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(Greek, ànaphorá, offering, sacrifice).
A liturgical term in the Greek Rite. It is variously used in the liturgies of the Greek Orient to signify that part of the service which corresponds substantially to the Latin Canon of the Mass . It also signifies the offering of Eucharistic bread; the large veil (see A ER ) that covers the same, and the procession in which the offering is brought to the altar (Brightman).
1. In the Greek Rite the Anaphoras are numerous while in the Roman Rite the Canon of the Mass is from time immemorial quite invariable. The Greek Anaphora is substantially of apostolic origin, though in its present form it dates from the end of the fourth or the beginning of the fifth century when St. Basil the Great and St. John Chrysostom (respectively) shortened the liturgy that until then was very long and fatiguing. The term is of much importance, given its antiquity, for the demonstration of the sacrificial character of the Holy Mass (see Cabrol, 1911-13; Probst, 240, 325).
2. In the Eastern or Greek Church the Offertory is a more deliberate and impressive ceremony than in the Roman Rite. The priest accompanied by the deacon and the acolytes and censer -bearers, goes to the prothesis (a small side altar where the proskomide is performed) and they solemnly bring the blessed bread and wine through the small diaconal door of the iconostasis and proceed to the centre of the church or at least directly in front of the royal doors, where, turning to the people and holding the sacred gifts in their hands they pray successively for the ecclesiastical and secular authorities. In the Greek Orthodox Church prayers are said for the emperor or king, the Holy Synod, and the various church dignitaries. In the Greek Catholic Church these prayers are said for the Pope, the Archbishop, Emperor, King, etc., using the same words. The priest and deacon then proceed solemnly to the altar bearing the Sacred Elements through the royal doors. This part of the Gree Mass is called the Great Entrance. After the paten and chalice have been placed on the altar the priest completes the Offertory with this prayer : "Receive also the prayer of us sinners and cause it to approach Thy Holy Altar, and strengthen us to present gifts and spiritual sacrifices unto Thee for our sins and the ignorances of the people, and count us worthy to find grace before Thee; that our sacrifice may be acceptable unto Thee; and that the spirit of Thy grace may rest upon us and upon these gifts presented, and upon all Thy people".
(See C ONSECRATION ; M ASS ; P REFACE ; G REEK R ITE .)
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Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
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Bill Traylor was born on April 1, 1854 as a slave on the George Hartwell Traylor plantation outside of Benton, Alabama, about thirty-five miles from Montgomery. After the Civil War, Traylor stayed on the plantation as did the other members of his family. He became a sharecropper, working his own land. On August 13, 1891, he married his wife, Lourisa Dunklin, and the couple had nine children together.
In 1935, at the age of 82, Traylor decided to leave the farm where he had spent his entire life. As he later explained to artist Charles Shannon, ”My white folks had died and my children scattered.” Having no one left to stay for, Traylor uprooted himself, leaving the small community of about 700 people for the comparative metropolis of Montgomery, with a population of over 70,000 inhabitants.
Upon his arrival, Traylor worked in a shoe factory, but rheumatism forced him to quit. He received government assistance checks to live on, and slept in the back room of the Ross-Clayton Funeral Home on Monroe Street.
Monroe Street was a busy, lively place. It was close to the train station and the river, so many travelers passed through. On the weekends, there was an influx of country people coming to town for supplies. Traylor saw many old friends, and was on pleasant terms with many of the people in the black community around Monroe Street.
Sometime after his arrival in Montgomery, Traylor picked up a pencil and a scrap of cardboard or some such material, and began to draw. His inspirations were the people he saw on the street, animals and livestock, and objects around him such as those found in the nearby blacksmith shop. He sat on a box, observing and drawing the vignettes he saw played out before him. In the spring of 1939, he was noticed by Charles Shannon, a white painter who was living outside of Montgomery, having received a fellowship to pursue his work there. Shannon became a great advocate of Traylor’s work, and helped support him by bringing supplies and visiting every week.
In February 1940, Charles Shannon arranged for a solo exhibition of Traylor’s work at New South, which was both an organization and a community arts center dedicated to creative culture in Montgomery. Shannon also helped obtain funds for Traylor to go to Detroit later that year to visit relatives, though he wasn’t sure if he would actually return. Traylor did, having only stayed away a few weeks.
In 1942, Traylor’s work was again exhibited at The Fieldstone School of the Ethical Culture Schools in Riverday, New York. It was curated by Victor E. D’Amico, who was introduced to Traylor’s work the previous year by Charles Shannon. Subsequently, D’Amico introduced Bill Traylor’s work to Alfred Barr, the director of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Barr decided to purchase sixteen of the works for the museum, in addition to buying some for his own collection. Charles Shannon was sent a check for the pieces, a sum that worked out to payment of one dollar for smaller pictures and two dollars for larger pieces. Shannon was incensed, having not been previously consulted about selling the paintings, of which he was the owner. He cancelled the transaction, retaking possession of the pictures. Later that year, Shannon was drafted into the army, and left the United States to serve in the South Pacific.
Bill Traylor’s time during World War II was spent moving around the homes of his various children, who were indeed scattered in Washington D.C., Detroit, Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia. During his time in Washington, he had a gangrenous leg amputated. In spite of any difficulties this may have caused, he chose to return to Montgomery, preferring his life on Monroe Street. He did not create any art during the war years, and though he did begin to draw again upon returning to Montgomery, the pictures were of substantially lesser quality. His contact with Charles Shannon was eventually resumed, but none of these later works were preserved.
Traylor died on October 23, 1949 in Montgomery. Shannon, in possession of 1200-1500 drawings, kept them in storage due to lack of public interest in his work. He exhibited them in 1979 at R.H. Oosterom Gallery, New York. Modern audiences finally began to take notice of Traylor’s art in 1982, when he was shown in the landmark exhibition, Black Folk Art in America, at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, D.C.
Today, Traylor’s work has gradually moved from the appellation ‘folk art’ to inclusion in the canon of contemporary 20th century art. This brief, introductory biography does not begin to discuss the aesthetic qualities and iconography of his work, but resources are available in the form of numerous books, article, and exhibition catalogues for those interested Bill Traylor’s art.
---. Bill Traylor 1854 – 1947. (New York: Hirschl & Adler Modern, 1989)
---. High Singing Blue: Bill Traylor. Essay by Phil Patton. (New York: Hirschl & Adler Modern, 1997)
Fowler, Miriam Rogers. Bill Traylor. (University of Houston, 2001)
Helfenstein, Josef and Roman Kurzmeyer. Deep Blues: Bill Traylor 1854-1949. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999).
Maresca, Frank and Roger Ricco. Bill Traylor: His Art and Life. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1991)
Petullo, Anthony J. Self-taught and Outsider Art: The Anthony Petullo Collection. Introduction by Jane Kallir; selected bibliography by Margaret Andera. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001).
Tell us which artists’ work spoke to you the most.
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Essay Topic 1
In Freud's letter, he makes a comparison between positive identity and negative character traits. Why is this comparison significant? What does this suggest about identity? And do you think it applies today? Why or why not?
Essay Topic 2
In the prologue, Erikson discusses the story about an old man who vomits daily. What is the significance of this story in terms of this man's identity? How can the story be used to further define or explain identity of an individual or culture?
Essay Topic 3
Erikson's discussion on the differences of identity between youth today and those of 20 years ago focuses on the fact that today's youth may suffer more identity crisis than those of the past. Provide evidence from the reading that support this theory. Based on the reading, what factors do you feel play a major role in today's youth being unable...
This section contains 849 words
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view a plan
Constructing Basic PVC Wind Turbine – Blades
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Title – Basic PVC Wind Turbine – Blades
By – Chad Johnson
Primary Subject – Science
Secondary Subjects – Math
Grade Level – 6-12
|Constructing Basic PVC Wind Turbine Unit|
Testing Blades on Basic PVC Turbines:
- Building and Attaching Blades:
Never make blades out of metal or any sharp edged material because they could cause injury during testing. Blades tend to spin very fast (300-600 RPM) and can easily cut people if they have sharp edges.
Always wear safety goggles when testing.
- To make blades, carve or cut different shapes and sizes out of a variety of materials (wood, cardboard, felt, fabric). Tape or hot glue them to the dowels. Students have made blades out of Styrofoam bowls, pie pans, and paper and plastic cups. Anything you find around the house or classroom can be made into blades!
As the crimping hub can be separated into two parts, you can try different creative ways to attach “blades” to the hub. One of the best blades we ever saw was made from a pizza pie box!!
- Before testing, check that the blades are securely attached to the dowel. If not secured properly, they may detach or deform as you test your turbine in high winds. We recommend using a combination of tape and hot or regular glue.
- Insert the dowels into holes on the crimping hub. It is important to tighten the hub when inserting the blades so that they do not come out at high speed.
- When attaching the blades to the hubconsider a few important questions:
- How close is the root of your blade to the hub? What do you think is optimal?
- Are your blades about the same size and weight? Blades that are not balanced will cause vibrations that can reduce the efficiency of your turbine.
- Are the blades equally distributed around the hub? If not you can also have a set up that is out of balance.
- Have you secured the hub after you inserted the blades? If not they can fly out at high speed!
- Want to know how fast your blades are spinning? Get a Hangar 9 Micro Tachometer.
- Safety and Blade Testing Area
- It is important to wear safety goggles when testing blades.
- NEVER make blades out of metal or any sharp edged material as these could cause injury while spinning fast during testing.
- Setup for Testing
- It is important to clear this area of debris and materials.
- Make sure the center of the fan matches up with the center of the wind turbine. You may need to raise your fan with some books or a container.
- Some things to note about fan wind that reduces the efficiency.Fans create;
- Highly Turbulent & Rotational Wind — Blades may spin better one direction than another
- Highly Variable Wind Speed — Wind speed is about 10-13 MPH on high for a $20 circular fan. Wind speeds near the middle will be much different than the edges.
- Limited Diameter — Blades bigger than the fan will not “catch” more wind — they will just add drag and slow down your blades.
- How to Clean Up Wind?
- Want some more “professional wind”? You can try to build a simple wind tunnel. Lots of plans can be found online (search term: classroom wind tunnel or go to www.kidwind.org).
- One simple way to make more laminar — smooth, straightened — flow is to build a honeycomb in front of your fan using milk cartons, 2″ PVC pipe or some other material.
- Going Outside?
- While you can use your wind turbine outside, you must make sure that you face it into the wind. This is because this turbine is not designed to YAW (or rotate) to face the wind. If the wind shifts, and the turbine cannot rotate, wind will hit the blades from the sides causing stress and inefficiency.
- For a wind turbine that can yaw, you can check out the KidWind Yawing PVC turbine on our website (www.kidwind.org).
- Some Blade Building Tips
- Efficient blades are a key part of generating power from a wind turbine. Sloppy or poorly made blades will never make enough energy to power anything. It takes time and thought to make good blades!
- An important concept to keep in mind when making turbine blades is drag. Ask yourself, “Are my blades creating too much DRAG?“. Your blades are probably catching the wind and helping to spin the hub and motor driveshaft, but consider the ways that their shape or design might be slowing the blades down as well. If they are adding DRAG to your system it will slow down and in most cases low RPM means less power output.
- Some tips on improving blades:
- SHORTEN THE BLADES – Wind turbines with longer blades tend to generate more power. While this is also true on our small turbines, it is often difficult for students (and teachers) to make large, long blades that don’t add lots of drag and inefficiency. See what happens when you shorten them a few centimeters.
- CHANGE THE PITCH – Students commonly set the angle of the blades to around 45° the first time they try to use the turbine. Try making the blades flatter toward the fan (0° – 5°) . Pitch dramatically affects power output, so play with it a bit and see what happens. You can use a protractor to measure the pitch. Finding a way to TWIST the blades (0° near the tips and around 10° – 20° near the root) can really improve performance.
- USE FEWER BLADES – To reduce drag try using 2, 3 or 4 blades.
- USE LIGHTER MATERIAL – To reduce the weight of the blades use less material or lighter material.
- SMOOTH SURFACES – Smooth blade surfaces create less drag. Try removing excess tape or smoothing rough edges to reduce drag.
- FIND MORE WIND – Make sure you are using a decently sized box or room fan with a diameter of at least 14″-18″.
- BLADES VS. FAN – Are your blades bigger than your fan? If the tips of your blades are wider than the fan you’re using, then they’re not catching any wind — they are just adding drag!
- BLADE SHAPE – Are the tips of your blades thin and narrow or wide and heavy? The tips travel much faster than the root and can travel faster if they are light and small, which means that if you have wide or heavy tips you may be 0° 4° 0°
- Now, go see what can you do with your turbine! | <urn:uuid:9a6797e2-f5ac-439e-9d5d-03ee96275ba5> | {
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- Education and Science»
- Psychology & Psychiatry
The frame of the Intelligence
Dissolving the tangle of the Intelligence is not easy, as to realize its frame in the brain. Under a psychological and psychiatric perspective, the quantification of the intelligence is often revised through standardized test and experiments. Nevertheless, the tangle of the intelligence is strictly related to its definition; once we had a stable definition of the intelligence we might find its frame in the brain.
Definition of Intelligence
The etymology of the word “Intelligence” helps us to understand its meaning. It derives from the Latin verb “intelligĕre” which has the root “legĕre” (to pick out, discern) or “ligāre” (to join, link) and the prefix “inter” (between, within). It suggests essentially, the aptitude to pick out drifts or to establish correlations between elements. A form of this verb, “intellectus”, became the medieval technical term for “understanding”, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term “nous”.
The concept of “Intelligence” represents a “capacity, faculty, or an aptitude; organization, structure, or design”. This is important in the tentative to unify the different definitions of “Intelligence”.
Assuming the concept of Intelligence (in Dictionaries, Textbooks and Issues) as a “capacity”, it usually is reported as a “capacity” of abstracting, solving, and performing. In Artificial Intelligence, the concept of Intelligence expresses a “capacity” of performing and solving (solving problem and computing).
In all scientific disciplines, and branches of learning, there are different definitions of the concept of “Intelligence”.
The following are some quotes of the Intelligence definition:
“A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.”
“Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria.
Concepts of "Intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena.
An individual’s aggregate capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment, especially in relation to the extent of one’s perceived effectiveness in meeting challenges.
The Intelligence is the individual’s whole capacity to recognize, configure and to solve problems coming from the existence.
Variants of the term “Intelligence” are the following:
The “abstract Intelligence” is the capacity to understand and manage abstract ideas and symbols.
The “artificial Intelligence” is a branch of computer science that attempts to replicate human intellectual functions. One application is the development of computer programs for diagnosis. Often such programs are based on epidemiologic analysis of data in large numbers of medical records; although no machine, a machine that replicates human intellectual functions, can do this yet.
The “measured Intelligence” is the Intelligence which can be ranked relative to an age or peer group quantitative index by use of scores on Intelligence tests.
Piaget on Piaget
Claparède and Stern suggested that the Intelligence may be seen as a mental adaptation to new circumstances. Claparède opposes Intelligence to instinct and habit, which are hereditary or acquired adaptations to recurring circumstances; for him it begins with the most elementary empirical trial-and-error (the origin of the implicit trial-and-error which subsequently characterizes the search for a hypothesis).
K. Bühler, who also divides mental structures into three types (instinct, training and Intelligence), criticizes the definition of Claparède as too broad; Intelligence only appears with acts of insight (Aha-Erlebnis), while trial-and-error is a form of training.
Köhler reserves the term Intelligence for acts of “abrupt restructuring” and excludes trial-and-errors right from the formation of the simplest habits, which are reserve adaptations to new circumstances when they are first formed. The combination of “problem, hypothesis, and control,” who is the mark of Intelligence according to Claparède, already exist in embryo in the needs, the trials-and-errors and the empirical test characteristic of the least developed sensory-motor adaptations.
Piaget stress that the matter of Intelligence may be analyzed from different points of view, both of the functional situation and of the structural mechanism. From the former point of view, behavior becomes more “Intelligent” as the pathways between the subject and the objects on which it acts cease to be simple and become progressively more complex: perception only requires simple paths, even if the object perceived is very remote. A habit might seem more complex, but its spatio-temporal articulations are welded into a unique whole with no independent or separable.
An act of Intelligence, such as finding a hidden object or recognizing the meaning of a picture, involves a certain number of paths (in space and time) which can be both isolated and synthesized. Thus, from the point of view of the structural mechanism, elementary sensory-motor adaptations are both rigid and unidirectional, while Intelligence tends towards reversible mobility. That is the essential property of the operations which characterize living logic in action.
To define Intelligence in terms of the progressive reversibility of the mobile structures which it forms is therefore to repeat, in different words, that Intelligence constitutes the state of equilibrium towards which tend all the successive adaptations of a sensory-motor and cognitive nature, as well as all interactions between the organism and the environment.
Piaget posed the problem of the Intelligence definition as an agreement on the degree of complexity of distant interactions which we shall call “Intelligent”.
Possible interpretations of Intelligence
Piaget emphasizes that from the biological point of view, Intelligence appears as one of the activities of the organism, while the objects to which it adapts itself constitute a particular sector of the surrounding environment.
The knowledge that Intelligence builds up achieves a privileged equilibrium as a result of the limit of sensory-motor and symbolic interaction, while distances in space and time become indefinitely extended; the Intelligence engenders scientific thought itself, including biological knowledge.
It is therefore natural that the psychological theories of Intelligence should be placed among biological theories of adaptation and theories of knowledge in general.
From the biological point of view, the relations between the organism and the environment admit six possible interpretations according to the following combinations (each of which has led to its own solution, classical or contemporary): either (I) we reject the idea of a genuine evolution, or else (II) we admit its existence; then, in both cases (I and II) we attribute adaptations (1) to factors external to the organism, or (2) to internal factors, or (3) to an interaction between the two. So (I) from the non-evolutionist point of view, we may attribute adaptation (I1) to a pre-established harmony between the organism and the properties of the environment, (I2) to a preformism allowing the organism to respond to every situation by actualizing its potential structures, or else (I3) to the "Emergence" of complete structures, irreducible to elements and determined simultaneously from within and from without.
The evolutionist points of view (II) explain adaptive variations, by environmental pressure (Lamarckism III), or by endogenous mutations with subsequent selection (mutationism II2), or by a progressive interaction between internal and external factors.
It must be an innate adaptation to eternal forms or essences; corresponding to preformism, there is (I2) apriorism which explains consciousness by internal structures which precede experience; and corresponding to the "emergence" of new structures there is (I3) contemporary phenomenology, which simply analyses the various forms of thought, refusing either to derive them genetically from each other or to distinguish in them the roles of subject and object.
Evolutionist interpretations reappear in those epistemological schools which allow for the progressive development of reason; corresponding to Lamarckism there is (III) empiricism, which explains knowledge by the pressure of objects; corresponding to mutationism there are (II2) conventionalism and pragmatism, which attribute the fittingness of mind to reality to the untrammeled creation of subjective ideas, subsequently selected according to a principle of simple expediency. Finally, interactionism (II3) involves a relativism, which would describe knowledge as the product of a not dissociable collaboration between experience and deduction.
Among the non-evolutionist theories, there are first of all (II) those which remain constantly faithful to the idea of an Intelligence-faculty, a sort of direct knowledge of physical entities and of logical or mathematical ideas by a pre-established harmony between intellect and reality. We must confess that few experimental psychologists still adhere to this hypothesis. The analysis of mathematical thought have caused certain symbolic logicians, e.g. Bertrand Russell, to formulate such a conception of Intelligence and even to wish to impose it on psychology itself (cf. his Analysis of Mind). Apriorist current has in fact inspired a good deal of the work of the German Denkpsychologie and is consequently found at the root of numerous experimental researches on thought, using the familiar methods of introspection, which have been developing from 1900-1905 to the present day.
Binet's work testifies to the contrary. But for K. Bühler, Selz and many others, Intelligence eventually became, as it were, "a mirror of logic", which imposes itself from within with no possible causal explanation.
In the third place (I3), corresponding to emergence and phenomenology (with the actual historical influence of the latter), there is a recent theory of Intelligence which has raised the problem anew in a very suggestive way: the Configuration (Gestalt) theory. The notion of a "Complex configuration", resulting from experimental researches in perception, involves the assertion that a whole is irreducible to the elements, which compose it, being governed by special laws of organization or equilibrium. Having analyzed these laws of structuring in the realm of perception and having come across them again in motor functions, memory, etc., the configuration theory has been applied to Intelligence itself, both in its reflective (logical thought) and its sensory-motor form (Intelligence in animals and in children at the pre-linguistic stage). Thus Köhler, in connection with chimpanzees, and Wertheimer, in connection with the syllogism, etc., have spoken of "immediate restructurings" seeking to explain the act of insight by the “Goodness" (Prdgnanz) of well-organized structures, which are neither endogenous nor exogenous but embrace subject and object in a total field. Furthermore, these Gestalten, which are common to perception, movement and Intelligence, do not evolve, but represent permanent forms of equilibrium, independent of mental development (we may in this respect find all intermediate stages between apriorism and the configuration theory, although the latter is normally found linked with a physical or physiological realism of "structures").
It may be noted that
1. First it reduces cognitive adaptation to pure accommodation, since it sees thought only as the mirror of ready-made "ideas"
2. Second it reduces it to pure assimilation, since it regards intellectual structures as exclusively endogenous
3. Third it unites assimilation and accommodation in a single whole, since, from the Gestalt point of view, there exists only the field linking objects and the subject, with neither activity on his part nor the isolated existence of the object.
Empiricism (III) is scarcely upheld any longer in its pure associationist form, except for some authors, of predominantly physiological interests, who think they can reduce Intelligence to a system of “Conditioned" responses.
Rignano's interpretations reduce reasoning to mental experience, and especially in Spearman's interesting theory, which is both statistical (factor analysis of Intelligence) and descriptive; from this second point of view, Spearman reduces the operations of Intelligence to the "apprehension of experience" and to the "eduction" of relations and "correlates", that is, to a more or less complex reading of immediately given relations. These relations, then, are not constructed but discovered by simple accommodation to external reality.
Trial-and-error theory elaborated by Claparède constitutes in this respect the most far-reaching exposition: intelligent adaptation consists of trials or hypotheses, due to the activity of the subject, and of their selection, effected afterwards under the pressure of experience (successes or failures). This empirical control, which from the outset selects the subject's trials, is subsequently internalized in the form of anticipations due to awareness of relations, just as motor trial-and-error is extended into symbolic trial-and error or imagination of hypotheses.
Finally, emphasizing the interaction of the organism and the environment leads to the operational theory of Intelligence (II3), According to this point of view, intellectual operations, whose highest form is found in logic and mathematics, constitute genuine actions, being at the same time something produced by the subject and a possible experiment on the reality. The problem is therefore to understand how operations arise out of material action, and what laws of equilibrium govern their evolution; operations are thus concerned as grouping themselves of necessity into complex systems, comparable to the "Configurations" of the Gestalt theory, but these, far from being static and given from the start, are mobile and reversible, and round themselves off only when the limit of the individual and social genetic process that characterizes them is reached.
As for trial-and-error theories and empiricist conceptions, we shall discuss them with particular reference to sensory-motor Intelligence and its relations with habit (Chap. IV).
Piaget poses the well-known question: “may we hope for a real explanation of Intelligence, or does Intelligence constitute a primary irreducible fact, being the mirror of a reality prior to all experience, namely logic?”
Adaptive nature of Intelligence
Piaget defines the adaptation as the equilibrium between the action of the organism on the environment and vice versa. Taking the term in its broadest sense, “assimilation” may be used to describe the action of the organism on surrounding objects, in so far as this action depends on previous behavior involving the same or similar objects. In fact, every relation between a living being and its environment has this particular characteristic: the former, instead of submitting passively to the latter, modifies it by imposing on it a certain structure of its own. It is in this way that, physiologically, the organism absorbs substances and changes them into something compatible with its own substance. Now, psychologically, the same is true, except that the modifications with which it is then concerned are no longer of a physical-chemical order, but entirely functional, and are determined by movement, perception or the interplay of real or potential actions (conceptual operations, etc.). Mental assimilation is thus the incorporation of objects into patterns of behavior, these patterns being none other than the whole range of actions capable of active repetition.
Conversely the environment acts on the organism and, following the practice of biologists, we can describe this converse action by the term "accommodation", it being understood that the individual “never suffers” the impact of surrounding stimuli as such, but they simply modify the assimilatory cycle by accommodating it to themselves.
Psychologically, we again find the same process in the sense that the pressure of circumstances always leads, ought to a passive submission to them, but to a simple modification of the action affecting them. This being so, we can then define adaptation as an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation, which amounts to the same as an equilibrium of interaction between subject and object.
Now in the case of organic adaptation, this interaction, being of a material nature, involves interpenetration between some part of the living body and some sector of the external environment.
Psychological life, on the other hand, begins, as we have seen, with functional interaction, that is to say, from the point at which assimilation no longer alters assimilated objects in a physical-chemical manner but simply incorporates them in its own forms of activity (and accommodation only modifies this activity).
We can understand that, superimposed on the direct interpretation of organism and environment, mental life brings with it indirect interaction between subject and object, which takes effect at every increasing spatial-temporal distances and along every more complex paths.
The whole development of mental activity from perception and habit to symbolic behavior and memory, and to the higher operations of reasoning and formal thought, is thus a function of this gradually increasing distance of interaction, and hence of the equilibrium between an assimilation of realities further and further removed from the action itself and an accommodation of the latter to the former.
It is in this sense that Intelligence, whose logical operations constitute a mobile and at the same time permanent equilibrium between the universe and thought, is an extension and a perfection of all adaptive processes. Organic adaptation, in fact, only ensures an immediate and consequently limited equilibrium between the individual and the present environment. Elementary cognitive functions, such as perception, habit and memory, extend it in the direction of present space (perceptual contact with distant objects) and of short-range reconstructions and anticipations. Only Intelligence, capable of all its detours and reversals by action and by thought, tends towards an all-embracing equilibrium by aiming at the assimilation of the whole of reality and the accommodation to it of action.
An act of Intelligence involves, then, an internal regulation of energy (interest, effort, ease, etc.) and external regulation (the value of the solutions sought and of the objects concerned in the search), but these two controls are of an affective nature and remain comparable with all other regulations of this type.
Quantify the Intelligence
In psychology, an individual’s relative standing on two quantitative indices, measuring the Intelligence and the effectiveness of adaptive behavior, constitutes the operational definition of Intelligence.
Jasper’s model of Intelligence, distinguishes several functions:
a. Premises or Intelligence’s assumptions: essentials for its expression, as the memory, the language, and the integrity of senses;
b. The psychological richness, or the reserve of knowledge achieved, which is correlated to the learning capacity, to the affective-longing factors and to the environment influence;
c. The Intelligence itself, which would have the purpose to address the premises toward a selected target, and do divide in intellectual (judge capacity) and in affective-longing components.
Until now, the Jasper’s model of Intelligence seems the most complete.
The concept of the “Intelligence” evolved with the introduction in medicine of different tools for quantifying and measuring it.
Measuring the Intelligence as lone capacity required the design of current tools used in Neuropsychology and Psychology.
The IQ provides scores that integrate the activity of several cognitive abilities in a composite index. The composite character of this index and the effect of numerous puzzling variables to which the IQ is sensible (socio-cultural level, ethnic group, instruction etc.), have diminished, in the last decade, the conceptual importance of the IQ scores. Specific alterations (e.g., verbal ability) can give erroneous indications, suggesting a severe Intelligence modification; vice versa, the IQ may not stress enough the most selective defects investigated in specific subtests that are able to compromise the social and working functioning of the subject (e.g., frontal cortex genesis disorder).
The most used Intelligence tests in clinics are two: the Wechsler test and the Raven test, that reply to different principles. Anyway, in neuropsychology, the most important data obtained from these tests do not consist in the IQ, but they give a general picture of the patient condition in a particular moment. In the cultural and working patient’s contexts, these data give an idea of those that might be the premorbid conditions.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for adults (WAIS-R) and for children (WISC-R) represents the most used instrument. The WAIS-R battery examines, throughout 166 voices studied, the general intellectual capacities providing a general index (IQ), a verbal and a performance scores. The children WISC-R version provides equivalents scores. The idea of the Intelligence as a group of specific abilities accompanied the test’s development. Consequently, it includes a series of heterogeneous tests divisible in verbal and non-verbal (or performance tests).
The Raven test is available in two versions, one more complex (1938) than the other with colored material (1947), originally developed for children. The test intends to measure the Intelligence as a lone global ability. Actually, it measures the logic-analytical abilities (mostly in the last portion of the test); the test studies the visual and spatial analysis abilities (mostly in the first portion of the test) too.
Normalizing data obtained from a population of healthy people found the majority of tests that measure the intellective general abilities; therefore this majority represents a collection of instruments sensible to identify subjects whose performances are to the normal extreme limits. These instruments fail to discriminate patients’ populations (and of the single patient reevaluated in the time too).
It follow in the next article...
- Intelligence quotient - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- List of Famous IQ's Page II of IV - IQ of Famous People
The list of famous IQ;s includes: Chris Langan, Stephan Hawking, George Bush, Bill Clinton, Bobby Fischer, Andrew Wiles, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Dolph Lundgren, Jimmy Carter, Garry Kasparov and more.
- Cox's IQ Estimates of 301 Eminent Geniuses born from 1450 to 1850
IQ Basics, IQ Explained, IQ scores for three hundred eminent geniuses; Estimate your IQ from your GRE or SAT scores; IQs for occupational groups; Entrance criteria for high IQ societies; The Flynn Effect; Average IQ scores in nations vs Nobel prizes. | <urn:uuid:758cd62f-40d7-4d66-92ec-39050ed469a5> | {
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Those with Avoidant Personality Disorder are often described by others as painfully shy, timid, and lonely people. Compared to some other personality disorders, those suffering from this condition do actually crave close relationships. However their inhibitions mean they cannot form friendships, and they tend to live lonely isolated lives.
They avoid interacting with people due to the fear of being criticised, rejected and the fear of being disliked. They see themselves as unappealing, unlikeable, socially inept and inadequate. This self-contempt is thought to stem from a rejection in their childhood maybe from their parents, a close relative or friends.
They are very hurt by even the slightest criticism, and they fear showing their emotions in public. The low self esteem, combined with the apprehension and anxiety makes them tend to avoid social situations where they may have to mix and socialise.
When they are faced with a social situation that they cannot avoid, they come across as very stiff, awkward and tense. This makes it very difficult for others to interact with them, and can cause the very rejection that they feared in the first instance.
In close intimate relationships they can seem distant, and uncaring. They hold back on their emotions for fear of being shamed or ridiculed.
Those with Avoidant Personality Disorder tend to deal with their emotions through escape, fantasy and wishful thinking. The disorder can affect their lives significantly. | <urn:uuid:d4628cc4-69ba-4062-b4e7-d5a106738aa9> | {
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Benefits of Eating Eggs Regularly and How to Cook Them
Despite their bad reputation, eggs are a very nutritious food that helps us strengthen our bones and improve our memory, so we should include them in our diet with no fear.
Eggs have a high nutritional value; they’re rich in proteins, Omega 3, vitamins and minerals, which are basic for our diet. There are a lot of myths surrounding egg consumption, which have led many people to cut them out of their diet entirely. However, throughout the years, many different studies have demystified these myths, and determined that eggs are in fact a very nutritious food that can be included in our diet in a variety of ways.
Why are eggs good for your health?
Eggs contain several natural health benefits; eating them regularly will provide you with great nutritional value. Take a look at some of their benefits here and don’t hesitate to include them in your diet with no fear! Among their numerous health advantages, eggs are:
–Rich in protein, providing all the essential amino acids that our bodies need.
–Helpful in preventing ocular problems due to their lutein and canthaxanthin contents.
–Rich in vitamin B (B1,B3,B12, folic acid, and biotin), and also in vitamin A, E and D.
–A source of choline, an essential micro nutrient for our nervous system.
–Full of minerals like selenium, zinc, phosphorus, and iron.
Health benefits of eating eggs regularly
Because of their natural properties, eating eggs on a regular basis can bring several advantages to your health. Eggs are especially recommended for athletes, pregnant women, and the elderly.
Increases your energy
Due to their healthy fats and proteins, eggs help you maintain your body’s energy levels throughout everyday activities.
Helps reduce weight
Eggs help you feel satiated for a longer period of time and reduce the anxiety of over eating. This is why they are so often recommended at breakfast. It is important to mention that this only works when you follow a healthy diet and regular exercise routines.
Eggs have been accused of increasing bad cholesterol for many years. Fortunately, recent studies have demonstrated that eggs do not affect your organism directly. It has also been proved that some people’s cholesterol levels do not increase even if they eat two eggs a day.
Protects your heart
Eggs contain choline, which helps reduce homocysteine levels in your blood, a toxic amino acid that damages your blood vessels. The vitamins, minerals and omega 3 help protect the heart, reducing the risk of suffering heart attacks and strokes.
Strengthens your bones
The vitamin D and calcium found in eggs help strengthen our bones and in turn, prevent health problems like osteoporosis.
Improves your memory
The choline found in egg is an essential nutrient that stimulates brain function and development. It is associated with the improvement of memory and helps us stay alert.
Protects your sight
Eggs contain two antioxidants called leutin and zeaxanthin that are associated with your sight and protect against the damage of UV rays.
How to prepare your eggs?
Eggs are a very versatile food that we can prepare in many ways. The most common are:
- Hard boiled. You place the eggs in water at low heat until it boils. Once the water boils, wait a couple of minutes more, you then remove the eggs. Remove their shell and eat.
- Fried. Fry them on a saucepan, preferably with olive oil and a bit of salt.
- Scrambled. Place them on a pan to fry, then you mix them with a spoon and if you wish, you can add onion, tomato, garlic, sausage, meat or whatever you want.
- Omelette. We beat the egg very well before pouring them onto the pan, then we fry with a bit of olive oil and that’s it.
Other ways of consuming eggs…
Egg yolk is more nutritious if eaten raw. Obviously no one likes the idea of eating raw egg yolk, so here are a few recipes where we can take advantage of it.
- 1 egg
- 100ml of coconut milk
- 1 spoonful of honey
- 1 banana
- 6 strawberries
What to do?
Mix all the ingredients in a blender and drink fresh.
Chocolate Egg Shake
If you want a delicious protein shake, try consuming eggs with this recipe.
- 1 spoonful of chocolate essence
- 1/3 cup water
- 1 egg, beaten
What to do?
Mix all the ingredients very well in a blender and drink.
We hope you’ve enjoyed this article on the many natural health benefits of eating eggs regularly! | <urn:uuid:49c3b173-ce7b-4af4-a1bb-569c3dc424c7> | {
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When a program or library mixes several languages, Automake choose the linker according to the following priorities. (The names in parentheses are the variables containing the link command.)
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I leaned on my shovel last February, taking a break from clearing our mailbox from a fresh mound of snow. My neighbor sauntered over with a wry grin on his face.
“So, you just got back from a cruise, huh? Some life you have—we’re here digging out from the blizzard of the century, and you’re off on a cruise!”
I just smiled. I didn’t want to shatter my neighbor’s image of me as a globe-trotting dilettante. The real story included relentless North Atlantic storms battering our ship, instrument retrievals in the dead of night with blue water washing over the rail, science gear shattered by 20-foot waves. I would rather have been shoveling.
On Jan. 15, 2005, our small science party set out on R/V Oceanus for the tumultuous waters off the coast of North Carolina—aptly nicknamed “the graveyard of the Atlantic.” Led by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution physical oceanographer Glen Gawarkiewicz, our objective was to study the confluence of southward- and northward-flowing currents that meet at Cape Hatteras. Here the mighty Gulf Stream—warm and salty—breaks away from the coast and heads to Europe—but not before it converges with the “shelfbreak jet,” a strong current at the edge of the continental shelf that carries cold, relatively fresh water from the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans.
The two water masses have different densities, so they don’t blend seamlessly into each other, but rather collide. Like low- and high-pressure air masses in the atmosphere, these water masses form “fronts,” or boundaries, which continually interact and move in response to passing weather systems.
The shifting of these oceanic fronts creates the equivalent of “weather” within the ocean. They stir up nutrients from the deep to fuel phytoplankton blooms that feed fish and marine mammals. They steer pollutants coming on and off shore. They set up air-ocean temperature gradients that create fog.
To begin to map the dynamics of the oceanic weather in this region, Gawarkiewicz co-led a cruise in August 2004 to take measurements of current speed and direction off Cape Hatteras, as well as water temperatures and salinities, which can distinguish various water masses.
But just as the atmosphere’s dynamics change with the seasons, so do the ocean’s. Now it was time to learn how the water masses mix and create new water masses under the influence of winter cooling and stormier seas.
During our three weeks riding the waves, I kept a journal with pen and camera. These entries will give you an idea of what it’s really like on the high seas off Cape Hatteras in winter.
Jan. 15, 2005: Weather was clear and cold as we steamed south through the Elizabeth Islands. When I told people at WHOI where this cruise was headed, most responded, “Cape Hatteras, in winter?”—followed by a look of acute disbelief and sometimes a sad shake of the head. I know it’s going to be rough, but how bad can it be?
Jan. 17: Just east of North Carolina, the seas could best be described as lumpy. Massive blobs of seawater lurch into the ship, causing it to heave and buck unpredictably. Will Ostrom, a veteran WHOI mooring technician, sways in time to the rolls as I careen into the bulkheads. Will is happily typing away on his computer in the main lab while I stare at the wall fighting nausea. When exactly do I get those “sea legs?” Time to pop the Dramamine.
Jan. 18: Tired and wet from putting moorings in the water. Since there are only six scientists and technicians aboard, it was an all-hands operation to get the instruments overboard safely. We deployed a variety of moored instruments: 30-meter (98-foot) lines of tiny temperature probes; a heavy chain mooring, 80 meters (262 feet) long, with temperature probes; several instruments called CTDs to measure conductivity, temperature, and depth; and a large meteorological buoy. The moorings were placed at strategic locations and will be picked up at the end of the two-week cruise.
Each deployment requires a slightly different procedure. Some take 15 minutes, others several hours. Water sloshed across the deck continually as we worked—attaching instruments to the mooring lines, moving heavy anchors, testing acoustic release equipment. My duty involved standing at the starboard rail holding the acoustic release transducer cable over the side while Craig Marquette, an engineer from the WHOI Physical Oceanography Department, tested the releases. For whatever reason, the waves seemed to be drawn to that location. My survival suit was soaked with salt water by the end of the day. Cold salt water.
Jan. 19: We have commenced towed vehicle operations, the heart of the project. A wing-shaped vehicle, 2 meters (6 feet) long, called the Scanfish will collect temperature and salinity data as we tow it behind us.
The Scanfish “flies” or undulates behind the ship, giving us a two-dimensional picture of water properties from the surface down to 100 meters (330 feet). Since we don’t have to stop the ship to sample, we are able to measure a large parcel of ocean in a short time.
Brian Kidd from the University of Delaware is our Scanfish expert. In the shallow, placid waters of Delaware Bay, the “fish” flies beautifully. Out here in the towering waves and fast currents of the Gulf Stream, it’s not doing so well. Brian has bags under his eyes. He’s been standing an evening watch and working all day to fix the equipment problems that cropped up overnight.
“We’re running out of parts,” he confides between yawns. “We have never gone through this many spares.” Looks like we might have to make a port call.
Jan. 21: I go outside to feel a cold wind in my face. A thick fog billows over the waves, caused by the cold northerly air passing over the balmy waters of the Gulf Stream. This “sea smoke” is one of the most beautiful things I have ever seen. The wind whips the fog over the wave crests as dolphins surf the 20-foot rollers. I fight my way up to the bridge for a better look.
As the sun sets, the waves and mist turn gold. The wave crests look like distant mountain ridges. Chief Mate Diego Mello, a Coast Guard veteran, joins me on the flying bridge. “In all my years at sea I’ve never seen anything like this,” he tells me. I feel like the sea has given us a little reward for our determination.
Jan. 22: We pulled into Morehead City, N.C., to pick up some parts for our battered Scanfish and to escape the storm that has just started burying New England with a record-setting snowfall. Thirty-five foot waves are forecast for the Gulf Stream.
Is it only a coincidence that the New England Patriots are playing in the AFC championships this weekend—something we couldn’t watch at sea? Or perhaps it is a morale-boosting decision by the captain and chief scientist?
I’m glad we are not riding this storm at sea, and—back home—my wife is glad, too.
Jan. 26: The familiar hum of the engines was absent when I woke up. After two weeks on the ship, you become attuned to every sound and motion. A quiet ship meant that we weren’t Scanfishing anymore.
The hum and whir of the propellers started up again. The sound of waves slamming into the side of the ship resumed, as did our wild rolls from side to side. Hmm, we must have just finished a CTD cast and are moving on to another station.
One of the most traditional ocean instruments, the CTD is encased in a metal frame called the rosette, which is lowered over the side using the ship’s winch. In rough seas, two people use slip-lines to keep the 408-kilogram (900-pound) instrument package steady when it’s off the deck. The last thing you want in rough weather is for the CTD to become a wrecking ball. It made for a long night, but the constant activity made time go faster.
Jan. 28: I asked Chris, our steward, why we haven’t had pizza on the cruise. He replied that the ingredients would slide off in the oven.
Our definition of bad weather has changed. Now, 8- to 12-foot seas are considered “calm conditions,” and anything higher is simply “messy.” Work continues night and day. When it’s too rough for the Scanfish, we resort to CTDs. No pizza for us tonight.
Jan. 29: I was heading up to the main lab today when I heard a series of faint whistles and clicks. Initially I thought I must be suffering from one of those “adverse reactions” from exceeding the daily limit of seasickness medication. But when I saw Brian Kidd’s expression, I knew I wasn’t the only one. “Are those dolphins?”
We stepped out on deck and saw several dozen dolphins swimming and leaping out of the water next to the ship. I watched them until sunset. They seemed delighted to find something to play with out in the cold dark ocean.
Jan. 30: Winds have increased to storm force—again. Too rough for Scanfish, too rough for CTDs, too rough for pizza, and too rough for reading in my bunk.
As the ship rolled heavily in the swell, portholes in the main lab alternated between views of the sky and views beneath the waves. As the water swirled around the round porthole, I had an uncanny feeling like I was in a giant steel washing machine.
Sleeping is difficult. With just the right pillow placement, I have managed to wedge myself into my bunk. The sounds of waves crashing into the hull are far from soothing.
This evening we steamed past the moorings to check that they were still there. The anemometer on the guard buoy is dangling from a single mounting bracket—the other one must have broken off. We are hoping it lasts the night.
The forecast for tomorrow looks a little better: only gale-force winds. We can’t wait any longer to get the moorings. If we don’t start pulling them up soon, we might have to head home without them. And then who knows when we would be able to get our precious data?
Jan. 31: Not a good day. In the darkness of early evening, one of the mooring lines got sucked into the propeller as we were retrieving it. It tore the line in half and sent the bitter end zinging back on deck. We are thankful no one was hurt.
The remainder of the mooring line appears to be wrapped around the propeller. I can hear the swish-swish of the line hitting the hull from my stateroom. We have been waiting for a break in the weather to retrieve our largest mooring. Maybe tomorrow.
Feb. 1: Successfully retrieved the large guard buoy mooring. Unfortunately, the anemometer didn’t make it. King Neptune claimed it in the last storm, and with it, all of our wind data.
All the other instruments were retrieved safely, and Craig and I immediately set to downloading the data. After all this hard work, it sure is nice to see those data plots come up on my screen—phew! Almost a 100 percent return from the instruments that made it back. Chief Scientist Glen is ecstatic. We feel like we have won a battle.
Feb. 3: Finally, heading for home (just as I was getting my sea legs, too!). Despite the rough conditions, we managed to make some unique high-resolution measurements of this energetic current system—five Scanfish grids, 71 CTDs, and 11 days of moored instrument data. That data will tell an interesting tale of what goes on beneath the waves as winter storms rage overhead.
Postscript: After arriving in Woods Hole, divers cleared the sundered mooring line from Oceanus’s propeller. Attached to the line was a single temperature probe, which valiantly collected data all the way back to port. | <urn:uuid:0f0bf6e2-ac72-4343-9817-05123bb452ad> | {
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This black and white, silent film shows the anatomy of muscles. We see dissected muscles and their microscopic structure fibre and fibril. Involuntary and voluntary muscular actions are shown as are muscle-nerve preparations. Fatigue, antagonism and exercise are demonstrated as effects on the muscles. 3 segments. Topics: Physiology, Muscles, Human physiology, Physiology, Muscles, Medical students.
This film acts as a demonstration of the action of muscles, vertebral column, hip and shoulder joints in living subject. 3 segments Topics: Anatomy, Muscles, Medical sciences, Anatomy, Muscles, Medical
Shows a variety of acrobatic movements to demonstrate the action of muscles, vertebral column, hip and shoulder joints in living subjects. Four female acrobats perform a variety of movements while interspersed radiograms show the spine in various positions. 5 segments. Topics: Anatomy, Muscles, Human physiology, Anatomy, Muscles, Health care personnel. | <urn:uuid:c129b466-a4ed-4196-89b4-fc38f9d344d2> | {
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After 100 years, Einstein’s theory stands test of time
Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity is about to celebrate its 100th anniversary, and his revolutionary hypothesis has withstood the test of time, despite numerous expert attempts to find flaws.
“Einstein changed the way we think about the most basic things, which are space and time. And that opened our eyes to the universe, and how the most interesting things in it work, like black holes,” said David Kaiser, professor of the history of science, technology and society at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Einstein, a celebrated German-born theoretical physicist who spent the final years of his life at Princeton University in the northeastern United States, presented his theory on November 25, 1915 before the Prussian Academy of Science.
The document was published in March 1916 in a journal called Annalen der Physik.
The general theory of relativity was among the most revolutionary in history; it marked a major leap from the law of universal gravitation put forth by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687.
Einstein believed that “space and time are not fixed, which was what others had thought, but are flexible, dynamic phenomena like other processes of the universe,” said Michael Turner, director of the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics.
“So space bends and time warps, and it was a whole new way at looking at gravity.”
Einstein had put forth a more restrained version of his theory in 1905, the special theory of relativity, which left out gravity but described the relationship between space and time. It held that the speed of light is the same in a vacuum, and the laws of physics do not change regarding inert objects.
– Precursor to GPS –
He also came up with his famous equation, E=mc2, which says that energy equals mass times the speed of light in a vacuum, squared. In other words, mass and energy are the same but in different forms.
Ten years later, the general theory of relativity offered a larger and more explanatory vision, adding gravity’s role in the space-time continuum.
Therefore, time would move more slowly in proximity to a powerful gravitational field, such as that of a planet in the void of space.
This relationship has been verified by comparing two atomic clocks, one on Earth and the other in a high-altitude airplane where it shows a slight delay.
Global positioning systems (GPS) are an application of this phenomenon.
Satellites have clocks that are precisely adjusted to account for this time difference, otherwise GPS would not be able to function.
According to the theory of general relativity, light is also warped by powerful gravitational fields, which British astronomer Arthur Eddington confirmed with his observations on the deflections of starlight by the Sun in 1919.
Einstein also predicted that stars at the end of their lives would collapse under their own gravity.
Their external envelope would explode in a supernova while their heart would form a very dense object known as a neutron star, or a rapidly spinning pulsar.
They could also transform into a black hole, which such a huge gravitational field that space and time could not escape.
According to Einstein, these celestial bodies, given their masses, should provoke waves in space time much like a thrown stone causes ripples in water.
These are the gravitational waves that astronomers hope to observe first-hand.
– String theory –
This would “confirm one of the last great but as yet untested predictions from Einstein, equation that space and time are not really dynamical but they can ripple, like the surface of a pond,” said Kaiser.
Instruments have been designed to capture this phenomenon, including the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) in the United States and VIRGO, a gravitational wave detector in Italy in Europe.
An enormous challenge remains — to reconcile the general theory of relativity with quantum physics, the two big pillars of modern physics.
Quantum physics, contrary to relativity, perfectly describes phenomena on an atomic level and has numerous applications, from transistors to computers.
Turner said the most popular theory for reconciling the two is string theory, which holds that particles are not the fundamental building blocks of matter but are elastic strings that vibrate at different frequencies.
“String theory might answer that deep question of what space and time are,” Turner told AFP.
“It suggests it could be extra dimensions and that the number of dimensions of space and time could change,” he added.
“And if you take the most extravagant view of that, maybe space and time did not exist and they emerged from something else.”
Turner described string theory as an “empty vessel,” and added: “the great thing about an empty vessel is that we can put our hopes and dreams in it.”
“We are now ready for the next Einstein to open our eyes a little more.” | <urn:uuid:f8990938-74b9-40a2-905d-3c98c65d3273> | {
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* standard which contributes towards literacy
** standard which contribute towards numeracy
What should I have already achieved?
14 credits in Level 2 Chemistry (including 2 external achievement standards) or at the discretion of the teacher in charge of the course, in consultation with the LA .
What will I learn?
Chemistry enables us to understand the properties of different materials and to transform materials into new and useful substances. Through Chemistry, we can understand changes that we observe in the natural and physical world. Chemistry gives us understandings on which to base educated choices about consumer products and management of resources.
Specifically the course will cover:
- Properties and changes of matter
- Interpreting observations in terms of the particles (atoms, molecules, ions, and sub-atomic particles)
- Structures, and interactions present and making connections between the concepts of chemistry, their applications
- Developing an understanding of the role chemistry plays in the world around you
How will this course be assessed?
- Standard 91388 and 91393 will be assessed by Internal Assessment in Term 1 and Term 2;
- Standard 91390, 91391, 91392 will be assessed by External Assessment in November.
Students in consultation with the teacher will have the opportunity to choose the standards they enter with the expectation of a minimum of 14 credits (including at least 3 credits from internal and 4 credits from external achievement standards, this will enable the student to achieve a course endorsement for Level 3 chemistry).
Will there be any further assessment opportunities (FAO)? No
The achievement standards in Level 3 Chemistry that contribute to Level 1 Literacy are 91387, 91389, 91390, 91391, 91392, 91393.
The achievement standards in Level 3 Chemistry that contribute to Level 1 Numeracy is 91392.
How much is the course fee? $50 for course manuals | <urn:uuid:b9ba3c0e-ded1-43c6-a143-43aeb46fa623> | {
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Life Science Name:_______________________________
Experiment Summary Sheet Class:________ Date:____________
Due on:_________ Lab#________ Point Value:___________
Directions: In completing an experiment a procedure or system of steps is often used. This is often called the "SCIENTIFIC METHOD". It involves these main steps: TITLE, MATERIALS NEEDED, PROCEDURE, HYPOTHESIS (a possible outcome or solution), and a CONCLUSION.
For the experiment you are about to do, complete this lab sheet. When finished, make sure all the materials used are cleaned up and left ready for the next class to use. Turn in your completed experiment sheet on or before the due date.
II. MATERIALS NEEDED: | <urn:uuid:98fe7b4b-35a2-4a28-a302-3a898e5de265> | {
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Each and every day we of use our brains to think about the various tasks and responsibilities that must be accomplished. We think about what we are going to do, what we will wear and, of course, what we want to eat. At times we overthink, and think at the speed of light. This leads to what I call “speed disease.”
Not only do our thoughts race swiftly, but this also contributes to the notion of wanting everything to speed up so we can complete our tasks quickly. We desire “fast” things in our life, from the Internet to weight loss to fast food. If our goals are not met quickly, this leads to frustration and possibly failure. The inescapable truth is that many people need to slow down their thoughts and habits to achieve their health and wellness goals.
Thinking and Eating Problems
In terms of eating for weight loss, what you eat and how you eat are two halves of the metabolic equation. In modern-day America, it is common to view eating as a chore to complete quickly rather than an enjoyable part of the day. Work, meetings, driving, television shows and errands take precedence over the once mindful experience of eating with family and friends and in enjoyable environments.
Environments such as the car, desk and computer screen set the stage for fast eating, which disrupts digestion. However, our thoughts are also key in terms of eating, healthy digestion and weight loss. Eating while rushing around town or the house leads to mindless consumption while the mind stresses or worries about deadlines, relationships or where you left the keys.
However, the power of thought greatly influences the eating process, even if the body is in an aesthetically pleasing environment. For example, if someone sits alone in the park and eats while crying over a recent breakup, this will trigger the fight or flight response, which disrupts digestion. Therefore, integrating negative emotions and thoughts while eating does not promote the relaxation response, which is ideal for digestion, assimilation and weight loss.
The Miraculous Brain
Research scientists continuously study the brain and human anatomy. While there is much still to learn, researchers have discovered that the brain cannot differentiate between real and fake stress. Studies have shown that the brain triggers a stress response even when the physical body is not presently in a dangerous situation. When the body triggers a stress response, it is a biological process that automatically reacts when threats are present. Therefore, with some degree of severity, the body programs a similar stress response whether you are running to a meeting, escaping a car crash or worrying about being short on this month’s mortgage.
Another phenomena that science has shown to be true is the “placebo effect.” This experiment has been used in various studies where one group receives a placebo and another group receives the drug or actual treatment. Various research studies have used brain scans to reveal that the drug-induced treatment and placebo treatment light up the same areas of the brain.
The Amazing Body
As mentioned, fast eating, eating on the go and negative thoughts stress the body. When stressed, the body responds with elevated blood pressure, respiration and heart rate. In addition, the body releases hormones (adrenaline, cortisol and noradrenaline) for immediate energy use and blood flows away from the midsection toward the head and working muscles to “fight or flight.” In essence, this shuts down digestion and decreases salivary enzymes and affects the breakdown of fats, carbs and proteins.
The relaxation part of the central nervous system, the parasympathetic, needs to be stimulated while eating. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is activated before we begin eating through a term known as the cephalic phase (cephalic means “of the head”). This phase occurs due to the sight, smell, thought or taste of food, and the brain stimulates gastric secretion and the parasympathetic nervous system to turn digestion on. This phase is critical as up to 20 percent or more of digestion and caloric-burning power originates from the “head” phase. Therefore, how we eat and what we think enhances or affects the eating process.
Knowledge is Power
This knowledge is powerful as it helps us understand the biological process and confirms that notion that “perception is reality.” This is very important for individuals with large weight-loss goals who tend to focus on the negative, fixate on every calorie eaten and feel frustrated about being “fat.” Worry and negative thoughts cause stress, which in turn leads to chronic low-level stress causing elevation in insulin and cortisol (the weight-gaining hormones).
Think Before You Eat
Luckily, changing the way we eat and think is easier than you might think. Here are some tips to help you on your path to think your way to weight loss.
-Deep Breathing: The simplest habit one can establish is to use the power of oxygen. If rushed, take three to five deep breaths before eating a meal to stimulate the relaxation response and aide digestion. The intestinal villi are small fingerlike projections that absorb nutrients. Their role is greatly influenced by the levels of oxygen, thus boosting digestion power.
-Be Present: Many mindful-eating techniques strongly advocate eating as a pleasurable experience. For eating to become pleasurable, one must find a relaxing environment and/or keep thoughts connected to the experience. Being in the moment helps you focus on the experience and disconnects the stress and emotional eating habits. It is challenging to disconnect from emails and technology at first. If you find it challenging to disconnect, write down anything that bothers you or a list of the tasks you have to complete before eating.
-Slow Food to Fast Food: If you have to eat out while at work, or choose to eat out, select a café or restaurant where the environment doesn’t advocate for “fast.” Many cafes have pre-made sandwiches and salads; therefore, the food is “quickly” served, but offers an inviting atmosphere.
-Stay Positive: When eating out with friends or family, keep conversations positive and stimulating. Keep personal issues and world outrage conversations for after dinner.
-Feel Thin Not Fat: This aspect is very challenging for many individuals, but it is important to remember that weight loss takes time, patience and a positive outlook. This is where the placebo effect truly benefits weight loss.
Most people who have weight to lose sometimes look in the mirror and are disappointed with what they see. Throughout my years of experience as a trainer, I’ve heard every negative comment, including people hating themselves because of their weight. These negative comments do not serve the overall purpose of a weight-loss journey.
Find Your Placebo: There are many ways to feel thin, healthy, whole and complete. A popular quote from the Buddha states, “The mind is everything. What you think you become.” This powerful message is, in fact, a placebo effect in getting the brain to believe certain aspects and traits. Overweight and obese individuals can speak or write positive affirmations on feeling good, thin and loved. Without the mind being on board, the body has a challenging time trying to follow the lifestyle habits that facilitate weight loss.
In addition, keep your thoughts positive and praise the choices you’ve made. Even reading this article to further educate yourself is a step in the right direction toward achieving your overall goal.
-Breathe and Meditate: Meditation is a great way to instill relaxation, increase oxygen flow and to get in touch with one’s physiology. The combination of relaxation and oxygen flow stimulates the body and produces overall positive effects on the body, mind and hormones. Meditation is an ideal time for powerful thoughts and reflecting on feelings of being thin, healthy and happy.
If you have any questions in regards to thinking your way to weight loss, please do not hesitate to contact me at: [email protected] | <urn:uuid:ffa39908-6c52-4874-bd62-3256e0cdfee9> | {
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Heart disease affects the heart and the arteries within the heart. Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the most common type of heart disease and develops over many years. That’s why many women don’t realize their heart (and health) is in jeopardy until they experience symptoms, such as chest pain or heart attack. CAD occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle become hardened or narrowed due to a buildup ofcells, cholesterol (a fatty, wax-like substance) and fat along the inner walls of blood vessels (a process called artherosclerosis). This narrowing restricts or blocks blood flow to the heart, preventing oxygen and nutrients from getting to the heart, and may lead to heart attack or stroke.
Certain health behaviors or conditions called risk factors make a woman more likely to develop heart disease. It is important for you to know and be aware of risk factors that are a result of your age or family history. Other risk factors, such as are high cholesterol, abnormal blood pressure, and diabetes should be monitored and controlled for a better prognosis. Additionally, obesity, smoking tobacco and a sedentary lifestyle are also considered risk factors for heart disease.
Risk factors that can be managed or minimized to improve your prognosis:
• High blood pressure (also called hypertension)
• High LDL, or "bad” cholesterol, high triglycerides and/or low HDL, or "good” cholesterol
• Physical inactivity
• Diabetes (or pre-diabetes)
• Smoking (by not smoking and avoiding second hand smoke) | <urn:uuid:60ba635e-524d-4378-87d8-d18ac5c6e4fe> | {
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Chichicastenango, located about 140 km northwest of Guatemala City, is an indigeneous town, home to what is surely one of the most colorful native markets in North and Central America. The Spanish conquistadors gave the town its name Tzitzicaztenanco, or "City of Nettles".
The famous handicraft market of Chichicastenango draws not only the K'iche' Maya of the surrounding region, but vendors from all over Guatemala. They represent many of Guatemala's linguistic groups such as Mam, Ixil, Kaqchikel and others, each hawking his or her products in a riotous cacophony of color, dialects and costumes, smoke, and smells. This town in the mountains of Quiche has been, since pre-Hispanic times, one of the largest trading centers in the Maya area.
Scanned from slide, cropped, increased sharpness, saturation, applied gradual toning.
- Copyright: Erdem Kutukoglu (Suppiluliuma) (3913)
- Genre: People
- Medium: Color
- Date Taken: 1993-01-00
- Categories: Daily Life
- Camera: Canon AE-1P, Soligor AF 28-210mm f : 4,5 - 5,6, Kodachrome 64
- Map: view
- Photo Version: Original Version
- Date Submitted: 2011-02-27 22:48 | <urn:uuid:af07e585-2a68-436d-a814-78d473a6a782> | {
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Local governments receive revenue from a number of sources. While most collect taxes, nearly all governments receive some funding from the federal government. This money is passed down in a number of different ways, including in the form of pass-through funds and grants for specific uses. Grants given by the federal government to local governments can be divided into two main types -- block grants and categorical grants. Block grants have fewer restrictions on their use than categorical grants.
Block grants allow local governments a large amount of discretion as to how they can be used. Generally, block grants are given for a broad purpose -- for example, community development and energy efficiency -- but come with no directions on which programs must be funded. These grants are generally not competitive but are allocated to governments based on a formula. The local governments then choose which programs and projects will be funded with the money.
Unlike block grants, categorical grants can only be used for very specific purposes outlined by the federal government. Often, categorical grants will be used to fund specific projects. Also, categorical grants are competitive. Governments and organizations must apply for the grants, and the federal government will choose to fund only those applicants that offer the best proposal. An example of a categorical grant would be for the federal Head Start program, which offers early education to children.
One of the main advantages of block grants is that they allow local governments to choose which programs in their community to fund. Often these governments are better able to identify where the money should be spent than the federal government. By contrast, categorical grants are beneficial because the federal government is able to choose projects based on merit. Because it is not bound by a formula, as with block grants, the federal government can give money to the most worthy applicants.
One of the main disadvantages of block grants is that the federal government usually does not provide much oversight into how the money is spent. So, local governments may use the money ineffectively; but because the money is allocated according to a formula, they will not be held accountable for failures. Categorical grants have a downside in that the federal government does not always have a good idea as to how money should be used in a particular community. Also, some communities with fewer resources may not be able to field as compelling an application for the grants as wealthier communities.
- Ablestock.com/AbleStock.com/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:4fc9f5be-6568-427c-838b-6d2be0336154> | {
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Exploration and Settlement
The first whites to enter Kentucky were explorers, hunters, and traders who had heard of the rich, fertile land and abundant game that lay west of the mountains. At the time, the area was considered part of the Virginia frontier. In 1750 the Loyal Land Company sponsored an expedition, led by Thomas Walker of Virginia, to find land suitable for settlement. The expedition found the Cumberland Gap, a pass through the mountains where Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky meet, and explored the valley beyond. In 1751 Christopher Gist of Maryland, an agent of the Ohio Land Company, explored the area along the Ohio River as far west as what is now Louisville. The French and Indian War (1754–63) temporarily halted further exploration.
After the war, Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting settlement beyond the Appalachians until a policy to deal with the Indians was developed. It failed, however, to keep settlers from entering the region.
Daniel Boone, a frontiersman from North Carolina, tried to lead a group of settlers through the Cumberland Gap in 1773, but they were driven back by Cherokee Indians. The following year James Harrod, heading a small party of traders, established what is considered the first permanent settlement in Kentucky, in what is now Mercer County, calling it Harrod's Town (later Harrodsburg).
Also in 1774, Richard Henderson of North Carolina, having heard reports from Boone about the “Eden of the West,” organized the Transylvania Land Company, planning to establish a colony in what is now central Kentucky. He purchased a huge tract of land there from the Cherokee Indians. In 1775 he sent Boone ahead to blaze a trail (later called the Wilderness Road) through the Cumberland Gap and find a suitable location for settlement. In April, 1775, Boone built a fort, which he called Fort Boonesborough, south of the Kentucky River in present-day Madison County. Virginia dismissed the claims of the Transylvania Company and incorporated Kentucky as a county of Virginia in 1776.
Despite the Revolutionary War, which had begun in 1775, and the constant threat of attack by Indians from north of the Ohio River, thousands of immigrants poured through the Cumberland Gap and traveled the Wilderness Road. Settlements sprang up all over Kentucky County. Population totaled about 70,000 in 1790. The early settlers cleared the land, built homesteads, and fought off Indian raids in what came to be called the “dark and bloody ground” of Kentucky. | <urn:uuid:7d403457-4d5a-43e8-9581-abb2ad1716f7> | {
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Mapping Mt. Rainier
Tom Sisson hadn’t decided which of the sciences to pursue until he took a geology course taught by a professor who “besides being interested in the material, was in his mid-60s—infinitely old to me at the time,” he recalls, chuckling. “We would go on field trips and this guy would go walking briskly up these hills to various outcrops, and leave all these college students gasping in his wake. And I thought, ‘Well, this guy’s doing something right.’” Already an experienced ice climber, Sisson went on to become an accomplished mountaineer and a geologist with the Volcano Hazards Program at the U.S. Geological Survey.
For six years, Sisson has been studying the geological history of Mt. Rainier, a volcano in the Cascade Range of Washington State. When the project is completed he will have pieced together a three-dimensional map of Mt. Rainier and a detailed understanding of its complex and tumultuous past. “Studies had been made of mudflows after the end of the ice ages, in the last 10,000 years, and also of ash deposits blasted up again since then. But the volcano has been around an awful lot longer,” explains the geologist. “No one had tried to look at Rainier’s overall growth from its inception as far back as one could infer, which is about half a million years.”
In order to do so, Sisson has surveyed every ridge and rock face of Mt. Rainier, a mountain on which it is notoriously difficult to get around. “The main hazard on Rainier is that it’s tall, with a lot of glaciers. You have to avoid falling off a ridge or a crevasse, a deep crack in the rock,” he explains matter-of-factly. “I use standard mountaineering and belaying techniques. You also have to pay attention to where you are at what time of day, because the steeper areas spit rocks when they get warm.” Snow and ice wedge rocks apart as temperatures drop; as the rocks thaw, they loosen and fall, dislodging larger rocks as they tumble. “Usually they are fist- to head-size, but they can be as big as cars,” says Sisson, “so you don’t want to be there.” Then there’s the weather, about which the geologist suggests, “Take the long view. If a snowstorm is coming, go do something else.”
An aptitude for mapping is another definite asset. “You always have to know pretty accurately where you are so that whatever you see you can plot on the map,” Sisson explains. “You take people outside and wander around for a bit and ask them where they are, and some people can tell and some can’t. I happen to be one of those who can.” He is also highly observant, which he attributes to a combination of practice and aptitude. And he likes puzzles. “For example, you’re walking up a ridge, and you walk over one kind of lava. A little further on, you walk over another kind of lava. Then another like the first stuff you walked over. What’s going on? Is it a series of flows that are stacked up and alternating? Or did a younger lava flow drape over the older one and then erode through? You’ve got to wander around to figure out which answer is right. It’s like a big jigsaw puzzle.” Every detail is meticulously noted in a small, waterproof notebook, then translated, centimeter by centimeter, into a blueprint of the events which shaped the mountain. Sisson also collects rock samples to take back to the laboratory, where their ages are determined by isotope-dating techniques.
In addition to mapping lava flows, Sisson maps pyroclastic flows—high-speed avalanches of hot ash, rock fragments, and gas—dykes, faults, glacial moraines, pumice, and ash. In other words, “whatever’s out there. When you’re mapping a volcano, you’re trying to figure out a number of things, the first of which is how it has behaved in the past, because that’s the best guide to how it’s going to behave in the future. What kind of lava has it produced? How much? Where did it go? How frequently does it produce flows? How hot were they? The same goes for pyroclastic flows or ash flows or lava domes.”
This new interest in Rainier’s past is attributed to the recent, rapid increase in population density around its flanks, and new evidence shows that Rainier has been much more active than scientists previously thought. More than once, enough molten rock has spilled from the volcano to bury an area the size of Tacoma and Seattle almost ten feet deep. Particularly alarming is the discovery that large mudflows have occurred every 500 to 1,000 years. Scientists fear that a lahar—a fast-flowing river of mud, rocks, blocks of ice, and trees—could surge off the mountain with little warning, if any. Over the past 5,000 years, dozens of such flows may have extended beyond the base of the mountain, and at least six have flowed down river valleys and reached the ocean.
Mt. Rainier is often called the most dangerous volcano in the United States, but not by Sisson. “I’ve never said that and I wouldn’t, because I don’t find it a very helpful thing to say. The reason people say so is not because it erupts so frequently but because so many people live around it.” Another cause for concern is the fact that much of Mt. Rainier’s rock is weak and crumbly. “Rainier, like most other volcanoes, supports what’s called a hydrothermal system,” Sisson explains. “The interior of the volcano is hot because magma has moved through it. Rain or snow falls and seeps into the interior. The complicating factor is that both magma and the rock it solidifies into contain sulfur. The sulfur gets leached out of rock or boils out of magma, is absorbed in the water, and makes the water acidic. That hot acidic water circulating through the volcano etches and weakens rock, turning it into clay.” However, Sisson notes, “the water doesn’t circulate uniformly.” In fact, the bulk of Mt. Rainier is unaffected by this hydrothermal activity, which is why the geologist objects to dramatic language comparing the mountain to a house being eaten by termites or stewing in its own juices. “Most of it is stable,” says Sisson firmly, adding, “for a volcano. Volcanoes are inherently unstable.” Mt. St. Helens, he points out, had little hydrothermal activity in the areas of rock that were blown out during the 1980 eruption.
Mt. Rainier’s last eruption, a small one, happened in 1884. The last major eruption took place about 1,100 years ago, and the one before that approximately 2,300 years ago. Until recently, the volcano was perceived as being old and near-dormant—but not any longer. What impresses Sisson the most about Mt. Rainier “is that it’s just cranking along the way it has for half a million years. There’s no indication that this volcano is dying out. So we can expect that this volcano is going to continue producing lava flows that go for a handful of miles, and pyroclastic flows that melt glaciers and produce volcanic mudflows, and there are going to be people living in those places. If we can warn them, then they’ll have a chance to evacuate. Otherwise,” he concludes, “many hundreds of people may lose their lives.”
More About This Resource...
This online article, from Earth: Inside and Out, provides insight into what scientists are learning about Mt. Rainier's volcanic past and future. It provides an overview of:
- The nature of Tom Sisson's work as a mountaineer and geologist with the Volcano Hazards Program at the U.S. Geological Survey, and the on-the-job hazards he faces.
- How Sisson is creating a three-dimensional map of Mt. Rainer and its complex and tumultuous past.
- The new evidence that shows that Rainer is much more active than scientists had previously thought.
- What we should expect from this active volcano in the future.
Less than 1 period
Supplement a study of geology with an activity drawn from this essay about the volcanic past and future of Mt. Rainier.
- Ask students if there are any active volcanoes in the continental U.S. that pose future risks.
- Send students to this online article, or print copies of the essay for them to read.
- Have them write a one-page reaction to the article, explaining what they've learned about Mt. Rainer. | <urn:uuid:9785a3cd-e412-4990-b7f2-863ec2b86ef4> | {
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SETAG, TEXAS. Setag was on the Waco, Beaumont, Trinity, and Sabine Railway 100 miles north of Houston in north central Polk County. In 1927 Julius Reinhardt leased a 347-acre tract to James T. Gates of Harris County for the purposes of mining and operating a silica plant. Apparently the site was named by reversing the spelling of the Harris County man's last name. In 1932 Reinhardt leased the tract to the Servtex Materials Company of New Braunfels. Although no community center exists, the sand and gravel operations are still marked on highway and geological survey maps.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Robert Wooster, "SETAG, TX," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hvs70), accessed September 01, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:1c5122fc-58f4-4db0-afcc-8c453f23a07b> | {
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The famous double moon on August 27 hoax has come through like gangbusters this August. No one expected that! This hoax is now 11 years old. Still, clearly, not everyone knows it’s a hoax. Google searches have made this post the most popular on our site for the past week. An email must be circulating – somewhere, social media must be buzzing – with the suggestion that – on August 27, 2014 – Mars will appear as large as a full moon in Earth’s sky. And that is just not true. Here’s a sample of what it typically says:
SEE MARS AS LARGE AS THE FULL MOON ON 27TH AUGUST 2014. Should be spectacular! Truly a once in a lifetime experience!
I saw a version of this a few years back that included a powerpoint presentation, suggesting that Mars and Earth’s moon will appear as a “double moon” in late August. I’ve also seen the photo below, circulating on Facebook.
It sounds amazing! Can it possibly be true?
No. It can’t. The email and photo are perpetuating a hoax that rears its crazy head every summer. The hoax has circulated every summer since 2003. Eleven years running! That’s a long time for a hoax to run, in our world of information.
Mars can never appear as large as a full moon as seen from Earth. The moon will not be full on August 27, 2014 (you might spot it briefly as a thin crescent in the west after sunset, though). And Mars will not be at its brightest or closest in August of 2014, or at any time in 2014. In 2014, Mars is closest to Earth on April 8, but it won’t be as close this year as in some years.
As seen from Earth, in months when Mars does appear side by side with a full moon (and, again, that’s not happening in August of 2014), Mars’ diameter is about 1/140th the diameter of the full moon.
You would have had to line up 140 planet Mars – side by side – to equal the moon’s diameter.
Ah, Mars. World of dreams and visions. Mars is the world orbiting one step outward from Earth’s orbit. This world is slightly smaller than Earth – but slightly larger than Earth’s moon. Mars is also much much farther away than Earth’s moon. It’s hard to comprehend what little specks the planets and moons are in contrast to the vastness of space, but let me put it this way. Earth’s moon is about a light-second away. Traveling at 186,000 miles per second, light bouncing from the moon’s surface takes about a second to reach us here on Earth. Meanwhile, light from Mars takes much much longer to reach Earth – from several minutes to about 20 minutes – with the difference being the result of Earth’s and Mars’ motions around the sun. In other words, when Mars is on the same side of the sun as Earth, its distance from us is less than when it’s on the far side of the sun from us.
The moon is much closer than Mars, and that’s why we see the moon as a bright disk in our sky. Meanwhile – to the eye – Mars never appears as anything but a starlike point.
So how did this rumor of Mars-as-big-and-bright-as-the-moon get started? It started with an actual (though much more subtle) event in 2003. On August 27 of that year, Earth and Mars came very slightly closer than they’d been in nearly 60,000 years. Our two worlds, center-to-center, were less than 35 million miles apart – just over three light-minutes apart. The last people to come so close to Mars were Neanderthals. Astronomy writers like me had a field day that year, talking about Mars at its closest. Was it a spectacular sight? Yes! It looked like a dot of flame in the night sky.
Was Mars as big and bright as the moon, even at its closest in 2003? Never.
But the legend continues …
Bottom line: Mars will not appear as large as the full moon on August 27, 2014. Mars will not ever appear as large as a full moon in Earth’s sky. The email – or social media – claims to the contrary are a hoax. | <urn:uuid:35eecadc-cc09-4750-b496-b332dc38e645> | {
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Experts say weather patterns don’t signal a repeat of a tough 2012, but warn that "surprises are normal" with forecasting.
The agriculture industry has tended to focus primarily on the Midwest during last year’s record-shattering drought, but this region wasn’t the only one adversely affected by the weather. The Cotton Belt dealt with its own set of problems in 2012, including pervasive hailstorms in the Southwest, Hurricane Isaac damage in the Mid-South and drought conditions scattered across most of the region.
"We were in severe, extreme or exceptional drought in many cotton production regions," says Gaylon Morgan, associate professor and cotton specialist for Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service.
Morgan gave a region-by-region recap of cotton production in 2012 at the Beltwide Cotton Conferences, held this week in San Antonio, Texas. Morgan’s colleague, Texas state climatologist John Nielsen-Gammon, took a look forward to see what weather may be in store for the Cotton Belt in 2013.
"We can only forecast the weather for a week or so before randomness takes over," Nielsen-Gammon laments. "We can tell which way the odds are being tilted, but it it’s really hard to be anything close to what we could call precise."
However, he adds that weather prediction has an ace up its sleeve — El Niño and La Niña oceanic patterns. These events can be predicted several months in advance.
It may seem counterintuitive, but sea surface temperatures thousands of miles away in both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans actually have a tremendous impact on U.S. weather patterns, he says.
"We’re in just the right latitude to be strongly affected by [El Niño and La Niña]," he says.
Both cotton and thunderstorms need some of the same basic ingredients to grow and thrive, Nielsen-Gammon says — namely heat and water. The primary difference, he explains, is that cotton stays in one place, while thunderstorms are all across the globe based on various sea surface temperature and atmospheric conditions. Unfortunately, current conditions in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans have been causing problems for cotton producers, Nielsen-Gammon says.
"Both oceans are effectively working against us right now," he says.
Predictions this fall of a weak El Niño pattern have since degraded into neutral conditions, which Nielsen-Gammon expects to continue through the beginning of summer. That equates to a tendency for slightly higher temperatures and slightly lower rainfall across the Cotton Belt this winter and spring. And as long as North Atlantic sea surface temperatures remain relatively warm, there will be a tendency for drier summers in the south-central and southeastern U.S.
Nielsen-Gammon likes the word "tendency" because he says cotton producers should ultimately prepare for any reasonable weather scenario. Weather prediction by its very nature is a notoriously fickle science.
"Surprises are natural," he says. "The weather has a mind of its own." | <urn:uuid:98f13781-81c5-4ca5-9212-9447f2d2fc00> | {
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If you're trying to lose weight, the amount of sleep you get may be just as important as your diet and exercise.
Unfortunately, many people aren't getting enough sleep. In fact, about 30% of adults are sleeping fewer than six hours most nights, according to a study of US adults (
Interestingly, mounting evidence shows that sleep may be the missing factor for many people who are struggling to lose weight. Here are seven reasons why getting enough sleep may help you lose weight.
Poor sleep has repeatedly been linked to a higher body mass index (BMI) and weight gain (
People's sleep requirements vary, but, generally speaking, research has observed changes in weight when people get fewer than seven hours of sleep a night (
A major review found that short sleep duration increased the likelihood of obesity by 89% in children and 55% in adults (
Another study followed about 60,000 non-obese nurses for 16 years. At the end of the study, the nurses who slept five or fewer hours per night were 15% more likely to be obese than those who slept at least seven hours a night (
While these studies were all observational, weight gain has also been seen in experimental sleep deprivation studies.
One study allowed 16 adults just five hours of sleep per night for five nights. They gained an average of 1.8 pounds (0.82 kg) over the short course of this study (
Additionally, many sleep disorders, like sleep apnea, are worsened by weight gain.
It's a vicious cycle that can be hard to escape. Poor sleep can cause weight gain, which can cause sleep quality to decrease even further (
Summary: Studies have found that poor sleep is associated with weight gain and a higher likelihood of obesity in both adults and children.
This is likely caused by the impact of sleep on two important hunger hormones, ghrelin and leptin.
Leptin is a hormone released from fat cells. It suppresses hunger and signals fullness in the brain (
When you do not get adequate sleep, the body makes more ghrelin and less leptin, leaving you hungry and increasing your appetite.
A study of over 1,000 people found that those who slept for short durations had 14.9% higher ghrelin levels and 15.5% lower leptin levels than those who got adequate sleep.
The short sleepers also had higher BMIs (
Summary: Poor sleep can increase appetite, likely due to its effect on hormones that signal hunger and fullness.
Lack of sleep actually alters the way your brain works. This may make it harder to make healthy choices and resist tempting foods (
Sleep deprivation will actually dull activity in the frontal lobe of the brain. The frontal lobe is in charge of decision-making and self-control (
In addition, it appears that the reward centers of the brain are more stimulated by food when you are sleep deprived (
Therefore, after a night of poor sleep, not only is that bowl of ice cream more rewarding, but you'll likely have a harder time practicing self-control.
A study of 12 men observed the effects of sleep deprivation on food intake.
When participants were only allowed four hours of sleep, their calorie intake increased by 22%, and their fat intake almost doubled, compared to when they were allowed eight hours of sleep (
Summary: Poor sleep can decrease your self-control and decision-making abilities and can increase the brain's reaction to food. Poor sleep has also been linked to increased intake of foods high in calories, fats and carbs.
People who get poor sleep tend to consume more calories.
A study of 12 men found that when participants were allowed only four hours of sleep, they ate an average of 559 more calories the following day, compared to when they were allowed eight hours (
This increase in calories may be due to increased appetite and poor food choices, as mentioned above.
However, it may also simply be from an increase in the time spent awake and available to eat. This is especially true when the time awake is spent being inactive, like watching television (14).
Furthermore, some studies on sleep deprivation have found that a large portion of the excess calories were consumed as snacks after dinner (
Poor sleep can also increase your calorie intake by affecting your ability to control your portion sizes.
This was demonstrated in a study on 16 men. Participants were either allowed to sleep for eight hours, or kept awake all night. In the morning, they completed a computer-based task where they had to select portion sizes of different foods.
The ones who stayed awake all night selected bigger portion sizes, reported they had increased hunger and had higher levels of the hunger hormone ghrelin (
Summary: Poor sleep can increase your calorie intake by increasing late-night snacking, portion sizes and the time available to eat.
Your resting metabolic rate (RMR) is the number of calories your body burns when you're completely at rest. It's affected by age, weight, height, sex and muscle mass.
Research indicates that sleep deprivation may lower your RMR (
In one study, 15 men were kept awake for 24 hours. Afterward, their RMR was 5% lower than after a normal night's rest, and their metabolic rate after eating was 20% lower (
It also seems that poor sleep can cause muscle loss. Muscle burns more calories at rest than fat does, so when muscle is lost, resting metabolic rates decrease.
One study put 10 overweight adults on a 14-day diet of moderate calorie restriction. Participants were allowed either 8.5 or 5.5 hours to sleep.
Both groups lost weight from both fat and muscle, but the ones who were given only 5.5 hours to sleep lost less weight from fat and more from muscle (
A 22-pound (10-kg) loss of muscle mass could lower your RMR by an estimated 100 calories per day (
Summary: Poor sleep may decrease your resting metabolic rate (RMR), although findings are mixed. One contributing factor seems to be that poor sleep may cause muscle loss.
A lack of sleep can cause daytime fatigue, making you less likely and less motivated to exercise.
In addition, you're more likely to get tired earlier during physical activity (
A study done on 15 men found that when participants were sleep-deprived, the amount and intensity of their physical activity decreased (22).
The good news is that getting more sleep may help improve your athletic performance.
In one study, college basketball players were asked to spend 10 hours in bed each night for five to seven weeks. They became faster, their reaction times improved, their accuracy increased and their fatigue levels decreased (
Summary: Lack of sleep may decrease your exercise motivation, quantity and intensity. Getting more sleep may even help improve performance.
Insulin is a hormone that moves sugar from the bloodstream into your body's cells to be used as energy.
When cells become insulin resistant, more sugar remains in the bloodstream and the body produces more insulin to compensate.
The excess insulin makes you hungrier and tells the body to store more calories as fat. Insulin resistance is a precursor for both type 2 diabetes and weight gain.
In one study, 11 men were allowed only four hours of sleep for six nights. After this, their bodies' ability to lower blood sugar levels decreased by 40% (25).
This suggests that only a few nights of poor sleep can cause cells to become insulin resistant.
Summary: Just a few days of poor sleep can cause insulin resistance that is a precursor to both weight gain and type 2 diabetes.
Along with eating right and exercising, getting quality sleep is an important part of weight maintenance.
Poor sleep dramatically alters the way the body responds to food.
For starters, your appetite increases and you are less likely to resist temptations and control portions.
To make matters worse, it can become a vicious cycle. The less you sleep, the more weight you gain, and the more weight you gain, the harder it is to sleep.
On the flip side, establishing healthy sleep habits can help your body maintain a healthy weight. | <urn:uuid:615cbae0-821a-4cf8-ac3e-da6afa1df074> | {
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Pagan Christs, by John M. Robertson, , at sacred-texts.com
One concrete feature in the crucifixion myth remains to be accounted forthe scourging. Mr. Lang presses this feature of the Sacæa as an argument against the view that the victim died as representing a God. 1 In reality, the assumption that sacrificed victims were never scourged is no better founded than the assertion that they were never hanged. The human victims in several Asiatic Greek rites were whipped before being sacrificed. 2 Scourging, besides, actually took the place of human sacrifice, by tradition, in certain Greek cults; the scourging (which at times was fatal) being accepted as a sacrificial act. 3 The deity specially connected with such acts of scourging was Artemis, concerning the Asiatic savageries of whose cultus we have the disgusted testimony of Plutarch; 4 and it is noteworthy that the Rhodian victim had been slain near the temple of Aristobula 5a name of Artemis, 6 who is thus in late as in early times connected with human sacrifice. 7 It is therefore not unlikely that, when the Rhodian rite was modified, scourging was substituted as a means of obtaining at least the sacrifice of blood; and when the rite reached the stage of a mystery-drama, that detail would naturally be preserved.
It is to be remembered, however, that the original principle of such scourging may be independent of any act of substitution. It is partly indicated in the Khond doctrine in connection with the rite of slow burningthat the more tears the victim shed the more abundant would be the rain. Here indeed there is a plain conflict between two sacrificial principles, that of the symbolism of the victim's acts and that of his willingness. But both principles are known to have existed, some of the Khonds and the Aztecs attaching importance to the tears shed by the victims, while the Carthaginians sought to drown the cries of their children, and the mothers were forbidden to weep. 1 In the case of the original human sacrifice on the Jewish Day of Atonement, as we have seen,' 2 there was a ritual act of weeping, and perhaps one of scourging; and we have no ground for doubting that scourging could take place.
But there was a ritual need for blood as well as tears. It is noted that in the human sacrifices of Polynesia the victims were rarely much mutilated, but were always made to bleed much; 3 and a perfect obsession of blood pervades the whole Judaic religion, down to the end of the New Testament. In the "hanging unto the Lord" of the sons of Saul, indeed, there was ostensibly no bloodshed; but Joshua is declared to have "smitten" the five kings before he hanged them. The "sin-offering" too was one of blood; and a blood sacrifice was the normal one in all nations. 4 Scourging would yield the blood without making the victim incapable of enduring the hanging or crucifixion; and in the gospel record that the doomed God sweated as it were drops of blood 5 we may have a further concession to the idea. Finally, there is the possibility that, as in the case of the victims in the Asiatic Thargelia and other festivals, who were ceremonially whipped before being put to death, the scourging belonged to the conception of the scapegoat, who thus as well as by banishment bore the people's sins. 6
In these various ways, then, we can comprehend the gradual evolution of a ritual with which could be associated on the one hand a belief in a national deliverer, and on the other hand a general doctrine of salvation and immortality. The idea of the resurrection of the slain God is extremely ancient: we have it in the myths of Osiris and of the descent of Ishtar into Hades to rescue Tammuz;
and in the Syro-Greek form of the cult, the resurrection of Adonis was a chief feature of the great annual ritual. So with the other cults already mentioned. From the God, the concept of resurrection was extended to the worshippers, this long before the Christian era. It needed only that the doctrines of divine sacrifice, resurrection, and salvation, temporal or eternal, should be thus blended in a mystery ritual with the institution of a eucharist or holy sacrament, to constitute the foundation of the religion of Jesus the Christ as we have it in the gospels.
That a mystery-drama actually existed, and was the basis of the gospel narrative, will be shown in the next section. But in passing it may be well to note that certain features of the crucifixion myth, though fairly explicable on the lines above sketched, may be due to contemporary analogies from other rites or from actual occurrences. The posture of the victim in the traditional crucifix, which we shall see some reason for ascribing to a ritual in which the worshipper embraces a cross, may on the other hand derive from the Perso-Scythian usage of slaying a "messenger" to the God, flaying him, and stuffing his skin with the arms outstretched. 1 This sacrifice, indeed, has obvious analogies to that of the "ambassador" in the old Jewish rite above traced; 2 and in both cases the idea of the cross-form may derive from the fact that in the gesture-language and picture-writing of savages, which are probably primeval, that is the recognised attitude and symbol of the ambassador or "go-between." 3 Or the cross-form may connect with some other principle involved in the Semitic representation of the Sun-God with arms outstretched, 4 which probably underlies the myth of the outstretching of the arms of Moses. 5 On the whole, seeing that the Phnician symbol of a figure with outstretched arms is found to derive historically from the Egyptian crux ansata, 6 which was certainly an emblem of salvation, 7 we are entitled to conclude that from time immemorial the posture of the cross had had a religious significance, partly of expiation, partly of beneficence, and that this general significance surrounded the Christian myth.
Yet again, the repetition of the offer of a drink to the victim, or the mention of gall in that connection, might be motived by the example of the mysteries of Dêmêtêr, in which there figured a drink of gall. 1 Whatever were the original meaning of that detail, it might be added to that of a narcotic used as above explained. It has been elsewhere shown, too, that such a detail as the crown of thorns might conceivably stand for the nimbus of the Sun-God, or for the crown placed upon the heads of sacrificial victims in general, 2 or for the crown which was worn by human victims in such a sacrificial procession as is to be inferred from Herodotus story of Herakles in Egypt, or for the actual crowns of thorns which were in vogue for religious purposes in the district of Abydos, or for some other ritual practice which is sought to be explained by the myth of the mock-crown of Herakles 3 No limit can well be set to the possibility of such analogies from pagan religious practice.
Actual or alleged history, too, may have given rise to some details in a mystery-ritual such as we are considering. In the gospel story as it now stands, though not as an original and dramatic detail in it, we find one remarkable coincidence with a passage in Josephus. The historian tells 4 that during the Passover feast, while Jerusalem was being besieged, "the eastern gate of the inner sanctuary, which was of brass and very solid, which in the evening was with difficulty shut by twenty men, and which was supported by iron-bound bars and posts reaching far down, let into the floor of solid stone, was seen about the sixth hour of the night to have
opened of its own accord"; and that this was felt by the wise to be an omen of ruin. In the synoptics it is told that after the robbers taunted Jesus, "from the sixth hour darkness was over the land till the ninth hour," whereupon Jesus uttered his cry of Eli, Eli, and immediately afterwards, "having again cried with a loud voice, gave up his spirit. And lo, the veil of the temple was rent in two from top to bottom." The three hours of darkness, it would appear, are alleged in order to give time for the passover meal, by way of assimilating the synoptic account to the Johannine. In the second gospelin an apparently interpolated passageJesus is crucified at "the third hour": in the fourth, "it was Preparation of the Passover: it was about the sixth hour" when Jesus is sent to be crucified; and on that view his death would be consummated when the Passover sacrament wasthe gospel, however, giving no further details. The space of silent suffering in the synoptics, from the sixth hour to the ninth, makes the stories finally correspond as to the hours, though not as to the day. In the third gospel, however, the reading is confused by the placing of the sentence: "And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst," after the mention of the three hours darkness and before the Lord's death. Thus, while the actual time of the veil-rending is loft in the vague, the passage can be read as saying that the veil was rent when the darkness began, at the sixth hour.
In any case, whether or not the darkness of three hours is a late modification of the synoptic text (on which view the death may be held to have been originally placed at the sixth hour, and the rending of the temple veil at the same moment), the story in Josephus is extremely likely to have been the motive of the veil-rending myth in the gospels. It actually did lead to the insertion of a gloss in an early textperhaps originally Syriacof the third gospel, where the stone placed at the mouth of the Lord's tomb is alleged to be such that twenty men could hardly roll it away; and in the existing old Syriac texts, significantly enough, it is the "front of the gate" of the sanctuary or temple that is rent in the gospel storynot the veil. 1 And the parallel does not end here. The story of the rising of the saints, so awkwardly interpolated in the first gospel and in that only, is no less clearly an adaptation of the story of Josephus, in the same passage, to the effect that at the feast of Pentecost the priests when serving by night in the inner temple felt a quaking,
and heard a great noise, and then a sound as of a multitude saying: "Let us remove hence." The whole series of portents in Josephus, as it happens, winds up with the story of Jesus the son of Ananus, who had so long "with a loud voice" cried "Woe to Jerusalem," and at last was slain by a stone from an engine, crying "Woe to myself also" as he gave up the ghost.
In view of such a remarkable suggestion to the early Jesuists, it seems unnecessary even to ask whether the myth of the veil-rending may be a variant popularly current at the same time with those given by Josephus. In all likelihood the interpolators of the Greek gospel modified both episodes in order either to escape contradiction or to make them more suitable symbolically. 1 That they were interpolated after the transcription of the mystery-play we shall see when we consider that as such; but for the present we have to recognise that if the transcribed narrative could be thus influenced, the play itself might be.
The scourging and crucifixion of Antigonus, again, must have made a profound impression on the Jews; 2 and it is a historic fact that the similar slaying of the last of the Incas was kept in memory for the Peruvians by a drama annually acted. 3 It may be that the superscription "This is the King of the Jews," and even the detail of scourging, 4 came proximately from the story of Antigonus; though on the other hand it is not unlikely that Antony should have executed Antigonus on the lines of the sacrifice of the mock-king. But it is noteworthy that where the existing mystery-drama, which was doubtless a Gentile development from a much simpler form, introduces historical characters, it does so on the clear lines of sacrificial principle set forth in the ritual of the Khonds, where already the symbol of the cross is prominent in the fashion of slaying the victim. Though the Gentile hostility to the Jews 5 would dictate the special implication of the Jewish priests and people, and of King Herod as in the third gospel, the total effect is to make it clear that the guilt of the sacrifice rests on no one official, but is finally taken by the whole people upon them. Even the quotation put in the mouth of the dying God-Man, "My God, My God, why hast thou forsaken me?" 6 has the effect of implying that he had hitherto suffered voluntarily. Thus does the ritual which was to grow into a world religion preserve in its consummated quasi-historical form the primeval
principle that "one man should die for the people" by the people's will; and, as we have seen, not even in extending the benefit of the sacrifice to "all mankind" does the great historic religion outgo the religious psychology of the ancient Dravidians.
When this is realised it will be seen to be unnecessary to suppose that any abnormal personality had arisen to give the cult its form or impetus. In view, however, of the story fortuitously preserved in the Talmud, that one Jesus ben Pandira was stoned and hanged on a tree at Lydda on the eve of the Passover in the reign of Alexander Jannæus about 100 B.C., 1 we are not entitled to say that a real act of sacerdotal vengeance did not enter into the making of the movement. The evidence is obscure; and the personality of the hanged Jesus, who is said to have been a sorcerer and a false teacher, becomes elusive and quasi-mythical even in the Talmud; but even such evidence gives better ground for a historical assumption than the supernaturalist narrative of the gospels. 2 In any case, there is no reason to ascribe any special doctrinal teaching whatever to Jesus ben Pandira. He remains but a name, with a mention of his death by "hanging on a tree," a quasi-sacrifice, at the time of the sacrificial rite which had anciently been one of man-slaying and child-slaying. Leaving the case on that side undetermined, we turn to a problem which admits of solution.
188:1 Magic and Religion, p. 131.
188:2 Frazer, G. B. ii, 126-7.
188:3 The bloody scourging of young Spartans at the altar of Artemis (Pausinias, iii, 16; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius, vi, 20; Cicero, Tusculans, ii, 14; Lucian, De Gymnast. c 38; Plutarch, Lycurgus, c. 17) is one of the best known cases. As to the principle of human sacrifice behind the scourging cp. K. O. Müller, Dorians, B. ii, c. ix, § 6. Cicero and Lucian tell of the occasional fatal results. In Mexico, finally, the Tlascalans in one festival fixed a victim to a low cross and killed him by bastinado. Clavigero, Hist. of Mexico, Eng. tr. 1807, vi, § 20 (1, 283).
188:4 De Superstitione, 10.
188:5 Porphyry, as cited.
188:6 The title of "good counsel" suggests the better side of the Goddess, yet we find that the temple built by Themistokles to Aristobula at Melite was "at the place where at the present day the public executioner casts out the bodies of executed criminals and the clothes and ropes of men who have hanged themselves." Plutarch, Themistokles, 22.
188:7 Herodotus, iv, 103.
189:1 Plutarch, De Superstitione, 13.
189:2 Above, p. 159.
189:3 Moerenhout, Voyage aux Iles du Grand Ocean, i, 508.
189:4 Cp. Kalisch, Comm. on Leviticus, i, 341-3.
189:5 On this cp. Christianity and Mythology, 2nd ed. p. 362.
189:6 Cp. Dr. Frazer's view (iii, 122-7) that the scourging was supposed to expel evil influences from the victim. Prof. Murray (Rise of the Greek Epic, pp. 13-14, and App. A) argues that there is no evidence for actual slaying in historic times.
190:1 Below, ch. ii, § 14.
190:2 Above, pp. 159-60.
190:3 I have before me an extracted magazine article, undated, in which the symbol is reproduced and so explained.
190:4 See the figures reproduced by Gesenius, Script. Ling. Phn. Monumenta, 1837, Pt. III, Tabb. 21, 24 (inscriptions translated i, 197, 211), and in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, III, Pt. iii, pl. 23. Cp. Peitschmann, Geschichte der Phönizier, 1889, pp. 205, 214. One is that of Baal Ammon, with arms outstretched, holding in his hand the holy tree.
190:5 Exod. xvii, 11-12.
190:6 Meyer, art. Phnicia, in Encyc. Biblica, iii, 3739; Geschichte des Alterthums, i, 242.
190:7 It had further the hieroglyphic force of "good," and was at the same time a name of Osiris"Onofri"which survives in that of the Christian saint Onophrius, constructed out of the God. Cp. Champollion, Précis die système hiéroglyphique, 1821, Tab. gén. figg. 441-2: expl. p. 44; Sharpe, Egypt. Mythol. pp. 53-4; Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. i, 30; Tiele, Egypt. Rel. pp. 42, 44, note.
191:1 Such symbolical explanations may in certain cases be substituted for those offered by Dr. Frazer, whose Virgilian "golden bough," to start with, is shown by Mr. Lang to be very imperfectly identified with the bough of the tree in the Arician grove. Mr. Lang, who is apt to be severe on loose conjectures, for his own part "hazards a guess" that "of old, suppliants approached gods or kings with boughs in their hands," and that the Virgilian bough is such a propitiation to Persephonê (Magic and Religion, pp. 207-8). Though the "gold" might plausibly be thus explained, it does not follow that the wool-wreathed boughs of suppliant groups, which played the part of our white flags (Æschylus, Supplices, 22-3, 190-2, etc.), were normally used in approaching kings, or all Gods. In Polynesia boughs were indeed presented to certain Gods (Ellis, i, 343), and were carried before chiefs, serving also as peace symbols or "white flags" (Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia, 1861, p. 314). But, on the other hand, boughs in the ancient world had a special connection with Gods and Goddesses of vegetation (Cp. Grant Allen, Evol. of Idea of God, p. 384), who were first and last Gods of the Underworld (Cp. Æsch. Supplices, 154-161). It was doubtless in this connection that a branch became in Egypt a symbol of time and of eternity (Tiele, Eg. Rel., p. 154). The explanation of the Virgilian bough, then, probably lies in that direction. It is not known." says Mr. Lang, "whether Virgil invented his bough, or took it from his rich store of antiquarian learning" (Id. p. 207). It is extremely unlikely that he should have invented it. But he might very well know that in one of the paintings of Polygnotus at Delphi (Pausanias, x, 30) Orpheus is represented as touching with his hand a branch of the willow-tree, which in Homer (Odyssey, x, 509-510) grows with the poplar in the grove of Persephonê. Orpheus had been in Hades and returned. May not the bough then have had this general symbolical significance, and hence figure as a passport to the underworld?
191:2 Even the Cimbri, whose priestesses cut the throats of their devoted human victims, crowned them beforehand (Strabo, vii, 2, § 3). Similarly the North American Indians. Lafitau, ii, 266.
191:3 Christianity and Mythology, 2nd ed. pp. 365-6. See also pp. 364, 369 sq., as to the clues for the cross-motive.
191:4 Wars, B. vi, c. v, § 3.
192:1 Dr. F. H. Chase, The Syro-Latin Text of the Gospels, 1895, pp. 82-67, 95. Jerome, again, tells that in the Gospel according to the Hebrews it is not the veil of the temple that is rent, but the lintel stone that falls. Comm. in Matt. xxvii, 51; Ad Hedyb. viii.
193:1 On either view, it remains arguable that the Syriac Gospels here represent an earlier text than the present Greek.
193:2 Cp. Strabo, in Josephus, Antiq. xv, 1, § 2.
193:3 Below, Part IV, § 9.
193:4 See above, p. 117, as to the scourgings mentioned by Josephus.
193:5 Cp. Christianity and Mythology, 2nd ed. p. 354.
193:6 Psalm xxii, 1.
194:1 Christianity and Mythology, 2nd ed. pp. 363-4.
194:2 Dr. J. E. Carpenter (First Three Gospels, 3rd ed. p. 312) indignantly cites this proposition with the remark that it erects one passage of the Talmud "into an authority before which the gospels must vanish." Such language hides the issue. Historically, the supernaturalist narrative of the gospels has no authority for critical science. Professor Schmiedel reduces their scientific authority to nine texts, which, however, will not meet the tests he admits to be applicable. See App. to Christianity and Mythology, 2nd ed. Dr. Carpenter appears to wish to suggest that I take any Talmudic story as a disproof of any analogous story in the gospelsa complete misrepresentation. The gospel stories are historically unacceptable apart from any Talmudic evidence. | <urn:uuid:aaa8ee94-4df8-4cc4-ab6a-c9609d173a50> | {
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Proudly Made in the USA American Flags around Ridott IL 61067
A national icon that goes by the names “The Stars and Stripes”, “Old Glory”, and “The Star-Spangled Banner”, the American flag is just one of the very well-known symbols in the world today. This is mostly because of the condition of the United States as one of the most significant countries in history. The American Flag is the third oldest of the National Standards of the globe – older than the Union Jack of Britain or the Tricolor of France. It is distinct in the deep and also noble value of its message to the entire globe. It represents a message of nationwide independence, of individual liberty, of idealism, and also of nationalism.
Who created the American Flag?
According to popular stories, the very first American flag was made by Betsy Ross, a Philadelphia seamstress who was acquainted with George Washington. In May 1776, so the tale goes, General Washington as well as 2 people from the Continental Congress visited Ross at her furniture shop and also revealed to her a rough design of the flag.
In those days, the flag was not the exact same as we understand it today. The act stated, “Resolved, that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternating red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue area, representing a new constellation.”
Just what does the American Flag stand for?
The flag first rose over thirteen states along the Atlantic coast, with a population of some three million people. Today it flies over fifty states, expanding throughout the continent, and over great islands of both seas; and also hundreds owe it allegiance. It has actually been given this pleased position by love and sacrifice. Citizens have actually advanced it as well as heroes have died for it.
The flag contains 13 alternate red as well as white horizontal stripes standing for the initial thirteen British colonies that declared self-reliance from the Kingdom of Great Britain, as well as became the very first states in the United States. A blue rectangular shape in the canton bears 50 little, white stars standing for each state. The stars are set up in 9 horizontal rows offset of each other. This blue area of the flag is called the Union.
The importance of the Flag, as quoted from Washington: “We take the stars from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white red stripes, therefore showing that we have divided from her, and also the white red stripes shall go down to posterity standing for Liberty.”
It incarnates for all humanity the spirit of freedom and also the wonderful ideal of human freedom; not the freedom of unrestraint or the freedom of license, yet a special principle of equal opportunity for life, freedom and also the quest of happiness, protected by the demanding as well as lofty concepts of responsibility, of sanctity and of justice, and attainable by obedience to self-imposed laws.
It embodies the essence of patriotism. Its spirit is the spirit of the American country. Its background is the history of the American people. Laid out upon its folds in letters of living light are the names and also fame of our brave dead, the Fathers of the Republic that dedicated upon its altars their lives, their riches as well as their spiritual honor. Twice told tales of nationwide honor and also glory collection thickly regarding it. Ever before successful, it has emerged triumphant from 8 excellent national problems. It flew at Saratog, at Yorktown, at Palo Alto, at Gettysburg, at Manila bay, at Chateau-Thierry, at Iwo Jima. It bears witness to the immense growth of our nationwide borders, the advancement of our natural deposits, and the remarkable framework of our civilization. It prophesises the triumph of preferred federal government, of civic and also spiritual liberty and also of nationwide morality throughout the globe.
Why is the American Flag important to American culture?
The American flag is crucial due to the fact that it represents the independent federal government as defined under the United States Constitution. Add to that, it likewise represents the history, ideas and values of its residents. As a democratic nation, its people adhere to necessary values such as liberty, justice and also equal rights. Furthermore, the flag likewise represents the various achievements of the country along with the satisfaction of its people.
This national icon reminds people, not only in the state of IL, but throughout the entire USA concerning the various important aspects of the Declaration of Independence. It is not just a simple icon, which represents the liberty and legal rights of Americans. Drifting from the soaring peak of American idealism, it is a sign of withstanding hope.
It is the sign made visible of the solid spirit that has actually brought liberty as well as prosperity to individuals of America. It is the flag of all us alike. Let us accord it recognize and loyalty.
Where can I buy American Flags?
You most likely currently noticed this, yet there are a lot of locations where you could obtain American flags. It is vital to keep in mind that the flag you’re about to purchase need to be “Made in USA. There are multiple vendors whose flags are classified as made in China, and also flying a China-made American flag simply does not make much sense now, does it?
Based on data, Americans spend over 5.3 million US dollars on imported flags every year – a lot of which are made in China. Possibly a lot more disturbing is that throughout 2001, in the wave of nationalism that washed over America after 9/11, Americans bought $52 million USD in imported flags. The flag should symbolize the blood, sweat, and tears of American people who brought this nation right into existence, not our debt to China as well as the death of the American production sector.
The flag symbolizes nationwide independence and also prominent sovereignty. It is not the flag of a ruling household or royal house, but of the millions free individuals welded into a nation, one and inseparable, united not just by community of interest, yet by important unity of sentiment as well as purpose; a country identified for the clear individual perception of its people alike of their duties and also their advantages, their commitments and their civil liberties.
So have a little pride, invest a few more money, as well as purchase an American flag made by Americans in the USA.
Ridott ZIP codes we serve: 61067 | <urn:uuid:240a69ad-00ac-49ef-b3c1-1be203e1de4b> | {
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|Osage Orange Tree – Maclura pomifera|
Mulberry Family: Moraceae
Osage Orange heartwood is
decay-resistant and impervious to termites.
Osage-orange produces no sawtimber, pulpwood, or utility poles, but it has been planted in greater numbers than almost any other tree species in North America. Known also as hedge, hedge-apple, bodark, bois-d'arc, bowwood, and naranjo chino, it made agricultural settlement of the prairies possible (though not profitable), led directly to the invention of barbed wire, and then provided most of the posts for the wire that fenced the West. The heartwood, bark, and roots contain many extractives of actual and potential value in food processing, pesticide manufacturing, and dye making. Osage-orange is used in landscape design, being picturesque rather than beautiful, and possessing strong form, texture, and character.
The natural range of Osage-orange is in the Red River drainage of Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas; and in the Blackland Prairies, Post Oak Savannas, and Chisos Mountains of Texas. According to some authors the original range included most of eastern Oklahoma, portions of Missouri, and perhaps northwestern Louisiana. Osage-orange has been planted as a hedge in all the 48 contiguous States and in southeastern Canada. The commercial range includes most of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, south of the Platte River and the Great Lakes, excluding the Appalachian Mountains.
Those wicked thorns kept the cows out of the apple orchard all right.
Although Osage-orange is one of the healthiest tree species in North America, it is attacked by some parasites. Cotton root rot, caused by Phymatotrichum omnivorum, attacks Osage-orange and most other windbreak species in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arizona (59). Losses are greatest in plantings on dry soil where rainfall is scant. Cotton root rot is the only serious disease.
Osage-orange trees are attacked by at least four stem borers: the mulberry borers (Doraschema wildii and D. titleernatum), the painted hickory borer (Megacyllene caryae), and the red shouldered hickory borer (Xylobiops basilaris).
The female flower in ripening becomes very fleshy, forming a large multiple fruit or syncarp composed of 1-seeded drupelets. The fruit ripens from September through October. The ripe fruit, 7.6 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in) in diameter, yellowish-green, resembles an orange, often weighing more than a kilogram (2.2 lb). When bruised, the fruit exudes a bitter milky juice which may cause a skin rash and which will blacken the fruit on drying. Female trees often produce abundant fruit when no male trees exist nearby, but such fruit contains no seeds.
The outer layer of sapwood is very thin; consequently, even small-diameter stems give long service as stakes and posts (40,43). About 3 million posts were sold annually in Kansas during the early 1970's. The branch wood was used by the Osage Indians for making bows and is still recommended by some archers today. The chemical properties of the fruit, seed, roots, bark, and wood may be more important than the structural qualities of the wood. A number of extractives have been identified by researchers, but they have not yet been employed by industry.
Numerous organic compounds have also been obtained from various parts of the tree. An antifungal agent and a nontoxic antibiotic useful as a food preservative have been extracted from the heartwood. Osage-orange in prairie regions provides valuable cover and nesting sites for quail, pheasant, other birds, and animals, but the bitter-tasting fruit is little eaten by wildlife. Reports that fruit causes the death of livestock have been proven wrong by feeding experiments in several States.
1. J.D. Burton, USDA Forest Service Silvic Manual, Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid.
2. NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY, National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees
3. Flora of China, Maclura tricuspidata
|Tree Encyclopedia / North American Insects & Spiders is dedicated to providing scientific and educational resources for our users through use of large images and macro photographs of flora and fauna.|
Mulberry Family: Moraceae consists of flowering trees, shrubs, herbs or lianas (vines), both evergreen and deciduous; mainly woody and tropical, they are most abundant in Asia. Moraceae includes both self-supporting and epiphytic (plants that use an immobile object such as another plant, or a building to support their structure) vines. The largest genus is Ficus, with about 750 species of figs. | <urn:uuid:424e1705-a54f-489f-991f-c822f3f52738> | {
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There are many great FOSS projects that utilise old PC hardware and give it a new lease of life. The best is desktop computing with various Linux distribution flavours like Mint, PCLinux, Ubuntu and countless others. In fact it is my considered belief that the best hardware to run Linux on is infact (almost) any machine that is at least 12 months old. It is possible, of course, to select components based on the degree (and maturity) of the specific support under Linux but this has two major drawbacks.
The first is the most frustrating; some categories of hardware have poor levels of Linux support. For example, most LAN cards are now supported natively but that is certainly not the case for wireless (wifi) equipment, particularly for some Broadcom and Atheros chipsets. Graphics cards are another great example of hardware that you have to be careful with. The best, bleeding edge graphics cards will likely not be fully supported under Linux due to the low frequency of binary driver updates from the manufacturers.
The second relates to notebooks / laptops. Whilst with PCs it is fairly easy to pick components which have good Linux support, laptops generally have proprietary or non F/OSS friendly chipsets which require tweaks or work arounds to get working. The issue is, the vast majority of the F/OSS / Linux userbase require the help of others in order to help them with the tweaks and work-arounds. Most people are not comfortable (or proficient) tweaking / compiling kernels as well as ACPI modules (or any one of the number of different patches required.)
Where Linux absolutely excels in my opinion is in embedded systems. By this I mean very low power devices or old computers which can be used headlessly for a variety of applications. Most people do not even realise they are running Linux at home in their router / modem, Freeview / Satellite settop boxes, Print / Media servers / MP3 players etc etc, the list goes on. Due to the GPL license requiring companies to release the source code of the software the produce, a few projects sprung up e.g. OpenWRT / WRT54G (followed by other organically grown projects) to modify such components. The philosophy behind these projects varied, but the common reason was normally to remove limitations and to improve / extend functionality.
Not only do such projects look to modify embedded Linux devices, but some great projects have sprung up to utilise old PCs every household seems to accumulate in order to fulfil a number of key uses. For example, comprehensive firewall distributions like IPCop or Smoothwall or NAS distributions like FreeNAS (although this is based on BSD.) These are not dirty hacked operating systems either but very mature, streamlined, low memory footprint distributions which run headlessly. Being totally administered through a web browser makes these distributions feel extremely professional and polished (even if the archaic hardware they are running on doesn’t) this being coupled by the extraordinary amount of options present really makes these projects an extraordinary example of the flexibility of Linux/BSD.
I had played around with smoothwall before when I became interested in hardware firewalls, but after some tweaking I decided not to run it. Recently I was intrigued enough by IPCop (which started life as a fork of Smoothwall) to give it a go. I was immediately impressed by the degree of customisation and the number of configuration options which make a low powered computer suitable for use on a home network right the way upto a small/medium office network. The best way I can demonstrate IPCop is by reproducing an illustration from their Documentation describing a typical setup scenario.
Being able to completely separate the Green (protected local computers and servers) Orange (Promiscuous servers open to incoming connections from the internet) and Blue (Wifi / Wireless networks) allows for some incredible flexibility. There is a downside which I will discuss later.
I have been hunting recently for an inexpensive, two disk Network Attached Storage (NAS) system. I have found that such a thing does not exist (at least in the UK Market) and whilst there are plenty one disk NAS systems, they have limited options and security but above all, being one disk systems would not be able to support RAID. There are a few types of RAID systems (which I won’t go into) but I will explain why I wanted a NAS with RAID. The RAID in question is referred to as RAID 1 (Mirroring) – what this means, is that any data one harddrive is automatically copied bit for bit to the second harddrive. Whilst this is not how the actually system works, it means that one harddrive can fail (unlikely) and the data will still be intact. When talking about pictures of friends and family as well as critical documents, I do not like to risk storing it on a single harddrive – I had one fail on me a little while back which cost me almost a year of pictures and data. The few solutions available on the market would cost around £220 for a dual SATA NAS enclosure and two good quality harddisk drives. (How I decided on these and what to look for in a Harddrive is beyond the scope of this post.)
On that basis, I considered the cost to me of setting up a software RAID using an old computer. Provided you have an old computer with at least 96Mb of RAM the only expense is the harddrives which scales based on the amount of protected storage you wish to have (e.g. 80Gb – 1Tb.) It is important to note however, that since two harddrives are being used to store the same data, you will only have the formatted capacity of one harddrive not two. Once installed and up and running, FreeNAS silently provides free and fast access to your data whilst allowing a huge amount of flexibility with regards to how that data is served. Not only does it natively support SAMBA (or SMB/CFS used by Windows), NFS (Unix implementation) as well as FTP and others. The FTP interface is so advanced you can explicitly specify which files / folders are shared and what permissions users have. This allows you to access, add / change and remove files remotely allowing you free access from wherever you are in the world. The cost of reusing and old system coupled with the cost of two IDE harddisks is a lot less than a NAS enclosure I taked about in the previous paragraph.
The Caveat : Power consumption
With more and more emphasis on global warming, I am getting more and more conscientious about my personal power consumption. Normally I would not be too concerned, but given the number of systems I run (sometimes for 12+ hours a day each) I am less than willing to introduce boxes which would be on for 24 hours. Whilst there are a variety of options in the distributions mentioned above to auto shutdown at prespecified times, it negates their usefulness if I have to remember to switch them on. What if, for example I am away for a few days and want to access my data or have my Media center (running MediaPortal) record something – since I shut all my equiptment down every night (I used to run it through the night running Folding at Home) I would physically have to switch it all on every morning. This obviously is not something I would be able to do remotely.
Whilst power consumption has dropped recently with the low power Core 2 Duo processors (originally based on a low power laptop processor design from Israel – Pentium M) and power saving built into hardware like AMD’s PowerNow!, do not forget that the majority of the hardware running will not have these power saving features. It will instead be based on very obsolete fabrication (fabrication scale decreases over time allowing for better power consumption and higher clock frequencies) scales which are extremely inefficient by todays standards.
Projects that modify firmware of existing low power systems (like the WRT54g router) are of course exempt from this as they draw only a few tens of Watts per hour compared to the few hundred normal PCs use even when idle. It is a shame that such systems (or equivalent running Via C7 or AMD Geode processors) are not cheap to build as they would provide all the computing horse-power required at a fraction of the power requirement.
So, I hope this has enlightened you to some of the amazing things one can do with an old system and Linux/BSD, just be aware that although there may not be high equipment costs, over a few months the running costs will start to add up. Unless you are running an archaic system (Circa 1995) you should consider building (or buying a antique on ebay) a low power system.
UPDATE: Due to the amount of attention this post has recieved, I am in the process of writing two follow up posts going into further detail on some of the points raised here. Bookmark me or subscribe and check back later :) | <urn:uuid:0a66eccc-2d63-4fa6-84d3-ce21306bfb12> | {
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it’s difficult to make sense of all of the medical and health
information we hear about on the news, on the web, in magazines
and at the water cooler in the office. Not only can this information
be startling, it also tends to be contradictory. If you feel like
you hear about so many different conclusions on the same topic
from all sorts of “scientific studies,” you’re
realizing the true nature of science. Although some things are
known for sure,
other pieces of scientific data are unproven, and only suggested
by correlation from certain studies. That’s why you might
hear that eggs are good for you one day and the next day you’ll
be advised by another health professional to avoid eggs. It’s
okay to feel overwhelmed by this information. But in order to let
education and research work for you, you should also be aware of
how to interpret the data.
The major culprit for unofficial health
information is the world-wide web. Some helpful tips for surfing the
web for health information include:
- Look for the entity that runs the site. The site’s
sponsor should be easy to find, and the material should be reviewed by medical professionals.
for the site’s purpose. Some websites will try to
push a service or a medication on readers, and this can affect
and the subjectivity of the information you find.
- Make sure the
information is current. Many studies and statistics might date
back a few years, before technological advances or
medical discoveries took place.
- Look critically at all health information, especially
the headlines you read in the news. Terms like “may” or “thought
to be” are often brushed over in headlines that are targeted
to draw you to watch a news program or buy a magazine.
best to find your health information in hospital-sponsored medical
websites or scientific journals and reviews that publish
information reviewed by experienced healthcare professionals. | <urn:uuid:d726a8e0-957b-4a53-bf36-3df3731fec22> | {
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After Buddhism was officially recognized in 527, the fourteenth year of King Beopheung’s reign, the Buddhist faith spread rapidly throughout Silla society, from the king to his subjects. Such rapid dissemination led to the construction of numerous temples throughout Gyeongju.
This roof-end tile is vividly decorated by a face with round cheeks, a prominent nose, slightly protruding eyes, and a plump mouth curled up in an innocent smile. The face was likely meant to repel evil spirits. The tile was reportedly first excavated from Yeongmyosa Temple Site during the Japanese Colonial Period, and it was kept for many years by a Japanese man named Danaka Toshinobu until he donated it to the Gyeongju National Museum in October 1972. The wide rims along the edges, the high-temperature firing technique, and the full volume of the face have led experts to estimate that it originated during the Three Kingdoms Period.
This cuboid stone monument, known as the Monument to the Martyrdom of Yi Cha-don or the “Pillar for Yi Cha-don,” was moved to the museum from Baengnyulsa Temple, Gyeongju. It is thought to have been built in the 10th year of King Heondeok’s reign (818 CE), 290 years after Yi’s death. The monument has six sides, one of which memorably depicts the death scene: the ground shakes, and the world is showered with flower petals as a fountain of blood pours from Yi’s severed neck. These details were rendered in a simplistic manner onto a relatively small space. The five other faces of the monument were divided into a grid and inscribed with characters measuring approximately 3cm in height. Due to serious damage to the surface, only about half of the content has been deciphered, but the legible inscriptions coincide with records from the Samgukyusa(the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) and the Samguksagi(the History of the Three Kingdoms).
A theft in 1966 damaged the śarīra reliquary enclosed in the space created for the reliquary in the heart stone of the pagoda. By a stroke of luck, the thieves were taken into custody, and various artifacts, such as gold and silver circular containers as well as an octagonal bronze śarīra reliquary, were recovered. The gold and silver containers were manufactured with metal that was pounded into thin sheets and it appears that the small gold container was placed inside the larger silver one, according to the rules of storing śarīra reliquaries. The recovered artifacts were found mixed with artifacts unearthed from other pagodas, and as such, it is difficult to accurately distinguish them. However, the Chalju bongi account that states that the śarīra was placed inside a glass or precious stone reliquary, which in turn was placed inside raised gold and silver settings at the time of the wooden pagoda construction, is helpful.
Ornamental tiles like this were placed at both ends of a roof ridge. They were believed to ward off evil spirits, and so represented a wish for safety, and they also symbolized authority and power. Their use became widespread in the construction of palaces and temples in the Han Period of China, and they were first made on the Korean Peninsula during the Three Kingdoms Period. This particular tile was found in shattered pieces around the Hwangnyongsa Temple site, but it was restored to its original shape, which is like an ancient helmet. The design of the lotus flower is different from roof-end tiles of the Unified Silla Period, so it is thought to date from the Silla Period.
In 646 CE, Queen Seondeok ordered the construction of a nine-story wooden stupa in Hwangnyongsa Temple , which had been built during the reign of King Jinheung of Silla. The reliquary from the foundation stone for the wooden stupa site was stolen, but was recovered in 1966. The inner chest of the reliquary was formed by the base pillar of the stupa, which was built in 872 CE when the stupa was reconstructed. To make the inner chest, gilt-bronze plates were connected with hinges to form a cuboid box, with a knob on one side for opening the reliquary. The front and back sides of the door are decorated with incisings of the Vajrapanies and Guardians . On the front and back of the other three sides of the reliquary, the story of the construction of the stupa is recorded in detail, along with a list of names of officials and monks who participated in its construction.
This tile, which was used for flooring, features an elaborate floral medallion design on its face and a dynamic dragon design on its narrow sides. In the center of the top face, a lotus flower is ringed by a large floral medallion design, which is in turn surrounded with vine designs embossed onto the surface in perfect symmetry. On the sides, the body of the engraved dragon is bent at sharp angles for enhanced dynamism, while mysterious clouds are meticulously arranged to maintain the overall balance of the design. This tile is believed to date from the late 7th century, when the production of such aesthetic tiles from the Unified Silla Period reached its peak, with designs combining perfect symmetry and elaborate technique.
In India, the Four Heavenly Deities were originally the native gods of the four directions, but when Buddhism was founded, they became the guardians of Buddhist sutras and sattvas from the four directions of Mt. Sumeru. At the time when Silla unified the Three Kingdoms, the four deities were widely regarded as the guardians of the laws and the state. Broken pieces of these brick tiles, embossed with the Four Heavenly Deities, were retrieved from two stupa sites at the site of Sacheonwangsa Temple during the Japanese colonial period. They have since been restored to reveal the lower half of a balanced, well-proportioned body clad in meticulously detailed armor. The detail of the armor and the pained expressions of the evil spirits being trampled by the muscular legs of the Four Heavenly Deities are a model of realistic sculpture from the early Unified Silla Period.
This reliquary was discovered in 1959 in the upper part of a three-story stone stupa to the west of Gameunsa Temple site. A similar reliquary was also found in the stone stupa to the east of the temple site in 1996. Gameunsa Temple was built in 682 CE at the order of King Shinmun, to commemorate his father King Munmu. The reliquaries found at the temple site attest to the very high standard of metal craftwork technologies from the Unified Silla Period. Inside the cuboid outer chest was a house-shaped sarira case, and inside the case was a flame-shaped ornament that held the crystal jar containing the sarira. The four sides of the outer chest are decorated with elaborate renderings of the Four Heavenly Deities, while the four corners of the base plate of the sarira case were engraved with images of muses playing musical instruments.
Green glaze, which is applied to the surface of earthenware, is made by adding minium to lye or silicic acid, and mixing it with iron for the pigment. Green-glazed tiles were excavated from royal palace sites such as Wolseong and Wolji, as well as the sites of Sachonwangsa Temple and Gameunsa Temple, which suggests that tiles of this type were used exclusively for royal palace buildings or large-scale temples built by the government. Double-layered lotus petals are the representative design of the convex roof-end tile of Unified Silla.
When the Gameunsa Temple Site was excavated, this artifact was found lying on a bronze gong inscribed with Goryeo dynasty records dating back to 1351. Its shape resembles that of Buddhist temple bells from Silla, with the surface of the top part bearing the traces of what was once a crown and small holes in the center of the main part. It is as large as the bronze wind bell discovered at the Hwangryongsa Temple Site.
These pillars were originally taken from Gyeongjueupseong Fortress, and were only rediscovered when the fortress walls collapsed. The four square stone pillars, which had once been used as a part of an architectural structure, can be combined to form an embossed design of an erect “arhat” (enlightened practitioner) on two sides. The arhat is rendered in profile, walking to the right on a lotus pedestal; his head is bowed in deference and he holds an incense burner with handle in his hands. The tips of his shoes are bent upwards, much like those of the arhat in the “Image of Ten Disciples” in Seokguram, which was built during the Unified Silla Period in the mid-8th century.
This Triad was moved from a stone chamber in Jangchanggol Valley near Mt. Namsan, Gyeongju, in 1925. Among the three statues, the main Buddha is especially unique; it is the only Buddha statue dating from the Three Kingdoms Period that is seated in a chair. Other Buddha statues sitting in a similar posture, mainly Maitreya Buddha statues, originate from 6th~7th century China. Based on the records f rom the Samgukyusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) and the Chinese examples, the main Buddha is presumed to be the Maitreya Buddha. To each side of the Buddha, a smaller Bodhisattva stands with a lotus flower in his hands. The Bodhisattvas are each wearing a jeweled crown decorated with three flowers, and they each have an innocent smile on their face, which is rather large in proportion with the body. Despite being carved from hard granite, this representative Silla stone Buddha emits a warm and lively aura.
This Buddha statue was moved from Inwang-dong, Gyeongju, but the exact location where it was initially discovered is unknown. The Buddha’s body, halo, and pedestal were carved from one large stone. The large protuberance on the top of Buddha’s head is an “ushinisha,” representing wisdom, and there is a large cloth draped across the shoulders. Despite partial damage, the face exudes an air of calmness and serenity. The right hand is held up with the palm facing outward, while the left hand is lowered in the Varada Mudra, although some of the fingers have been lost over the years. Judging from the simple, basic carving techniques and the calm facial expression indicating meditation, the statue is estimated to date back to 7th century Silla.
The standing statue is built with childlike proportions, a cherubic face, and a small, protuberant uṣṇīṣa on the top of the head. It stands atop a lotus-flower pedestal with the head and the body flanked by their own halos. The right hand is uplifted in the abhaya mudra, and the left hand hangs down, showing the verada mudra. Cloth covers both shoulders and hangs below the stomach in a U shape. It is believed to have been made at the end of the sixth century.
This statue is one of the twenty-five Buddha statues found in 1953 at the Suksusa Temple site in Yeongju, North Gyeongsang Province, where Sosu Confucian Academy is currently located. The body of the Buddha and the pedestal are composed as one, and the gilding is relatively intact. On top of the bald head is an uṣṇīṣa, the eyes are gently closed, and the mouth wears a subtle smile. The neck is quite long. The robe covers both shoulders, its folds drooping in U-shape patterns in concentric oval lines. In a slight deviation from the common composition of the robe folds, the ones here are made to lean to one side. The right hand is in an abharanda mudra, with the palm held up and the left palm facing downward in a verada mudra. While the hands of most of the Buddha statues from the Three Kingdoms Period are exaggerated, the hands of this statue are in natural proportion with the body. On the pedestal are engraved lotus flowers. The end of each petal is sharp.
The proportions, robe style, and the pedestal form all indicate that the statue was modeled on the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou influences. With such an outstanding composition, the statue serves as an invaluable example of the Buddhist sculpture of early Silla.
Many Buddha statues were excavated from the site of Wolji Pond in Gyeongju, including ten Buddha plates like this one. Although its exact purpose remains unknown, the presence of a spike on the bottom suggests that it may have been fixed onto some other object. In the center, the Svadeva Buddha sits in the Padmasanam posture (lotus position) on top of an elaborate lotus flower pedestal, with his hands held in the Dharmaakra position, which is similar to how Sakyamuni held his hands during his first Buddhist sermon. Buddha, who is flanked on either side by a Bodhisattva, has a plump, round face, an ushinisha on top of his head (a bump representing wisdom), and a halo decorated with various openwork designs.
The Buddha’s hair is curled in whorls and his face is rather long and wears a stern expression without a smile. The large robe covers both shoulders and the expression of both the outer and inner clothes are highly lifelike. Behind the head and back were holes created while the statue was cast, and the inside is hollow. Given the voluminous face, lifelike physical figure, expression of the wrinkled drapery, and its excellent casting technique, this statue is estimated to have been produced in the mid-8th century and considered the most outstanding among the Buddha statues excavated from Wolji Pond.
This Buddha statue was excavated from Wolji, Gyeongju. Although the halo has been lost, the Buddha’s body and pedestal, which were made separately and joined together, have been well preserved. The most noteworthy aspect of this statue is the style of dress. While most Buddha statues had a large cloth draped across either both shoulders or the left shoulder, this statue has two layers of cloth: an inner layer covering both shoulders and an outer layer wrapped over the left shoulder. The inner layer crosses the chest beneath the outer layer. The octagonal pedestal is decorated with lotus flower designs and various openwork designs, and is placed atop a base stone with flower engravings in the corners. Based on the Buddha’s style of dress and the floral engravings, the statue is estimated to be from the late 8th century.
Only the top half of this Buddha statue has been restored since it was moved to the museum from a temple site in Janghang-ri, Yangbuk-myeon, Gyeongju. The pedestal for the statue and two stupas remain at the temple site. The octagonal pedestal features carvings of lions and the guardians on its surface, and a hole on top where the Buddha statue was affixed; the shape of the hole indicates that the statue was in a standing position. Both the body and the pear-shaped halo were carved out of one piece of rock. The head is covered with thick curly hair, with the customary Ushnisha at the center, representing wisdom. A myriad of flame designs swirl around Buddha’s head and body, suggesting a mysterious glow. The statue is a beautiful testament to the masterful technique for sculpting granite that marked the realistic trend of the Unified Silla Period in the mid-8th century.
This Buddha head was discovered in Cheorwagol Valley of Mt. Namsan, Gyeongju, in 1959. Only the head remains, leaving no clues as to the original form. However, the back of the neck appears to have been manually chipped to balance the head and enable it to stand, so it is possible that it was never attached to a body. Although the back is only roughly shaped, the front of the face is portrayed in great detail, with an urna embossed in the forehead and a large Ushnisha standing out from the top of the head. The rather long face has elegantly arched eyebrows, tightly closed lips, and a plump lower lip and jaw, though neither of the ears were included in the details. The head is believed to date back to the Unified Silla Period, sometime between the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century.
This statue was moved to the museum from Yongjanggol Valley, Mt. Namsan. The Bhaisajyaguru Buddha sits in the Padmasanam (lotus) posture on an elaborate two-tiered lotus pedestal, holding his right hand in the Bhumisparsa mudra and carrying a medicine bottle in his left hand. After the statue was moved from its former museum in Dongbu-dong in 1975, the head and part of the halo were reassembled and restored to their current condition, although the face remains badly damaged. The head has a prominent Ushnisha on top, and there is an inscription of the Three Ways on the neck. The pear-shaped halo is embossed with vine and flame designs, while the pedestal is decorated with lotus flower designs. Based on the less vibrant expression of the body parts and the heightened emphasis of the decoration, as demonstrated in the elaborate and even complicated designs on the halo, the statue is estimated to be from the end of the 8th century or the beginning of the 9th century.
The gold plating of this particular gilt bronze statue has almost disappeared, but the supple body and smooth, elegant cloth folds are depicted in perfect harmony, representing the height of the Unified Silla form. The hair is naturally curled in a clockwise direction, with a wide and prominent uṣṇīṣa. The face that appears large in proportion to the body is deep in a meditative state, and the neck has a mārga-traya. The robe fully covers the shoulders, with the hem covering the right shoulder. The U-shaped cloth folds gathered at the chest and below the knees are elegant and strong. A proud chest and slightly protuberant stomach as well as the voluminous thighs lend a liveliness to the statue. The left hand is holding a medicinal bowl and the right hand hangs down at the side, holding the hem. Such a posture is uncommon among gilt bronze statues of the Unified Silla Period.
Vairocana Buddha is the Buddha which represent the ultimate truth in Buddhism, and is regarded as the main Buddha of the Avatamska Sutra. Unlike the sattva-style Vairocana Buddhas found in China and Japan, this Vairocana Buddha was made in the tathagata-type in Korea. In Korea, statues of Vairocana Buddha were first sculpted in the late 8th century during the Unified Silla Period, and they have been made ever since. This statue has a small round face with closed eyes, as if the Buddha is in meditation. A cloth is draped over the left shoulder and across the legs, which are crossed in the Padmasanam posture (lotus position). Despite the small size of the statue, the proportion of the body parts is optimal, and the facial expression and creases in the cloth are portrayed with a very natural realism. This is considered a typical Vairocana Buddha of 8th century Unified Silla.
Unlike most Vairocana images with the left index finger enclosed in the right hand, this example showcases the reverse of the hand positions. The wide face is large relative to the body and the bald head has a large uṣṇīṣa. The gaze is downward and the small lips are gently pressed to form a smile. The two ears are curved like bows and the neck bears the mārga-traya. The robe covers both shoulders and inner garments cover the chest. Belt knots can be seen behind the hand. The cloth folds form a U shape underneath the stomach, naturally flowing down. Underneath the priestly robe the inner robe remains visible. On the back, the head and body contain casting holes. The head leans slightly to one side and a tranquil facial expression conveys deep meditation that with a spiritual air.
This pensive Bodhisattva sits on a chair with its right foot crossed over onto its left knee and the fingers gently touching the face, which is lowered as if in meditation. This style of statue was first made in India, and it was originally referred to in China as the “Pensive Crown Prince,” because it portrays the way Sakyamuni liked to lose himself in deep thought about the evanescence of life when he was a crown prince. But once the statue became an independent form, it became known as the “Pensive Bodhisattva” once and for all. This particular statue was discovered in Mulgeum, Yangsan, so some experts consider that it was made in Silla, but the location of its excavation is not sufficient evidence for determining its true origin, as such a small gilt-bronze statue could have been easily moved. There is a faint smile on the round, plump face, and the creases of the clothes on the legs are portrayed in great detail. This is considered to be one of the Buddhist statues with the greatest aesthetic value from the Three Kingdoms Period.
Excavated in Seonggeon-dong of Gyeongju, this gilt bronze Pensive Bodhisattva wears a three-peaked official headdress and is virtually bare-chested. Though this statue does not demonstrate a sophisticated casting technique or many details of expression, it takes the same form as the gilt bronze Pensive Bodhisattva designated National Treasure No. 83, indicating that this type of iconography was popular in Silla.
This statue was originally housed in Geumsanjae, which was the shrine by the Tomb of General Kim Yoo-shin in Mt. Songhwasan, Gyeongju, but it was moved to the museum in 1930. The pensive Bodhisattva statue sits on a chair with its right foot crossed on top of the left knee; the two arms were lost long ago. A plain necklace is embossed onto the naked upper body. The pedestal has two tiers: a square upper tier and circular lower tier. The Bodhisattva's left foot rests on a lotus flower that extends from the circular pedestal at the bottom. As with the Bodhisattva found at Bukji-ri of Bonghwa, Gyeongsangbuk-do, which is now housed in the Kyungpook National University Museum, the excavation site of this representative Bodhisattva from Silla is clearly known.
Just below the right cheek are the slight remnants of fingers holding the chin, which leads one to presume that this head once belonged to a statue of a pensive Bodhisattva. In the round and lump face, the eyes are lightly closed and the two lips are pressed against each other in a faint smile. Despite the lack of a body, this statue, which was excavated from Hwangnyongsa Temple site, Gyeongju, is regarded as one of the representative Bodhisattva statues of Silla, because of its friendly face and gentle smile, which vividly evoke a real person.
According to the Illustrative Anthology of Joseon’s Historical Remains, this statue is the Avalokitesvara that stood to the right of the Buddha statue that was found at the Jungsaengsa Temple site on Mt. Nangsan, Gyeongju. The carving of the eleven Bodhisattva faces in a line around the head was unprecedented in China and Japan. The left arm and hand, holding a kundika bottle, and the left foot, were recently restored based on estimations of their original appearance.
This Avalokitesvara statue was buried near the western slopes of Mt. Nangsan. The weight of the body leans to the left, giving the waist an extra curve in the shape of three valleys. The face and arms are relatively longer than other parts of the body, while the lower body is rather short. A tall jeweled crown rests atop the head, above the oblong face with full cheeks. The large hole in the middle of the forehead marks the urna. Judging by the optimal proportions of the body parts and the elaborate details, the statue is believed to date back to the Unified Silla Period (8th century).
The Eight Divine Beings, originally native gods in India, were appropriated as the eight guardians of Buddhist sutras when Buddhism was founded. In Korea, they frequently appeared as engravings on stone stupas, monuments, and lamps from the 8th century onwards. Asura (right) and Gandharva (above), engraved onto the upper-level base stone of a stone stupa, were discovered at the Damamsa Temple site. Gandharva is sheathed in armor, wearing a lion crown, and also sits on a cloud. Both images, carved in great detail with the utmost dexterity and elaborate technique, are estimated to be from the Unified Silla Period in the 8th century.
The Eight Divine Beings, originally native gods in India, were appropriated as the eight guardians of Buddhist sutras when Buddhism was founded. In Korea, they frequently appeared as engravings on stone stupas, monuments, and lamps from the 8th century onwards. Asura (right) and Gandharva (above), engraved onto the upper-level base stone of a stone stupa, were discovered at the Damamsa Temple site. Asura has three different faces and eight hands, each holding a different object, and sits on a cloud. Both images, carved in great detail with the utmost dexterity and elaborate technique, are estimated to be from the Unified Silla Period in the 8th century.
The Garuda was excavated from the site of Cheongwansa Temple connected to the love story of Kim Yusin (595~673) and Cheongwannyeo. Also known as Geumsijo(Bird with Gold Wings), Garuda is a fanciful bird that appears in ancient Indian myths and is said to eat dragons. In Buddhist art, Garudas are characteristically expressed with bird’s beaks. This Garuda appears to be descending from heaven with a flowing celestial robe, sitting on a cloud and dressed in armor with the body slightly twisted. Such a posture is imbued with liveliness and naturalness.
Built in 634, the third year of Queen Seondeok’s reign, Mojeon Seoktap Stone Pagoda was made by layering granite in the shape of bricks and displays the characteristics of a stone pagoda from the early Silla period. The pagoda has been restored to a height of three stories, but the overall proportion and number of stones found around the pagoda reveal that the original height must have been nine stories.
During the restoration of the stone pagoda in 1915, a stone container was found between the second and third levels of the main body. Made of granite, the lid measures 63 centimeters in length and width. The body itself consists of polished natural stones with a square space carved out for the burial of śarīra reliquaries and a variety of precious offerings. On one side of the body is a drainage channel for rain water and the body is fitted with protrusions to prevent the lid and the body from being separated. Inside the stone container are shards of a green glass śarīra reliquary and a silver tureen that appears to have been placed inside when the pagoda was repaired during the Goryeo Period. Inside the silver tureen was a śarīra wrapped in silk. Offerings that were buried along with the śarīra include fragments of gilt bronze ornaments whose use is not clearly known, a needle container, scissors, a perfume bottle, gold and silver needles, shells, various jades, and two Chinese coins.
In 1962, this agalmatolite sarira chest, containing a green glass sarira bottle and 99 miniature clay stupas, was discovered in a sarira casket located on top of the base stone of the first story of the three-story East Stone Stupa at the temple site in Seodong-ri. The mini stupas were made in a mould and fired, and then covered with white chalk. Each of them has a small hole in the bottom, where a Dharani sutra scroll was rolled and inserted, before the hole was closed with a wooden plug. Although none of the wooden plugs remain, small pieces of paper that are presumed to be original Dharani sutra scrolls have actually been found inside some of the mini stupas. This discovery illustrates the enactment of the Spotless Pure Light Dharani Sutra’s instruction that making 77 or 99 mini stupas containing sutra scrolls and placing them in an actual stupa would help a person to do enough good deeds to be reborn in the Tusita Heaven.
This three-story stone stupa from the Goseonsa Temple Site, along with the east and west three-story stone stupas in Gameunsa Temple, is thought to represent the original form of common stone stupas from the Unified Silla Period. A number of stone plates were assembled to form both the two-tiered base and the stupa portion of the third story. The first story bears engravings of a guardian on all four sides, and small holes on the surface indicate where gilt-bronze plates would have been attached. Before the stone stupa was moved, a hole for a sarira casket was found inside the third story, but the whereabouts of the reliquary is unknown.
This stone stupa was found collapsed at a temple site in Seungsogol Valley near Mt. Namsan, Gyeongju, and was moved to the museum and restored. Part of the pagoda and the roof stone is missing. This stone stupa bears all the hallmarks of stupas built in the latter part of the Unified Silla Period: four base stones, a standardized engraving of the Four Heavenly Deities, and a decorative motif on its surface.
The Divine Bell of King Seongdeok, which was crafted in 771 CE, during the reign of King Hyegong, is also known as the Bell of Bongdeoksa Temple. This masterpiece served as a model for Buddhist bells in the Unified Silla Period, and demonstrates how advanced the metal crafting technology of that time really was. On top of the bell, two dragon-shaped ornaments create a ring from which the bell was hung, and behind the neck of each dragon ornament is a reverberation pipe. Both the top and bottom edges of the bell feature beautiful engravings of peony vines, while similar designs adorn the borders of the four rectangular panels on the upper part of the bell, surrounding nine lotus flower designs. Below these panels, two “apsaras” (Buddhist nymphs) sit facing one another, each gripping an incense burner with handle. Between the apsaras, approximately 1,000 characters explain the reason for making the bell and list the names of the people who participated in the process. | <urn:uuid:dc357b97-3431-4aa4-afaf-709ce8d03e01> | {
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<HTML><P><STRONG><EM><FONT size=2>This article was originally published on SailNet in November, 1999.</FONT></EM></STRONG> <P><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 align=right border=0><TBODY><TR><TD width=8></TD><TD vAlign=top align=left width=350><IMG height=300 src="http://www.sailnet.com/images/content/authors/sexton/010502_JS_cat.jpg" width=350><BR><DIV class=captionheader align=left><FONT color=#000000><B>Along with the Rules of the Road, every mariner should be very familiar with the principles of navigation. </B></FONT></DIV></TD></TR><TR><TD colSpan=2 height=8></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE><P>For the safety of your boat and crew, there are two areas that every mariner needs to know cold. One is the Rules of the Road and the other is navigation. <P>The word <I>navigator</I> comes from two Latin words, "navis," meaning ship and "agere" meaning to direct or to move. Navigation is defined as the process of directing the movement of a craft from one place to another. The craft may be, in its broadest sense, any object requiring direction or capable of being directed. Navigation of a watercraft is called marine navigation. It is also important to understand that marine navigation methods and techniques will vary with the type of vessel, the prevailing conditions, available equipment, and the navigator's experience. There is a world of difference between navigating a pleasure craft and an oil tanker, even though you may use the same type of equipment and navigation techniques. An experienced professional navigator will navigate a pleasure craft in an easy and offhand manner that belies the complexity of the techniques involved. <P>Basic to the study of navigation is an understanding of certain terms that could be called the dimensions of navigation. These so called dimensions of position, direction, distance, and time are basic references used by all navigators. A clear understanding of these dimensions, as they relate to navigation, is necessary to provide a means of expressing and accomplishing the practical aspects of navigation. <P><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 align=right border=0><TBODY><TR><TD width=8></TD><TD vAlign=top align=left width=350><IMG height=300 src="http://www.sailnet.com/images/content/authors/sexton/010502_JS_sightred.jpg" width=350><BR><DIV class=captionheader align=left><FONT color=#000000><B>Hand-bearing compasses like the one shown here are a useful tool for finding a relative position.</B></FONT></DIV></TD></TR><TR><TD colSpan=2 height=8></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></P><P><STRONG>Position </STRONG>The exact location of a boat or object is a point defined by stated or implied coordinates. Though frequently qualified by such adjectives as "dead reckoning," "estimated," "GPS," and "Radar," the word <I>position</I> always refers to some place that can be identified. It is obvious that the navigator must know the ship's position before being able to direct the vessel to another position or in another direction. The ship's position can be expressed in coordinates of latitude and longitude or Loran TD's. The position may also be expressed as being "close abeam" a particular aid to navigation or so many miles in a particular direction from any geographic location. For example, "two miles due south of Point Lookout." </P><P><STRONG>Direction </STRONG>The position of one point relative to another, without reference to the distance between them, for example, "due south," is termed direction. Direction is not in itself an angle, but it is often measured in terms of its angular distance from a referenced direction, such as true north or magnetic north. For example, a course of 135 degrees true. </P><P><STRONG>Distance </STRONG>The spatial separation between two points is what we call distance, and this is measured by the length of a line joining them. On a plane surface this is a fairly straightforward and simple measurement. On a sphere the separation between two points may be expressed as a variety of curved lines, i.e. great circle and usually requires a segmented measurement. The length of the line can be expressed in various units, such as, nautical miles, statue miles, yards, or feet.</P><P><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 align=right border=0><TBODY><TR><TD width=8></TD><TD vAlign=top align=left width=250><IMG height=317 src="http://www.sailnet.com/images/content/authors/sexton/010502_JS_reading.jpg" width=250><BR><DIV class=captionheader align=left><FONT color=#000000><B>Time is an important concept for almost any form of navigation, but particularly so for celestial navigation.</B></FONT></DIV></TD></TR><TR><TD colSpan=2 height=8></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></P><P><STRONG>Time </STRONG>This concept is defined in many ways, but those definitions used in navigation consist primarily of either the hour of the day in reference to a particular line of longitude (i.e. GMT, LMT, and EST) or as an elapsed interval between events. </P><P>The principal divisions of navigation are dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic, and celestial. Within these divisions navigation can often be further broken down into sub-divisions such as radar navigation within electronics. There are also certain areas of knowledge required in order to fully understand a navigation division, such as having a basic understanding of tides and currents when determining an estimated position. Each of these types of navigation will be covered thoroughly in future articles. <P><STRONG>Dead Reckoning (DR) </STRONG>The determination of position by advancing a known position along the vessel's steered course (C) for a calculated distance (D) is what sailors call DR. This distance is based upon the speed of the vessel through the water and the elapsed time since departing a known position. An Estimated Position (EP) is determined by applying the set and drift of the current to the DR position or by using the vessel's Speed and Course over the Ground (SOG & COG) from the GPS to calculate the EP directly from the last known position. Dead reckoning is the basis of all navigation and should be carried on your paper chart at all times as a safety backup to pilotage and electronic navigation. A good DR is absolutely essential for celestial navigation. </P><P><STRONG>Piloting </STRONG>Also known as pilotage, piloting is navigation involving frequent or continuous accurate determination of the vessel's position, or a Line of Position (LOP) relative to geographic points, using visual or electronic means. Pilotage is practiced near land and aids navigation. It requires good judgement, constant attention, and alertness by the navigator, especially when near hazardous areas.</P><P><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 align=right border=0><TBODY><TR><TD width=8></TD><TD vAlign=top align=left width=350><IMG height=300 src="http://www.sailnet.com/images/content/authors/sexton/010502_JS_cockpit.jpg" width=350><BR><DIV class=captionheader align=left><FONT color=#000000><B>Handheld GPS units like the one in use above are one of the most popular forms of electronic navigation, but savvy mariner repeatedly warn against using them as your sole means of navigation.</B></FONT></DIV></TD></TR><TR><TD colSpan=2 height=8></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></P><P><STRONG>Electronic Navigation <BR></STRONG>Sailors who use electronic equipment in any way to navigate(including radar, Loran, depth sounders, and GPS), are engaging in electronic navigation. The latest means of electronic navigation is the use of a computer connected to the GPS, or a stand-alone plotter, to display the boat's position on an electronic chart. This type of equipment has been covered in detail in earlier articles and in future articles I'll cover using it for navigation as it overlaps pilotage to a considerable degree. </P><P><STRONG>Celestial Navigation </STRONG>Using information obtained from celestial bodies to determine one's position at sea (a process that relies considerably on DR techniques) is known as celestial navigation. Today, many mariners consider celestial navigation to be archaic now that GPS is available. However, celestial is the only way to evaluate the reliability of the GPS position and is a necessary backup to the GPS if your power or electronics should fail at sea. </P><P>These divisions are considered separately here for the purpose of instruction; however, they are so intertwined in actual practice that it's often difficult to separate them. For example, you'd use DR to get an ETA for a sharp change of depth contour; then use the depth sounder to get an LOP as you cross that depth; take a visual bearing and a radar range to confirm your DR position; and note the time and mark your position on the chart. Finally, you'd compare this position with your computerized charting program or GPS plotter to confirm its reliability. Now that's what I call navigation. Practicing these techniques on the sunny days will pay dividends on the foggy ones. <P>Remember that the science of navigation can be taught, but the art of navigation must be developed from experience. <BR><BR><HR align=center width="75%"><BR><STRONG>Suggested Reading:</STRONG> <P><STRONG><STRONG><A class=articlelink href="http://www.sailnet.com/forums/showthread.php?threadid=20973">General Navigation Techniques</A></STRONG> by Jim Sexton<BR><BR><A class=articlelink href="http://www.sailnet.com/forums/showthread.php?threadid=20950">Understanding and Using the Magnetic Compass</A> by Jim Sexton<BR><BR><A class=articlelink href="http://www.sailnet.com/forums/showthread.php?threadid=19650">Nautical Publications</A> by Jim Sexton<BR><BR></STRONG><P><STRONG>Buying Guide:</STRONG> <STRONG><A class=articlelink href="http://www.sailnet.com/store/buying_guide.cfm?guide_id=996">Binoculars</A></STRONG><STRONG><A href="http://www.sailnet.com/store/buying_guide.cfm?guide_id=996"></A></STRONG></P></HTML>
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The last great invention or discovery made by Indians was zero. After a spell of modicum greatness in the remote part of history where Indians contributed to mathematics, medicine, astronomy (don’t confuse this with astrology), we had a brief awakening movement in the first half of 20th century under British Empire when Indians earnestly took up European kind of education without feeling any remorse. During this first half of the last century when British were still around, India produced some of the brilliant minds – CV Raman, Chandrasekhar, Rabindranath Tagore, and less known but most important of all, SN Bose (not your JC Bose). After that brief awakening moment, we began to de-europeanize our education and started to Indianize it. There began all the problems.
Before we could understand the true meaning of modern education, we started to demodernize it. Going back to Indian methods meant learning by rote, repeating the arcane and tongue-twisting slokas forever and forever till you got the intonation right. But did it mean you learnt anything? Not really. This practice of learning by rote has been instilled into our education before we could really appreciate why we need to question or apply critical mind as a part of the process.
What we got as a result is millions of robots who could just spew out tables up to 100, kids who answered quiz questions remembering completely irrelevant data and statistics like the exact date when Mt. Everest was scaled the first time, or the exact weight of a polar bear. This rote learning has even helped Indian kids living in United States win Spelling Bee contests. And all through our school and college life, we revered and celebrated these memory machines. What India was producing was all memory and no CPU.
When I was growing up, we got marks only if we wrote word to word, sentence to sentence, exactly what was written in our text books. Commas, apostrophes, and periods were also equally important. Some students didn’t know the answer for a question unless you supplied them the first two words. The minute you gave them these two words, they used these key words to search in their databases of brain memory and pull out entire two pages of text. If for some reason you didn’t give them these two words they were lost.
That’s exactly what happened in the recent tests on ‘reading, mathematical and scientific literacy’ conducted by OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) for 15 year olds. India ranked 72 amongst a list of 73 countries that participated, beating Kyrgyzstan. [Two states of India were selected by India to represent India in these tests, one from South (Tamil Nadu) and one from North (Himachal Pradesh)].
This is what the Report says about Indian states.
The mean reading literacy score for Himachal Pradesh-India was 317. This was the lowest mean reading score observed in PISA 2009 and PISA 2009+, along with that of Kyrgyzstan.
In Himachal Pradesh-India, 11% of students are estimated to have a proficiency in reading literacy that is at or above the baseline level needed to participate effectively and productively in life. It follows that 89% of students in Himachal Pradesh-India are estimated to be below this baseline level.
Students in Himachal Pradesh-India attained a mean score of 338 on the PISA mathematical literacy scale,
statistically the same as those observed in Tamil Nadu-India and Kyrgyzstan. In Himachal Pradesh-India, 12% of students are proficient in mathematics at least to the baseline level at which they begin to demonstrate the kind of skills that enable them to use mathematics in ways considered fundamental for their future development. In Himachal Pradesh-India, there was a statistically significant gender difference of 30 score points in mathematical literacy, favouring boys.
Himachal Pradesh-India’s students were estimated to have a mean score of 325 on the scientific literacy scale, which is below the means of all OECD countries. This was the lowest mean science score observed in PISA 2009 and PISA 2009+, along with that of Kyrgyzstan. In Himachal Pradesh-India, 11% of students are proficient in science at least to the baseline level at which they begin to demonstrate the science competencies that will enable them to participate actively in life situations related to science and technology. In Himachal Pradesh-India, there was a statistically significant gender difference of 20 score points in scientific literacy, favouring boys.
The report is not very different for Tamil Nadu-India, the other participant.
Here is the overall ranking in Reading Literacy of 15-year olds.
There have been some critics who criticized the methodology of tests. This seems to be the common Indian tendency. When we win, we celebrate. When we lose, we rationalize why and how those tests are irrelevant to us. We try to highlight our socio-economic-cultural-historic-religious background is somewhat different from the rest of the world, how special we are, because of our family values, great culture, etc – whether it is OECD ranking like here, or the ranking of cities based on quality of life or based on good manners. Here, one author writes:
In my opinion, the uproar about the "data" stems from an unfortunate tendency we have as a people to let mere numbers tell the whole story about the Indian educational system, a majority of the time.
The Indian context is so complex, so multi-dimensional, that trying to understand its depth merely through a numbered tale is not just silly, but detrimental to our ability to work on fixing what's wrong.
However, the kind of knowledge and skills required to function as members of society has to depend on the context, that is, change from one place (or society) to another. To what extent can we obtain a holistic idea about the socio-economic backgrounds of students in surveys that take students and principals a mere "20-30 minutes to complete"?
I looked into some sample questions from the 2009 test, and a couple of examples make my point clear. One question revolves around dealing with the receipt of a warranty card for a camera (named Rolly Fotonex 250 Zoom) and a tripod. Now, in any statewide testing in India we are going to end up with a very large group of students who would have either never bought a camera themselves (especially by 15 years of age) or had their parents buy it for them. The idea of a "warranty" itself may be encountered for the first time in the test, disadvantaging such students. Another example I noted was a question in which students were asked to describe a particular story, labeling it a "folk tale," "travel story," or a "historical account." These are subjective labels, depending on different historical understanding of narrative categorizations or conventions. Another question posed questions about a library schedule of hours. Again, a vast majority of Indian students may never have encountered an institutionalized library of that sort.
The first question we have to ask is: If those excuses about lack of knowledge about warranties and libraries were applicable to Indians, how come the students from Peru, Albania, Indonesia, Mauritius, Colombia, Tunisia fare better? Did the parents in Peru ordered camera by mail? What undue advantage the kids of Indonesia and Colombia have over the kids of India?
Also, the author does a duplicitous move to quote examples which are thoroughly biased to make Indian reader agree with him. Here are some of the samples from the actual tests which the readers should know, and then we should ask ourselves how the 15-year old kids growing up in China and Korea could rank amongst the top while the 15-year old kids of India rank the lowest.
Here is a sample test in Reading abilities:
Average is 85%, kids of Costa Rica are at 83%, but Himachal Pradesh-India kids are at 53%. Even the kids from Mauritius scored better. Here is another question.
It is clear that while the whole world is able to read ordinary text and make sense out of it, Indian kids are not able to grasp ordinary topics.
I can guess why why Indian kids did not do well in these tests. They must have lost half the time in trying to figure out if the question is a part of or ‘out-of-syllabus’. The other half, they must have made a random choice after praying to Goddess Saraswati, followed by Lord Hanuman, and even some small prayers to Rama and Krishna lest they get offended. Some of them might have added their local deity and touched the amulet given to them by their grandmother to see if they will given the answer by some divine intervention.
I also know how we can crack this test next time. We start tutorial centers, and get all the questions papers from the last ten years, and make our kids mug up the answers hoping some of the questions get repeated. Voila! We will crack the PISA test the way we crack IIT-JEE and CAT. And I am sure some Indian VC firm will even fund that tutorial.
Related Articles: Are Indians creative and original?, Decline of Science in India III, Decline of Science in India II, Decline of Science in India I, Excellence in India I, Germans teach their kids history, Another Ramar Pillai?, Indian Teachers and Judges, Guide to Indian Idiocy II, Guide to Indian Idiocy I, Indians and Awards, To Better India II: Primary Education, Indians and much-sought after achievements, Of Child Doctors and Child CEOs. | <urn:uuid:b79bea24-97bc-40c5-834a-844643f1655a> | {
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A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth. A natural disaster can be devastating and can kill humans and animals, often damages or destroys homes and can leave agricultural destruction and economic damage in its wake.
Following is a list of the most common NATURAL DISASTERS on our planet:
6. Heat wave
11. Volcanic eruption
A few quick facts about NATURAL DISASTERS:
1. MOST natural disasters are caused by WEATHER. Some examples of weather related disasters are hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, tsunamis, thunderstorms, wind storms, wildfires, avalanches and blizzards.
2. Some weather related disasters can be PREDICTED, such as hurricanes and blizzards. The technology we use for predicting tornadoes and severe thunderstorms has greatly improved in the last decades. By getting the data early, people can be warned to take shelter or make the necessary preparations.
3. Earthquakes and floods are the DEADLIEST of all natural disasters. The Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami in 2004 killed 230,000 people. The deadliest were the 1931 floods in China which killed more than 1 million people. Some of the places around the world where earthquakes occur more often are California and Alaska in the U.S.; El Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile and Peru; Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey, New Zealand, India and Japan, among other countries.
4. Earthquakes and floods are also the world’s most EXPENSIVE types of natural disasters because the damage can be so extensive. The 1995 Earthquake in Japan cost over $131,000,000,000 while the 1991 flood in the Soviet Union caused damage of over $60,000,000,000.
5. Besides Earthquakes, there are some parts of our planet that are more SUSCEPTIBLE to certain kinds of natural disasters than others. Hurricanes are tropical cyclones and occur in the North Atlantic Ocean or the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes occur close to major tectonic plate boundaries.
6. Some wildfires are caused by LIGHTNING, but others are caused by people´s carelessness: starting fires in the forest, throwing a cigarette on the road, etc. Wildfires occur more often in areas with severe drought and windy conditions.
7. Most natural disasters are IMPOSSIBLE TO AVOID, but if people know what kinds of disasters are most likely where they live, they can learn what to do if a disaster happens in order to stay safe. | <urn:uuid:7125159a-3fed-4389-abdc-6e57da3486ea> | {
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Shivaratri, or Mahashivratri, is one of the most important days in Hinduism. There are numerous reasons regarding the origin of Shivaratri and most of reasons for observing Shivratri can be traced to the Puranas. A few important legends are detailed below.
Origin of Shivratri based on hunter unknowingly dropping Bilva leaves on Shiva Lingam
There once lived a tribal man who was a hunter and a staunch a Shiva devotee. He used to go for hunting on all days to feed his family. One day the hunter lost his way while hunting and was trapped in the forest at night.
Soon wild animals started to gather around him and he climbed a Bel or Bilva tree. Sitting there he remembered his wife and children and tears started rolling from his eyes. In order to keep himself awake, he started plucking Bilva leaves and dropped it down repeating ‘Om Namah Shivaya’ – the Panchakshari Mantra. The hunter unknowingly fasted the whole day and did not sleep in the night.
In the morning, he discovered that he had been dropping the Bilva leaves on a Shivlingam. The Shivling was also washed with his tears.
He returned home and when he was about have his food, a beggar came at his door. The hunter fed the beggar and then had his food.
The beggar was Lord Shiva himself and the hunter had darshan of Bholenath and was able to feed Mahadeva, who feeds all the living beings.
And the hunter realized the beggar was Shiva when he died and was carried to the Shivaloka.
The hunter was later born as King Chitra Bhanu who could remember his previous births. And he discussed the importance of Shivaratri with Sage Ashtavakra.
The story is mentioned in the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata by Bhismha while on the bed of arrows after the 18-day Great War in the Mahabharata. Thus the world came to known about the importance of Mahashivaratri.
Origin of Mahashivaratri based on Samudra Manthan – Churning of Ocean
This is a famous legend on Shivaratri and happened during the churning of ocean by Devas and Asuras to get ‘Amrit.’ While churning the ocean, highly toxic poison, Halahala, came out and threatened to destroy the universe.
Lord Vishnu asked the ‘devas’ and ‘asuras’ to approach Lord Shiva and request to save the world.
Lord Shiva immediately agreed to help them and drank the poison. For the poison to have no effect, Lord Shiva should not sleep. So the ‘devas’ and ‘asuras’ kept praying the whole night. Pleased with the devotion Lord Shiva said ‘whoever worships me on this day will get their wishes fulfilled.’ (There is another version to this story in which Goddess Parvati stops the poison from spreading by holding Shiva’s neck)
Origin of Shivaratri based on Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma searching for the origin of Shiva Lingam
Lord Vishnu and Brahma wanted to know who was superior and this led to a fight. Lord Shiva intervened and said whoever can find out the origin or end of Shivling is superior. Lord Shiva appeared before them in the form of a huge pillar of fire. Lord Vishnu went down searching and Brahma went up searching. Both traveled and traveled but never reached the beginning or end.
It is impossible to find a beginning and end to the Supreme Being until and unless the Supreme Being wishes to incarnate in a form which human eyes can accommodate.
After the futile search, Lord Vishnu and Brahma prayed to Shiva and appeared before them in the form of Jyotirlinga and this day of the appearance of Lord Shiva is celebrated as Shivratri.
Apart from these important legends, it is said that the reunion of Lord Shiva and Parvati happened on the Shivratri day. Another legend states that Lord Shiva performed the Taandava on this day.
You may also like to read | <urn:uuid:ed12e634-f764-4877-8409-b049e15328dc> | {
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- His poetry detailed Ireland's rural past and its violent sectarian strife
- Irish prime minister compares him to writers Joyce, Yeats, Shaw and Beckett
- Heaney received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1995
- Later in life, he produced new translations of well-known works of Anglo-Saxon literature
Seamus Heaney, the poet whose deeply felt descriptions of rural life in Ireland managed to carry larger echoes of the island's violent sectarian split, died Friday at the age of 74, his publisher said.
Heaney died in Dublin, Ireland, after a short illness, the publishing house Faber & Faber announced on behalf of his family.
One of the most widely read poets of the past hundred years, Heaney carried the long lineage of Irish authorship into an era of violence that marked Ireland for much of the later twentieth century.
"We are blessed to call Seamus Heaney our own and thankful for the gift of him in our national life," Irish Prime Minister Enda Kenny said Friday. "He belongs with Joyce, Yeats, Shaw and Beckett in the pantheon of our greatest literary exponents."
Heaney joined three of those writers -- William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, and Samuel Beckett -- as a recipient of the Nobel literature prize. The 1995 citation noted Heaney's "works of lyrical beauty and ethical depth, which exalt everyday miracles and the living past" as a reason for bestowing the honor on a fourth Irishman.
Born in 1939 on a farm in Country Londonderry, in Northern Ireland, Heaney's work, which relied heavily on personal observations, evoked the island's rural heritage at close range. The eldest of nine children, Heaney -- a Catholic -- described his father to an interviewer in 1994 as a "creature of the archaic world" who "would have been entirely at home in a Gaelic hill-fort."
In "Follower," from the collection "Death of a Naturalist," Heaney recalled being brought up around country farmers, like his father, whom he idealized -- but who later in life came to represent a bygone era:
I wanted to grow up and plough,
To close one eye, stiffen my arm.
All I ever did was follow
In his broad shadow round the farm.
I was a nuisance, tripping, falling,
Yapping always. But today
It is my father who keeps stumbling
Behind me, and will not go away.
The family spoke English, not Irish, and Heaney described in interviews living in a home without many books. He attended a boarding school in Derry beginning at age 12 and studied for an English literature degree at Queen's University in Belfast.
Derry -- ruled by Protestants, despite a majority Catholic population -- would eventually become the center of Northern Ireland's decades-long period of sectarian violence.
Heaney moved in 1972 to Dublin, where he wrote poems that reflected the struggle navigating between the Irish nationalist movement, which he supported, and an allegiance to his birthplace in the British-ruled North.
After "Death of a Naturalist," Heaney's reputation began to grow, and he eventually became the rare poet to achieve both critical acclaim and popular appeal. His collections featured a range of themes, from lighthearted love verses to deeply personal meditations on Ireland's Troubles.
His collection "North" was released in 1975, one of the bloodiest years of Ireland's sectarian conflict. In it, Heaney mined the roots of Irish division, often offering a grim assessment of a nation facing constant misfortune.
"Coherent miseries, a bite and sup, / We hug our little destiny again," he wrote in "Whatever You Say Say Nothing."
Decades after "North" was published, Heaney characterized himself as a poet writing from his own experience rather than a political agenda.
"What matters is the shape-making impulse, the emergence and convergence of an excitement into a wholeness," he said. "I don't think I'm a political poet with political themes and a specifically political understanding of the world."
But he nonetheless held a lasting place within the history of Ireland's struggle for peace, offering his deeply personal view of the Troubles to a worldwide audience.
"His mind, heart, and his uniquely Irish gift for language made him our finest poet of the rhythms of ordinary lives and a powerful voice for peace. And he was a good and true friend," Bill and Hillary Clinton, the former U.S. president and first lady, wrote in a statement Friday. As president, Bill Clinton helped broker the 1999 Good Friday Agreement that established Northern Ireland's system of government.
Later in life, Heaney turned to producing new translations of well-known works of Anglo-Saxon literature, including a well-received version of "Beowulf." He worked as a professor of poetry at Oxford University for five years beginning in 1989, and held various posts at Harvard University for more than two decades.
Heaney is survived by his wife, Marie, and three children. | <urn:uuid:db03138c-ca56-42b5-8f06-de1165463456> | {
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Exercise 2: Capital Letters
Identify the words that should be capitalized in the following sentences:
Question 1the mountain range mr. bachman pointed out was the grand tetons.
The mountain range Mr. Bachman pointed out was the Grand Tetons.
Question 2skidmore college is located on broadway at the north end of saratoga springs, new york.
Skidmore College is located on Broadway at the north end of Saratoga Springs, New York.
Question 3the forum program held its spring orientation at west point military academy.
The Forum program held its spring orientation at West Point Military Academy.
Question 4the short story "blue gill" was published in jayne anne phillips' book fast lanes.
The short story "Blue Gill" was published in Jayne Anne Phillips' book Fast Lanes.
Question 5many people today are intent on exploring their relationship with god, nature and their higher selves.
Many people today are intent on exploring their relationship with God, nature and their higher selves. | <urn:uuid:b0d87d21-4036-430d-a12e-10059cf5ef0e> | {
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In the middle of the Baltic Sea, a paradise for peacemakers
path to progress
The Aland Islands were once contested by Finland and Sweden, their immediate neighbors. But the dispute's peaceful resolution has worked so well that Aland now serves as an example to other cultural conflicts.
Sloops and cutters tack back and forth against the summer sky. Peacocks mingle with the natives at the town beach along its graceful mile-long waterfront. Mariehamn, the capital of Aland, a Finnish archipelago in the middle of the Baltic, is as bucolic a place as one can find in or near Europe these days.
Attractive though it is, Mariehamn’s Elysian calm is only partly the product of its unique topography. It also derives from Aland’s unique status.
The chain of some 6,500 islands is an autonomous, Swedish-speaking province of Finland, as well as Europe’s only officially demilitarized and neutralized zone. And its capital is the site of the Aland Peace Institute, a busy think tank devoted to promoting conflict resolution, as well as educating the world about the so-called "Aland Model" of self-governance and successful majority/minority relations.
Established almost a century ago, the Aland Model – or Example, as the institute prefers to call it – refers to the internationally guaranteed protection afforded the Swedish-speaking minority population of Aland, by which the federal government essentially allows the 29,000 Alanders to manage their own affairs, while also abiding by Aland’s demilitarized status. The institute, founded in 1992, was set up to assist other regions and minorities, both in Europe and further abroad, in peacefully resolving their own linguistic or ethnic-based separatist conflicts. Areas whose representatives have studied Aland and selectively applied the lessons thereby gained include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Corsica, and Myanmar.
“The institute is a medium by which we like to share our experiences with other areas in the world which are dealing with majority-minority issues and related matters," says Kjell-Ake Nordquist, the director of the Peace Institute.
A country within a country
Things haven’t always been so pacific in Aland. In 1854, during the Crimean War, the islands were the site of a violent naval action when a combined Anglo-Franco task force blew up the mammoth Bormasund fortress then being erected in the Aland Islands by the Russian Empire, which had wrested the islands from Sweden 50 years before.
After the war, which Russia lost to Britain and France, the islands were officially demilitarized by common consent of the major powers, creating the world’s first peace zone.
But true peace had not come to Aland yet. Following World War I, Finland and Sweden locked horns over the contentious islands. Helsinki insisted that it needed the islands, which are actually located closer to Finland, for its defense. Stockholm wanted to reunite the Swedish-speaking islands with the mainland. So did the fiercely Swedophile Alanders.
The disputants elected to submit their dispute to the newly minted League of Nations. In 1921, the League decided to award Aland to Finland, on condition that Helsinki respect the archipelago’s indigenous Swedish culture, as well as its demilitarized status.
The solution worked well – so well that Alanders relinquished their desire for repatriation with Sweden, and developed a quasi-national identity of their own, within Finland, along with a proudly peaceful ethos.
Defense of the archipelago is Helsinki’s responsibility, along with its limited foreign affairs. Virtually everything else – education, medical care, law and order – is the responsibility of the discrete Aland government, which also has its own parliament, the Lagting. In effect, Aland is a country within a country. It even has its own flag and postal service.
War and its accoutrements are strictly verboten. Although Finland is responsible for the islands’ defense, Finnish military personnel are not welcome there (at least in uniform). Peace is truly the law, and the credo, in this, Europe’s only official “peace zone.”
'A kind of smorgasbord'
The specific process that led to the establishment of the Peace Institute actually began in the 1980s. At the time of the then-intense European anti-nuclear movement, Aland became a symbol for the possibility for creating safe spaces without weapons, as well as a successful example of conflict solution by diplomatic means.
In recent years, as separatist issues and concerns have become an increasing force in world affairs, many from afflicted regions have taken a look at Aland to see what they could learn and apply in their own lands.
“The Peace Institute is the ultimate fruit of a long process which began 300 years ago when Peter the Great negotiated with Stockholm over the rights to access Aland waters,” says Anders Wiklof, a leading Alandic businessman and entrepreneur and backer of the institute.
“We like to think of the Aland Example with its three layers – demilitarization, neutralization, and autonomy – as a kind of smorgasbord enabling many variations and adaptations,” says Sia Spiliopoulou Akermark, the institute's research manager.
Interest in Aland has been especially intense in the former Soviet republics, with their many separate, oft-warring linguistic and ethnic enclaves. This past May, for example, the institute hosted a working group comprised of representatives of the parliament of the former Soviet republic of Moldova and the autonomous, ethnically distinct region of Gagauzia to see what they could learn from how Aland manages it affairs with Helsinki, and vice versa.
Institute staff have also traveled to hot spots to lend their expertise around the world. Nordquist, who is also a professor of peace and conflict studies at Sweden’s Uppsala University, recently returned from Mindanao in the Philippines, where he was asked to consult on the conflict between the central government in Manila and the indigenous Moro minority on Mindanao.
To be sure, visitors who come to study the Aland Way sometimes find that there is a conflict between the beneficent model and the messier, extrajudicial reality they confront at home.
In 2001, for example, the institute hosted a “Seminar on Autonomy and Conflict Management” for parliamentarians from Ukraine and Crimea. But the participants ultimately found it impossible to put what they learned in Mariehamn into practice after Russia’s decision to annex Crimea outright in 2014.
Mr. Wiklof emphasizes that the “Aland Solution,” while applicable in parts to conflict areas, was originally possible because the two original disputants, Finland and Sweden, “are societies based on the rule of law,” something that is not necessarily true elsewhere.
Still, Ms. Akermark says that the Aland Islands are all the more important today, now that the Baltic has once again become the site of tensions among the great powers.
“I think all the powers have been eager to establish their rights in the Baltic Sea. Their perennial arms race is not helpful for the states and peoples living around the Baltic. We like to think that we can help show that there is a different way, based on negotiations, respect for indigenous cultures, human rights, and constitutional law.” | <urn:uuid:17d5a6d6-0598-4afc-a08a-19acbbdf7794> | {
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Big bang theory pdf
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The Big Bang. • Broadly accepted theory for the origin and evolution of our universe. • billion years ago, the visible universe was only a few millimeters. Big Bang Theory - Concise synopsis of the big bang theory's background, historical foundations, major problems. What are the alternatives to our ultimate. University of Durham. You should be familiar with: •Basic concepts in Big Bang theory. •The contents of the Universe. •The expansion properties of the Universe.
The Big Bang theory. In the s, the American astronomer Edwin Hubble sought to establish a relationship between the distance of a galaxy and the speed at. The Big Bang Theory of the Early Universe. Today astronomers agree that Hubble's Law is an observational fact and is beyond dispute – anyone who doubts it. The plots on the right were the data from supernovae that showed that the expansion of the universe is not constant but has changed value over time.
The Big-Bang Theory: Construction, Evolution and Status. Jean-Philippe Uzan. Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris. UMR du CNRS,. 98 bis, bd Arago. Big Bang, the concept of inflation, the fact that most of the world is made up of dark about the state of the universe at early times relies on Einstein's theory of . the cosmological principle (homogeneity and isotropy of the universe) iii) The Big Bang theory. ~ the content of Big Bang Theory. ~ the observations that support. The Big Bang theory has gained general acceptance by its ability to explain in a simple manner three key cosmological observations. These three observations. •The universe has been expanding ever since the Big Bang. Main Competitor was (s - s, RIP): the Steady-State theory. •The universe is infinitely old.
widely accepted theory among scientists of the origin of the universe: the Big Bang Theory. As you study this concept, remember that the universe is huge. 7 Nov The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation about how the universe began. At its simplest, it says the universe as we know it started with a. gun' of the Big Bang and detailed studies of its properties have led to many The second part of the book traces the evolution of the Big Bang theory itself. motivating young people towards an interest and career in science generally. Further Information. If you would like to know more about the Big Bang theory and . | <urn:uuid:9a2c1c66-f064-4dd3-8c92-c9315a2cb714> | {
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By Dave O’Malley
There is a story told on the sides of every warbird of the Second World War. It’s there in visual code written in worn and tired war paint, easily interpreted by those who speak this language of history. Always the story told is proud and warrior-like, a story of both present battles and of the sweep of history back to and even beyond the beginning of flight.
The opening lines of the story are told by the camouflage, the overall coat of paint donned by the fighter or bomber or transport. We read in an all-powder blue Spitfire that it is unarmed, that its pilot flies alone and unafraid, that it flies higher than the rest, taking photographs and evidence of movement behind enemy lines. In a P-40 Kittyhawk with brown and tan fields of colour, we read the heat, the sand, the deprivation and the vast sweep of the North African campaign. From the jungles of Burma, to foggy coasts of Iceland to the sun-blasted coral airstrips of the South Pacific, an aircraft carries the story of its battles in its paint. And on the side and wings of all aircraft, on all sides of the battle, were the most proud marking of all—the national roundels and symbols—historic markings that take their meaning from historic events and dynasties predating aviation—the crosses, roundels, cockades, hinomarus and stars of nations engaged in warfare for centuries and even eons. To one side they are anathema, symbols of abject evil, treachery and or even of a nation of subhumans. To the other they are glorious marques of courage, honour, duty and historic importance. Allied pilots and gunners learned not just to read the black Balkenkreuzes, bent Hakkenkreuzes, and red “meatball” Hinomarus of the Axis, but to hate them and to react instantly to destroy them.
On the flanks of Commonwealth aircraft of the Second World War, the visual language was even more complex, the story more telling. On their flanks there was generally an alphabetical or alphanumeric code which told a more granular story. A two-letter code forward of the roundel, known as the Squadron Code, told the initiated what specific squadron the aircraft and its pilot were attached to. This meant that a bomber pilot, whose radio was out and aircraft damaged could identify an aircraft of his squadron and be guided home. It meant that squadrons could form up in radio silence according to battle plans briefed earlier. Aft of the roundel there was more often than not a single letter—the Aircraft Code, identifying that particular aircraft within the squadron—A-Able, B-Baker, J-Jig, O-Oboe etc. To the pilots witnessing the destruction of a squadron mate in the heat of battle, the Aircraft Code might be the only way to tell who it was.
Personal stories were written all over the aircraft sides—an American Navy ace paints Imperial Japanese flags below his cockpit rail, one for every victory. A bomber crew points to the 50 missions their bomber has endured—one bomb silhouette for each lined up in rows on the cheeks of their tired old warhorse. One knew the home of a fighter pilot or a bomber crew chief by the nose art his aircraft wore—Oklahoma Miss, Arkansas Traveller, The Maine-iacs, Big Noise from Kentucky or the Belle of San Joaquin. One could also tell something of the pilot’s love life in the language of nose art. Pilots not spoken for might have more testosterone-charged artwork such as Hot T’ Trot, Miss Minooky, Passion Wagon or Ready, Willin’ Wanton, whereas pilots with wives and gals back home might simply paint their betrothed’s name on their fighter’s sides—Dorothy, Glamorous Glennis or Margie Darling.
For the Japanese in the Second World War, their national marking—a simple red circle known as the Hinomaru—was a powerful, elegant symbol of bravery, pride and dominance over lesser humans. The hinomaru, made the official symbol of Japan in 1870, dates back in Japanese history to the 8th century when Emperor Mommu used the device on his court flag. The red circle, the “circle of the sun”, carried messages of brightness, sincerity and warmth, but to the countries and islands which fell under the brutal rule of a martial Japanese Empire in the 1930s and 40s, they were symbols of abject evil, inhuman cruelty and utter domination.
Though the Japanese had been violently gobbling up parts of China and the Far East for the better part of five years, the first true glimpse the western world got of the aerial might of Japan was when the hinomaru flashed in the morning sun over Oahu on that December day of infamy. Image of Aichi Val dive bombers over Pearl from model box by Cyber-Hobby
Though the Western Allies looked upon the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor as treachery of the worst kind, even murder, to the young and incredibly skilled pilots of the Japanese Imperial Navy, it was proof of the unassailable dominance of their warrior culture. For the next months and even years, these young men represented the pinnacle of a warped sense of bushido—the samurai way. It was not the bushido of the 12th century samurai but a new kind, designed to present war as somehow purifying and death in battle an honour and a duty.
At the outset of the Japanese war in China and against the Americans, to be selected for training as an Army or Navy pilot was the greatest honour any Japanese warrior could hope for. The achievements, victories and courage of the Army and Navy pilots were the talk of the home islands. In the final stages of the conflict, as the winds of war blew ill favour towards Nippon, the courage, boldness and pride of the Japanese airman never wavered. In large numbers, the now-poorly-trained remaining pilots willingly took to the skies to fly against the American enemy, with no thought of returning. In tired, damaged and poorly-made aircraft they rolled over one last time into a dive, watching that wing, with its fading hinomaru, drop away to reveal the enemy task force below. With a great sense of pride in their final glory, tears in their eyes for their beloved home, they swept to their deaths as proud Japanese fighter and bomber pilots. For those that remained, it was only a matter of time before they would drink the sake and fight the enemy to the death. They no longer had the momentum, the weapons, the industry, the ability to win, but there is no doubt they still had immense pride in who they were. Then they heard the voice of their Emperor for the first time.
He was asking them to do the single most dishonourable thing they could think of—surrender. Many Japanese officers would kill themselves rather than surrender; many would vow to fight on to the death. One soldier in the Philippines, Hiroo Onoda, continued fighting from the jungles of Lubang Island for thirty more years (he died just two weeks ago—16 January 2014). In light of this powerful, nearly pathological sense of Japanese aviators’ pride in themselves, their service and Japan, the aircraft which would carry delegations for peace talks would themselves become flying white flags of surrender—an almost unbearable indignity.
With the onslaught of kamikaze attacks, suicidal charges and mass Masada-style suicides of both belligerents and civilians, the Americans had no trust in Japanese envoys who might just as easily immolate themselves as actually surrender. General Douglas MacArthur required, as proof of their peaceful intentions, that the aircraft carrying the envoys from Japan to Iejima (Ie Shima to the Americans), the small Okinawan island designated as the trysting place, be painted white all over and that their beloved, honoured, ancient, and storied hinomarus be painted over in white and then replaced by the Christian cross... a green Christian cross.
One can only imagine the emotions, the utter indignity of what this meant to the Japanese who had to mix the paint and spray it over the marks of Japanese courage and honour that were the red hinomarus. Say all you want about Japanese cruelty and behaviour during the war, there is no denying their pride, sense of duty and honour and their personal courage. There was a code, a warrior brotherhood, a history of truths, legends and myths, and it was all over-sprayed in the battle colour of failure—white. The instructions to end the war immediately were clear, and the indignity was given to the aviators... the first to strike at the Americans on December 1941.
The following are the two radio messages sent to the Japanese on the morning of 15 August 1945, which set in motion the eventual unconditional surrender:
At 0930 hours:
I have been designated as the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, the United States, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and empowered to arrange directly with the Japanese authorities for the cessation of hostilities at the earliest practicable date.
It is desired that a radio station in the Tokyo area be officially designated for continuous use in handling radio communications between this headquarters and your headquarters. Your reply to this message should give all signs, frequencies, and station designations.
It is desired that the radio communications with my headquarters in Manila be handled in English text. Pending designation by you of a station in the Tokyo area for use as above indicated, stations JUM, repeat JUM, on frequency 13,705, repeat 13,705, kilocycles, will be used for this purpose; and WTA, repeat WTA, Manila, will reply on 15,965, repeat 15,965, kilocycles.
Upon receipt of this message acknowledge. MACARTHUR
Just 22 minutes later, MacArthur gave the very specific instructions of how the Japanese were to prove their peaceful intentions.
At 0952 hours:
Pursuant to the acceptance of the terms of surrender of the Allied Powers by the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Imperial Government, and the Japanese Imperial Headquarters, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers hereby directs the immediate cessation of hostilities by the Japanese forces. The Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers is to be notified at once of the effective date and hour of such cessation of hostilities, whereupon the Allied forces will be directed to cease hostilities.
The Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers further directs the Japanese Imperial Government to send to his headquarters at Manila, Philippine Islands, a competent representative empowered to receive in the name of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Imperial Government, and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters certain requirements for carrying into effect the terms of surrender. The above representative will present to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers upon his arrival a document authenticated by the Emperor of Japan, empowering him to receive the requirements of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers.
The representative will be accompanied by competent advisers representing the Japanese Army, the Japanese Navy, and Japanese Air Forces. The latter adviser will be one thoroughly familiar with airdrome facilities in the Tokyo area.
Procedure for transport of the above party under safe-conduct is prescribed as follows: The party will travel in a Japanese airplane to an airdrome on the island of Ie Shima, from which point they will be transported to Manila, Philippine Islands, in a United States airplane. They will be returned to Japan in the same manner. The party will employ an unarmed airplane, type Zero, model 22, L2, D3.
Such airplane will be painted all white and will bear upon the side of its fuselage and the top and bottom of each wing green crosses easily recognizable at 500 yards. The airplane will be capable of in-flight voice communications, in English, on a frequency of 6,970 kilocycles.
The airplane will proceed to an airdrome on the island of Ie Shima, identified by two white crosses prominently displayed in the center of the runway. The exact date and hour this airplane will depart from Sata Misaki, on the southern tip of Kyushu, the route and altitude of the flight, and estimated time of arrival in Ie Shima will be broadcast six hours in advance, in English, from Tokyo on a frequency of 16,125 kilocycles. Acknowledgment by radio from this headquarters of the receipt of such broadcast is required prior to take-off of the airplane. Weather permitting, the airplane will depart from Sata Misaki between the hours of 0800 and 1100 Tokyo time on the seventeenth day of August 1945. In communications regarding this flight, the code designation “Bataan” will be employed.
The airplane will approach Ie Shima on able course of 180 degrees and circle landing field at 1,000 feet or below the cloud layer until joined by an escort of United States Army P-38’s which will lead it to able landing. Such escort may join the airplane prior to arrival at Ie Shima. MACARTHUR
Four days later, two all-white, twin-engined bombers took off from the Tokyo area—one a Mitsubishi G4M1-L2 (Betty) transport aircraft, and the other a bullet-holed Mitsubishi G4M1 (Betty) bomber stripped of its guns. They reached Sata Misaki on the southern tip of Kyushu at about 1100 hrs. They then proceeded on a course of 180 degrees to a point 36 miles North of Iejima Island, off the southwestern coast of Okinawa, and began to circle at 6,000 feet. They were soon joined by B-25 Mitchells from Iejima and top covering P-38 Lightnings, wary that some suicidal aviators may try to stop the peace talks.
On landing at the tiny island, called “Peanut” Island by Okinawans, weary warriors, both Allied and Japanese, who had spent three long years shooting, knifing, burning and slaughtering each other, wallowing in violence and bloodshed, convinced the other was subhuman, met for the very first time in peace and looked each other in the eye and touched each other. One can only imagine how the young Japanese pilots felt as they touched down amidst thousands of young American men, who just the day before would have killed them on sight. The young pilots wore brand new flight suits and flight boots for the trip, but their aircraft were, like the rest of Japan, just barely holding on to dignity. With their proud symbols banned from the meeting, whitewashed and over painted with the cruciform of defeat, a new story of peace was now written in the paint of their aircraft.
The flight of these two Bettys became known as the Green Cross flights and the technique became the standard operating procedure for Japanese aircraft carrying envoys for surrender across the remnants of the Japanese empire for the next month. The only Japanese aircraft flying unmolested had to be approved and had to cover their old markings with the approved Green Cross standards. Not every aircraft complied with every detail of the specified paint scheme; not every aircraft was painted white nor every cross painted green, but scores of these surrender aircraft brought about the end of the killing and suffering and the beginning of the healing.
Here, collected from the internet, are photographs of some of those Green Cross flights and Green Cross aircraft, starting with the most photographed of them all—the Green Cross Bettys of Iejima.
Let the surrender begin. B-25J Mitchell bombers of the 345th Bomb Group (The Apaches) lead two Green Cross Mitsubishi G4M “Betty” medium bombers into the island of Iejima (called Ie Shima by the Americans). The 345th Bomb Group (the 498th, 499th, 500th and 501st Squadrons) was based on Iejima and was given the task and the very special honour of escorting the Bettys from Tokyo to the rendezvous with United States Army Air Force C-54s, which would take the Japanese officers and envoys on to Manila to meet with no less than Douglas MacArthur himself. Photo: USAF
The two Bettys (ironically and deliberately given the call signs Bataan 1 and Bataan 2 by the Americans) fly low over the East China Sea, inbound for Iejima wearing their hastily painted white surrender scheme and green crosses. One can only imagine what is going on in the conflicted minds of the Japanese airmen as they fly over their own territory in the company of the hated enemy, headed for an event of profound humiliation in front of thousands of enemy soldiers. These two Bettys would become the most photographed Green Cross surrender aircraft of the end of the war. Photo: US Navy
A photograph taken from the same 345th Bomb Group Mitchell that is depicted in the first photograph, looking back at another B-25 Mitchell and a B-17. Above, P-38 Lightnings provide top cover. The top cover was needed because some Japanese officials had ordered the remnants of the Japanese Army Air Force to attack and bring down their own bombers rather than surrender. Instead of flying directly to Iejima, the two Japanese planes flew northeast, toward the open ocean, to avoid their own fighters. Photo via warbirdinformationexchange.org
The Betty was officially known as the “Type-1 land-based attack aircraft”, but to its Japanese Navy crews, it was lovingly known as the Hamaki (Cigar), the reason for which is obvious in this photograph (also because one could light it up fairly easily). The Betty was a good performer, but it was often employed in low level, slow speed operations such as torpedo attacks and it had a tendency to explode into flames when hit by even light enemy fire, leading some unhappy pilots to call them the “Type One Lighter” or “The Flying Lighter”. We can clearly see that the Betty’s traditional armament—nose, tail, waist and dorsal guns—have been removed as demanded by the Americans. The B-17 in the distance is from 5th Air Force, 6th Emergency Rescue Squadron carrying a type A-1 lifeboat. The A-1 was dropped by parachute and was motorized. It seems that American authorities did not want to lose these men in the event of a ditching. Photo via warbirdinformationexchange.org
As thousands of American soldiers, airmen, sailors, dignitaries and press photographers on the island of Iejima look to the sky, the two 345th Bomb Group B-25J Mitchells escort the two white Green Cross Bettys over the airfield before setting up for a landing. Photo: James Chastain, 36 Photo Recon Squadron
As thousands of suspicious, curious and anxious young men look on, the Japanese pilot brings his Mitsubishi Betty down on to the bleached coral airfield of Iejima. Note the all-metal Douglas C-54 waiting for their arrival. Photo via Pinterest
It is plainly obvious that in August of 1945, on the island if Iejima, it was brutally hot the day the Green Cross Bettys landed. Here one of the two aircraft drops on to the runway as soldiers, the formal welcoming committee and pressmen wait, finding shade where they could. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
The second of the two Green Cross Bettys makes its final approach while press photographers and reporters capture the long-awaited moment. Photo: James Chastain, 36 Photo Recon Squadron
As the second Betty alights on the coral airstrip, every eye on the island is trained on them. One cannot even imagine what this scene looked like to these Japanese as they looked out from the aircraft windows at a sea of mistrust and a new, grim reality. Photo: James Chastain, 36 Photo Recon Squadron
Another view taken farther back at Iejima shows the two massive and beautifully kept Douglas C-54 aircraft waiting for the passengers of the landing Betty. Image via wwiivehicles.com
With its clamshell canopy open and her Captain standing up to direct his co-pilot through the crowd, the first Green Cross Betty to land at Iejima taxis past a seemingly endless line of enemy soldiers. The scene is one of abject humiliation and intimidation. That pilot must surely have felt the mistrust of the thousands of pairs of eyes burning as he rolled by. Photo: USAAF
A close-up of the Betty taxiing along in front of the thousands of suspicious American servicemen. This had to be intimidating to the Japanese, especially to the lone pilot standing up and accepting the glares of all. Photo: USAAF
I found the personal family memoirs of Army combat engineer Leigh Robertson on the web. Leigh was an eyewitness to the arrival on leshima of the Green Cross surrender aircraft. The following link to his memory of that day is perfect as he immediately wrote it down in a letter back home to his parents.
Sunday, August 19th 1945
I don’t know how long it will be until I can mail this letter. I am writing it now, while things are fresh in my mind. I have just seen what is probably the most important event in the world today. It was the arrival of the Japanese envoys on their way to Manila, to sign the preliminary peace agreement with Gen. MacArthur.
We had known for the last three days that they were going to land here. We expected them yesterday, but they were delayed, for some reason. We went to work this morning as usual, and worked until about ten. Then the word went around that the Japs were coming. We piled into trucks and drove up to the airstrip. We waited expectantly for over an hour. Finally, word went out once more that they would not arrive until 1:30 P.M, so we decided to come on back to camp and eat lunch (we had baked ham, by the way). Just before we left we watched two giant four engine transports (C-54s) circle the field and land. These were the planes that would take the Japs on to Manila.
Just as I was leaving the mess hall, the news came over the radio that the Jap planes were circling the island, and sure enough, they were! I ran to my tent, put away my mess gear, grabbed my cap and climbed on a truck.
It is about two miles to the airstrip, but we made pretty good time, because all the traffic was going the same way. As we came closer to the field, we became part of a strange procession. Directly in front and to the rear of us were two P-38s (twin engine fighter aircraft). Further on down the line there were tractors, motor graders, and in fact, most every kind of vehicle you can imagine--all loaded with G.I.s. We parked the truck about a quarter mile from the strip and ran the rest of the way. I got separated from the rest of the men, and stopped on a high spot about 75 yards from the strip. I had scarcely gotten settled when the planes started in for a landing. The planes themselves were Japanese “Betty” bombers, with two engines, bearing some resemblance to our B-26. They were painted white, with green crosses. It had been a hasty paint job—you could still see the red of the rising sun showing through the white. Naturally, the planes had been stripped of all armament. They were escorted by two B-25s, and I don’t know how many P-38s, probably a hundred or more. The latter continued to circle the field for an hour or more, until all the excitement was over.
Both planes made perfect landings, rolled to the far end of the strip, turned and taxied back to our end. They parked right alongside the two large transports that had arrived earlier. They were dwarfed by comparison to our transports.
We were not permitted within a hundred yards or so of the four airplanes. There were several hundred people gathered around the planes, most likely photographers and Air Corps officers. They pretty well hid from view the events of the next few minutes. I could see various people boarding the transport, but couldn’t tell much about them.
Presently they towed one of the Jap planes up a taxiway to a parking area close to where I was sitting. One of our boys pulled his truck right up to the fence, and raised the dump bed. This gave us a grandstand seat, about 15 feet off the ground. When the plane came to rest, the crew started climbing out. There were five in all, dressed in heavy flying clothes. There were two jeeps waiting to take them away. Evidently they didn’t speak English, for there was much waving of hands and shrugging of shoulders. About this time two or three thousand soldiers broke through the ring of guards and started for the Japs. They didn’t have any bad intentions, just curiosity, and wanting to take pictures. I know that if I had been in the place of those Japs, I would have been just a wee bit scared! At any rate, they lost no time in getting into the Jeeps and away from the mob!
Finally, they managed to get the crowd back far enough to bring the other “Betty” over to the parking area. After a few minutes one of the C-47s warmed up its engines and taxied onto the strip. With a mighty roar, she started down the runway. Before she got halfway down the runway, she was in the air, on her way to Manila.
It was a great show, and one I don’t think I shall ever forget, for it is part of the last chapter of this war that has caused so many hardships, and so many heartbreaks. Thank God it is all over.
I wish that you would save this letter for me, or make a copy of it. What I saw today is one of the few things that I have seen, or will see, while I’m in this army that will be worth remembering.
Just as soon as I find out from the censor that it is O.K., I’ll mail this. You will probably have read about it in the newspapers, and seen it in the newsreel, but this may give you a little different slant on it.
I sure do think of you folks a lot. Maybe it won’t be too long now till I can be back with all of you again. I want to write to Barbara tonight, so I’ll end this now.
The captain of the second Mitsubishi Betty also stands up to direct his co-pilot through the crowds waiting and watching. We can tell this is a different Betty as the previous one has a window panel just behind the nose glazing under the chin of the aircraft. This one does not have that particular window pane. Photo: Fred Hill, 17th Photo Recon Squadron
With his twin Kasei 14-cylinder engines thundering, the Japanese pilot guides the Betty through the crowded taxi strip. Photo: Fred Hill, 17th Photo Recon Squadron
Guiding his co-pilot from his perch above the Betty, the commander of the second Green Cross Betty commands him to swing round into position near the awaiting C-54 transports of the Americans. In doing so he blasts the crowd of American sailors and airmen. We can see in this photo that all of the men in the background have their backs turned against the dust storm. Perhaps this was the one satisfying moment for the Japanese crews in this most humiliating of days. Photo: Fred Hill, 17th Photo Recon Squadron
One of the two Bettys comes to a stop across from the waiting Douglas C-54 aircraft that will take the envoys to Manila. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
The second Green Cross Betty to land at Iejima begins to unload its passengers and crew, while American soldiers crowd around. The distinguishing features that help us tell this Betty from the other are the different glazing panels on the nose and the fact that this does not have the Radio Direction Finding (RDF) loop antenna on the top of the fuselage. Photo via leighrobertson.net
The two Green Cross aircraft are stared at by thousands of American soldiers, who watch from the gullies surrounding the airstrip, hoping to get a close look at the once hated, now defeated, Japanese airmen. Note the RDF loop antenna at the top of the fuselage. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
American soldiers and airmen, in daily working gear, gawk at the once-hated Mitsubishi G4M Betty painted white like a flag of surrender and no longer wearing her proud red rising sun roundels known as the Hinomaru. Instead they are required to wear green crosses—Christian symbols if there ever were any. With her RDF loop, this is clearly the first of the two Bettys. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
Moments after the second all-white Betty shuts down on the leshima ramp in the blistering sun, she is surrounded by airmen and plenty of Military Police (MPs). While some of the Japanese stand on the ground, a young airman steps out of the doorway carrying two large bouquets of flowers as a peace offering to the American delegation. The offer of the flowers was rejected by the Americans who felt that it was too soon to make nice with the once haughty Japanese who had treated Allied POWs so roughly. It would be like Auschwitz survivors accepting flowers from the SS, but you have to feel sorry for the young man bearing the gift. Photo via warbirdinformationexchange.org
Looking more than a little worried and even terrified, the young Japanese soldiers look about them to see only angry, disdainful faces. The soldier on the left is the one who has just had his gift of flowers rejected and is no doubt looking for a place to hide. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
Japanese officers and leaders, with a mandate to negotiate their surrender, cross from their Mitsubishi Betty to awaiting C-54 aircraft which will take them to Manila. The truth is there were no negotiations. Surrender was unconditional. But they were there to accept the orders of surrender. The formal signing of the surrender would take place aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945 (two weeks later). Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
Formalities on the ground were quickly performed and within 20 minutes, the eight official commissioners were guided up a ladder into a massive Douglas C-54 transport aircraft, a luxurious accommodation when compared to the Japanese Bettys. They were then flown to Manila in the Philippines to meet with MacArthur. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
After the Japanese delegates boarded the American C-54 Skymaster at Iejima, they were flown 1,500 kilometres over the South China Sea to Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Here, we see General Douglas MacArthur watching the arrival of the Japanese entourage from the balcony of the ruined Manila City Hall. Most of the city’s fine old Spanish-style buildings were destroyed in the battle to retake the city from the Japanese in February and March of that year. Americans and Filipino citizens look on warily. More than 100,000 Manilans and 1,000 Americans were killed battling the Japanese, so this crowd would not be considered to be welcoming. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
The aircrew from one of the Green Cross Bettys shelter from the sun under the wing of their aircraft. With such extreme sunlight, white coral airstrip and white airplane, it is easy to see how the photographer, exposing for the men, had the entire background washed out. However, we can just make out the green cross on the fuselage and one higher on the tail. Notice how none of the airmen are looking directly at the photographer, indicating submission. Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center
Chief Warrant Officer James Chastain, an air force photographer/photo lab technician, with camera in hand, gets one of his buddies to snap a photo of him with a Green Cross Betty. Of that day, Chastain remembers, “Prior to the envoys landing, GI troops had been positioned approximately six feet apart on either side of the landing runway. One of the Betties [sic] had part of the Plexiglas of the tail gunner’s position missing and the person in that position could be plainly seen. As the Betty settled to the runway for a less than perfect landing the person in the tail gunner’s position saw all of the people standing behind the GIs that lined the runway and it appeared that he wasn’t sure what action our guards were going to take, he immediately scurried forward out of sight. Massive rolls of barbed wire prevented us getting in position for close up shots of the Envoys transfer to the awaiting C-54s. Later when we were able to view the Betties more closely, one could see that paint jobs were slightly streaked as if they had been hurriedly applied by brush. One could even see the old red “meat Ball” through the thin white paint. However the green crosses had been applied with more care.” Photo: via James Chastain, 36 Photo Recon Squadron
Another view of the first two Green Cross aircraft at Iejima—Bataan 1 and Bataan 2. Photo: John F. DeAngelis, via bristolpress.com
The two Green Cross Bettys would stay until the delegation returned the next day from Manila. During that time a group of airmen, sailors, and Seabees gathered for a victory photograph like no other, on top of the first Betty to land. The baffed-out Bettys were in rough shape compared to the C-54s the delegation used to get to Manila and we can see pools of oil and fuel beneath this one. Photo via axis-and-allies-paintworks.com
As if being humiliated in surrender, painting over your proud symbols and having your airplane walked on by victorious American boys wasn’t degrading enough, one of the Bettys ran off the taxiway the next day, delaying departure while exasperated Japanese airmen tried to extract the aircraft from the soft coral, earth and embarrassment.
A modeller shows us exactly what the Green Cross Betty would have looked like. One can only imagine the emotions running through the ground crews who were required to paint over their much-adored hinomaru markings and remove her defensive armament. This is the bomber variant of the G4M Betty, while the second aircraft to land was a transport variant. Photo via network54.com, model by Terry aka braincells37
From down in the gully alongside the Iejima airstrip, another photographer takes a colour shot of Betty known as Bataan One. Photo via axis-and-allies-paintworks.com
A colour profile of the Green Cross Mitsubishi G4M Betty bomber (Bataan One) used for the Iejima rendezvous. This gives us a truer sense of the colour of green used. Image via Wings Palette
The island of Iejima today. In 1945, it was the place where the Japanese and the Allies met in peace for the first time in nearly four years. Today, the 9-square-mile farm island is sometimes called “Peanut Island,” for its general shape and peanut crop, or “Flower Island,” for its abundant flower production. Photo via Wikipedia
Even training aircraft like this Kyushu K11W1 Shiragiku (White Chrysanthemum) bombing trainer were painted white with green crosses if they were used to transport emissaries to surrender and peace talks somewhere. Here we see that the thin coat of white paint is barely enough to cover the Hinomaru in this hangared Shiragiku. The pinkish Japanese roundel is covered by a green cross, as this aircraft was somehow used to transport a surrender delegate. Photo via Illinois Institute of Technology Downtown Campus Library as part of the Library of International Relations Collection
From Kamikaze to Green Cross. The same Shiragiku from the previous photograph is pushed outside by American ground crews. The Kyushu K11W Shiragiku, or White Chrysanthemum, was a land-based bombing trainer aircraft, serving in the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service in the latter years of the Second World War. It was designed to train crews in operating equipment for bombing, navigation, and communication. A total of 798 K11Ws were manufactured and these aircraft were also used in kamikaze missions during the last stages of the Pacific War. Photo via mission4today.com
K11W Shiragiku in postwar markings of white overall with green crosses. The aircraft was so obscure and little known to the Allies, that it never got an allied code-name like Betty, Zeke, George or Tony. This one wears the numeral “1” on its tail. Image scanned from The Concise Guide to Axis Aircraft of World War II by David Mondey
Another Green Cross K11W Shiragaku with the numeral “2” on its tail but with very similar painted-out markings beneath its canopy as are seen on the hangared Shiragaku previously depicted. This particular aircraft was photographed at Shanghai in late 1945. One wonders if this is the same aircraft or at least from the same training base in Japan. Note the American C-46 Commandos in the background. Photo via Flickr
A Nakajima B5N2 Kate in near perfect Green Cross markings seems discarded and shoved haphazardly together with other Japanese aircraft. Photo via H.J. Nowarra, The Bill Pippin Collection, 1000aircraftphotos.com
One of the most attractive Japanese aircraft of the Second World War was the Mitsubishi Ki-46 Dinah. Here we see a Green Cross Dinah leaving the plateau airfield of Vunakanau, outside of Rabaul with a delegation to work out the details of the surrender of the Japanese Army and Navy to the Royal New Zealand Air Force at Jacquinot Bay, New Britain. The Japanese who painted this aircraft either misunderstood the order to paint out the Hinomaru marking or just plain couldn’t do it, as the aircraft carries both the red “meatball” and the Green Cross of surrender. Jacquinot Bay Airport (IATA: JAQ) is today an airport near Jacquinot Bay in the East New Britain Province on the island of New Britain in Papua New Guinea. The airstrip was liberated by the Australian Army in 1944. Following the Japanese surrender, several Japanese aircraft were flown from Vunakanau Airfield to Jacquinot Bay Airfield. Photo via Flickr
Another shot of the Ki-46 Dinah from the previous photograph—this time at her destination at the RNZAF field at Jacquinot Bay. In this photograph we can see much more clearly the dual markings of aggression and surrender. Photo via Woody01 at Kiwisim.net.nz
Four surrendered Japanese aircraft after arrival at the RNZAF airfield at Jacquinot Bay, New Britain, on 18 September 1945 (a full month after the Iejima Green Cross flights). The formation consisted of three Mitsubishi A6M5 Model 52 Zero fighters of the Imperial Japanese Navy, and one Ki-46 Dinah reconnaissance aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Army (see previous photograph). The aircraft were flown by Japanese crews, and departed Vunakunau Airfield at Rabaul with an escort of RNZAF F4U Corsair fighters. All the Japanese aircraft wore Green Cross surrender markings. Image from Australian War Memorial via Wikipedia
Royal New Zealand Air Force officers and airmen take a good look at one of the Japanese Zeros flown to Jacquinot Bay, New Britain by Japanese pilots under guard from RNZAF Corsairs. Photo via Woody01 at Kiwisim.net.nz
In the background, RNZAF ground crew work on one of the three Jacquinot Bay Zeros, while in the foreground we see one chocked and waiting for a test flight perhaps. Photo via Woody01 at Kiwisim.net.nz
RNZAF ground crew inspect and work on one of the Green Cross Zeros surrendered at Jacquinot Bay, New Britain. Photo via Woody01 at Kiwisim.net.nz
With Japanese soldiers watching, one of the Jacquinot Bay Mitsubishi Zeros rolls for takeoff while another warms up in the background. Photo via Australian War Memorial
I guess it’s fair to say that the markings on this Mitsubishi Ki-57 passenger transport aircraft are, well... Topsy Turvy. The allied code-name for the type was Topsy. The Topsy was the main personnel transport aircraft used by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second World War, and was developed from the Ki-21 twin-engined heavy bomber. The Ki-57 was used as a communications aircraft, for logistical transport and as a paratroop transport, and served on every front where the Japanese Army was involved. Photo via wwiivehicles.com
A Green Cross Jake is readied for takeoff from Jacquinot Bay, New Britain in October of 1945. This Aichi E13A1 Jake long-range reconnaissance float plane was surrendered to the Royal New Zealand Air Force personnel after it landed on the surface of Jacquinot Bay. While floating there, it developed a leak in a pontoon and sank. It was not recovered. Photo: RNZAF via Australian War Memorial
Nattily dressed Japanese surrender envoys including General Numata Takazo are escorted by RAF and British Army officers to the interrogation building after their arrival at Mingaladon airfield, Rangoon for their surrender of the Japanese Southern Army in Burma. The date was 28 August 1945. The Green Cross aircraft used for this flight in the foreground is also a Mitsubishi Ki-57 Topsy. The aircraft in the background is possibly a Dinah. Photo: Pilot Officer Ashley, RAF via Imperial War Museum
A rather tall and fearsome-looking Commander S. Kusumi (with Samurai sword), a naval officer on the staff of Field Marshal Terauchi, Supreme Commander of Japanese Forces (Southern Region), arrives at Mingaladon airfield, Rangoon, via the hastily marked Mitsubishi Ki-46 Dinah in the background to take part in the surrender negotiations. Photo: Sergeant Bradley, RAF Photographer via Imperial War Museum
A photo of two hangared Green Cross aircraft, possibly at Seletar Airfield in Singapore. The one in the foreground is a Mitsubishi Ki-57 Topsy, while the larger aircraft (likely also in Green Cross markings) at the back is a Showa/Nakajima L2D, called a Tabby by the Allies. The Tabby was a license-built copy (with modifications like the extra cockpit windows) of the Douglas DC-3, though it is unlikely that the Japanese continued to pay the license fee once the war started. Photo via aviationofjapan.com and Tadeusz Januszewski
Another photo from Seletar, Singapore, showing a Mitsubishi G3M Nell and another Tabby aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy’s 13th Air Fleet. The Nell, one of Japan’s earliest heavy bombers (introduced in 1935) was also a transport aircraft like this variant. From 1943, most of the remaining Nells served as glider tugs, aircrew and paratroop trainers and for transporting high-ranking officers and VIPs between home islands, occupied territories and combat fronts until the end of the war. Note the blunt-looking forward turret which was retractable, but is extended in this shot. It was considered too “draggy” and was rarely extended. Photo via aviationofjapan.com and Tadeusz Januszewski
The Japanese ground crew tasked with painting this Mitsubishi Ki-46 Dinah either had only a small amount of white paint or they didn’t have time to paint the whole aircraft. The Dinah was photographed at Atsugi Airfield. Atsugi is a naval air base located near the cities of Yamato and Ayase in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Photo via flickriver.com
A Mitsubishi Ki-57 Topsy with markings that make her appear to be more Red Cross than Green Cross in black and white. Photo via forum.axishistory.com
Followed by jeeps of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, a Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero, flown by a pilot of the RNZAF lands at Piva airfield in Southern Bougainville, New Britain in September of 1945, after having been flown from Kara. It was discovered there in close-to-flying condition nearly two years before. Not trusting the Japanese pilot who assisted in getting it airworthy, the RNZAF pilot, Wing Commander Bill Kofoed, decided to fly it out of the remote airfield—where it had been hidden—with the landing gear down all the way. As he was flying over 200 miles of Kiwi-held territory and did not have full official authorization, he smartly painted the Zero with Green Cross surrender markings. Note the RNZAF Corsairs in the background. Photo: Royal New Zealand Air Force
Wing Commander William Kofoed, RNZAF, poses with the Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero (Reisen) at Kara airstrip on 15 September 1945 before flying it out to Piva. Photo: RNZAF
Kiwi airmen line up at Piva to get a good look at the Kara Zero just moments after it landed. As seen previously, three other Zeros had landed at Jacquinot Bay and were handed over to the RNZAF. Of these, two were given to the Royal Australian Air Force and the other was flown about as a joyride aircraft by curious pilots. Given the lack of official interest in the Jacquinot Bay Zeros, Kofoed decided to pack his Zero off to New Zealand to save it—ASAP. It rode as deck cargo on the inter-island ferry Wahine which was then employed in repatriating Kiwi personnel to New Zealand. Photo: Royal New Zealand Air Force
In Piva airfield in New Britain, Wing Commander Kofoed’s war prize is inspected by members of the Royal New Zealand Air Force. Photo: Royal New Zealand Air Force
The same Zero at Piva has been readied for transport aboard the ferry Wahine to New Zealand as a war prize—with propeller and horizontal stabilizers removed for travel. Photo via State Library of Queensland
Today, the Kara Zero has been restored with it original Hinomaru markings and is on display at the Auckland War Memorial Museum
Another Mitsubishi Zero with ersatz Green Cross markings—a white square with cross and the wing hinomarus replaced by simple white squares and no crosses. Like pretty well every Japanese aircraft surrendered, captured or found, it is not in flyable condition with a missing starboard wheel and damaged left wheel. Photo via aviarmor.net
These Green Cross Mitsubishi Bettys are painted in the surrender markings but appear to have had their propellers removed. These are not the Iejima Bettys. Photo via historybanter.com
An entire flight line in Matsuyama airfield on Formosa (now Taiwan) wears Green Cross markings, including several Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu (Flying Dragon) heavy bombers. Photo via ijaafphotos.com
Two Japanese Green Cross aircraft at Labuan—an island off the coast of Borneo in East Malaysia. The Mitsubishi Ki.21 heavy bomber aircraft (allied code-name Sally) (left) has been painted white with a green surrender cross, and was used to transport Japanese prisoners for trial between Borneo and Labuan. This aircraft was probably the Sally which was flown to Australia in February 1946, having been nicknamed Tokyo Rose. The Tachikawa Ki.54 transport aircraft (allied code-name Hickory) (right) has not been painted white but its hinomaru fuselage marking has been transformed with a white surrender cross over the red circle and the wings carry white crosses next to the red meatballs. The Hickory was used to fly Lieutenant General Masao Baba, Commander of the Japanese 37th Army and Supreme Commander of the Japanese Forces in Borneo, to surrender at Labuan. Photo via Australian War Memorial
The same Tachikawa Ki.54 Hickory as in the previous photo is a good example of surrender markings being either misinterpreted or simply ignored. It sports a white surrender cross over its fuselage Hinomarus and a white cross side by side with the meatballs under the wings. Photo via Australian War Memorial
A Japanese Nakajima Ki-49, Army Type 100 heavy bomber, allied code-name Helen, taxiing after landing on the Pitoe airstrip on Morotai, carrying some of the staff of the commander of the Second Japanese Army, Lieutenant General Fusataro Teshima, on 9 September 1945. As the Japanese were short of serviceable aircraft General Teshima arrived from Pinrang in an RAAF C-47 to surrender the Japanese Second Army to General Sir Thomas Blamey. Note the unusual drogue attached to the tail and the American B-24 Liberator in the background. Photo via Australian War Memorial
A Japanese Mitsubishi Ki-21, Army Type 97 heavy bomber, allied code-name Sally, leading the Nakajima Ki-49, Army Type 100 heavy bomber, (from the previous photo), off the Pitoe airstrip. Both Green Cross aircraft are carrying some of the staff of the commander of the Second Japanese Army, Lieutenant General Fusataro Teshima. Photo via Australian War Memorial
After coming to a stop at Pitoe airfield, the Helen is surrounded by curious Australian airmen. Photo via Australian War Memorial
Wherever Green Cross surrender aircraft went, they were sure to attract every Allied airman, sailor and soldier from miles around—curious to see a Japanese aircraft up close, but even more so to see a Japanese serviceman up close and humbled. Photo via Australian War Memorial
The surrender arrangements dictated by the Allies specified that aircraft carrying peace delegates (or even flying anywhere for that matter) were to be painted white overall and carry the green cross instead of a red hinomaru. This was done to display the peaceful intentions of an army and a navy that was altogether mistrusted by the Allies. In the specific case of a massive four-engined flying boat like the gorgeous Kawanishi H6K Mavis, it was quite possible that the Japanese maintainers would not have the time or the paint to get it fully white. The Mavis in this photograph has only half the fuselage painted as per surrender specs. Photo: USAAF via Major Robert C. Mikesh
The same Kawanishi Mavis flying boat from the previous photograph lies anchored and displaying white outlined green crosses applied right over her red hinomaru markings, which are still visible. Photo via theminiaturespage.com | <urn:uuid:4bbd432b-6a28-40db-af13-fe2a7755384d> | {
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Dedicated to preserving the foundation of the American West, the Eiteljorg Museum is home to some of the most famous paintings in Native American art.
The many sculptures, paintings and artifacts here expose to the present day art-goer the natural history of the North American landscape.
The importance of preserving the past of the American West can be felt within the buildings three main collections: Art of the American West—a collection created from a modern art perspective by 20th century artists; the Native American Collection—a show of art and artifacts from almost every tribal group in North America; and the Gund Collection—a display of paintings of North American horses.
The Gund Collection is the newest addition to the museum, donated in 2002.
Along with the permanent museum collections social exhibitions are also held throughout the year.
Currently, the museum is showing “Quest for the West,” an exhibit featuring 50 of the best artists from all across the country, showing off their creativity and historical Native American perspective through landscapes, wildlife, portrait, still life and narrative paintings.
The exhibition will continue through Oct. 10.
Within this exhibit, the winner of the Artist of Distinction award, Robert Griffing, will display a wider variety of his works from the past 20 years in “Only a Matter of Time: The Paintings of Robert Griffing”.
Griffing’s hope is that this “attempt to accurately portray these people will create an awareness of a much neglected part of our heritage,” according to eiteljorg.org.
The Eiteljorg invites local community members to participate in many programs and events outside of the museum.
In the summer the annual Indian Market and Festival is held in the White River State Park area.
Guests are invited to celebrate the history of North America in a two-day celebration with native food, singing, dancing and musicians.
Every Saturday throughout the fall, viewers are invited to walk to the beat of their own drum, during a Native American community drumming circle lead by a powwow drummer.
Butler University also finds itself a purveyor of Native American culture one Saturday each month when Native American dancing is held at Clowes Memorial Hall.
Performances are taught by native dancers who invite students, museum visitors and the local Butler community to attend. The museum also sponsors other events that can be found on Eiteljorg’s web site, eiteljorg.org.
The Eiteljorg hopes to “tell America’s story”; a wish that has been accomplished through their rich displays of Native American art. If your vision on North American history comes from the black and white photos in a textbook, the Eiteljorg is sure to give you a new perspective.
The Eiteljorg museum is located downtown on West Washington Street in the White River State Park. It is open from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Monday through Saturday, and from noon to 5 p.m. on Sunday’s. Admission for adults and students is $8. | <urn:uuid:1a6a9ac6-128d-4a2c-b52c-609b6c90d74e> | {
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Definitions for mains
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word mains
The source of electrical power in a building; the wiring system of a building.
The domestic electrical power supply.
I plugged it into the mains and it blew up!
The pipes of a centralized water supply that transport the water to individual buildings.
the farm attached to a mansion house
Origin: [Scot. See Manse.]
Mains in Scotland normally refers to the main buildings of a farm. This may include a farmhouse, farm buildings such as a byre and dairy, and workers' cottages. It is a pseudo-plural, actually being a Lowland Scots corruption of the French demesne, and so is never used in the form "Main". The mains was usually the principal farm on an estate, or at least the one with the most fertile ground. The Laird's house - if there was one - may have been nearby or some distance away but is not usually part of the mains. The equivalent in England would be a home farm or perhaps a manor. Many mains remain as working farms, while others have been converted to residential accommodation. Sometimes the buildings and/or farm have disappeared altogether and only the name survives. Mains occurs frequently in Scottish placenames, most noticeably/frequently in the north east of the country, and east coast, extending down into Fife. The usual form is "Mains of X", without the definite article, "the", for example, "Mains of Hallhead". However, the best known example of its use in a Scottish placename is Davidson's Mains, now a suburb of Edinburgh, which does not follow this form. Indeed south of the M8, Mains names almost invariably take the form "X Mains", as in "Mordington Mains". The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary notes the same word/corruption/usage to have occurred in Northern England, and farm names of the form "X Mains" can also be found in northern Northumberland. In some cases, new owners have renamed various mains, "manor" in ignorance of the distinction in Scotland. There are also occasional instances of the media using the tautology, "Mains of X farm". In the local area, it will often be referred to as "the mains".
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
mānz, n. (Scot.) the principal or home farm.
The numerical value of mains in Chaldean Numerology is: 5
The numerical value of mains in Pythagorean Numerology is: 2
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
Body is morning dew that shines to the rise of the hands. (Corps est rosée du matin - Qui brille au lever des mains.)
The hands that are spaced are docks, where desires can dock. (Les mains écartées sont des quais, - Où les désirs peuvent accoster.)
Nous sommes tous des marionnettes dans les mains de Dieu, la puissance supreme! Avoir de solides foi et d'espérance , en particulier dans les phases difficiles de votre vie.
Oxfam does not have cross conflict line access, water does, and to the extent that those mains are operating, we have been supplying, as a humanitarian right, we will do all we can to supply water wherever we can get it.
Vos interactions avec le monde extérieur sont largement déterminées par la façon dont vous vous sentez. Voyez-vous, à moins que et jusqu'à ce que vous vous sentez heureux et confortable sur vous-même, vous ne pouvez pas être heureux avec les autres. Vous devez vous accepter comme vous êtes en réalité. Une fois que vous être en phase avec vous-même, vous atteignez l'harmonie avec le monde extérieur. Votre bonheur est vraiment dans vos propres mains.
Images & Illustrations of mains
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- About the Exhibit
- Empires and Revolutions: 1613–1825
- Trade with Spanish America: 1825-1900
- Cultural Encounters: 1825-1900
- Political Encounters: 1850-1930
- An Hispano Landscape: 1900–45
|Nueva York (1613 – 1945) explores how New York's long and deep involvement with Spain and Latin America has affected virtually every aspect of the city's development, from commerce, manufacturing and transportation to communications, entertainment and the arts. Bringing together New York's oldest museum (New-York Historical Society) and its leading Latino cultural institution (El Museo del Barrio), Nueva York spans more than three centuries of history: from the founding of New Amsterdam in the 1600s to the present day, as represented by a specially commissioned documentary by award-winning filmmaker Ric Burns.|
Attention New York City High School Students!
Whether you’re Latino, Latina, or not, every New Yorker has a story to tell. A story that can
contribute to a richer understanding of our city and its cultural history. We want to hear YOUR story.
1st PRIZE: $100 Gift Certificate
3 RUNNER UP PRIZES: $25 Gift Certificate
And…selected stories will be added to the Nueva York (1613-1945)
exhibition audio tour!
DEADLINE: JANUARY 9, 2011
Click here to tell us YOUR story. | <urn:uuid:3dfb6f39-8d8d-4754-8b0d-b62591140393> | {
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This article provides a brief overview of the prevalence of recent injuries with reference to events which resulted in injuries where medical treatment or some other form of action being taken. Risk factors, long term consequences of injury, hospitalisation, health system costs and mortality information are also discussed.
Unless otherwise stated, this article presents information on injuries received in the four weeks prior to the interview from the 2004-05 ABS National Health Survey (NHS). The 2004-05 NHS collected information on the type of injury, the damage caused by the injury, the activity and location at the time of injury, the part of the body affected and the action taken, as well as long term conditions resulting from injury.
It should be noted that the 2004-05 NHS excluded persons in hospitals, nursing and convalescent homes and hospices and hence the data relates only to persons in private dwellings.
The article also draws on data from the 1998 and 2003 ABS Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers and the annual ABS Causes of Death collection.
For further information about these and related statistics, contact the National Information and Referral Service on 1300 135 070 or email [email protected].
- An injury is a trauma, poisoning or other condition of rapid onset to which factors and circumstances external to the person contributed significantly (AIHW & DHFS 1998).
- Injury prevention and control was first recognised as a national health priority for Australia in 1986.
- Although the average impact of less severe injuries is relatively low, they are so numerous that the aggregate burden due to them is considerable, in terms of costs of providing treatment and time lost from work (SIPP 2004).
AGE AND SEX
- The 2004-05 NHS indicated that 18% of the population (3.6 million persons) had sustained a recent injury (in the previous four weeks).
- The proportion of people reporting a recent injury in 2004-05 may have been affected by changes to the survey questions which are likely to have encouraged reporting of cuts, reported by 5% of Australians and exposure to fire/heat (0.9%) (footnote 1).
- The age group most likely to sustain a recent injury was the 0-14 years age group with a reported prevalence of 25% (males 24%, females 25%).The likelihood of sustaining an injury within the previous four weeks declines with age to 10% of those aged 65 and over.
- Males reported a slightly higher prevalence of recent injury overall (19%) compared to females (18%), although this pattern varied across age groups.
Proportion of persons recently injured (a), 2004-05
TYPE OF INJURY EVENT
- The most common events which led to an injury were cuts (28% of all events) and falls of one metre or less (21% of all events).
- The proportion of males who received a recent injury from cuts (31% of all males with injuries) was higher than the proportion of females (25% of all females with injuries). Injuries from bites or stings occurred more frequently to females (12% of all females with injuries) than males (7% of all males with injuries).
- Recent injuries from vehicle accidents which occurred were most likely to occur in the 25-34 years age group (34% of all vehicle accidents).
- Many types of recent injuries were more likely to happen to those in the 0-14 years age group. For example, 55% of all falls below one metre and 51% of falls of more than one metre, 51% of all attacks by another person resulting in injury, and 37% of injuries from bites or stings.
Type of injury event (a), 2004-05
NATURE OF INJURY
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF INJURY EVENT
- The most common form of recent injury was that of an open wound (49% of all persons with recent injuries). Open wounds were a more common form of injury for males (53%) than for females (44%).
- Nearly half (47%) of the 0-14 years age group who experienced an injury had an open wound. Bruising was also a common injury in this age group (37% of persons).
- The age group most likely to suffer dislocations, sprains or torn muscles/ligaments was the 25-34 years age group, where 20% of recently injured persons received these forms of injury.
- In the 65 years and over age group, the common forms of injury were that of an open wound (53% of persons) and bruising (24%).
- Over one third (39%) of persons who were injured in the four weeks prior to interview injured their legs or feet, while one third (34%) of persons received injuries to the hands or fingers. Other common places of injury were arms and wrists (16% of persons) and the head (8%).
- Leisure activities were the most common activity being undertaken when a person was injured (27% of all persons recently injured were undertaking leisure activity at the time of injury).
- In the 0-14 years age group, 54% of injuries occurred during leisure activities. Sports activities accounted for 15% of injuries, while 12% of injuries received in this age group occurred while attending school.
- In persons aged 15 years and over, leisure activities (27%) was the most common activity being undertaken when an injury occurred in the four weeks prior to interview.
Activity at time of injury (a), Persons aged 15 years and over, 2004-05
LOCATION AT TIME OF INJURY EVENT
- Persons who received recent injuries were most likely to experience them inside (30%) or outside (25%) their own or someone else's home.
- Females were nearly twice as likely to be inside their home or someone else's home when they had an injury (39%) compared to males (21%).
- Males were much more likely to be injured at a sports facility, athletics field or park (13%) compared to females (9%).
- Persons working for an income were injured in a variety of locations, such as commercial places (43%), industrial places (26%) and farms (5%).
- In 2004-05, 16% of those persons who received an injury in the four weeks prior to interview visited a doctor or other health professional regarding their injury. Only 5% of those injured visited a hospital.
- Of those who experienced a recent injury, 22% cut back on their usual activities because of the injury.
Action taken after an injury event (a), 2004-05
There are several factors that contribute to the risk of injury including alcohol consumption and work. Alcohol is an important risk factor in both fatal and non-fatal injuries while some occupations, such as manual work, increase the risk of an injury occurring (AIHW 2006).
- Adults at high risk of long-term health problems due to a risky/high risk level of alcohol consumption (footnote 2) were more likely to report one or more injuries in the four weeks before interview than adults who never consumed alcohol (18% compared to 11%).
- Drinking alcohol has been associated with risk of injury in many settings, including vehicle and cycling accidents, incidents involving pedestrians, falls, fires, sports and recreational injuries, and violence. The presence of alcohol in the body at the time of injury may also be associated with greater severity of injury and less positive outcomes (NHMRC 2001).
- In 2004-05, 3% of recently injured persons reported being under the influence of alcohol or other substances at the time of injury. Of these, more males than females reported being under the influence of alcohol or other substances at the time of injury (55% and 45% respectively.)
LONG TERM INJURY
- As reported in the 2004-05 NHS, one quarter (25%) of recently injured persons aged 15 years and over were injured while they were working for an income. Of all employed persons aged 15 years and over, 7% had received an injury while working for income in the four weeks prior to interview
- More than half (63%) of persons in the 2004-05 NHS who received an injury while working for an income had injuries in the form of open wounds.
- Of adults employed in all industry groups, those in the construction industry were most likely to receive a recent injury while working for income. 13 % of construction workers were recently injured while working for income compared to 7% of all employed adults.
- Similarly, employed tradespersons and related workers (aged 18 years and over) were the occupation group most likely to receive a recent injury while working for an income (15% were recently injured while working for income). The majority of tradespersons injured were in three industries - the construction industry (36%), the manufacturing industry (19%) and the retail trade industry (17%).
- Long term injuries are long term conditions resulting from injury. In the 2004-05 NHS, 11% of persons of all ages reported a long term condition which resulted from injury.
- In persons 15 years and over, musculoskeletal conditions were the most commonly reported long-term condition due to an injury. Musculoskeletal conditions accounted for a quarter (25%) of all long-term conditions due to injury.
- Injury was reported (for those 15 years and over) as the cause for 31% of those with back/pain problems, or disc disorders; 16% of those with rheumatism and other soft issue disorders; and 12% of those with arthritis.
- In the Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers, people reported that injuries, poisoning and other external causes were the reason for approximately 8% of all physical disabilities in both 1998 and 2003 (ABS 1999, ABS 2004a).
- One in ten of those with a disability because of injury, poisoning and other external causes had a profound core-activity limitation (footnote 3) in 2003, while 28% had a mild core-activity limitation. Nearly half (45%) reported having a schooling or employment restriction.
HEALTH SYSTEM COSTS
- Injury accounted for over one in twenty hospital separations (footnote 4) in 2003-04 with more than 370,000 inpatient episodes that year (AIHW 2006).
- Age is an important factor in the number of separations for injury. Young adults produce the most separations, late middle aged the least, while those in advanced old age again produce many separations (AIHW 2006).
- The rate of hospitalised injury among those 85 years or over in 2003-04 was more than 8,900 per 100,000 persons. This high rate is almost entirely due to injury following a fall (AIHW 2006).
- In 2000-01, 8% of total allocated health expenditure ($4.0 billion) was spent on persons who experienced injuries (AIHW 2004b).
- The majority of expenditure on injuries in 2000-01 took place in hospitals (70%), with 15% of expenditure being used on out-of-hospital medical expenses. Costs associated with professionals such as physiotherapists and chiropractors accounted for 7% of expenditure (AIHW 2004b).
- Falls accounted for 41% of expenditure on unintentional injuries in 2000-01. Adverse events in surgical or medical care, such as infections after treatment and inappropriate medication (18%) (footnote 5), and road traffic accidents (11%) were the other major events leading to expenditure on unintentional injury (AIHW 2004b).
- Injuries due to homicide and violence accounted for 60% ($223.3 million) of total allocated health expenditure on intentional injuries in 2000-01 with $149.2 million (40%) being spent on suicide and self-inflicted injuries (AIHW 2004b).
1. There are some differences between the information collected on injury in the 2001 and 2004-05 NHS. The 2001 NHSs collected data on the three most recent events resulting in action, while the 2004-05 NHS collected data on only the most recent event (resulting in action). In terms of the overall level of recent injury, while both surveys refer to the occurrence of at least one injury in the last four weeks, additional wording in the questions used in the 2004-05 NHS are likely to have increased reporting of the relevant injuries ('cut with knife/tool/other implement' and 'exposure to fire/heat'), and the overall level of injury in the most recent survey. For further information see the 2004-05 National Health Survey: Users' Guide (cat. no. 4364.0.55.001). Back
2. Alcohol risk levels refer to harm in the long-term and assumes the level of alcohol consumption is typical. For more information see the Glossary in the National Health Survey: Summary of Results, 2004–05 (cat. no. 4364.0). Back
3. Core activities comprise communication, mobility and self care. Back
4. Hospital separations are the process by which a hospital records the completion of treatment and/or care for an admitted patient (AIHW 2006). Back
5. Injuries from adverse events in surgical or medical care are particularly under-represented in the NHS due to the scope of the survey being restricted to private dwellings. Back
6. For further information on deaths from external causes, see Causes of Death, Australia, 2004 (ABS Cat. No. 3303.0). Back
LIST OF REFERENCES
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2005, 'Mortality and Morbidity: Children's Accidents and Injuries', Australian Social Trends 2005, Cat. No. 4102.0, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006a, National Health Survey: Summary of Results, Australia, 2006, Cat. No. 4364.0, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006b, National Health Survey: Users' Guide, Electronic, 2006, Cat. No. 4364.0.55.001, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006c, National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey, 2006, Cat. No. 4715.0, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006d, Causes of Death, Australia, 2004, Cat. No. 3303.0, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004a, Disability, Ageing and Carers: Summary of Findings, Australia, 2003, Cat. No. 4430.0, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004b, Deaths from External Causes, Australia, 1998-2002, Cat. No 3320.0, ABS, Canberra
Australian Bureau of Statistics 1999, Disability, Ageing and Carers: Summary of Findings, Australia, 1998, Cat. No. 4430.0, ABS, Canberra.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2006, Australia's Health 2006, AIHW Cat. No. AUS 73, AIHW, Canberra.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2004b, AIHW Disease Expenditure Database, October 2004.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2003, Rural, regional and remote health: a study on mortality (summary of findings), AIHW Cat. No. PHE49, Canberra.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 1998, Health in rural and remote Australia, AIHW Cat. No. PHE 6, AIHW, Canberra.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare and Department of Health and Family Services 1998, National Health Priority Areas Report, Injury Prevention and Control, Cat. No. PHE 3, AIHW, Canberra.
National Health and Medical Review Council 2001, Australian Alcohol Guidelines: Health Risks and Benefits, Cat. No. Ds9, NHMRC.
Strategic Injury Prevention Partnership, The Draft National Injury Prevention Plan: 2004 Onwards, Canberra: SIPP 2004.
- Injury deaths are conventionally defined as those where the underlying cause of death was determined to be an external cause. The ABS Causes of Death Collection includes information on these deaths. The most common external causes of death are suicide, transport accidents, falls, accidental poisoning, suffocation, drowning and assault (Footnote 6).
- Deaths from external causes have decreased markedly over the last 30 years in Australia, mainly due to decreasing death rates from transport accidents. Prior to 1991, the leading external cause of death was motor vehicle accidents, but after 1991 the death rate from motor vehicle accidents became lower than the death rate from intentional self-harm (suicide) (ABS 2004b).
- For the total population death rates from injuries increase with remoteness (from 1.2 times higher than Major Cities rates in Inner Regional areas to 2.4 times in Very Remote areas) (AIHW2003). There is a strong pattern of increasing mortality from injury with increasing remoteness, particularly for males (AIHW 1998).
- In 2004, external causes accounted for 6% of total registered deaths (all ages). In younger age groups, however this proportion was far greater. For example, in the 15-24 year age group, external causes (mainly transport accidents and suicide), accounted for 71% of total deaths (ABS 2006d).
- Boys are more likely than girls to both experience and die as a result of an injury. While half of all children are boys (at 30 June 2001, 51% of 1-14 year olds were boys), nearly two-thirds of injury deaths for this age group between 1999 and 2003 were boys (62%) (ABS 2005). | <urn:uuid:3b8b4cd2-1832-45c6-8475-6b1604e3b964> | {
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What is Probate?
In a nutshell, probate is the legal process that ensures that the correct persons inherit the property and possessions of a person who has passed away.
The process is initiated in the courts by the person who is entitled to serve as the Executor of the estate. That is either the person who is named as Executor in the Will of the deceased person, or the person who has the right to be the Executor under statute when there is no Will.
Once the appointment of the Executor is approved by the court, he or she will then gather the property and possessions of the deceased person together and make sure that all outstanding bills that are filed with the court are paid.
After that is accomplished, the Executor will then disburse the remaining property and possessions to the rightful heirs. Those are the heirs that we either named in the Will of the person who passed away or, if there is no Will, the heirs dictated by the statutes that apply in the absence of a Will. | <urn:uuid:2a1991c3-83b1-41ca-acfa-a9f413380949> | {
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Nursing Assistant Book Chp. 5 Infection Control
The invasion of disease-causing organism in body.
Microorganisms - Germs - Microbes
Tiny living things
Bacteria or viruses, cause disease.
Single cell, some beneficial to humans while others cause disease.
Single or multi cell, Plant cause disease.
Smallest known infection agent.
Single cell, animal, live in water, cause disease.
Bacteria, common cause of infection
Bacteria, common cause of chest/throat infection
Bacteria can grow well on remains of food left in patient area
Bacteria grow well here.
Require oxygen to live
Bacterias worst enemy
Favors bacteria, grows rapidly.
Bacteria live on dead matter
Bacteria live on living matter
Disease that can spread
Chain of infection
Infectious disease is transmitted and developes in persons body
Pathogen that causes infection/disease
Reservior of Agent
Pathogen lives and reproduce
Portal of Exit
Pathogens leave resevior(body secretions)
Route of Transmission
Pathogen is transmitted from the reservior to new hosts body
Portal of Entry
Pathogens enter the body
Individual who harbors pathogens
Person with disease but, shows no signs
Object that is contaminated with pathogens
Transfer of microorganisms by contact with body surfaces
Transfer of microorganisms by droplets propelled through air
Transfer of microorganisms by evaporated droplets in air
Infection acquired in health care facility
Refers to disease that can spread through people
Medical Asepsis - Clean Technique
Practices to maintain a clean environment
Free from all microorganisms
Refer to object/area not contaminated by pathogens
Refer to object/area has been contaminated
Needles, scalpels, razor blades.
Unprotected contact with pathogens
PPE: prevent contact with body fluids
Use chemical substance to kill most microorganisms
Killing all microorganisms including spores.
Cleaning of patient room after discharged.
Specific procedures to prevent patient from infecting others
Guidelines applying to care of all patients
Transmission Based Precautions
Isolation procedures for patients with contagious disease
Microorganisms normally present in human body
Can survive without oxygen | <urn:uuid:1adc868f-1175-408f-ae37-a3701fcbd37a> | {
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For this application test of soldering copper pins onto a PCB, the customer needs to define a new process for manufacturing a small PCB assembly, due to a material change for one of the components.
The customer needs to attach copper pins to a PCB (this is a small potentiometer assembly). For the current process, the customer ultrasonically welds the copper pins onto the substrate of the PCB. However, they are changing to a stiff copper pin which cannot be ultrasonically welded. This application test is to show that induction is a viable process for soldering the copper pins to the PCB, while meeting the target production rate of an average of 3 pins to one PCB every second.
• Printed circuit board (PCB)– substrate 0.217″ (5.512mm) x 0.0197″ (.5mm) x 0.025″ (.635mm) thick plated copper
• Copper pins, 0.016″ (.406mm) diameter, 0.475″ (12.065mm) long, 3 pins per PCB (mechanically connected prior to soldering).
Power: 2.4 kW
Time: 12 sub assembly boards in 3.5 seconds
Temperature: Tested temperature 500°F (260°C) +
- For this application test of soldering copper pins onto a PCB, we need to use induction to heat the pins to approximately 500°F (260°C). During the assembly process, the heated pins will conduct heat into the solder paste, and cause the solder paste to flow. For this test, the solder paste is not important – our goal is to confirm that the copper pins will met the target temperature of approximately 500°F (260°C). Tempilaq, a temperature monitoring paint, is painted onto the pins, so we can monitor their temperature.
- Some preliminary testing was conducted to determine the best position of the PCBs within the induction coil. Testing was done for both parts under the coil and above the coil. Parts that were positioned under the coil did not reach temperature, while parts positioned above the coil were able to heat to 500°F (260°C).
- The testing setup simulates use of an automated conveyor, where subassemblies can be moved through the center of the hairpin coil exposing the pins to the RF field. The substrate was set at 0.092” (2.337mm) above the coil turn. This process resulted in the ability to heat 12 sub assemblies to a temperature above 500°F (260°C) in a total cycle time of 3.5 seconds (about 0.3 seconds / PCB). This cycle time will permit either a much faster process potential.
- The final coil design will utilize the hairpin coil used in this application test, but will modify the coil to include a “bridge” entry and exit, which provide clearance for the small PCB to move through the coil.
For this application test of Induction soldering copper pins onto a PCB, the test results indicate that the process of heating the pad/pin interface on the substrate can be done at the rate of 1 PCB assembly every 0.3 seconds, which exceeds the target of 1 second per PCB. By using UPT-SB3/1000 system, the customer’s production rates can grow to meet increasing demand for the parts. | <urn:uuid:47c621f5-1df1-4640-8495-095ee3ed4aeb> | {
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Global warming isn’t just some unfortunate consequence of modern society – we’re doing it on purpose. For revenge.
The first photo of the mountainous iceberg that destroyed the Titanic — and sent 1,514 of her passengers to a watery grave in the frigid North Atlantic — has finally surfaced.
A century after the supposedly unsinkable ship went down in the inky darkness on April 15, 1912, a picture showing the killer berg floating on a still and frozen horizon is up for auction.
Racing to the rescue as England’s pride and joy went down on her maiden voyage was the RMS Carpathia…It was on board the Carpathia that passenger Mabel Fenwick captured the floating ice mass that took down the great ship. The hull of one of the Titanic’s lifeboats can be seen in the top right corner of the historic image.
Here’s the picture:
Just look at that smug bastard, will you? Just floating on by. With that smirk. As if nothing had happened at all.
Makes your skin crawl, doesn’t it? Okay, that’s it: I’m going outside and running my car’s engine, just to show that iceberg it can’t just $%&@! with the human race and expect to get away with it. | <urn:uuid:d465b90d-8b0b-4e23-a73d-606f23c7a496> | {
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After so many failed attempts, North Korea finally rocketed its satellite into space early Wednesday — only to watch it go "tumbling out of control," as U.S. officials tell NBC News Wednesday night. That's not only another embarrassment for a country that's looking to launch a nuclear missile — it's a possible safety hazard to a whole lot of other countries. Well done, North Korea.
First of all, the space object could crash with another satellite like that time two space vehicles collided over Siberia in 2009. That accident had minor effects — the debris didn't cause much harm, with most of it burning up in the atmosphere. Some of the space junk did end up falling on Texas and New Mexico, though. And a school bus-sized piece came crashing down, albeit into the Atlantic Ocean. (Some people, of course, attributed this to god and or aliens.)
Second, it's not clear what this "space object" does. North Korea claims it's for weather purposes, with the official state news agency dubbing it, rather enthusiastically, a "satellite" — but the White House is not so sure. Plenty of security experts have looked down at the launch as an initial threat to national security, but the material aboard this flight isn't nearly advanced enough to come crashing down in too dangerous a manner.
As of right now, this tracker puts the object's orbit above the Pacific, near Japan. | <urn:uuid:0f7bd572-edff-4c9d-8042-3150c1a84b3e> | {
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Kansas Barbed Wire Museum
Barbed wire as we know it today was patented in 1874 by 60-year-old Joseph Glidden. He fashioned barbs on an improvised coffee bean grinder, placed them at intervals along a smooth wire, and twisted another wire around the first to hold the barbs in place. His success set off a creative frenzy that led to more than 530 barbed wire patents (and a three-year legal battle over the rights), more than 2,000 barbed wire tool patents, and a host of liniments claiming to cure injuries caused by barbed wire. The Kansas Barbed Wire Museum has more than 2,100 barbed wire samples on display, including many of the unsuccessful attempts made prior to 1873.
Please provide the following:
Activity Type:Trips and Destinations
Grade:K-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9-12
Fun Fact:Originally invented for use by ranchers and homesteaders, barbed wire soon was adopted by the military. During the Spanish American War, Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders defended their camps with the help of barbed wire. During WW I, rolls of twisted barbed wire, known as concertina wire, were stretched from Switzerland to the English Channel. | <urn:uuid:33d35054-8de3-4b16-955a-7bb84abeba39> | {
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The whole idea of mathematics is to make things easier. It allows us to understand the world is ways that would be impossible without it. So it’s a great shame that many people see it as shrouded in mystery. Eugenia Cheng tries to overcome this problem in this book about mathematics and cooking (and in some cases, the mathematics of cooking).
The intricate details of mathematics can be tricky to get straight, but the concepts should be intelligible if presented properly. In this book, Cheng works towards an understanding of Category Theory, her own specialist area of mathematics. (I think this is the “mathematics of mathematics” mentioned in the subtitle.) Each chapter starts with a simple recipe, which Cheng uses to illustrate a mathematical concept. This strategy works well: you really get a good idea of what the concept is and why it’s useful, without getting hung up on complexities.
This amazing book sets out a mathematical framework for describing and constructing numbers, and then generalises this to a way of analysing certain games. You probably need a postgraduate degree in mathematics to really understand all of it. I am not quite that qualified, but I know enough to be awed by what can be done by simply starting with nothing. Literally nothing: Conway starts with just an empty set, and proceeds to show how to spin this out into integers, rational numbers, real numbers, infinite numbers, infinitesimal numbers, and (believe it or not) more.
The whole class of numbers he constructs is called the Surreal numbers, and that’s a fair evocation of the way this book stretches my mind. I can generally understand the steps in the various derivations, but it takes some time and effort to develop the intuition to really understand the later constructions and to see where they are heading. Conway obviously had this intuition: after working on the ideas for some years, he wrote this book in just a week. | <urn:uuid:07111a46-9655-470b-8647-63f1fcf4bfa2> | {
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The world is on a quest to create cleaner, quieter airplanes that could replace the fuel-guzzling, roaring commercial aircraft in use today.
Maxwell is a hybrid electric research plane equipped with 14 electric propeller-turning motors located along the wings. The experimental plane will be put through a number of tests over the next four years in an effort to demonstrate that electrical propulsion can make planes quieter, more efficient, and environmentally friendly.
“With the return of piloted X-planes to NASA’s research capabilities – which is a key part of our 10-year-long New Aviation Horizons initiative – the general aviation-sized X-57 will take the first step in opening a new era of aviation.” Charles Bolden, NASA Administrator
During take-off and landing, Maxwell will make use of all 14 motors to create sufficient thrust, but once it’s up in the air it will only use the two larger motors located on the tips of the wings.
NASA engineers believe that this unique design will result in a five-time reduction of the energy required for a small, private planes to cruise at 175 mph.
“NASA researchers working directly with the hybrid electric airplane also chose to name the aircraft “Maxwell” to honor James Clerk Maxwell, the 19th century Scottish physicist who did groundbreaking work in electromagnetism. His importance in contributing to the understanding of physics is rivaled only by Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton” – NASA
Maxwell is a result of NASA’s “New Aviation Horizons” initiative: a 10-year program to create a new generation of X-planes that will make use of greener energy, use half as much fuel, and be half as loud as commercial aircraft in use today. In the President’s FY 2017 budget, NASA received $790 million to fund New Aviation Horizons among other similar green-aviation initiatives.
NASA’s Contribution to Aviation Innovation
While we often think of robots on Mars or astronauts on board the International Space Station when we think of NASA, we shouldn’t forget about that first “A” in the agency’s acronym (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). As I’ve stated in a previous article:
For over 100 years, NASA and its predecessor NACA (the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) have used experimental aircraft to advance aviation technology. Through government funds, the agency has reduced the expensive research and development burden on private companies and shortened the time it takes to commercialize new aviation technologies.
Originally known as XS-planes for eXperimental Supersonic and later shortened to simply X, the X-planes are a family of experimental aircraft intended solely for research. Over 56 X-plane concepts have been created and they represent some of the greatest strides in aviation research that NASA has made over the years.
To accomplish the goals set out by New Aviation Horizons, NASA researchers are generating new plane designs and exchanging internal combustion engines that require lead-based aviation fuel with electric motors.
This design change could bring about a number of advantages. Internal combustion engines require bulky, drag-inducing mechanisms for cooling air, combustion air intake, fuel lines, and handling exhaust gases.
In contrast, electrical engines are smaller, less complex, and contain fewer moving parts. For these reasons, electrically powered planes could solve emission problems and, just like electrically powered cars, would be quieter than current commercial alternatives.
However, electrically powered planes require an energy source. Maxwell, for example, will be powered with batteries. Unfortunately, batteries need recharging, and unless you plan to cater your entire airplane design around the use of solar panels, you may only be able to complete short trips.
But, as NASA stated in their press release, Maxwell is designed to be a private plane, which aren’t often optimized for long-haul flights anyway.
Both the weight and storage capacity of batteries on the market today are limiting factors for electric planes, but companies in the automotive industry, like Tesla, are working to change this rather quickly.
Electric aircraft designs have their challenges, but with potentially huge upsides (and mandates from Congress), it’s worth the effort to try to solve them. NASA has a history of propelling the commercial aviation industry forward through fundamental research. With New Aviation Horizons, their hoping to continue that legacy.
An Electrically Powered Future
Electrical airplanes are sure to change the look of aviation, but if humans plan to continue to fly in the future we’ll have to embrace this new era of flight.
According to some reports, the world only contains enough petroleum resources to last us through the year 2100. And as we get closer to that date, fuel prices are likely to rise higher and higher.
Eventually, we’ll need to wean ourselves off of internal combustion engines and the aircraft that use them. To do that, we’ll need to see innovation in aircraft design, battery technology, solar cells and electrically powered engines themselves.
In addition to NASA, companies like Boeing and Airbus, and even other countries have started investing in this future. Planes like the GL-10, Helios, E-Fan, and Solar Impulse have already demonstrated the feasibility of electric planes.
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Even Elon Musk has suggested that he has plans to come up with an electrically powered jet. When asked to talk about his “next great idea” Musk responded, “Well I have been thinking about the vertical takeoff and landing electric jet a bit more. I mean, I think I have something that might close. I’m quite tempted to do something about it.”
NASA’s Maxwell is the first X-plane in a decade, but the agency has plans for as many as five more through New Aviation Horizons. The technologies and knowledge gained through this initiative will be passed on to the private sector with the hope that, eventually, electric airplanes will become commonplace and transform flying as we know it. | <urn:uuid:c415692a-881a-48f8-a5be-eb02aae0ea6f> | {
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How to have a healthy Easter
Easter doesn’t have to mean overindulging in chocolate. Follow Senior Dietitian Victoria Taylor’s tips for a guilt-free holiday.
1. Get your day off to a cracking start
Eggs are traditional Easter fare but have previously received bad press because of their high cholesterol content. Actually, saturated fat is more likely to raise your LDL (bad) cholesterol levels overall. For most people, it’s more important to think about how you cook your eggs rather than how many of them you eat.
Avoid frying your egg in bacon fat or adding butter to your scrambled eggs, and poach or boil them instead to keep the saturated fat down.
2. Enjoy a healthy Easter lunch
Why not brighten someone’s day with a bunch of daffodils?
If you’re planning a get-together over the Easter bank holiday, make it a healthy one. Try some of our recipes, such as spring lamb with vegetable couscous, served with green vegetables or a salad. Walk your food off with a trip to the park before coming home and enjoying some of our carrot cake. Visit our recipe finder to get more delicious recipes.
3. Say it without chocolate
Traditionally, Lent and Easter is a time of fasting and feasting, but there are other ways to celebrate than gorging on chocolate. Why not brighten someone’s day with a bunch of daffodils? Have hot cross buns instead of simnel cake and, for the children, decorate hard-boiled eggs for an Easter egg hunt rather than handing over chocolate eggs.
4. Hunt down Easter activities for all the family
Check your local paper for organised egg hunts or egg rolling
Get out and about this Easter. Check your local paper for organised egg hunts or egg rolling.
Or if you’re looking to do something more active, take a look at our events page to see what’s happening in your area.
But isn't chocolate good for you?
The press keeps feeding us the line that dark chocolate can be good for your heart because it contains substances called flavanols. It’s true that some studies suggest flavanols may offer a blood-pressure-lowering effect.
However, all chocolate – even the high-cocoa content stuff – also comes with lots of saturated fat, sugar and calories, which won’t do your cholesterol levels (or your waistline) any good.
Apricots, blackberries and apples also contain flavanols and, while containing lower amounts than cocoa, they don’t come with the unhealthy extras. | <urn:uuid:035c439b-02b1-4d77-aefb-5394662b05f2> | {
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The Combined Science syllabus in Cambridge O Level evolves learners’ fundamental scientific skills in Chemistry, physics and biology. It builds up practical knowledge and comprehension of fundamental scientific principles and concepts, along with the capability to deal with information and problem solving. There isn’t any practical exam however students will acquire experience of the study and use of science throughout experimental work in school.
For Combined Sciences, pupils have to take Paper 1, Paper 5 and two of Papers 2, 3 and 4, based on which combined science combination they take.
Paper 1 will include Forty MCQ with roughly a similar weightage for each of the science. In terms of Paper 2/3/4, you will find 2 sections too. Section A will have Forty five marks and all of the questions listed here are required. Section B comes with Twenty marks in total with a choice of choosing Two from Three questions of equal weightage to answer.
For Paper 5, it’ll have Thirty marks and contain 1 or 2 compulsory questions on each of the 2 Sciences. If you want to score well in this subject, the best is to engage a home tutor from https://hometuitionhotspot.com/combined-science-tuition to guide you through.
Chemistry generally is a fairly complicated subject for many pupils. Actually, this is very common. This is because students don’t have a solid understanding of the very fundamentals of the topic. This will certainly change with the aid of a home tutor. Chemistry can also be a lot more interesting with a tutor who is able to help your understanding.
First of all, a home tutor can assist in elaborating and simplifying a number of the more difficult principles. It will help to explain any kind of doubts and clear any kind of confusions within the mind of scholars. Additionally it is imperative that you possess a solid foundation because the subjects will only become more difficult as it goes on. With a better comprehension, it can go very far to help you in getting good results in your examinations.
Second of all, because A level Chemistry is a more theory centered subject matter, it might become fairly boring sometimes by simply studying it on your own. Through the help of a home tutor, they can aid in connecting the theory aspect together with actual application. It will allow you to possess a more clear comprehension of the topic and a heads up for the assessments and tests.
Finally, house tuition is quite versatile. You can have it at the desired day and time. If for whatever reason, you’re not able to have tuition, it is easy to try rescheduling it with the educator. On the other hand, it also needs to count on the tutor’s availability. In addition, you can select the topics which you want to concentrate on or that you’re poor in. In educational institutions, teachers need to adhere to a standard curriculum, therefore, they won’t have the ability to personalize the class only for you. A level chemistry tuition, however, enables you to have this kind of versatility.
Are you looking for a home tuition teacher in Singapore? Before you find home tutor, you must know the important advantages of getting home tuition. Let’s read on…
1. One to one attention
The advantage of getting a home tutor is the 1-to-1 focus which the pupil will get from the tutor. This will be significant because the pupil can ask the tutor to explain and ask any kind of question to explain any doubt that they might have whenever they wish to. It is alright when the pupil is inquiring ten curriculum questions everytime, because home tuition is usually 100% customized based on the learning speed of the pupil. In addition, with a One to one tutor to student proportion, a tutor can completely concentrate on the student’s weak point and use the required teaching necessary to enhance the student’s result.
As opposed to what lots of tuition centers believe, private tutor are equally or even more relevant as compared to tutors seen in tuition centers When you take a look at the various selection of home tutors out there, student tutors form the biggest numbers. This specific range of tutors tend to be fresh from their High school education and would most likely comprehend the present school curriculum. The second biggest range of home tutors on offer are : full-time tutors, existing or ex-teachers. Full-time educators are expert tutors who will teach tuition as a living. They’re probably the most skilled and devoted range of tutors.
2. Much less time wasted
Private tuition can assist your kid save several hours of unneeded travelling time and this can be better utilized to revise their class work, get involve in sport activities or rest following a lengthy day in class.
3. More versatility, increasing the frequencies when needed
As opposed to the set schedules of a tuition center, private tutors tend to be more versatile with their time so you can easily add in the student’s schedule with the tutor’s. Moreover, pupils will be able to discuss with their home tutors if they think that there’s a necessity to increase the lesson frequency because of reasons like incoming exam and so on.
In the search to have an outstanding IB tuition in Singapore? Maybe you have trying very hard to look for a tutor who provides IB? Considering the unique program of the International Baccalaureate (IP) and its|as well as its tailor made program, it truly is normal for you to get a tutor who’s him or her self have gone through the curriculum in order to comprehend what your kid is dealing with.
The tuition agency at http://hometuitionhotspot.com/levels/international-baccalaureate-ib-tuition, provide IB tutors mainly in the 1-to-1 sector, their tutors are qualified and fit to coach the IB curriculum and training programmes. Leave behind poor grades and jump start your child’s journey while he fulfils his / her highest potential.
Should it be a quick course or a lasting tuition going throughout your child’s IB learning, they have an arsenal of completely qualified and bubbly IB educators from Singapore, which have 100 % knowledge of the topics including Physical Education, Science, Mathematics, Music and Social Studies.
Including Preschool to Diplomas, they are confident to surpass your objectives and offering you the most effective IB tutors in all areas in Singapore.
O level exams are crucial examinations for pupils who plan to proceed their academic path. People who fail or perform poorly for these exams will find it hard to get entry to junior college, poly and ITE, all of which will need turn to private educational facilities. It’s not unusual for pupils who didn’t perform well for their O-level exams to retake the exam as being private candidates.
Getting home tutors for pupils who’re having difficulties in upper secondary school is quite beneficial since the subjects get more challenging in general, pupils tend to be more in need of individual assistance to be able to acquire an understanding. During this period, the majority of the subject matter requires a certain degree of comprehending and not simply practice alone. Even though pupils can prepare on their own by practising previous year questions, they’ll continue to keep struggle except if they do know the foundations in it.
Private tutors can provide 1-1 session and find out the areas a student is poor in. In these environment, the tutor is able to afford more time and iron out specific areas before going forward in order that the pupil can build a firm foundation. You can get a good home tutor at http://hometuitionhotspot.com/examinations/o-level-tuition.
Education in upper secondary school is definitely a crucial stage for pupil because it can determine the academic routes they’ll take ahead. It is preferable to look for assistance early, to ensure that pupils can get ready for their important exams.
Why Preschool Tuition?
Do you still recall the time when you initially sent your kid to preschool? Do you also recall the stress or worry in your thoughts, when your kid started his / her 1st step in a lengthy trip of education? Currently your kid might have been in a preschool for around 12 months, and he or she has most likely end up accustomed to the routine of preschool life. They can often make you happy by reading the time accurately from the time clock or perhaps by saying correctly. When your kid is gradually advancing in the learning routine, have you ever asked yourself if the process can be improved with additional assistance? Would you like your kid to develop great behavior of learning and digest quicker?
A preschool tuition teacher will develop the curiosity of learning inside your kid. We know it isn’t right to concentrate too much on scores, however a great habit of learning is important for the kid to acquire excellent grades at down the road.
If you believe that the preschool environment doesn’t provide adequate chances for asking questions due to the high teacher-to-students percentage, using a home tutor in your own home is usually a great complement to the child’s learning. A tutor will almost always be there to reply to your child’s questions. Not merely will the tutor can answer questions, he or she will in fact prompt your kid into thinking and leading your kid to discover and ask a lot more questions. For instance, a private tutor can ‘challenge’ your kid with some extension questions from what’s taught in class as a way to prob your kid into thinking deeper. This approach of having your kid to think and question more is advantageous, because that can extend his / her brain at an early age making her or him a dynamic learner who’ll constantly think more than a lot of his / her classmates.
Tuition Rates For Home Tuition
Probably the most issues parents have with private tuition would be the fact that it costs money. A lot of parents feel that they already pay school fees, why do they really need to pay additional for the child to acquire home tutoring, isn’t school required to offer that to them?
In fact, private tuition can become the difference between their kids passing secondary school – rarely, and achieving a Master’s degree in a famous university or college. Private tuition does have a price, indeed; however that price is totally balanced out by the accomplishment it gives children.
Everything come at a cost and private tuition isn’t any different. You must pay to get your kid fare better for the reason that the time which the tutor places to assist your kid become successful is definitely worth money. The best thing is that the cash you need to pay on your kid acquiring tutoring when they’re younger is entirely offset by the income they make in the future. The main difference in between what somebody who merely has a high school diploma makes and what somebody having a Master’s Degree earns is lots of tens of thousands of bucks. It really is a huge gap and you can now bridge this gap for the kid by investing a couple of hundred bucks to ensure your kid has success in school and in life.
Never ever consider private tuition being an expense. It is really an investment in the long run, a good investment in the kid and the successful grown-up they’re going to turn into. Once you view it that way, private tuition isn’t an expenditure, it’s cash in the bank for you as well as your kid.
You may check out the average home tuition rates and find your child a suitable tutor to guide him with the school work.
With the luxury of time, a decent tutor has the chance to use quite a few resources and approaches to tailor-make their teaching to the requirements and personality of the student. The greatest way to choose a great tutor is definitely to execute some research, and also to become involved with the selection procedure. To begin with, you must be aware that a superior high quality tutor isn’t the one that possesses a wonderful academic background or has quite a few years of teaching experience.
You have to try to find a few distinct things when considering which tutors could be ideal for the job. The private tutor should have the ability to explain things in a relatable level so the youngster learns to the best way to increase his own skills. Private tutors are known to make sure that students were able to find excellent grades even if they did not attend school on a normal basis. It is likewise crucial for you pick a private tutor who’s capable of inspiring young individuals.
Regardless of your child’s level of learning, a home tutor from a home tuition agency offers many benefits to your child as well as you! To sum up, the greatest means to choose a decent high quality home tutor is definitely to conduct some research, and also to become involved with the choosing process.
Getting a tutor can benefit your kid over their classmates. There are a variety of advantages which come from obtaining a home tutor from http://hometuitionhotspot.com to assist and monitor the kid within nearly every facet of his / her education. Tutoring can be achieved for any age range and is most beneficial for people in their older years, particularly those in secondary school and college, in which the topics can be quite challenging and complicated.
The advantages of obtaining an in house tutor are many. Besides the truth that all these professionals are there to watch over your children with their education that assist to make them comprehend and acquire better scores, the truth that they’re going to your house is yet another benefit.
The cost of driving your kid back and forth from a location to a tuition centre can be extremely costly. In the event the teacher visits your home, It will help save time as the child wait in the convenience of the home rather than venturing out every single day or frequently for the lessons.
Home tutoring, likewise, ensures the parent of a one-to-one approach. The one-on-one approach can also be one more guarantee that the educator can get to know the requirements of your kid with no disruptions that always come when placing your kid in a tuition centre. Getting the tutor visit the home also can provide the parent plenty of time to carry out house work at home rather than putting things off driving back and forth from one location.
These are merely a number of the benefits which come from obtaining a home tutor. There are lots of others which can be observed by the parents when the tutor is there in their house.
In case you are inquiring, “How can I master Chinese language without having to spend lots of money,” the answer is in the ideal computer software. It doesn’t matter what you might read about 5 year old children learning Mandarin Chinese from simply viewing TV show or watching the subtitles on their most loved films, it requires not only repetition to actually master Chinese – particularly if you aren’t 5 years old now.
Just how can I learn Chinese language? I enjoy this program referred to as Rocket Chinese. The good thing with regards to Rocket Chinese is that it is affordable but nonetheless extremely effective in helping master Chinese with almost no effort.
It’s also possible to master Chinese language utilizing Rosetta Stone. You may be even more knowledgeable about the program due to all the advertisements you see on television. It’s really a good program, without doubt, and one which I have even utilized myself personally. However its one disadvantage will be the cost. It varies from between $200 to $500, based on which version you purchase.
If you do not know which program you will like to fix your own the”how to I learn Chinese” conundrum, here is the details:
Rosetta Stone Mandarin features a lot more multi-media. Quite simply, you will be matching sentences together with images most of the time.
Rocket Chinese features a lot more audio as well as hands-on learning. You might even state Rocket Chinese is a lot more relevant to your daily life due to the fact you aren’t consistently groing through the words for caps, fingers and sack as if you use Rosetta Stone.
On the other hand, if you prefer 1 on 1 teaching, then you may opt to hire a teacher to give you Chinese tuition at home. The Chinese tutor will teach you based on your pearning style and pace. | <urn:uuid:404e113a-7f0e-4b95-9cd9-b2ad7907a771> | {
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Sleep apnea is a common but serious condition that can occur in men, women, and, occasionally, children. This disorder causes an individual to repeatedly pause their breathing for various lengths of time during sleep. As a result, patients can experience mild to severe effects—some even life-threatening. While children overall are less likely to have sleep apnea, children born with jaw deformities are at a higher risk of developing this disorder. A wide range of treatments is available, including surgical and non-surgical techniques. Our extensively trained craniofacial surgeon can customize an orthognathic surgery approach to best suit your needs. Dr. Eric Payne understands that your child’s health and well-being are of utmost concern, and he will provide attentive, compassionate care from the moment you schedule a consultation.
If you’re concerned that you or a loved one may have sleep apnea, please contact our practice today. Our skilled and friendly medical team can answer your questions and help you schedule a consultation.
How does sleep apnea occur?
This condition can happen as a result of many reasons, but the most common cause is due to a physical blockage of the airway. Called obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), this concern is often the result of oral tissues like the tonsils, the tongue, or relaxed throat muscles blocking the breathing passage. Individuals who have larger than average tonsils, a small jaw, or a combination of factors may be more likely to experience OSA. Additionally, a cleft palate can also lead to problems with sleep apnea. CSA, or central sleep apnea, is another type of this condition. In this case, the muscles used in breathing do not receive the signals from the brain to function. Mixed, or complex sleep apnea is when both causes may be present.
One of the most recognizable symptoms of sleep apnea is snoring. Patients are often unaware that they are snoring or experiencing breathing pauses during sleep. While the brain often wakes the body up in order to restart breathing, most people do not recall these brief moments of consciousness. They often only notice that they are unusually tired during waking hours. Fatigue, however, is only one of many effects sleep apnea can cause.
What are the risks associated with sleep apnea?
In addition to fatigue and drowsiness, sleep apnea can cause headaches, memory loss, gastric reflux disease, anxiety, stress, and depression. These issues are often attributed to some other cause and not recognized as consequences of sleep apnea. Snoring can also bother spouses, sleeping partners, and siblings who share a room. Furthermore, long-term sleep apnea can lead to severe health problems, including:
- Congestive heart failure
- Heart attack
- Sudden cardiac arrest
- High blood pressure
In adults, sleep apnea may also result in sexual dysfunction. If you, your child, or a loved one snores, experiences breathing pauses of several seconds or more, or gasps/chokes during sleep, it’s always best to have them evaluated for sleep apnea due to the serious effects this condition can cause.
What are the treatment options?
Many cases of obstructive sleep apnea can be addressed using non-surgical techniques. Oral appliances, such as a night guard, can be used to maintain an open airway during sleep. Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) therapy can be an effective solution for individuals experiencing any type of sleep apnea. Sometimes lifestyle changes can help adults manage the symptoms, such as sleeping on one’s side instead of on the back, reducing alcohol consumption, or losing weight. If physical deformities are contributing to the problem, surgery may be necessary. Orthognathic surgery (jaw surgery) may be recommended where a child has an unusually small or recessed jaw, and a tonsillectomy may be appropriate if the tonsils are oversized. During your initial consultation, Dr. Payne will discuss the ideal approach for your unique situation. Multiple techniques may be advised, depending on the individual needs of the patient.
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Astronomers from the Kjell Henriksen Observatory at Svalbard have released the first images from the NORUSCA II camera, showing the Northern Lights captured across 41 spectral bands. NORUSCA II is designed to switch between all of its optical bands “in a matter of microseconds”, explains this announcement. A standard camera with …
Auroras are often magnificent, but this adds a whole new dimension (38 actually, from 3D RGB to 41D hyperspectral)!
I wonder if the airglow wave pattern is in some way similar to ionospheric waves seen by the LOFAR antennae. Those seem to occur at higher altitude, but I wonder if similar mechanisms trigger them (or that there is some coupling between ionospheric waves and the low altitude wave pattern seen here).
Unless those were taken with a traditional camera (ie. film) I wouldn't discount them simply being artifacts of the size and spacing in a CCD. They look a lot like Moiré lines.
If that is the case, then surely you'd expect to see that pattern in the same place on multiple exposures? I'd be surprised if kit like that wasn't thoroughly tested and calibrated before actual use, which would show up any defects in the CCD/CMOS long before actual research is done.
Not every object ever made uses the traditional Apple beta testing method of 'Let the consumers find the bugs, then we release the new, fixed version' :O)
Moire patterns (properly aliasing artefacts) occur when a semi-periodic pattern below the limit of resolution of the CCD occurs in the image, not in random noise patterns. Thus the signal needs some semi-periodic component to get these artefacts. I have seen hundreds of astronomical images taken below the resolution limit of the optics, and have never yet seen Moire-like aliasing artefacts.
I stand corrected. :)
"NORUSCA II is designed to switch between all of its optical bands “in a matter of microseconds”, explains this announcement. A standard camera with six machine-driven filters wouldn’t be able to keep up."
... and so we have here cameras showing the same thing in different wavelengths 'microseconds apart'?
No, try 2 1/4 hours! Can it actually be shown that the two observations have any relationship? Two observations, different wavelengths, different structures at different times ...
It's certainly not a justification for building an uber-fast-switching camera!
I hope the boffins in Svalbard are prepared for Dust, Spectres and armoured bears.
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- 166 days later: Space Station astronauts return to Earth | <urn:uuid:23b2e209-35f8-485a-a8fd-038bbc46a605> | {
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A drug that has been used for helping fight nausea with chemotherapy patients may also help alcoholics curb their drinking. In the near future we may see the medication ondansetron (Zofran), being used by therapists and counselors to help some alcoholics become abstinent. A study led by Bankole A. Johnson, Chairman of the Department of Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences at the University of Virginia, published Wednesday in the American Journal of Psychiatry, deals with research on a gene known as 5-HTT, this gene plays an important role in the serotonin system of the brain. Variations 5-HTT can increase one's risk of a number of psychiatric disorders:
- obsessive-compulsive disorder
Science is changing how addiction may be treated in the future, understanding one's genetic makeup may be crucial to how people receive treatment on an individual level. "Genotyping is becoming more common place and inexpensive," Johnson said, opening the door to tailoring addiction treatment based on an individual's genes. Obviously, these are uncharted waters and will probably be a long time before any of this is put into practice, but, this is all part of the evolution of addiction treatment. | <urn:uuid:d29bdf15-dd9d-4488-8580-0e698dd909b8> | {
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Cell therapy holds promise for debilitating brain disorders like Parkinson’s disease (PD). In order for cell therapy to achieve its goal, transplanted nerve cells need to reach their target and reconstruct a circuit that is specific to lost function. This strategy is challenging in the adult brain where the environment is not particularly conducive to the transplant and growth of neurons.
We have recently discovered that when dopamine neurons derived from human embryonic stern cells are transplanted into an area of the midbrain called the substantia nigra, they project nerves into the brain’s striatum and reconstruct the nigra-striatal circuit within six months. This repaired circuit has corrected motor deficits in mouse models of Parkinson’s disease.
Translation of this strategy to human patients is daunting as the nigra-striatal distance in humans is at least 10 times longer than in mice. We propose overcoming this barrier by engineering monkey stem cells with a receptor activated by a designer drug, differentiating those cells into dopamine neurons, and “pulling” the nerves toward the striatum by chronic application of the designer drug after the neurons are transplanted into a monkey model of Parkinson’s disease.
If successful, this study will serve as a preclinical setting for future treatments for Parkinson’s disease and other neurological conditions. | <urn:uuid:f59ab533-e057-4782-a3dc-57bee458270f> | {
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People are effected everyday by the media. The media is everywhere in our daily lives, in television, motion pictures, and radio, influencing what people eat to what people wear. Most people find films, television movies, and video games as an escape from their hectic daily lives. My main question is, how does the media provoke violence, aggressive behavior, and crime in sane people in our society? What I understand from media violence is Americans are being influence by what is shown to them in the television programs and movies. Many people believe that our children may pick up violent behaviors and apply them in their own lives by watching violent movies and video games. In my essay I hope to prove some of my points and ideas are true.
In our society today there is an on going debate on violence in the media. There are many Americans believe that heavy exposure to televised violence is one of the causes of aggressive behavior, crime, and violence in our society. Gibbon pointed out, "In a typical household, the television is on six hours a day. The heavy exposure to violent media does not make us all violent people. Studies have been performed for years on media violence. Researchers believe, on the whole, that violence at least causes aggression in some viewers or provokes ideas on various types of crime. One such study performed by the "Associated Press Media released in 1990 showed that 80 percent of Americans objected to the amount of foul language in motion pictures; 82 percent objected to the amount of violence," Medved wrote (212).
I believe a small number of people are affected by media violence that affects their aggressive behavior, even though it is not very large, it does exist to some extent. People who are mentally unstable and the ones that can't tell the difference between right and wrong or are examples. The people that claim to be affected by media violence have other issues in their lives. Bok has note | <urn:uuid:56c462b6-b1b3-4ea8-8d33-2bed20d788d1> | {
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Improving the Atmosphere
One of the dominant suppliers of superchargers for both the retail automotive industry and the racing market, Eaton Corp. (Beachwood, OH) specializes in Roots-style design. While other manufacturers provide centrifugal and screw-type superchargers, Eaton is practically alone in delivering production quantities of Roots-style devices. The company has been building such superchargers since 1949. The oil shocks of the 1970s spurred development of the devices for increased fuel economy for production vehicles, culminating in the use of superchargers on the 1988 Ford Thunderbird Super Coupe. Eaton superchargers are now on a variety of production and aftermarket vehicles worldwide. “We have delivered over four-million superchargers since 1988,” said Lorry Jackson, plant manager for Eaton’s Athens, GA, plant. These are in more than 70 OEM applications, wearing brands ranging from GM, Ford, BMW, Nissan, Mercedes, to even Kawasaki Jet Skis.
Fuel Economy Means Mass Production
Supplying more air to an engine, also called boosting or forced induction, is a quick way to get more horsepower from an engine. While turbochargers scavenge energy from an engine’s exhaust to provide power to a boost system, the engine itself powers superchargers. Paradoxically, even though boosting is a way to increase performance, automakers are increasingly looking to boosting to improve fuel economy. Jeff Jowett, manager–Americas Powertrain Forecasting for IHS Automotive concurred that boosting in general contributes to better fuel economy, in the right application. “Some people look at those stringent CAFE regulations coming up and immediately think electrification,” he said. “There are a whole host of technologies that will be important, and supercharging is certainly one of the pieces of the puzzle as OEMs assemble the right technologies to meet their needs.”
To improve fuel economy, turbochargers seem to have the upper hand over superchargers. The engineers at Eaton, however, are quick to point out that supercharging offers many of the same advantages. “There was a time when people thought of superchargers as protruding from the hoods of race cars, like dragsters, where they gave more horsepower and enhanced performance [while using more gas],” said Tim Cavanagh, product line manager. “Eaton is in the process of changing that thought process, to thinking fuel economy. How? Through downsizing the engine same as [is done with] turbocharging. A V6 with a supercharger can provide better fuel economy than a naturally-aspirated V8.”
Downspeeding is the key. Supercharging allows an engine to deliver the same torque as a normally-aspirated engine but at lower rpm—burning less fuel—to maintain horsepower. By downspeeding, a supercharger can improve fuel economy 15%, according to Eaton. “They are useful on hybrids, too, because with the supercharger you can tune the engines for maximum fuel economy,” he explained. The Roots-style supercharger also offers these advantages at low engine rpm, where turbochargers and even other styles of superchargers lag behind in generating torque at those engine speeds. This is important in everyday use by real-life drivers. Future improvements may include a clutched supercharger that disengages the device when not in use, which can be up to 90% of the time for typical driving.
OEMs Select Superchargers
As proof, Cavanagh said efficiency was the main attraction for automakers choosing Eaton’s Twin Vortex Series supercharger. First introduced in 2007, it is now on vehicles like the Audi A7 3.0L V6, VW BlueMotion Hybrid with 1.4L I4, Golf GT, and the Nissan Micra with 1.2L I3.
There are other practical advantages superchargers have over turbochargers. Packaging and cost for assembly in the vehicle is competitive with turbochargers, according to Cavanagh, when the cost for all of the tubing and exhaust pipes included with turbocharger installs is taken into account. As a self-contained package, the Twin Vortex usually fits neatly into existing engine compartments. Another advantage is long-term maintenance. “Our superchargers are sealed packages, requiring no service or maintenance for the life of the vehicle,” said Cavanagh. He pointed out they use no special oil or air filters, either.
Eaton is optimistic for the future. “We are in a transitional phase, with business picking up in Europe, primarily,” he explained. Eaton believes the available market for boosting gasoline engines will grow from four-million boosted gasoline engines in 2010 to 17.5 million in 2017. Boosting in this context means either supercharging or turbocharging of any sort, for light vehicles. Light-duty diesel remains an untapped market for supercharging, with a potential size of 16.8 million by 2017, according to figures supplied by Eaton.
Better Design through Manufacturing
The Eaton Twin Vortex Series supercharger represents the state of the art in a Roots-style system. The essence of the Roots-style is two counter-rotating lobed rotors that trap and push air as they rotate. Eaton’s Twin Vortex Series replaced an earlier three-lobe design with a four-lobe blower turned by a class 13 gear.
The blowers are solid components made from a special-purpose aluminum alloy. The tolerance in the interface fit between the two rotors is vital to making an efficient and quiet supercharger. “We used to use an epoxy paint that was baked hard on each rotor,” said Doug Brouillard, assistant engineering manager. “What we found was that very small differences in the tolerance and fit made a profound difference in the overall performance and efficiency.” To solve this problem, Eaton switched to a patented abradable powder coating in 2002. This abradable coating is applied electrostatically, and then “worked in” or “broken in” during operation. What this essentially does is provide a zero-gap fit between the rotors. “It creates a custom fit for each pair of rotors in each supercharger,” said Brouillard.
While ingenious, there is more to the design than creating a custom tight fit with a gap of about 0.0001" (0.0025 mm). “The essential part of the Eaton intellectual property is the profile of the rotor itself. It is the profile that provides the durability, NVH, and other performance,” explained Brouillard. Designing it is one thing, making it is another.
Concentration Is the Key to Success
According to Jackson, the Athens plant has established a number of competencies they believe are necessary in order to produce a finished product that maintains a competitive advantage. Starting around 2004, Eaton chose to concentrate on just three core competencies: rotor machining, assembly, and end-of-line testing. To this end, other on-site functions needed to manufacture the devices—operations such as metrology, maintenance, and MRO—are outsourced: Their partner company, Advanced Technology Services (ATS), is reponsible for maintenance, while Bruckner handles MRO-related indirect materials replenishment, and Gage performs metrology functions within the plants.
Another factor is empowerment. “This is an ‘Eaton Philosophy’ plant, where every employee is a salaried worker,” Jackson explained, with the same benefits as professionals and engineers. It is a philosophy that allows a relatively small team to produce hundreds of thousands of precision-built superchargers each year at the facility.
Certainly a unique design is critical to Eaton’s competitive advantage. So is the design of the tooling and programming of milling machines and assembly automation—especially for milling the critical rotors—according to Brouillard. In fact, profile designs are a joint effort between the design engineering staff in Eaton’s Marshall (MI) facility and the Athens plant. Why? Because manufacturability is just as essential as an efficient design to give Eaton a competitive advantage.
Precision, Automation, Skill and Advantage
It was also obvious during an exclusive visit to Eaton’s manufacturing facility, that certain aspects of the manufacturing process require a high level of operator skill. This is especially true when precisely machining and milling the rotors.
After precision milling, the abradable coating is electrostatically applied and then heat-treated and bonded onto each rotor. “The coating is an inexpensive way to make a high-tolerance device. This is in the never-ending fight to balance tolerance against cost,” explained Brouillard.
In line with concentrating competency in assembly, Eaton outsources other parts of the final product (such as housings, gears, and shafts) that are assembled by Eaton in purpose-designed automation cells. Each cell uses advanced levels of machine vision, servo-processes, and load-measuring cells right in the assembly process itself. Each part is marked with a unique bar-code identifier and as the part is assembled, all of the key process information data is measured. This is stored and tagged to that unique bar-code identifier. “That provides part traceability for individual parts and allows us to perform trending analysis for manufacturing,” said Brouillard. For such precision equipment, they target a process capability index (Cpk) in excess of typical automotive requirements.
The last element of the assembly process is setting the timing of the rotors—the relationship of how they are geared to turn relative to one another. Again, this is another process that requires operator expertise. “The difference in rotor fit can make the difference between a good rotor and a ‘do-over’, even scrap,” explained Brouillard. An automatic machine sets the timing, but loading the machine and post-process checking is done manually. The fit between rotors for each pair is checked to ensure the critical gap is within tolerance.
The final assembly into each sealed end-item is followed by a final test inside a sound-isolated cabinet. Each supercharger is acoustically and NVH tested before shipping.
“We are essentially a build-to-order facility, with low inventories. We build them and ship them basically the same day,” said Brouillard.
For manufacturers attempting to sustain competitive advantages over time, attention to detail is just as important as big decisions like concentrating on key core competencies. “We are looking to continue developing technologies for real-time process control and monitoring,” said Steve Poulter, engineering manager for the Athens plant. Continued application of machine vision, RFID tagging, laser marking, and data management are all such details that he thinks will find their way into making the superchargers of the future.
This article was first published in the 2013 edition of the Motorized Vehicle Manufacturing Yearbook.
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Early Mennonite records show that a form of mutual fire insurance was practiced at least as early as the beginning of the 17th century by the Mennonites of Germany. In 1623 Mennonites living in the province of West Prussia organized the Tiegenhöfer Privat-Brandordnung, which was in operation until the end of the Mennonite settlements in Prussia. (This article deals only with the fire insurance practices among the descendants of this group.)
When in the late 18th century Mennonites from Germany migrated to Russia they took their system of mutual insurance along with them and, if anything, expanded and systematized its use. In Russia the Mennonites were all organized by districts. Insurance of buildings was compulsory except for a few types of buildings such as churches which were optional. Negligence in observing regulations could result in penalties. Each village had its representative in the district organization and each district or volost had its officers and appraisers. All disputes were resolved by an established system of arbitration. Buildings had to be erected so as to meet the approval of the fire insurance regulations. So effectively did the Mennonite insurance plan work that it was introduced into the other German-speaking colonies in the area in 1868 by the Ministry of State Domain.
In the late 19th century when the large Mennonite migrations from Russia to North America occurred, the mutual insurance organizations were again taken with them and put into operation in the new lands. There are more than 20 such mutual aid insurance societies in existence in the United States and Canada in the 1950s, about half of them having been started by the Swiss Mennonites and their descendants who settled in the eastern part of the United States.
The Old Colony Mennonites in Mexico and in Paraguay are organized to provide systematic protection for losses from fire exactly as their forefathers in Europe were a century or more ago. The name is the same. It is called the Brandschadenversicherung. In each village there is a Brandschulze or local village representative. The individual elected to serve as general director of the entire colony fire insurance organization is called the Brandvorsteher. Losses from fire are comparatively low but such losses as occur are shared by all the colonists according to their property valuation.
The colonists who settled in Paraguay as refugees from Europe after World War I and II likewise organized their colonies to secure mutual protection from fire losses. In the United States and Canada many Mennonites were now insuring in non-Mennonite companies. Several insurance societies that were once exclusively Mennonite have enlarged and taken in anyone who wished to be insured, thus operating as a straight mutual insurance company without regard for religious affiliation. The former Mennonite Mutual Fire Insurance Co., Newton, Kansas, now Midland Fire Insurance Company, is an example of this development. In West Prussia and in Russia all traces of such Mennonite organizations are completely extinct. In North and South America, however, the mutual fire insurance plan is still strong.
See also Mutual Aid
|Author(s)||J. Winfield Fretz|
Cite This Article
Fretz, J. Winfield. "Brandschadenversicherung." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1953. Web. 30 Jan 2015. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Brandschadenversicherung&oldid=75955.
Fretz, J. Winfield. (1953). Brandschadenversicherung. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 30 January 2015, from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Brandschadenversicherung&oldid=75955.
Herald Press website.
©1996-2015 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:9bf208dd-a413-481a-9982-605b36a26e81> | {
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The U.S. Navy's Ion Tiger flew
over the Aberdeen Proving Ground on November
16 and November 17 for more than one day, as the 37-lb. aircraft
carried its fuel-cell engine, 9.5-lb. compressed hydrogen tank, and a
Ion Tiger has a a day-night camera capable
of surveillance and reconnaissance for future missions, said
representatives from the Naval Research Laboratory. The recent
test flight was meant as an endurance test, and researchers were
quick to point out that much work is left to be done.
use of UAVs continues
to increase in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan, military officials
interested in creating greener UAVs that are able to fly for
longer durations. Using a light, powerful engine, the Ion Tiger
is quieter and has a lower heat signature than traditional internal
UAVs are being used to patrol the Somali
coast to help deter pirate attacks on commercial ships, while U.S.
military officials expressed interest in also using them to help
re-supply ground troops in remote areas of Afghanistan. | <urn:uuid:918fc10f-f11f-4d9e-9405-9dad0080bbba> | {
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For those so inclined, St. Patrick’s Day is a great day to enjoy a pint of Guinness. The legendary beer of Ireland has not only a rich taste, but a rich history.
Arthur Guinness was a brewer and entrepreneur in a time when clean drinking water was hard to find in Dublin. Alcoholic beverages were the norm. While alcohol is preferred to polluted water, it also has the unhealthy effects of drunkenness. Beer was deemed a healthier alternative to homemade concoctions and hard alcohol, and Arthur Guinness set about perfecting the ideal brew.
Guinness was also a man of God. One Sunday morning, while attending St. Patrick’s Cathedral with his family, Guinness heard John Wesley speak.
We do not know exactly what Wesley preached, but we can know a few things. Wesley would have called the congregation at St. Patrick’s to God, of course, but he also would have had a special message for men like Guinness. It was something he taught wherever he went. “Earn all you can. Save all you can. Give all you can,” he would have insisted. “Your wealth is evidence of a calling from God, so use your abundance for the good of mankind.”
On this Sunday and on other occasions when he heard Wesley speak, Arthur Guinness got the message. He also got to work. Inspired by Wesley’s charge, Guinness poured himself in founding the first Sunday schools in Ireland. He gave vast amounts of money to the poor, sat on the board of a hospital designed to serve the needy and bravely challenged the material excesses of his own social class. He was nearly a one man army of reform.
His legacy to his children was the value of hard work, being a fair employer, and giving back.
During World War II, the Guinness brewery did its part; one scholar says Guinness saved Ireland. Ireland was officially neutral during the war, which rankled Winston Churchill. He found Ireland’s neutrality “self-serving and greedy.” Churchill sought to force Ireland’s hand in the war by putting a supply squeeze on the island nation; amongst other things, agricultural fertilizer was sharply cut. For the agricultural nation, dependent on wheat, this was nearly a death blow. By 1942, the Irish government took decisive action, and it involved the one resource they had that the British desperately wanted: Guinness.
In March 1942, in an effort to preserve wheat supplies to ensure that the poor had enough bread, the Irish government imposed restrictions on the malting of barley and banned the export of beer altogether. Consequently, the British attitude, hitherto devil-may-care, shifted dramatically. After the British army complained to Whitehall of unrest caused by a sudden and ‘acute’ beer shortage in Belfast, a hasty agreement was drawn up between senior British and Irish civil servants. Britain would exchange badly needed stocks of wheat in exchange for Guinness.
A short time later, though, Guinness complained that they did not have sufficient coal to produce enough beer for both the home and export markets. Guinness was, of course, an established pre-protectionist company which the Irish Department of Supplies did not wholly trust. On this occasion, though, it was worth their while to take Guinness at their word. The Irish government promptly re-imposed the export ban, to the chagrin of their British counterparts. This time, in a further attempt to slake the thirst of Allied troops north of the border, British officials grumpily agreed to release more coal to Ireland.
Barter proved a highly volatile business and when Ireland did succeed in securing fertilisers and machinery in return for Guinness it was often in the face of strong opposition from the United States Combined Raw Materials Board and the British Ministry of Agriculture.
Slowly but surely, though, this pattern of barter repeated itself. Faced with a ballooning and dry-tongued garrison of American and British troops in Northern Ireland in the long run-up to D-Day in June 1944, the British and Americans periodically agreed to release stocks of wheat, coal, fertilisers and agricultural machinery in exchange for Guinness.
These supplies were to keep neutral Ireland afloat during the Second World War and enable the continuance of Irish neutrality.
Arthur Guinness began a business to profit both himself and his country. While Guinness may not have saved the Irish from World War II single handedly, the beer played an important role for the Irish during that time.
Again, if you’re so inclined, raise a pint to Arthur Guinness, entrepreneur, man of God, and maker of darn fine beer. | <urn:uuid:9e6a29dd-a838-4002-b00b-d23d21af778f> | {
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Teaching Physics with the Physics Suite
Observations of an interstellar gas give an absorption spectrum, a part of which is shown in the upper part of the figure below. The gas is cold, such that when not excited, all electrons are in the ground state. Astronomers suspect the gas to be a type of helium, but they aren't sure. When they excite a sample of helium in a spectrometer in the laboratory, they observe an emission spectrum, part of which is shown in the lower part of the figure below.
Not finding what you wanted? Check the Site Map for more information.
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Clickers are great ways to involve your class in what they’re learning. I want to write about one type of clicker question that is particularly adept at enabling whole-class inquiry: Clicker questions that engage students in an experiment or demonstration. There are a few ways to do this, some which I find extraordinarily clever.
1. Using clickers to predict the outcome of a demonstration.
This is pretty easy to do, and lots of research shows that students recall and understand demonstrations better if they’re first asked to consider what they think will happen. This works particularly well with demonstrations that are intended to show “discrepant events” — something surprising or counter to intuition. Many classroom teachers use a cycle called “predict-observe-explain” with such demonstrations, where students predict the outcome, observe the demonstration, and then work together to construct an explanation. Clickers are especially well-suited to the “predict” portion of this cycle.
For example, here is a nice set of demos from Rhett Allain at Dot Physics many of which could be done using clickers. One common demonstration is that of the Cartesian Diver, where an object that has some small air cavity in it is placed in a bottle. When the bottle is squeezed, what will happen to the “diver”? Will it go up, down, or not move? That would be a great clicker question, especially if you embedded some reasoning into those answers. Ie., “It goes up because XXX”, “It goes up because YYY,” “It goes down because ZZZ”, etc.
The answer? It goes down, because, as Rhett explains, “When you squeeze the bottle, you increase the pressure in the liquid AND in the air in the diver. This makes the air bubble get smaller so that the diver displaces less water. The buoyancy force on the diver is equal to the weight of the water it displaces.”
Or, here’s an example from Eric Mazur, which could be easily tested using real equipment (left) and another one from Chemistry (origin unknown; right).
2. Using clickers as an interactive lecture demonstration
A somewhat more structured way to use clickers with a demonstration is with interactive lecture demonstrations. ILD’s are a more structured version of the predict-observe-explain cycle, and perhaps the only way that I really distinguish the two is that ILD’s are not always “surprising,” but often structured to help students see and apply particular concepts, usually in physics. Below is an example.
3. Clicker questions based off simulations / clicker questions where students generate graphs or other predictions
But you can get creative with this type of question, too. For one not all demonstrations need to be with real equipment. Demonstration can be done with virtual equipment — the PhET Interactive Simulations are perfectly suited for this.
Second, you can have students generate their own answers, and then show the multiple choice version.
Here is an example from Kathy Perkins and Carl Wieman of the University of Colorado at Boulder.
First, they show students the Moving Man simulation, where a man will move in response to the input of initial position, velocity and acceleration. Then, they have students generate their own graphs for a specific situation:
Then, they use common graphs to turn the students’ free-responses into a clicker question:
4. Use clickers for real-time experiments on the students.
This works best in psychology classes, or some course where you want to demonstrate some fundamental aspect of human behavior. One of the best ones that I’ve seen in this genre is listed below, which demonstrates our innate tendency to prefer immediate rewards.
5. Use clickers to gather real-time data that students perform.
Sometimes having a few students performing a quick little experiment isn’t necessarily that compelling, but if you can aggregate data from the whole class then you have a powerful tool for demonstrating a principle or an outcome. For example, if you want to demonstrate that flipping two coins results in a greater probability of getting a head and a tail than two heads or two tails, it’s pretty boring to have students sit there and do 50 coin flips to get a robust result. But, if instead, you have each student do their own coin flip, and then click in with their results, you can get a real-time histogram that shows authentic data demonstrating that idea.
A fabulous article on using this technique with students to demonstrate the Monty Hall Problem (a nice statistics problem) was just published in The Physics Teacher. Students were able to perfectly replicate the theoretical prediction as a whole class, running the experiment in pairs. It’s a free download, so check it out. | <urn:uuid:875c15e7-89c8-4175-a5e9-b89361806574> | {
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“Rigid gender norms and gender inequalities drive ill health for women, men, girls and boys, and contribute to poverty,” Gary Darmstadt observed in his Clayman Institute Faculty Research Fellows presentation, “Investigating relationships between gender norms and health.”
Darmstadt, a professor of neonatal and developmental medicine in the department of pediatrics at the Stanford University School of Medicine, presented his ongoing research on how culturally-specific gender norms are possible causes of poor health outcomes. His research, taking place through multiple collaborations with teams of researchers in Brazil, South Africa, the UK and the USA, aims to gather and analyze existing global data to gain new insights into relationships between gendered social norms, gender inequalities and health behaviors and outcomes.
Darmstadt presented at the Clayman Institute the research that he is leading with more than 70 co-authors across five continents to develop a series of five papers aimed for publication in the peer-reviewed medical journal The Lancet, in 2019. The first paper concentrated on defining and summarizing the history of gender norms and links to health and global development. Papers two through four will analyze health data and evaluations of health system programs and policies; and the fifth paper will advance a call to action to global institutions to prioritize efforts to address gender gaps and biases in health care.
In his research presentation, Darmstadt explained how understandings of health become gendered, beginning in the home, and in social communities that regulate gendered norms and behaviors. “Structures, social relations, and processes define men and women as different in socially significant ways and justify inequality on the basis of that difference,” he said.
One restrictive gender norm that Darmstadt highlighted in his presentation was the discrimination against adolescent girls who leave the confines of their home by attending school or working, especially in communities where such activities are not the norm for young girls. Girls may want to go to school, he noted, and the government may legislate girls’ legal access to education; yet, gender bias creeps in at the community level, affecting girls’ ability to attend school. While it may be legal for adolescent girls to study and work, the social code betrays otherwise: girls who seek education or employment may put themselves at risk of physical and psychological harm. Darmstadt articulated this as the “discordance in individual versus group attitudes and behaviors,” which can lead to gender policing and gender violence against girls and women who step outside socially sanctioned norms. The consequences of this violence, he elaborated, can include psychological illnesses like depression and the development of other physical health ailments.
While policies that promote gender equality in both private and public spaces can promote more pro-equality attitudes and behaviors, the aforementioned discordance produces a real, quantifiable difference that has significant effects on people’s health, which compounds into adulthood. It is through research that scholars like Darmstadt can quantify and articulate these disadvantages faced by girls and women when it comes to their health.
According to Darmstadt, the goal of his research is to “inspire new conversations, new partnerships, and new methods of analysis that change practices and move people to action across health and development sectors.” He hopes that the information newly available from his research—and which will soon appear in The Lancet—will lead to new hypotheses about potential ways in which to intervene to advance gender equality and health for all. | <urn:uuid:79276e77-87d8-49a6-836c-a384582690c9> | {
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Omega-6 fatty acids
Omega-6 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids: They are necessary for human health but the body can’t make them -- you have to get them through food. Along with omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and development. Also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), they help stimulate skin and hair growth, maintain bone health, regulate metabolism, and maintain the reproductive system.
A healthy diet contains a balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation, and some omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation. In fact, some studies suggest that elevated intakes of omega-6 fatty acids may play a role in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. The typical American diet tends to contain 14 - 25 times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids.
The Mediterranean diet, on the other hand, has a healthier balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Many studies have shown that people who follow this diet are less likely to develop heart disease. The Mediterranean diet does not include much meat (which is high in omega-6 fatty acids, though grass fed beef has a more favorable omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acid ratio) and emphasizes foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, as well as moderate wine consumption.
There are several different types of omega-6 fatty acids, and not all promote inflammation. Most omega-6 fatty acids in the diet come from vegetable oils, such as linoleic acid (LA). Be careful not to confuse this with alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid. Linoleic acid is converted to gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) in the body. It is then further broken down to arachidonic acid (AA). GLA is found in several plant based oils, including evening primrose oil (EPO), borage oil, and black currant seed oil.
GLA may actually reduce inflammation. Much of the GLA taken as a supplement is converted to a substance called DGLA that fights inflammation. Having enough of certain nutrients in the body (including magnesium, zinc, and vitamins C, B3, and B6) helps promote the conversion of GLA to DGLA.
Omega-6 fatty acids may be useful for the following health conditions:
Some studies show that taking gamma linolenic acid (GLA) for 6 months or more may reduce symptoms of nerve pain in people with diabetic neuropathy. People who have good blood sugar control may find GLA more effective than those with poor blood sugar control.
Studies are mixed as to whether evening primrose oil helps reduce symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. Some preliminary evidence suggests evening primrose oil may reduce pain, swelling, and morning stiffness; but other studies have found no effect. When using GLA for symptoms of arthritis, it may take 1 - 3 months for benefits to appear. It is unlikely that evening primrose oil would help stop progression of the disease, so joint damage would still occur.
Omega-6 fatty acids from food or supplements, such as GLA from evening primrose oil or other sources, have a longstanding history of folk use for allergies. Women who are prone to allergies appear to have lower levels of GLA in breast milk and blood. However, there is no good scientific evidence that taking GLA helps reduce allergy symptoms. Well conducted research studies are needed.
If you decide to try GLA for allergies, work with your health care provider to first determine if it is safe for you. Then follow your allergy symptoms closely for any signs of improvement or lack or improvement.
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Clinical studies suggest that children with ADHD have lower levels of EFAs, both omega-6s and omega-3s. EFAs are important to normal brain and behavioral function. Some studies indicate that taking fish oil (containing omega-3 fatty acids) may help reduce ADHD symptoms, though the studies have not been well designed. Studies that used evening primrose oil have found it was no better than placebo at reducing symptoms.
One study found that women with breast cancer who took GLA had a better response to tamoxifen (a drug used to treat estrogen sensitive breast cancer) than those who took only tamoxifen. Other studies suggest that GLA inhibits tumor activity among breast cancer cell lines. There is some research suggesting that a diet rich in omega-6 fatty acids may promote breast cancer development.
Evidence is mixed as to whether evening primrose oil can help reduce symptoms of eczema. Some early studies found benefit, but they were not well designed. Later studies that examined people who took evening primrose oil for 16 - 24 weeks found no improvement in symptoms. If you want to try evening primrose oil, talk to your health care provider about whether it is safe for you.
High blood pressure (Hypertension)
There is some preliminary evidence that GLA may help reduce high blood pressure, either alone or in combination with omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), found in fish oil. In one study, men with borderline high blood pressure who took 6g of blackcurrant oil had a reduction in diastolic blood pressure compared to those who took placebo.
Another study examined people with intermittent claudication, pain in the legs while walking that is caused by blockages in the blood vessels. Those who took GLA combined with EPA had a reduction in systolic blood pressure compared to those who took placebo.
More research is needed to see whether GLA is truly effective for hypertension.
Evening primrose oil has gained popularity as a way to treat hot flashes associated with menopause, but so far studies have not shown that it works. If you want to try evening primrose oil for hot flashes and night sweats, ask your health care provider whether it is safe and right for you.
Some evidence suggests that evening primrose oil may reduce breast pain and tenderness in people with cyclic mastalgia. It may also help reduce symptoms to a lesser extent in people with non cyclic mastalgia. However, it does not seem to be effective for severe breast pain.
Evening primrose oil has been suggested as an additional treatment (in addition to standard therapy) for multiple sclerosis (MS) although there is no scientific evidence that it works. MS patients who want to add evening primrose oil to their treatment regimens should talk with a health care provider.
Some studies suggest that people who don’t get enough of some essential fatty acids (particularly EPA and GLA) are more likely to have bone loss than those with normal levels of these fatty acids. In a study of women over 65 with osteoporosis, those who took EPA and GLA supplements had less bone loss over 3 years than those who took placebo. Many of these women also experienced an increase in bone density.
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
Although most studies have found no effect, some women report relief of PMS symptoms when using GLA. The symptoms that seem to be helped the most are breast tenderness and feelings of depression, as well as irritability and swelling and bloating from fluid retention.
For general health, there should be a balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. The ratio should be in the range of 2:1 - 4:1, omega-6 to omega-3 -- and some health educators advocate even lower ratios. The average diet provides plenty of omega-6 fatty acids, so supplements are usually not necessary. People with specific conditions such as eczema or psoriasis, arthritis, diabetes, or breast tenderness (mastalgia) may want to ask their health care providers about taking omega-6 supplements.
Omega-6 fatty acids are available in supplemental oils that contain linoleic acid (LA) and gamma linolenic acid (GLA), such as evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) and black currant (Ribes nigrum) oils. Spirulina (often called blue-green algae) also contains GLA.
How to Take It
The average diet provides sufficient omega-6 fatty acids, so supplementation is usually not necessary unless you're treating a specific condition, such as eczema or psoriasis, arthritis, diabetes, or breast tenderness (mastalgia).
The dose and form of omega-6 fatty acids to be supplemented depends on many factors, including condition being treated, age, weight, and other medications and supplements being used. Speak to your doctor to determine what form and what dose of omega-6 fatty acids are most appropriate for you.
Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, dietary supplements should be taken only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider.
Do not take omega-6 if you have a seizure disorder because there have been reports of these supplements causing seizures. Several reports describe seizures in people taking evening primrose oil. Some of these seizures developed in people with a previous seizure disorder, or in people taking evening primrose oil in combination with anesthetics. People who plan to undergo surgery requiring anesthesia should stop taking evening primrose oil 2 weeks ahead of time.
Borage seed oil, and possibly other sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), should not be taken during pregnancy because they may harm the fetus and induce early labor.
Avoid doses of GLA greater than 3,000 mg per day. At that level, an increase in inflammation may occur.
Side effects of evening primrose oil can include occasional headache, abdominal pain, nausea, and loose stools. In animal studies, GLA is reported to decrease blood pressure. Early results in human studies do not show consistent changes in blood pressure.
Laboratory studies suggest that omega-6 fatty acids, such as the fat found in corn oil, promote the growth of prostate tumor cells. Until more research is done, health care professionals recommend not taking omega-6 fatty acids, including GLA, if you are at risk of or have prostate cancer.
If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use omega-6 supplements without first talking to your health care provider.
Blood thinning medications -- People taking blood thinning medications, including warfarin (Coumadin) or clopidogrel (Plavix), should not take omega-6 fatty acid supplements without consulting a health care provider. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding.
Ceftazidime -- Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) may increase the effectiveness of ceftazidime. Ceftazidinme, an antibiotic, is used against a variety of bacterial infections.
Chemotherapy for cancer -- GLA may increase the effects of anti cancer treatments, such as doxorubicin, cisplatin, carboplatin, idarubicin, mitoxantrone, tamoxifen, vincristine, and vinblastine.
Cyclosporine -- Cyclosporine is a medication used to suppress the immune system after organ transplant. Taking omega-6 fatty acids with cyclosporine may increase the immunosuppressive effects of this medication. It may also protect against kidney damage (a potential side effect from this medication).
Phenothiazines -- People taking a class of medications called phenothiazines to treat schizophrenia should not take evening primrose oil. Evening primrose oil may interact with these medications and increase the risk of seizures. The same may be true for other omega-6 supplements. These medications include:
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De Spirt S, Stahl W, Tronnier H, Sies H, Bejot M, Maurette JM, Heinrich U. Intervention with flaxseed and borage oil supplements modulates skin condition in women. Br J Nutr. 2009 Feb;101(3):440-5.
Freeman VL, Meydani M, Hur K, Flanigan RC. Inverse association between prostatic polyunsaturated fatty acid and risk of locally advanced prostate carcinoma. Cancer. 2004;101(12):2744-54.
Geppert J, Demmelmair H, Hornstra G, Koletzko B. Co-supplementation of healthy women with fish oil and evening primrose oil increases plasma docosahexaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid levels without reducing arachidonic acid concentrations. Br J Nutr. 2008 Feb;99(2):360-9.
Harris W. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids: partners in prevention. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010; 13(2):125-9.
Kankaanpaa P, Nurmela K, Erkkila A, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in maternal diet, breast milk, and serum lipid fattty acids of infants in relation to atopy. Allergy. 2001;56(7):633-638.
Kast RE. Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may be mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int Immunopharmacol. 2001;1(12):2197-2199.
Kenny FS, Pinder SE, Ellis IO et al. Gamma linolenic acid with tamoxifen as primary therapy tn breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 2000;85:643-648.
Kris-Etherton PM, Taylor DS, Yu-Poth S, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(1 Suppl):179S-188S.
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Menendez JA, del Mar Barbacid M, Montero S, et al. Effects of gamma-linolenic acid and oleic acid on paclitaxel cytotoxicity in human breast cancer cells. Eur J Cancer. 2001;37:402-413.
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Evening primrose oil; EPO; Linoleic acid; LA
- Last Reviewed on 06/17/2011
- Steven D. Ehrlich, NMD, Solutions Acupuncture, a private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.
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This page was last updated: June 20, 2013 | <urn:uuid:59951917-ab4b-4078-ab7f-9c4dda6013b8> | {
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Geography is a dedicated field within the curriculum for analyzing and resolving issues regarding the environment and its harmony with sustainable development. It is a vital link between the natural and social sciences, requiring spatial awareness and scientific aptitude in order to be fully mastered. Understanding geography creates an awareness of place. Moreover, understanding geography helps a student make sense of the significance of current and historical events, whether of economic, political, or social aspects.
Although the introduction to geography starts at around secondary one or two, many students fail to appreciate the subject for it may appear uninteresting when taught through the memorization of facts. In consequence, they fail to do well on tests or completely forget concepts after the examination period.
Geography is actually a very promising subject that opens a gateway to numerous fields of further study and even career paths. SEAB’s geography syllabus states that a geography student is must acquire a vast array of skills and knowledge as they learn more about the current socio-environmental issues that occur in different parts of the world across cultures. It is widely considered one of the more difficult humanities subjects in Junior College (JC), even more so than History. JC geography students are required to be knowledgeable and critical in order to develop a deeper understanding of geographical theories. Students of geography must use higher order thinking skills to analyze and synthesize information. Geography uses multiple complex visual representations such as maps, and graphs require interpretation. As students develop their understanding of the important themes of geography, their awareness of cultural biodiversity–how and why people live the way they do–forges a deeper connection with society in different contexts. Having the ability to interpret complicated sources of data, along with the ability to articulate logical arguments in proving theories, is crucial.
Students who work hard and receive tuition help in geography are ensured to achieve stellar mastery of the subject. It also be enhances their research and data-gathering skills, sifting through related literature and being able to identify relevant information. Often enough, English tuition is needed along with geography tuition in order to maximize learning for students who are lagging behind. Home tuition can be beneficial to students and can be applied to multiple subjects. Geography tuition will be able to help students develop a strong passion for the subject and do better for exams.
Affordable Geography Tuition Rates in Singapore
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At TutorBee, we provide only the best, most qualified humanities private home tutors for Geography tuition, Social Studies tuition, and History tuition in Singapore. So, whether you’re looking for pure or combined humanities, need a male or female tutor, or prefer MOE humanities teachers, we endeavor to meet all your tutoring requirements.
Sign up today for our GCSE, O-Level or A-Level geography tuition, and give your child the additional learning advantage. | <urn:uuid:93a896f4-cdda-4676-8922-9d5c2a2ac458> | {
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There has been recent activity by astrophysicists to determine whether a fourth flavor of neutrino, a sterile neutrino, exists. It would likely be more massive than electron, muon or tau neutrinos. However, it wouldn't be affected by the weak force, only by gravity. It would therefore have similar characteristics to dark matter. The LHC is looking for evidence of supersymmetry, and the existence of the stable neutralino, another dark matter candidate. Can the LHC be of any assistance in helping determine the existence of the hypothetical sterile neutrino?
The LHC is a discovery machine. It was designed to maximize the probability of seeing new physics outside the Standard Model, but it is a poor experiment for discriminating between two or three states that the only signature they have is missing energy and small to zero missing mass.
The reason is that the strong interactions initiating the scattering are a many body problem, 3 quarks on three quarks and a great number of gluons on gluons, thus the only "closed" system is a subset defined by a high transverse momentum transfer, and this is contaminated by debris that is not really relevant to the deep scattering. The use of Monte Carlo simulations is imperative, and MC means that a model of the interactions is assumed in the creation of the sample. Not exactly circular, but not helping in fine details.
If the LHC finds photino or neutralino candidates a leptonic collider would be needed to be able to discriminate theories like the one proposing a fourth neutrino. IMO of course
The LHC is unlikely to be able to see the difference between a ordinary and a sterile neutrino. The LHC however can produce very accurate counts of interactions leading to missing energy, which would might be identified as neutrinos. The LHC will improve the accuracy of the Z invisible width, the number of times a Z boson decays into a neutrino. Zeds however are expected to decay only into ordinary neutrinos.
The term sterile ideally means that the particles not react with ordinary matter at all. Given this definition the LHC will never see a sterile neutrino.
Often the only interaction a sterile neutrino will undergo is an oscillation to and from an ordinary neutrino state. These would be unlikely to be seen at the LHC, instead you need a low energy neutrino beam with a near constant energy, a detector far away from the source, (like OPERA but without the varying energy of the input neutrinos). Sterile neutrino may already have shown up in nuclear reactor experiments where an anomaly in the count of neutrino measured seems to fit a sterile neutrino around the 1eV mark. 1 KeV sterile neutrino are considered a warm dark matter candidate, and also seem to help explain how supernova can exploded asymmetrically. | <urn:uuid:fa16d58f-9309-462d-a04b-2096fc23e1ea> | {
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The year 1954 was a significant one in Pittsburgh: Jonas Salk administered the first polio vaccine to students in Lawrenceville, Roberto Clemente was drafted by the Pirates and Hill District resident Paul Jones became the first black man to sit on Pittsburgh City Council.
“I’d say Paul Jones has a good spot in the pantheon of black political figures in the history of Pittsburgh,” said Laurence Glasco, University of Pittsburgh associate professor of history. “Blacks were, in the late '40s and early '50s, just beginning to get mobilized and influential on the local political scene.”
Jones was born in Louisville, Ky. in 1909 and moved to Pittsburgh, where his father became a minister at a local Baptist church. After graduating from the University of Pittsburgh, Jones received his law degree from Duquesne University. Soon after, he started his own law practice and decided to go into politics, winning a seat representing Pittsburgh in the state legislature.
Then, in 1954, Councilman William Davis left his position to become Allegheny County sheriff.
“David Lawrence, the mayor at the time, appointed Paul Jones,” Glasco said. “His appointment represented the beginning of black political empowerment in Pittsburgh.”
Glasco said Pittsburgh’s black community had already been known for a number of significant accomplishments—having the largest circulation black newspaper in the country, with the Pittsburgh Courier; having top-notch Negro League baseball teams with the Pittsburgh Crawfords and the Homestead Grays; and having a nationally-recognized jazz hub in the Hill District.
“The black population here was active and progressive in a lot of ways,” Glasco said. “But politically they were very, very weak, and that had to do with the fact that you did not have a single black concentrated neighborhood in Pittsburgh. Blacks were scattered around in seven or eight different neighborhoods.”
In the Hill District where Jones lived, for example, Glasco said while there were many black families, their influence was lessened by the majority white Jewish and Italian families. But in the 1950s, driven by the national Civil Rights Movement, Pittsburgh’s black community began to mobilize.
While the country was struggling with race relations at the time, Glasco said Pittsburgh didn’t have as significant of disputes, at least on the political end, partially due to the “machine politics” of Lawrence. Because he was appointed and supported by Lawrence, Glasco said Jones didn’t receive a lot of blowback for being black.
“If Davey Lawrence said, ‘this is what we’re doing,’ that’s what we did,” Glasco said. “People didn’t really buck that.”
Pittsburgh Mayor Bill Peduto said while he doesn’t agree with all of Lawrence’s decisions, he did have a strong vision for the city that included diversity efforts.
He pointed to the 1964 Atlantic City Democratic National Convention, for which Lawrence was responsible in choosing delegates, where he gave the Mississippi African American delegation priority floor seating over the white group.
“Lawrence was committed to civil rights and making sure the convention respected that,” Peduto said.
While in office, Glasco said Jones was a key player in urban housing and development initiatives, including the overhaul of the lower Hill District.
“It just shows you that history is more complex than you think,” Glasco said. “We tend to simplify and come up with some simple statement about something like urban redevelopment, but when we get into it and really look, the story gets more and more complex.”
In the 1950s, the Hill District was experiencing overcrowding, with the black population alone reaching near 100,000 residents. Former Councilman George E. Evans, in 1943, called the Hill District “probably one of the most outstanding examples in Pittsburgh of neighborhood deterioration.”
The original plan that Jones sponsored, according to Glasco, was to hire black workers to tear down decaying buildings, then work with the community to design and build quality public housing units. Terrance Village and Bedford Dwellings, constructed in 1944, had been successes in the eyes of city officials, and an improvement for residents on their previous conditions.
“They thought they would get new and better housing and they thought they would get jobs,” Glasco said. “They got neither. The places were torn down, no new housing went in.”
Instead, Glasco said, the project didn’t go as planned and displaced many in the black community. Jones, however, would not be alive to see the development fail. After being re-elected twice in 1955 and 1959, he died of a heart attack in 1960.
“It was a sad thing,” Glasco said. “But the reason he died also is a sign of what a good civic servant he was—his doctor had told him, ‘there’s a problem with your heart,’ and he said, ‘well, OK, but they need me on council, there’s going to be an important vote.’”
Jones died on July 7, just days before he was slated to go to the DNC in San Francisco, Calif.
What have you always wondered about the Pittsburgh region? Submit to our Good Question! series and we’ll go investigate and find answers. | <urn:uuid:e3237ae3-1983-4e9e-ad58-4029b80064b9> | {
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What Are The Different Types Of Dental Emergencies?
When do you say there is a dental emergency? When the tooth ache gets too much to bear of course!!! The causes for shooting pain in the teeth are of course several. They could range from an infected tooth to a ruptured tissue in the gums or even a cavity.
Different types of dental emergencies
The most common tooth ailment is the tooth decay. Decay when ignored leads to the inflammation of the tooth pulp which results in an ailment called pulpitis. Based on the type of infection, pulpitis is defined as reversible and irreversible. Both these ailments are highly painful and fall into the dental emergency category. Reversible pulpitis is cured by removing the infected portion of the tooth pulp and replacing it with an artificial filling. Irreversible pulpitis is cured only by way of a root canal or the removal of the tooth itself. Irreversible pulpitis are that sensation of pain which we experience when the tooth comes in contact with hot items. There is no such sensation when it comes to cold items. In fact, touching a piece of ice to the affected tooth causes relief from pain. You are suffering from this form of pulpitis if you experience pain in the gums near the root and also while chewing.
Another case of dental emergency is the pain in the gums when the wisdom teeth partially open up. This pain is caused due to the infection caused by the filling up of food particles and germs in the gaps. Dentists at the Anchorage dental clinic can only temporary relief in the form of antibiotics and disinfecting the affected area. The only remedy is by the removal of the wisdom tooth, else there are always chances of recurrence.
The formation of pus due to infection in the gums results in severe pain and termed a dental emergency. Those who have a history of gum infections are prone to such an affliction. The emergency dentist Anchorage, AK works to clean the infected portion of the pus and also the germ build up. This is achieved by way of applying antibiotics and mouth rinses which are primarily anti-bacterial. It is pertinent to note that if the infection is not treated on time, it can infect the other teeth in the mouth.
Tooth breakage is another form of dental emergency. You may not experience any pain if only the tooth enamel is broken. Improper breakage leads to sharp edges which cause severe discomfort. There are also possibilities of experiencing cold sensitiveness. The dentist will work to smoothen the so caused sharpness. The rebuilding of the tooth will depend on the extent of the damage caused to it.
Another dental emergency could be where the teeth become loose which may also result in the tooth coming out of the socket. Restructuring is carried out by the doctors at the Anchorage dental clinic by bonding the damaged portion or by crowning. | <urn:uuid:c293c41b-4ed3-4e89-a501-e0fde6c653d3> | {
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FAO Says Food Waste Harms Climate, Water, Land, and Biodiversity
The world wastes 1.3 billion tons of food annually—a third of all the food that’s produced—according to a report published last week by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). This waste not only results in major economic loss, but also causes significant harm to the natural resources that we rely on for food production. It also has moral implications, given that an estimated 870 million people go to bed hungry every night.
The report, Food Wastage Footprint: Impacts on Natural Resources, analyzes the impacts of global food waste from an environmental perspective, looking specifically at its consequences for the climate, water and land use, and biodiversity.
According to the report’s authors, food that is produced but not eaten consumes a volume of water three times greater than Lake Geneva and adds 3.3 billion tons of greenhouses gases to the atmosphere every year—more than the entire global shipping industry. Approximately 1.4 billion hectares of land—28 percent of the world’s agricultural area—is used annually to produce this food.
In addition to its environmental impacts, the FAO estimates the direct economic consequences of food waste (excluding fish and seafood) to be $750 billion annually.
"We all—farmers and fishers; food processers and supermarkets; local and national governments; individual consumers—must make changes at every link of the human food chain to prevent food wastage from happening in the first place, and re-use or recycle it when we can’t," said FAO Director-General José Graziano da Silva.
Food is wasted at all stages of the food chain. Fifty-four percent occurs "upstream" during production, post-harvest handling, and storage, while 46 percent occurs "downstream" during the processing, distribution, and consumption stages, according to the report. Generally, developing countries suffer more food loss during agricultural production, whereas food waste at the retail and consumer level tends to be higher in middle- and high-income regions.
The FAO proposes several solutions to reduce food waste, including better methods of food harvest, storage, processing, transport, and retailing; better communication among food chain participants; more conscientious consumption, with an emphasis on buying only what is needed and relaxing standards for the cosmetic quality of produce; legislation aimed at lowering food waste; systems that redistribute safe surplus food to those in need; and food waste recycling systems that use anaerobic digestion to break food down into usable fertilizer and biogas.
Read more at Worldwatch Institute.
Food waste image via Shutterstock. | <urn:uuid:bc147215-717f-493a-abe3-aaf6c1e4308f> | {
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5 ways to promote writing across the curriculum when everyone teaches writing, everyone wins google drive could work for this to share ideas and resources. To do today: writing across the curriculum however you choose to implement writing across the curriculum classroom holiday party ideas hands-on websites. Developing and presenting information and ideas writing across the curriculum: pdf (79kb) routes to literacy: pdf learning wales © 2016. Activities and across the curriculum to present writing curriculum to classroom 2016 chris quigley education • plan by talking about ideas and writing notes. Ideas for writing advertisements affidavits what did you learn from the workshop about writing across the curriculum that you feel you could easily implement. Project-based writing let kids write in the ways they learn best these ideas for writing across the curriculum make writing practical and fun. The writing across the curriculum (wac) team at bcc works with students and faculty on writing intensive (wi) courses, workshops, lessons, and more. Mason's writing across the curriculum (wac) program supports the teaching and learning of our undergraduate writers and faculty to that end.
English/language arts: incorporating writing into the content area classroom (where students can record snippets of writing or writing ideas. Exchange ideas with seeds of all the basic principles of writing across the curriculum: • faculty writing workshops • writing across the curriculum helps. From new currents 23 may 1995 integrating writing into content area courses ideas from the writing across the curriculum workshop dr doug brent. Eight effective and easy tips for writing across the curriculum (adapted from john bean, engaging ideas: the professor's guide to. Looking for more writing help check out our collection of free writing across the curriculum resources go now.
He following write-to-learn activities have been excerpted from writing across the curriculum's resource binder for participating faculty. How well does writing across the curriculum work toby fulwiler college writing-across-the-curriculum of ideas and strategies for using more writing in.
The writing fellows of the brooklyn college writing across the curriculum including a digital writing toolkit, which provides ideas for moving writing. Literacy across the curriculum (lac) english teachers often shoulder the burden when it comes to a cross-curricular approach to 'literacy', so we've selected a few.
Posts about helping students organize ideas written by eleanor luken writing across the curriculum at bronx community college the writing across the curriculum. What’s all the fuss these days about writing across the curriculum ideas on a page and leave them there to be sorted out with proper writing process.
Writing across the curriculum at the end of a lesson to engage students and develop big ideas and conceptsteachers use writing to learn strategies to enhance. A range of writing across the content areas by: examine and convey complex ideas and information clearly 2006) writing to learn across the curriculum. Wac for new faculty this handout explains the wac program to new faculty members and provides basic information about the course proposal process writing component. This education articles offers easy ways to integrate science across the curriculum, with lesson ideas for language arts, the arts, social studies and health.
The common core's emphasis on writing means we need to teach it across the curriculum here are ways to teach writing even if you're not an english teacher. Generating faculty enthusiasm for a writing-across-the-curriculum effort is not an easy task as long as content areas instructor think of writing. Writing activities and ideas the mission of the howe writing across the curriculum programs is to ensure that all miami faculty and graduate teaching. The two different ways of writing writing to convey ideas/learning writing to writing across the curriculum - scientist had to design a supplementary carbon. | <urn:uuid:c19c6bac-6126-418c-9375-001b5329a1c0> | {
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Michael Ridley, University of Guelph, keynote
“The welcomed demise of literacy.”
“Reading and writing are doomed.
Literacy as we know it is over.
Welcome to a post-literate future.”
Literacy: visible language, reading and writing.
Literacy replaced orality, so it’s “inevitable” that something will replace it. He says this is a good thing.
It’s a thought experiment.
Online “book-like thing” at BeyondLiteracy.com Collaborative authorship with students, etc. Set up at Pinterest site for the bibliography.
Marshall McLuhan: “We shape our tools and thereafter our tools shape us.”
Literacy lets us do great things, but it’s also a kind of prison.
Socrates said it was the end of memory.
There’s too much information.
Less than 3% of languages are “visible languages.”
In the 1700s, people felt there was too much info and invented encyclopedias, etc. Writing itself may have come from accounting (for animals, etc.).
Writing is hard to learn, difficult to use, slow to process, prone to error, insufficiently powerful, addictive.
Candidates for post-literacy:
– Bio-computng/neural prosthetics (“I think that’s good, and we should all get implants of some sort.”) He thinks this is more “hyper-literacy.”
– Telepathy / Techlepathy (He brings in a psychic to his classes!) Makes people nervous. Techlepathy is connecting yourself up to others through technology.
– Collective Unconscious (or Consciousness): Says quantum physics endorses this.
– Drugs / Cosmetic neurology
– Machine intelligence: close to computers that are smarter than we are.
Stages: disruption, suspicion, loss, unsophisticated use, early adopters, elitism & power, mainstream.
The idea of a sense of self comes from literacy.
The brain is a soup of chemicals and synapses, etc. What if we could create a drug that would “grow an understanding in your mind”? Learn French, for example. (Learn to love Big Brother, too?)
The Vulcan mind meld. There’s even a book that says this is possible. (“There really is a very strong scientific basis to this.”)
Asked students to think about how we get there. One answer: aliens.
William S. Burroughs: “Language is a virus from outer space.”
Samuel Beckett: “Try again. Fail again. Fail better.”
Beyond Literacy Radio podcasts. He wouldn’t let the students write a research paper, but as someone pointed out on Twitter, isn’t this a return to orality?
“We have to go there.” “It’s inevitable, it’s optimistic, it’s advantageous.”
Question: Have you considered a class where nothing is written? Answer: it wsn’t possible. We have to use the tools we have.
Had a class where two strangers suddenly danced around for half an hour with no explanation.
Question: teenagers communicate with Snapchat and Instagram. We still have to be literate to succeed. Answer: No, what teenagers do isn’t post-literate. Yes, you have to be literate now, but everntually reading will be a fetish (as Capt. Picard reads Shakespeare).
Question: if we can do telepathy, etc., why do we need oral langauage (or French)? Answer: oral language is innate, but written language is a tool. Eventually, the machine overlords won’t speak English, French, etc. (Only half-kidding when he said this.)
Question: will this help ADHD kids? Answer: we preference literacy in the extreme. People who have trouble with literacy could have other tools to succeed. | <urn:uuid:737a56c8-b530-426f-a25c-49943683de94> | {
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Lycopodium obscurum L. - Ground Pine
Family - Lycopodiaceae
Stems - No info. yet.
Leaves - No info. yet.
Inflorescence - No info. yet.
Flowers - No info. yet.
Flowering - July - October.
Habitat - Moist ledges of shaded sandstone bluffs.
Origin - Native to U.S.
Other info. - This species has only been found in one location of Ste. Genevieve County in Missouri. The plant is considered a glacial relic that was trapped in a microclimate as the glaciers receded with the present global warming period. This plant is easy to separate from the two other species of Lycopodium in Missouri because its leaves encircle the branches and give the branches a round cross section. The other species have branches which are flat in cross section.
Photographs taken in Brown Summit, NC., 7-15-02. | <urn:uuid:bafbe6c3-efdc-459b-9ad6-03af6305fcba> | {
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Check soil pH and fertility by having your soil analyzed at least once every three years. Your local Extension agent will have directions for properly collecting a soil sample. Your soil samples can be sent to the State University or a Soils Laboratory for testing. Soil testing kits are also available. Soil pH measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Vegetables vary to some extent in their requirements, but most garden crops will do well with a soil pH of 6.2 to 6.8. This is a little below neutral, or slightly acid (sour). If soil pH is too high or low, poor crop growth will result, largely due to the effects pH has on the availability of nutrients to plants.
A soil test report will include the relative level of phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients in the soil. The report also will give you recommendations for the amount of lime and fertilizer to add so that your soil pH and nutrient levels are suitable for vegetables. To find out more about soil testing in you area, call one of the following local services:
Rock Island County Farm Bureau: (309) 736-7432
Scott County Extension Service: (563) 359-7577 | <urn:uuid:e925ca73-89e1-45e5-ab4f-a65e8ad252f5> | {
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When planting grass seed in North Carolina, choosing the right grass to plant is the first and most crucial step. No one type of grass is best suited for all situations and many factors need to be considered before deciding on which grass seed type to plant. The most important factor to consider should be in what region of North Carolina you plan to establish your grass lawn.
North Carolina is divided into three regions where soil and climate conditions are different from one another and therefore grass seed selection will be different as well. Locate your region in the map below.
Both cool season and warm season grasses are grown in North Carolina. Cool season grasses grow best and stay fairly green during the fall and spring and not as much in the summer. Tall fescue, Kentucky bluegrass, fine fescue, and perennial rye grass are some of your most commonly used cool season grasses. Warm season grasses grow best during the summer and go dormant after the first heavy frost. Typical warm season varieties grown in North Carolina are bermuda grass, zoysia grass, centipede grass, St. Augustine grass, and carpet grass.
Tall Fescue grows best in the Western mountains and piedmont regions and is easily established from seed. Tall fescue performs best in full sun or medium shade but will not grow well in full sun within the coastal plain Eastern region. It can be seeded by itself but is often blended with other cool season grasses like fine fescue. Fine fescue varieties are among the most shade tolerant grasses so if you are planting in an area with lots of shade, plant a tall and fine fescue grass blend. Tall fescue has pretty good disease resistance, drought tolerance, cold tolerance, moderate traffic tolerance, and can grow fairly well with minimum maintenance.
When planting grass seed, it is highly recommended to seed two or even three different tall fescue cultivars. This expands the genetic diversity which gives your lawn a better chance against a variety of different diseases and pests. Seed at a rate of 6 pounds per 1,000 square feet and performs best when mowed at a height of 3 inches.
Kentucky Bluegrass can produce a high quality, medium to fine-textured turf when grown in the right climate. Kentucky bluegrass is the most cold tolerant of the grasses and will grow best in the cooler mountainous Western regions of North Carolina and can be grown in the piedmont region if managed correctly. Because Kentucky bluegrass is not tolerant to warm weather, it should never be planted in the coastal Eastern regions of North Carolina. It is considered the best quality turf grass and makes a fine textured lawn. It includes the ability to fill-in damaged parts without needing to reseed. Newer varieties will be more resistant against diseases. It performs best in full sun, but could be mixed with a fine fescue to use in shady areas. Bluegrass might need one to three months to germinate and establish, based upon site conditions. It makes an outstanding athletic field. Bluegrass could be seeded or sodded for establishment.
Good soil preparation is very important when planting Kentucky bluegrass seed. (Visit the soil preparation and planting grass seed page for detailed instructions.) September is the best time to plant bluegrass seed because of warm soil temperatures and low weed competition.
Seeding rates range from 1 to 2 pounds per 1,000 square feet and Kentucky bluegrass grows best when mowed at a height of 2 to 3 inches and for low maintenance lawns, it should be fertilized twice a year. One pound nitrogen per 1,000 square feet in September and another application at the same rate in November. One more pound of nitrogen in late April or early May is recommended. (Click here for more information on grass fertilizer.)
Fine Fescue varieties used widely across North Carolina include creeping red, chewings, and hard fescue. Known for good shade tolerance, drought, and growing well in poor soil conditions compared to other cool season grasses, fine fescues are often seeded with tall fescue or Kentucky bluegrass cultivars when planted in the shade or in areas where low maintenance is desired. They are best adapted to the Western mountain regions of North Carolina but can be grown in the piedmont region under good management. Fine fescues will not grow well in sunny, humid and warm temperatures and therefore should never be planted in the Eastern coastal region of North Carolina.
It is recommended to plant fine fescue with a Kentucky bluegrass or tall fescue blend at 1.5 pounds per 1,000 square feet. Maintain mowing height between 1.5 and 2.5 inches if blended with Kentucky bluegrass but no less than 2.5 inches if blended with a tall fescue variety.
Perennial Rye Grass
Perennial Rye Grass is similar in appearance to Kentucky bluegrass, but should only be planted in the Western mountain regions of North Carolina. Perennial rye grass complements Kentucky bluegrass quite well and for that reason are planted together in a blend often. Rye grass germinates faster than Kentucky bluegrass but bluegrass has the ability to spread and fill in damaged areas. This grass seed blend should be planted at 2.5 pounds per 1,000 square feet, with Kentucky bluegrass consisting of 60 percent of the blend by weight. Mow at 1.5 to 2.5 inches.
Warm Season Grasses for the Eastern Coastal Region:
Bermuda grass is a fine-bladed grass that grows aggressively and strongly bonds to the soil surface via surface runners with stolons and underground rhizomes. Bermuda grass will grow best in your warmer coastal regions of North Carolina and all varieties require sun and should be cut as low as possible (Some hybrid Bermudas can be mowed at very low heights). Bermuda grass looks best when thatch growth is managed well. Because of its vigorous growth, bermuda grass is extremely drought, heat, salt, and traffic tolerant. There are many seeded varieties of bermuda but all hybrid varieties must be established from vegetative plant parts (sod, stolons, and plugs), and not from seed.
If using a seeded variety, bermuda grass should be planted starting in mid-May and can be continued all the way up to July. Seeding rate should be planted at 1.5 – 2.0 pounds per 1,000 square feet. During the summer growing season, apply 2 pounds nitrogen per 1,000 square for low maintenance lawns and for a darker and greener bermuda lawn, apply up to 4 pounds nitrogen per 1,000 square feet. (Keep in mind that the more nitrogen applied, the faster bermuda grass will grow and the more it will need to be mowed.)
Zoysia grass may be hard to establish because of it slow growth and having a long dormant season, but once established, it can make a wonderful fine-textured turf cover. It can be established by vegetative parts and by seeds. Zoysia grass is suited well for the Eastern coastal region of North Carolina. The most common zoysia is a low maintenance turf grass whose leaf texture is like that of bermuda grass and like bermuda grass, forms stolons and rhizomes. Mow at ¾ to 1 ¼ inch. Zoysia leaves and stems are strong and rigid which enables it to handle a good deal of traffic when it is growing well during the hot summer season. With little water required, zoysia grass can grow well during the summer because of it’s heat and drought tolerance. It is more shade tolerant than bermuda grass but only in areas where it is warm year round. Zoysia grass suits well with low maintenance lawns where slow establishment is not a concern.
Centipede grass is a light green, coarse leaved turf grass that is best used as a low maintenance lawn. It demands little fertilizer, infrequent mowing, and grows well in full sun to partial shade. Keep in mind that it does not tolerate traffic, compaction, high pH soils, high phosphorus, excessive thatch, drought, or lots of shade. Centipede is slow to establish from seed and may take up to two or three years. Mow at 1 to 1.5 inches.
St. Augustine Grass
St. Augustine is a tropical coarse-textured grass with very wide blades that creeps along the soil with a shallow rooting system making it easy to control overgrowth into undesirable areas. St. Augustine Grass is salt-tolerant and can grow well in the shade but must be established by sod or plugs. Use St. Augustine in the warmer coastal regions of North Carolina. Mow at ½ to 1 ½ inches.
Carpet grass is a slow and low-growing, medium green, coarse textured lawn grass. It resembles St. Augustine grass but has wider leaves and produces a very low maintenance, general purpose turf. It grows well in full sun to moderate shade and may out perform other grasses in wet, shaded, acid soils. Carpet grass does not tolerate cold, drought, salt, or traffic and needs to be mowed infrequently at 1.5 inches.
Visit the Planting Grass Seed page for detailed instructions on how to correctly plant these grass varieties mentioned above! | <urn:uuid:006a051c-3424-435e-8a50-581479004571> | {
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The ability to predict how an environment changes based on forces applied to it is fundamental for a robot to achieve specific goals. For instance, in order to arrange objects on a table into a desired configuration, a robot has to be able to reason about where and how to push individual objects, which requires some understanding of physical quantities such as object boundaries, mass, surface friction, and their relationship to forces. In this work, we explore the use of deep learning for learning such a notion of physical intuition.
We introduce SE3-Nets, which are deep networks designed to model rigid body motion from raw point cloud data. Based only on pairs of 3D point clouds along with a continuous action vector and point wise data associations, SE3-Nets learn to segment effected object parts and predict their motion resulting from the applied force. Rather than learning point wise flow vectors, SE3-Nets predict SE3 transformations for different parts of the scene. We test the system on three simulated tasks (using the physics simulator Gazebo) where we predict the motion of a varying number of rigid objects under the effect of applied forces and a 14-DOF robot arm with 4-actuated joints. We show that the structure underlying SE3-Nets enables them to generate a far more consistent prediction of object motion than traditional flow based networks, while also learning a notion of “objects” without explicit supervision.
SE3-Nets: Learning Rigid Body Motion using Deep Neural Networks, Arunkumar Byravan and Dieter Fox, IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), 2017 (Best Vision Paper Finalist) | <urn:uuid:e0953380-821f-44ae-9a5e-729119c30e71> | {
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This example shows how to design a compensator in a IMC structure for series chemical reactors, using the IMC tuning feature available in SISO Design Tool. Model-based control systems are often used to track setpoints and reject load disturbances in process control applications.
|On this page…|
The chemical reactor system, comprised of two well mixed tanks, is shown in the above figure. The reactors are isothermal and the reaction in each reactor is first order on component A:
Material balance is applied to the system to generate the dynamic model for the system. The tank levels are assumed to stay constant because of the overflow nozzle and hence there is no level control involved.
For details about this plant, see Example 3.3 in Chapter 3 of "Process Control: Design Processes and Control systems for Dynamic Performance" by Thomas E. Marlin.
We have the following differential equations to describe component balances:
At steady state, from
we have the following material balances:
where variables with * denote steady state values.
By substituting the following design specifications and reactor parameters,
we obtain the steady state values of the concentrations in two reactors:
The outlet concentration of reactant from the second reactor CA2 should be maintained by the molar flowrate of the reactant F entering the first reactor in the presence of disturbance in feed concentration CA0.
In this control design problem, the plant model is
and the disturbance model is
In the next section we will discuss how these two models are obtained.
This chemical process can be represented in the following diagram with LTI blocks.
Based on the block diagram, the plant and disturbance models are obtained as follows:
We will now design the compensator in an IMC structure in SISO Design Tool.
Step 1: Open SISO Design Tool
At the MATLAB® command prompt, type sisotool and the Controls and Estimation Tools Manager opens.
Step 2: Select IMC as the Control Architecture
Click on the Control Architecture... button
Select Configuration 5 for IMC structure from the left panel in the Control Architecture dialog.
Click OK to select this configuration. The Controls and Estimation Tools Manager should look like the following figure
Step 3: Load System Data into SISO Design Tool
First we create the following LTI models in MATLAB command prompt:
s = tf('s'); G1 = (13.3259*s+3.2239)/(8.2677*s+1)^2; G2 = G1; Gd = 0.4480/(8.2677*s+1)^2;
Note: G1 is the real plant used in controller evaluation; G2 is an approximation of the real plant and it is used as the predictive model in the IMC structure. G1 = G2 means that there is no model mismatch. Gd is the disturbance model.
Then we load the system data into the Controls and Estimation Tools Manager by clicking on the System Data... button. The System Data Dialog should look like what is shown below after G1, G2 and Gd are specified in the Data column:
Step 4: Tune the IMC Compensator C
The open loop step response of G1 is shown below:
Right-click on the plot and select the Characteristics -> Rise Time submenu. Finally, click on the blue dot marker. The resulting plot is shown below:
The step plot shows the rise time is about 25 seconds and we want the closed loop response becomes faster after the IMC compensator is tuned.
To tune the IMC compensator, click on the Automated Tuning on the Controls and Estimation Tools Manager and select Internal Model Control (IMC) Tuning as the design method. It should appear like the diagram shown below:
Select a closed-loop time constant of 2 and specify 2 as the desired compensator order. Click on the Update Compensator button to obtain the IMC compensator C.
Step 5: Check Closed Loop Step Response
To look at the closed loop step response, click on the Analysis Plots on the Controls and Estimation Tools Manager, select Step as the plot type for Plot 1 and make Closed Loop r to y as the content of Plot 1:
The step response plot looks like:
In the previous section, we assume G1 is equal to G2. In practice they are often different and the controller needs to be robust enough to track setpoints and reject disturbances. In this section we will change the real plant G1 but keep the predictive model G2 and IMC compensator C untouched.
We will create model mismatches between G1 and G2 and re-examine control performance in MATLAB command prompt with the presence of both set point change and load disturbance.
Step 1: Export IMC Compensator C from SISO Design Tool to MATLAB Workspace
Go to the File menu of the Controls and Estimation Tools Manager and select Export... menu item. It opens the SISO Tool Export dialog:
Select Compensator C and click on the Export to Workspace button. An LTI object C is shown up in MATLAB workspace afterwards.
Step 2: Convert IMC Structure to Classic Feedback Control Structure
IMC structure can be converted into a classic feedback control structure with the controller in the feedforward path and unit feedback. The new controller C_new is obtained as follows:
C = zpk([-0.121 -0.121], [-0.242, -0.466], 2.39); C_new = feedback(C,G2,+1)
C_new = 2.39 (s+0.121)^4 --------------------------------------------- (s-0.0001594) (s+0.121) (s+0.1213) (s+0.2419) Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.
Step 3: Define G1 That Differs From G2
So far we assume that G2 was a perfect model of the real plant G1. Now let us consider two possible ways G1 can differ from G2 due to imperfect modeling.
No Model Mismatch (G1 is the same as G2):
G1p = (13.3259*s+3.2239)/(8.2677*s+1)^2;
G1's time constant is changed by 5%:
G1t = (13.3259*s+3.2239)/(8.7*s+1)^2;
G1's gain is increased by 3 times:
G1g = 3*(13.3259*s+3.2239)/(8.2677*s+1)^2;
Step 4: Evaluate Performance of Set-Point Tracking and Load Disturbance Rejection
Set Point Tracking
step(feedback(G1p*C_new,1),feedback(G1t*C_new,1),feedback(G1g*C_new,1)) legend('No Model Mismatch','Mismatch in Time Constant','Mismatch in Gain')
Load Disturbance Rejection
step(Gd*feedback(1,G1p*C_new),Gd*feedback(1,G1t*C_new),Gd*feedback(1,G1g*C_new)) legend('No Model Mismatch','Mismatch in Time Constant','Mismatch in Gain')
The above figures show that our controller is fairly robust to uncertainties in the plant parameters. | <urn:uuid:d7c3f6e1-5a00-48a4-af31-ccfe36ed0692> | {
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THIS FREE APP GIVES YOU ACCESS OF LOADS OF POPULAR HYMNS. DOWNLOAD IT NOW TO HEAR AND LEARN SOME LOVELY HYMN SINGING AND DISCOVER PEOPLES FAVORITES. THERE IS ALSO INFO ABOUT THE HISTORY AND ORIGINS OF HYMNS.
A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of praise, adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος (hymnos), which means "a song of praise." Collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymnbooks.
One definition of a hymn is "...a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung and which expresses the worshipper's attitude toward God or God's purposes in human life. It should be simple and metrical in form, genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality, and in its ideas so direct and so immediately apparent as to unify a congregation while singing it".
Christian hymns are often written with special or seasonal themes and these are used on holy days such as Christmas, Easter and the Feast of All Saints, or during particular seasons such as Advent and Lent. Others are used to instill reverence to the Holy Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism. Some hymns praise or address individual saints, particularly the Blessed Virgin Mary; such hymns are particularly prevalent in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and to some extent "High Church" Anglicanism.
A writer of hymns is known as a hymnist or hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called hymnody; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. "nineteenth century Methodist hymnody" would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the 19th century). A collection of hymns is called a hymnal or hymnary. These may or may not include music. A student of hymnody is called a hymnologist, and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology. The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune.
In many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of style and devotional thinking that began with the Jesus movement and Jesus music.
Music and accompaniment
In ancient and medieval times, stringed instruments such as the harp, lyre and lute were used with psalms and hymns.
Since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes, and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally in Latin, many have been translated; a familiar example is the 4th century Of the Father's Heart Begotten sung to the 11th century plainsong Divinum Mysterium.
Tags: hymns , hymnal , simple christian hymns for kids , free church music hymnsfor , kristo asore nnwom audio , free mother mary hymns , free hynmary applicatin , christian hymns
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DHAKA: Calcium supplements may increase the risk of having a heart attack by two-fold and should be ‘taken with caution’, researchers say.
The findings also indicate that, increasing an overall calcium intake from dietary sources confers no significant advantage in terms of staving off heart disease and stroke.
Previous research has linked higher calcium intake with a decreased risk of high blood pressure, obesity, and type 2 diabetes, all of which are risk factors for heart disease and stroke.
Calcium supplements are commonly recommended to older people and women who have gone through the menopause to prevent bone thinning.
The authors base their results on almost 24,000 participants of one of the German arms of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study in Heidelberg.
All the participants aged between 35 and 64 when they joined the study in 1994-8.
Normal diet for the preceding 12 months was assessed using food frequency questionnaires and they were enquired about whether they regularly took vitamin or mineral supplements.
Their health was followed for an average of 11 years, during which time 354 heart attacks, 260 strokes, and 267 associated deaths occurred.
After taking account of factors likely to influence the results, those whose diets included a moderate amount (820 mg daily) of calcium from all sources, including supplements, had a 31 percent lower risk of having a heart attack than those in the bottom 25 percent of calcium intake.
But those with an intake of more than 1100 mg per day did not have a significantly lower risk.
There was no proof that any level of calcium intake either protected against or increased the risk of stroke, which backs up the findings of other research, say the authors.
But when the analysis looked at vitamin/mineral supplements, it discovered that those who took calcium supplements regularly were 86 percent more likely to have a heart attack than those who didn’t use any supplements.
And this risk increased further among those who used only calcium supplements. They were more than twice as likely to have a heart attack as those who didn’t take any supplements.
“This study suggests that increasing calcium intake from diet might not confer significant cardiovascular benefits, while calcium supplements, which might raise [heart attack] risk, should be taken with caution,” said the authors.
In an accompanying editorial, Professors Ian Reid and Mark Bolland from the Faculty of Medical and Health Science at the University of Auckland in New Zealand said that the safety of calcium supplements “is now coming under increasing scrutiny.”
They point to previous research, showing a link between these supplements and kidney stones, and gut and abdominal symptoms, and note that while trial evidence suggests that calcium supplements cut levels of cardiovascular risk factors, this doesn’t actually turn into fewer heart attacks and strokes.
They also suggest that many women taking calcium supplements to ward off brittle bones are already healthier than those who don’t, and that the overall protective effect is modest-in the order of just 10%.
The authors claim that the evidence that dietary calcium is helpful while calcium supplements are not can be explained by the fact that dietary calcium is taken in small amounts, spread throughout the day, so is absorbed slowly.
They suggest that the supplements, on the other hand, cause calcium levels in the blood to soar above the normal range, and it is this flooding effect which might ultimately be harmful.
“Calcium supplements have been widely embraced by doctors and the public, on the grounds that they are a natural and therefore safe way of preventing osteoporotic fractures,” the authors write.
“It is now becoming clear that taking this micronutrient in one or two daily [doses] is not natural, in that it does not reproduce the same metabolic effects as calcium in food,” they said.
They insist that given the fact that it is neither safe nor effective, boosting calcium intake from supplements should be discouraged.
“We should return to seeing calcium as an important component of a balanced diet, and not as a low cost panacea to the universal problem of postmenopausal bone loss,” they add.
The study has been published in the online issue of the journal Heart.
BDST: 0900 HRS, MAY 28, 2012
Edited by: Tania Afrin, Newsroom Editor
All rights reserved. Sale, redistribution or reproduction of information/photos/illustrations/video/audio contents on this website in any form without prior permission from banglanews24.com are strictly prohibited and liable to legal action. | <urn:uuid:15f0770d-a9e7-4ddb-a203-f805f2c5a78d> | {
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What is Subungual Melanoma?
This is a very rare form of cancer and will typically occur on your big toe or thumb under the nail but can affect any nail on your foot. It is most commonly found in people who are of Asian and African-American descent. Of all melanoma cases this type accounts for only five percent. You will usually see this type of cancer in people between the ages of sixty and seventy. This type of cancer is normally benign but can develop into cancer that can be deadly. Bob Marley, a famed musician, death was because of melanoma that began in his toenail.
Subungual Melanoma Symptoms
The symptoms of this type of cancer are usually hard to spot because of their location in a spot that is generally overlooked, especially if you are a person who likes to wear dark nail polish. Many people do not think about getting a melanoma under their nail so they do not really look for them. Also, this type of cancer may look like you had just caused damage to the nail from an injury. Many times the first symptom of a subungual melanoma is a dark line that appears underneath your nail. In addition to the dark nail polish, another reason that most people do not see this first sign is that it happens to people who have dark skin. At this stage most of the lines are benign. In addition to the line, a person may also notice:
- A dark spot that can be purple, brown, or black in color.
- It can also appear as just a small lump under the nail with no color.
- As the melanocytes, which are the cells that produce melanin, a dark pigment that colors your skin and hair, will cause your nail to split. It can also cause your nail to rise up from your skin that is underneath.
- The cells may weep or bled but there is no pain.
If there is a new streak, or it changes color or shape you should see your physician immediately. Two other symptoms of an advance case of subungual melanoma are hyper-pigmentation of your skin or a nail bed that is damaged.
Subungual Melanoma Causes
There are three different types of cancer that can cause subungual melanomas, which are:
- Acral lentiginous melanoma – this is the most common type of cancer that causes this medical condition.
- Nodular melanoma
- Desmoplastic melanoma
It may also be caused by have a physical trauma to the nail may increase your risk of developing this type of cancer.
Typically the type of treatment to get rid of subungual melanoma is to have surgery but it really depends on what stage it is in and the how severe the center is. If it has not gone pass the depth of one millimeter wide all the physician will need to do is a local excision. If it is wider than this your physician will need to do an excision along with a biopsy of your lymph node. If it is too advanced you may need to have the affected toe or finger surgically removed. If the surgery is not completely effective you may need to undergo chemotherapy, which uses medications that are cancer-killers to destroy the cancer cells.
Subungual Melanoma Pictures | <urn:uuid:a6da8691-6b58-43c5-b4cc-89ea66b359cd> | {
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Here are some quick bullet points up to page 15. What are your thoughts or what stood out to you reading these pages?
- Playful Parenting is a way to enter a child's world, on the child's terms, in order to foster closeness, confidence, and connection.
- Playful Parenting can happen anywhere and anytime, not just during designated playtimes.
- Play is also children's main way of communicating, of experimenting, and of learning.
- A child who won't or can't play is instantly recognizable as being in significant emotional distress, like an adult who can't work or talk.
> First, play is a way to try on adult roles and skills, just as lion cubs do when they wrestle with one another. Human children roughhouse, and they play house. As children discover the world, and discover what they are able to do in the world, they develop confidence and mastery.
> Play is also a way to be close and, even more important, a way to reconnect after closeness has been severed.
> The third purpose of play for children, and perhaps the one that is most uniquely human, is to recover from emotional distress.
- If you are frustrated because you have to remind your child for the twelfth to pack her lunch or take out the garbage, next time try singing the request in a fake-opera voice instead of using the usual nagging tones. At the very least it will ger her attention.
- Games like peekaboo, hide-and-seek, and tag all play with the idea of closeness and distance.
- Sometimes children do not connect or reconnect so easily. They may feel so isolated that they retreat into a corner, or come out aggressively with both arms swinging. They may be annoying, obnoxious, or downright infruriating as they try desperately to signal us that they need more connection. These situations call for creating more playtime, not doling out punishment or leaving the lonely child all alone.
- The most common response by parents to children's isolation is aggravation or worry. We may focus on the annoying behavior, not seeing the pain underneath, or we see the pain all too clearly and feel helpless to fix it. What we need are keys to unlock the door to that fortress of isolation and help the child out again into the fiels of play. Playful Parenting provides those keys.
- Though playing doctor and other forms of sexual exploration are often difficult for adults to handle, it is really just a special case of "playing house".
- Older children define play as whatever you do with your friends. Toddlers and preschoolers define play as doing whatever you choose.
- Children who are frustrated too much, or are unable to use play to master their world, retreat into what I call the power of powerlessness. Locked inside this tower, unable to play freely, they may appear weak and helpless. Or they may bounce off the tower walls, looking wild and reckless, even aggressive, but feeling powerless underneath. | <urn:uuid:cc59d38a-b947-40f2-ab05-92e73dfa1099> | {
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The Kansas City Star has been running a study about the US beef industry and it's use of a tenderizing technology which, among other things, is becoming a severe health risk to consumers.
The study points out that the beef industry uses a meat tenderizing technology that may cause more Americans to be diagnosed with E. coli poisoning.
RT News interviewed Alexis Baden-Mayer of the Organic Consumers Association in the video above, to learn why beef producers are risking the health of the consumers. Baden-Meyer points out that meat, which was not tender and less likely to be sold at a premium, is made more tasty and tender by the process, but exposes consumers to the risk of fecal contamination.
The study shows that only four companies process more than 87% of the beef packed in the US, and all four companies use novel, money-saving techniques that significantly increase the risk of contamination by food-borne pathogens, leading to hundreds of preventable illnesses every year.
Among the many startling finds from the investigation, investigators found ample evidence of serious problems with fecal contamination in beef at major plants, despite industry claims that beef was safer than ever.
Besides being the most disgusting type of contamination imaginable, fecal contamination also vastly increases the risk that beef will spread E. coli bacteria, which lives in the intestines of cows. An extract on this portion of the study reads:
Federal inspection records obtained by The Star under the federal Freedom of Information Act include hundreds of references to fecal contamination problems over the last two years at four of the largest beef slaughter plants in Kansas, Nebraska and Colorado. For example, at one of Tyson’s beef plants, inspectors noted: “massive fecal contamination; multiple carcasses with varying degrees of fecal contamination; periods of very significant fecal, ingesta and abscess contamination.”
Another federal inspector at Tyson found “a piece of trimmed fat approximately 14 inches long with feces the length of it,” and another noted, “fecal contamination ...was so great...couldn’t keep up.”
On top of this risk, the beef industry is employing mechanical tenderizing techniques, using automated blades and pounders to tenderize the tough meat. This then drives the E.coli away from the surface of the meat, where it could be killed when cooking, right into the center of a cut of meat. If you like your steak rare, you can just imagine the risk.
Besides fecal contamination and the risk of E.Coli, the study also showed that most cattle are being force-fed a cocktail of drugs, designed to increase the efficiency of the beef plants, but causing dangers to human health. The majority of cows at the large meat plants are being fed antibiotics. While this helps the cattle to put on weight faster (and make the output more profitable), this may also contribute to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in humans, causing dangerous threats to health. | <urn:uuid:f34bb78a-8923-494b-98de-c7f19fb17cdf> | {
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The incidence of and susceptibility to Type 2 diabetes increases with age, but the underlying mechanism(s) within beta cells that contribute to this increased susceptibility have not been fully elucidated. Here we review how aging affects the proliferative and regenerative capacity of beta cells and how this impacts beta cell mass. In addition we review changes that occur in beta cell function with age. Although we focus on the different rodent models that have provided insight into the characteristics of the aging beta cell, the limited knowledge from non-rodent models is also reviewed. Further studies are needed in order to identify potential beta cell targets for preventing or slowing the progression of diabetes that occurs with age.
The incidence and prevalence of Type 2 diabetes increases with age [1,2]. It now affects approximately 18-30% of the elderly population in the United States [3,4]. The underlying mechanism(s) behind why diabetes is increasing in the elderly is still not clearly understood. It has been hypothesized that insulin resistance increases with age due to increased adiposity, decreased lean muscle mass, changes in dietary habits, and reduced physical activity . However, it has been shown that these factors alone do not account for age-related glucose intolerance . Many human studies, some of which are summarized below, have tried to clarify the mechanism by which age-related glucose tolerance develops but have had contradictory results.
Early studies on the increase in peripheral insulin resistance due to age alone yielded inconclusive results. For example, in one study comparing young (ages 18-36) and older (ages 57-82) men, subjects underwent frequent measurement of plasma glucose and
insulin levels during an intravenous glucose tolerance test with arginine potentiation . This study found that there was a significant decrease in the glucose clearance rate in the older subjects despite elevated plasma insulin levels in this population compared to the younger men. These data imply that insulin sensitivity decreases with age. In contrast, a different study of young (ages 19-36) and older (ages 47-73) men used a hyperinsulinemic clamp model to measure plasma glucose clearance. In this study, plasma glucose clearance was found to be dependent on the waist-to-hip ratio and not age: higher waist-to-hip ratios were associated with impaired plasma glucose clearance, implying that it is fat distribution that portends insulin resistance rather than age alone .
Studies on the age-related effects on the beta cell have also yielded inconsistent results. A retrospective analysis of the European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance database revealed a 25% decline in the insulin delivery rate (calculated as the sum of the clamp-derived posthepatic insulin clearance rate and fasting plasma insulin concentration) from age 18 to 85 . This study controlled for body mass index (BMI), fasting plasma glucose, and insulin sensitivity in both men and women. These results suggested that beta cell function declines with age. In contrast, in a study of young (ages 23-25) and older (ages 64-66) adults using a hyperglycemic clamp technique, defects in beta cell function in older individuals were only observed with pre-existing impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or Type 2 diabetes; normoglycemic older individuals had a similar insulin response to hyperglycemia as their younger counterparts . The results of this study suggest that there is not necessarily an overall age-related decrease in beta cell function but may be observed only in the setting of IGT or frank diabetes.
These macroscopic studies are difficult to interpret because glucose intolerance can develop from a combination of many factors and controlling for every possible influence is impossible. Therefore, studies have now focused on the effect of aging on the beta cell, specifically on insulin secretion, beta cell mass, and the proliferative and regenerative capacity of the beta cell. This review will examine early theories on how beta cell function decline with age as well as explore what is known about beta cell proliferation, apoptosis, and the role of regeneration and neogenesis in the aging beta cell. Finally, the factors that maintain beta cell function will be reviewed in relation to age. It is important to note that there is currently limited information in the field on aging in the non-diabetic human and rodent models, but what is known will be reviewed here (Figure 1). Changes in body mass and insulin resistance and the effect that these have on peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipocytes is another topic in itself and will not be a subject of this review.
Early theories on why beta cell function declines with age
Early hypotheses on possible causes for the decline in beta cell function with age considered theories surrounding alterations in glucose oxidation as well as alterations in potassium efflux and levels of calcium ions. In the beta cell, glucose oxidation results in the increased ATP production required for insulin secretion. Therefore, a reduction in glucose oxidation rates with aging would result in reduced insulin secretion. Indeed, some studies have shown that older animals have reduced rates of glucose oxidation . However, subsequent studies revealed that older rats actually show an increased rate of both glucose oxidation and insulin secretion, suggesting that this is a potential mechanism by which beta cells attempt to overcome age-associated peripheral insulin resistance .
There has been some discussion that age affects the potassium and calcium channels involved in insulin secretion. Normally, elevated glucose concentrations induce beta cells to inhibit potassium efflux, resulting in increased calcium influx through voltage-dependent calcium channels. The increase in intracellular calcium induces insulin exocytosis. In a study of potassium channels comparing 3 month to 24 month old rats, a significant potassium efflux even after high glucose stimulation was observed in older rats, indicating that the normal inhibition of the KATP-channel is lost with age . These data indicate that age-related alterations in beta cell function could be due to changes in glucose oxidation and ion channel function.
Figure 1: Summary of the effects of age on various beta cell parameters. Multiple factors influence the beta cell as it ages. Each of the factors listed here is discussed in more detail in the text. This graph is a representation of how these parameters change with age. The actual kinetics of each of these changes has not been fully elucidated.
Beta cell proliferation declines with age
The regenerative capacity of most organs decreases with age. Older rats exhibit reduced proliferative capacity in the form of reduced muscle and bone mass, defective tissue repair, and thinning of skin . Specifically, this may be due to an age-related reduction in expression of the Forkhead Box M1 (FoxM1) transcription factor . FoxM1 regulates genes involved in cell cycle regulation and cell division. It is highly expressed in proliferating cells, and expression declines in most cell types with age, including pancreatic islets . Genetic inactivation of the Foxm1 gene throughout the pancreatic epithelium results in reduced postnatal beta cell proliferation [13-15].
Beta cell proliferation is also reduced in humans with age [16,17]. A small study of pancreata from twenty non-diabetic organ donors aged 7 to 66 showed a decline in beta cell replication with age . The decline in beta cell replication was directly associated with a decrease in expression of the pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (pdx1) , a transcription factor, known to be important for beta cell replication and will be discussed further later in this paper. In another study, a review of 124 pancreata from obese, diabetic, and lean individuals aged 61-83 at autopsy, showed that in this population, there was also a low frequency of beta cell replication .
Cell cycle activators and inhibitors are targets for promoting beta cell replication.
Investigating the expression and function of different cell cycle activators and inhibitors in the beta cell could elucidate mechanisms by which beta cell replication can be promoted to enhance beta cell mass (and subsequently possibly function), especially in the setting of diabetes. Beta cells express most of the known cell cycle inhibitors, including p16INK4a, p18INK4c, p21CIP1, p27Kip1, p53, and Rb . In contrast, there is much less redundancy of cell cycle activators in the beta call. For example, rodent beta cells express only Cdk4 (cyclin-dependent kinase 4) and not Cdk6, whereas most other cell types express both of these closely related proteins .
Mouse beta cells express all three D cyclins, D1, D2, D3, but the mRNA expression of D2 is significantly higher than both D1 and D3 with only D2 detectable by immunohistochemistry . The D cyclins promote the passage of cells past the G phase checkpoint and in conjunction with the cyclin-dependent kinases . Loss of a single cell cycle inhibitor does not accelerate beta cell cell cycle progression, whereas loss of multiple inhibitors enhances beta cell proliferation . For example, beta cell-specific inactivation of the Rb gene has minimal effect on beta cell replication rates, pancreatic insulin content, and beta cell mass . Conversely, loss of a single cell cycle activator leads to profound defects in beta cell replication and beta cell mass. Specifically, loss of Cdk4 leads to a reduction in mRNA levels of insulin I, insulin II, islet amyloid polypeptide, and Glut2 as well as decreased beta cell area (from deformed and smaller-size islets) . Additionally, loss of the transcription factor FoxM1 in the pancreatic epithelium results in decreased postnatal beta cell mass , at least in part due to increased nuclear p21 levels and decreased Cdk2 activation via reduced Cdc25A phosphatase expression . This phenomenon points to the potentially greater importance of regulating cell cycle "brakes" or inhibitors rather than solely trying to increase expression of a particular "accelerator" or activator.
Cell cycle activators: As mentioned above, D cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases promote progression from G phase to S phase. Loss of cyclin D1 and D2 in beta cells has no effect on islet size or number, indicating that these cell cycle activators are not important to embryonic beta cell development. However, cyclin D2 null mutant mice develop diabetes by 9-12 months, which suggests that it is critical to adult beta cell expansion . Studies by He et al. indicate that phosphorylation of threonine 280 (T280) within cyclin D2 limit its stability. Transgenic mice expressing a mutant form of cyclin D2 under the insulin promoter, where T280 was mutated to alanine allowing for increased levels of D2 expression, showed increased beta cell mass at 18-21 months . Transgenic mice over-expressing cyclin D1 displayed increased beta cell proliferation, interestingly without inducing tumor formation . Cyclin D3 levels are nearly undetectable in mouse islets and no studies have been performed to examine the impact of an absence of cyclin D3 in the beta cell. In contrast, cyclin D3 is highly expressed in the human beta cell, with only minimal cyclin D1 and D2 levels noted. Interestingly, cyclin D3 over-expression (in isolated human islets), especially in combination with cdk6, induced the greatest increase in beta cell proliferation when compared with over-expression of other cyclins (cyclins D1,2,3 and cdk 4 and 6) .
Through their interaction with the cyclins, Cdk's inactivate cell cycle inhibitors allowing for cell cycle progression . Cdk4 null mutant mice show no impairment in embryonic beta cell development, but postnatally they have a significant reduction in beta cell mass compared to controls. In fact, by age 17 weeks, beta cell mass of Cdk4 null mutant mice is only 10% of that of age-matched controls. Null mutants have a 3.5-fold reduction in BrdU incorporation as well, but, interestingly, only beta cells, and not other pancreatic endocrine cell types, are affected . Additionally, mice were generated with a mutation in the Cdk4 protein such that it could no longer be down-regulated by p16INK4a. In this model, there was a 7-10 fold increase in islet cell area with no significant change in glucose tolerance when compared to wild-type littermate controls aged ≥ 3 months . Cdk2 is also present in the mouse islet , but its specific role in beta cells has not yet been elucidated. Cdk6, though important to the cell cycle in other cell types, is not expressed in mouse islets but is very effective in driving beta cell replication in human islets . The effect of age on cyclin D and Cdk levels has not yet been examined.
Cell cycle inhibitors: Evidence from multiple labs has demonstrated that with age, beta cells show decreased expression of cell cycle activators (e.g., FoxM1 mentioned above) with simultaneous increases in expression of cell cycle inhibitors. For example, the p16Ink4a tumor suppressor protein (expressed from the INK4a/ARF (Cdkn2a) locus), which sequesters Cdk4 and Cdk6 and prevents their interaction with the D cyclins, increases with age in both rodent and human islets . In the absence of p16Ink4a, Cdk4 and Cdk6 complex with Cyclin D and phosphorylate pRB, releasing the E2F transcription factor, which facilitates the G to S phase cell cycle transition. Increased p16Ink4a is associated with cell cycle arrest and cellular senescence (see Figure 2) . Beta cell-specific transgenic over-expression of p16 decreases beta cell proliferative capacity in young mice (26-32 weeks of age) to levels observed in older mice . Conversely, germline deletion of p16Ink4a significantly ameliorates age-related decreases in beta cell proliferative capacity. In the absence of p16Ink4a, beta cells from mice at ~60 weeks of age showed levels of proliferation comparable to beta cells from younger mice (10 weeks of age). Proliferation still declined with age in mice lacking INK4a, but this was thought to be related to either the effect of p19Arf expression or a mechanism that was independent of the products of the Ink4a/Arf locus . p19Arf (known as p14ARF in humans) is the other product of the INK4a/Arf gene locus. This protein is also involved in cell cycle progression but by a different mechanism (see Figure 3). The function of this protein has been examined in the cancer and stem cell fields but little is known about its role in pancreatic islets. Interestingly, in other cell types, p19Arf has been implicated as a direct inhibitor of FoxM1 .
The decline in beta cell proliferation with age may result in part from decreased expression of specific growth factor/hormone receptors or their downstream signaling components. For example, treatment with the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analog, Exendin-4 increases beta cell mass in young mice (6 weeks old) but not in mice aged 7-8 months, indicating that the aged beta cell does not respond very well to GLP-1 . Exendin-4 treatment results in a marked decrease in p16Ink4a levels in young but not old mice, reinforcing the concept that p16Ink4a contributes to the reduced proliferative capacity of the older beta cell.
Figure 2: Effects of p16Ink4a on Cdk4/6. (A)The p16Ink4a cell cycle inhibitor sequesters Cdk4 or Cdk6, preventing interactions with cyclin D proteins, and thus phosphorylation of pRB. Hypophosphorylated pRB sequesters the E2F transcription factor, thusthus inihibiting cell cycle progression. (B) In the absence of p16Ink4a, cyclin D forms a productive complex with either Cdk4 or Cdk6 and phosphorylates RB. Thisphosphorylation releases the E2F transcription factor, facilitating the G1 to S phase cell cycle transition. Thus, in the presence of elevated p16Ink4a, such as with aging, there iscell cycle arrest and cellular senescence. Adapted from p16Ink4a also plays a role in beta cell regeneration. Streptozotocin (STZ) causes beta cell necrosis and diabetes after a single, high dose injection in adult mice, and beta cell regeneration following destruction has been well-established . p16Ink4a +/+, +/-, and -/- mice were injected with STZ, resulting in beta cell necrosis and diabetes in all genotypes. However, by 9-15 weeks of age p16Ink4a +/+and +/- mice showed persistent hyperglycemia compared to their p16Ink4a -/- littermates, although even the p16Ink4a deficient mice did not show complete recovery to pre-STZ levels of glucose tolerance, survival, and weight. These data once again highlight p16Ink4a-independent regulation of beta cell regenerative capacity with age .
Figure 3: Effects of p19Arf on the cell cycle. In the absence of p19Arf, p53 is ubiquitinized and subsequently degraded by the proteosome. p19Arf inhibits the ubiquitin-modulated effect of p53 by MDM2. p19Arf inhibits ubiquitin-mediated p53 degradation resulting in induction of p21 and subsequently cell cycle arrest. Adapted from and Inhibiting the inhibitors: Because inhibitors like p16Ink4a reduce the proliferative capacity of the beta cell, inhibiting cell cycle inhibitors could offer an alternative way to circumvent this deficit. B-cell-specific Moloney murine leukemia virus integration site 1(Bmi-1) and Enhancer of zeste homologue 2 (Ezh2) are transcriptional regulators in the Polycomb family. Bmi-1 is part of the multiprotein histone E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, polycomb repressor complex 1 (PRC1; see Figure 4) and is important for maintaining the enzymatic activity of the complex as well as its structure , while Ezh2 is a component of PRC2 involved in methylation of lysine 27 of histone H3 (H3K27) and recruitment of PRC1. These complexes are both involved in transcriptional repression of cell cycle inhibitors including p16Ink4a and p19Arf, in the pancreas and other tissues.
Within the postnatal pancreas, Bmi-1 is localized to islets and its expression decreases significantly from 2 to 10 weeks of age . Ezh2 is expressed in the beta cells of the pancreas, and its expression also decreases with age . Using mice lacking Bmi-1, Dhawan et al. showed a significant increase in p16Ink4a mRNA as well as severely reduced Ki67 reactivity, a marker of proliferation, when comparing 2 week old mice to 10 week old mice . These data show that Bmi-1 is critical to suppression of p16Ink4a and that beta cell proliferation is greatly reduced in the absence of its silencing. Mice with conditional gene inactivation of Ezh2 in the beta cell showed a premature increase in p16Ink4a and p19Arf mRNA expression and reduced beta cell proliferation and mass, hypoinsulinemia, and mild diabetes in one month old mice. Interestingly, there was no change in mRNA levels of other Ink4 or cdk inhibitors (Ink4b, Ink4c, Ink4d, p21Cip1, p27Kip1, Trp 53) suggesting that Ezh2 has a specific effect on the INK4a/Arf locus in the beta cell .
Figure 4: BMI-1 and Ezh2: Effects on transcription. (A)The Ezh2 (Enhancer of zeste homologue 2) component of the PRC2 (Polycomb repressor complex 2) complex methylates lysine (K) 27 of histone H3 (H3K27). This methylation process recruits the PRC1 (Polycomb repressor complex 1) complex. (B) The Ring1A and Ring1B components of this complex ubiquitylate H2AK119. This ubiquitylation causes transcriptional repression, for example at the Ink4a/Arf locus. In addition to Ezh2, the PRC2 complex contains EED (embryonic ectoderm development) and Suz12 (suppressor of zeste homologue 12). The PRC1 complex contains BMI-1, Ring 1A, Ring 1B, PH1 (Polycomb homologue 1), and PH1 (Polyhomeotic homologue 1). Adapted from .
The role of apoptosis in decreased beta cell mass
In a study of human pancreatic tissue by Reers et al., the decline in beta cell replication with age was not found to be associated with a change in the frequency of apoptosis . In contrast, a study by Butler showed both a low frequency of beta cell replication and a higher rate of beta cell apoptosis in obese and diabetic individuals compared with lean and non-diabetic individuals . Specifically, the non-diabetic obese individuals had a ~50% increase in relative beta cell volume (ie. beta cell area/exocrine area) compared to non-diabetic lean controls; obese individuals with impaired fasting glucose and Type 2 diabetes had a 40-63% beta cell volume deficit compared to obese non-diabetic controls. This indicates that those individuals with dysglycemia were unable to adaptively increase their beta cell volume. Ki67 (a marker of proliferation) labeling of the pancreata showed that all individuals had a low frequency of replication, although there was a trend toward decreased beta cell replication with age. When normalized for beta cell mass, there was a three-fold and ten-fold increase in beta cell apoptosis in obese and lean diabetic individuals compared to obese and lean non-diabetic individuals respectively as observed by TUNEL staining . This balance of replication and apoptosis is important to remember when considering whether the decline in beta cells in the elderly is truly an issue of inadequate proliferation or whether there is also elevated apoptosis. These studies indicate that in the non-diabetic individuals, even when controlling for obesity, which causes higher rates of apoptosis, enhancing beta cell replication alone may be inadequate.
Amylin aggregation: Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) or amylin is a thirty-seven amino acid neuroendocrine hormone that is co-secreted with insulin from the beta cell . Amylin suppresses glucagon secretion and in conjunction with insulin helps to regulate glucose homeostasis . In Type 2 diabetics, hypersecretion of insulin results in increased co-secretion of amylin. This amylin aggregates into amyloid plaques, which can subsequently lead to increased beta cell apoptosis and cause progression of diabetes . Amyloid plaques are present in >90% of Type 2 diabetics at autopsy .
With age there is an increased deposition of amylin in the islets of diabetic individuals but not non-diabetic individuals as seen by examination of pancreata at autopsy . Interestingly, rodent amyloid does not aggregate due to a proline amino acid substitution that makes the rodent IAPP differ from human IAPP (hIAPP) . Therefore, to study the effects of amylin aggregation on the beta cell, transgenic mice were developed that expressed human (h)IAPP under control of the insulin promoter. Over-expression of hIAPP resulted in hyperglycemia in male mice aged 6 to 9 months without the presence of amyloid plaques. In older (>13 month) transgenic male mice, there was a significant amount of amylin plaque formation in the peripheral and perivascular areas of the islets only . Hyperglycemia preceded the formation of obvious plaques, suggesting that the hyperglycemia could be, at least in part, due to cytotoxicity from intermediate-sized amyloid particles. Janson et al. showed that when applying freshly dissolved hIAPP exogenously to dispersed mouse and human islets, islet cell apoptosis and necrosis occurred within 24 to 48 hours. In contrast, when islets were treated with large amyloid deposits, there was no observable effect. Further study showed that the intermediate-sized amyloid particles caused membrane damage and subsequent cell death . From these data, it is clear that increases in amylin deposition size can cause increased beta cell death and progression of Type 2 diabetes, however the size of the particles may be critical to determining whether they have detrimental effects. These results demonstrate that increased rates of beta cell apoptosis, in the absence of any known defect in proliferation capability, can lead to reduced beta cell mass.
Mechanisms for increasing beta cell mass, regeneration or neogenesis
As discussed above, beta cell proliferation decreases with age, but how do beta cells adapt and increase their beta cell mass? FoxM1 is important to beta cell replication, and its role in tissue regeneration was first appreciated using partially hepatectomized mice. Transgenic restoration of FoxM1 expression in older hepatocytes to levels similar to those found in young mice resulted in improved liver regeneration in older mice . Genetic inactivation of the Foxm1 gene throughout the pancreatic epithelium results in a reduced ability of beta cells to respond to proliferative stimuli and impaired beta cell regeneration following partial pancreatectomy [13-15]. Studies from the Kushner lab revealed that beta cell mass expansion in response to multiple different stimuli (partial pancreatectomy, beta cell destruction, and GLP-1 analog) severely declines with age , possibly due to the decrease in Foxm1 expression.
It has become clear in recent years, at least in rodent models, that increases in beta cell number postnatally occur mainly through proliferation of existing beta cells, with little to no contribution from neogenesis from stem or progenitor cells . Taken together, these studies suggest that the loss of proliferative capacity of existing beta cells, rather than the loss of progenitor cells, is likely cause of reduced beta cell mass expansion in older individuals.
Pregnancy is a condition under which there is an increased demand for insulin production and secretion, although the mechanism by which this occurs in humans may differ from that of rodents. An inadequate insulin response during pregnancy results in gestational diabetes. During pregnancy, rodents exhibit both beta cell hyperplasia and hypertrophy . In contrast, a review of 44 human pancreata from pregnant, post-partum, and non-pregnant women at autopsy suggested that the increase in insulin-positive area in pregnant and post-partum women was most likely due to islet neogenesis rather than proliferation . Surrogate markers for neogenesis include the number of insulin-positive cells within or near pancreatic ducts and single insulin-positive cells scattered throughout the exocrine pancreas. However, the role of proliferation versus neogenesis in pregnant human females is still controversial as studies from Van Assche et al. concluded that beta cells undergo both hyperplasia and hypertrophy during pregnancy . These differences may be accounted for by a smaller study population (5 pregnant and 5 non-pregnant women) in the Van Assche study, differences in techniques used (Ivic's Victoria blue acid fuchsin staining vs. insulin immunohistochemistry to ascertain fractional endocrine and beta cell area), and underlying disease conditions that may have influenced the beta cell. Thus, in contrast to the rodent model, in human pregnancy, an increase in beta cell number may result from mechanisms other than increased beta cell replication, perhaps islet neogenesis. It is important to note though that the rodents used in the pregnancy studies were young adults, in contrast to the subjects in published human studies. Younger individuals would be expected to demonstrate increased beta cell replication and hypertrophy during pregnancy; epigenetic changes in beta cells that occur with age likely result in decreased response of beta cells to replication cues in both rodents and humans with age .
As previously mentioned, beta cell loss may be accompanied by a reduction in islet neogenesis or beta cell proliferation, and/or increased apoptosis. To elucidate the rate of human beta cell turnover, examination of ten human cadaver pancreata was undertaken. These ten individuals had received iododeoxyuridine (IdU) or bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) from eight days to four years prior to death during cancer treatment clinical trials. Radiocarbon dating and in vivo thymidine analog staining showed that only individuals under the age of thirty years showed evidence of beta cell turnover. This implies that therapies directed at beta cell expansion may not be as effective in individuals over the age of thirty .
Since pregnancy is a physiological condition during which there is an appropriate response to increased insulin demand, this is an excellent model to investigate the mechanisms by which insulin production or beta cell mass could be increased in adults. Although there is a consistent increase in beta cell mass observed in both rodents and humans during pregnancy, the mechanism(s) underlying this expansion have not yet been fully elucidated and may differ significantly in rodent and human pregnancy. From a limited examination of human pancreata, it seems that beta cell turnover is severely diminished in individuals older than thirty and thus, strategies to improve the receptivity of older beta cells to proliferative cues should be investigated.
Factors regulating beta cell function and maintenance of differentiation.
Pdx1 and MafA: Pdx1 (pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1), also known as IDX1, IPF1, STF1, and GSF, is a transcription factor critical for beta cell development and function. Mice with late onset beta cell-specific Pdx1 inactivation displayed approximately 60% of the normal number of beta cells and 10% of total pancreatic insulin content compared to wild type mice at three weeks of age. Additionally, these mice had an increased number of glucagon-expressing cells as compared to wild type, with 22% of the glucagon- or insulin-expressing cells co-expressing both hormones . Homozygouspdx1 inactivation during embryogenesis results in early onset diabetes due to decreased beta cell mass and increased alpha cell area at birth while a heterozygous inactivation results in persistent hyperglycemia with a relative deficiency of plasma insulin. Although beta cell mass was unchanged, non-beta cell islet mass was nearly doubled suggesting that the heterozygous inactivation of Pdx1 leads to impairments in glucose homeostasis . Supporting this conclusion, islets from pdx1 heterozygous mice released approximately 45% less insulin in response to a glucose stimulus compared to wild-type islets . These data show the importance of Pdx1 in maintaining the beta cell phenotype in the adult mouse and repressing glucagon expression in insulin-positive cells.
Seven to eight month old rats show a decreased number of insulin-positive cells that express Pdx1 , and 56% and 33% reduction in pdx1 mRNA levels in 22 month old compared to 2 month old rats and mice respectively . Acute deletion of Pdx1 at 3 months results in an acute reduction of Pdx1 but does not cause any changes in glucose homeostasis. A doxycycline-inducible transgenic system in which expression of an antisense ribozyme that cleaves thepdx1 mRNA at a specific site, leading to a reduced Pdx1 protein level, was utilized to examine the effect of reduced Pdx1 function in older vs. younger mice. After 3 weeks of doxycycline treatment, 18 month old transgenic mice had significantly worse glucose tolerance than age-matched controls . It can thus be concluded that Pdx1 expression declines with age in mouse beta cells, that this contributes to reduced beta cell function, and that beta cell function is particularly affected by reduced pdx1 levels with age.
MafA is a beta cell-restricted transcription factor, which in combination with transcription factors Pdx1 and Beta2 synergistically activates the insulin promoter . The effect of age on MafA expression levels has not yet been studied, but it has been shown that MafA null mutant mice, though normoglycemic at birth, develop diabetes by four weeks of age . This suggests that MafA may be important to maintaining glucose homeostasis as animals age. It is therefore possible that with age individuals who develop diabetes could have some disruption in MafA levels as it is already known that in diabetes, MafA levels are reduced [65,66]. Glucose toxicity causes reduced insulin gene expression , perhaps due to reduced MafA and Pdx1 levels, the loss of MafA precedes the reduction of Pdx1 . Restoring MafA and Pdx1 levels to pre-glucotoxic levels virtually completely rescues insulin mRNA levels .
Antioxidants: Oxidative stress increases with age in many tissues, and this is probably also true in the beta cell. Glucose toxicity increases intraislet peroxide levels and treatment with antioxidants improves glucose levels by reducing apoptosis rates and improving insulin gene expression, insulin secretion, and Pdx1 binding to the insulin promoter . In the db/db obese mouse model, it has been shown that reversing beta cell oxidative stress by glutathione peroxidase over-expression, restored MafA expression and subsequently improved beta cell volume and glucose homeostasis .
An increased incidence of diabetes is observed with age, and there are many possibly reasons for this. One of these is that the beta cell has reduced proliferative capacity and in diabetic individuals this is further confounded by higher rates of beta cell apoptosis. The currently known underlying mechanisms behind the reduction in beta cell proliferation observed with age include reduced expression of cell cycle activators, increased expression of cell cycle inhibitors, reduced pdx1 expression, and increased amylin aggregation. Studying aging in the non-diabetic rodent and human models is currently a developing field; therefore very few broad conclusions can be drawn. Further study in these areas is important as they could indicate targets for preventing or slowing the progression of diabetes with age.
We thank the members of the Gannon lab for their helpful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript. U.G. is supported by a T32 from the NIH/NIDDK (DK07061-37). M.G. was supported by grants from the NIH/NIDDK (R56DK071052) and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA1I01BX00099001).
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- Verchere CB, D'Alessio DA, Palmiter RD, Weir GC, Bonner-Weir S, Baskin DG and Kahn SE. Islet amyloid formation associated with hyperglycemia in transgenic mice with pancreatic beta cell expression of human islet amyloid polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93: 3492-6.
- Janson J, Ashley RH, Harrison D, McIntyre S and Butler PC. The mechanism of islet amyloid polypeptide toxicity is membrane disruption by intermediate-sized toxic amyloid particles. Diabetes 1999; 48: 491-8.
- Rankin MM and Kushner JA. Adaptive beta-cell proliferation is severely restricted with advanced age. Diabetes 2009; 58: 1365-72.
- Dor Y, Brown J, Martinez OI and Melton DA. Adult pancreatic beta-cells are formed by self-duplication rather than stem-cell differentiation. Nature 2004; 429: 41-6.
- Teta M, Long SY, Wartschow LM, Rankin MM and Kushner JA. Very slow turnover of beta-cells in aged adult mice. Diabetes 2005; 54: 2557-67.
- Van Assche FA, Aerts L and Gepts W. Morphological changes in the endocrine pancreas in pregnant rats with experimental diabetes. J Endocrinol 1979; 80: 175-9.
- Butler AE, Cao-Minh L, Galasso R, Rizza RA, Corradin A, Cobelli C and Butler PC. Adaptive changes in pancreatic beta cell fractional area and beta cell turnover in human pregnancy. Diabetologia 2010; 53: 2167-76.
- Van Assche FA, Aerts L and De Prins F. A morphological study of the endocrine pancreas in human pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1978; 85: 818-20.
- Genevay M, Pontes H and Meda P. Beta cell adaptation in pregnancy: a major difference between humans and rodents? Diabetologia 2010; 53: 2089-92.
- Perl S, Kushner JA, Buchholz BA, Meeker AK, Stein GM, Hsieh M, Kirby M, Pechhold S, Liu EH, Harlan DM and Tisdale JF. Significant human beta-cell turnover is limited to the first three decades of life as determined by in vivo thymidine analog incorporation and radiocarbon dating. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: E234-9.
- Ahlgren U, Jonsson J, Jonsson L, Simu K and Edlund H. beta-cell-specific inactivation of the mouse Ipf1/Pdx1 gene results in loss of the beta-cell phenotype and maturity onset diabetes. Genes Dev 1998; 12: 1763-8.
- Dutta S, Bonner-Weir S, Montminy M and Wright C. Regulatory factor linked to late-onset diabetes? Nature 1998; 392: 560.
- Brissova M, Shiota M, Nicholson WE, Gannon M, Knobel SM, Piston DW, Wright CV and Powers AC. Reduction in pancreatic transcription factor PDX-1 impairs glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. J Biol Chem 2002; 277: 11225-32.
- Maedler K, Schumann DM, Schulthess F, Oberholzer J, Bosco D, Berney T and Donath MY. Aging correlates with decreased beta-cell proliferative capacity and enhanced sensitivity to apoptosis: a potential role for Fas and pancreatic duodenal homeobox-1. Diabetes 2006; 55: 2455-62.
- Ihm SH, Moon HJ, Kang JG, Park CY, Oh KW, Jeong IK, Oh YS and Park SW. Effect of aging on insulin secretory function and expression of beta cell function-related genes of islets. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007; 77 Suppl 1: S150-4.
- Thomas MK, Devon ON, Lee JH, Peter A, Schlosser DA, Tenser MS and Habener JF. Development of diabetes mellitus in aging transgenic mice following suppression of pancreatic homeoprotein IDX-1. J Clin Invest 2001; 108: 319-29.
- Aramata S, Han SI and Kataoka K. Roles and regulation of transcription factor MafA in islet beta-cells. Endocr J 2007; 54: 659-66.
- Zhang C, Moriguchi T, Kajihara M, Esaki R, Harada A, Shimohata H, Oishi H, Hamada M, Morito N, Hasegawa K, Kudo T, Engel JD, Yamamoto M and Takahashi S. MafA is a key regulator of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Mol Cell Biol 2005; 25: 4969-76.
- Matsuoka TA, Kaneto H, Miyatsuka T, Yamamoto T, Yamamoto K, Kato K, Shimomura I, Stein R and Matsuhisa M. Regulation of MafA expression in pancreatic beta-cells in db/db mice with diabetes. Diabetes 2010; 59: 1709-20.
- Kitamura YI, Kitamura T, Kruse JP, Raum JC, Stein R, Gu W and Accili D. FoxO1 protects against pancreatic beta cell failure through NeuroD and MafA induction. Cell Metab 2005; 2: 153-63.
- Robertson RP, Zhang HJ, Pyzdrowski KL and Walseth TF. Preservation of insulin mRNA levels and insulin secretion in HIT cells by avoidance of chronic exposure to high glucose concentrations. J Clin Invest 1992; 90: 320-5.
- Harmon JS, Tanaka Y, Olson LK and Robertson RP. Reconstitution of glucotoxic HIT-T15 cells with somatostatin transcription factor-1 partially restores insulin promoter activity. Diabetes 1998; 47: 900-4.
- Harmon JS, Stein R and Robertson RP. Oxidative stress-mediated, post-translational loss of MafA protein as a contributing mechanism to loss of insulin gene expression in glucotoxic beta cells. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 11107-13.
- Sohal RS and Weindruch R. Oxidative stress, caloric restriction, and aging. Science 1996; 273: 59-63.
- Tanaka Y, Tran PO, Harmon J and Robertson RP. A role for glutathione peroxidase in protecting pancreatic beta cells against oxidative stress in a model of glucose toxicity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99: 12363-8.
- Kaneto H, Kajimoto Y, Miyagawa J, Matsuoka T, Fujitani Y, Umayahara Y, Hanafusa T, Matsuzawa Y, Yamasaki Y and Hori M. Beneficial effects of antioxidants in diabetes: possible protection of pancreatic beta-cells against glucose toxicity. Diabetes 1999; 48: 2398-406.
- Tanaka Y, Gleason CE, Tran PO, Harmon JS and Robertson RP. Prevention of glucose toxicity in HIT-T15 cells and Zucker diabetic fatty rats by antioxidants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999; 96: 10857-62.
- Harmon JS, Bogdani M, Parazzoli SD, Mak SS, Oseid EA, Berghmans M, Leboeuf RC and Robertson RP. beta-Cell-specific overexpression of glutathione peroxidase preserves intranuclear MafA and reverses diabetes in db/db mice. Endocrinology 2009; 150: 4855-62.
- Sekulic A, Haluska P, Jr., Miller AJ, Genebriera De Lamo J, Ejadi S, Pulido JS, Salomao DR, Thorland EC, Vile RG, Swanson DL, Pockaj BA, Laman SD, Pittelkow MR and Markovic SN. Malignant melanoma in the 21st century: the emerging molecular landscape. Mayo Clin Proc 2008; 83: 825-46.
- Park IK, Morrison SJ and Clarke MF. Bmi1, stem cells, and senescence regulation. J Clin Invest 2004; 113: 175-9.
- Spivakov M and Fisher AG. Epigenetic signatures of stem-cell identity. Nat Rev Genet 2007; 8: 263-71. | <urn:uuid:81522a8b-0d35-446e-a7a5-46c8f60cae55> | {
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Friday Finds: The Case of the Missing Plastic
Have you ever dropped your phone in the water, never to find it again?
Well, according to new research out of Australia, that’s exactly what’s happening to 99 percent of the plastic that should be in the ocean; except, instead of one phone, we’re talking about millions of tons of plastic phone cases, straws, water bottles and other items that plasticize our lives.
That much plastic should be easy to find in our ocean’s waters, yet a couple of years ago when four ships set out to find this plastic, spending months trailing fine mesh nets around the world, the ships came up surprisingly light—netting only about 40,000 tons of plastic at most, reports Science magazine. Good news, right?
Not exactly. Normally it would be great to not find a bunch of garbage in our oceans, but the fact remains that we know it should be there. So where is it?
Nobody really knows, but they have a few theories. One is that marine animals like fish could be eating the plastic, which could spell bad news for anyone higher up the food chain (i.e. humans). According to Science mag:
“When plastic is floating out on the open ocean, waves and radiation from the sun can fragment it into smaller and smaller particles, until it gets so small it begins to look like fish food—especially to small lanternfish, a widespread small marine fish known to ingest plastic.”
In addition to the disgusting notion that anytime you eat fish you are potentially biting into tiny fragments of plastic—floss, anyone?—the more serious concern is that you could also be ingesting toxic chemicals such as like DDT or mercury, which tend to cling to the surface of the plastic. And don’t forget about the chemicals that plastics themselves are made of, like bisphenol A (BPA), which is used to harden plastic and has come under a lot of scrutiny over the past few years for its suspected effects on the brain, behavior and prostate gland for fetuses, infants and children.
Of course, as the various researchers interviewed in the article pointed out, it’s possible that the plastic could be ending up in plenty other places besides fish, like on the shore or the sea floor.
Regardless of where it’s landing, it’s clear that our plastic consumption is wreaking havoc on the environment and on ourselves. Fortunately, some cities and states are finally taking notice. Over the past few years, over a hundred cities have passed plastic bag bans to cut down on the more than 1 billion plastic bags used in the U.S. In addition, Illinois recently began the first state to ban the manufacture and sale of personal care products containing synthetic plastic microbeads, which are non-biodegradable plastic particles used as exfoliants in skin care products.
According to an article in the Chicago Tribune, preliminary studies in Lake Michigan have found millions of microbeads, which can suck up toxins and harm wildlife who ingest them. At least four other states are considering similar bills. The ban is a great step, albeit a micro-sized one, towards stopping the plasticization of our oceans.
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What many people do not recognize is that managing anger is a skill. While the emotion of anger is experienced throughout all humanity, the expression of the emotion varies greatly, depending on ones learned coping skills.
Without good coping skills, unbridled anger can become dangerous and devastating in relationships. Like any skill, it must first be taught, assimilated, then practiced many times. Then the skill should be monitored by a professional for guidance or suggestions. Learning to manage anger is like learning to play golf, you must first learn proper technique, then practice repetitively until mastered.
Skills might include improving communication, empathy, judgment and impulse control, expectations and stress management. These skills can be effectively learned by taking an anger class or online class, or through one/one anger management coaching by a trained professional. Anger management should be viewed as an educational intervention aimed at improving ones interpersonal skills.
Again, I use the word “skills” because that is what anger management is all about, skill enhancement. One will not master how to better control their anger response through magic. It happens with hard work and diligence at practicing the skills taught in a quality program.
Managing anger is also about ones own anger not the other persons. There is nothing you can do to improve someone else’s behavior. This type of training is all about self-improvement. The better you represent yourself to the ones around you, the better chance you have of the interaction being positive!
Ari Novick, Ph.D. is Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist and a certified anger management provider for both adults and adolescents. Dr. Novick is also an adjunct professor of psychology at Pepperdine University’s Graduate School of Education and Psychology. His corporate website is http://www.ajnovickgroup.com and his innovative online anger management class is available at http://www.angerclassonline.com | <urn:uuid:fcfadc89-10b7-4493-abdc-da84b1a813ca> | {
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- Dance – Nruthya
Nritya corresponds to the mime performed to the song. That is in other words, it is the Interpretative dance. The vaachikaabhinaya of natya where the actors themselves use speech is replaced by the music and song which accompanies dance.
‘Rasabhaavavyanjanaadiyuktam nruttamitiryate, etannnrutyam mahaaraajsabhaayaam kalpayet sadaa’
That is, that dance which relates to Sentiment (rasa) and Psychological States (bhaava) is called nritya.
There are way too many things to know when it comes to any dance. Bharatanatyam tops the list, it requires deeper understanding, maturity and skill to learn and perform. Classical dance has three main aspects namely Nritta, Nritya, and Natya which acts as the 3Ns of Bharatanatyam
- Music- Sangeetha
Like all art forms in Indian culture, Indian classical music is believed to be a divine art form which originated from the Devas and Devis(Hindu Gods and Goddesses) and is venerated as symbolic of nada brahman.
The main emphasis in Sangeetha is on vocal music. Most compositions are written to be sung and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as gayaki).
The important elements of sangeetha are Sruti, Swara, Raga system, Tala system. Sangeetha involves varisais (graded exercises), alankaras (exercises based on the seven talas), geetams or simple songs, and Swarajatis
- Theatre- Naataka
The enactment of real and imagined events through role-play, play making and performances, enabling individuals and groups to explore, shape and represent ideas, feelings and their consequences in symbolic or dramatic form.’Nataka is a unique tool to explore and express human feeling. It is an essential form of behavior in all cultures, it is a fundamental human activity. Nataka is also a tool which is flexible, versatile and applicable among all areas of the curriculum. It assists in development of the use of imagination, powers of creative self-expression, understanding of self and the world. | <urn:uuid:275f6bc9-4120-4058-912b-52e1bb7ed4bc> | {
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Glycyrrhiza glabra – Radix
Common name: Licorice (E), Jethimadh (H)
Family: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Yastimadhu means the ‘sweet stick’. Its sweet flavour indicates its tonifying effects; it directly strengthens the kidneys, nourishes the nervous system, is a superb anti-inflammatory and balances all three Ayurvedic doshas.
Licorice is native to Eurasia, northern Africa and Western Asia, but is now commonly cultivated due to its use in the production of Licorice based sweets. Licorice belongs to the pea and bean family, so will grow best in soils with a high nitrogen content. Its natural habitat is dry, open scrubland and damp habitats close to water sources. It is a perennial herb with underground rhizomes, characteristic of the fabaceae family. The stems are hairy and upright, growing to about 1m in height. The leaves are a dark green and arranged in pairs along the stem. The flowers are a light blue or pale violet and are very similar in appearance to those of the sweet pea.
How it Works
The primary constituent in licorice is Glycyrrhizic acid (GA) also known as glycyrrhizin. This constituent can be effective in the treatment of chronic hepatitis and it supports the regeneration and repair of damaged hepatocytes. It has demonstrated the ability to inhibit the growth of several DNA and RNA viruses and deactivates the herpes simplex virus.
GA has received bad press regarding its potential for increasing blood pressure and decreasing blood potassium levels. These studies have used either isolated extracts of (GA) or licorice candy sweets. Isolated GA is highly concentrated and absorbed more rapidly by the body in comparison to ingesting the raw plant material. Similarly, in licorice candy sweets, it is the high levels of sugar and salt that may be responsible for significant changes in blood pressure or potassium levels. Interestingly, a number of additional naturally occurring constituents found in licorice root have actually been shown to modify the enzymes that initiate changes in blood chemistry and pressure depending upon the condition and need of the human body. There is a broad consensus that a safe daily dosage of GA is 120mg per day when taken over a prolonged period.
The triterpene constituents present in licorice are metabolised to molecules with a similar structure to those of the adrenal cortex hormones, making this herb an effective adaptogen.
Into the Heart of Licorice
Licorice is emollient, demulcent and nutritive. It naturally produces mucilage which soothes inflamed mucous membranes throughout the body, with a particular affinity for the respiratory tract, digestion and urinary system. It encourages a healthy inflammation response and, through coating hot and irritated membranes, allows time for damaged cells to regenerate and repair effectively. Licorice strengthens and supports the nervous system and adrenal glands through the production of constituents that mimic those found in the adrenal cortex. It will modify the body’s own stress response to prevent the onset of adrenal exhaustion and impart a tonifying effect through the body. Licorice is also an effective hepatoprotective, supporting the regeneration and repair of damaged liver cells, particularly in chronic conditions such as cirrhosis and hepatitis.
Lungs: Use with dry coughs with difficult to expectorate phlegm, sore throat, laryngitis and tonsillitis as licorice liquefy mucus. Specific for aggravated, dry coughing by virtue of its sweet, heavy and unctuous properties. It is also useful in infections with yellow/green sputum and at a high dose it is an emetic to clear mucus from the lungs and stomach.
GIT: Specific for ulcers and all intestinal inflammations and spasms with pain. It is very useful in hyperacidity and is often used for arresting bleeding in the intestines and lungs. Its demulcent nature moistens and relaxes the bowel and is helpful in drying constipation. At low dose it is anti-emetic (if nausea is caused by heat) and in high doses it is an emetic.
Liver: Hepatoprotective action in hepatitis and chronic liver disease. Licorice soothes the heat that travels via the liver to the blood. Used for skin conditions, such as acne, with heat and inflammation.
Kidneys and nerves: Indicated in nervous exhaustion as licorice is a strong adrenal tonic giving enduring energy. It is a tonic for the whole reproductive system. Its cortisol-like action is useful in Addison’s disease and in exhausted and hyperactive conditions such as ME and CFS.
Urine: Its cooling action and unctuous nature are beneficial in inflammations of the urinary tract and it should be used to treat cystitis and painful, burning urination.
Skin: It is a useful emolliating herb for preventing itching with dry skin. Its anti-inflammatoryreducing effects are commonly employed to treat red, hot, inflamed skin disorders. | <urn:uuid:55ad37a2-5ba4-49a9-b24e-9c3b86acecb3> | {
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Here is an interesting website: http://www.howmanypeopleareinspacerightnow.com/
More than 500,000 pieces of debris, or “space junk,” are tracked as they orbit the Earth. They all travel at speeds up to 17,500 mph, fast enough for a relatively small piece of orbital debris to damage a satellite or a spacecraft.
In the 50-plus years that humans have been zipping through space more than 6,000 satellites have been launched. While some have made their way back down to Earth, more than 3,600 remain in orbit.
- It’s estimated that between 100 and 150 tons of space junk re-enters our atmosphere each year — with the vast majority of it burning up before it hits the ground.
- Scientists are looking to develop methods of removing some of the space junk that’s currently in orbit.
- Some worry that if we don’t act fast enough, the Kessler syndrome will be observed. This would occur if space debris continues to pile up, eventually reaching the point where it would be impossible to launch new objects without creating a collision.
Stuff in Space
Stuff in Space is a realtime 3D map of objects in Earth orbit, visualized using WebGL. (Shown above)
Stuff in Space on GitHub, by James Yoder.: https://github.com/jeyoder/ThingsInSpace
The US. department of Defense maintains an accurate log of all the objects in the Earth’s orbit that are larger than a softball — and if you’d like to get an idea of what all that might look like, you can — via an interactive map called Orbital Objects. http://www.alexras.info/code/orbital_objects/
The rising population of space debris increases the potential danger to all space vehicles, but especially to the International Space Station, space shuttles and other spacecraft with humans aboard.
NASA takes the threat of collisions with space debris seriously and has a long-standing set of guidelines on how to deal with each potential collision threat. These guidelines, part of a larger body of decision-making aids known as flight rules, specify when the expected proximity of a piece of debris increases the probability of a collision enough that evasive action or other precautions to ensure the safety of the crew are needed.
Space debris encompasses both natural (meteoroid) and artificial (man-made) particles. Meteoroids are in orbit about the sun, while most artificial debris is in orbit about the Earth. Hence, the latter is more commonly referred to as orbital debris.
Orbital debris is any man-made object in orbit about the Earth which no longer serves a useful function. Such debris includes nonfunctional spacecraft, abandoned launch vehicle stages, mission-related debris and fragmentation debris.
There are more than 20,000 pieces of debris larger than a softball orbiting the Earth. They travel at speeds up to 17,500 mph, fast enough for a relatively small piece of orbital debris to damage a satellite or a spacecraft. There are 500,000 pieces of debris the size of a marble or larger. There are many millions of pieces of debris that are so small they can’t be tracked.
Many Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 users are faced with a decision when the security software that came installed on their computer expires. What choices do users have?
Problem- Free security software is included with Windows 8 and 8.1 but is usually free just for a trial period, and when it expires some users have experienced frustration. Users can either pay for continued use of the security software or use something else.
Solution # 1- Users may decide to pay for the software installed when computer was purchased. This is the security software that was offered for free during the introductory trial period and signing up and paying a subscription fee will allow the user to continue using this product. This may or may not be the best choice, and it is definitely more expensive than the next solution.
Since it isn’t good to have more than one security program installed at once, if they do use something else they must first remove the existing security software.
Solution # 2- Windows 8 and 8.1 already have free anti-virus, security software installed and available for free in Windows Defender. Windows Defender is included with Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 and helps protect your PC against malware (malicious software). Many new computers come with free subscriptions to antivirus software and other security programs from companies other than Microsoft. When the trial period expires and users do not want to pay to continue using it, they can remove/uninstall it and turn on Windows Defender.
How to make Windows Defender your choice security method? Follow these directions to remove the existing, expired security software and turn on Windows Defender, which provides security for free.
- Fully uninstall the non-Microsoft security software that came with your computer.
- Make sure Windows Defender is turned on.
To uninstall the security software that came with your computer, check the software’s Help file.
Make sure Windows Defender is turned on in Windows 8
- Swipe in from the right edge of the screen and tap Search (or if you’re using a mouse, point to the upper-right corner of the screen, move the mouse pointer down, and then click Search).
- In the Search box, type Windows Defender.
- Tap or click the Windows Defender icon.
- Go to Settings, and make sure that Turn on real-time protection (recommended) is selected.
- Tap or click Save Changes.
Information above from this link: http://blogs.microsoft.com/cybertrust/2014/09/16/what-to-do-if-your-antivirus-subscription-has-expired/
Solution # 3- When the free trial period for the security software that came with Windows 8 expires, remove it and use another 3rd-party program, either the free or paid version.If uses do not want to use Windows Defender and do not want to pay to continue the software they were using during the trial period, they may find information on many other options online:
- The AV-TEST Institute is a leading international and independent service provider in the fields of IT security and anti-virus research. The best antivirus software for Windows Home User by AV-TEST
- The Top 10 Best Antivirus Software 2015: top10antivirussoftware.com
- Consumer security software providers: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/antivirus-partners#AVtabs=win7
Sweden is Now Recycling 99 Percent of its Trash. Here’s how: http://themindunleashed.org/2014/09/sweden-now-recycling-99-percent- trash-heres.html
America should take note of this process considering we only recycle approximately 34 percent of the garbage we throw away: http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/2012_msw_fs.pdf
How does Sweden do it?
- They have an aggressive recycling policy, which goes in an order of importance: prevention, reuse, recycling, recycling alternatives, and as a last resort, disposal in landfill.
- Amazingly, just 1% of Sweden’s trash ends up in landfillsMuch of the left over waste is taken care of by using “recycling alternatives”, such as the Waste-to-Energy program, which is explained in the video, “Importing garbage for energy is good business for Sweden” http://vimeo.com/103801887
- Waste is sorted, then remaining waste is incinerated and converted into electricity
- 3 tons of garbage contains as much energy as 1 ton of oil
- Sweden is so good at recycling its trash in fact, that it now has plans to import 800,000 tons of garbage from other countries in Europe in order to create heat for its citizens through its Waste-to-Energy program.
This 1920 version of the “selfie” was on an excellent Twitter page, History in Pictures
Users can browse through a variety of fascinating photographs, with new ones added daily.
A stadium with grass sloping up the sides, which is used as a park when the stadium is not hosting an event. Cars are parked under the stadium and it is all environmentally friendly. Where? Guadalajara, Mexico!
The city of Guadalajara has unveiled a volcano-like soccer stadium that is veritably exploding with green features. Created for the popular Chivas team by French architects Jean-Marie Massaud and Daniel Pouzet, the stadium features a volcano-evoking exterior that captures rainwater and processes it through wetlands for use in watering the pitch. All lighting is energy efficient, and the parking garage features natural ventilation.
The stadium, which hosted its first match last year, consists of a white membrane — intended to look like a cloud hovering atop the volcano — and grassy sloped sides. It seats 45,000 and tucks away 8,500 parking spaces under the hillside, which will be open as public parkland when there’s no match on. Link
China has launched a lunar rover, only the third country to do so after the United States and the Soviet Union. The rover, named Jade Rabbit (called Yutu in Chinese) is solar-powered, has 6 wheels and four cameras. It also has mechanical arms that can dig soil samples up to 30 meters deep. It can travel up to 200 meters per hour and weighs 120 kg.
Yatu’s mission is to explore the moon’s surface and look for natural resources. The rover was able to send photos of itself back to Earth. A rover “selfie.” Link
Mars One first mission planned for 2018: Mars One will establish a permanent human settlement on Mars. Unmanned missions will prepare a habitable living environment. Crews of four will depart every two years, starting in 2023 or 2024. Our first unmanned spacecraft will land on Mars in 2018. Mars One website: http://www.mars-one.com/en/
Can I apply to become an astronaut?-It is currently not possible to apply. The closing date of this first online astronaut application round was 31 August 2013. Mars One will start new selection programs regularly, so you will have the possibility to apply for subsequent astronaut selection programs.
If you want to stay up to date, you can sign up for the Mars One Newsletter, and receive all Mars One updates.
View these application videos: https://applicants.mars-one.com/
Best Applications for a one-way trip to Mars: National Geographic’s Picks
Mars One will conduct a global search to find the best candidates for the first human mission to Mars. The combined skill set of each astronaut team member must cover a very wide range of disciplines. The astronauts must be intelligent, creative, psychologically stable and physically healthy. On this page, Mars One offers a brief introduction to the basics of our astronaut selection process.
Five Key Characteristics of an Astronaut:
- Ability to Trust
- Creativity / Resourcefulness
Age requirements , physical and medical requirements, country of origin and language (English will be official language) area all part of the selection process.
Here is a list of Frequently Asked Questions
If you have ambitions of being one of the first people on Mars, listen up: A Dutch company says it is moving along with its plan to send four lucky Earthlings to colonize the Red Planet. The catch: They won’t ever come back.
The Mars One foundation announced Tuesday that it has secured lead suppliers for an unmanned mission launching in 2018, which involves a robotic lander and a communications satellite. Lockheed Martin has been contracted to study building the lander, and Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. will develop a concept study for the satellite, Mars One said.
This first mission will demonstrate technology that would be involved in a permanent human settlement on Mars. If all goes well — and that’s still very much an “if” — the first pioneers could land on Mars in 2025.
Enthusiasm has been growing since the project’s first big announcement in April.
- More than 200,000 people have signed up to be prospective astronauts, Mars One CEO Bas Lansdorp said in Washington on Tuesday.
Apparently, they’re OK with living out the rest of their lives on Mars.
- The technology for a return flight doesn’t exist
- There’s no Kennedy Space Center launch pad over there
- Having a one-way trip greatly reduces costs, the company has said.
Get ready for an amazing IMAX film!
Stephen Van Vuuren is a self-described musician, photographer, ubergeek and filmmaker whose diverse background includes growing up in Johannesburg, South Africa and Knoxville, Tennessee. Like most filmmaker’s, Van Vuuren has a current film project, but the movie he wants to make is a bit unique. He wants to personally take hundreds of thousands of still photographs from NASA‘s Cassini-Huygens Mission and turn them into an animated IMAX film. The film called Outside In has been profiled previously, but a recent posting about Van Vuuren and his movie on io9.com has giving his project new life since his video with scenes from the movie have gone viral. More on Geek.com
In the last 20 years, our lives have changed drastically with the explosive growth of technology and the use of the internet. Amazingly, the internet has only been in use for the past 20 years. What will things be line in another 20 years? Or, even in the next 5 years?
“Physicist Tim Berners-Lee invented the Web in 1989 at CERN, the European nuclear research and particle physics laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. CERN didn’t try to keep the technology to itself. The Web became publicly accessible on Aug. 6, 1991, and “[o]n 30 April 1993 CERN published a statement that made World Wide Web (‘W3’, or simply ‘the web’) technology available on a royalty-free basis,” the organization wrote today. “By making the software required to run a web server freely available, along with a basic browser and a library of code, the web was allowed to flourish.”
Snapshots of the original website were preserved, but not the site itself at its original URL, until now. “Although the NeXT machine—the original web server—is still at CERN, sadly the world’s first website is no longer online at its original address,” CERN wrote. CERN is now fixing that oversight, with the first site back online at http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html. Previously, that URL simply redirected to http://info.cern.ch. “
Link for first website: http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html
The risk of Icelanders accidentally sleeping with a relative is apparently high enough to justify a smartphone app to help prevent it.
- Iceland isn’t a big country. Most Icelanders are descended from the Norse and Celtic settlers that first began arriving on the island some time in the 700s and 800s, with few additions to the gene pool.
- Roughly two-thirds of its 320,000 population live in and around the capital, Reykjavík, so the chances that you’re at least not-too-distantly-related to most of the strangers you walk past in the street are high. Or, indeed, someone you might meet in a bar and go home with.
- Part of the problem, beyond the small population, is that Icelandic naming conventions don’t reflect someone’s descendants.
- Android app seeks to save any incredibly awkward revelations in the future. It uses an online genealogical database that contains records of more than 720,000 Icelanders going back 1,200 years.
- When two people who both have the app meet — they both get their smartphones out and “bömp”(bump) them together. If they share a grandparent, the app will bring up an alert that it is most definitely not cool to go any further than a handshake with that person. The feature is called “Sifjaspellsspillir”, or “Incest Spoiler”. Link: http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-04/18/iceland-incest-app
Link (Video included): http://www.newsy.com/videos/new-app-helps-icelanders-avoid-accidental-incest/
Sight is a short futuristic film, which may not be that far-fetched.
In fact, Google Glass has many similarities to what is shown in Sight.
- Google Glass:http://www.google.com/glass/start/
- What it does: http://www.google.com/glass/start/what-it-does/
- Take Google Glass for a spin: http://www.google.com/glass/start/how-it-feels/
Jeff Bezos and Amazon.com get a patent for “airbag-like technology” that would protect smartphones and other devices, if dropped.
The technology “….would use a phone’s motion sensors to detect when it’s in a freefall and deploy what is described in the patent applications as an airbag.”
China Airport Boom: Will There Be a Bust?
Daxing airport (On the outskirts of Beijing) will cover more than 90 square kilometers and boast nine runaways by 2030, with an annual capacity of 80 million passengers. At that size, it would surpass both Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta airport and London Heathrow airport to become the busiest aviation hub in the world. Daxing’s price tag? $12.66 billion.
Read more: http://world.time.com/2012/11/02/china-airport-boom-will-there-be-a-bust/#ixzz2B6tZpHtJ
In its ongoing effort to create the perfect map of the world at ground level, Google took a trek into the Grand Canyon this week. Although this is part of its Google Maps Street View project, there are of course no streets in the national park.
Another fascinating example of human ingenuity! A childhood toy inspires a wind-powered minesweeper that could help clear the millions of active landmines buried around the globe. CNET article HERE
Video (Yahoo!) showing the Mine Kafton in action: HERE
Another cool video: http://vimeo.com/51149501
Check it out at: www.massoudhassani.com
A photographer used a smart phone app to predict the trajectory of the moon and timed this photograph perfectly. The Olympic Rings have been hung off London’s Tower Bridge to celebrate London Olympiad 2012. http://tinyurl.com/c6bawkm
The gigantic rings cost about $100,000 to install, and not without controversy. http://tinyurl.com/9slgvx8
Curiosity to land on Mars. Article: click hereAlthough at first glance the mission seems a lot like the others, it is bigger and more complex than ever. Are Americans even aware that this spacecraft is hurtling toward Mars and about to land and explore our neighboring planet? Or does the public need new territory as opposed to advancing science and studying a place we have already visited? Do Americans feel threatened by the new competition from Europe and China? Is it a blow to national pride that we rely solely on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft to shuttle humans and much of the supplies to the International Space Station and back? I remember the Viking missions of the 1970s, then the Pathfinder in 1996 and the Odyssey in 2001. (although I did have to look up the years of those missions) The Soviet Union was actually the first to send a ship to the planet, which crashed in 1960 and Japan and the European Union have also done some exploring, and now the Chinese are also giving it a go.
Spacecraft to Mars: http://starryskies.com/solar_system/mars/spacecraft.html
Curiosity is bigger and better, but is it exciting for the average American? One big problem facing NASA is where else do we go and explore? The immense distances just in our own solar system are mind boggling and tough to even comprehend. We have many amazing minds working on these missions and we continue to learn and improve technology.
Hubble Space Telescope- In my opinion,the Hubble Space Telescope is one of the best things we have done is space and Ultra Deep Field is some good proof of how important it has been to broaden our horizons. The image was the deepest image ever taken by humans, was taken in a dark portion of the sky, and looked back some 13 billion years.
About Ultra Deep Field- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field
The image was taken from an area equal to roughly one thirteen-millionth of the total area of the sky. Still, over 10,000 galaxies were identified. This could well be one of the biggest human achievements in history.
Back to Curiosity- “… the space agency is tempting fate with a novel approach that involves a big parachute, a specially designed winch, and some very high hopes.” http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-57485016-76/how-nasa-tests-an-against-all-odds-mars-rover-landing/
Some facts on Curiosity:
- Mars Science Laboratory rover cost $2.5 billion
- Curiosity is a two-year mission.
- For the first 90 days of the mission, controllers will work together as if each day were 24 hours and 40 minutes long — the approximate length of a Martian day.
- Curiosity rover is big as a car, and contains a nuclear reactor for power. Its landing mechanism, the “sky crane,” represents a new way of delivering a payload onto the Martian surface. For the first time, this rover possesses a laser with which to vaporize rock and conduct experiments. Link: Click Here
Excellent website from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/
NASA continues to dazzle, amaze and spark our Curiosity!
Where in the World Quiz. (Very interesting and fun) http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/quiz/quiz.pl?
Advance to next picture by clicking “Click to Refresh” near top of page. This took me awhile to figure out.
The Gateway to Astronaut Photographs: This is a great link for any one who has a passion for geography, space, etc… http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/
This is a video of the International Space Station flyover of Aurora Australis (Southern Lights) http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Videos/CrewEarthObservationsVideos/#issborealis_iss_20120423
Earth Observatory: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/EarthObservatory/PostedSort.htm
Photos by map search: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/clickmap/
Cities of the World: http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/cities/
Pictured above: Puget Sound, WA, USA. Seattle is near center.
Nice information on United States Government by Administration
Wolfram/Alpha Widgets: (These things are awesome)
Are GPS navigational devices damaging our sense of direction?
London cabbies must take a test called “The Knowledge” which requires them to memorize 25,000 streets and thousands of landmarks. Here is a link to the Knowledge; http://www.the-knowledge.org.uk/main/
Apparently, the back part of the hippocampus in the brains of cabbies is enlarged compared with brains of the average person. However, the front part of the hippocampus shrinks.
Set up a simple account, pick an atist and off you go. You can make your own channels and the site fine-tunes what you like and don’t like, you give a thumbs-up or a thumbs-down to to particular songs. The site figures out what you like and don’t like. This site rocks!
This Fark site looks cool. This picture is interesting too. Some guy bought the domain, and for the first two years of Fark.com’s existence (1997-1999), if users went to Fark.com, they were treated to this interesting photo of a squirrel:
I found this story on the website, but it has since been taken down: Guy Wins Lottery but Dies the Following Day
Then this one from April, 2014: Calif. Man Wins $650K Lottery Night After Wife Dies of Heart Attack
Here is a story about the future of NASA
And a slide show;
And an interactive graphic; http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/12/29/science/space/CONSTELLATION.html
Newspapers are probably on the way out, at least as home delivered, paper, etc.. It looks like they are finally,and maybe reluctantly, moving to the web; http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-10124810-93.html
Now books may be heading down the same road; http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/technology/24kindle.html?em | <urn:uuid:aaabcaa3-0d4d-4ad0-8b9f-c54e5da784d9> | {
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Writing a Syllabus
An effective course syllabus should be considered a contract between the instructor and students in which the goals and expectations for the course are clearly articulated.
Why Write a Syllabus?
- Sets the tone for the course.
- Communicates what, when, and how students will learn.
- Clarifies for students what they need to do in order to be successful.
- Communicates expectations in terms of student responsibilities.
- Avoids misunderstandings about course policies.
Considerations for Writing a Syllabus
- Review the course description established by your department or syllabi of the same course from previous instructors.
- Check online for sample syllabi of the same or similar courses from colleagues at other universities.
- Consider questions students may have about the course (Davis, 2009).
Getting Started with Writing a Syllabus
- Establish course learning outcomes. Consider what you would like students to know or be able to do as a result of taking your course.
- Design your course. This Course Decisions Guide can guide you in the process.
- Consult our Syllabus Template to review some recommended best practices for syllabus construction. Type in your course material and information without having to format.
- Use this Syllabus Evaluation Rubric as a tool for reviewing your course syllabus.
Davis, B. G. (2009). Tools for teaching (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing college courses. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Hara, B. (2010). Graphic display of student learning objectives. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from .
Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
O'Brien, J. G., Millis, B. J., & Cohen, M. W. (2008). The course syllabus: A learning-centered approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. | <urn:uuid:85564825-8522-46a0-9254-b351fd9c585b> | {
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Thousands of fish in Lincoln Park Zoo's South Pond had to be killed before officials could proceed with a redesign.
Now, the zoo is restocking the pond and attempting to create an entire ecosystem for native fish and wildlife. Tree stumps and vegetation have been placed on the pond's bottom, and ledges for swallows' nests were installed under a bridge that traverses the pond. More than 100 trees and regional plants have been planted.
"This is one humungous environmental experiment," said Lincoln Park Zoo spokeswoman Sharon Dewar.
The new Nature Boardwalk around South Pond was opened to the public Thursday. As Mayor Richard Daley looked on, children released dozens of minnows into the pond. Turtles, largemouth bass and bluegills will be released in the coming days.
The 14-acre pond, which sits on the south end of the zoo, was built in 1876 for recreational purposes. Paddle boats plied its waters in the summer, and people skated across its ice in the winter.
Over the years, seven species of fish, many of them non-native, made the concrete and steel-lined pond their home, as did a colony of endangered black-crowned night herons. The fish had to be killed for the redesign because it's illegal to release non-native species in the state's waterways.
Seven years ago, the Park District asked the nonprofit Lincoln Park Zoological Society to raise $12 million to turn the pond into an outdoor wilderness classroom. The district pitched in $2.5 million.
The construction, scheduled around the herons' breeding cycle, took more than a year. The formerly shallow pond is now 20 feet deep, allowing plenty of room for fish to survive the winter.
While attracting wildlife may be a challenge, attracting people wasn't on Thursday afternoon. Dozens of children peered into the pond, and women practiced yoga under a nearby pavilion.
"It's a cool escape from the city," said Justin Garbutt, who was escorting children from his church around the pond. "It's like a breath of fresh air." | <urn:uuid:c1274d04-b06e-4b3b-b289-f9db444da133> | {
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Scary New CO2 Numbers on Shipping, Plus a Hopeful Breeze
More bad news on the real costs of all the cheap goods that come our way from all over the world via the high seas. A leaked UN report says pollution from shipping is nearly three times higher than previously thought, and that annual emissions from the world's merchant fleet have already reached nearly 4.5% of all global emissions of CO2. The report warns that shipping emissions are destined to become one of the largest single sources of manmade CO2 after cars, housing, agriculture, and industry. By comparison, the aviation industry, under heavy pressure to clean up its act, emits only half as much CO2, reports the Guardian:
The figure is highly embarrassing for the four governments, including Britain, that paid for the report. Governments and the EU have consistently played down the climate impact of shipping, saying it is less than 2% of global emissions and failing to include shipping emissions in their national estimates for CO2 emissions. Previous attempts by the industry to calculate levels of carbon emissions were largely based on the quantity of low grade fuel bought by shipowners. The latest UN figures are considered more accurate because they are based on the known engine size of the world's ships, as well as the time they spend at sea and the amount of low grade fuel sold to shipowners. The UN report also reveals that other pollutants from shipping are rising even faster than CO2 emissions. Sulphur and soot emissions, which give rise to lung cancers, acid rain and respiratory problems are expected to rise more than 30% over the next 12 years.
Here's a partial solution, at least, as reported by the BBC. The world's first commercial cargo ship partially powered by a giant kite just sailed from Germany to Venezuela. The MS Beluga Skysails—seen in the photo above—carries a computer-controlled kite, measuring 160sq m (1,722sq ft), designed to cut fuel consumption by as much as 20%.
So, how about we accept cheap goods from abroad only if they come in under sail? | <urn:uuid:01c21279-09d7-460c-bb59-72ae7c70e3e9> | {
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Lake Urmia, Persian Daryācheh-ye Orūmīyeh, Ehsan Mahdiyanlake in northwestern Iran that is the largest lake in the Middle East. It covers an area that varies from 2,000 to 2,300 square miles (5,200 to 6,000 square km). Like the Dead Sea, it is remarkable for the extreme salinity of its waters. Since 1967 it has enjoyed the status of a wetland protected region, and efforts have been made by the Iranian government to increase its wildlife.
The lake lies in the bottom of the large central depression of the Azerbaijan region in northwestern Iran, at an elevation of 4,183 feet (1,275 m) above sea level. The basin is surrounded by mountains in the west and north, by plateaus in the south, and by plateaus and volcanic cones in the east. The lake is about 87 miles (140 km) long and 25 to 35 miles (40 to 55 km) wide, with a maximum depth of 53 feet (16 m). In its southern portion there is a cluster of about 50 tiny islands. The shoreline varies with the lake level; when the water is high, it extends into large salt marshes to the east and south. The lake’s shores are largely uninhabited.
The governing factor of Lake Urmia’s hydrography is its lack of an outlet. It forms the dead end of a large drainage system that covers an area of about 20,000 square miles (52,000 square km) and is subject to great seasonal variation. The main affluents are the Talkheh (Ājī) River in the northeast, which gathers the melted snows from the Sabalān and Sahand massifs, and the twin rivers Zarīneh (Jagātu) and Sīmīneh (Tatavi) in the south.
The volume of water discharged into the lake by these rivers varies considerably during the year: during the spring the Talkheh River and Sīmīneh River may each discharge about 2,000 cubic feet (57 cubic m) per second, while the rate drops to only 130 or 60 cubic feet (3.7 or 1.7 cubic m) per second in the dry summer. This variation causes the lake itself to rise and fall, fluctuating by 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.9 m). In addition to seasonal variations, there are also longer periods of fluctuations, lasting from 12 to 20 years, with water-level fluctuations of 6 to 9 feet (1.8 to 2.7 m).
Because Lake Urmia’s waters have no outlet, they are highly saline. The lake is one-fourth as salty as the Dead Sea, with a salt content ranging from 8 to 11 percent in the spring to 26 or 28 percent in the late autumn. The main salts are chlorine, sodium, and sulfates.
Organic life in the lake’s waters is limited to a few salt-tolerant species. Copious algae provide food for brine shrimp and cause a bad smell along the lake’s shores. There are breeding populations of sheldrake, flamingo, and pelican, as well as migratory birds. | <urn:uuid:7114568c-ea5d-47da-814d-41f65f92b31d> | {
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For the past decade, researchers have accumulated a growing pile of evidence on the effectiveness of "growth mindset" interventions that teach students that intelligence is like a muscle that strengthens with effort rather than an eye color that you inherit at birth.
During a packed session Saturday at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, a Stanford University researcher presented meeting-goers with new research on a method of scaling mindset findings in a way that is both effective at increasing achievement and practical for schools.
"Most of the published mindset work poses a significant challenge to scaling," said Carissa Romero, who, months after earning her PhD, is helping to direct Stanford's Project for Education Research That Scales, which grew out of a graduate school project she started with her classmate Dave Paunesku.
For example, in the past, researchers often delivered or helped deliver mindset interventions then provided heavy support along the way.
But the Stanford program delivers the entire intervention to high school students online. Teachers spend about 15 minutes on the phone learning about the intervention. Students then attend two 45-minute sessions in the computer lab. During the lab time, students who receive the intervention are asked, among other things, to write about how "you can grow your intelligence with practice and better strategies."
A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of 1,584 students at 13 high schools found that course failure occurred 8 percent less often for members of the treatment group that received the growth mindset intervention than for their control-group peers. (The control group were asked to write about something unrelated to the growth mindset idea.) In total, treatment group students passed 94 more additional courses than students in the control group.
With the assistance of such funders as the Raikes Foundation and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation (both of which help support some topic-specific coverage in Education Week), the Center is currently running multiple studies that permit schools to receive the interventions for free. Like the intervention, the study recruitment also takes place online, permitting the researchers to study far-flung schools.
The Center study was one of three studies presented in a session on increasing students' academic motivation using social-psychological interventions.
Xiaodong Lin, an associate professor at Teachers College at Columbia University, presented the results of a randomized, controlled study of 204 New York City students. The study found that reading and reflecting upon stories of famous scientists facing intellectual or life struggles helped students increase their growth mindset and also to perform better academically.
MacArthur Foundation Fellow Angela Duckworth of the University of Pennsylvania, who was charged with summing up the results of the studies for those who attended the session, quipped that she had written a note to herself to show her students her last three rejection letters from academic journals to help motivate them by sharing her own struggles.
The final study, presented by Stanford assistant psychology professor Gregory Walton, entailed multiple randomized, controlled studies of more than 2,000 students. The studies examined the effects of interventions designed to motivate students to complete the dull but tedious practice that is sometimes necessary when learning math or science. The conclusions suggested that students were more likely to persist at such tasks and even to end up with better learning outcomes if they first reflected on ways in which fulfilling educational goals could help them help others. The effects were significantly bigger for low-performing students.
Duckworth noted that all three studies had a common theme.
"They ... get at pluralistic ignorance," she said. "Everyone thinks that everyone feels like they belong. Everyone thinks that you can't change your intelligence. They are beliefs that self-reinforce in the absence of some type of exogenous [external] intervention." | <urn:uuid:90bfe3dd-2867-4a9c-91aa-f76eb3e7a7db> | {
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About Philip Cortelyou Johnson
Philip Cortelyou Johnson (July 8, 1906 – January 25, 2005) was an influential American architect.
In 1930, he founded the Department of Architecture and Design at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and later (1978), as a trustee, he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and the first Pritzker Architecture Prize, in 1979. He was a student at the Harvard Graduate School of Design.
Johnson died in his sleep while at the Glass House retreat. He was survived by his life partner of 45 years, David Whitney, who died later that year at age 66.
Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He was descended from the Jansen (a.k.a. Johnson) family of New Amsterdam, and included among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. He attended the Hackley School, in Tarrytown, New York, and then studied at Harvard University as an undergraduate, where he focused on history and philosophy, particularly the work of the Pre-Socratic philosophers. Johnson interrupted his education with several extended trips to Europe. These trips became the pivotal moment of his education; he visited Chartres, the Parthenon, and many other ancient monuments, becoming increasingly fascinated with architecture.
In 1928 Johnson met with architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting was a revelation for Johnson and formed the basis for a lifelong relationship of both collaboration and competition.
Johnson returned from Germany as a proselytizer for the new architecture. Touring Europe more comprehensively with his friends Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to examine firsthand recent trends in architecture, the three assembled their discoveries as the landmark show "The International Style: Architecture Since 1922" at the Museum of Modern Art, in 1932. The show was profoundly influential and is seen as the introduction of modern architecture to the American public. It introduced such pivotal architects as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Mies van der Rohe. The exhibition was also notable for a controversy: architect Frank Lloyd Wright withdrew his entries in pique that he was not more prominently featured.
As critic Peter Blake has stated, the importance of this show in shaping American architecture in the century "cannot be overstated." In the book accompanying the show, coauthored with Hitchcock, Johnson argued that the new modern style maintained three formal principles: 1. an emphasis on architectural volume over mass (planes rather than solidity) 2. a rejection of symmetry and 3. rejection of applied decoration. The definition of the movement as a "style" with distinct formal characteristics has been seen by some critics as downplaying the social and political bent that many of the European practitioners shared.
Johnson continued to work as a proponent of modern architecture, using the Museum of Modern Art as a bully pulpit. He arranged for Le Corbusier's first visit to the United States in 1935, then worked to bring Mies and Marcel Breuer to the US as emigres.
In the 1930s Johnson sympathized with Nazism, and expressed antisemitic ideas. Regarding this period in his life, he later said, "I have no excuse (for) such unbelievable stupidity... I don't know how you expiate guilt."
During the Great Depression, Johnson resigned his post at MoMA to try his hand at journalism and agrarian populist politics. His enthusiasm centered on the critique of the liberal welfare state, whose "failure" seemed to be much in evidence during the 1930s. As a correspondent, Johnson observed the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany and covered the invasion of Poland in 1939. The invasion proved the breaking point in Johnson's interest in journalism or politics – he returned to enlist in the US Army. After a couple of self-admittedly undistinguished years in uniform, Johnson returned to the Harvard Graduate School of Design to finally pursue his ultimate career of architect.
The Glass House
Johnson's early influence as a practicing architect was his use of glass; his masterpiece was the Glass House (1949) he designed as his own residence in New Canaan, Connecticut, a profoundly influential work. The concept of a Glass House set in a landscape with views as its real “walls” had been developed by many authors in the German Glasarchitektur drawings of the 1920s, and already sketched in initial form by Johnson's mentor Mies. The building is an essay in minimal structure, geometry, proportion, and the effects of transparency and reflection.
The house sits at the edge of a crest on Johnson’s estate overlooking a pond. The building's sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel; the floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground but sits 10 inches above. The interior is an open space divided by low walnut cabinets; a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling.
Johnson continued to build structures on his estate as architectural essays. Offset obliquely fifty feet from the Glass House is a guest house, echoing the proportions of the Glass House and completely enclosed in brick (except for three large circular windows at the rear, set in wooden frames, 5 feet in diameter, which reveal the interior of the building that was originally designed with a window in each of three rooms, two guest bedrooms at each end and a study in the middle). It now contains a bathroom, library, and single bedroom with a vaulted ceiling and shag carpet. It was built at the same time as the Glass House and can be seen as its formal counterpart. Johnson stated that he deliberately designed it to be less than perfectly comfortable, as "guests are like fish, they should only last three days at most".
Later, Johnson added a painting gallery with an innovative viewing mechanism of rotating walls to hold paintings (influenced by the Hogarth displays at Sir John Soane's house), followed by a sky-lit sculpture gallery. The last structures Johnson built on the estate were a library and a reception building, the latter, red and black in color and of curving walls. Johnson viewed the ensemble of one-room buildings as a total work of art, claiming that it was his best and only "landscape project."
The Philip Johnson Glass House is a site of the National Trust for Historic Preservation and now open to the public for tours.
The Seagram Building
After completing several houses in the idiom of Mies and Breuer, Johnson joined Mies van der Rohe as the New York associate architect for the 39-story Seagram Building (1956). Johnson was pivotal in steering the commission towards Mies, working with Phyllis Lambert, the daughter of the CEO of Seagram. This collaboration of architects and client resulted in the bronze-and-glass tower on Park Avenue.
Completing the Seagram Building with Mies also decisively marked a shift in Johnson's career. After this accomplishment, Johnson's practice grew as projects came in from the public realm, including coordinating the master plan of Lincoln Center and designing that complex's New York State Theater. Meanwhile, Johnson began to grow bored with the orthodoxies of the International Style he had championed.
Although startling when constructed, the glass and steel tower (indeed many idioms of the modern movement) had by the 1960s become commonplace the world over. He eventually rejected much of the metallic appearance of earlier International Style buildings, and began designing spectacular, crystalline structures uniformly sheathed in glass. Many of these became instant icons, such as PPG Place in Pittsburgh and the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, California.
Johnson's architectural work is a balancing act between two dominant trends in post-war American art: the more "serious" movement of Minimalism, and the more populist movement of Pop Art. His best work has aspects of both movements. Johnson's personal art collection reflected this dichotomy, as he introduced artists such as Mark Rothko to the Museum of Modern Art as well as Andy Warhol. Straddling between these two camps, his work was seen by purists of either side as always too contaminated or influenced by the other. With his thick, round-framed glasses, Johnson was the most recognizable figure in American architecture for decades. As an art collector Johnson's eclectic eye supported avant-garde movements and young artists often before they became widely known. His collection of American art was strong in Abstract expressionism, Pop Art, Minimalism, Neo-Dada, Color Field, Lyrical Abstraction, and Neo-Expressionism and he often donated important works from his collection to institutions like MoMA, and other important private museums and University collections like the Norton Simon Museum, the Sheldon Museum of Art and the Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University among many others.
From 1967 to 1991 Johnson collaborated with John Burgee. This was by far Johnson's most productive period — certainly by the measure of scale — he became known at this time as builder of iconic office towers, including Minneapolis's IDS Tower. That building's distinctive stepbacks (called "zogs" by the architect) created an appearance that has since become one of Minneapolis's trademarks and the crown jewel of its skyline. In 1980, the Crystal Cathedral was completed for Rev. Robert H. Schuller's famed megachurch, which became a Southern California landmark.
The AT&T Building in Manhattan, now the Sony Building, was completed in 1984 and was immediately controversial for its neo-Georgian pediment (Chippendale top). At the time, it was seen as provocation on a grand scale: crowning a Manhattan skyscraper with a shape echoing a historical wardrobe top defied every precept of the modernist aesthetic: historical pattern had been effectively outlawed among architects for years. In retrospect other critics have seen the AT&T Building as the first Postmodernist statement, necessary in the context of modernism's aesthetic cul-de-sac. In 1987, Johnson was awarded an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Houston. The institution's Hines College of Architecture is also housed in one of Johnson's buildings.
Johnson's publicly held archive, including architectural drawings, project records, and other papers up until 1964 are held by the Drawings and Archives Department of Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University, the Getty, and the Museum of Modern Art.
Johnson in popular culture
He is mentioned in the song "Thru These Architect's Eyes" on the album Outside (1995) by David Bowie.
Philip Johnson's Glass House, along with Mies van der Rohe's Farnsworth House, was the subject of Sarah Morris's film 'Points on a Line' (2010). Morris filmed at both sites over the course of several months, among other locations including The Four Seasons Restaurant, the Seagrams Building, Mies van der Roheʼs infamous Lake Shore Drive, and Chicagoʼs Newberry Library. Morris utilized The Four Seasons, a place that Philip Johnson practically used as his personal office, as the meeting point between the two architects. The restaurant remains a site of projection and desire – active as a site of negotiation and display. Morrisʼs film is both a record of preservation of two structures and a document of power plays that left a mark in the pragmatic idealism of the late modern period. | <urn:uuid:b64d2e11-94fe-4538-a48c-856fca3f72ba> | {
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Darwin’s work on the expression of emotions began with observations he made on the Beagle voyage. After almost 40 years of collecting data (including observations of his own children) and thinking about the conceptual issues, he originally intended it to be published as a chapter of Descent of Man (1871). However, Darwin soon realised that this would not do the topic justice. He abandoned the chapter and, after Descent was published, he put the wealth of material that he had gathered together from all over the world into the monograph The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872).
One of the sources of evidence in Expression was the responses to the expression questionnaire that Darwin began sending out to correspondents across the globe from 1867. Its purpose was to gather information on the emotional behaviour of non-Europeans. We have added a commentary and collated the replies to the questionnaire in interactive map and table form here.
During our recent work on emotions, we have collaborated with the Autism Research Centre and the Cambridge Computer Science Laboratory. We held a Face of Emotion event in which Darwin’s work on expression was discussed in the context of current research in artificial intelligence, autism, and neuroscience. You can listen to the short talks given here.
These new resources are in addition to Darwin’s notebook of observations on children, and an online recreation of the emotion experiment that Darwin carried out with Benjamin Duchenne’s photographs, with family, friends and other visitors to Down as his subjects. | <urn:uuid:49a0f6d1-a7b7-4db1-9469-db018e6777df> | {
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Shingles and chickenpox were once considered separate disorders. Researchers now know that they are both caused by a single virus of the herpes family, known as varicella-zoster virus (VZV). The word herpes is derived from the Greek word "herpein," which means "to creep," a reference to a characteristic pattern of skin eruptions. VZV is still referred to by separate terms:
Varicella (Chickenpox). When patients with chickenpox cough or sneeze, they expel tiny droplets that carry the virus. If a person who has never had chickenpox or never been vaccinated inhales these particles, the virus enters the lungs. From here it passes into the bloodstream. When it is carried to the skin it produces the typical rash of chickenpox.
Herpes Zoster (Shingles). The varicella virus also travels to nerve cells called dorsal root ganglia. These are bundles of nerves that transmit sensory information from the skin to the brain. Here, the virus can hide from the immune system for years, often for a lifetime. This inactivity is called latency.
If the virus becomes active after being latent, it causes the disorder known as shingles. The virus in this later form is referred to as herpes zoster. The virus spreads in the ganglion and to the nerves connecting to it. Nerves most often affected are those in the face or the trunk. The virus can also spread to the spinal cord and into the bloodstream.
It is not clear why the varicella virus reactivates in some people but not in others. In many cases, the immune system has become impaired or suppressed from certain conditions such as AIDS, other immunodeficient diseases, or certain cancers or drugs that suppress the immune system. Aging itself increases the risk for shingles.
The varicella-zoster virus belongs to a group of herpes viruses that includes eight human viruses (it also includes animal viruses). Herpes viruses are similar in shape and size and reproduce within the structure of a cell. The particular cell depends upon the specific virus. Human herpes viruses include herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), which causes cold sores, and herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), which causes genital herpes. Cytomegalovirus (CMV), which causes mononucleosis and retinitis, and Epstein-Barre Virus (EBV), another cause of mononucleosis, are also human herpes viruses.
All herpes viruses share some common properties, including a pattern of active symptoms followed by latent inactive periods that can last for months, years, or even a lifetime.
The varicella-zoster virus is responsible for both chickenpox and herpes zoster, but its method of infection is different in both diseases.
Catching Chickenpox. Most people get chickenpox from exposure to other people with chickenpox. It is most often spread through sneezing, coughing, and breathing. It is so contagious that few nonimmunized people escape this common disease when they are exposed to someone else with the disease.
People can also catch chickenpox from direct exposure to a shingles rash if they have not been immunized by vaccination or a previous bout of chickenpox. In such cases, transmission happens during the active phase when blisters have erupted but not formed dry crusts. Herpes zoster spreads only from the rash. A person with shingles cannot transmit the virus by breathing or coughing.
Developing Shingles. Shingles itself can develop only from a reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus in a person who has previously had chickenpox. In other words, shingles itself is never transmitted from one person to another either in the air or through direct exposure to the blisters.
Between 75 - 90% of chickenpox cases occur in children under 10 years of age. Before the introduction of the vaccine, about 4 million cases of chickenpox were reported in the U.S. each year. Since a varicella vaccine became available in the U.S. in 1995, however, the incidence of disease and hospitalizations due to chickenpox has declined by nearly 90%.
The disease usually occurs in late winter and early spring months. It can also be transmitted from direct contact with the open sores. (Clothing, bedding, and other such objects do not usually spread the disease.)
A patient with chickenpox can transmit the disease from about 2 days before the appearance of the spots until the end of the blister stage. This period lasts about 5 - 7 days. Once dry scabs form, the disease is unlikely to spread.
Most schools allow children with chickenpox back 10 days after onset. Some require children to stay home until the skin has completely cleared, although this is not necessary to prevent transmission.
About 500,000 cases of shingles occur each year in the U.S. Anyone who has had chickenpox has risk for shingles later in life, which means that 90% of adults in the U.S. are at risk for shingles. Shingles occurs, however, in 10 - 20% of these adults over the course of their lives, so certain factors must exist to increase the risk for such outbreaks.
The Aging Process. The risk for herpes zoster increases as people age, and the overall number of cases will undoubtedly increase as the baby boomer generation gets older. One study estimated that a person who reaches age 85 has a 50% chance of having herpes zoster. The risk for postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is also highest in older people with the infection and increases dramatically after age 50. PHN is persistent pain and is the most feared complication of shingles.
Immunosuppression. People whose immune systems are impaired from diseases such as AIDS or childhood cancer have a risk for herpes zoster that is much higher than those with healthy immune systems. Herpes zoster in people who are HIV-positive may be a sign of full-blown AIDS. Certain drugs used for HIV, called protease inhibitors, may also increase the risk for herpes zoster.
Cancer. Cancer places people at risk for herpes zoster. At highest risk are those with Hodgkin's disease (13 - 15% of these patients develop shingles). About 7 - 9% of patients with lymphomas, and 1 - 3% of patients with other cancers, have herpes zoster. Chemotherapy itself increases the risk for herpes zoster.
Immunosuppressant Drugs. Patients who take certain drugs that suppress the immune system are at risk for shingles (as well as other infections). They include:
These drugs are used for patients who have undergone organ transplantation and are also used for severe autoimmune diseases caused by the inflammatory process. Such disorders include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
Risk Factors for Shingles in Children. Although most common in adults, shingles occasionally develops in children. Children with immune deficiencies are at highest risk. Children with no immune problems but who had chickenpox before they were 1 year old also have a higher risk for shingles.
Risk for Recurrence of Shingles. Shingles can recur, but the risk is low (1 - 5%). Evidence suggests that a first zoster episode boosts the immune system to ward off another attack.
Chickenpox (varicella) rarely causes complications, but it is not always harmless. It can cause hospitalization and, in rare cases, death. Fortunately, since the introduction of the vaccine in 1995, hospitalizations have declined by nearly 90%, and there have been few fatal cases of chickenpox.
Adults have the greatest risk for dying from chickenpox, with infants having the next highest risk. Males (both boys and men) have a higher risk for a severe case of chickenpox than females. Children who catch chickenpox from family members are likely to have a more severe case than if they caught it outside the home. The older the child, the higher the risk for a more severe case. But even in such circumstances, chickenpox is rarely serious in children. Other factors put individuals at specifically higher risk for complications of chickenpox.
Recurrence of Chickenpox. Recurrence of chickenpox is possible, but uncommon. One episode of chickenpox usually means lifelong immunity against a second attack. However, people who have had mild infections may be at greater risk for a breakthrough infection later on.
Reactivation of the Virus as Shingles (Herpes Zoster). The major long-term complication of varicella is the later reactivation of the herpes zoster virus and the development of shingles. Shingles occurs in about 20% of people who have had chickenpox.
Aside from itching, the complications described below are very rare.
Itching. Itching, the most common complication of the varicella infection, can be very distressing, particularly for small children. Certain home remedies are available that can alleviate the discomfort.
Secondary Infection and Scarring. Small scars may remain after the scabs have fallen off, but they usually clear up within a few months. In some cases, a secondary infection may develop at sites which the patient has scratched. The infection is usually caused by the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes. Permanent scarring may occur as a result. Children with chickenpox are at much higher risk for this complication than adults are, possibly because they are more likely to scratch.
Ear Infections. Some children are at higher risk for ear infections from chickenpox. Hearing loss is a very rare result of this complication.
Bacterial Superinfection. Bacterial superinfection of the skin caused by group A streptococcus is the most common serious complication of chickenpox (but it is still rare). The infection is usually mild, but if it spreads in deep muscle, fat, or in the blood, it can be life threatening. Infection can cause serious conditions, such as necrotizing fasciitis (the so-called flesh-eating bacteria) and toxic shock syndrome (TSS).
Pneumonia. Pneumonia is suspected if coughing and abnormally rapid breathing develop in patients who have chickenpox. Adults and adolescents with chickenpox are at some risk for serious pneumonia. Pregnant women, smokers, and those with serious medical conditions are at higher risk for pneumonia if they have chickenpox. Oxygen and intravenous acyclovir are key treatments for this condition. Pneumonia that is caused by varicella can result in lung scarring, which may impair oxygen exchange over the following weeks, or even months.
Effects on the Brain and Central Nervous System.
Effects During Pregnancy. The risk for chickenpox in a pregnant woman is very low (1 - 7 cases in 10,000). However, chickenpox places the woman at risk for life-threatening pneumonia. Infection in the pregnant woman in the first trimester also poses a 1 - 2% chance for infecting the developing fetus, which is an extremely serious condition. (Herpes zoster is even rarer in pregnant women, and there is almost no risk for the unborn child in such cases.)
Disseminated Varicella. Disseminated varicella, which develops when the virus spreads to organs in the body, is extremely serious and is a major problem for patients with compromised immune systems. An immune system may become compromised as a result of diseases such as AIDS, inherited conditions, or certain drugs. For example, disseminated varicella occurs in up to 35% of children with chickenpox who are undergoing cancer chemotherapy. In such cases, mortality rates are between 7 - 30%.
Reye Syndrome. Reye syndrome, a disorder that causes sudden and dangerous liver and brain damage, is a side effect of aspirin therapy in children who have chickenpox or influenza. The disease can lead to coma and is life threatening. Symptoms include rash, vomiting, and confusion beginning about a week after the onset of the disease. Because of the strong warnings against children taking aspirin, this condition is, fortunately, very rare. Children should never be given aspirin when they have a viral infection or fever. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is the preferred drug for fever or pain in patients younger than age 18 years.
Other Rare Complications of Chickenpox. Other extremely rare complications of varicella include problems in blood clotting and inflammation of the nerves in the hands and feet. Inflammation can also occur in other areas of the body, such as the heart, testicles, liver, joints, or kidney.
Pain. The pain and discomfort of the active herpes zoster infection is the primary symptom and complication of herpes zoster. The pain usually takes one of these forms:
Such experiences may also be more intense than even normal responses, defined in the following ways:
The pain tends to be more severe at night. Temperature changes can also affect pain. The pain may extend beyond the areas of the initial zoster attack. In most cases, it does not affect daily life. Rarely, however, the pain of herpes zoster affects sleep, mood, work, and overall quality of life. This can lead to fatigue, loss of appetite, depression, social withdrawal, and impaired daily functioning.
Itching. Many patients report itching (postherpetic itch) as the primary symptom, rather than pain. In rare cases, it can be disabling.
Postherpetic Neuralgia (PHN). Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is pain that persists for longer than a month after the onset of herpes. It is the most common severe complication of shingles. It is not clear why PHN occurs. Some theories for its development are:
In people with herpes zoster, the risk of developing PHN ranges from 10 - 70%. In general, however, the risk is likely to be in the lower range. People with impaired immune systems do not seem to be at any higher risk for persistent PHN than those with normal immune systems.
The following are risk factors for PHN:
In most cases, PHN resolves within 3 months. Some doctors define persistent pain after a herpes zoster attack as subacute herpetic neuralgia if it lasts between 1 - 3 months and as PHN only if it lasts beyond 3 months. Studies report that only about 10% of patients experience pain after a year. Unfortunately, when PHN is severe and treatments have not been very effective, the persistent pain and abnormal sensations can be profoundly frustrating and depressing for patients.
Secondary Infection in the Blisters. If the blistered area is not kept clean and free from irritation, it may become infected with group A Streptococcus or Staphylococcus bacteria. If the infection is severe, scarring can occur.
Guillain-Barre Syndrome. Guillain-Barre syndrome is caused by inflammation of the nerves and has been associated with a number of viruses, including herpes zoster. The arms and legs become weak, painful, and, sometimes, even paralyzed. The trunk and face may be affected. Symptoms vary from mild to severe enough to require hospitalization. The disorder resolves in a few weeks to months. Other herpes viruses (cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr), or bacteria ( Campylobacter) may have a stronger association with this syndrome than herpes zoster.
Effects on Face and Ears.
Sometimes, it is difficult to distinguish between Bell's palsy and Ramsay Hunt syndrome, particularly in the early stages. In general, Ramsay Hunt syndrome tends to be more severe than Bell's palsy.
Effects on the Brain. Inflammation of the membrane around the brain (meningitis) or in the brain itself (encephalitis) is a rare complication in people with herpes zoster. The encephalitis is generally mild and resolves in a short period. In rare cases, particularly in patients with impaired immune systems, it can be severe and even life threatening.
Effects in the Urinary Tract. In rare situations, herpes zoster can infect the urinary tract and cause difficulty in urination. The condition is temporary but may require a catheter for patients who have trouble urinating.
Infections in the Eye. If shingles occurs in the face, the eyes are at risk, particularly if the path of the infection follows the side of the nose. If the eyes become involved ( herpes zoster ophthalmicus ), a severe infection can occur that is difficult to treat and can threaten vision. AIDS patients may be at particular risk for a chronic infection in the cornea of the eye.
Herpes zoster can also cause a devastating infection in the retina called imminent acute retinal necrosis syndrome . In such cases, visual changes develop within weeks or months after the herpes zoster outbreak has resolved. Although this complication usually follows a herpes outbreak in the face, it can occur after an outbreak in any part of the body. Prompt treatment with acyclovir can often halt its progress, at least in people with healthy immune systems. Either acyclovir or valacyclovir, a similar drug, may prevent other eye complications, such as conjunctivitis (pink eye), inflammation of the cornea, and pain.
Disseminated Herpes Zoster. As with disseminated chickenpox, disseminated herpes zoster, which spreads to other organs, can be serious to life-threatening, particularly if it affects the lungs. People with compromised immune systems are at greatest danger, with risk of 5 - 25%. It is very rare in people with healthy immune systems.
In very rare cases, herpes zoster has been associated with Stevens-Johnson syndrome , an extensive and serious condition in which widespread blisters cover mucous membranes and large areas of the body.
Elderly people. The older the patient, the higher the risk for complications from either chickenpox or shingles. Adults who smoke are at particularly higher risk for pneumonia from chickenpox.
Patients with Serious Illnesses . People with serious illnesses may be at risk for complications of the varicella-zoster virus. Patients with diseases, such as Hodgkin's disease, who receive bone marrow or stem cell transplants are at higher risk for herpes zoster and its complications.
Pregnant Women. Pregnant women who become infected with the varicella-zoster virus, whether in the form of chickenpox or shingles, are at increased risk for serious pneumonia.
Newborns and Infants. Chickenpox in newborns is a life-threatening condition. Although chickenpox can still be very dangerous in older infants, most are protected by antibodies in breast milk from mothers who have had chickenpox. Children under age 1 who develop chickenpox are at higher risk for childhood shingles. All infants should have as little exposure as possible to people with chickenpox.
The time between exposure to the virus and eruption of symptoms is called the incubation period. For chickenpox, this period is 10 - 20 days. The patient often develops fever, headache, swollen glands, and other flu-like symptoms before the typical rash appears. While fevers are low grade in most children, some can reach 105° F.
These symptoms subside once the rash breaks out. One or more tiny raised red bumps appear first, most often on the face, chest, or abdomen. They become larger within a few hours and spread quickly (sprout), eventually forming small blisters on a red base. The numbers of blisters vary widely. Some patients have only a few spots, others can develop hundreds. Each blister is filled with clear fluid that becomes cloudy in several days. It takes about 4 days for each blister to dry out and form a scab. During its course, the rash itches, sometimes severely. Usually separate crops of blisters occur over 4 - 7 days, the entire disease process lasting 7 - 10 days.
Chickenpox itself usually occurs only once, although mild second infections, marked by the telltale rash, have been reported in older children years after their first infection.
Shingles nearly always occurs in adults. It develops on one side of the body. Usually two, and sometimes three, identifiable symptom stages occur:
Pain is so common to all stages of herpes zoster that doctors often refer to all syndromes with a single term: Zoster-Associated Pain (ZAP).
Prodrome (Pain) .
The prodrome stage lasts 1 - 5 days before the infection becomes active and the skin rash erupts. Occasionally, the pain can last weeks or even months before the rash erupts.
Active Shingles. The rash that marks the active infection follows the same track of inflamed nerves as the prodrome pain. Between 50 - 60% of cases occur on the trunk. The second most common site is the head, particularly on one side of the face. It may also erupt on the neck or lower back. If the face is affected, there is a danger that the infection can spread to the eye or mouth. A rash that follows the side of the nose is a warning that the cornea of the eye is in danger.
The active infection is typically marked by the following sequence:
Zoster Sine Herpete. Sometimes pain develops without a rash, a condition known as zoster sine herpete . This usually occurs in elderly patients. Symptoms include burning or shooting pain, numbness, tingling, itching, headache, fever, chills, and nausea. An accurate early diagnosis of shingles in such cases is often difficult. Some evidence suggests that some cases of Bell's palsy (in which part of the face becomes paralyzed) might actually be an indication of zoster sine herpete.
Postherpetic Neuralgia. Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is pain that persists for longer than a month after the onset of herpes zoster. PHN occurs in about 10 - 20% of patients who have shingles.
Both chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (zoster) can usually be diagnosed by symptoms alone. If a diagnosis is still unclear after a physical examination, diagnostic tests may be required.
Either variation of the virus may be confused with other disorders.
Ruling out Disorders that Resemble Chickenpox. Chickenpox, particularly in early stages, may be confused with herpes simplex (the disorder more commonly referred to as "herpes"), or impetigo, insect bites, and scabies.
Ruling out Disorders that Resemble Shingles. The early prodrome stage of shingles can cause severe pain on one side of the lower back, chest, or abdomen before the rash appears. It therefore may be mistaken for disorders, such as gallstones, that cause acute pain in internal organs.
In the active rash stage, shingles may be confused with herpes simplex, particularly in young adults, if the blisters occur on the buttocks or around the mouth. Herpes simplex, however, does not usually generate chronic pain.
A diagnosis may be difficult if herpes zoster takes a non-typical course in the face, such as with Bell's palsy or Ramsay Hunt syndrome, or if it affects the eye or causes fever and delirium.
In most cases of chickenpox and shingles, the symptoms alone are enough for a health care provider to make a diagnosis. If the symptoms are not straightforward in some patients, such as those who are immunosuppressed, the doctor performs one or more additional tests to detect the virus itself. The tests usually aim to distinguish between varicella-zoster and herpes simplex viruses.
Virus Culture. A viral culture uses specimens taken from the blister, fluid in the blister, or sometimes spinal fluid. They are sent to a laboratory, where it takes 1 - 14 days to detect the virus in the preparation made from the specimen. It is also sometimes used in vaccinated patients to determine if a varicella-like infection is caused by a natural virus or by the vaccine. This test is useful, but it is sometimes difficult to recover the virus from the samples.
Immunofluorescence Assay. Immunofluorescence is a diagnostic technique used to identify antibodies to a specific virus. In the case of herpes zoster, the technique uses ultraviolet rays applied to a preparation composed of cells taken from the zoster blisters. The specific characteristics of the light as seen through a microscope will identify the presence of the antibodies. This test is less expensive than a culture, more accurate, and results are faster.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques use a piece of the DNA of the virus, which is then replicated millions of times until the virus is detectable. This technique is expensive but is useful for unusual cases, such as identifying infection in the central nervous system.
There are two types of varicella vaccines:
The live-virus varicella vaccine (Varivax) produces persistent immunity against chickenpox. The vaccine can prevent chickenpox or reduce the severity of the illness if it is used within 3 days, and possibly up to 5 days, after exposure to the infection.
The childhood chickenpox vaccine can also be given as part of a combination vaccine (Proquad) that combines measles, mumps, rubella (together called MMR), and varicella in one product. However, recent data indicate that combining varicella and MMR vaccinations into one shot doubles the risk for febrile (fever-related) seizures in children ages 12 - 24 months compared to giving separate MMR and varicella injections. Parents should consider the lower risk associated with separate injections.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends that children receive TWO doses of the chickenpox vaccine with:
For children who have previously received one dose of the chickenpox vaccine, the ACIP recommends that they receive a “catch-up” second dose during their regular doctor’s visit. This second dose can be given at any time as long as it is at least 3 months after the first dose. Doctors pushed for the new second-dose policy due to a number of recent chickenpox outbreaks among previously vaccinated schoolchildren.
Children most at risk for having chickenpox after having been vaccinated only one time are ages 8 - 12 years and have generally been vaccinated at least 5 years before their current chickenpox infection.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that every healthy adult without a known history of chickenpox be vaccinated. Adults should receive 2 doses of the vaccine, 4 - 8 weeks apart. Adults in the following groups should especially consider vaccination:
As with other live-virus vaccines, the chickenpox vaccine is not recommended for:
Patients who cannot be vaccinated but who are exposed to chickenpox receive immune globulin antibodies against varicella virus. This helps prevent complications of the disease if they become infected.
In 2006, a shingles vaccine was approved for use in the United States. The zoster vaccine (Zostavax) is a stronger version of the chickenpox vaccine. Study results suggest that the zoster vaccine can prevent about half of all shingles cases and two-thirds of postherpetic neuralgia cases. The CDC recommends that all adults age 60 years and older who have intact immune systems should receive this vaccine. . The vaccine does not appear to not work well in patients age 80 years and older and is generally not recommended for this age group.
Varicella-zoster immune globulin (VariZIG) is a substance that mimics the normal immune response against the varicella-zoster virus. It is used to protect high-risk patients who are exposed to chickenpox. Such groups include:
For these patients, VariZIG should be given within 96 hours of exposure to someone with chickenpox. (Note: VariZIG is a new formulation of an older drug called VZIG, which is no longer being produced.)
Acetaminophen. Patients with chickenpox do not have to stay in bed unless fever and flu symptoms are severe. To relieve discomfort, a child can take acetaminophen (Tylenol), with doses determined by the doctor. A child should never be given aspirin, or medications containing aspirin, as aspirin increases the risk for a dangerous condition called Reye syndrome.
Soothing Baths. Frequent baths are particularly helpful in relieving itching, when used with preparations of finely ground (colloidal) oatmeal. Commercial preparations (Aveeno) are available in drugstores, or one can be made at home by grinding or blending dry oatmeal into a fine powder. Use about 2 cups per bath. The oatmeal will not dissolve, and the water will have a scum. Adding baking soda (1/2 - 1 cup) to a bath may also help.
Lotions. Patients can apply calamine lotion and similar over-the-counter preparations to the blisters to help dry them out and soothe the skin.
Antihistamines. For severe itching, diphenhydramine (Benadryl) is useful and may help children sleep.
Preventing Scratching. Small children may have to wear mittens so that they don't scratch the blisters and cause a secondary infection. All patients with varicella, including adults, should have their nails trimmed short.
Acyclovir is an antiviral drug that may be used in adult varicella patients or those of any age with a high risk for complications and severe forms of chickenpox. The drug may also benefit smokers with chickenpox, who are at higher than normal risk for pneumonia. Some doctors recommend its use for children who catch chickenpox from other family members because such patients are at risk for more serious cases. To be effective, oral acyclovir must be taken within 24 hours of the onset of the rash. Early intravenous administration of acyclovir is an essential treatment for chickenpox pneumonia.
The treatment goals for an acute attack of herpes zoster include:
Over-the-counter (OTC) remedies are often effective in reducing the pain of an attack. Antiviral drugs (acyclovir and others), oral corticosteroids, or both are sometimes given to patients with severe symptoms, particularly if they are older and at risk for postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). In addition, psychological therapies aimed at coping and reducing the effects of pain may be useful.
Applied Cold. Cold compresses soaked in Burrow's solution (an OTC remedy) and cool baths may help relieve the blisters. It is important not to break blisters as this can cause infection. Doctors advise against warm treatments, which can intensify itching. Patients should wear loose clothing and use clean loose gauze coverings over the affected areas.
Itch Relief. In general, to prevent or reduce itching, home treatments are similar to those used for chickenpox. Patients can try antihistamines (particularly Benadryl), oatmeal baths, and calamine lotion.
Over-the-Counter Pain Relievers. For an acute shingles attack, patients may take over-the-counter pain relievers:
Nucleoside Analogues. The best class of drugs developed against varicella-zoster are those known as nucleoside, or guanosine, analogues. These medicines block viral reproduction. None of these drugs can actually destroy the virus and cure the disease, but they can significantly reduce the severity of the attack, hasten healing, and reduce the duration. They may also reduce the risk of postherpetic neuralgia.
These anti-viral drugs are usually taken for 7 days. Ideally they should be started within 72 hours of the onset of infection. The earlier they are given the more effective these drugs are, but they can be helpful even if treatment is started after 3 days. Combinations of antiviral therapy with other drugs, such as tricyclic antidepressants or anticonvulsant drugs, are under investigation
Acyclovir (Zovirax), famciclovir (Famvir), and valacyclovir (Valtrex) are approved for shingles. Acyclovir is the oldest, most studied of these drugs, but either famciclovir (Famvir) or valacyclovir (Valtrex), which are both metabolized into acyclovir, are now preferred to treat herpes zoster in most patients because they require fewer daily doses than the five doses needed with acyclovir.
Because herpes zoster tends to resolve fairly quickly in young adults, these drugs are more important for patients at greatest risk for complications or persistent pain. They include:
These drugs appear to have little or no harmful effect on healthy cells and can penetrate most body tissues, including cerebrospinal fluid. Evidence to date suggests that they are safe during pregnancy.
Possible side effects of nucleoside analogues include rash, headache, fatigue, tremor, nausea and vomiting. Seizures are a very rare side effect. Patients with AIDS or other diseases that compromise the immune system are at increased risk for kidney damage and blood clots. Patients with suppressed immune systems are also more likely to have viral resistance to these drugs. These drugs are safe to take during pregnancy.
Foscarnet. Foscarnet (Foscavir) is a powerful antiviral drug known as a pyrophosphate analogue. It is used in cases of VZV strains that have become resistant to acyclovir and similar drugs. Administered intravenously, the drug can have toxic effects. It can impair kidney function (which is reversible) and cause seizures. Fever, nausea, and vomiting are common side effects. It can also cause ulcers on genital organs. As with other drugs, it does not cure shingles.
Brivudin. Brivudin (Helpin, Zostex), another antiviral drug, is not available in the U.S. It needs to be taken only once a day.
Oral corticosteroids, including prednisolone or prednisone, are powerful anti-inflammatory medications. They have some benefit for reducing pain in the first 2 weeks or so of an attack, when used with acyclovir or another nucleoside analogue. (They are not recommended without a nucleoside analogue.) They also may be helpful for improving symptoms of Bell's palsy and Ramsay Hunt syndrome. Corticosteroids do not appear to prevent a further shingles attack or reduce the risk for PHN. Side effects of corticosteroids can be severe, and patients should take oral steroids at as low a dose, and for as short a time, as possible. (Injected or intravenous steroids, however, may offer specific relief for PHN without significant side effects.)
Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is difficult to treat. Once PHN develops, a patient may need a multidisciplinary approach that involves a pain specialist, psychiatrist, primary care physician, and other health care providers.
The American Academy of Neurology (AAN) treatment guidelines for postherpetic neuralgia recommend:
Topical Pain Relievers. Creams, patches, or gels containing various substances can provide some pain relief.
Skin Coolants. Ethyl chloride (Chloroethane) and fluori-methane are chemicals that cool the blood vessels in the skin. Sprays that contain these chemicals are not anesthetics, but they are used to inactivate the sensitive areas. To use the spray, the patient must be in a comfortable position. The spray bottle is held upside-down, about 12 - 18 inches from the targeted area. The face must be covered if the spray is being used near the head.
Tricyclic antidepressants relieve pain in up to two-thirds of patients. These drugs not only relieve depression, which can be common in PHN sufferers, but certain tricyclics specifically block sodium channels, which play a role in causing pain in PHN. Nortriptyline (Pamelor, Aventyl), amitriptyline (Elavil, Endep), and desipramine (Norpramin) are standard drugs.
They may be more effective when started during the first year after symptoms begin. It may take several weeks for the drugs to become fully effective. They do not work as well in patients who have burning pain or allodynia (pain that occurs with normally non-painful stimulus, such as a light touch or wind).
Unfortunately, tricyclics have side effects that are particularly severe in the elderly, who are also more likely to have PHN. Desipramine and nortriptyline have fewer side effects than amitriptyline and are preferred for older patients. Side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, difficulty urinating, disturbances in heart rhythms, and an abrupt drop in blood pressure when standing up.
Certain anticonvulsant drugs have effects that block over-excitation of nerve cells and may be helpful for PHN patient. (Anticonvulsant drugs are also known as anti-seizure drugs.)
Gabapentin. Gabapentin (Neurontin) was the first anticonvulsant drug approved for PHN. Studies suggest significant pain relief in patients with PHN and reduction in the use of opioids. Many patients also report improved quality of life, including better sleep. Gabapentin is also showing promise in combination with valacyclovir for reducing pain from an acute herpes zoster attack.
Side effects include skin rashes, mood swings or thoughts of suicide, headache, dizziness, sleepiness, swelling, and upset stomach. Some people have visual disturbances, ringing in the ears, agitation, or odd movements when drug levels are at their peak. These side effects may limit their value in older people who are at risk of falling. In general, however gabapentin is safer than tricyclic antidepressants for elderly patients.
Pregabalin. Pregabalin (Lyrica) is similar to gabapentin. Like gabapentin, side effects can include sleepiness and dizziness
Other Anticonvulsant Drugs. The AAN guidelines found insufficient evidence to recommend carbamazepine (Tegretol).
Opioids. Patients with severe pain that does not respond to tricyclic antidepressants may need powerful painkilling opioid drugs. They may be taken by mouth or delivered through a skin patch. Oxycodone is the standard opioid for PHN. Morphine is also used. Methadone (Dolophine) may also be helpful. Constipation, drowsiness, and dry mouth are common side effects of opioids.
Tramadol. Tramadol (Ultram) is a pain reliever that has been used as an alternative to opioids. It has opioid-like properties but is not as addictive. (Dependence and abuse have been reported, however.) It can cause nausea but not severe gastrointestinal problems, as NSAIDs can. Studies suggest it might be very helpful for PHN patients, particularly those with heart problems or other conditions that restrict tricyclic antidepressants.
Antiviral Drugs. Researchers are investigating whether treatment with antiviral drugs may help reduce the pain associated with postherpetic neuralgia.
Surgery. Certain surgical techniques in the brain or spinal cord attempt to block nerve centers associated with postherpetic neuralgia. These methods carry risk for permanent damage, however, and should be used only as a last resort when all other methods have failed and the pain is intolerable. Most studies indicate that surgery does not relieve PHN pain.
Stress Reduction Techniques. A number of relaxation and stress-reduction techniques may be helpful for managing chronic pain. They include meditation, deep breathing exercises, biofeedback, and muscle relaxation. These techniques may apply to patients with severe pain from acute infection or persistent long-term postherpetic neuralgia.
Behavioral Cognitive Therapy. Behavioral cognitive therapy is showing benefit in enhancing patients' beliefs in their own abilities for dealing with pain. Using specific tasks and self-observation, patients gradually shift their fixed ideas that they are helpless against the pain that dominates their lives to the perception that it is a manageable experience. The skill of the therapist is very important to its success.
Many people with chronic pain such as PHN turn to alternative treatments for relief. Aside from hypnosis, little evidence indicates that these treatments work for PHN. Acupuncture is one such unproven remedy.
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Recommended adult immunization schedule: United States, 2009. Ann Intern Med . 2009 Jan 6;150(1):40-4.
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases. Prevention of varicella: recommendations for use of varicella vaccines in children, including a recommendation for a routine 2-dose varicella immunization schedule. Pediatrics . 2007 Jul;120(1):221-31.
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases. Recommended immunization schedules for children and adolescents -- United States, 2007. Pediatrics . 2007 Jan;119(1):207-8.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). A new product (VariZIG) for postexposure prophylaxis of varicella available under an investigational new drug application expanded access protocol. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 2006 Mar 3;55(8):209-10.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Update: recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) regarding administration of combination MMRV vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 2008 Mar 14;57(10):258-60.
Chaves SS, Gargiullo P, Zhang JX, Civen R, Guris D, Mascola L, et al. Loss of vaccine-induced immunity to varicella over time. N Engl J Med . 2007 Mar 15;356(11):1121-9.
Davis MM, Marin M, Cowan AE, Guris D, Clark SJ. Physician attitudes regarding breakthrough varicella disease and a potential second dose of varicella vaccine. Pediatrics . 2007 Feb;119(2):258-64.
Harpaz R, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Seward JF; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevention of herpes zoster: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep . 2008 Jun 6;57(RR-5):1-30.
Kimberlin DW, and Whitley RJ. Varicella-zoster vaccine for the prevention of herpes zoster. N Engl J Med . 2007 Mar 29;356(13):1338-43.
Marin M, Güris D, Chaves SS, Schmid S, Seward JF; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevention of varicella: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep . 2007 Jun 22;56(RR-4):1-40.
Marin M, Meissner HC, Seward JF. Varicella prevention in the United States: a review of successes and challenges. Pediatrics. 2008 Sep;122(3):e744-51.
Myers MG, Seward JF, LaRussa PS. Varicella-zoster virus. In: Kliegman RM, Behrman RE, Jenson HB, Stanton BF, eds. Kliegman: Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 18th ed. Saunders; 2007:chap 250.
Quan D, Hammack BN, Kittelson J, Gilden DH. Improvement of postherpetic neuralgia after treatment with intravenous acyclovir followed by oral valacyclovir. Arch Neurol . 2006 Jul;63(7):940-2.
Sampathkumar P, Drage LA, Martin DP. Herpes zoster (shingles) and postherpetic neuralgia. Mayo Clin Proc . 2009 Mar;84(3):274-80.
Strangfeld A, Listing J, Herzer P, Liebhaber A, Rockwitz K, Richter C, et al. Risk of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with anti-TNF-alpha agents. JAMA . 2009 Feb 18;301(7):737-44.
Tyring SK. Management of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Acad Dermatol . 2007 Dec;57(6 Suppl):S136-42.
Urman CO and Gottlieb AB. New viral vaccines for dermatologic disease. J Am Acad Dermatol . 2008 Mar;58(3):361-70.
Whitley RJ, Gnann JW Jr. Herpes zoster in the age of focused immunosuppressive therapy. JAMA . 2009 Feb 18;301(7):774-5.
Woolery WA. Herpes zoster virus vaccine. Geriatrics . 2008 Oct;63(10):6-9. | <urn:uuid:2a0f80b0-8589-4699-90d3-361283554daf> | {
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August 3, 1958
At 11:15 p.m., the U.S. Navy submarine USS Nautilus became the first vessel to make it to the top of the world when she passed under an ice cap at the geographic North Pole. Navy Commander William R. Anderson, the commanding officer of Nautilus, formally announced the achievement to his crew of 115 men at the time it happened. He declared, “For the world, our country, and our Navy – the North Pole.”(In addition, this transit involved the largest group of people at the North Pole during a single expedition up to that time.)
Anderson also took time to highlight others who sought to reach that region of the globe. “Let us remember too those who have preceded us by other means – some to triumph, some to defeat, some to disaster,” he said. “Without the observations of many Arctic explorers – some made at the expense of untold hardships – this voyage would not be possible.”
Nautilus, sharing the name of the state-of-the-art submarine commanded by Captain Nemo in Jules Verne’s classic 1870 novel “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea,” was also the world’s first operational nuclear-powered submarine. The nuclear propulsion powering USS Nautilus allowed her to remain submerged a lot longer than the diesel-electric submarines that were in widespread use at the time. This advantage became the reason why Nautilus was selected for Operation Sunshine, a scientific research expedition to the North Pole being undertaken by the Navy.
On July 23, 1958, Nautilus departed the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii for the journey to the North Pole. Along with carrying out studies of various arctic conditions, those on board Nautilus tried to fill up their time with a host of diversions throughout the entire voyage. “Thirty-eight movies were shown during the trip,” reported an article in the Navy magazine All Hands. “Chess, cribbage and acey-deucy tournaments were held. The jukebox played almost continuously.” After the Nautilus made her historic crossing beneath a North Pole ice cap, the crew members enjoyed a meal of steak, french fries, carrots, peas, fruit salad, bread, and cake.
Nautilus could only head south, emerging in the open waters of the Greenland Sea and just west of the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen and continuing into the Atlantic Ocean. While the submarine was en route to Iceland on August 8, a helicopter airlifted Commander Anderson from the vessel so that he could then be flown via jet to Washington, D.C., for a White House ceremony. At that ceremony, President Dwight D. Eisenhower honored the accomplishments of Nautilus with the Legion of Merit military award for Anderson and a Presidential Unit Citation for his crew.
Those remaining on board Nautilus officially completed Operation Sunshine when they arrived at England’s Isle of Portland on August 12. Altogether, the submarine had covered 8,146 miles (13,109.7 kilometers) during the expedition.
Nautilus was decommissioned in 1980 and designated a National Historic Landmark two years later. She can now be visited at the Submarine Force Library and Museum near Groton, Connecticut.
For more information on USS Nautilus, please check out https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571) and http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/index.shtml.
For additional information on the submarine’s historic crossing of August 3, 1958, please check out the article “Under the North Pole” in the October 1958 issue of All Hands magazine at http://www.navy.mil/ah_online/archpdf/ah195810.pdf.
A video about the crossing is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z10Oyt4HZfU. | <urn:uuid:e8b603dd-45b6-4e96-b7fe-bee1246bb145> | {
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Classical MAC architecture
The classical MAC unit computes the product of two numbers and adds the product to an accumulator (Z), thus implementing the following operation:
Z ← Z + (A × B)
Figure 1. Classical MAC architecture
This is a general-purpose architecture widely used to solve algorithms that can be converted into a sum of multiplications (e.g., filters, polynomial computation).
Polynomial computation and Horner’s method
Being that every real function can be approximated by a polynomial of sufficient degree (think of a Taylor series), such a computation should be considered whenever function evaluation has to be performed. To this aim, let’s consider Horner’s method, which represents the best known algorithm to compute polynomials, requiring a minimum number of arithmetic operations.
Given the real polynomial:
p(x) = an·xn + an-1·xn-1 + ... + a1·x + a0
Evaluating at x using Horner’s method, we proceed through the following steps:
zn = an
zn-1 = zn·x + an-1
z0 = z1·x + a0 = an·xn + an-1·xn-1 +...+ a1·x + a0 = p(x)
For polynomial degree n, calculation of p(x) requires only n additions and n multiplications (or n multiply-adds in Horner’s steps). | <urn:uuid:2dda5c63-0a9d-4d5f-bcd3-cd5ddc6d6c47> | {
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Samuel Beardsley (February 6, 1790 - May 6, 1860) was a United States Representative and New York State Attorney General. Born in Hoosick, he pursued academic studies, taught school, studied law in Rome, New York and served as a lieutenant in the War of 1812, taking part in the defense of Sackets Harbor in 1813. He was admitted to the bar in 1815 and commenced practice in Watertown. He was a judge advocate in the State militia; in 1816 he returned to Rome and continued the practice of law. He was prosecuting attorney in 1821 and a member of the New York State Senate in 1823.
Beardsley moved to Utica in 1823, and was United States Attorney for the northern district of New York from 1823 to 1830. He was elected as a Jacksonian to the Twenty-second, Twenty-third, and Twenty-fourth Congresses and served from March 4, 1831, to March 29, 1836, when he resigned. During the Twenty-fourth Congress he was chairman of the Committee on the Judiciary.
In 1836, Beardsley was appointed circuit judge; he was also appointed, by the New York State Legislature to replace Greene C. Bronson, to the office of New York Attorney General, which he held from 1836 to 1838, serving under Governor William L. Marcy. He was elected as a Democrat to the Twenty-eighth Congress and served from March 4, 1843, to February 29, 1844, when he resigned to accept a judicial appointment, and served as associate judge of the New York Supreme Court from 1844 to 1847; he was appointed chief justice in the latter year. He declined another term of service and resumed the practice of law.
Beardsley died in Utica in 1860; interment was in Forest Hill Cemetery. | <urn:uuid:6d9f2a6a-8788-464f-9a4f-6d5abcb7722d> | {
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Dadohaehaesang National Park is the largest park in South Korea. It has been designated at its 14th national park on 23 December 1981.
It boasts its total area of over 2,321 square kilometers with 1,986 square kilometers of marine area and over 300 square kilometers of land area.
Dadohaehaesang National Park covers about 1,700 small and large islands and rocks. Among the islands, the most famous and visited are Hongdo island, Heuksando Island, Geomundo Island, and Baekdo Island.
The park covers Wando County, Shinan County, Jindo County, Goheung County, Haenam County, and Yeosu City in South Jeolla Province. The park is currently under UNESCO biosphere reserve region.
The mountain peaks, islands, beaches, forest areas, rock formations and pinnacles, volcanic formations, fresh seafood, and combining them all makes a spectacular sight that no one can resist even the gods.
Dadohaehaesang is composed of eight districts, each has its own and unique features - natural and historical aspects.
Heuksando and Hongdo Districts. Heuksando Island is famous for its Hongo Fish (Thornback Ray). It has been designated as Natural Monument No. 170. Both Heuksando and Hongdo boast their spectacular sceneries of land and sea.
Jeodo District. Jeodo is the area which is composed of many islands like a flock of birds. Among them, Gwanmae Island is the most famous with its over 300 years old pine tree, forest area, and beaches attracting curious visitors. Belonging to Jeodo District is Maenggol Island where the Sewol Ferry disaster occurred.
Bigeum/Docho District. The name Bigeum means “largest island” in the Korean language. It is located where the beautiful beaches are: Uido Beach and Shimmok Beach.
Soan/Cheongsan District. This district has an island called Bogildo Island, a historical site of Yoon Sun-do, where famous films where shot due to its sceneries.
Geumodo District. Geumodo Island is famous for its beautiful sunrise on the south coast. It had a dense forest with wild ginseng and used to be a hunting ground for deer for the royals of the Joseon period. Geumodo offers accommodations, restaurants, beaches (Jikpo Beach), rock formations (e.g., Sinseonbawi), and more amazing sights.
Naro Island District. It is composed of Wenaro and Naenaro. It is designated as Natural Monument No.362. The monument includes Bongraemyeon, Naro Island Beach, and Naro Space Center where the Naro Rocket was launched.
Geomundo/Baekdo District. It is located in the southernmost part of Dadohae. Geumondo Island offers scenic sights of quaint towns and environment. It is the access point for the famous Baekdo Island group the legendary and spectacular rock pinnacles are to be found.
Palyeongsan District. Palyeongsan Mountain is over 600 meters high and the highest peak in Goheung-gun in this district. The district became a part of the Dadohaehaesang National Park in 2011. Among the eight districts that composed the national park, only Palyeongsan District does not contain the sea or beach area.
Now, it is time to say something about your possible course of action. The following will be your possible travel and destination guide.
Let me start with…
Heuksando Island Course:
This course requires around two days and one night to accomplish. Take a ferry from Mokpo Passenger Terminal for Heukdsando Island (takes around 2 hours depending on the weather condition and sea current)
Bigeum/Dochodo Island Course:
Takes about 2 hours (125 kilometers) from Mokpo Passenger Terminal to Docho Simok Beach and Bigeum Hanuneom Beach
Jodo Island Course:
Time travel to Jodo Island takes about 3 hours and 50 minutes. The course takes about 2 days and 1 night. Take a ferry from Mokpo Passenger Terminal to Jindo Paengmokhang Port-Jodo Island.
Gwanmaedo Island Course:
Getting to Gwanmaedo takes about 4 hours and 20 minutes by ferry. The travel takes around 3 days and 2 nights to accomplish. Take the Mokpo-Jindo Island-Jodo Island-Gwanmaedo Island trip via ferry.
Uido Island Course:
Getting to the island takes around 3 hours. Take a ferry from Mokpo Passenger Terminal for Uido Island. Distance is about 74 kilometers.
Hongdo Island Course:
It takes about 2 hours and 30 minutes to get there for a total of around 115 kilometers. Go to Mokpo Passenger Terminal and take Heuksando Island ferry that continues to Hongdo Island.
Goheung Singeum Beach Course:
This course takes about 2 days and 1 night overall. Go to Goheung-eup then to Singeum Beach
Wando Island & Bogildo Island Course:
This takes 2 days and 1 night to accomplish. Proceed to Wando Island then Bogildo Island from Mokpo City.
Hyangilam Course: Yeosu Station-Dolsandaegyo Bridge-Impo-Hyangilam
Balpo Beach Course: Goheung-eup-Balpo Beach
Geomundo Island & Baekdo Island Course: Yeosu Passenger Terminal-Gomundo Island-Geomundo Lighthouse
Wando Gugyedeung Course: Wando-eup then to Jeongdo-ri Gugyedeung, Etc.
Hyangilam - Impo
Deokpo - Sorido Lighthouse
Deokchon - Geomundo Lighthouse
Sangseo - Maebongsan Mountain
Seodo Elementary School - Noksan Lighthouse
Kkotmeorisan Mountain Entrance - Observatory
Parking Lot - Bongnaesan Mountain - Parking Lot
Jangchon Village - Beach shore
Campsite - Nampo Art Gallery
Jeokchwibong Peak - Campsite
Recreational Forest - Observatory
Recreational Forest - Duryubong Peak
Gwanmae Wetland - Dongnimmun Gate Rock - Bangaseom Island
Gwanmae Dock - Haenul Bridge
Dorisan Mountain Well Entrance - Dorisan Mountain Observation Deck
Sanhaeng - Songgarakbawi Rock - Dondaebong Peak - Eup-gu
Gwanho Village - Byeorakbawi Rock
For more detailed information, please find it at: Dadohaehaesang National Park (Wando Section)
The following travel information provides more details: stations, transports, fares, directions, and time travels. You may check them out for your choices…
Seoul Station – Gwangju Songjeong Station (KTX Seoul-Mokpo, 1 hour 47 mins) – Nongseong Station (Line1-Green) (total fare: 39-100,000 Won) – Walk to Gwangju Bus Terminal (1 km) – Wando (approximate fare: 19,900 Won) – take a boat to Dadohaehaesang National Park. Overall, the travel takes 4 hours and 55 minutes.
Seoul Central City Bus Terminal – Wando (5 hours by bus) – Dadohaehaesang National Park (boat/ferry, 14 kilometers)
Yongsan Station (ITX-Saemaeul, Nuriro Yongsan-Gwangju; 32-46,000 Won) – Jangseong Station – then walk for approximately 4 minutes to Jangseong Station (40 mins by Bus, 2,000 Won) – Gwangju (2 hours by Bus, 19,900 Won) – Wando – Dadohaehaesang National Park
Euljiro 3-ga Station (42 mins by Subway, 3-Orange Line; 1,400 Won) – Nambu Bus Terminal Station – (change station) – Seoul Nambu Bus Terminal (2 hours 40 mins by Bus; 12-22,000 Won) – Iksan (1 hour 36 mins; 11-17,000 Won) – Gwangju (2 hours by Bus; 19,900 Won) – Wando (boat/ferry) – Dadohaehaesang National Park
Gongdeok Station (take All stop Seoul-Incheon Airport train; 1,400-2,000 Won) – Gimpo Airport Station – then walk for 4 mins – Seoul Gimpo (50 mins by Plane; 44-110,000 Won) – Gwangju Airport – then walk for 6 mins – Airport Station (11 mins by Subway) – Nongseong station – then walk for 13 mins – Gwangju Bus Terminal (2 hours by Bus; 19,900 Won) – Wando (boat/ferry) – Dadohaehaesang National Park
Gongdeok (all stop Seoul-Incheon International Airport train; 18 mins; 1,400-2,000 Won) – Gimpo Airport Station – Seoul Gimpo (GMP) (55 mins by plane; 41-130,000 Won) – Yeosu (RSU) (by taxi; 10,000 Won) – Yeocheon (1 hour 33 mins by Bus; 13,500 Won) – Gwangju (2 hours by Bus; 19,900 Won) – Wando – Dadohaehaesang National Park
Seoul Station (46 mins by KTX Seoul-Yeosu, Seoul-Mokpo; 17-65,000 Won) – Osong Station (18 mins by Train; 4,400-5,000 Won) – walk for 7 mins to Chongju Airport (1 hour; 34-220,000 Won) – Jeju – Dadohaehaesang National Park
If you are driving all the way from Seoul or other nearby places, you can park in specific places or parking areas that charge you for an hourly basis with cheap rates. Let’s check them out as below…
The rate for each vehicle depends on the size regardless of the time you park your car (a day). Small vehicle means under 1000cc; medium vehicle means sedan under 1000cc, Van less than 25 seats, and truck under 4 tons; large vehicle refers to Van/Bus with 25 or more seats and truck with 4 tons and above weight.
Small Vehicle: 2,000 Won (fixed rate for all seasons)
Medium Vehicle: 4,000 Won (off-season), 5,000 Won (on-season)
Large Vehicle: 6,000 Won (off-season), 7,500 Won (on-season)
Entrance Fee: FREE to all islands and sights unless otherwise indicated onsite
Restrooms are available in most areas
Also, you may avail the public facilities such as…
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Have a great, inspiring, and safe travels! :) | <urn:uuid:a0df8f00-44b3-429c-b11b-17bb54df5844> | {
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