Institute of Animal Agriculture (NIAA) annual conference in Omaha. The conference theme focused on the “Precautionary Principle,” a philosophy based on “better safe than sorry,” but with more teeth and less flexibility, as several governments around the world have adopted it as policy.
The program Tuesday kicked off with a presentation from Mark Walton, PhD, a veteran of agricultural biotechnology who now serves as chief marketing officer for Recombinetics, a Minnesota-based animal-genetics company that uses genome-engineering methods to develop animals for the biomedical and food industries.
Walton set the stage for the two-day conference by providing background on the Precautionary Principle and its implications for agricultural technology. A widely accepted definition of the principle, he says, comes from the “Wingspread Consensus Statement on the Precautionary Principle” developed in 1998. That statement reads, in part, “When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In this context the proponent of an activity, rather than the public, should bear the burden of proof.”
In other words, Walton says, technology such as recombinant genetics, which could increase food production and improve human health, should be held up indefinitely, with no evidence of harm, until it supporters “prove” it is without risk, which is functionally impossible.
Another portion of the Wingspread Statement reads “The process of applying the Precautionary Principle must be open, informed and democratic and must include potentially affected parties. It must also involve an examination of the full range of alternatives, including no action.” Walton argues that while transparency and dialog are important, placing the power to block implementation of valuable technology in the hands of all “potentially affected parties,” including those who do not understand the technology or simply oppose modern agriculture, is counterproductive.
Walton provided several examples of how the precautionary principle currently is blocking products that could significantly benefit society.
- Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil-dwelling bacteria used for more than 50 years as a natural insecticide. Foliar application of Bt is a widely accepted practice, even in organic production. In the 1980s, scientists found ways to genetically modify crop plants to produce the Bt toxin, providing increased resistance to insects such as corn rootworm. Bt corn and other crops have been in wide production in the United States since 1995. In some parts of India, a type of eggplant known as brinjal is an important staple crop, but borer insects frequently cause 75 to 100 percent yield losses. Scientists developed a Bt variety of brinjal, which was thoroughly tested for safety and efficacy, but activists planted fears in the minds of government officials, blocked release of the product and even stopped further field trials.
- Lysozyme is a naturally occurring antibacterial enzyme that protects human eyes from infection. Lysozyme also is present in egg whites in bird eggs, protecting the developing embryo from disease, and helps protect infants from potentially fatal diarrhea. Regulators recognize lysozyme as “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS), and cheese makers use it to control bacterial on cheese rinds. Scientists have used biotechnology to breed goats that produce milk high in lysozyme that reduces diarrhea in infants, but the company cannot gain FDA approval and moved to Brazil where officials are more accepting of the technology.
- Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) causes up to 500,000 cases of irreversible blindness and 2 million deaths each year, with the greatest impacts on pregnant women and children. Across the globe, an estimated 19 million pregnant women and 190 million children suffer from the condition. Scientists have developed a genetically modified rice variety, known as Golden Rice, that is high in vitamin A. Research has shown that 100 to 150 grams of cooked Golden Rice provides 60 percent of the Chinese recommended intake of vitamin A. Estimates suggest that supplementing Golden Rice for 20 percent of the diet of children and 10 percent for pregnant women and mothers will be enough to combat the effects of VAD. The product has been widely tested and U.S. volunteers consume it regularly with no ill effects. And yet, activist organization Greenpeace has targeted it and blocked its release, portraying its sponsors as greedy profiteers. | <urn:uuid:7aa2498f-a3c1-45d0-b7f3-1bada6d4a1dc> | {
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Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), persistent chemicals widely used for industrial purposes, have been banned in most parts of the world for decades. Owing to their bioaccumulative nature, PCBs are still found in high concentrations in marine mammals, particularly those that occupy upper trophic positions. While PCB-related health effects have been well-documented in some mammals, studies among dolphins and whales are limited. We conducted health evaluations of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) near a site on the Georgia, United States coast heavily contaminated by Aroclor 1268, an uncommon PCB mixture primarily comprised of octa- through deca-chlorobiphenyl congeners. A high proportion (26%) of sampled dolphins suffered anaemia, a finding previously reported from primate laboratory studies using high doses of a more common PCB mixture, Aroclor 1254. In addition, the dolphins showed reduced thyroid hormone levels and total thyroxine, free thyroxine and triiodothyronine negatively correlated with PCB concentration measured in blubber (p = 0.039, < 0.001, 0.009, respectively). Similarly, T-lymphocyte proliferation and indices of innate immunity decreased with blubber PCB concentration, suggesting an increased susceptibility to infectious disease. Other persistent contaminants such as DDT which could potentially confound results were similar in the Georgia dolphins when compared with previously sampled reference sites, and therefore probably did not contribute to the observed correlations. Our results clearly demonstrate that dolphins are vulnerable to PCB-related toxic effects, at least partially mediated through the endocrine system. The severity of the effects suggests that the PCB mixture to which the Georgia dolphins were exposed has substantial toxic potential and further studies are warranted to elucidate mechanisms and potential impacts on other top-level predators, including humans, who regularly consume fish from the same marine waters.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), persistent chemicals widely used for a variety of industrial purposes until banned in the late 1970s, are ubiquitous environmental contaminants associated with a broad range of toxic effects. Experimental as well as epidemiological studies have provided evidence that PCBs can adversely impact immune, endocrine and reproductive systems [1–3]. Exposure to environmental PCBs has been linked to detrimental impacts on wildlife and monitoring of sentinel populations has been proposed to warn of potential human exposure risk as well as to provide insight into potential human health effects .
Extreme concentrations, up to 2900 mg kg−1 lipid, of PCBs were documented in bottlenose dolphins along the southern coast of Georgia (GA), United States of America (USA) [5,6]. The PCBs exhibit a distinct pattern of highly chlorinated octa- through deca-chlorobiphenyl congeners, characteristic of Aroclor 1268, an uncommon technical PCB mixture. Aroclor 1268 was used at a former chlor-alkali facility, Linden Chemicals and Plastics (LCP) located on the banks of the Turtle/Brunswick River Estuary (TBRE), near Brunswick, GA, USA (figure 1). High concentrations of PCBs characteristic of Aroclor 1268 were also reported in soil, marsh sediments and marine biota sampled in close proximity to the LCP site [7,8]. However, the PCB concentrations reported in bottlenose dolphins, an apex predator in the TBRE, are among the highest ever reported in wildlife . Even more concerning is that the high PCB concentrations are not localized to the TBRE. Dolphins sampled approximately 40 km northeast near the Sapelo Island National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR; figure 1) were also found to have PCB concentrations at or above the highest levels reported for dolphins near urban centres such as Biscayne Bay, Florida and Charleston, South Carolina [9,10].
Several infectious disease epidemics resulting in large-scale mortalities have occurred in dolphin populations with high PCB and other persistent organic pollutants (POP) levels [11,12], suggesting, but not demonstrating, a causal link between POP exposure, immune function and susceptibility to disease. While suppressed immune function has been well documented in some marine mammals through experimental feeding , health impacts in cetacean species have been more difficult to elucidate owing to ethical and logistical considerations. An early study found decreased immune responses associated with blood concentration of PCBs and DDT in a wild dolphin population near Sarasota, Florida, but the sample size was small (n = 5) and the study did not control for confounding factors such as age . A more recent and robust study of harbour porpoises (Phoecoena phocoena) quantified the increased risk of infectious disease mortality in association with PCB exposure . However, because the study relied on stranded and by-caught (i.e. dead) porpoises, the mechanisms of toxicity associated with the infection and mortality risk could not be determined.
The highly exposed dolphins from the Georgia coast provide an opportunity to elucidate potential toxic mechanisms and effects of chronic PCB exposure in cetaceans. The potential adverse health effects in the dolphins could have further significance for understanding potential human health impacts related to exposure to an uncommon, highly chlorinated Aroclor mixture. This study details the results of a capture-release health assessment of dolphins from the Georgia coast to examine potential detrimental health effects associated with the extreme PCB exposure.
(a) Dolphin capture and processing
Dolphin sampling was conducted over a two week period, 3–14 August 2009. For the first week, operations were based out of Meridian, Georgia; sampling was concentrated in waters near Sapelo Island NERR (figure 1). The base of operations was moved to Brunswick, Georgia for the second week of the fieldwork and sampling was concentrated around the TBRE.
Methods for dolphin capture-release have been previously described [16,17]. Briefly, dolphins were encircled with a net (366 m long, 7 m deep and 22 cm stretch mesh seine net) and then restrained by handlers. Female dolphins greater than or equal to 220 cm were held in the water until an ultrasound could be conducted to assess pregnancy status. Only non-pregnant females and males were brought aboard a specially designed processing boat for physical examination, weighing and morphometric measurement and diagnostic sampling. Pregnant females were not taken on board the boat and instead an abbreviated in-water examination and sampling was conducted. Standardized data collection was conducted as previously described [16,17].
Blood was drawn from ventral fluke vasculature as described in Schwacke et al. . Whole blood was kept cool, wrapped and shipped overnight on ice packs to the University of Connecticut for immunological testing. Whole blood for haematology was immediately stored in an onboard cooler until the end of each day when samples were shipped overnight to the Animal Health Diagnostic Laboratory (AHDL) at Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
For serum biochemistry and hormone analysis, blood samples were allowed to sit at room temperature until clot formation (approx. 30 min) prior to being centrifuged. Serum was then transferred into cryovials and kept cool until the end of each day when biochemistry samples were shipped overnight on ice packs to the AHDL at Cornell University. Serum for hormone analysis was frozen at −80°C and shipped to AHDL at the end of the two week field period.
Surgical biopsies of skin and blubber were taken for contaminant analysis as described by Wells et al. . A single tooth was extracted under local anaesthesia from some of the dolphins to determine age. Teeth were not taken from dolphins that were apparently very young (less than or equal to 220 cm) or pregnant. In addition, when the lead veterinarian felt that a dolphin was becoming overly stressed, as evidenced by rapid respirations (greater than 8 breaths min−1) or arching, the dolphin was released and a tooth was not taken. Two dolphins were also released early owing to approaching thunderstorms. Teeth were prepared for sectioning using standard procedures .
(b) Laboratory analyses
(i) Chemical analysis
POP including 55 PCB congeners, seven brominated diphenyl ether (BDE) congeners and a suite of organochlorine pesticides were measured in blubber. Methods are described in detail elsewhere and are summarized in the electronic supplementary material.
(ii) Functional immune assays
Isolation of leukocytes was performed prior to the evaluation of all immune functions and is described in the electronic supplementary material. Neutrophil and monocyte phagocytosis were evaluated in vitro as previously described . Phagocytosis was reported as the percentage of cells that had phagocytized one or more (1+), two or more (2+) and three or more beads (3+). The percentage of cells that phagocytized 3+ beads was used as the endpoint for statistical analysis.
Mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation was evaluated in vitro as previously described ; Concanavalin A (Con A) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were used as T-cell and B-cell mitogens, respectively. A stimulation index was calculated as the per cent increase in proliferation in the mitogen-stimulated cells when compared with the unstimulated cells. Further details of immunological assays can be found in the electronic supplementary material.
For quality control purposes, functional immune assays were performed on B6C3F1 mice in parallel with dolphin samples on each day assays were performed. Mouse data were then analysed for outliers to detect and eliminate experiments for which the variability was greater than expected for any technical reason. This quality control programme ensured that technical errors on one given day would not translate in misinterpretation of the data for several dolphins run on that day. Mouse data were also used to facilitate comparisons of samples analysed over time using different reagent batches.
(c) Data analysis
Dolphins were categorized into age classes by applying criteria as previously described .
(i) Comparison with baseline values
Haematological and serum biochemical values were compared with reference intervals for the appropriate age class established from previously sampled wild dolphin populations . Appropriate reference thresholds were not available for endocrine parameters. Therefore, data from two independent dolphin health assessment studies were obtained and used for comparison. Total thyroxine (TT4), free thyroxine (FT4) and total triiodothyronine (TT3) measures were obtained from dolphin health assessment studies near Beaufort, NC, USA (n = 14) conducted in April 2006 and Sarasota Bay, FL, USA (n = 63), conducted in June 2005, June 2006, May 2008 and May 2009. Protocols for data and sample collection were standardized across the studies, and hormone analysis was performed by the same laboratory at Cornell University. However, the laboratory changed reagents for the measurement of TT3 in August 2006, because the production of the previously used radioimmunoassay was discontinued (see the electronic supplementary material). This may have introduced bias for comparisons of TT3 measurements before and after this date. Inter-assay comparison data collected by the laboratory using reference samples were used to calculate a conversion equation to allow comparison of values analysed using the two different assays. The equation and regression statistics for the inter-assay comparison are given in the electronic supplementary material. The conversion equation was used to adjust dolphin TT3 measurements that were obtained prior to August 2006.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to test for differences in TT4, FT4 and adjusted TT3 among sites. Age class was also included as a factor in the model. When a significant difference was determined among sites, a follow-up analysis was conducted to specifically test for differences between the two reference sites and the two Georgia sites (Sarasota and Beaufort versus Sapelo Island and Brunswick) using an a priori linear contrast. A critical value α = 0.05 was used to assess statistical significance.
(ii) Relationship of endocrine, immune parameters and PCB concentration
An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to examine correlation of serum thyroid hormones (TT4, FT4 and TT3) and functional immune indices (Con A stimulation, LPS stimulation, neutrophil phagocytosis and monocyte phagocytosis) with measured blubber PCB concentration. PCBs are lipid-soluble compounds that are readily passed from a lactating female to her nursing offspring . Thus, PCB concentrations measured in adult female dolphins are generally not meaningful indicators of cumulative exposure. For this reason, adult females was excluded from the ANCOVA.
Endocrine data from the reference sites for which concurrent blubber PCB measurements were available were also included in the regression analysis. This included seven and 11 samples from Beaufort and Sarasota, respectively. The seven Beaufort dolphins also had matching functional immune data, which were included in the regression analysis for immune indices. Chemical analysis for the blubber samples from Sarasota and Beaufort was conducted by the same laboratory and the same suite of congeners was summed to derive total PCBs. Age class and sampling site were included as categorical covariates in the ANCOVA; total PCBs (sum of 55 congeners) expressed on a lipid weight basis was included as a continuous covariate.
Data were examined for outlying values and extreme outliers were removed prior to analysis. Details are described in the electronic supplementary material.
Prior to combining the functional immune data from Beaufort collected in 2006 with the data from Brunswick and Sapelo collected in 2009, a one-way ANOVA was performed to compare the mouse control data between the 2 years. We found that mouse proliferation measured in 2006 in conjunction with the Beaufort dolphin samples were significantly higher than the mouse proliferation measures that were made in conjunction with the 2009 Georgia dolphin samples. This is probably owing to slight differences in lots of reagents, kits and supplies across years. Therefore, to avoid the introduction of potential laboratory bias, dolphin data were normalized to the concurrent proliferation measures in mice.
Recent research has indicated a relationship between T-lymphocyte proliferation and TT3 levels so an ANCOVA was also conducted to examine the association of TT3 with the Con A stimulation index.
During the 10 day capture-release health assessment, 29 dolphins were captured, examined and sampled (figure 1). The number of dolphins sampled, stratified by site and age-class are provided in the electronic supplementary material. A tooth was obtained from 13 dolphins for age determination, and six females were determined to be pregnant.
Several of the captured dolphins were found to be unusually small for their estimated age. One male whose age was later estimated to be 11 years was only 224 cm. The median length for the adult males (estimated to be at least 10 years of age by dentinal analysis) was only 242 cm. In comparison, the asymptotic length for male dolphins sampled from South Carolina, only 100–500 km to the north of the Georgia study site, is 255.5 cm (95% credible interval = 250.3–261.8) . The median length for adult females from Georgia was 236 cm when compared with 241.5 cm (95% credible interval = 238.5–244.7) reported as the asymptotic length for females from South Carolina .
(a) Haematology and serum chemistry
Blood samples for haematology and serum chemistry were obtained for 27 and 29 dolphins, respectively. A number of abnormal haematological and serum biochemical parameters were determined for dolphins sampled near both sites (table 1). Most notable, 26 per cent of the sampled dolphins were found to be anaemic, diagnosed as having a haemoglobin value below the 2.5th percentile reference threshold. Of the seven anaemia cases, three were normocytic and showed signs of depressed erythropoiesis; two were microcytic concurrent with reduced mean corpuscular haemoglobin, low iron and elevated lactate dehydrogenase; and one was macrocytic with depressed erythropoiesis and indication of mild rouleaux formation with elevation of serum protein. The remaining anaemia case had no other abnormal haematological or biochemical parameters. The three normocytic cases were adult males, and the two microcytic cases were females (one adult and one juvenile, neither pregnant). In addition, two adult males who were within the normal range for haemoglobin demonstrated elevated mean corpuscular volume and mild polychromasia, potentially indicative of recent regenerative anaemia.
Elevated liver enzymes and elevated electrolytes, suggestive of potential hepatic and/or renal pathologies, were noted in 14 and 17 per cent of dolphins, respectively. Elevated LDH, a non-specific enzyme indicative of cell damage, was seen in 31 per cent of dolphins. In addition, hypermagnesemia (magnesium value > 1.7 mEq l−1 for adults, >1.8 mEq l−1 for calves and juveniles) was found in 31 per cent of the sampled dolphins. The clinical significance of the hypermagnesemia is unclear, but seven of the nine hypermagnesemia dolphins had other indications of health issues, including renal (elevated sodium, potassium, calcium, blood urea nitrogen and/or uric acid) and/or hepatic (elevated alanine amino transferase and/or gamma-glutamyl transferase) concerns.
(b) Endocrine assessment
While TT4 did not vary significantly among sites (not shown), TT3 and FT4 concentrations were considerably lower for dolphins sampled in Georgia with the differences most apparent in subadults (figure 2). The ANOVAs supported the conclusion of differences in TT3 and FT4 among sites (p < 0.001 for both) and found no difference among sites for TT4 (p = 0.525). The age-class covariate term was significant for all three parameters (p < 0.001). The linear contrast indicated a significant difference between the two control sites (Sarasota and Beaufort) and the two Georgia sites (Brunswick and Sapelo Island) for FT4 (p = 0.002). The p-value for TT3 linear contrast (p = 0.053) was only slightly above the established significance threshold.
(c) Contaminant analysis
Blubber samples for chemical analysis were stratified into two classes: (i) adult females (n = 5), (ii) males and non-adult females (n = 21). Measured PCB concentrations ranged from 10.3 to 761 µg g−1 lipid in males and non-adult females and 43.7 to 173 µg g−1 lipid in adult females (figure 1). Further description of results of chemical analysis can be found in the electronic supplementary material.
(d) Relationship of endocrine, immune parameters and PCB concentration
Each of the endocrine parameters showed a significant negative relationship with blubber PCB concentration (table 2 and figure 3), although the association between PCBs and TT4 was weaker than for TT3 and FT4. As anticipated, age class also significantly influenced endocrine parameters and was retained in all of the models as a covariate. Site was not indicated as a significant factor for TT4 and TT3; however, site was retained as a significant covariate for FT4.
Con A stimulation index, an indicator of T-lymphocyte proliferative response, showed a strong positive correlation with TT3 (p < 0.001, figure 4) and a negative correlation with PCB concentration (table 2 and figure 4b). The two indicators of innate immunity, neutrophil and monocyte phagocytosis, also showed significant negative associations with PCB concentration (table 2). By contrast, LPS stimulation index, an indicator of B-lymphocyte proliferation, did not show a significant association with PCB concentration (p = 0.377, table 2).
Our study clearly demonstrates a multitude of health concerns in dolphins exposed to high concentrations of PCBs, and the observed effects are consistent with adverse effects reported from experimental studies of other mammal species. For example, we found a high prevalence of anaemia in the dolphins sampled along the Georgia coast (table 2), similar to findings in primates after chronic exposure to Aroclor 1254 or 1248 [25,26]. Depressed erythropoiesis with normocytic anaemia was reported for cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) after being fed relatively high doses of Aroclor 1254 and both macrocytic and normocytic anaemia were reported after dosing with Aroclor 1248 . We noted similar cases (n = 3) of depressed erythropoiesis with normocytic anaemia as well as a macrocytic anaemia in the Georgia dolphins. We also noted two cases of microcytic anaemia with associated iron deficiency. Iron deficiency is often associated with hypothyroidism and the latter two dolphin cases had very low levels of TT3 (0.80 ng ml−1 and 0.88 ng ml−1) and FT4 (1.28 ng dl−1 and 1.59 ng dl−1). In general, iron levels negatively correlated with blubber PCB concentrations (figure 3).
The PCB concentrations measured from the Georgia dolphins' blubber (maximum = 761 µg g−1 lipid) far exceed the concentrations from oil extract of adipose tissue (maximum = 27.5 µg g−1) taken from the laboratory primates at autopsy . The higher concentrations could be in part owing to greater accumulation of the higher chlorinated congeners, which are characteristic of Aroclor 1268. Based on their primate study, Tryphonas et al. suggest that the higher chlorinated Aroclor 1254 may accumulate to greater concentration yet have a slightly lower toxic potential when compared with the lesser chlorinated congeners comprising Aroclor 1248. This difference in accumulation and toxicity among PCB mixtures, along with interspecies differences in sensitivity and lipid storage, could explain the dolphins' ability to tolerate the higher PCB tissue concentrations without becoming moribund, which eventually occurred in the laboratory primates after extended dosing.
In addition to the haematological effects, we found severely decreased TT3 and FT4 levels in dolphins sampled from the Georgia coast (figure 2) and the highly significant negative correlation of these hormones with measured blubber PCB concentration (figure 3). This is consistent with the strong evidence of PCB-related thyroid hormone disruption from studies of other marine mammals [28,29] as well as laboratory studies of rats dosed with Aroclor 1254 . The mechanism(s) by which PCBs disrupt thyroid hormones are not completely understood, but experimental evidence suggests that there are potentially multiple toxic pathways. Aside from directly interfering with hormone production in the thyroid gland, at least some PCBs can interact with metabolic enzymes to accelerate clearance of thyroid hormones . Specifically, increased glucuronidation and elimination of thyroxine (T4) through induction of hepatic uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UDP-GT) was found in rats fed an Aroclor 1254 mixture . An additional study using specific coplanar PCB congeners suggests that the increased UDP-GT activity could be mediated through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor signal transduction pathway . The PCBs generally associated with this pathway are similar in structure to the dioxins and having one or no chlorine substitutions at the ortho positions on the benzene rings. Although not primary constituents of Arcolor 1268, some of these dioxin-like congeners, particularly PCB 189, were measured in the Georgia dolphins (see the electronic supplementary material).
Alternatively, PCBs could interfere with thyroid hormone transport to peripheral tissues. Some PCBs, as well hydroxylated PCB metabolites, are structurally similar to T4 and may competitively bind to a thyroid hormone transport protein, transthyretin . However, once again the experimental studies to date have examined the role of dioxin-like congeners or the hydroxylated metabolites which are more readily transformed from lower chlorinated PCBs . Thus, competitive binding to transthyretin is not an obvious mechanistic pathway for the primary congeners in the Aroclor 1268 mixture. Furthermore, if there was a high degree of competition for binding to transport proteins, we might expect to see higher levels of unbound T4; we observed lower levels of FT4 in association with PCB concentration.
Regardless of the toxic mechanism, the hypothyroidism observed in the Georgia dolphins could certainly produce a variety of adverse health outcomes as thyroid hormones play a critical role in metabolism and growth. In fact, the dolphins sampled in Georgia were smaller than expected based on measurements of dolphins from other populations. This suggests a potential for reduced growth in the Georgia dolphins, although our sample size (nine males and four females) was too small for meaningful statistical comparisons.
It is unclear whether decreased thyroid hormones also mediated the reduction in innate and acquired immune response. T-lymphocyte mitogen-induced proliferation showed a strong positive correlation with TT3 (figure 4a), consistent with a study which found that hypothyroid mice displayed lower T-cell mitogen-induced proliferation but that the administration of triiodothyronine (T3) recovered the proliferative response . The same mouse study provided evidence that T3 has a role in regulating cytokine production which could in turn influence lymphocyte response as well as innate immune response. Although this scenario of thyroid-mediated immune suppression is certainly plausible, we cannot rule out simple covariation owing to the negative association of PCBs with both thyroid and immune endpoints. Innate and adaptive immune functions may also be directly modulated by PCBs. Dolphin T-lymphocyte proliferation and phagocytosis were shown to be significantly reduced upon in vitro exposure to simple mixtures of individual PCB congeners [20,21]. Importantly, one of the individual PCB congeners that reduced immune functions upon in vitro exposure, PCB 180, is a major component of Aroclor 1268 and was detected in the Georgia dolphin blubber (geometric mean = 5.1 µg g−1 lipid in males and non-adult females). No matter the mechanism, a lowered T-cell response could increase susceptibility to infectious disease, particularly of viral origin while the suppressed innate immunity could leave animals vulnerable to invasion by bacterial, fungal and protozoan infections. A good correlation was demonstrated between changes in immune function and increased susceptibility to infectious and non-infectious disease in mice in that there were no instances where host resistance was altered without affecting an immune test .
While an extensive body of research exists addressing the health effects of PCBs (reviewed in ), most studies to date have focused on the widely used PCB mixtures with low to moderate chlorine content such as Aroclors 1248, 1254 and 1260. Less than 1 per cent of the PCBs sold in the USA from 1957 to 1975 were Aroclor 1268 [38,39], and thus toxicological investigations have been limited for this highly chlorinated mixture. While the concentrations measured in the dolphins were dominated by highly chlorinated octa- through decachlorobiphenyl congeners, mono-ortho congeners such as PCB 189 were also detected (see the electronic supplementary material) and strongly correlated with the summed 1268 congeners (r = 0.92). Both congener groups were significantly higher in the Georgia dolphins when compared with the two reference sites (see the electronic supplementary material), and it is likely that both congener groups contribute to the overall toxicity of the mixture.
Other persistent organic contaminants (POCs) have potential for endocrine and immune disruption and must be considered as possible confounding factors. However, concentrations of other POCs measured in the Georgia dolphins were similar or even lower than those measured from other areas of the US coast where such severe health impacts have not been observed. Concentrations of DDT and chlordane compounds in the Georgia dolphins were significantly lower than concentrations measured in one or both reference sites (see the electronic supplementary material). BDEs were higher for Georgia dolphins when compared with both reference sites, but were still lower than those measured in dolphins from many other US Atlantic coast sites . Furthermore, total PCB concentrations were on average 43-fold higher than BDE concentrations in the Georgia dolphins, and the toxic mono-ortho PCBs alone were 1.6-fold higher than BDEs (see the electronic supplementary material). Therefore, while potential additive effects of the BDEs cannot be ruled out, with such large differences in concentrations, it is unlikely that the BDEs significantly influenced the correlations between PCBs and health endpoints.
The impact of PCBs on the health and sustainability of cetacean populations has been of concern for decades, prompted initially by a series of die-offs of dolphin and other marine mammal populations near industrialized coastlines (see for review). Concern is particularly warranted for odontecetes (toothed whales and dolphins), which generally occupy high trophic positions. While a number of studies have documented high PCB exposures in these species, studies to examine associated health impacts have been limited owing to the ethical and logistical constraints of studying such large aquatic mammals, which are protected under federal laws of the USA as well as many other nations (see for discussion). The results of our research clearly demonstrate that bottlenose dolphins are vulnerable to PCB-related health effects, at least partially mediated through the endocrine system, and that while PCBs are no longer used in the USA they remain in marine food webs where they still pose a significant risk to upper trophic marine wildlife. By confirming a strong exposure–response relationship between PCB burden and endocrine and immune endpoints in a cetacean species, our results have important implications for risk assessment, and ultimately the conservation and management, of cetacean populations worldwide.
These findings also have significance beyond conservation of dolphins and whales. To date, the majority of PCB toxicity studies have focused on the dioxin-like congeners or more common Aroclor mixtures. Higher chlorinated congeners are generally assumed to be more inert, resistant to dechlorination and metabolism, and the highly chlorinated mixtures are, therefore, considered to have lower toxic potential. This study provides evidence that although a potentially lower toxicity, Aroclor 1268 may accumulate to sufficiently high concentrations to produce significant health impacts. This suggests a need for further study to elucidate mechanisms and potential impacts on other top-level predators, as well as human populations who regularly consume fish from the same marine waters.
This work was conducted under NMFS Permit no. 932-1905/MA-009526 issued to Dr Teresa Rowles and protocols were reviewed and approved by a NOAA/NMFS ad hoc Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
We thank the many researchers and veterinarians who supported the dolphin health assessment fieldwork, including those from the Navy Marine Mammal Programme, the University of Florida, the Sapelo Island National Estuarine Research Reserve, and the Georgia Aquarium, without whom this work would not have been possible. Special thanks to Rob Yordy (SeaWorld and Busch Gardens); Suzanne Lane, Todd Speakman and Leslie Burdett (NOAA); and Larry Fulford. Funding was provided by the NOAA Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Programme and NOAA's Oceans and Human Health Initiative.
This publication does not constitute an endorsement of any commercial product or intend to be an opinion beyond scientific or other results obtained by the NOAA.
- Received March 29, 2011.
- Accepted May 6, 2011.
- This journal is © 2011 The Royal Society | <urn:uuid:548fee21-25dc-48ce-855d-dbd4de4ea887> | {
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U.S. EPA Orders Palmdale Water District to Remove Chemical from Drinking Water
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ordered the Palmdale Water District of southern California to reduce the levels of disinfection byproducts from its drinking water system.
Twice this past summer, the water district--which serves approximately 90,000 customers--reported trihalomethane levels above the allowable federal limit. Trihalomethanes are formed when chlorine reacts with natural organic compounds during the treatment process to disinfect drinking water.
"Public drinking water systems have a responsibility to comply with national health-based drinking water standards," said Alexis Strauss, the U.S. EPA's water division director in the Pacific Southwest region. "Chemical byproducts in treated drinking water need to be monitored, reported and reduced to meet federal health standards."
The order requires the Palmdale Water District to notify the U.S. EPA of how it intends to stop trihalomethane violations within 30 days, and gives the water district until April 2004 to comply with disinfection provisions of the Safe Drinking Water Act.
The federal drinking water standard for trihalomethanes is 80 parts per billion; Palmdale's system-wide, annual average concentration reached approximately 85 ppb.
After many years of consumption, trihalomethanes may cause liver, kidney or central nervous system problems, and may increase the risk of cancer. The district has already begun reducing these levels and recent sampling indicates that system-wide trihalomethane levels are falling.
The U.S. EPA's action was taken because of an absence of state regulations for more stringent control of disinfectants and disinfection byproducts in drinking water. In 2002, the U.S. EPA began enforcing the new federal disinfectants and disinfection byproducts rule to protect public health from potentially harmful chemicals. This is the third action taken by the U.S. EPA in California under the new regulation.
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- EPA Orders Vallejo, CA to Remove Chemical From Drinking Water | <urn:uuid:3c049949-e0e5-4d3d-a77c-640712c63c18> | {
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Students organize 47 Cold War events (from the Chinese Civil War to the dissolution Warsaw Pact) and answer 4 questions. They then classify each item according to a system detailed in the instructions, complete one task for 15 items of their choice, and another for 5 items of their choice. All instructions are provided in the handout. There are arrows in the first two lines of the timeline showing students the direction to fill out the pieces in, and extra timeline pieces for students to add in their own events. This can work for US History, World History, and if you have a sub! Answers are included where appropriate.
Sample timeline items and questions include:
--Yom Kippur War
--Berlin Wall built
--Kennan’s Long Telegram
--Falklands War starts
--Romania’s Ceausescu executed
--How was the Cold War different from other wars up to this point in time and why?
--Can you say one country “won” and another “lost” the Cold War? Explain your thinking.
***a teacher's note is included in the file describing an alternate way students can complete this activity***
Consider the bundle to save!
Cold War MINI Bundle
6 Cold War Cumulative Review Projects
BIG Cold War Bundle
World History Timeline BUNDLE
US History Timeline Bundle
You might be interested in some related items:
Cold War Resources
If you want an activity or project you can use for any topic, click here:
Items You Can Use for ANY History Topic | <urn:uuid:2138a71a-18e0-47b1-9cab-81130dcad943> | {
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Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978(redirected from Humphrey Hawkins Act)
Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978
Legislation in the United States, enacted in 1978, that sought to curtail the stagflation that marked most of the 1970s. The Act set up four goals for the federal government: full employment, economic growth, balanced budget, and elimination of inflation. It stated that the government preferred private investment to accomplish these goals, but, if it was not forthcoming, then the government could make investments to spur demand and, if necessary, create make-work jobs along the lines of the New Deal. It set goals to be reached by certain dates; for example, it stated that inflation should be 4% by 1983 and 0% by 1988. Critics of the Act maintained that the four goals are different and that it is often impossible to fulfill them all. | <urn:uuid:912cd1db-60cd-4484-9c42-0691dfa080d5> | {
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If you're trying to decide between a PC running a 32-bit version of Windows 7 or one with a 64-bit version of Windows 7, you might be concerned about the difference between 32-bit drivers and programs and 64-bit drivers and programs.
There's no need to worry. Simply put, a computer running a 64-bit version of Windows 7 needs 64-bit drivers for all your hardware and devices. A driver is software that allows your computer to communicate with hardware devices. Without drivers, the devices you connect to your computer or install inside your computer won't work properly. In most cases, Windows can automatically find and install those 64-bit drivers for you by searching a huge database of drivers included in Windows and using Windows Update.
Unlike drivers, most programs designed for 32-bit versions of Windows work just fine on computers running a 64-bit version of Windows. (Notable exceptions are antivirus programs and so-called utility programs, where you might need a 64-bit version.)
If you have a choice of whether to install a 32-bit or 64-bit version of a program, always choose the 64-bit version if you're running a 64-bit version of Windows. Even though the 32-bit version should work with a 64-bit version of Windows, chances are the 64-bit version will perform better, since it was designed for a 64-bit version of Windows.
The number of new PCs that came with a 64-bit version of Windows rose dramatically when Windows Vista was released. But for Windows 7, most new computers are expected to come with a 64-bit version of the operating system. A few PC makers are even shipping all of their new computers with a 64-bit version of Windows 7.
So for more and more PC buyers, the question will no longer be "Should I choose a 64-bit version?" as much as it will be "Is there any reason not to get a 64-bit version?"
The main drawback in the past to running a 64-bit version of Windows was a lack of 64-bit drivers to make all your hardware work properly. But the rapidly rising popularity of 64-bit versions of Windows explains why there are now 64-bit drivers available for tens of thousands of different devices.
If you don't want to know the technical details of 64-bit computing and just want to let Windows do the work for you, you can stop reading here. Windows 7 is designed so you don't even need to know if you're running a 32-bit or 64-bit version of the operating system.
If you want to know what hardware and software issues you might encounter with a 64-bit version of Windows, read on. For more information, check out 32-bit and 64-bit Windows: frequently asked questions.
A 64-bit computer is defined as a computer with a 64-bit processor (also called an x64 processor, or CPU) running a 64-bit version of Windows. Most new PCs sold today come with a 64-bit processor, although not all of those computers also come with a 64-bit version of Windows. That's because a computer with a 64-bit processor can run either a 32-bit or 64-bit version of Windows.
So if you see a computer identified as a 64-bit PC, be sure to check if it's also running a 64-bit version of Windows.
A computer running a 64-bit version of Windows needs a 64-bit driver for every piece of hardware installed in it or connected to it. For example, if you're trying to install a video card (graphics card), printer, or other device that only has 32-bit drivers available, it won't install on a 64-bit version of Windows.
After Windows identifies all of your hardware, it tries to find the best drivers. If you're running a 64-bit version of Windows, it looks for 64-bit drivers.
You can set Windows Update to automatically download recommended drivers for your hardware and devices. This is a good way to make sure all your hardware and devices work properly. But even if you have Windows Update set to automatically download and install all important and recommended updates, you still might not be getting all of the updated drivers available for your devices. For more information, see Automatically get recommended drivers and updates for your hardware.
For hardware makers to earn a "Compatible with Windows 7" logo, their hardware must have drivers for both 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows. If you see this logo, you don't have to wonder if the hardware is going to work on a 64-bit version of Windows.
You can check the availability of 64-bit drivers and programs at the new Windows 7 Compatibility Center on the Microsoft website. This can be useful if you're considering buying a new printer, for example, and want to be sure a 64-bit driver is available before you buy it—or if you want to find out if there are 64-bit versions of your favorite programs.
The Windows Vista Compatibility Center also lists the availability of 64-bit drivers for thousands of hardware products, and tells you whether there are 64-bit versions available for thousands of programs.
In general, the newer your hardware, the more likely there's a 64-bit driver for it. Some older devices, however, might not have 64-bit drivers available.
If there's a 64-bit driver available for the 64-bit version of Windows Vista, chances are it will also work fine with the same hardware installed on a PC running the 64-bit version of Windows 7.
The same holds true for 64-bit programs compatible with Windows Vista. They should also work fine on the 64-bit version of Windows 7. The Windows Vista Compatibility Center will tell you which programs are available in a 64-bit version.
In most cases, however, you shouldn't have to look for 64-bit versions of your programs, since, as explained above, most programs designed for 32-bit versions of Windows work just fine on computers running a 64-bit version of Windows.
What if you're not in the market for a new PC, and you just want to find out if your current PC can run a 64-bit version of Windows? Then you should download and install the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor from the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor webpage. This program will analyze your computer, create a report telling you if your PC can run Windows 7, and list any known compatibility issues, including whether you can run the 64-bit version of Windows 7.
The main advantage of computers running a 64-bit version of Windows is their ability to use more memory than a 32-bit version of Windows, even if more memory is installed in the PC. A computer with a 64-bit version of Windows can use more memory—4 GB (gigabytes) or more—than a PC with a 32-bit version of Windows, which is limited to about 3.5 GB or less.
A 64-bit PC with 6 GB, 8 GB, or more memory can outperform a computer with less memory if you keep a lot of programs and files open at once or you perform a lot of memory-intensive tasks, such as editing HD video or playing the latest 3D games.
Even so, few programs today have been designed to take full advantage of the 3.5 GB of maximum memory that you can use with a 32-bit version of Windows. So depending on what you do and what programs you use, there might be no advantage or only a slight advantage to using a 64-bit version of Windows.
The main advantage comes if you keep a lot of programs running at once. For more information, see Taking the mystery out of 64-bit Windows.
When you run a 32-bit program on a 64-bit version of Windows 7, the program runs in a 32-bit emulation mode, using software to simulate a 32-bit version of Windows 7. This allows 32-bit programs to run smoothly on the 64-bit operating system. But note that programs designed for 64-bit computing might run faster on a 64-bit version of Windows 7.
Certain older programs that won't work on a 64-bit version of Windows 7 might run fine in Windows XP Mode in Windows 7. As the name suggests, this feature allows programs designed for Windows XP to run smoothly in Windows 7. (Some types of programs might not run in Windows XP Mode, such as security software and programs with intensive graphics.) For more information, see Install and use Windows XP Mode in Windows 7.
You can also try changing the compatibility settings for the program, either manually or by using the Program Compatibility troubleshooter. For more information, see Make older programs run in this version of Windows.
The bottom line: Unlike hardware drivers, even older programs designed for 32-bit versions of Windows should work well with the 64-bit version of Windows 7.
So don't let concerns about 64-bit drivers and programs keep you from moving to a 64-bit version of Windows. Windows 7 is filled with built-in compatibility features and automatic updating capabilities to help you make the move to 64-bit computing. And PCs with 64-bit processors are already outselling PCs with 32-bit processors, causing the number of 64-bit drivers to explode.
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Town Officials say recent events highlight the need to remain vigilant against rabies. On Monday, September 14, 2009 a fox chased a person and attacked a dog in the area of 117 South Snow Geese Drive in Duck. The fox’s aggressive behavior was symptomatic of rabies. Nobody was bitten by the fox. However, since the dog was unvaccinated and due to the dog’s advanced age, the owners decided that the dog could not endure the six month quarantine required after an attack by an animal that is possibly rabid, and the dog was subsequently euthanized.
Dare County Animal Control have set traps in the area which are being monitored by Animal Control personnel and the Town of Duck Police Department. In no case should the public approach these traps or attempt to handle or capture wild animals that may carry rabies.
This is the second such incident within the Town of Duck. A little over a month ago, a rabid fox was identified in the area of Four Seasons Lane. No one was bitten by the fox but because of this behavior, the fox was sent for examination by State officials who confirmed that the fox was rabid.
Rabies in wildlife is common in the southeastern part of the United States. The majority of rabies cases occur in such wild mammals as raccoons, skunks, bats, and foxes. Domestic animals account for less than 10% of all reported rabies cases. The viral disease is transmitted through the bite of a rabid animal.
The Dare County Department of Public Health offers the following public health guidelines to keep all Dare County residents and their domestic animals free of rabies:
• Be a responsible pet owner. Keep vaccinations up-to-date for all dogs, cats, and ferrets. This requirement is important not only to keep pets from getting rabies, but also to provide a barrier of protection for owners, in case the animal is bitten by a rabid wild animal.
• Keep pets under direct supervision so they do not come in contact with wild animals. Puppies and kittens must be protected until they are old enough to be vaccinated. They should be supervised when outdoors. If a pet is bitten by a wild animal, seek veterinary assistance for the animal immediately.
• Anyone scratched or bitten by a wild or domestic animal should seek medical attention immediately and report the incident to local animal control.
• Prevent exposure to rabies by avoiding direct contact with unfamiliar or stray animals. Never adopt wild animals or bring them into your home. Do not try to nurse sick animals to health. Call animal control or an animal rescue agency for assistance.
• Know the signs of an animal that may have rabies. A wild animal would normally avoid contact with humans but often becomes more aggressive and may approach humans it is infected.
• Enjoy wild animals (raccoons, skunks, foxes) from afar. Do not handle, feed, or unintentionally attract wild animals with open garbage cans or litter.
• Teach children never to handle or try to pet unfamiliar or stray animals, wild or domestic, even if they appear friendly.
• Spay or neuter pets to help reduce the number of unwanted pets that may not be properly cared for or regularly vaccinated.
• Call animal control to remove any stray animals from the neighborhood. They may be unvaccinated and could be infected by rabies.
• Prevent bats from entering living quarters or occupied spaces in homes, churches, schools, and other similar areas, where they might come in contact with people and pets.
If an animal has bitten you, thoroughly wash the wound with a soap and water and call a doctor immediately. If there is a chance you may have been exposed to rabies, or if the animal is caught and it tests positive for rabies, you will need rabies post exposure treatment (PET). You cannot wait to see if you get sick, because there is no known cure once the disease develops.
All unusual animal behavior should be reported to animal control at (252) 480-4047 or contact the Town of Duck Police Department at (252) 261-1112 for assistance in having an animal collected and tested for rabies.
For more information about protecting yourself, your family, and your pets from rabies, contact the Dare County Department of Public Health at (252) 475-5003 or North Carolina Division of Public Health’s rabies website at www.epi.state.nc.us/epi/rabies.html. | <urn:uuid:87baa19b-5a91-4a32-9d56-082dfae98343> | {
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The Joint Space Operations Center informed satellite operators on Wednesday that a possible breakup of the NOAA 16 satellite was detected.
The debris event was identified at 8:16 UTC in an orbit of 841 by 857 Kilometers. No data on the number and orbits of the debris was available in the immediate aftermath of the event, but the debris were added to conjunction assessment screenings to provide information to satellite operators of possible close approaches between debris and active satellites.
As of 18:30 UTC, 19 pieces of debris were detected in close proximity to the NOAA 16 satellite. None of the identified objects posed an immediate threat to active satellites. There were no indications that a collision was the cause of the breakup.
NOAA 16 was built by Lockheed Martin as part of the fifth generation of the Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellites that deliver an uninterrupted flow of global environmental information for operational applications including meteorology. Weighing in at 2,230 Kilograms, the NOAA 16 satellite hosted five instruments comprised of an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, a High Resolution Infrared Sounder, an Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit, a Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer and a Space Environment Monitor plus Search and Rescue Tracking Systems.
As the second in the fifth generation of POES satellites, NOAA 16 was launched on September 21, 2000 from Vandenberg Air Force Base atop a Titan-II rocket. Entering orbit, the satellite completed a six-month commissioning phase and was declared operational in March 2001 starting out in an 870-Kilometer Sun Synchronous Orbit. Due to an issue with the antenna system of the satellite, NOAA 16 deactivated its Automatic Picture Transmission function and relied on High Resolution Picture Transmission for realtime imagery downlink.
The satellite handed primary duties off to NOAA 18 in 2005 and entered a backup position in which it continued delivering data. On June 6, 2014 the signal from the satellite was lost after a major spacecraft anomaly. NOAA 16 was officially decommissioned on June 9 after it was determined that recovery of the mission was not possible. Over the course of its 13-year service life, NOAA 16 made 70,655 orbits around Earth, surpassing its three-year design life by a decade. No details on nature of the onboard anomaly were given.
Three NOAA satellites in the afternoon orbit are still operational including two 5th generation POES launched in 2005 and 2009 and the Suomi NPP satellite orbited in 2011 to bridge a gap to the inauguration of the next-generation Joint Polar Satellite System in 2017. The early morning and mid-morning segments of the orbit are covered by the U.S. Air Force and Europe’s meteorological satellite operator EUMETSAT.
Debris events involving NOAA satellites are not unprecedented. The NOAA 8 satellite launched in 1983 suffered an onboard failure in December of 1985 leading to the release of six pieces of debris into orbits between 750 and 850 Kilometers. The suspected cause of the debris event was an overcharge of the battery resulting in a minor explosion of the battery. All six debris re-entered within a period of three years.
Two pieces of debris liberated from the NOAA 6 satellite in 1992 and 1995 and NOAA 7 suffered two debris events in 1993 and 1997 releasing two and three objects, respectively.
Satellites of the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program are similar in construction and are known to be susceptible to battery explosions. In February 2015, the DMSP-F13 spacecraft exploded in orbit after a sudden temperature spike within the electrical power system. 43 pieces of debris were initially tracked and the satellite suffered an unrecoverable loss of attitude control. The number of debris increased to over 100 and studies showed that several thousand smaller debris that can not be tracked from the ground may have been generated by the explosion.
Engineers studied the DMSP-F13 explosion and concluded that a compromised wiring harness inside a battery charger was responsible and that six other DMSP satellites were using the same faulty part and could suffer the same fate. The risk of the debris to other missions was classed as low, however, the growing number of space debris and active satellites will lead to an unavoidable increase in conjunctions and collisions in the coming years. | <urn:uuid:890c3994-273d-4992-90be-01c433bd8332> | {
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Q: What are the physiological processes involved when fescue thins out during the summer in the heat and humidity in Atlanta?
A: Look at it this way: if a rock ‘n’ roll band cranked up next door every night when you went to bed, you’d probably get pretty grumpy, right? Approximately the same thing happens to fescue when it tries to go to sleep each night and temperatures are above 70 degrees. It requires cool nights to recover from daytime heat. If the night stays warm, the grass can’t make the energy it needs to grow the next day.
Turf expert Clint Waltz calls it “summer swoon of fescue”. Thinning is a survival mechanism caused by water stress and exposure to high temperatures. Air temperatures above ninety degrees and soil temperatures above seventy five degrees disrupt fescue grass cells’ normal functions.
Clint says fescue should be irrigated to avoid wilting in summer but only to supplement natural rainfall, not to exceed one inch per week. Don’t fertilize; the root system is limited in its uptake ability and there is no need to stimulate a stressed plant which does not want to grow under adverse climatic conditions. Raise the mowing height to three and one-half inches. This encourages the deepest possible rooting and helps shade the soil surface, which reduces water loss and soil heating.
This last suggestion is the most difficult for most homeowners: be patient and wait for environmental conditions to change. Tall fescue is hardier than it is given credit for. Once the weather changes in September, most people will be surprised how much of their tall fescue survived the summer swoon.
Extension agent Keith Mickler explains it this way: “Cool-season grasses such as tall fescue have optimal photosynthesis from 68 °F to 77 °F. Cool-season grasses can photosynthesize below 68 °F or above 77 °F although the rate of photosynthesis will decrease.
“Respiration is another process that cool-season grasses use to release the energy made during photosynthesis. Respiration is a key process in the growth, maintenance, metabolism, and nutrient uptake.
“A process that is important to understand is photorespiration. During warm weather (especially temperatures > 87 °F) cool-season grasses have trouble capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and instead capture oxygen (O2) leading to a process called photorespiration. When photorespiration occurs instead of photosynthesis the plant uses energy instead of making energy.
“In short, cool-season grasses don’t make energy well when it is hot out and as a results they don’t grow (roots or shoots) well in hot weather which can lead to a decline in turf quality.” | <urn:uuid:8e22e9ad-9131-4848-8a0a-7a4c429a2745> | {
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Worksheets and No Prep Teaching Resources
Reading Comprehension Worksheets
Social Studies Biographies
Laura Ingalls Wilder
|edHelper's suggested reading level:||grades 4 to 6|
|Flesch-Kincaid grade level:||6.6|
Laura Ingalls Wilder
By Jennifer Kenny
1 Laura Ingalls Wilder was a famous author. She was born on February 7, 1867. Her parents were Charles and Caroline Ingalls. Laura had an older sister named Mary. Laura was born in the Big Woods of Wisconsin. The family moved to Chariton County, Missouri, the year after she was born.
2 After Missouri, the Ingalls family moved to the prairies, a few miles from Independence, Kansas. There Charles, with the help of his friend, Mr. Edwards, built a house and stable. As if life weren't difficult enough, the family came down with malaria during this time.
3 In 1870, right after their third daughter, Carrie, was born, the family heard rumors that the government was about to force them to leave and open the land for homesteading. Therefore, the family left their home and moved back to their old home in the Big Woods. Caroline was very happy to be back near her extended family and have the children in school. Charles, though, remained restless and wanted to go west. So the family did.
4 In 1874, Laura's family settled on a small farm in Walnut Grove, Minnesota. Charles built a house for them. They joined the church led by Reverend Alden. The children attended school. Things were looking better. Unfortunately, the fantastic wheat crop was destroyed by grasshoppers.
5 In 1875, a son named Charles Frederick was born. Sadly, the baby died. The family moved again to Burr Oak, Iowa. There they helped friends manage a hotel. Another child named Grace was born there in 1877. Still, the family was restless, so they returned to Walnut Grove. There Charles did carpentry, odd jobs, and ran a butcher shop.
Paragraphs 6 to 14:
For the complete story with questions: click here for printable
English Reading Comprehension: Laura Ingalls Wilder
Spanish Reading Comprehension: Laura Ingalls Wilder
Feedback on Laura Ingalls Wilder
Weekly Reading Books
More Activities, Lesson Plans, and Worksheets | <urn:uuid:ccf9948c-e7f7-4159-8dba-6919a758e691> | {
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STOCKHOLM – Sweden has suspended a controversial wolf cull after a legal challenge by animal rights activists.
The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency had allowed a "targeted" cull of 16 wolves this year in an effort to protect the wolf population from inbreeding.
EPA wildlife coordinator Ruona Burman said Thursday that three animals had been killed before a Stockholm court suspended the hunt this week, pending a decision on an appeal by the nature conservancy and animal rights groups.
Wolf hunting is a highly charged issue in Sweden, pitting activists against land owners whose livestock have been attacked by the country's small but growing wolf population.
Once near extinction, Sweden's wolf population is now growing by an average of 14 percent annually and was estimated at 260-330 animals last year, Burman said. | <urn:uuid:831b68f6-da98-4a5f-a826-c7fbc20fecc8> | {
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Following a Single Event
Following is an example of how post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after a single traumatic incident.
Tony had a somewhat stable childhood. Though his parents divorced when he was 8, he, his mother and siblings stayed in the same house and he regularly saw his father, who remained in the same town. He had some difficulty with learning in school, and as a result often felt discouraged. His grades reflected this. However, he found success and acceptance in athletics, and always had a lot of friends.
Tony joined the Army when he was 18, looking to see some different parts of the world, serve his country, and perhaps one day go to college. For the most part, he enjoyed being in the Army — he found camaraderie with his “brothers,” stable pay, and he enjoyed training in communications.
While deployed in Afghanistan, he was riding in a convoy when his vehicle drove over an improvised explosive device. The others riding with him were killed and he was grievously wounded. He recuperated in Bethesda, mostly recovered but for the loss of one eye.
Tony is on partial disability and misses his former career, friends and the future he’d imagined. It has been two years, and he is working as a tattoo artist and finds his trauma symptoms are interfering with his life. He and his girlfriend have been fighting a lot, and recently, during an argument, he threw a glass at her. It missed, but it scared him that he could lose control like that.
While some of Tony’s symptoms present as classic PTSD material — he is having flashbacks, is very jumpy, and avoids thinking and talking about events surrounding his trauma whenever possible — there are others that make it more difficult for him to get support. Hypervigilance results in an overall elevation of the system, making the survivor extremely reactive to his surroundings.
Tony finds that he has rages that come out of nowhere and finds it impossible to predict what will set him off. He wants to be alone a lot more than he used to and even when he is around other people, he feels an isolation that is new to him. He is constantly distracted and worries about his memory, since he seems to be forgetting things that just happened to him.
Tony was initially worried about telling anyone what was going on, so he found an online chatroom for other veterans. He found a lot of participants not only didn’t think he was crazy, but they had a lot of the same feelings and symptoms. A couple of guys had worked with therapists and found it helpful, so Tony reached out to the VA. He was able to work with a therapist who used CBT with exposure. His therapist provided him with psychoeducation about trauma and how it affects someone’s body and brain. He learned to recognize triggers that upset him and how to tolerate discomfort with his symptoms.
Because Tony remembered that he used to really connect with drawing, his therapist had him draw frames from his traumatic event, from some times prior to the event, to the explosion and immediate aftermath, to afterward. Tony told his therapist the story several times until he found that the memories did not come on their own anymore, and when he thought about them they weren’t nearly as upsetting or vivid.
Tony found almost immediate relief in his trauma symptoms. He also found that he liked feeling more in control of his moods. He continued to see a therapist for a few months to continue to work on his anger and relationship issues. He and his girlfriend broke up, but he found that he was able to get through it better than he’d imagined. He also didn’t want other veterans to feel ashamed of their symptoms the way that he did and decided to volunteer to be a mentor to returning veterans.
Staggs, S. (2016). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Following a Single Event. Psych Central. Retrieved on February 21, 2018, from https://psychcentral.com/lib/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-following-a-single-event/ | <urn:uuid:2f1434c4-2da6-4aa4-b33a-b7224bc78da4> | {
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Generally, the risk of a serious complication with thyroid surgery is about 1%. Thyroidectomy is major surgery usually performed under general anesthesia. It is attended with risks that include, but are not limited to, bleeding, infection, and heart or lung problems related to anesthesia. These are common to many major surgical procedures. Our purpose is to discuss the risks of surgery that are unique to thyroid surgery. These risks involve the voice and the parathyroid glands.
With removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland (thyroid lobectomy) the primary risk is to the voice. About 10-15% of patients experience a variable degree of temporary subjective voice change after thyroidectomy. This is typically described as a “frog in the throat” or “cracking “ of the voice or a “weak” voice. These changes are temporary and last a few days to a few weeks. They are attributed to swelling of the muscles in the area of the dissection and /or inflammation and swelling of the voice box (larynx) related to the dissection in the area, or trauma from the breathing tube placed at surgery.
More serious voice changes may occur. These are related to injury to nerves that control the larynx. These changes may be permanent. The risk of permanent voice injury with thyroidectomy is about 1%. During the surgery, we monitor the function of the nerves, but even with these techniques injuries can still occur. There are two nerve pairs we need to consider.
The External Branch of the Superior Laryngeal Nerve
The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (EBSLN) runs along the upper part of the thyroid gland on both sides. These nerves go to muscles that fine tune the vocal cords. If they are injured the voice quality is usually fairly normal but creating high pitched sounds may be difficult. Singing might be affected. Initiating the swallowing process may be a problem. Some patients may not notice these problems because the consequences of EBSLN injury can subtle. Because the voice changes with this nerve injury can be hard to detect the exact injury rate with surgery is difficult to know. It is thought to be less than 2%.
The Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve
The second nerve and by far the most important is the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN). This nerve runs up from the patient’s chest in the groove between the swallowing tube ( esophagus) and the breathing tube (trachea). It is the main nerve that controls the vocal cord. There is a RLN on each side for each vocal cord. These nerves run along the underside of the thyroid gland.
If this nerve is injured the vocal cord on that side will not work. The voice quality is frequently significantly compromised. The voice is severely hoarse with a slightly high pitched, breathy quality. Yelling, singing and voice modulation are compromised. In our patients the risk of permanent RLN injury is significantly less than 1%. Temporary RLN injury is about 1%. If we think a nerve injury has occurred and the patient is not having a great deal of trouble, then we don’t recommend any intervention and wait for it to get well on its own. This may take 3-4 months. If it is not better after that period then a referral to a voice specialist is made. There are procedures that can be done to improve the voice quality but intervention too early can make the situation worse. Patience is very important.
The issues discussed above describe single nerve injuries that can occur with either removal of one side of the thyroid (thyroid lobectomy) or total thyroidectomy. With total thyroidectomy, nerves on both sides may be placed at risk. If both RLNs are injured during a total thyroidectomy then both vocal cords could be paralyzed. If this happens the airway could be compromised. It is possible that this compromise could be so severe that a tracheostomy could be required. This is a surgical opening in the trachea through which the patient breaths. This complication is extremely rare. We have never had a patient require a permanent tracheostomy in our practice.
The Parathyroid Glands
The second area of concern is the parathyroid glands. Parathyroid glands are of concern primarily with total thyroidectomy. The parathyroid glands are 4 small glands that sit behind and adjacent to the thyroid gland. There are two parathyroid glands on each side. These glands make a hormone that controls the calcium level in the blood. Specifically, the hormone causes elevation of the calcium level. Too little hormone leads to a low calcium level.
When the thyroid is removed these glands need to be left in place. Usually this is easy to do but sometimes these glands can be damaged or even inadvertently removed. If one or two of these glands are compromised there are no functional issues, however with a total thyroidectomy it is easy to appreciate how all 4 glands could be placed at risk. If all 4 glands are injured then the calcium level could run low. If it goes too low, significant problems could develop, including seizures. If low calcium develops after total thyroidectomy it is treated with oral calcium supplements. This condition of low calcium after thyroidectomy is called hypoparathyroidism. The risk of permanent hypoparathyroidism following total thyroidectomy in our patients is less than 1%. Patients with hypoparathyroidism have to take significant calcium supplements several times each day along with vitamin D to keep their calcium levels in the appropriate range.
While permanent hypoparathyroidism is very uncommon, temporary dysfunction of these glands may occur after total thyroidectomy. This is difficult to predict. Therefore, all patients who undergo a total thyroidectomy are carefully watched for low calcium after surgery and all are sent home on calcium supplements temporarily. Vitamin D is also given. This helps the patient absorb the calcium. Most patients are on these supplements 2-3 weeks, while the “stunned” parathyroid glands recover. The calcium level is monitored and the supplements are weaned as the glands start functioning again. During this time we want the patient to take only the supplements we prescribe. Once we are sure the parathyroids are working, we have the patient resume any calcium supplements they may have been taking pre-op.
We don’t consider post-op hypoparathyroidism to be permanent unless the patient is still requiring calcium supplements and vitamin D six months post-op. As with voice issues, patience is important in dealing with this problem.
Hypoparathyroidism is not an issue after simple thyroid lobectomy because only 2 glands are placed at risk. The 2 glands on the opposite side are enough to keep the calcium level normal even if both parathyroids on the side of thyroid lobectomy are injured. | <urn:uuid:04c5826d-21de-4b14-9a8d-a0b64f396a22> | {
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There seems to be a lack of clarity in the Raspberry Pi community about the characteristics of the I2C bus and the proper means of connecting the Raspberry Pi to an I2C bus. This blog page is my attempt to clarify and to contradict the glib advice that is currently being given on the Quick2Wire blog (posted 29Mar13).
Fallacy #1: An Arduino I2C bus is defined by the weak internal pull-up resistors of an AVR MCU.
Contradiction #1: An ATmega Arduino I2C bus is a 5V bus with whatever pull-up resistors have been put in place to provide the desired level of performance. A carefully designed ATmega Arduino I2C bus would not use "weak" pull-ups unless mediocre performance is intended.
Fallacy #2: You can simply connect the Raspberry Pi to an Arduino I2C bus and "everything will be fine".
Contradiction #2a: The devices on an ATmega Arduino I2C bus have been designed to expect a logic High signal "close" to 5V. (e.g. ATmega > 3.0V, MCP23017 > 4.0V, PCF8591 > 3.5V) You cannot expect these devices to operate reliably or at high speed/temperature if their Arduino I2C bus is being dragged down by the Raspberry Pi's "pull-up" resistors.
Contradiction #2b: Some popular Arduino devices include their own pull-ups to 5V (eg the Tiny RTC includes 3.3KOhm pull-ups). The sum of these "extraneous" pull-ups with the deliberate pull-ups may be sufficient to threaten the wellbeing of a Raspberry Pi despite its 1.8K resistors to 3.3V.
Contradiction #2c: If you do connect a Raspberry Pi to an ATmega Arduino I2C bus, it will no longer be an ATmega Arduino I2C bus because the voltage levels will be incorrect. Instead, it will be a seriously compromised I2C bus that lacks integrity from both Arduino and Raspberry Pi perspectives.
Conclusion: If you want your I2C bus to operate reliably and at high speed whilst tolerating the inevitable variations in temperature and power supply voltage, do not connect mismatched devices to the bus. An ATmega Arduino I2C bus operates at 5V. A Raspberry Pi I2C bus operates at 3.3V. The standards are there to provide an assurance of good performance. If you compromise the standards you must accept that performance will be degraded. If that's "fine" with you, so be it.
Considering Arduino Due: The above remarks do not consider the Arduino Due which has 2 I2C buses which operate at 3.3V, one with 1.5KOhm on-board pull-ups and the other without. Arrival of the Arduino Due means that the Arduino community has to grasp the same nettle as the Raspberry Pi community in recognising that a compromised I2C bus will be just that, compromised to operate at degraded performance levels.
Since Raspberry Pi and Arduino Due both operate at 3.3V, the Raspberry Pi will be directly compatible with the Arduino Due's I2C bus from a voltage tolerance and threshold point of view. The combination of pull-up resistors does however present a different compatibility challenge. The two sets of pull-ups (1.5K and 1.8K) will operate in parallel to be effectively 818 Ohms. To pull 3.3V down to ground against 818 Ohm pull-up resistors requires the driver to sink 4mA of current, a fairly demanding task that may be near or beyond the limit of the Raspberry Pi's capability. | <urn:uuid:74837eb4-c0af-4be9-b67c-b7d3d5518291> | {
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Independent research Fellow
Markaz Garden poonoor, calicut
Spirituality is often viewed in terms of an individual’s personal experience of seeking the sacred in life and striving to connect with god (Thoreson &Harris, 2004) this connection may be in the form of divine peace, ultimate offerings to God and fulfilling the obligations towards other social beings.
Sufism is a distinctive way of life from the common framework of people which can attract the mass like an iron road to the magnet or a honey bee to the flower. Sufis also are distinctive in the framework of mysticism from varying stations to the style of their mystical visible deeds and expressions. It has an ecstatic feeling of dilution with divine presence sometimes may simply conjugate as one entity.
As a way to the ultimate spiritual gaining, Sufism empowers the inner core divinity of the human quest for spiritual stations. Beyond a self trajectory to the esoteric divinity, it encourages the interested spectator to the ultimate completeness of lively deeds as toil in a magnetic flux. Its expression of self intuition through art and literature strewed a rug of indescribable mental feelings in the hearts that quests for spirituality.
A mystic aims to dispatch the obligations to god by dedicating to the religion thereby to the rules and orders of the God. They have positive holdings of the spirituality and its sub contents with more positive religiously based beliefs and attributions. They replace damaging beliefs and ascriptions of the common men about the self, others and the world. The pathway of moderate faith or better submission is a psychological equilibrium of the soul and body. It keeps the individual to live in any context of the world settings whether it is secular or more rigid religious. It insisted on psychology because its approach towards the spiritual factors and material realities are intellectually packed with the cognitive development of the Mystic. The instant seeking for the divine spiritual levels will be gradually develop his mental arena more vividly with spiritual experiences and character development, something that can be done through meditations by psychologists. Spirituality is generally considered to be broader than any religion one might practice, as it takes into account cognitive and philosophic areas of thought as well as aspects of emotions and behavior. Some might describe spirituality as the attempt to understand one’s nature or the meaning of one’s existence, but spirituality is also linked to one’s path to internal awareness and happiness. Many cultures and belief systems hold that one’s spirit is the essence of one’s existence, and thus, spirituality may also describe for some people their connection to each other and to themselves.
Though some may describe themselves as spiritual without adhering to the principles of any religion or even having any religious thought, for others, religion is the manifestation of their spirituality. This manifestation may involve the performance of rituals—in one tradition or in some combination of traditions—with varying degrees of commitment and involvement in that faith. Spirituality may also describe the attention people pay to their own well-being and that of others. For many, the practice of dance, yoga, meditation, or volunteer work, among others, are outlets in which to express spirituality. This expression in spirituality can effectively make use in mysticism. The Mystic’s mental and physical aspects will conjoin to form the submission to god completely with soul and body. The mystic also participate intentionally or non-intentionally, a type of therapy in the pursuit of healing or well-being. For many, spiritual beliefs play a significant role in the ability to cope with adverse events in life. Spiritual practices may offer social and emotional support, help people find meaning and purpose in life, provide comfort in times of grief, and provide ethical and moral guidelines that many choose to live their lives by. Individuals who gain strength from their spiritual faith may find it difficult to achieve progress and healing in therapy when unable to address and incorporate all dimensions of who they are. As the Maslovian theory of need in psychology states, if a man put back his primary needs then only he can achieve the self esteem that is the higher order in the need chain. So, a mystic who achieve the primary needs or most probably who denies the worldly needs and seek only for the divine needs will achieve the self esteem position so fast and the need for his ultimate goal that is to say the dilution with god can be gained. As a Sufi poet and the founder of a world fame Sufi order, Mevlana Jalaludheen Rumi in his divine delusion has formed such a psychological mindful impact in his own life and the life of the path finder who try to reach the divine destination. The well known American singer and song writer Madonna has used this symphony for soul touching entertainment and musical performance which could fill the quest of audience for divinity and spiritual enthusiasm. The inspiration that tickled from the words and gestures of Rumi is something special that have some extra ordinary function to lead the seeker of spiritual stages to the ultimatum. It is the functional distinction that mainly detaches Rumi from other Sufi’s and his Sufi order from other orders. He used a distinct style of inspirational rejoice that acted as a therapeutic test or a practice that solved many problems of the human mind from sorrow to rejoice.
Every mystic has their understanding about the creator and their existence in the world in divergent state of perceptions. As the cognitive psychology deals with the function of perception expresses that the perception of the outer world changes from man to man and from context to context. The degree of understanding and the percentage of attraction also differentiate in human. The one who achieve more perceptual ability of transcendence and divine presence may lead to higher stations until the lover and loved one become diluted to a single form of heavenly love. As the perception varies, the style of expressing the love and feelings also varies. Some mystics do music, preaches, writing poems, singing songs and other gestures to express their love while some others will be muted in a cave, or in the corner of a Masjid or tomb living with the memories of the beloved god to reach the ultimate love as soon as possible. The Sufi’s are good psychologists who effectively uses their tricks of divine actions for treat the minds of people. They are learned masters of the minds appointed by the almighty for curing the minds. | <urn:uuid:d2550a99-a437-4e21-b807-fe56446d0dc5> | {
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Decades ago one of my favorite studies reported on the healthful benefit of giving people living in care homes an ounce of red wine with their evening meal.
The outcome was better heart health and over all better health and mood, overall.
Now it is just one drug after another and I geuss that's where this article is leading.
For me it is a question to ask. Why is it that the simple things can't be used when we all know the benefit by now. And what's taking so long to get it in practice?
September 11, 2008
From Wine to New Drugs: A Novel Way to Reduce Damage from Heart Attacks
Scientists may have hit upon a way to diminish heart attack toll as well as stave off effects of Alzheimer's and other ills
By Barbara Juncosa
An alcohol-busting enzyme may help prevent heart attack damage, according to a new study in Science. Researchers report that aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2), an enzyme important for processing alcohol in the human body, clears harmful toxins produced in cells when blood flow is blocked in the heart—and a new drug can switch it on.
Red wine has long been toted as a preventive measure against cardiac disease. In fact, heart cells exposed to ethanol in the laboratory actually recover better when researchers temporarily stop the flow of oxygenated blood to them. The study published today suggests that ALDH2 may contribute to wine's beneficial effects. The enzyme, activated as cells work to clear alcohol, also eliminates toxic by-products from the breakdown of fats in cells during a heart attack—thereby reducing damage to this vital organ.
During a cardiac event, blood flow to the heart ceases. Free radicals (highly reactive molecules released during energy production) accumulate in cells struggling through oxygen deprivation, damaging critical fats and proteins and increasing the chance of premature cell death. ALDH2 may help heart cells survive this onslaught by repairing some of the damaged fats, according to the study. Although not all cardiac damage is avoided, "any time you can save cells, you have a better chance of recovery," says study co-author Thomas Hurley, a biochemist at Indiana University School of Medicine in Indianapolis.
Researchers, aware that alcohol triggers the protective effects of ALDH2 during a heart attack, searched for drug alternatives that could switch on the enzyme. The synthetic compound aldA1 was found to directly bind ALDH2, enhancing its activity and reducing cardiac damage by 60 percent when injected directly into the hearts of live healthy rats five minutes before blood flow blockage was induced. Although these results are promising, adapting this therapy for intravenous or oral use in humans will be a challenge, cautions Michael Sack, a cardiologist at the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute in Bethesda, Md., who did not participate in the study.
The researchers remain optimistic about the newly identified drug, however, arguing that it could help patients in east Asia where 40 percent of the population has nonfunctional ALDH2 due to a gene mutation. Aside from enhancing ALDH2 activity two-fold in normal rat hearts, aldA1 can actually restore full function to the mutant form of the enzyme, Hurley notes.
For populations from east Asian countries, including China, Japan and South Korea, this could mean a reduction in cardiac damage following heart attacks and augmentation of current therapies for angina, or chest pain. Currently, nitroglycerin (which dilates blood vessels) is used to treat heart patients who have chest pain, but functional ALDH2 is required to break down the drug into its active form. If aldA1 is co-administered, it could make patients more responsive to therapy.
But aldA1 may even have beneficial effects for those angina patients carrying the normal version of the enzyme but who have become immune to nitroglycerin's effects. Prolonged use of nitro can lead to drug tolerance and a return of chest pain, but researchers found that aldA1 reversed tolerance in rats when the animals were administered nitro before an induced cardiac event. The question remains, however, whether these laboratory results can be replicated in humans.
Study leader Daria Mochly-Rosen, a pharmacologist at Stanford University School of Medicine, believes that aldA1 could have far-reaching applications beyond cardiac patients. "By looking at people with the ALDH2 mutation, we can identify other chronic diseases associated with not having the enzyme function," she says.
She notes that because ALDH2 is active in all cells of the body, its function may be critical for eliminating toxic by-products in other organs throughout life. Toxin accumulation could be offset by aldA1, helping to prevent diseases of old age. The risk for Alzheimer's disease, for example, may be reduced if aldA1 can help clear these harmful molecules, which have been implicated in promoting plaque formation in the brain. Mochly-Rosen also believes that liver damage resulting from the stress of continually processing pharmaceuticals may also be diminished by aldA1.
Critics note that these potential benefits remain untested and will require a long period of drug development. For now, reaping the benefits of aldA1 in its current state is limited by the necessity that physicians administer the drug immediately before a cardiac event. Because doctors cannot look into a crystal ball and predict heart attacks, "the clinical implications of this work are probably minimal," notes cardiologist Michael Cohen from the University of South Alabama in Mobile, who was not involved in the study.
Even in the case of open-heart surgery, where aldA1 could presumably help the heart recover from a temporary cessation of blood flow, the amount of heart damage is so minimal with current technologies that aldA1 may not make a significant biological contribution, he adds.
Organ transplantation, however, may be an area in which the current form of aldA1 could make a significant contribution, Mochly-Rosen contends. Treating organs with the compound may potentially reduce damage to these tissues resulting from toxic by-products induced in oxygen-starved cells. Perhaps this will allow the organs to remain viable longer, or simply preserve a larger fraction of healthy tissue during surgery.
"AldA1 remains a promising start, but it is just the first step in a long process if it will be used clinically," says John Baker, a biochemist at the Medical College of Wisconsin in Milwaukee, who did not participate in the research. With continued study, scientists may be able to design drug modifications that will enhance the beneficial effects of aldA1 and make it more "human friendly," as well.
In the future, Hurley says, "we want to get aldA1 to work in a more acute setting, such as during a heart attack." And that would be great news, considering that heart disease remains the number one killer worldwide. | <urn:uuid:0cfa69a1-b7be-4169-bcaf-b82af22dff0b> | {
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California’s nascent early-warning system showed its value again Sunday when an earthquake struck the North Bay.
On a video released by scientists at UC Berkeley, a loud tone is followed by an announcement of imminent ground shaking. The warning was triggered 10 seconds in advance of the 6.0 magnitude quake that was felt from Santa Cruz to Lake Tahoe.
Sunday’s quake wasn’t the first demonstration of the early-alert system’s potential. In March, it provided three seconds warning before a 4.4 magnitude quake in the Los Angeles area.
Three seconds isn’t much warning, but in our heavily automated world, it could be adequate to stop light-rail trains and elevators, close valves on natural gas mains and open bay doors at fire stations so emergency vehicles aren’t delayed by power outages. Ten seconds could allow hospitals to notify surgeons or utilities to get word to any crews working near high-voltage power lines. Had Sunday’s quake struck during regular business hours, a few seconds warning may have been enough for winery workers and visitors to get clear of falling barrels.
With a complete network of seismic sensors around the state, scientists working on the Shake Alert system believe that it could deliver warnings as much as 45 seconds or a minute before a quake.
The system works by detecting P-waves, the first energy to radiate from an earthquake, which travel faster than the damaging S-waves that follow. Using that information, the location and magnitude of a quake can be estimated and a warning issued, except at the epicenter, where the P- and S-waves arrive simultaneously. A number of public agencies and private companies, including Bay Area Rapid Transit and Disneyland, already receive alerts. Eventually, the U.S. Geological Survey and partnering universities expect to offer alerts to the general public, perhaps using a cellphone app. Their goal is to establish an alert network covering Washington, Oregon and California.
“In just a few seconds you can do what we’ve been telling you to do all along, which is to drop, cover and hold,” Doug Givens, the USGS earthquake early warning coordinator told NPR. “Perhaps your cellphone app will say, ‘Yeah, we’re serious. This is a big one. Get under a table right now.’ ”
A law signed last year by Gov. Jerry Brown commits California to Shake Alert. But the state committed no funding to the early-warning system, which is expected to cost about $80 million to complete and $20 million a year to operate. So far, most of the funding for Shake has come from the Gordon Moore Foundation and the USGS.
Given its history of budget shortfalls, the state ought to be cautious about committing to new programs. But this is a seismically active region, and even a moderate quake has the potential for widespread destruction and loss of life as well as long-term implications for the state’s economy.
Japan and Mexico already have early warning systems, and California must find funding for its own.
No amount of warning will prevent all the physical damage caused by an earthquake. Yet we know that bigger quakes are coming, and even a few seconds could keep a broken gas line from sparking a fire such as the one that destroyed four mobile homes Sunday morning in Napa and give first responders a head start, potentially saving many lives. Isn’t that worth a relatively small investment of public money? | <urn:uuid:ff0d4c36-b7fe-4869-8f2c-376380b89b5f> | {
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A side benefit of in-camera preprocessing is that it does not affect the system interfaces or hardware design. The camera can achieve its preprocessing by routing the sensor data through an FPGA for manipulation before passing it on to the rest of the system. From a system design standpoint, all that changes is the interpretation of the data coming in. In many cases, preprocessing can eliminate tasks that would otherwise be handled in the image processor, reducing processing demands and increasing system performance.
As a result of these innovations and the inherently digital nature of the image data, digital cameras provide vastly greater design flexibility and simpler system design than analog cameras. By ensuring that pixels are automatically square and reliably represent the same point on the image every frame, digital cameras eliminate the calibration that analog cameras require for their digitizers. Similarly, digital cameras can handle white balance calibration automatically while analog systems require manual calibration in both the camera and frame grabber.
The use of digital cameras also simplifies system design by supporting the easy implementation of configuration options. Changing the image resolution of an analog camera machine vision system, for instance, also forces timing changes in the frame grabber and alters the digitizer clock speed. To recalibrate and resynchronize the system to the new camera requires considerable frame grabber expertise. Changing digital system resolution, on the other hand, involves only replacing the camera and altering the data clocking rate, with perhaps some software modification to handle the new data structure.
Digital camera systems are also easier to set-up and maintain. While analog systems require coordination between camera and frame grabber, both of which are have independent controls, all elements of a digital camera system can be controlled from the PC used for image processing.
Adopting Digital Reduces Costs
All the advantages that digital cameras with GigE interfaces offer machine vision systems makes them a logical choice for new designs, despite their price premium of about 20% over comparable analog cameras when such analog cameras of sufficient performance are available. But digital cameras also make sense as an upgrade step for existing vision systems. While many legacy analog camera vision system applications will never require the high performance obtainable only with digital cameras, performance is not the only reason to upgrade.
There are several triggering events that can justify making the investment to replace analog camera machine vision systems with digital ones. One is a change in system performance requirements that analog systems cannot readily handle. A desire to increase the throughput of a visual inspection system, which is set by the camera frame rate, may require performance beyond the range of analog cameras. A new need for color vision can also prompt movement to a digital camera for its greater simplicity and minimal calibration requirements.
The need to replace failing components or ones that have become obsolete can be another triggering event. Most of the new development in electronics concentrates on digital systems, so a replacement for an obsolete analog camera that offers equivalent or better performance may be difficult to find.
It may also be appropriate to replace an analog camera vision system in order to reduce the cost and complexity of system maintenance. Analog systems require frame grabbers and specialized interface cards on the host PC to allow transfer of data out of the frame grabber. Digital systems no longer require frame grabbers. Data storage occurs either in the camera or in the host PC. Further, with GigE, the camera interface is already built into an off-the-shelf PC so no specialized hardware is needed.
This article was written by Yvon Bouchard, Director of Systems Architecture at DALSA, Montreal, QE, Canada. | <urn:uuid:9a30abe5-541b-4001-a353-780aa8535fb5> | {
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Jockey's Ridge is the tallest living natural sand dune system in the Eastern United States. Its height varies from 80 to 100 feet, depending on weather conditions.
Shifting maritime winds blow billions of grains of sand in different directions, constantly changing both the shape and size of the dune. Why doesn't the sand blow away? In the winter, the winds usually blow out of the northeast and in the summer out of the southwest; therefore, the sand is constantly blown back and forth. Also, the dunes' tiny sand particles hold moisture throughout the year. The sun dries the top layer of sand. But, just below this layer, the sand stays wet. The high winds from northeasters blow the top, dry layer off, but the wet layer below stays put.
Jockey's Ridge is an example of a medano—a huge hill of shifting sand that lacks vegetation. There are several prominent sand dunes in the area. Of them all, Jockey's Ridge is the most spectacular.
Geologists believe that Jockey's Ridge was formed when strong water currents from hurricanes and storms washed sand from large offshore shoals onto the beach. Throughout many years, the wind picked up this sand and blew it inland. These tiny grains of sand evolved into a system of dunes that now stretches for many miles along the coastline.
Long before the first European settlers, the Algonquian Indians inhabited the Outer Banks. Following its sighting by Spanish and French explorers, the ridge became an important landmark for mariners. In the early 1800s, this remote coastal area began to develop as a summer resort. Development was slowed during the Civil War, but with the construction of a series of bridges in the 20th Century, the problem of access to the barrier islands was solved. Development picked up at a rapid pace. Today, the Outer Banks is one of the most popular recreation areas on the eastern seaboard.
On a summer morning in 1973, a couple of children were playing on the dunes. When they saw a bulldozer flattening out part of Jockey's Ridge, they went running home to tell their mother. Carolista Baum went to investigate and found that an earth-moving machine was preparing a residential development site at the base of Jockey's Ridge. For years, local groups had talked of protecting the large dune from encroaching development, but no substantial steps had been taken. This destruction, however, forced Carolista into action. She planted herself in the path of the bulldozer, forcing the operator to shut the equipment down. From that point on, the effort to "save our sand dune" took on new determination. The People to Preserve Jockey's Ridge was organized. Appeals, backed by a petition, were made to local and state governments. The state's Division of Parks and Recreation was asked to study the feasibility of making Jockey's Ridge a state park.
In 1973, the Division of Parks and Recreation issued a report in favor of the park, and a year later the dune was declared a National Natural Landmark. In 1975, the General Assembly appropriated funds to create Jockey's Ridge State Park. With this money and matching federal funds, the state bought 152 acres. An additional purchase from the Nature Conservancy brought the size of the park to 266.8 acres. Today, the park encompasses 420 acres.
The nonprofit group Friends of Jockey's Ridge provides additional support for this popular state park. Members promote public awareness of the sand dune. They also raise funds to assist in the development of facilities and educational programs. For more information about Friends of Jockey's Ridge, contact the park office, or click here to visit the association's website.
Many legends surround the origin of the name Jockey's Ridge. The most popular is that the name of the dune is based upon the early inhabitants' practice of capturing wild ponies and racing them on the flat surface at the base of the dune. The steep sides of the ridge served as a grandstand for spectators. An old map, which is displayed in the park's museum, has the ridge spelled "Jackey." | <urn:uuid:1159ae00-a677-4050-9b98-f2aab948da1d> | {
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Choose the word whose underlined part is pronounced differently from that of the others.
1. A. toys B. bats C. doors D. bags
2. A. sentence¬s B. houses C. dates D. oranges
3. A. beliefs B. keeps C. enjoys D. pets
4. A. systems B. ideas C. prepares D. breaks
5. A. airports B. examples C. brothers D. friends
Mark the letter A, B, C, or D on your answer sheet to indicate the correct answer to each of the following questions.
6. The little girl is crying because she _______________ her doll.
A. has lost B. had lost C. was losing D. was lost
7. We ____________ out yesterday because it _____________ at that time.
A. hadn’t gone – was raining B. didn’t go – rained
C. didn’t go – was raining D. didn’t go – had been
8. Nam has studied English since he _______________ 5 years old.
A. is B. was C. has been D. were
9. Mr. Gibbon usually drinks mineral water, but last night he ____________ champagne.
A. drinks B. has drunk C. is drinking D. drank
10. Since the end of the 20th century, English _______________ the most widely used language around the world.
A. has become B. became C. becomes D. had become
11. _______________ my key anywhere? I can’t find it.
A. Did you see B. Have you seen C. Will you see D. Do you see
12. When Mr. Lam came, we _______________ the room.
A. cleaned B. was cleaning C. were cleaning D. clean
13. I’m sorry I _______________ to you for a long time.
A. didn’t write B. haven’t written C. hadn’t written D. don’t write
14. What ______________ when I called you?
A. did you do B. are you doing C. were you doing D. do you do
15. Did you give Linda message when you _______________ her?
A. saw B. see C. have seen D. will see
16. Tam is willing to help his mother with the household _______________.
A. works B. jobs C. choir D. chores
Để xem đầy đủ bạn phải Download tài liệu về máy. | <urn:uuid:383ee30a-15f4-4093-81c2-e6d27c10b303> | {
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Inner workings of the brain I
Posted June 28, 2010; 10:00 a.m.
Using two-photon microscopy in the laboratory of virologist Lynn Enquist, Stephan Thiberge, manager of the imaging facility in the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, and graduate student Andrea Gransted visualized pseudorabies virus particles moving in neurons growing in a tissue culture dish. The protein shells, or capsids, which surround the viral DNA can be seen because they carry a fluorescent protein that glows when illuminated by the laser in the microscope. These glowing capsids move rapidly in the axons suggesting how they can be used to follow the wiring patterns in the brain. Read more. | <urn:uuid:e3418782-4073-4f67-a038-36b56effa8d9> | {
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Presentation on theme: "According to scientists, too much coffee may cause... 1986 --phobias, --panic attacks 1990 --heart attacks, --stress, --osteoporosis 1991 -underweight."— Presentation transcript:
According to scientists, too much coffee may cause... 1986 --phobias, --panic attacks 1990 --heart attacks, --stress, --osteoporosis 1991 -underweight babies, --hypertension 1992 --higher cholesterol 1993, 08 --miscarriages 1994 --intensified stress 1995 --delayed conception But scientists say coffee also may help prevent... 1988 --asthma 1990 --colon and rectal cancer,... 2004—Type II Diabetes (*6 cups per day!) 2006—alcohol-induced liver damage 2007—skin cancer Coffee Chronicles BY MELISSA AUGUST, ANN MARIE BONARDI, VAL CASTRONOVO, MATTHEW JOE'S BLOWS Last week researchers reported that coffee might help prevent Parkinson's disease. So is the caffeine bean good for you or not? Over the years, studies haven't exactly been clear:
Medical Studies Evaluate whether a risk factor (or preventative factor) increases (or decreases) your risk for an outcome (usually disease, death or intermediary to disease). The General Idea… ExposureDisease ?
General 2x2 Table Exposure (E)No Exposure (~E) Disease (D)ab(a+b)/T = P(D) No Disease (~D)cd(c+d)/T = P(~D) (a+c)/T = P(E) (b+d)/T = P(~E) Marginal probability of disease Marginal probability of exposure N
Risk Ratio ( Relative Risk) Risk ratio is used to compare the risk for two groups An risk of 1 means there is no difference between the groups.
Coronary calcification is a process in which the interior lining of the coronary arteries develops a layer of hard substance known as plaque. Excessive amounts of cholesterol, fat, and waste material become calcified in arteries that have been weakened or damaged due to smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, or a generally unhealthy diet. Coronary calcification restricts blood flow, presenting the risk of chronic chest pain, heart attacks, and eventual heart failure. Is depression and coronary calcification is associated calcificationcholesterolheart failurecalcificationcholesterolheart failure
Difference of proportions Z-test: Coronary calc >500 539 Coronary calc <=500 1381 811839 1920 Any depression None 28511 531328
Coronary calc >500 539 Coronary calc <=500 1381 811839 1920 Any depression None 28511 531328 Or, use relative risk (risk ratio) Compare the risk for each groups Interpretation: those with coronary calcification are 35% more likely to have depression (not significant). See how to get this in R
Cause and effect? atherosclerosis depression in elderly ? Biological changes ? Lack of exercise Poor Eating
Confounding? atherosclerosis depression in elderly Advancing Age ? Biological changes ? Lack of exercise Poor Eating
Cross-Sectional Studies Advantages: – cheap and easy – generalizable – good for characteristics that (generally) don’t change like genes or gender Disadvantages – difficult to determine cause and effect – problematic for rare diseases and exposures
2. Cohort studies: Sample on exposure status and track disease development (for rare exposures) Marginal probabilities (and rates) of developing disease for exposure groups are valid.
Example: The Framingham Heart Study The Framingham Heart Study was established in 1948, when 5209 residents of Framingham, Mass, aged 28 to 62 years, were enrolled in a prospective epidemiologic cohort study. Health and lifestyle factors were measured (blood pressure, weight, exercise, etc.). Interim cardiovascular events were ascertained from medical histories, physical examinations, ECGs, and review of interim medical record.
Example 2: Johns Hopkins Precursors Study (medical students 1948 through 1964) http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0601web/study.html From the John Hopkin’s Magazine website (URL above).
Cohort Studies Target population Exposed Not Exposed Disease-free cohort Disease Disease-free Disease Disease-free TIME
Exposure (E)No Exposure (~E) Disease (D)ab No Disease (~D)cd a+cb+d risk to the exposed risk to the unexposed The Risk Ratio, or Relative Risk (RR)
400 11002600 Hypothetical Data Normal BP Congestive Heart Failure No CHF 15003000 High Systolic BP
Case-Control Studies Sample on disease status and ask retrospectively about exposures (for rare diseases) Marginal probabilities of exposure for cases and controls are valid. Doesn’t require knowledge of the absolute risks of disease For rare diseases, can approximate relative risk
Target population Exposed in past Not exposed Exposed Not Exposed Case-Control Studies Disease (Cases) No Disease (Controls)
Example: the AIDS epidemic in the early 1980’s Early, case-control studies among AIDS cases and matched controls indicated that AIDS was transmitted by sexual contact or blood products. In 1982, an early case-control study matched AIDS cases to controls and found a positive association between amyl nitrites (“poppers”) and AIDS; odds ratio of 8.6 (Marmor et al. 1982). This is an example of confounding.
Case-Control Studies Examples Case-control studies identified associations between lip cancer and pipe smoking (Broders 1920), breast cancer and reproductive history (Lane-Claypon 1926) and between oral cancer and pipe smoking (Lombard and Doering 1928). All rare diseases. Case-control studies identified an association between smoking and lung cancer in the 1950’s.
Case-control example A study of the relation between body mass index and the incidence of age-related macular degeneration (Moeini et al. Br. J. Ophthalmol, 2005). Methods: Researchers compared 50 Iranian patients with confirmed age-related macular degeneration and 80 control subjects with respect to BMI, smoking habits, hypertension, and diabetes. The researchers were specifically interested in the relationship of BMI to age-related macular degeneration.
OverweightNormal ARMD 27 23 No ARMD 54 26 Corresponding 2x2 Table What is the risk ratio here? Tricky: There is no risk ratio, because we cannot calculate the risk of disease!! 50 80
The odds ratio… We cannot calculate a risk ratio from a case-control study. BUT, we can calculate a measure called the odds ratio…
Odds vs. Risk If the risk is…Then the odds are… ½ (50%) ¾ (75%) 1/10 (10%) 1/100 (1%) Note: An odds is always higher than its corresponding probability, unless the probability is 100%. 1:1 3:1 1:9 1:99
The proportion of cases and controls are set by the investigator; therefore, they do not represent the risk (probability) of developing disease. Exposure (E)No Exposure (~E) Disease (D)ab No Disease (~D)cd The Odds Ratio (OR) a+b=cases c+d=controls Odds of exposure in the cases Odds of exposure in the controls
Exposure (E)No Exposure (~E) Disease (D) a b No Disease (~D) c d The Odds Ratio (OR) Odds of disease for the exposed Odds of exposure for the controls Odds of exposure for the cases. Odds of disease for the unexposed
= Odds of exposure in the controls Odds of exposure in the cases Bayes’ Rule Odds of disease in the unexposed Odds of disease in the exposed What we want! Proof via Bayes’ Rule (optional)
OverweightNormal ARMD a b No ARMD c d The Odds Ratio (OR) Odds of ARMD for the overweight Odds of overweight for the controls Odds of overweight for the cases. Odds of ARMD for the normal weight
OverweightNormal ARMD 27 23 No ARMD 54 26 The Odds Ratio (OR)
OverweightNormal ARMD 27 23 No ARMD 54 26 The Odds Ratio (OR) Can be interpreted as: Overweight people have a 43% decrease in their ODDS of age-related macular degeneration. (not statistically significant here)
The odds ratio is a good approximation of the risk ratio if the disease is rare. If the disease is rare (affecting <10% of the population), then: WHY? If the disease is rare, the probability of it NOT happening is close to 1, and the odds is close to the risk. Eg:
Summary of statistical tests for contingency tables Table SizeTest or measures of association 2x2risk ratio (cohort or cross-sectional studies) odds ratio (case-control studies) Chi-square difference in proportions Fisher’s Exact test (cell size less than 5) RxCChi-square Fisher’s Exact test (expected cell size <5)
Who is Fisher Ronald Aylmer Fisher (17 February 1890 – 29 July 1962) was an English statistician, evolutionary biologist, geneticist, and eugenicist. Fisher is known as one of the chief architects of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, for his important contributions to statistics, including the analysis of variance (ANOVA), method of maximum likelihood, fiducial inference, and the derivation of various sampling distributions, and for being one of the three principal founders of population genetics. Anders Hald called him "a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science", while Richard Dawkins named him "the greatest biologist since Darwin".Englishstatisticianevolutionary biologist geneticisteugenicistneo-Darwinian synthesisanalysis of variancemethod of maximum likelihood fiducial inferencepopulation geneticsAnders HaldRichard DawkinsDarwin
Fisher’s “Tea-tasting experiment” Claim: Fisher’s colleague (call Dr. Muriel Bristol”) claimed that, when drinking tea, she could distinguish whether milk or tea was added to the cup first. To test her claim, Fisher designed an experiment in which she tasted 8 cups of tea (4 cups had milk poured first, 4 had tea poured first). Null hypothesis: Cathy’s guessing abilities are no better than chance. Alternatives hypotheses: Right-tail: She guesses right more than expected by chance. Left-tail: She guesses wrong more than expected by chance
Fisher’s “Tea-tasting experiment” Experimental Results: MilkTea Milk31 Tea13 Guess poured first Poured First 4 4
Fisher’s Exact Test Step 1: Identify tables that are as extreme or more extreme than what actually happened: Here she identified 3 out of 4 of the milk-poured-first teas correctly. Is that good luck or real talent? The only way she could have done better is if she identified 4 of 4 correct. MilkTea Milk31 Tea13 Guess poured first Poured First 4 4 MilkTea Milk40 Tea04 Guess poured first Poured First 4 4
Fisher’s Exact Test Step 2: Calculate the probability of the tables (assuming fixed marginals) MilkTea Milk31 Tea13 Guess poured first Poured First 4 4 MilkTea Milk40 Tea04 Guess poured first Poured First 4 4
Step 3: to get the left tail and right-tail p-values, consider the probability mass function: Probability mass function of X, where X= the number of correct identifications of the cups with milk-poured-first: “right-hand tail probability”: p=.243 “left-hand tail probability” (testing the alternative hypothesis that she’s systematically wrong): p=.986 R also gives a “two- sided p-value” which is calculated by adding up all probabilities in the distribution that are less than or equal to the probability of the observed table (“equal or more extreme”). Here: 0.229+.014+.0.229+.014 =.4857 See R code in file 2by2table.R on my website
Summary of statistical tests for contingency tables Table SizeTest or measures of association 2x2risk ratio (cohort or cross-sectional study) odds ratio (case-control study) Chi-square difference in proportions Fisher’s Exact test (cell size less than 5) RxCChi-square Fisher’s Exact test (expected cell size <5)
The rare disease assumption 1 1 When a disease is rare: P(~D) = 1 - P(D) 1
The odds ratio vs. the risk ratio 1.0 (null) Odds ratio Risk ratio Odds ratio Risk ratio Odds ratio Rare Outcome Common Outcome 1.0 (null)
When is the OR is a good approximation of the RR? General Rule of Thumb: “OR is a good approximation as long as the probability of the outcome in the unexposed is less than 10%” Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration is about 6.5% in people over 40 in the US (according to a 2011 estimate). So, the OR is a reasonable approximation of the RR.
Advantages/Limitations: Case-control studies Advantages: – Cheap and fast – Efficient for rare diseases Disadvantages: – Getting comparable controls is often tricky – Temporality is a problem (did risk factor cause disease or disease cause risk factor? – Recall bias
Properties of the OR (simulation) (50 cases/50 controls/20% exposed) If the Odds Ratio=1.0 then with 50 cases and 50 controls, of whom 20% are exposed, this is the expected variability of the sample OR note the right skew
Example: Does dementia predict death? Dementia: The leading predictor of death in a defined elderly population. Neurology 2004; 62: 1156-1162 Among patients with dementia: 291/355 (82%) died Among patients without dementia: 947/4328 (22%) died
Dementia study Authors report OR = 16.23 (12.27, 21.48) But the RR = 3.72 Fortunately, they do not dwell on the OR, but it could mislead if not interpreted correctly…
Better to give OR or RR? From an RCT (prospective!) of a new diet drug, the authors showed the following table: Odds Ratios for losing at least 5kg were: 4.0 (low dose vs. placebo) 20.9 (medium dose vs. placebo) 31.5 (high dose vs. placebo)
Better to give OR or RR? Corresponding RRs are: 59%/29%=2 (low dose vs. placebo) 87%/29%=3 (medium dose vs. placebo) 91%/29%=3 (high dose vs. placebo)
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If you have ever entered an attic in the middle of summer, you have experienced first hand the sauna created by ordinary roofing materials under the hot sun. This is especially true in Houston, one of the most air-conditioned and energy hungry cities on the planet. Even with several inches of fiberglass insulation on the attic floor, there must be considerable heat flowing into the living space below. I decided to run some tests with the help of a thermocouple meter and several thermocouples, a styrofoam board and some sample roofing shingles.
I used a Doric Trendicator Thermocouple meter and Thermocouple switching box (Figure 1). This particular unit displays from below freezing to over 400 degrees F using "type K" thermocouple wire. Type "K" is really a pair of wires made from two dissimilar metals, pure iron and a nickel alloy, Constantan. The ends of the two wires are bared of insulation and the bright and shiny ends twisted tightly together to form the measuring junction. The other end of the thermocouple wire pair is connected to two of the terminals on the Thermocouple switch box. Two thermocouples are prepared to allow a comparison between differing roofing materials at the same time. A third thermocouple can be suspended in the shade to give an ambient temperature reading. Each thermocouple wire junction should be tested first in ice water and then boiling water to calibrate. The accuracy is within one degree F for this meter. Blue dots mark the sensing ends of the thermocouples.
I taped the thermocouple wire to the broad face of the white styrofoam board along a central axis with clear packing tape, leaving the junction ends free of tape.
The pieces of roofing I used were approximately 8 inches on a side and were laid flat against the styrofoam centered over the thermocouple junction.
I tried the following roofing material:
SCA 121 degrees F
WTA 114 The coolest is Bone White.
It is easy to see that there is a 50 degree F (28 C) difference just underneath these almost identical aluminum shingles. The surface coating is the only variable. There is a 7 degree F difference between the shiny aluminum and the white, the white being cooler.
Those who want to do the heat transport equations to determine how much of this heat is transferred to the habitable areas of a building and who wish to figure the savings in cooling costs can follow up with a good text on heat flow. Others can determine why the current economic and political structure discourages these simple discoveries from being implemented on a wide scale to save many megawatt-hours of energy.
A recent flight over Houston in a commercial aircraft has shown the vast majority of roofs to be made of dark, solar heat absorbing materials.
To be tested:
Flat sheet aluminum spray painted with ordinary flat white paint with titania or titanium dioxide being the white pigment of choice.
Also to be tried are both new and aged black composition tile, black "tar-paper", white "gravel" composition tile, galvanized iron and "galvalum" sheet, both new and tarnished. Other white roof coating membranes used by industrial roofing contractors on large facilities can be tested for comparison.
The coating of these surfaces with dust and "mildew" and methods of keeping these and other surfaces clean as they age to prevent increases in solar gain are areas of improvement.
The lowest heat gain in roofing material is achieved with a metal
roof with a "bone white" Teflon (Tm) or Tedlar (Tm) coating with inorganic
titanium dioxide white pigment. These fluoropolymer coatings have a very
long life and do not encourage mildew.
For further discussion contact:
713 523 0515 | <urn:uuid:a9cd484d-7906-4328-b2a9-98ce60407479> | {
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Many observational studies have suggested that vitamin D may have benefits for heart health. Now a randomised trial has found that vitamin D appears to reduce levels of LDL, or “bad” cholesterol. Researchers randomly assigned 576 post-menopausal women to either a daily dose of 400 units of vitamin D and 1,000 milligrams of calcium, or a placebo. They followed them for three years.
By the end of the study, published in Menopause, the vitamin D group had significantly higher serum levels of vitamin D, and a small but notable drop in LDL.
“We don’t have enough here to say that we’ve figured it all out,” said the lead author, Dr Peter F Schnatz, a professor of internal medicine at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia.
The change in LDL, he said, “is significant, and in the right direction, but maybe not enough to say that we’re going to prevent people from getting heart disease.” | <urn:uuid:44cc360d-cbba-41e2-b852-5107c7c61aee> | {
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Why do your legs get so heavy?
One out of every two women are affected by heavy legs syndrome. This is no surprise, given that hormonal variations--from puberty to inappropriate oral contraceptives to menopause--are largely responsible. Still, this weary, heavy, and sometimes very painful feeling occurs most frequently during pregnancy.
It’s mechanical: The purpose of the veins is to bring blood back to the heart. In the legs, this venous return depends on blood pressure (activated by muscle contractions) and the tone of the veins’ walls, along which are placed valves that are supposed to prevent the blood from flowing back down. When these valves are weakened for various reasons, instead of flowing back up, the blood pools and causes a feeling of heaviness: this is heavy legs syndrome, one of the first signs of venous insufficiency.
It’s closely related to pregnancy: Starting in the first trimester of pregnancy, the influx of progesterone reduces tone in the walls of the veins, while estrogens promote edemas. Over the months, the increased volume of the uterus places increased pressure on the main vein responsible for returning blood to the heart. And at the end of pregnancy, when blood pressure is 2 or 3 times higher, the veins distend and the valves are pushed open, no longer preventing this return flow. All of these factors make pregnancy a period particularly prone to heavy legs. | <urn:uuid:30420088-4a29-43f9-b028-c99304655505> | {
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Josephus’ Writings and Their Relation to the New TestamentRelated Media
A. General Areas of Contribution
Josephus was born in Jerusalem in A.D. 37/38 and became a historian writing principally about the Jewish people up until his death ca. 100. Four of his works are extant: 1) The Jewish War; 2) The Jewish Antiquities; 3) Vita (life) and 4) Against Apion. These works provide us with knowledge of the New Testament era which we otherwise would not possess. In short, Josephus has contributed to our understanding of the social, political, historical (incl. chronological data) and religious backgrounds of the New Testament.
B. Specific Examples1
1. The Hasmoneans
Josephus talks about the Hasmonean line, including such people as Judas ben Mattathias (Ant. 12. 6. 1-4); Judas the Maccabee (Ant. 12. 7-11); John Hyrcanus I (Ant. 13. 8-12); Aristobulus I (Ant. 13. 10. 1-3); Alexander Jannaeus (War 1.4, 5; Ant. 13. 12-16); Alexandra Salome (Ant. 13. 14. 1, 5, 6); Hyrcanus II (Ant. 14. 1-4, 8; Aristobulus II (Ant. 13. 16-14. 1, 3, 6, 7) and of course Mariamne I (War 1. 12, 22); Herod the Great and several others.
These people, through Josephus’ recounting of their lives, play a significant role in helping us to understand how the high priesthood was viewed in the years leading up to the coming of Christ, and their relation to the emerging religious sects in Israel, i.e. the Pharisees, the Sadducees, etc. further enlightens us as to the political, spiritual climate in Israel at that time.
2. Herod the Great and His Family
Josephus has a great deal to say about the antecedents of Herod the Great as well as he and his family after him. A few items have been selected for discussion.
a. Herod was a competent person, able to hunt, ride a horse, shoot an arrow, win in combat, etc. (War 1. 21. 13.). From descriptions like this we can understand how he was able to escape capture by the Parthians, and later lead Roman troops back to Judea, defeat the Parthians and gain control of the land. It is quite reasonable to understand then how he was King of the Jews as the Gospel writers affirm (Matt 2:1; Luke 1:5). It is also interesting to note that, according to Josephus, Herod was installed as King of Judea by the decree of Caesar Augustus (War 1. 20).
b. The linking of Herod with the reign of Caesar helps us also in dating the New Testament events described by the Gospel writers. For example, generally speaking Herod died after 33 years of service to Rome in 4 B. C. and Christ was born right around the same time, a little before perhaps—4 or 5 B. C. (cf. Matt 2:1 and 2:16). Many other dates are secured by Josephus with respect to the Roman governors.
c. He was a tireless builder as Josephus makes evident (War 1. 21) and was indeed responsible for rebuilding the Jewish Temple at no small personal expense (War 1. 21. 1). Since it was done in the fifteenth year of his reign (i.e. ca. 18 B. C.) we know the age of the Temple spoken of in Gospel accounts (i.e. approx. 48-50 years).
d. Determined to increase his power and sphere of rule, he had Hyrcanus killed and thus removed any threat to the throne (War 1. 22. 1 (433)).
e. Herod was increasingly more tyrannical near the end of his career (Ant. 16. 11. 8; War 33). This may provide the background to the slaying of the children recorded in Matthew 2:16. Herod was certainly, according to Josephus, not only capable of such a horrible crime, but was indeed disposed toward such evil acts. Note: It appears that this terrible event is not recorded in Josephus.
f. It appears from Josephus that Archelaus, Herod’s son who assumed leadership as Ethnarch over Judea, Samaria and Idumea in 4 B. C. (after Herod’s death) was of similar character to his father. Josephus says that “Archelaus took possession of the ethnarchy, and used not the Jews only, but the Samaritans, also, barbarously” (War 2. 7.3) with the result that the Jews complained before Caesar and Archelaus was banished to Vienna, a city of Gaul (Ant. 17. 13 This portrait of Archelaus could account for why Joseph and Mary, upon their return from Egypt and hearing that Archelaus was reigning in place of his father, went strait to Nazareth in Galilee—outside the realm of Archelaus and the fear of danger (cf. Matt 2:22).
3. Roman Emperors
Josephus records facts about the Roman emperors which enable us to know more about them, their political lives and their relation to the Jewish nation through their appointed leaders. In this way, for example, when Luke mentions Caesar Augustus (2:1) or Tiberius Caesar (3:1) we know something of their character in general and perhaps can better understand how they might have influenced events going on in the N.T.
a. Caesar Augustus: Josephus speaks of Caesar Augustus on many occasions including his connections with Herod the Great and their relationship. Josephus explains how Herod’s dominions were parceled out to his sons (War 2. 6. 3). This, in turn, accounts for the political state of affairs found in the Gospels after the death of Herod (see I. B. 2. e. above).
b. Tiberius: Tiberius Caesar was the emperor who placed Pontius Pilate as procurator over Judea (War 2. 9. 2). Pilate tried to erect “Ensigns” to Caesar in Jerusalem (War 2. 9. 2 (169)) and also spent money from the Temple treasury on construction of aqueducts (War 2. 9. 4). It is interesting to note that the Jews were indignant and greatly angered at this, yet when it came to crucifying one of their own, namely, Jesus Christ, they had no king but one—Caesar, and by implication his representative, Pilate (cf. John 19:15). If Christ died as late as A. D. 33 and Pilate’s impieties occurred around the beginning of his reign (A. D. 26) there would be no more than ten years between the events and perhaps even much less time. It appears that the Jewish people had very convenient memories.
c. Gaius (Caius/Caligula): Caius ruled as emperor from A. D. 37-41 during the fledgling years of the church—a church which was still basically comprised of Jews. During his reign he sent Petronius to invade Judea and erect a statue of Caesar in the Temple. If the Jews were unwilling, Petronius was to conquer them by war and then do erect the statue (Ant. 18. 2, ff.). The Jews said they would rather die than allow Caesar opportunity to place a statue of himself in their Temple. Their response is most noble and clearly demonstrates that they were still clinging to the Temple and their traditions in spite of the coming of Christ and the abrogation of the Law. One wonders how the Christians in Jerusalem, many of whom appear to have remained connected to the Temple for some time (cf. Acts 3 and Peter and John going to the Temple to pray) would have responded to this in the light of having many unsaved family members. Would they have given their lives for the Temple? Were they viewed as traitors if they decided not to help due to their new theological convictions? In any event, this incident illumines our understanding of the conditions and problems facing the Jews and the church in its early days. On a theological note, perhaps God wanted to use the situation to further separate the church from unbelieving Judaism. The destruction of the Temple by Titus some 30 years later seems to indicate that He had set the nation aside for a time and had begun to work through the church (cf. Romans 9-11; written around A.D. 57/58).
d. Claudius: Claudius reigned from A. D. 41-54 and is mentioned twice in the book of Acts. Luke records the prophet Agabus’ prediction that a famine was to come upon the land during the reign of Claudius (11:28). He also says that an edict was passed by Claudius expelling all the Jews from Rome (18:2). This occurred in A. D. 49-50 due to riots arising within the Jewish community over a certain Chrestus which may refer to Christ or to some other person.2 Josephus discusses Claudius and his relations with the Jews. He mentions a favorable pronouncement upon the Jews during a crisis involving them and the Greeks in the city of Alexandria (Ant. 19. 5. 2, 3). This edict, due to the fact that Herod Agrippa I was still living and king of Palestine, was sometime between A. D. 41-44, thus some 5 or 6 years before the expulsion. Again, we learn valuable information about the kind of world in which the early church grew and developed.
e. Nero: Nero reigned from A. D. 54-68, the time in which Paul was carrying out his missionary journeys and the church was really starting to grow and take on a distinctively Gentile flavor. According to Josephus, Nero was a barbarous individual (Ant. 20. 8. 3) who we know from other historians persecuted the church in Rome most severely (i.e. after the great fire) and was responsible for the death of the apostles Peter and Paul.3 Josephus’ report adds yet another witness to this time period in which Nero reigned over the empire and made an impact upon the church and N. T. writings (cf. Romans 13; 1 Peter 2; the background to Hebrews).
f. Vespasian/Titus: Josephus goes into great deal about the events leading up to and including the fall of Jerusalem in A. D. 70 and the role played by Vespasian and Titus in the war (War 3-7).
4. Roman Prefects and Procurators
a. Pontius Pilate: Josephus describes many of the Roman prefects and procurators including Pontius Pilate, Antoninus Felix and Porcius Festus. Pontius Pilate was a Roman prefect who ruled Judea and Samaria from A. D. 26-36. Josephus describes how he slaughtered many Jews (Ant. 18. 3. 1, 2) and indeed passed sentence on Christ (Ant. 18. 3. 3).
b. Antoninus Felix: Felix was a Roman procurator who ruled over Judea and Samaria from A. D. 53-60. According to Josephus, Felix was so overwhelmed with passion for Drusilla, the wife of Azizus, that he went so far as to send a magician to her in order to convince her to marry him. So, Drusilla divorced her husband and married Felix, thus “transgressing the laws of her forefathers” (Ant. 20. 7. 2). Luke tells us that Paul discussed such things as righteousness and self-control with Felix (and his wife together) which caused him much fear (Acts 24:25). No doubt that Felix was afraid due to his wife and the many other vile crimes he committed against the Jews. In this case it is probable that Josephus gives us pertinent background information that enlightens our understanding of this particular N. T. text.
c. Porcius Festus: Josephus also mentions Fetus’ rule (A. D. 60-62;Ant. 20. 8. 9) after Felix. The fact that Festus replaced Felix, according to Josephus, seems to be in agreement with Luke in Acts 24:27.
5. Several Other Areas of Contribution
Josephus also provides insight and background to several other figures or institutions as seen in the New Testament. He speaks about the Jewish religious sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees and the Essenes (War 2. 8. 2 ff.) as well as the institution of the Sanhedrin (Ant. 14. 9. 3). Josephus also fills in details about the tetrarchy of Philip (War 2. 6. 3; cf. Luke 3:1) and the institution of the High Priest (Ant. 5. 11. 5, etc.). He speaks about Jesus Christ, John the Baptist and James the brother of Jesus.
A. John the Baptist (Ant. 18. 5. 2; Matt 3:1-12; Mark 1:3-8; Luke 3:2-17; John 1:6-8 and 19-28.
1. Main Points in Agreement
a. Josephus, and Matthew and Mark, refer to John as the Baptist.
b. Josephus says that John commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, that is, righteousness toward one another and piety toward God. Matthew says that John taught those baptized to bring forth fruit in keeping with repentance. Luke says the same thing basically and carries it a bit further by offering examples of what repentance might look like (i.e. sharing tunics; collecting the proper amount of taxes; soldiers using force properly and not for dishonest gain; no bearing false testimony against another).
c. Many crowds, according to Josephus, came to listen to his words. Matthew, Mark, Luke say that great multitudes followed John and were baptized by him. John says the Jews sent priests and Levites to question him.
d. Josephus seems to indicate that John’s followers were very dedicated to him (118). John’s followers, according to the Gospels, and Acts 19 were very dedicated to him and his message.
e. According to Josephus, Herod had John sent to prison in Macherus [on the east side of the Dead Sea] and there had him put to death. The Gospel writers affirm that John was put in prison by Herod, though they do not indicate where.
2. Main Points in Disagreement
a. Josephus says that some Jews thought that the destruction of Herod’s army was due to his killing of John—a judgment of God. The Gospel writers record no such interpretation of Herod’s defeat. There is no record in any of the four Gospels that God had Herod’s armies destroyed as a result of him killing John unjustly.
b. Josephus does not give the area of John’s ministry, but the Gospel writers taken together indicate that John ministered outside of Antipas’ territory, in Jerusalem, Judea and neighboring areas (e. g. areas around the Jordan).
c. In Josephus, Herod Antipas feared John because he thought that with the people following him John might lead a rebellion. Herod wanted to put him to death on the grounds of suspicion and nothing more. The Gospel writers say that Herod wanted to kill John because John preached against his unlawful marriage with Herodias. In the end, it was the whim of Herodias, conspiring with her daughter, which led to John’s death (Matt 14:3ff; Mark 6:17ff; Luke 3:19, 20).
d. Josephus says that John’s baptism was not for the remission of sins, but was for the purification of the body due to the fact that the soul was already purified by the people’s return to righteousness prior to coming for John’s baptism. The Gospel writers appear to unanimously indicate that John’s baptism of repentance was for the remission of sins and Matthew and Mark state that people were confessing their sins to John, meaning they had no previous righteousness per se, at least as Josephus seems to indicate.
e. Josephus does not connect John with Jesus Christ. All the Gospel writers make the connection in no uncertain terms.
The main areas of agreement are substantial enough to provide the basis for an attempt to harmonize the areas of disagreement. Points (a) and (b) under areas of disagreement do not concern the essential story and as such really do not pose a problem. Point (c) above is really no contradiction—both could be true at the same time. Perhaps Herod was nervous about the sizable crowds following John and combined with the fact that John openly condemned Herod’s marriage, thus weakening Herod’s position among the people, caused Herod to want to kill him. Herodias’ daughter was really just the occasion for the act.
Point (d) above, where Josephus says that John’s baptism was for the purification of the body and not for the remission of sins, seems to be at odds somewhat with the Gospel accounts. Given the accuracy of the Gospel accounts,4 it would seem that Josephus was not entirely accurate in what he thought about John’s ministry. Whatever sources he used, they seem to represent a slightly different tradition than the Gospel writers. The fact too, that Jospehus records only general statements with regards to John’s ethic and the Gospel writers, on the other hand, record detailed descriptions of his injunctions, makes me think that the Gospel writers were privy to the actual details of the message. Of course, Jospehus was not even born when John preached, yet the Gospel writers may have indeed listened to John firsthand.
Further, Josephus appears to have had the habit of referring to “Jewish ethical responsibility” as “piety and justice.”5 If this is indeed the case, as Mason affirms, then it would appear that Jospehus’ only real concern is to present John as a very ethical Jewish person—thus he inserts his formula, “piety and justice”—not necessarily to stress the details of his message. Perhaps this accounts in part for the different purpose ascribed to John’s baptism on the side of the Gospel writers as opposed to that offered by Jospehus.6
The last point (e) has caused problems for certain scholars. Steve Mason7 thinks that the Gospel writers have annexed John for their own purposes beyond anything which the Baptist envisioned. According to Mason, they had more of a motive to use John to this end than does Josephus for his ends. Thus Josephus’ portrait of the Baptist more closely resembles John as he was. Further, Mason claims that traces in the N.T. of the real John appear in: 1) John’s wondering whether Jesus was the Christ and 2) the disciples of John in Ephesus who did not know about Jesus or the Holy Spirit (cf. Acts 19:1-7). These incidents says Mason, point to the “integrity” of John over and against his representation by the Gospel writers as a forerunner to Messiah.
There appear to be several problems with this view. While there is no doubt that the Scriptures are in a sense propaganda, it is another thing to affirm that what they appear to report as history is really a misrepresentation of history. It is John the Baptist who historically affirmed his connection with Jesus; and the Gospel writers record this tradition—unless of course, the Gospel writers are putting words into the mouth of John that he never spoke or intended. If this is the case, then how do we know anything affirmed as historical in Scripture really is true to fact?8
Mason’s use of the incident described in Acts 19:1-7 to support the identity and message of the true John will not stand, for it presupposes that these disciples correctly understood John. But the text clearly indicates that they did not. Paul explicitly told them that part of John’s message was to believe in the one coming after him (19:4). Thus, the disciples’ understanding of John’s message, in contrast to what Mason affirms, was wrong. Therefore it cannot be used to recreate a “John” that stands outside the tradition of the Gospel writers. In fact, it works completely the opposite; it further confirms the Gospel presentation of John as the one who preceded the Messiah.
It is not necessary to set Josephus at odds with the New Testament writers on this point. Jospehus, as one not in the Christian movement, did not associate the two men—perhaps he did not realize their relationship. If he did know of it, perhaps it did not suit his purpose in writing to join them for the reader at that time. His interest in his writing is not to catalogue the beginnings and developments within Christianity—he is perhaps more interested, as Mason affirms, in developing an apologetic for the Jewish people.9
B. Jesus and Pilate
Josephus mentions Jesus Christ (i.e. the so-called Testimonium Flavinium) in two passages: Ant. 18. 3 . 3 and 20. 9. 1.10
There does not appear to be anything in both of Josephus’ accounts that would necessarily disagree with the Gospel writers. The problem seems to be whether Jospehus actually penned the final form of the first passage (i.e. Ant. 18. 3 . 3) as we have it today. The opinion of scholars, since the sixteenth century or so, has been divided. Some say that the saying as a whole is authentic. Others say that parts of the saying are from the hand of Josephus and that parts are Christian additions. And, thirdly, there are those who regard the whole statement as spurious—totally a Christian interpolation.11 It is found in three manuscripts.
I believe that the text preserves some of Josephus’ own words which were later added to by a Christian copyist(s).12 I think the basic text of Josephus was as follows:
At about this time lived Jesus, a wise man. . .he was a teacher of such people as accept the truth with pleasure. He won over many Jews and many of the Greeks. . . When Pilate, upon an indictment13 brought by the principal men among us,14 condemned him to the cross, those who had loved him from the very first did not cease to be attached to him. And the tribe of the Christians, so-called after him, has to this day still not disappeared.
I think that the following phrases were most likely written by Christian(s):
1) “if indeed one might call him a wise man. . . For. . . accomplished surprising feats” This seems to imply that the writer believed something more about Jesus—that he was more than a mere mortal. Since it appears that Jospehus never became a Christian it is hard to believe that he would write such a statement as a Jew. In other words, these sound like statements that might come from a Christian.
2) “He was the Messiah” (i.e. he was called the Christ) seems a bit strong for a Jewish historian to say about Jesus and more likely the work of a Christian. It appears to be a declaration of faith.
3) “On the third day. . . concerning him.” This is so unlikely to be from Josephus because it speaks with assurance of Jesus’ resurrection. It does not say that the Christians claimed this to be true. The text implies that Jospehus held it to be true. This is quite unlikely, especially given the fact that he didn’t even say a single word of interpretation about it. For such an incredible assertion to be made, without explanation, implies its unequivocal acceptance—hardly the position of Josephus.
Overall, I think that the record in Josephus contains his words, as shown above, with the addition of Christian “testimony.” Whatever one holds concerning the Testimonium Flavinium, one still must ask the question, “What is the value to anyone of determining its authorship?” Does anything really stand or fall on determining who wrote it? The historical conception of the person to whom the statement witnesses (i.e. Jesus) is unaltered by the passage, no matter who wrote it, and this is further confirmed by the fact that it agrees with the Gospel accounts.15
The question of the historical reliability of Josephus can only be answered by attempting to correlate what he asserts in his writings with other sources (some of which he used), whether literature, archaeology, etc. And, when no such external knowledge exists to confirm or deny his report, we must consider internal evidence, his habits, what kind of man he says he was, etc. to see whether certain of his claims are credible.16 At this point we are closer to guessing than in the first situation.
Given the above canons, it is no mystery that many scholars hold that Josephus is woefully inaccurate at times. And, it would appear from the work of Schurer, Broshi, Mason, Mosley and Yamauchi that such a conclusion is fairly warranted.17 Yet this skepticism does not need to be thorough-going, for there are many places where it appears that he has left for us a solid record of people and events—especially as regards the broad movements in history at this time. These might include facts about the Herodian dynasty, the nature of the Jewish religious sects, Roman rule over Palestine and the fall of Jerusalem. Boshi agrees that in many places Josephus errs, regarding numbers and names, but this is no grounds for dismissing all that he said as without foundation. Once again, the historical trustworthiness of Josephus, is perhaps not a flat declaration, “he is” or “he is not” but rather it proceeds on a case by case basis.18
2 Cf I. H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles, The Tyndale New Testament Commentaries, ed. R. V. G. Tasker, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1980), 292, 93. Richard N. Longenecker, The Acts of the Apostles, The Expositors Bible Commentary, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein, vol. 9 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1981), 481. Both authors parallel the Acts account with statements made by Seutonius; Vita Claudius, 25. 4.
4 The Gospel accounts were written by people inside, more or less, the tradition of John. They probably should be trusted, ahead of Josephus, to more accurately represent their own tradition. Besides, Josephus is not writing about John as an end in itself, or even to describe the beginning s of the Christian faith, but he is using the incident to form part of a long apologetic for the Jewish nation. In this sense, John stands out as a model Jew in the midst of Herod’s unjust treatment. And, the fact that God apparently judged Herod, according to Jospehus, seems to further confirm this. But cf. Steve Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992), 153, 54, who thinks that the two descriptions are essentially similar.
8 All historical reporting is selective and therefore biased, but this does not mean it is ipso facto incorrect. It seems, therefore, very reasonable to believe that the Gospel writers framed their accounts of John to serve their theological purposes, but it would appear to be dishonest if they put words in his mouth with meanings he never intended.
13 Cf. Schurer, 433. His distinction here between Josephus’ account and the gospel accounts about the part played by Pilate and that played by the Jews in Jesus’ death, does not really amount to much of a problem. Both sources indicate that Pilate and the Jewish leaders were involved.
15 What I am saying here is that if it disagreed substantially and essentially with other historical records, (i.e. Gospels, etc.) then much would hang on determining its authorship to better see if the author, by looking at his other writings, is objective in what he is purporting. Also, regarding the authenticity of the passage, one must consider the question of Origen, who never mentions it; cf. Edwin M. Yamauchi, “Josephus and Scripture,” Fides et Historia (Fall 1980): 54.
16 Josephus apparently set high standards for himself and criticized others for poor historiography. But he, when measured against his own canons of objectivity and truthfulness, often failed to be a good historian. Cf. A. W. Mosley, “Historical Reporting and the Ancient World,” New Testament Studies (October 1965): 23 and Broshi, 383, 84.
17 Cf. J. J. Scott, “Josephus,” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, eds. Joel B. Green and Scott McKnight, (Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1992), 393; Schurer, 57, 58. He says, that the War is superior in accuracy to the Antiquities in the recording of details and therefore of greater [historical] value; Magen Broshi, “The Credibility of Josephus,” Journal of Jewish Studies 33 (Spring/Autumn 1982): 383, 84; Mason, 81, 82; A. W. Mosley, 24-26 and Yamauchi, 58.
Related Topics: History | <urn:uuid:60edfefc-5760-41d1-81a6-050272a486c7> | {
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|« Back to Article|
S.A. program targets preschool obesity
By Jessica Belasco : March 1, 2013 : Updated: March 3, 2013 3:28pm
Photo By Courtesy UTSA
Zenong Yin is the lead author of “Míranos! Look at Us, We Are Healthy!”
Photo By Cynthia Davis/UTSA
As part of the M ranos! program, Cookie Monster and UTSA graduate students dressed as fruit talked about healthy eating and exercise to preschool children at Burleson Early Childhood Education Center in Edgewood Independent School District in May 2010. Credit: UTSA Cynthia Davis
Parents fall in love with chubby-cheeked infants with pudgy thighs. As children grow, their parents encourage them to clean their plates to fuel their development.
But public health officials are worrying about excessive weight gain in the first months and years of life. More than 20 percent of children between ages 2 and 5 already are overweight or obese, according to an Institute of Medicine report released in 2011, and this can set them on a dangerous trajectory toward lifelong obesity. And minority children are at a higher risk.
While mountains of studies have focused on obesity prevention in older children and adults, there hasn't been as much research looking at young children. But researchers at the University of Texas at San Antonio and the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio have found that interventions among minority preschool children can help them develop more healthful habits. Their study about a pilot program for preschoolers ran in the journal Childhood Obesity in October.
“So many of their eating habits are established at such a young age that this is where we're really needing to work with parents and get the parents' buy-in,” says Dr. Amelie Ramirez, director of the Institute for Health Promotion Research at the UT Health Science Center and a co-author of the study. “In the Latino culture, a healthy baby is a chubby baby. They do gain that cute baby fat, but we're seeing nowadays so many parents letting them have so much sugared beverages and so forth at such an early age that they kind of become addicted to sweets and salt.”
The goal of the local study, called “Míranos! Look at Us, We Are Healthy!” was to create environments both at school and at home to help kids develop healthful lifestyle habits. The intent was not to promote weight loss, because the kids are growing, but to promote healthy weight gain.
The results were positive: Kids who received the intervention showed increases in outdoor physical activity and consumption of fruit, vegetables and low-fat milk, as well as higher gains of gross motor skills, compared to the kids who did not receive the intervention. They were more willing to drink water. And the intervention controlled their weight gain.
“They were kind of taking their little overweight bodies and growing into them,” Ramirez says. “They were able to sustain their weight but increase in height.”
Míranos! was conducted for 18 weeks in four Head Start centers on the West and Southwest sides of San Antonio. The subjects were predominantly Mexican American children.
The approach had multiple components, because teachers and parents must be involved to change the children's environment at school and home, says Zenong Yin, a professor in UTSA's department of health and kinesiology and the lead author of the study.
“We really think for anything to have impact, we have to really provide enough support so the kids can do the same thing at home,” Yin says. “You can't just teach them at school and do nothing at home.”
Researchers bought the centers portable equipment such as balls and cones for outdoor play and provided a curriculum for teachers to conduct health-related activities in the classroom. They organized tastings of healthful foods and rewarded kids for drinking water and eating fruits and vegetables.
Teachers received education in nutrition and physical activity and began leading structured play at recess instead of observing the children from a distance.
Educating parents was a bit more difficult.
“The challenge with any kind of health promotion is parents don't show up,” Yin says.
So researchers relied on parent educators to teach other parents about childhood obesity during poster sessions at the school when parents arrived to pick up their children. The parents also received family activities and low-calorie snacks to take home.
The researchers implemented the school-based activities at two centers; at another center, they implemented the school activities and the parent education to encourage more healthful habits at home. The fourth center received no intervention. The best results were seen among children who received interventions both at home and school.
The results were encouraging enough that researchers and the Family Service Association, which runs Head Start centers in San Antonio, plan to apply for funding from the National Institutes of Health for a large randomized trial to test the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of Míranos! in child-care centers. | <urn:uuid:6ffecdb6-a492-4322-91c2-4fee80680ae2> | {
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New research has found a way of turning biosolids from sewage into cheaper, higher performing bricks suitable for the construction industry.
A research team from RMIT University has developed a fired-clay brick as a sustainable solution for the wastewater treatment and brickmaking industries.
The bricks are made up of biosolids, a by-product of the wastewater treatment process, and were found to have a lower thermal conductivity than other bricks, meaning they will transfer less heat and potentially give buildings higher environmental performance.
- Regenerating land through Loop Organics
- Fertile networks: Australian Organics Recycling Association
- Southern Oil Refining turning waste into oil
The research examined the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of fired-clay bricks incorporating different proportions of biosolids, from 10 to 25 per cent.
Researchers found brick firing energy demand was cut almost in half for bricks that incorporated 25 per cent biosolids, due to the organic content and could considerably reduce the carbon footprint of brick manufacturing companies.
Around five million tonnes of the biosolids in Australia, New Zealand, the EU, US and Canada currently go to landfill or stockpiles each year. By using a minimum of 15 per cent biosolids content in 15 per cent of the bricks produced, the research team estimates around five million tonnes could instead be used for construction.
The bricks have passed compressive strength tests and analysis demonstrated heavy metals are largely trapped within the brick. Biosolids can have significantly different chemical characteristics, so the researchers recommend further testing before large-scale production.
Lead investigator Associate Professor Abbas Mohajerani said the research sought to tackle two environmental issues – the stockpiles of biosolids and the excavation of soil required for brick production.
“More than 3 billion cubic metres of clay soil is dug up each year for the global brickmaking industry, to produce about 1.5 trillion bricks,” Mohajerani said.
“Using biosolids in bricks could be the solution to these big environmental challenges.
“It’s a practical and sustainable proposal for recycling the biosolids currently stockpiled or going to landfill around the globe,” he said.
The results of a comparative Life Cycle Assessment and an emissions study conducted as part of the research confirmed biosolids bricks offered a sustainable alternative approach to addressing the environmental impacts of biosolids management and brick manufacturing.
The research, funded by RMIT University, Melbourne Water and Australian Government Research Training Program scholarships, is published in the “Green Building Materials Special Issue” of Buildings.
Pictured: Associate Professor Abbas Mohajerani. Image Credit: RMIT University | <urn:uuid:20da549e-66ea-4f50-887a-9d90ad32a834> | {
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Solar Powered Mouse Being Tested
The Delft University of Technology has built a solar powered mouse, testing whether renewable energy products, with higher functionality and a touch of design, can encourage users to adopt modern and consistently sustainable conduct. They even have the Minister of Housing and the Environment using one. They are testing the "willingness of the user to adapt his behaviour to favourable light conditions by regularly charging the unit with daylight from the window, and the computer usage pattern. With solar energy, under ideal circumstances charging can occur a factor of five times quicker than in the current situation. Over time it is estimated that several hundred million batteries could be saved annually on a global scale." | <urn:uuid:bed99178-ae87-4165-99d9-37bdbd9c15fa> | {
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Freetown-Lakeville Aquatics Program
Parent and Child – A parent and instructor will assist with an introduction to the water in a fun and comfortable setting. This class is about helping to start early with water awareness and safety.
Level 1 – At this level, the young swimmer will be interacting with their instructor independently. With the support of the instructor, they will become more comfortable with the water. Becoming more comfortable with floating, submerging their head, and kicking their legs with the help of the instructor
Level 2 - At this level, the swimmers are learning to interact in the water with the guidance of their instructor. They will learn the importance of using their core and how their body position (streamline) plays a role in swimming. They will begin more detailed instruction on Freestyle and Backstroke.
Level 3 - At this level, the swimmers should be swimming without the assistance of the instructor. They will continue to learn the importance of body position (streamline). They will be getting more detailed instruction in Freestyle and Backstroke. Breaststroke, Butterfly, and turn work will be introduced. Proper technique will be reinforced throughout. | <urn:uuid:87580d51-04b9-42c0-81c0-ff09b223d7d2> | {
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Height: 21.000 cm
Width: 11.000 cm
Depth: 9.000 cm
Ancient Egypt and Sudan
Limestone model of a town house
Perhaps Third Intermediate or Graeco-Roman Period, about 800 BC - AD 200
This model shows us what an ancient Egyptian house might have looked like in the later historical periods. It is always referred to as a 'town house', as the vertical storeys suggests that space was confined, in contrast to the spread-out 'villa'-like structures found in the New Kingdom (about 1550-1070 BC) city of Tell el-Amarna. The house in this model seems to have had two storeys and an accessible roof. The windows are indicated on the first floor by two crossed bars, and on the upper storey with a criss-cross pattern, perhaps representing shutters. The roof would have been used for storage, much like houses in Egypt today.
Compare this model with the house shown in the Book of the Dead of Nakht of the late Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1350-1300 BC).
E. Brovarski and others (eds), Egypts golden age: the art of (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1982)
E. Strouhal, Life in Ancient Egypt (Cambridge University Press, 1992)
N. de G. Davies, 'The Town House in Ancient Egypt', Metropolitan Museum Studies, 1 (1929) | <urn:uuid:fe65ef33-75b3-4962-a0d4-876737fe5c85> | {
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Federal agency created by Richard Nixon charged with protecting human health and the environment.
Landmark 1973 Supreme Court case that rejected many state and federal restrictions on abortion.
Incident in which Ohio National Guardsmen killed 4 college students who were protesting Nixon's invasion of Cambodia.
Nixon's German-born National Security Advisor who followed the principle of realpolitik.
Treaty signed in 1973 that ended American involvement in Southeast Asia but failed to create peace between North and South Vietnam.
Unprecedented peacetime economic measures taken by Nixon to manage rising inflation.
The energy crisis of 1973 occurred when this group of Middle Eastern countries placed an oil embargo on the US in response to American support of Israel.
President Nixon met with this infamous Chinese leader during his historic 1972 trip to China.
French term used to describe the easing of tensions between the US and Soviet Union in the 1970s.
Bilateral talks between the US and the USSR on limiting nuclear stockpiles during the Nixon and Carter administrations.
White House Chief of Staff under Nixon who was found guilty of conspiracy and obstruction of justice.
Campaign and fundraising arm of the Nixon White House that was implicated in money laundering, slush funds, and the Watergate burglary.
House Minority Leader who was tapped by Nixon to replace Spiro Agnew as Vice President and then assumed the presidency after Nixon's resignation.
Liberal Republican who served as Vice President from 1974 to 1977.
Term describing the slow economic growth and double-digit inflation of the late 1970s.
Islamic guerrillas armed by the US who fought the Red Army after the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Crisis emerging from the 1979 Iranian Revolution that helped create widespread discontent with Jimmy Carter's leadership.
Historic peace treaty between Israel and Egypt mediated by President Jimmy Carter.
Speech given by President Carter during the energy crisis of 1979 in which he asserted the US was suffering a crisis of confidence.
The only state won by George McGovern in the 1972 presidential election.
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Hout Bay, à noite, Cidade do Cabo.
Esta página mudou-se para
Vista do porto da Cidade do Cabo e a Table Mountain ao fundo (Victoria and Albert Waterfront).
The Great Karoo Range and Cape Ranges, South Africa April 1993 This low-oblique, south-southwest-looking photograph reveals the complex landscape of South Africa. The topography of this region is a series of steppes. From the high central plateau (not visible in the photograph) to the Great Escarpment, at an altitude of 2135 meters, that appears along the north side of the photograph, the terrain descends into a vast semiarid plateau called the Great Karoo (orange area). This hot, arid plateau extends east-west 500 km and averages 600 to 1200 meters above sea level. Descending further across smaller escarpments and plains, the steppes reach the mountains of the forested Cape Ranges (dark green) and, finally, the coast. Where irrigated, the Great Karoo is very fertile and supports extensive livestock grazing and the growing of citrus fruit and grains. The Great Karoo is covered mostly by succulent plants that survive the heat and aridity by conserving moisture or having life cycles geared to the occasional violent storms that pass over the region. Three pronounced capes lie along the coast—from east to west are Cape St. Francis, Cape Seal, and Cape St. Blaize located near the small port city of Mosselbaai.
Copyright © Guia Geográfico - Roteiros Turísticos.
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Thyroiditis refers to inflammation in the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is located in the neck. It produces hormones that deliver oxygen and energy throughout the body. There are several kinds of thyroiditis, including De Quervain’s thyroiditis. De Quervain’s thyroiditis is also known as subacute or granulomatous thyroiditis. De Querain’s thyroiditis was analyzed first in 1904. It is less common than Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, and it can lead to tenderness or pain in the thyroid gland due to rapid swelling.
De Quervain’s thyroiditis, or subacute granulomatous thryoiditis, is divided into the category of a painful kind of thyroiditis. The two types of thyroiditis include both painless thyroiditis and painful thyroiditis. If you experience pain or tenderness in your thyroid or neck area, it is possible your thyroid gland is inflamed. Speak to your doctor if you have any questions or concerns. This article is compiled based on research conducted, and it is important to note that I am not a doctor.
De Quervain’s Thyroiditis Diagnosis
Tests and clinical examination are a couple of ways to help diagnose the condition. Early on in the disease test results can involve an increase in T4 and T3 levels. They can also include a decrease in TSH (low thyroid stimulating hormone) and thyroid radioactive iodine uptake as well as a high ESR (erthrocyte sedimentation rate).
It is assumed that De Quervain’s thyroditis is caused by a viral or bacterial infection. De Quervain’s thyroiditis is geographical and seasonal, more commonly diagnosed in the season of fall (after upper respiratory tract infections).
Besides experiencing pain or tenderness in the thyroid area, there are other signs of De Quervain’s thyroiditis. You can have difficulty swallowing, a fever, or experience signs of infection like enlarged lymph nodes close to the thyroid.
There are a few other symptoms to note, though they are less common:
- Being sensitive to heat
- Excessive sweating
- Weight loss
- Heart palpitations
If you are experiencing any of the symptoms listed above or believe you may be experiencing De Quervain’s thyroiditis, contact your doctor. Additionally, you should speak to a healthcare professional you trust in order to receive correct and reliable answers.
There are a couple of treatment options to look at depending on your condition. If you are experiencing pain or swelling in your thyroid glands, you can take high doses of aspirin, ibuprofen, or other NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). Additionally, your doctor can prescribe antibiotics if he or she finds a bacterial infection.
Hyperthyroid symptoms can lead to a treatment plan that includes a beta-blocker. You can also receive thyroid hormone replacement medications depending on your condition. Your doctor may also recommend corticosteroids if your condition is more severe. Hypothyroid cases can require different treatment processes. As soon as the thyroid radioactive iodine uptake returns to elevated levels, treatment can stop.
Usually, the thyroid gland and hormone production goes back to normal in patients with the hyperthyroid condition. There is a low risk of a recurrence of subacute granulomatous thyroiditis because it is considered self-limited. However, this does not mean it is not impossible to eventually become permanently hypothyroid.
Women are more likely to be affected by De Quervain’s thyroiditis than men. In fact, a study shows that women are three to five times more likely to be affected. The condition usually occurs in middle-aged women (about thirty to fifty years old), but it can affect any individual.
De Quervain’s thyroiditis is believed to be an inflammatory immune reaction and more frequently there is a commonality of antecedent viral upper respiratory tract infections.
Recurrences of the hyperthyroid condition are quite uncommon. In fact, subacute thyroiditis is self-limited and can subside in less than three months. If it does reoccur, it can lead to hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism can be permanent, especially when there is extensive follicular destruction.
De Quervain’s thyroiditis is a type of painful thyroiditis that more likely affects middle-aged women. Although subacute granulomatous thyroiditis can resolve on its own, patients with more extreme or severe conditions are prone to be permanently hypothyroid. Treatment is possible, and there are different techniques and approaches you can take depending on the state of your condition. De Quervain’s thyroiditis has many symptoms. In order to receive a correct diagnosis your doctor can conduct other tests. These other tests will help ensure your symptoms are caused by De Quervain’s thyroiditis.
Reach out to your doctor if you have any more questions or concerns. In order to receive professional support and insight, it is best to ask for advice from a healthcare professional you trust. | <urn:uuid:ea866a2f-843a-43f9-a78d-84cc31e16a31> | {
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Washington, Sept. 13 (ANI): NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft has officially become the first human-made object to travel into interstellar space.
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory's Stamatios (Tom) Krimigis, principal investigator for Voyager's Low-Energy Charged Particle (LECP) instrument, said Voyager is now leaving the solar bubble at an altitude of 11.3 billion miles.
Voyager 1 first detected the pressure of interstellar space on the heliosphere, the bubble of charged particles surrounding the Sun that reaches far beyond the outer planets, in 2004.
Scientists then ramped up their search for evidence of the spacecraft's interstellar arrival, knowing the data analysis and interpretation could take months or years. Until mid-2010, the intensity of particles originating from inside our solar system had been holding steady.
A coronal mass ejection - or a massive burst of solar wind and magnetic fields - that erupted from the Sun in March 2012 provided scientists with the data they needed.
When the material eventually arrived at Voyager 1's location 13 months later, in April 2013, the plasma around the spacecraft began to vibrate like a violin string. On April 9, Voyager 1's plasma wave instrument detected the movement.
The particular oscillations meant the spacecraft was bathed in plasma more than 40 times denser than what they had encountered in the outer layer of the heliosphere. Density of this sort is to be expected in interstellar space.
The plasma wave science team went back through its recent data and found an earlier, fainter set of oscillations in October to November of 2012.
The report on this has been published in the journal Science. (ANI) | <urn:uuid:ee9cf9af-bef6-43b1-b7a0-74120e26b4a9> | {
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Modern History of Poland
In its infancy, Poland was a satellite state of Russia. In the 1947 elections, Boleslaw Bierut, a Soviet citizen was elected the President and with the constitution patterned on the lines of the Soviet model, everything in Poland had a Soviet look and feel about it.
In the mid-1950s, there were widespread student protests against the atrocities of the Communist regime. The revolts against Moscow authorities led to an abolition of the oppressive Stalinist regime but there was no improvement in the conditions of the common man.
The common man in Poland had to bear the brunt of food scarcity and expensive housing. In such times, a labor uprising was imminent. It came about with a certain Lech Walesa's Solidarity Labor Union.
The Solidarity party enjoyed immense popularity amongst the masses. It is no wonder that in the 1989 general elections it won by an overwhelming majority. Lech Walesa was elected President of the country.
However, economic conditions did not improve and Poland was again thrown back into turbulent times. From 1990 to 1996 Poland had as many as eight Prime Ministers.
Unemployment was rampant in Poland and workers lived under pitiable conditions. The nightmares of the Communist regime still ravaged Polish society.
The political conditions have stabilized a little in the first few years of the present century and it can be safely concluded that, as before, the diehard spirit of the Polish people will see them through come what may.
Main | Early Years Of Poland (10th Century - 13th Century) | From Polish State to Polish-Lithuanian Union: Rule of Jageillos | Rule of the Polish Gentry | A National Revival: The Rise of the Hoi Polloi | Poland During World War I: Phoenix Rising from Ashes | World War II: Dark Days Again for Poland | Modern History of Poland
Add comment / Read comments | <urn:uuid:b817a54f-4fe3-45c8-816e-728e2569592b> | {
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MATHEMATICAL IMPOSSIBILITIES: REAL AND IMAGINARY
Chris Holden, [email protected]
“You can’t prove a negative!” You probably hear it all the time. But in math, we prove negatives for breakfast. In fact, the impossible has been a driving force like no other in this most exact of disciplines.
We all know a little bit about the impossible in math: why is there is no highest number to which you can count? Because you can always add one more. It’s a little bit harder to show that there is no last prime number, but it’s true. We also know that it is not possible to write √2 or π as ratios of whole numbers. You cannot trisect an angle, square a circle, or duplicate a cube using only a compass and unmarked straightedge, and neither can anyone else, ever. Euclid’s 5th postulate cannot be proven from the first four. These are all well-known, ancient impossibilities, some of which took more than 2000 years to be understood.
Sometimes in math, a thing that seems impossible turns out to be anything but. Once transcended, imagined impossibilities lead to new advances again and again. Two examples are right under our noses: minus one and its square root. Negative and imaginary were for a long time impossible fictions, total nonsense, but today they are part of the standard numerical toolkit we all take for granted.
The perspective of the impossible gives us access to some of the biggest moments in the history of mathematics: Pierre de Fermat in a few short scribbles described an impossibility of arithmetic that inspired new thinking for more than 350 years before it was finally laid to rest. Evariste Galois showed that the quintic is unsolvable - there is no general formula to solve equations beginning with x^5. Georg Cantor showed that it is impossible to count all the real numbers between 0 and 1, even if you could count forever. Kurt Gödel proved that it is impossible to create a system complicated enough to do basic arithmetic that can also prove its own consistency (there are no inherent contradictions within the rules of the system) or its completeness (answer all of its valid questions), showing that the dream of founding math securely on logic is necessarily doomed.
In math, not only do we transact continually with the impossible, but it is in fact a muse of the highest order. Our modern understandings of form, number, and even the universe owe much to the famous impossible problems above and more.
In this class we will uncover the power of the impossible by taking a historical perspective. We will visit impossibilities throughout the history of mathematics, take them apart, and map their influences. We will also explore the impossible as it can be seen in the mathematics today. By learning how to deal with the impossible, we’ll get a unique inside look at what math is all about. Students will get a chance not just to see important ideas and do problems, but to dig into the contexts that give these mathematical developments meaning.
READINGS AND TEXTS
Yearning for the Impossible by John Stillwell
Mathematics and its History by John Stillwell
Users as Agents of Technological Change by Kline and Pinch
The Structure of SCientific Revolutions by Thomas Kuhn
Things that Make Us Smart by Donald Norman
Other online resources
There are no prerequisites, but math is not a spectator sport; we will be getting our hands dirty. As Euclid supposedly told King Ptolemy, “There is no royal road to mathematics.” Frustration is the name of the game, after all we’re talking about the impossible. It’s going to make your head hurt. In a good way.
We will solve and create problems. So you will need a pencil and paper. You will also need a wastebasket. We will use 21st century tools like computer algebra systems and the typesetting language Latex to do and express math in print and electronically. Students will work in small groups to present two episodes from the history of mathematical impossibility, and write about a third, individually, in research papers. There will also be take-home problem sets.
Students will also be asked to do additional research into the mathematical topics and historical context and use this research to write short essays. A particular focus will likely be analogies between the development of math and sciences and technologies.
ABOUT THE INSTRUCTOR
Chris Holden is a mathematician for the people. He received his Ph.D. in number theory from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Originally from Albuquerque, his current research focuses on place-based mobile game design and implementation. Chris enjoys videogames like DDR and Katamari Damacy, and he takes a whole lot of photos. | <urn:uuid:3522ab83-9606-430c-9463-bbd504416b17> | {
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On the night of September 25, 2011 the Catalonia region of Spain held its final bullfight. Many Americans think of bullfighting as a sport practiced by our neighbors to the south and could not care less about this ban. Most of our knowledge comes from seeing the cartoon character Bugs Bunny waving a red cape in the face of the occasional bull and then watching it slam into a brick wall as the cape was moved. But there is so much more to this sport than just bullfighting, and the chances that future generations will ever truly learn and understand its beauty are fading fast.
The pastime of bullfighting, considered (depending on your view) to be both noble and barbaric, has been a part of the Catalonian tradition since at least 1387, and provides its bullrings as some of the oldest and most revered structures still standing, in not just Catalonia, but all of Spain, with some dating back to the 1850s. There is no clear picture of where the sport of bullfighting originated; however, many believe it is related to the practice of ancient bull worship and sacrifice. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed upon that the sport, as seen today, originated in 1726, when a man first stood toe to toe with a bull and introduced spectators to the now infamous red cape. Some also say the tradition stretches as far back as to the time of Roman Emperor Claudius in 41-54 AD, when he initiated this “sport” as a regional replacement for the gladiator.
Since the 1700s, the past time has grown. The sport has grown to have fans all over the world including: Portugal, France, Tamil, India, Oman, Mexico, and even the United States (Where do you think we got the idea for the rodeo clown?). However, with all of this growth, Spain is still the place where the roots of respect, fear, and honor for the bull all run the deepest. Catalonia, which may be the first to have bullfighting, is certainly not the first part of the world to raise a ban of this kind. Similar bans on the sport have sprung up in other areas as well, including parts or all of Colombia, Ecuador, France, Portugal, Spain, and Venezuela.
On the day of the final bullfight that Barcelona may ever see, people took to the streets, protesting both for and against the age-old tradition. Some, glad to see the sport being put to an end, were there to protest the arena’s “blood-sport” one last time. Others were there to protest the stealing of their heritage. Those who are true fans of the bullfight see it as more art than sport. To many, it is less about the fact that the matador defeats the bull, but instead how he defeats it. In fact, time is not really a factor as the fight is actually sectioned into three stages or tercio which is designed as a chance for a professional to display his grace, athleticism and wit to the audience. The big difference between this and many American rodeo events is the imminent death of the animal.
The law that took away Catalonian bullfighting passed with the approval of 68 of the 132 members of the Catalonian parliament. It specifically repealed an existent section of an animal rights law existent in Catalonia which protected bullfighting. The Catalonian government also added to the existing laws, by explicitly banning almost all bull-based recreational activities in the region.
Now, what does this have to do with civil rights you may ask? A civil and/or political right can be described as a person’s right to act in the state’s civil and political realms without fear of repression. Obviously, voting away bullfighting probably should not be considered on par with enacting a law that discriminates against someone based on race or religion, but a group of people lost their past time because an estimated 60 percent of Spaniards and 180,000 Catalonian petitioners decided they no longer approve of the sport. Some may call this democracy in action, and technically they may be right. A popularly elected legislature did, in fact, vote to outlaw the sport in Catalonia. In fact, many Spaniards have argued that this is simply the Catalonian parliament taking an opportunity to show the rest of Spain just how different and independent they are from the rest of the country.
We are seeing a group of Spaniards stripped of rights. These rights may not be as vital to modern life as others (life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness property anyone?), but as of January 1, 2012 (the date the ban officially goes into effect), the right to participate in or watch a bullfight is no longer one that will be held by citizens of the Catalonia region of Spain.
Bullfighting and other local practices worldwide are being killed by globalization and homogenization. The world is able to completely see and experience what happens in a bullfight and many throughout the world disapprove. Animal rights groups are usually more than willing to point out how cruel it is to kill a bull, although the animal’s meat is then given to the poor for consumption. Perhaps McDonald’s does not kill their cows in such a way, but something tells me they kill many more in a year than bullfighters do. However, we do nothing so drastic to prevent the death of those bovine animals. This is not to say I support bullfighting or the cruel treatment of animals (or that bullfighting is or is not cruel), instead I support people stepping back and trying to appreciate other people’s cultures and traditions the way they see them. I’m not talking here about the rights of animals; I’m concerned with the rights of people.
This begs the question of how we are affected. Why does this matter to the average American citizen? In all honesty, this isolated event does not. But events like this have affected the way of life celebrated by many Americans from a variety of backgrounds. If I were to try to take away part of someone’s religious practices (such as the sacrifice of an animal, consumption of peyote or even something as simple as the distribution of wine to minors during mass), they would take me all the way to the Supreme Court, if necessary, in order to get the right to that practice back. While it may be true that bullfighting is not a part of Catholicism or Buddhism or any other acknowledged religion that I am aware of, people who follow the bullfighting treat it as a more important part of their lives than most Americans treat religion (in reality, this probably includes me).
Practices fade, I understand. And, maybe it is time for bullfighting to fade into history along with practices such as bear-baiting. However, it is this often overeager practice of eliminating the old that worries me. As we move forward we have provisions, both domestically and internationally, that protect people’s life, as well as things such as voting, speech, and freedom from discrimination based on various grounds, but what about protecting our culture and our heritage?
When we consider a person as a whole, they should be more than just a race, ethnicity and gender. Those are the things they are born into, not what they choose. At what point will we decide that something that is being stripped from people is a part of their heritage and should be protected as such by the law?
Article 27(1) of The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.” There’s a start. This is definitely a little vague, but for being written directly post-WWII, it looks(ed) like a step in a good direction. This gives us the right to participate, but then how are we to preserve the culture of the minority if someone takes away part of our cultural life? In China, the government in Beijing has been slowly attempting to eliminate the base of Tibetan culture by only providing education in Mandarin Chinese and not in their native Tibetan. Will that be the straw that makes us realize that a minority’s traditions and practices can be and are stripped away when they are integrated into a minority that does not agree with or practice those same tenants?
In the United States, we have seen the Supreme Court stand as a last barrier between the elimination of many traditional practices which have been banned by local ordinances. However, these have come usually from religion-based cases such as City of Hialeah (animal sacrifice) or US v. Boyll (use of peyote) where a practice was held to be acceptable because of the religious significance it holds. However, The Court has placed limits on the use of religious practices to shield a cultural practice as in the other peyote case, Oregon v. Smith. Much like these barriers, some Spaniards are attempting to challenge the bullfighting band through their own legal system, and I wish them luck in restoring their tradition. Bullfighting may not be a religion in our traditional sense, but to many it is just as important to their lives as church is to many Americans. This type of following begs the question of where we draw the line between the protection of religious practices and the elimination of other practices, but that is another issue, for another time, in another post.
So, for now, the only legitimate conclusion I can see in the present legal climate is acceptance. There is no legal repercussion for what has been done in Catalonia. A narrow majority spoke, and their voices were heard. For all practical purposes, that makes it ok. It just seems unnecessary to rob someone of their traditions for your own reasons, instead of letting them decide when and how the traditions will fade. Like many other traditions, the bulk of those who carry it on are of an older generation. So for the time being, the tradition will still be carried on in other areas of Spain, but for how long? In the words of Ernest Hemingway as he wrote about Bullfighting, “Anything capable of arousing passion in its favor will surely raise as much passion against it.” This time, passion against appears to have won the battle; however, the outcome of the war has yet to be seen.
Disclaimer: The copyright in each article and post is owned by its respective author. Opinions expressed are those of the respective contributor and not presented as the views of the Alabama Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Law Review, its editors, the University of Alabama School of Law or the University of Alabama Board of Trustees or any other entity not specifically mentioned. All statements on this site belong to its writer. In addition, the views, opinions, and conclusions expressed in this page are those of the author and not necessarily those of The University of Alabama or its officers and trustees. The content of this page has not been reviewed or approved by the University of Alabama, and the author is solely responsible for its content. | <urn:uuid:baa41a0a-493c-45e7-80af-e0d99df7b9dc> | {
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Dr A.L.Patil MD(HOM)
Principal & Hospital Suptdt
Government Homoeopathic Medical College.Bangalore-79
Susceptibility primarily as the reaction of the organism to external and internal influences. While we may point out striking illustrations of susceptibility in the vegetable kingdom or among the lower animals, the best illustrations are to be found among those human beings with whom we come in contact.
We see very frequently the susceptibility to climatic conditions, as well as all other phases of environment. One person will thrive in a rigorous climate where another will become seriously ill; one will thrive in dampness to which another would succumb. Altitude affects some individuals kindly and some adversely. The seashore improves one man ‘s condition while it makes another man ill.
The power of assimilation and nutrition is one of the phases of susceptibility. One easily assimilates a certain kind of food while another finds the same food indigestible. “One man ‘s meat is another man ‘s poison.”
Human beings are susceptible to infection and contagion in varying degrees. One man will become infected in contact with diseased individuals while another will experience no ill effects whatever. One person is made ill by noxious plants while another man can handle them with impunity. Certain people are capable of making a wonderful proving of a drug, whereas others will show no reaction whatever.
All these reactions have to do with susceptibility. Contagious diseases thrive in childhood because of the extreme susceptibility of the miasmatic influence; this susceptibility has an attractive force which draws to itself the disease which is on the same plane of vibration and which tends to correct this miasmatic deficiency. After having drawn to itself this other disease manifestation, the child becomes immune to further onslaughts of the same condition; his system has become somewhat cleared by this attraction of what Hahnemann calls a “similar disease” condition.
Susceptibility varies in degree in different patients, and at different times in the same patient. Homoeopathic application of a remedy is an illustration of meeting the susceptibility and filling the vacuum that is present in the sick individual. In other words, the vibrations of the sick individual call aloud for something to meet the need.
The proving of the remedy on a healthy individual gives us the basis of similarity of remedies to sick individuals because in a proving the remedy produces an artificial susceptibility similar to the susceptibility of the sick individual. The application of the homoeopathic remedy in sicknesssatisfies this natural susceptibility.
It is incumbent upon us to recognize, conserve and utilize normal susceptibility, to physical environments, to foods, to remedies and to toxic agencies. It should be our aim never to use any agent or anything of any nature, or to adopt any procedure, that would in the least diminish or destroy this power of susceptibility and the reaction of the organism in its normal manner. Upon this normal susceptibility and reaction depends the status of health.
To do anything to diminish or destroy the normal reaction is not the province of a physician; rather it is the province of the physician to conserve natural susceptibility, for without a recognition of this power all our efforts as physicians would be worthless. It is just as much the province of the physician to exercise conservation of susceptibility in the organism that it may act defensively against a toxin, contagion or infection, as it is to have this susceptibility react constructively to food and drink or to the curative remedy. Again, it is just as natural and important for the organism to react pathogenetically to the size and power of a dose of poison as it is for it to react to the demand for food.
Thus we see that susceptibility and reaction are basic principles, and are very closely allied to the problems of immunization. A proper concept of these principles is something that the homoeopathic physician must seriously consider; the interplay of these principles must become as second to him, if he wishes to use well the forces of nature in healing the sick.
Susceptibility, Reaction and Immunity
By susceptibility we mean the general quality or capability of the living organism of receiving impressions; the power to react to stimuli. Susceptibility is one of the fundamental attributes of life. Upon it depends all functioning, all vital processes, physiological and pathological. Digestion, assimilation, nutrition, repair, secretion, excretion, metabolism and catabolism, as well as all disease processes arising from infection or contagion depend upon We power of the organism to react to specific stimuli. The cure and alleviation of diseases depend upon the same power of the organism to react to the impression of the curative remedy.
Men we give a drug to a healthy person for the purpose of making a homœopathic “proving” or test, the train of symptoms which follows represents the reaction of the susceptible organism to the specific irritant or stimulus administered.
When a homœopathically selected medicine is administered to a sick person, the disappearance of the symptoms and restoration of the patient to health represents the reaction of the susceptible organism to the impression of he curative remedy.
The homœopathic aggravation,” or slight intensification of the symptoms which sometimes follows We administration of the curative remedy, is merely the reaction of the organism, previously perhaps inactive or acting improperly because of lowered susceptibility, as it responds to the gently stimulating action of the medicine. As a piece of machinery in which the bearings have become dry or rusty from disuse, creaks and groans when it is again started up into action, so the diseased, congested, sluggish organs of the body sometimes squeak and groan when they begin to respond to the action of the curative remedy. All this, and much more is included in the Hahnemann doctrine of Vitality, under the Newtonian principle of Mutual Action, (“Action and reaction are equal and opposite”) restated in medical terms by Hahnemann as “Similia Similibus Curantur,” and employed by him as the law of therapeutic medication.
It is understood that action and reaction in the medical and physiological sense takes place only in the living organism, and that it depends upon that fundamental quality and attribute of life which we call susceptibility.
We shall see that the kind and degree of reaction to medicines depends upon the degree of susceptibility of the patient, and that the kind and degree of susceptibility, in any particular case or patient, depends largely upon how the case is handled by the physician; for it is in his power to modify susceptibility. Indeed, this power to modify susceptibility is the basis of the art of the physician.
If the physician knows how to modify susceptibility in such a way as to satisfy the requirements of the sick organism and bring about a true cure, then is he a physician indeed; since cure consists simply in satisfying the morbid susceptibility of the organism and putting an end to the influx of disease-producing causes. To accomplish this he must know that susceptibility implies and includes affinity, attraction, desire, hunger, need; that these all exist and express themselves normally as states and conditions in every living being; but that they may become morbid and perverted and so cause disease, suffering and death. He knows also that susceptibility implies the existence of the wherewithal to satisfy susceptibility; to supply need, hunger, desire, affinity, attraction, and he knows how and where to find the necessary modifying agents.
It is a well-known fact that the living organism is much more susceptible to homogeneous or similar stimuli than to heterogeneous or dissimilar stimuli. Throughout the entire vegetable and animal kingdom we find the law of development and growth to be like appropriating like. Organism and organs select elements most similar to their own elements. The same law holds good in excretion, each organ excreting or throwing off elements analogous to those of its, own basis structure.
So it is in satisfying the morbid susceptibility which constitutes disease. As hunger demands food, so disease demands medicine. But the demand is always consistent with the universal law. It is for the symptomatically similar medicine, because that is the only thing that really satisfies the susceptibility.
This morbid susceptibility which constitutes disease may exist toward several different medicines, the degree of susceptibility to each depending upon the degree of symptom similarity; but the highest degree of susceptibility exists toward the most similar – the simillimum, or equal. Hence, a given patient may be cured of his disease homœopathically by either of two methods; by giving several more or less similar medicines in succession, or by giving one exactly similar medicine–the similimum or equal. It depends upon whether he is being treated by a bungler or an expert. The bungler may “zig zag” his patient along through a protracted illness and finally get him well, where an expert would cure him by the straight route with a single remedy in half the time.
The sick organism being so much more susceptible to the similar medicine than the well organism, it follows that the size or quantity of the dose depends also upon the degree of susceptibility of the patient. A dose that would produce no perceptible effect upon a well person may cause a dangerous or distressing aggravation in a sick person, just as a single ray of light will cause excruciating pain in an inflamed retina, which in its healthy condition would welcome the full light of day.
Susceptibility as a state may be increased, diminished or destroyed. Either of these is a morbid state which must be considered therapeutically from the standpoint of the individual patient. Morbid susceptibility may be regarded as a negative or minus condition a state of lowered resistance. J. J. Garth Wilkinson (Epidemic Man and His Visitations) says:
“One man catches scarlet fever from another man, but catches it because he is vis minor to the disease, which to him alone is vis major. His neighbor does not catch it; his strength passes it by as no concern of his. It is the first man’s foible that is the prime reason of his taking the complaint. He is a vacuum for its pressure. The cause why he succumbed was in him long before the infector appeared. Susceptibility to a disease is. sure in the individual or his race to be (come) that disease in time. For the air is full of diseases waiting to be employed.
“Susceptibility in organism, mental or bodily, is equivalent to state. State involves the attitude of organizations to internal causes and to external circumstances. It is all the resource of defense or the way of yielding. The taking on of states is be history of human life. Pathology is the account of the taking on of diseased states, or of definite forms of disease, mental or bodily.
“In health we live and act and resist without knowing it. In disease we live but suffer; and know ourself in conscious or unconscious exaggeration.”
We must also predicate a state of normal susceptibility to remedial as well as toxic agencies, which it is the duty of the physician to conserve and utilize. No agent or procedure should be used as a therapeutic measure which has the power to, diminish, break down or destroy the normal susceptibility or reactibility of the organism, because that is one of the most valuable medical assets we possess. Without it all our efforts to cure are in vain. To use agents in such a manner or in such a form or quantity as to diminish, impair or destroy the power of the organism to react to stimuli, is to align ourselves with the forces of death and disintegration. Conservation of the power of the organism to react defensively to a toxin, a contagion, or an infection is as important as it is to conserve the power to react constructively to food and drink, or curatively to the homœopathic remedy. It is as normal and necessary for the organism to react pathogenetically to a poison, in proportion to the size and power of the dose, as it is to react physiologically to a good dinner.
The problem is one of adjustment to conditions. The point to be kept in mind is to recognize and conserve normal susceptibility in all our dealings with the sick and to do nothing to impair it. Every remedy or expedient proposed for treatment of the sick should be submitted to this test. Does it respond to the demand of the suffering organism as expressed by similar symptoms? Does it supply the organic need? Does it satisfy the susceptibility without injury or impairment of function? In short, does it cure? Unquestionably many remedies, methods and processes more or less popular even to-day, in this ultra-scientific age, do not and cannot conform to this standard.
Many substances are used medically in such form, in such doses, by such methods and upon such principles as to be distinctly depressive or destructive of normal reactivity. They are forced upon or into the suffering organism empirically without regard to nature’s laws. So far as their effect upon disease is concerned they are in no wise curative, but only palliative or suppressive and the ultimate result, if it be not death, is to leave the patient in a worse state than he was before. Existing disease symptoms are transformed into the symptoms of an artificial drug disease. The organism is overwhelmed by a more powerful enemy which invades its territory, takes violent possession and sets up its own kingdom.
Such victories over disease are a hollow mockery from the standpoint of a true therapeutics.
We do not have to seek far for illustrative examples:
Professor James Ewing, of Cornell University Medical College, in a lecture upon Immunity (1909), called the problem of the endotoxins “The stone wall of Serum Therapy.” He said:
“The effort to produce passive immunity against the various infections by means of sera may fail in spite of the destruction of all the bacteria present in the body, by reason of the endotoxins thrown out in the process of bacteriolysis resulting from the serum injections.
“The action of endotoxins of all kinds is similar: there is a reduction of temperature but an active degeneration of the organs –a status infectiosus. Thus sterile death is produced where cultures from the organs and tissues show that the bacteria in question have all been destroyed;but the animal dies.
“This problem of the endotoxins is at present the stone wall of Serum Therapy.”
Prof. Ewing cited the case of a patient who received injections of millions of killed gonococci for gonococcic septicæmia; the temperature came down to normal, but the patient died. He continues: “An animal whose serum is normally bacteriolytic may, on immunization, lose this power; the bacteria living in the serum, but not producing symptoms.
“Thus, a rabbit’s serum is normally bacteriolytic to the typhoid bacillus, but the rabbit is susceptible to infection. If, however, the rabbit is highly immunized the serum is no longer bactericidal, the typhoid bacilli living in the serum, but the animal not being susceptible of infection. The animal dies.” “It seems therefore that the. effort must be made in the future to enable the tissue and the bacteria to live together in peace rather than to produce a state where the serum is destructive to the bacteria.”
These are strong and significant words from the highest authority on pathology in America.
In the cases cited by Prof. Ewing we see the destruction, partial or complete, of susceptibility-of the normal power of the organism to react to the stimulus of either the sera or the bacilli.
In the case of total destruction of the susceptibility death followed. The condition of the patients in whom destruction was only partial may be better imagined than described. A rabbit or a man, whose fluids and tissues are in such a depraved or vitiated :state that typhoid or other virulent organisms live and thrive in them without producing symptoms, and who will no longer react to a powerful serum, is not in a state of health to say the least. It is a condition which reminds us of the scathing words of Jesus; – “Woe unto you, Scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye are like whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outwardly, but within are full of dead men’s bones and all uncleanness.”
The use of antiseptics in the treatment of disease, or surgically (in the field of operation), is another means of impairing or destroying normal susceptibility.
Articles have appeared in leading medical journals of the dominant school (Boston Surgical journal, and the Therapeutic Gazette), in which it was pointed out that the use of antiseptics in the treatment of tonsillitis increased the inflammation, prolonged the disease and retarded convalescence. It was explained that by diminishing the number of bacteria in the crypts which were generating toxin, the period required for the formation of the requisite amount of antibodies was unduly prolonged. They had just waked up to the fact that the living organism, even if diseased, has some means of self -protection and that, other things being equal, the automatic formation of the antitoxins and antibodies in the organism goes on at about an equal pace with the generation of toxins.
The destructive action of the antiseptics upon the living tissue cells and phagocytic leucocytes of the host-otherwise the patient -was also pointed out as contraindicating their use by these discerning authorities. In destroying these bodies we are destroying the physical basis of life itself. We slay our best friends. They further showed that the depression of vitality thus caused resulted later in increase of fever and cervical adenitis, due to the increased absorption of toxins. What they failed to see and explain, however, was that the increased fever and inflammation were in reality the manifestation of that vital reaction or resistance on the part of the organism, which is the means by which the real, natural curative antibodies and antitoxins are produced, and that this should never be interfered with.
Inflammation and fever are not evils per se. They are merely the signs of normal reaction and resistance to an irritant or poison by which nature protects herself. They are not enemies to be resisted, but friends and allies to be co-operated with in the destruction of a common enemy.
Inflammation and fever mean simply greater vital activity, more rapid circulation, respiration and oxygenation, more rapid and thorough elimination of waste or toxic substances, and the concurrent formation of natural antitoxins and antibodies by means of which recovery is brought about.
Pain, inflammation and fever are not the real disease nor the real object of treatment. To view them as such leads logically and inevitably to mere palliation or suppression of symptoms, than which there are no greater medical evils. It is based upon a false and illogical interpretation of the phenomena of disease which mistakes results for causes.
Stimulants and Depressants.-Prof. James C. Wood, veteran surgeon and author -of Cleveland, Ohio, in a letter to the writer, dated February 20, 1922, following the publication of this article in the Homœopathic Recorder, wrote as follows:
“There is one remedy you have omitted in your discussion of shock, namely, strychnia or nux vomica. Crile in his experimental work on shock has shown that it is almost impossible to differentiate true shock from strychnia poisoning. As a result of his experimentation surgeons have pretty largely discarded strychnia in the treatment of shock, Crile proving that they are killing more than they are curing by full doses of strychnia in dealing with the same. On the other hand, I am using it in small doses with the, greatest possible advantage, showing conclusively, I think, its homœopathicity in shock.”
It seems to be pretty well established that alcohol, the typical and perhaps most commonly used stimulant, adds nothing to the physiological forces of the body. It takes of what might be called the “reserve fund” of organic force and uses it up a little faster than nature would otherwise permit. It acts like the whip to the tired horse, not like rest, water and food, which nourish, strengthen, repair and replace worn-out tissues. Its action on the brain and nerves is well known. Many have seen, on the dissecting table, the characteristic watery, contracted brain of the chronic alcoholic. We know the power of alcohol to harden and shrivel and devitalize organic tissues Its power to paralyze the vaso-motor system is seen in the flushed face, congested capillaries and ruby nose of the inebriate. We are aware of its inhibiting effect upon the sensory nerves, by which it makes its victim insensible to the impressions of heat, cold and pain, so that, in extreme intoxication, he falls on a red-hot stove and is burned to death, or staggers into a show bank and freezes to death without knowing it.
All these things define the nature and measure of power of alcohol to decrease or destroy normal susceptibility.
Less only in proportion to the amount used is its influence to lessen susceptibility when used as a stimulant in disease. Here, as in all other realms, the law holds good: “Action and reaction are equal and opposite.” Stimulation and depression are equal and opposite. Whip the exhausted horse and he will go on a little ways and then drop. No amount of whipping will start him up. again. He soon reaches a point where his susceptibility to, that kind of a stimulant is exhausted. Overstimulate the weakened or exhausted patient and the same thing will happen.
This is not to say that there is no place for physiological drug stimulants in the healing art, but only to point out that the place which they legitimately fill is an exceedingly small one and rarely met. Certain rare cases of typhoid fever, diphtheria, and perhaps a few other similar conditions, may be benefited by very small doses of pure brandy and tided over a crisis by that means when they might otherwise die. But the amount of stimulant necessary to accomplish that end is extremely small. More than the necessary amount will assuredly hasten death, because the margin of strength is so small the least waste by overuse may prove fatal.
The proper use of stimulants in the type of cases referred to was once illustrated by Dr. P. P. Wells. In a critical case of typhoid fever which he saw in consultation, the patient had suffered :a severe hemorrhage from the bowels, was very weak, nearly unconscious and bad a soft compressible pulse. Dr. Wells directed that six drops of brandy be put into six teaspoonfuls of milk and the whole given in three doses of two teaspoonfuls each, at intervals of two hours; to be repeated if reaction did not follow. The effect was surprising. Reaction quickly followed and the patient made a rapid recovery.
We may smile at the size of the dose until we recall how many patients in a similar condition have died under tablespoonful doses of brandy, or hypodermics of strychnia and whiskey. Dr. Wells knew how to correctly measure a patient’s susceptibility and he knew how to conserve the last, feeble, flickering remnant of vitality in such cases and make the best of it. He knew better than to waste it by violent measures, as is so often done in cases of shock when hypodermics of brandy and strychnine and other powerful stimulants are used.
The idea held by many that large and powerful doses and strenuous measures are necessary in such cases is entirely wrong. The conception of disease and the interpretation of symptoms is wrong. The resultant treatment is wrong. The imaginary Idea of violence, of the malignity and rapidity of the disease, is forced to the front and dwelt upon until it seems rational to believe that the treatment must also be violent, active, “heroic.” This is practicing homœopathy with a vengeance!
Such an error arises naturally from considering the disease to the exclusion of the patient. Look at the patient who is suffering from shock. He is pale, his, features are sunken, his skin and muscles relaxed, he is covered with a cold, clammy sweat. His respiration is feeble, his pulse almost or quite extinct, he is perhaps almost or quite unconscious. Everything indicates that life :and strength are at lowest ebb. The store of vital energy is almost exhausted. The margin left to work upon is very narrow. There is but a step between him and death. The slightest false move, the least violence, is likely to force him across the line which marks the boundary between life and death.
If there is any condition which would seem to demand the use of mild, of the very mildest and most delicate, means, this is one. Reaction, as an expression of susceptibility in such cases, is like the love of fair women-something to be wooed delicately; not brutally and fiercely as among barbarians. The condition of shock, or of extreme exhaustion, is no occasion for heroic doses or strenuous measure, but rather for the greatest gentleness and most refined doses. Let the patient inhale camphor, or vinegar, or ammonia (very carefully) if only these domestic remedies are at hand; or give him two or three-drop doses of brandy in a teaspoonful of water; if that is at hand. Teaspoonful doses of hot black coffee may be useful. But as soon as possible, give our potentiated Arnica, Arsenicum, Nux vomica, Veratrum or Carbo veg. Or whatever other remedy may be indicated by the etiology and symptoms of the case. The results will be infinitely better than the results of the strenuous method.
“Never,” said Dr. Wells, “give brandy or any other stimulant with a hard and wiry pulse.”
Deficient reaction or diminished susceptibility may exist in a case or appear during treatment and constitute a condition requiring special treatment. This is especially true in the treatment of chronic diseases, where improvement ceases and well selected remedies do not seem to act. Under such circumstances it may sometimes be necessary to give a due of what is called an “intercurrent remedy.” Bœnninghausen mentions as appropriate in such cases: Carbo veg., Lauroc., Mosch., Op., Sulph. To these may be added the typical nosodes: Medorr., Psor., Pyrog., Tuberc., Syphil.,. and also Thuja. The choice of any particular one of these remedies must be governed by the history and symptoms.
Excessive reaction, or irritability, is a condition sometimes met where the patient seems to suffer an aggravation from every remedy, without corresponding improvement. There is a state of general hypersensitiveness.
For such a state, Bœnninghausen recommends Asar., Cham., Coff., China, Ign., Nux v., Puls., Teuc. and Valer.
Aggravation after Mercury requires Hep. or Nit. ac.
Therapeutic suggestion is of use in all such cases, to calm, and soothe terrified or excited patients. But in these, as in all other cases, the case and remedy must be carefully individualized.
We see, therefore, that the cure or successful treatment of disease depends not only upon conserving and utilizing the natural susceptibility of the living organism, but on properly adjusting both remedy and dose to the needs of the organism so that susceptibility shall be satisfied, normal reaction induced and equilibrium or health restored. The “Law of the Least Plus” should never be forgotten:-“The quantity of action necessary to effect any change in nature is the least possible.”
Immunity which is obtained at the cost of the integrity and purity of the vital organism and its fluids is too early purchased.
Inoculation of crude, pathological products like animal sera and vaccines confers only a spurious immunity through impairment or destruction of normal susceptibility. It results in the contamination or poisoning of the entire organism, sets up a morbid condition instead of a healthy one and leads to physical degeneration.
The homœopathic remedy, correctly chosen upon indications afforded by the anamnesis and symptoms of the disease as manifested in the individual and the community, and administered in infinitesimal doses, per oram, satisfies the morbid susceptibility, supplies the need of the organism and confers a true immunity by promoting health, which is the true object to be gained. | <urn:uuid:5a977d14-b66e-4fe1-80a0-d12acdc448c7> | {
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maladjustment mal·ad·just·ment (māl'ə-jŭst'mənt)
Faulty or inadequate adjustment.
Inability to adjust to the demands of interpersonal relationships and the stresses of daily living.
Inability to react successfully and satisfactorily to the demands of one's environment. Though the term applies to a wide range of biological and social conditions, it often implies an individual's failure to meet social or cultural expectations. In psychology, the term generally refers to unsatisfactory behavior patterns that cause anxiety and require psychotherapy. | <urn:uuid:fb1214a2-1b32-4bbc-963b-37c1bb7d2f0b> | {
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The Underlying Assumptions Of A Curriculum
by Terry Heick
There are ideas and then there are ideas between ideas.
That is, the spaces between ideas can be pregnant with ideas of their own in the same way that there are stars and then there are spaces between the stars. And these spaces matter because they’re dark and dark (and its absence) characterizes light.
Okay, how about this: Every reality has factors. Every effect has causes. Every data point has a context. You can separate these relationships in a temporary kind of singularity in order to examine them, but in doing so risk losing the thing itself because the thing doesn’t just have a context but only exists in a context.
We may fail to recognize these factors and causes and contexts, but they’re there. We may fail to extract the right lessons from these factors and realities and causes and effects and contexts and data, but they’re there, ready to be extracted.
And it’s not just about contexts and relationships. There are distinctions here too—nuanced distinctions that are not minor. The difference, for example, between causation and correlation. The difference between cause and effect but also the reality that it’s all relative (context) and recursive and non-linear. One thing ends and another begins and one causes the other and defines the other and depends on the other but are also entirely separate.
Which brings us to underlying assumptions.
That there are underlying assumptions that we ‘bring’ to a thought or decision may be more interesting than examining one set of underlying assumptions themselves, but we’re here for innovation in education, not epistemology.
Note: These aren’t in any sort of order because sometimes one needs another for context so I couldn’t, for example, leave #2 for last (as the most important) because it helped flesh out the rest and I thought #1 should be first even though it may not be the most important.
The Underlying Assumptions of a Curriculum
1.That it’s learnable.
If not, what’s the point?
2. That it’s worthy of study.
Again–if not, why study it? And this may be the single most important underlying assumption of any given curriculum.
Are these things both knowable and worth knowing?
3. That it’s comprised of the most important things a person should know.
After clarifying that things are both knowable and worth knowing, a third underlying assumption is that it’s comprised of the most important things that are knowable and worth knowing.
Whether concepts, skills, competencies, ideas, etc.–it doesn’t make much sense for students to study less important things while more important things go unstudied. (Obviously, this is subjective but there’s an art and a science to education and this is a big part of the art. Perhaps the biggest.)
If we live in a society where pottery is important, it would make sense to ‘teach pottery.’ If pottery were only somewhat relevant and ‘nice to know,’ while it may ‘feel good’ to teach pottery, the curriculum immediately becomes less useful and valid–and even destructive on a cultural level.
By teaching pottery we’re not teaching something else.
4. That as a result of its study and mastery, human lives will improve as a result of ‘knowing all the things.’
Another underlying assumption of a curriculum is that there’s something valuable we’ll know and be able to do as a result of its mastery–and more importantly, that those who study it will both be able to (as a matter of cognitive transfer) and tend to (as a matter of habits and behavior) use what has been learned in a way that makes their life better.
This should, most immediately, result in personal change.
5. That as a result of its study and mastery, culture and society will experience improvement, evolution, and growth.
Personal change eventually should lead to social change. If societies aren’t changing, that implies either that they don’t need changing or education cannot change them. The former is unlikely and the latter is unacceptable.
And note, the benefit of a curriculum cannot be future-heavy as we seek to ‘get kids ready for the jobs of tomorrow.’
If the value of knowledge is primarily academic or primarily speculative, it is a worthless curriculum and will fail to resonate with students in the world they live in–and need knowledge and skills in–today.
6. That it works well with everything else.
Another underlying assumption of a given curriculum should be that, as a ‘part,’ it is aligned or alignable with other parts and is or can easily become parallel with the other ‘bits and pieces’ of education.
This means that existing infrastructure–from buildings and technology and textbooks and assessment forms to teachers and instructional strategies and school and district hierarchies–should be curriculum-friendly or that we should revise the curriculum to be infrastructure-friendly.
(You can read more about this idea in the Updating the Gears of Education.)
If we designed school backward from what it already does well, rather than insisting it do everything all the time for all students, is that smart design or ‘lowering our standards’?
I’ll add more of these underlying assumptions’ as they come to mind. | <urn:uuid:8fb6f294-1e37-42a6-948a-497f9abfe02d> | {
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What is it[edit | edit source]
- Sometimes called 'new fish syndrome'.
When you have an aquarium with fish, they can become used to the toxic chemical nitrate which is produced by your filter bacteria. If you are slack about performing water changes or you have a heavily stocked tank this level can rise quickly.
Nitrate is far less toxic than ammonia or nitrite. But it can still kill if high enough. As levels climb the existing fish become used to it at first, levels can rise to 100ppm or even 150ppm before the fish start to become ill and die as their immune systems become depressed and they get infections they can't fight off.
- Fish species vary enormously on the levels of nitrates they can withstand. It is standard practise in the hobby to try to keep nitrate levels below ~50ppm with 20ppm or lower being ideal levels.
- Owning a nitrate test kit is one essential item a fish owner should never be without.
New fish[edit | edit source]
Often the inexperienced aquarist first discovers this problem when they add a new fish. The fish often becomes seriously ill and dies within hours of being added. It has had no time to slowly become accustomed to the nitrate.
So before you introduce new fish do a nitrate test (hopefully with a test kit under 6 months old). If it's over 50 ppm do a water change to get it under 20ppm. | <urn:uuid:88303d4d-7212-4e57-bef2-a24d34fa5378> | {
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