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(2 syl.). Fustian, rubbish, trash. The cloth so called ought to
be made of goats' hair, but is a mixture of wool and silk, wool and
hair, or wool, silk, and hair, etc. (French, camelot; Arabic,
camlat.) (See page 206, Camlet .)
Source: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, E. Cobham Brewer, 1894
More on Camelote from Infoplease:
- Camelot - Camelot Camelot , in Arthurian legend, the seat of King Arthur's court. The origin of the name ...
- Camelot: meaning and definitions - Camelot: Definition and Pronunciation
- Quest For Camelot - Starring Jessalyn Gilsig, Cary Elwes, Gary Oldman, Pierce Brosnan, Bryan White
- Quest for Camelot - Quest for Camelot Director: Frederik Du Chau Writers: Kirk De Micco, William Schifrin, Jacqueline ...
- Camelote - Camelote (2 syl.). Fustian, rubbish, trash. The cloth so called ought to be made of goats' ... | <urn:uuid:750bdd5c-78fc-40e0-9176-07c21599e554> | {
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The problem statement, all variables and given/known data A 22.00 lead sphere is hanging from a hook by a thin wire 3.90 long, and is free to swing in a complete circle. Suddenly it is struck horizontally by a 4.50 steel dart that embeds itself in the lead sphere. What must be the minimum initial speed of the dart so that the combination makes a complete circular loop after the collision? The attempt at a solution I tried finding expression for tension. at bottom, T - mg = mv^2/r at top, T + mg = mv^2/r Then use conservation of momentum for perfectly inelastic collision. but i cant solve. Can someone help me pls? Thanks!! | <urn:uuid:f8c565ad-7af9-4ae6-a726-784f86abb833> | {
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Top 10 List:
The biggest fish in the World
[more Top-10 Lists]
The biggest fish in the world is the Whale Shark. It is a shark not a whale. Whales are not fish, otherwise they would top this list. They are on the world's heaviest animals list. actually the top three fish on this list are sharks, and there are probably more sharks that would fill the top of this list if all were included. Another large sea creature at a size to make this list (but not a fish) is the Giant Squid**.
This is not a definitive list, the information has been gathered from several sources and there are probably some fish that have been left out. The weights listed are sometimes estimated weights, for some of these animals it is quite hard to weigh as you can imagine. Where do you get a scale to weigh a shark from anyway? This is a list in progress, the weights have been researched from different sources, and some represent the largest found, other the estimated average weight of the species. Contact us if you know of other fish that should be on the list.
|FISH||max. recorded weight||notes|
|1.||Whale Shark||11,800||26,000||The heaviest specimen ever found (in March 1994) weighed 36,000 kg. The Whale Shark also has the thickest skin of any animal, measuring up to 6 inches (15 cm) on the back.|
|3.||Great White Shark||2,300||5,060|
|4.||Ocean Sunfish||1,000||2,200||the heaviest known bony fish in the world|
|5.||Atlantic Blue Marlin||818||1803||One of the largest of the Marlin family, the Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) can reach 5 m (16.4 ft) in length and 818 kg (1,803 lb) in weight.|
|6.||Swordfish||650||1,430||"They commonly reach 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, and the maximum reported is 4.55 m (14.9 ft) in length and 650 kg (1,430 lb) in weight" from wikipedia|
|7.||Giant Cambodian stingray||455||1,000|
|8.||Pirarucu||180||400||South American tropical freshwater fish (largest freshwater fish) which can grow up to 10 ft long.|
|9.||Mekong Giant Catfish||293||646|
|10.||Beluga or European Sturgeon||264||582||Unconfirmed reports of belugas reaching a length of up to 8.6 m (28 ft) and weighing as much as 2,700 kilograms (5,940 lbs).|
|11||Bull Sharks||250||550||these are the largest freshwater fish|
|12||Halibut||211||470||largest recently recorded halibut was 211 kilograms (470 lb) and 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) long, caught by Bosse Carlsson and Hans Oluf Nilsson outside Bodø, Norway in 2009. Wikipedia lists the halibut is the largest flat fish, averaging 11–13.5 kilograms (24–30 lb), but catch as large as 333 kilograms (734 lb) has been reported.|
* other large fish include the Wels Catfish 150kg (330 lb)
** Giant Squid (300 kg / 660 lbs) are classified as cephlapods. | <urn:uuid:2f672ae0-9354-4d59-b886-39136630d27d> | {
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Not the same as other Famous Men reprints - This one is better! 190+ illustrations to go with the stories, five new chapters added by historian Rob Shearer on Augustine, Patrick, St. Francis, St. Benedict, and Hildebrandt. The stories begin with the tales of the Bishops who saved civilization: Augustine & Patrick. And the Germanic chiefs who defeated the Romans: Alaric, Genseric, and Theodoric. Then come stories of the famous kings of the Franks: Clovis, Charles Martel, and Charlemagne. The second half of the book includes chapters on Justinian, Mohammed, Harun-Al-Rashid, El Cid, William the Conqueror, Frederick Barbarossa, Tamerlane, Marco Polo, and Joan of Arc. The stories of many of these figures can't be found for children anywhere else. Don't just show children pictures of castles; let them read the stories of those who built them and lived in them.
Did you find this review helpful? | <urn:uuid:c5965189-b505-470e-a4c2-58e52d7aa65b> | {
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Dental Care Basics
How many teeth do babies and adults have? When do babies lose their baby teeth and grow permanent teeth? Find out here.
While piercing the tongue, lip, or cheek may be attractive to some, there are a number of health-related risks associated with oral piercing.
Many different types of oral health care providers could become involved in the care of your teeth, gums, and mouth.
Good oral health involves more than just brushing. To keep your teeth and mouth healthy for a lifetime of use, there are steps that you should follow.
With proper care, your teeth and gums can stay healthy throughout your life. The healthier your teeth and gums are, the less risk you have for tooth decay and gum disease.
You and your dentist will be long-term oral health care partners; therefore, you should find someone you can be comfortable with.
Dental health insurance plans vary widely. You should know how your plan is designed, since this can significantly affect the plan's coverage and out-of-pocket expenses.
Brushing and Flossing
From toothpastes to toothbrushes to mouthwashes, get the facts you need to make informed decisions about your oral health.
Fluoride is a mineral that occurs naturally in many foods and water. Every day, minerals are added to and lost from a tooth's enamel layer through two processes, demineralization and remineralization.
In children, teeth should be cleaned as soon as they emerge. By starting early, your baby gets used to the daily routine.
Just the number of options you have when you buy a tube of toothpaste can be overwhelming. Should you go for tartar control? Fluoride? Both?
From the time we're young, we're taught that using a toothbrush regularly is one of the best ways to keep our teeth and gums healthy. But which toothbrush is best?
Dental Care for Kids
The following chart shows when your child's primary teeth (also called baby teeth or deciduous teeth) should erupt and shed.
The best thing you can do as a parent is to teach your child to make healthy food choices. Here are some tooth-friendly foods to serve your children along with some other tips.
Tooth decay in infants and very young children is often referred to as baby bottle tooth decay.
It is generally recommended that a child be seen by a dentist by the age of 1 or within 6 months after his or her first tooth comes in.
Find out when your child will begin to develop primary teeth, molars, and permanent teeth.
Dental Care for Seniors
Age in and of itself is not a dominant or sole factor in determining oral health. However, certain medical conditions, such as arthritis in the hands and fingers, may make brushing or flossing teeth difficult to impossible to perform. Drugs can also affect oral health and may make a change in your dental treatment necessary.
Get answers to some common questions seniors may have about their oral care.
WebMD takes a look at common denture problems and how they can be treated or prevented.
Proper denture care is important for both the health of your dentures and mouth. Here are some tips. | <urn:uuid:75eb221f-113c-435f-90cb-dff4043d6327> | {
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Another 2011 trend is the rise of the middle class. While in the United States article after article – as well as the country-wide “Occupy Wall Street” protests — denounced the decline of the middle class, in Latin America the middle continued its gains. Despite the tougher international climate, economic growth averaged over 4 percent, and unemployment rates fell to 6.8 percent (from 7.3 percent in 2010). Perhaps more important, GINI coefficients – which measure inequality — lowered slightly to just over 50 (from roughly 53 in 2000). This means that the growth that happened actually spread to the bottom and middle of the pyramid.
There is an ongoing debate about how to measure the global middle class. Some of these issues I addressed in this past post. But whatever the starting point, the 2011 regional trend was positive. In Brazil, the middle topped 100 million, in Mexico it reached 67 million, and in Argentina more than 21 million.
This doesn’t mean Latin American nations don’t continue to struggle with poverty. According to the latest World Bank data, just under 30 percent of the population — 160 million people — lives on less than $4 a day (in PPP terms), and 14 percent — some 80 million — live in abject poverty (on less than $2.50 a day). The growing middle though does show the path forward, and reinforces the goal for those concerned with the less fortunate, helping them too rise the economic ranks into a more comfortable middle. | <urn:uuid:140e3d8f-fdb8-4a02-85a2-53e172271e10> | {
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<!------------------------------- STEP 3 ---------------------------><!-- Add the article text. Please use simple formatting (
An alternate to forms authentication to authenticate user using database, you can use basic authenication (without adding user records to Active directory). I was wondering if it is possible to use IE’s (browser) built in login dialog box for my authentication when I saw it for the first time while learning SAMBA long year back. Trying to make it work, without IIS configuration in ASP classic. Then found an interesting topic on PHP basic authentication while googling. In PHP it has built in server variables for handling basic authentication.
Some whitepapers helped me lot learn the mechanism of this authentication. The day was the first successful day for me to do something by my own when I solved this with ASP. While having a vacation last week it came to my mind after seeing a passport login dialog of MSN and thought to migrate my old piece of code to ASP.NET by handling events in
global.asax file. Finally found
HttpModule the best way to implement it.
You are most welcome if you have a better idea. Please post your comments.
Authentication is the process of obtaining identification credentials such as name and password from a user and validating those credentials against some authority. If the credentials are valid, the entity that submitted the credentials is considered an authenticated identity. Once an identity has been authenticated, the authorization process determines whether that identity has access to a given resource.
Using the code
This works by sending 401 status code and response header
WWW-Authenticate in order to pop up the browser login dialog box and validate the information sent as Base64 encoded during
AuthenticateRequest event of application.
Response.AddHeader("WWW-Authenticate","BASIC Realm=My Realm");
The base class for authentication handler is
BaseAuthenticationModule. You should extend the Authenticate method of this class to implement you authentication logic which returns a GenericPrincipal object. You can still you favorite
User.IsInRole() to use role based authorization.
<add name="santosh.web" type="santosh.web.SQLAuthentication,MyAuthentication" />
Additionally as any other http module, you have to write a configuration element to register in
web.config and deny unauthenticated users ? in authorization element. Rest is almost on you how you handle your authentication logic. Additionally you must not forget, this scheme is not considered to be a secure method of user authentication (unless used in conjunction with some external secure system such as SSL ), as the user name and password are passed over the network as clear text.
Points of Interest
By default the entire application get secured when we deny anonymous user access in the root web's authorization, where in place you may be intrested to secure only part of the application and allowing the root accessible to all. You can use location element in your web.config file to customise access control list. This is simply great a great feature to use declarative security in ASP.NET. Not only by user, you can restrict different parts of the application by roles as well. Implementing role based authorization with form based authentication mechanism is quite complex to handle. But you are enjoy the freedom of maintaining user accounts with Activedirectory especially while deploying with a public web hosting service.
Debugging becomes a problem while testing with this feature with visual studio. Instead you can attach process
aspnet_wp.exe and invoke the page from your browser, the way I did.
This mechanism only works when IIS’s authentication is turned off and anonymous access is enabled. I got scared to see this not working while testing before publishing this article. I had accidentally enabled integrated authentication to debug other parts of the code. :)
In another article I have written to use it with Struts Action Servlet for J2EE based application.
Rfc for Basic authentication http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2617.html
An article to implement the same with PHP http://www.cascade.org.uk/software/php/auth/ | <urn:uuid:90f50ead-e7fb-47ef-b0c2-8f99103b10b9> | {
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For location-based search, it is very common to search for objects based on their spatial location. e.g. find all restaurants within 5 miles of my current location, or find all schools within the zipcode of 95110 ... etc.
Every spatial object can be represented by an object id, a minimal bounded rectangle (MBR), as well as other attributes. So the space can be represented by a collection of spatial objects. (here we use 2 dimension to illustrate the idea, but the concept can be extended to N dimensions.)
A query can be represented as another rectangle. The query is about locating the spatial objects whose MBR overlaps with the query rectangle.
RTree is a spatial indexing technique such that given a query rectangle, we can quickly locate the spatial object results.
The concept is similar to BTree. We group spatial objects that are close by each other and form a tree whose intermediate nodes contains "close-by" objects. Since the MBR of the parent node contains all MBR of its children, the Objects are close by if their parent's MBR is minimized.
Start from the root, we examine each children's MRB to see if it overlaps with the query MBR. We skip the whole subtree if there is no overlapping, otherwise, we recurse the search by drilling into each child.
Notice that unlike other tree algorithm where only traverse down one path. Our search here needs to traverse down multiple path if the overlaps happen. Therefore, we need to structure the tree to minimize the overlapping as high in the tree as possible. This means we want to minimize the sum of MBR areas along each path (from the root to the leaf) as much as possible.
To insert a new spatial object, starting from the root node, pick the children node whose MBR will be extended least if the new spatial object is added, walk down this path until reaching the leaf node.
If the leaf node has space left, insert the object to the leaf node and update the MBR of the leaf node as well as all its parents. Otherwise, split the leaf node into two (create a new leaf node and copy some of the content of the original leaf node to this new one). And then add the newly created leaf node to the parent of the original leaf node. If the parent has no space left, the parent will be split as well.
If the split goes all the way to the root, the original root will then be split and a new root is created.
Deleting a spatial node will first search for the containing leaf node. Remove the spatial node from the leaf node's content and update its MBR and its parent's MBR all the way to the root. If the leaf node now has less than m node, then we need to condense the node by marking the leaf node to be delete. And then we remove the leaf node from its parent's content as well as updating the . If the parent is now less than m node, we mark the parent to be delete also and remote the parent from the parent's parent. At this point, all the node that is marked delete is removed from the RTree.
Notice that the content with these delete node is not all garbage, since they still have some children that are valid nodes (but were removed from the tree). Now we need to reinsert all these valid nodes back in the tree.
Finally, we check if the root node contains only one child, we throw away the original root and use its own child to become the new root.
Update happens when an existing spatial node changes its dimension. One way is to just change the spatial node's MBR but not change the RTree. A better way (but more expensive) is to delete the node, modify it MBR and then insert it back to the RTree. | <urn:uuid:fd6b74f0-6024-44ab-8872-4e6ab4653b73> | {
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A team of archaeologists from the University of Birmingham have discovered new evidence of huge mass graves on the former site of the Nazi extermination camp Treblinka.
Since the Nazis razed the camp in November of 1943 after a prisoner revolt, leaving little visible evidence of the 800,000+ Jews they’d slaughtered in just over a year of operation, Holocaust deniers have claimed that Treblinka wasn’t a death camp at all, but rather a transit station where prisoners were sorted before being shipped off to other labor camps. (Interestingly, that’s just what the SS told new arrivals before making them undress and sending them to the “showers” for “delousing.”)
This is the first coordinated scientific attempt to locate graves at Treblinka. Led by forensic archaeologist Caroline Sturdy Colls, the research team used ground-penetrating radar and aerial and satellite imagery to look for burial sites without breaking ground, out of respect for Jewish Halacha law which forbids disturbing burial sites.
She added: “I’ve identified a number of buried pits using geophysical techniques. These are considerable in size, and very deep, one in particular is 26 by 17 metres.”
Dug by an enormous excavator from the quarry at the nearby Treblinka I forced labour camp, each of these large pits are thought to contain the charred remains of thousands of bodies. Some of the pits were used for burial, others as cremation pits. In March 1943, Heinrich Himmler visited the camp and ordered that all the bodies be cremated. The burial pits were opened and the corpses burned on cremation grates built out of railway tracks. There are pictures extant of the resulting ash heaps.
BBC Radio 4 will air a program following the Colls’ work at Treblinka. The Hidden Graves of the Holocaust first airs on Monday, January 23 at 8:00 PM.
A more personal witness to the horrors of the Holocaust can be found in a remarkable book recently published by the Auschwitz Memorial and Museum: The Sketchbook from Auschwitz. In 1947, Józef Odi, a former prisoner who was working as a watchman on the Auschwitz grounds, found 32 sketches on 22 pages rolled into a bottle and hidden in the foundations of a barracks near the gas chambers and crematoria.
These incredible works of art, beautiful and horrifying in equal measure, are the only drawings made in Birkenau to depict the extermination of Jews. They are signed with the initials MM, so we don’t even know the name of the artist. We know from some of the depictions that they were made in 1943 and that the artist was immensely courageous to make these detailed drawings recording the systematic mass-murder of Jews, including badge numbers of functionary prisoners, license plates of trucks and train cars.
This is the first time all of the MM sketches have been published. | <urn:uuid:a09aef55-7bdc-4091-95f7-54bb03b52cfb> | {
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Summer is finally here! Longer days, warmer weather and spending more time outside. We take precautions from the sun and heat when we’re outside, but what about our cars? Did you know that the sun and heat can cause serious damage to your vehicle, too? Here are some tips to help you care for your ride this summer:
- Make sure your car’s cooling system is completely flushed and refilled every 24 months, and the levels, condition and concentration of the coolant are checked periodically.
- Oil and oil filters should also be changed based on your car’s owner’s manual. (Changing the oil and filters every 3,000 miles is a good rule of thumb).
- Keep your windshield clean and replace worn wiper blades. Be sure to check for plenty of wiper fluid in the reservoir, too.
- Look at your tires and make sure to check the pressure at least once a month. When you do check, make sure the tires are cooled down and always rotate your tires every 5,000 miles to ensure even wear.
- Check for changes in the way your brake pedals feel and take your car for repairs immediately if you hear scraping or grinding noises.
- Remove dirt and insects from your lights and make sure all bulbs are working. Tip: to prevent scratching, never use a dry rag.
- Have a professional technician look at your car’s air conditioning system. A marginally operating system can fail in hot weather. Newer car models have cabin air filters that clean the air entering the heating and air conditioning system.
On the road and in the sun
- Keep an eye on your car’s temperature. If you see that it’s getting overheated, you can turn on your car’s heater to pull the air away from the engine to the passenger compartment of the vehicle.
- During long trips, try to target your driving times for the cooler parts of the day, such as early morning or late evening.
- When you park your car, try to find a shady spot and crack your window slightly. Leaving your windows cracked an inch will create enough space to vent the hot summer air.
- Be sure to never leave children or pets in the car, even for a quick errand. A car’s interior temperature can heat up from 78 to 100 degrees in less than three minutes.
- Update your car’s emergency kit. While you might need that parka and snow brush for the winter, they won’t do any good for the summer heat. Here’s a sample list of items to include in your summer car emergency kit, in addition to your normal car emergency kit:
- Water: one gallon, plus one bottle per person
- Sunscreen, bug spray and hat -- you might have to be outside of your car
- Blanket: keep this in your car to use for shade
- First-aid kit | <urn:uuid:bbb7be4c-1741-47cf-bf88-4a8058101703> | {
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Trafalgar Square – A Place for Rallies, Demonstrations and Tourists:
Trafalgar Square is the centre of London in more ways than one. At its south end lies what used to be the Charing Cross memorial, the point from which all distances to London are measured. The original cross, erected by Edward I in 1290 (as a tribute to his wife, Eleanor) has long since been replaced by a statue of Charles I atop a horse. However, outside Charing Cross Station is a replica cross which was made in 1863.
Much of the area occupied by Trafalgar Square was the courtyard of the stables which served Whitehall Palace from the 14th to the late 17th century. The mews was put out of use by the Royal household in the early 18th century and the area was cleared. In 1812, John Nash designed the area to be a cultural space, open to the public and in 1830, it was officially named Trafalgar Square. The Square has enjoyed continual popularity since – sometimes to the regret of its sponsors. The large open piazza-style area is often the preferred site of political demonstrations, and has been from its beginning.
The centrepiece of the centre of London is unquestionably the 185-foot Nelson’s Column, with the 17-foot statue of Lord Nelson at its peak. This is fitting since the Square itself was designed as a tribute to Nelson’s military victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
At the base of the column are four large bronze lions sculpted by Landseer, sitting atop huge granite plinths - blocks of stone that serves as a base for a column or statue. Bronze reliefs at the base depict four of Admiral Nelson’s famous battles.
Once home to large flocks of pigeons, the tower and other structures have been rejuvenated after a program to radically decrease the bird population. A program not without controversy, as the pigeons were popular with many of the tourists.
Things to See and Do
The square, apart from being the intersection for several major roadways, holds a dozen things to do and see. All around are working fountains designed in the Neo-Classical style that formed the ‘look’ of public squares for centuries.
On the north side of the square sits the National Gallery, one of the world’s premier art museums. Along with one of the richest collections of paintings, the building itself is a work of art.
To the west is Canada House. Visiting Canadians can use the facility to read Canadian newspapers and send or receive emails, but the classical exterior is worth a look for anyone.
On the east side is South Africa House with a delightful display of African animals featured on its stone arches.
If visiting during Christmas, be sure to bundle up and come at night to see the tree lighting ceremony. A tradition since 1947, every year Norway – as an expression of gratitude for British support during WWII – sends a giant spruce or fir to London. The tree is erected and decorated and the Mayor of Oslo joins the Lord Mayor of Westminster to illuminate the tree. There are a number of 4-5 star hotels around the square and these tend to be quite booked out as people from all over the world come to join in London’s famous New Year’s Eve celebrations.
Less than a mile away are several other great sights, such as the Churchill Museum and 10 Downing Street, the home of the Prime Minister since 1732. Dr. Johnson’s house (creator of the first English dictionary and a writer) is about a mile away as is the British Museum, one of the world’s largest collections of artifacts. | <urn:uuid:f84e1089-6005-446b-9a53-5d5b1ceebf4f> | {
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Visual Basic .NET/Getting Started
In this manual, however, we will only be covering Microsoft's official IDE. Programming a form (window) by hand can be challenging if you are not familiar with the language, so starting with a good form designer will help a lot.
Okay, it's now time for your first program!
Application Windows Forms
Start up a Visual Basic .NET IDE and create a windows application.
Double click on the form to open up the code view. You should see something similar to:
Public Class Form1 Inherits System.Windows.Forms.Form [Windows Form Designer generated code] Private Sub Form1_Load(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles MyBase.Load End Sub End Class
Enter in the following code in the Form_Load Sub (between the "Private Sub" line and the "End Sub" line):
This creates your classic "Hello World!" program.
Press F5 or go to the Debug menu and select Start to start the program. You should see an alert box that says "Hello World!" and then the main window (with nothing on it) should open. Click the "X" in the title bar like you would to quit any program!
Add a new project via the menu File, then New, Project... and select Application console.
Paste in the Main() function:
Console.WriteLine("Hello World!") Console.ReadLine()
Now to avoid the program to automatically launch the previous paragraph form instead of the console, right click on the new ConsoleApplication1 from the Solutions explorer, and Set as starting project.
Then the console appears when pressing F5.
As Visual Basic, VB.net uses:
- ' before comments
- _ to split a command on the next line
- : to start a new command on the same line | <urn:uuid:41dde35f-0f58-4eeb-a99b-221499fda2b0> | {
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Defining Substance Abuse Treatment
As you seek to understand substance abuse treatment, the first thing to note is that we’re talking about true, clinical addiction here—which isn’t the same thing as “binge” drinking or heavy drug use. Addiction is characterized first and foremost by physical and mental dependence, and by an inability to quit using the substance in question. That’s the primary indication that clinical intervention is required.
The role of substance abuse treatment, then, is to treat the disease of addiction, along with any co-occurring conditions—such as PTSD, depression, or anxiety. While there is no “cure” for addiction, the right therapeutic approach can lead to lifelong freedom from substance abuse and its many ravages.
The ultimate aim of substance abuse treatment is to free the client from addiction’s grip and to provide the life skills and coping mechanisms to avoid any future relapse—creating a firm foundation for ongoing sobriety.
The How’s and Why’s of Substance Abuse Treatment
When seeking out substance abuse treatment—whether for yourself or for a loved one—it’s only natural to have some questions:
- What’s the science behind substance abuse treatment?
- What’s the clinical approach? What will the process entail, day-to- day, and how long will it last?
All of these are critical questions to understanding substance abuse treatment.
Why the Substance Abuse?
The first thing to note is why substance abuse happens in the first place. Substance abuse can occur due to a number of factors, among them:
- Genetics/hereditary factors
- Mental health conditions
- Biology/brain chemistry
There is no one thing that causes all substance abuse, and no two struggles with addiction are ever quite the same. The important thing to note is that it’s never a matter of choice; nobody would ever choose to struggle with drug or alcohol addiction. It’s a mental health issue that can only be treated through serious, data-backed clinical intervention—and that’s just the approach we take here at Get Real Recovery.
As far as medically sound, personalized care is concerned, Get Real Recovery is happy to offer a full spectrum of clinically-proven treatment types, both for addiction and for co-occurring conditions.
Some of the treatment types available here include:
- Drug and alcohol detox
- Residential treatment
- Intensive outpatient treatment
- Full-day outpatient treatment
- Half-day outpatient treatment
- Executive rehab
- Dual diagnosis and mental health treatment
Tour The Facilities
Before Signing Up For Treatment...
Something else that’s important to the understanding of substance abuse treatment: the acknowledgement that, while therapy works and recovery is attainable, not all addiction recovery centers are created equal.
It’s important to do your due diligence and find a place with a proven track record, a medically sound clinical model, and a true commitment to sustainable sobriety. Some specific things to look for in a recovery center include:
- Certification from state medical boards
- The availability of transitional living and aftercare
- Access to treatment for co-occurring disorders
- Comfortable and tranquil facilities
- Customized services, tailored to the needs of the individual
Look for all of these things as you seek the best place for your own substance abuse treatment.
The Treatment Process
Treatment begins with a personal evaluation; members of our clinical team meet individually with each new client and get to know them, as well as their needs. This results in the development of an individualized recovery plan.
From there, the individual receives the treatment program that best accommodates his or her needs; this might include a combination of one-on- one therapy sessions, group sessions, experimental therapy, and the development of key life skills and coping mechanisms.
Ultimately, each client is moved through a transitional living or aftercare program, where he or she ensures readiness to re-enter “normal” life and to prevent relapse.
The length of stay is dependent on the individual—and on the type and extent of treatment called for. However, our range of treatment options lends itself to flexibility, and makes it easy to find a treatment plan that works with your lifestyle.
Drug & Alcohol Detox
Myah's Detox Story
Tyler's Detox Story
What You Need To Know
According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA’s) National Survey on Drug Use and Health, it is quite alarming to know that a lot of people who need treatment for drug and alcohol use do not actually receive the care they need. However, it is important that treatment is the first priority to revive the mental and physical health of the abuser. Family and friend support can go a long way in helping an addict endure the road to recovery. This can be a rather tender area for loved ones, however, a mature and proactive approach in facilitating a course of action can be truly beneficial and life changing. If the abuser has limited family or friend support, it is crucial that they find it within themselves to seek the care required to turn their life sober.
Seek Treatment from Get Real Recovery
If you have further questions, or need to understand substance abuse recovery further, we invite you to contact Get Real Recovery today. Our clinical team is standing by to provide you with further insight into our methods and our outcomes. Seek information about substance abuse recovery, and start your journey toward health and wholeness today.
Get Real Recovery can help you or your loved one get the help they need in a safe and compassionate environment. Call our admissions helpline today for a confidential telephone assessment and free insurance verification. Don’t hesitate; our experienced admissions team is standing by to help. Call (866) 983-3651 and get in touch today.
Southern California Addiction Treatment Programs
Get Real Recovery offers full continuum of care including: detox, residential- inpatient, and four levels of outpatient services. We understand that every client and family is different. | <urn:uuid:5eaa3be8-8f4b-4246-9a80-155be11249f5> | {
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Among holistic dentists, there has been a theme of pushing for better biocompatible materials. The hope is that there will be minimal impact on the human body as a result of having restorative materials placed. The largest concerns likely stem from having amalgam fillings in the mouth, which have been located in trace amounts in other portions of the body. As a result of the concern about amalgam fillings in the mouth and other medical biocompatibility concerns, there seems to be a push to eliminate metal from dental restoration materials with the idea that the metal is not an ideal biocompatible material.
Common Dental Materials
Despite the concern some have for metal free dentistry, the field seems to still have many of it’s materials metal based. The following materials have been used in varying amounts over the years:
These have been proposed as non-reactive biocompatible substitutes for several metal containing materials:
Some have started using zirconia as a material for implants to replace titanium. Their claim is that zirconia is not only biocompatible but that it is osseointegrative and might retain less plaque and calculus than titanium.
Fortunately there are areas of improvement for future dental materials. The sought after resolution of biocompatible materials would be excellent, unfortunately it might not be as ideal as we hope. Although major improvements have been made, trace metals are still used for coloring and zirconium (the base of zirconia) is right below titanium on the periodic table of elements meaning that it is technically metal based. Titanium implants have been used for an extended period of time and have been proven to provide amazing osseointegration resulting in strong long lasting treatments. Some are concerned that the materials used will negatively interact with the human body however, while the standards for biocompatible materials are not defined, precautions can be taken to avoid materials that have higher potential to do harm.
Contact us to discuss your specific concerns about metal free dentistry. | <urn:uuid:77efabf0-3850-4434-a19e-733cbde09f0d> | {
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How three UWO profs helped identify an unknown soldier 0
Almost a century after his death, a fallen Canadian soldier from the First World War has been identified - in part thanks to professors from the University of Western Ontario.
Andrew Nelson and Christine White, of Western's anthropology department, and Fred Longstaffe of the earth sciences department, were part of a team that identified the mystery soldier as Pte. Thomas Lawless of Calgary. His remains were found in France near Vimy Ridge in 2003.
Years of research - involving genetic testing, isotope analysis, forensic reconstruction and military history - led to the identification of Lawless in January.
Nelson became involved with the National Defence-led project in 2007. His role, he said, began in France with basic osteological work - the study of the structure and function of bones - to determine the soldier's identity.
"In the computer we combined scans of the separate bones and recreated a digital model of the skull, and from that we created what's called a 3D print of the skull," he said. "It's a physical model based on the computer model."
Nelson said Newfoundland artist Christian Corbet then created a forensic reconstruction of the soldier's face, which allowed Nelson to rule out some potential candidates short-listed by National Defence.
Eventually, Nelson narrowed the list to two names, including Lawless, a member of the 49th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force, who was 28 when he died.
"I was actually banking on the other guy," Nelson said.
The final breakthrough came from White and Longstaffe's research on isotopes - the variants of basic elements.
"Oxygen isotopes tell you about geographic origin," Nelson explained. "They vary depending on temperature and humidity and other environmental factors . . . the isotopic signature in the water you drink gets incorporated into your teeth and bones."
The mystery soldier must have grown up in Ireland, according to his isotopic profile, meaning he had to be Dublin-born Lawless.
"He fit the Dublin profile perfectly," said Nelson. "That was a crucial piece of the puzzle."
Now, members of Lawless's family have a chance to lay him to rest.
"We are thankful that Pte. Lawless will finally be laid to rest with the honour and dignity that he deserves," Laurie Hawn, parliamentary secretary to the Defence Minister, said in a statement. "Pte. Lawless gave his life in the name of our country and his contribution to Canada in the First World War will not soon be forgotten."
Lawless will be buried at La Chaudière Military Cemetery in Vimy, France, on March 15 with his family in attendance.
"You're able to give them some closure," said Nelson.
The bodies of Lawless and another Canadian soldier had been found in Axiom, France, near Vimy Ridge. In 2007, the other soldier was identified as Pte. Herbert Peterson of Berry Creek, Alta. | <urn:uuid:5b465362-b880-42d0-9f0e-93f3ff196a31> | {
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The laser turns 50 this year with the construction of the first ruby laser.
The first CO2 laser followed only 2 years later in 1963.
How Stuff Works and this video gives an overview of how lasers work, the video concentrates on the Ruby laser. The How Stuff Works gives a more general overview but talks about the transition of an electron between orbit levels for the generation of lasing photons. A CO2 laser, whilst the principles are the same, the energy level transitions are between vibration modes of the atoms within the molecule.
This is impossible according to the climate change science deniers. We have a few gifted persons about who can make up their science and do demand that CO2 is inert in the infra-red and thus cannot affect temperature. Yet the very thing they deny is exploited to build CO2 lasers that can emit beams of infra-red, powerful invisible beams of heat.
"Population inversion" is a necessary condition for lasers. It’s where the quantity of the higher energy level stuff (molecules in CO2’s case) is greater than the lower level after emission. This has to be so - the photon, as it approaches a molecule will be absorbed if the molecule is in the lower state, if it passes a molecule in the high state, it could stimulate emission and now we have 2 photons in phase, same wavelength, traveling in the same direction. It's the later we want so we definitely don't want too many in the low state.
A trick (now I've used that word, this is all impossible) that most lasers, including CO2, is to utilise 3 levels. The first is the ground state, the natural state of the supply of material. The 2nd state is the high energy level. The 3rd is an intermediately level that is the result of the 2nd level losing a photon, hopefully stimulated. The trick is to easily pump up level 2, and keep pumping level 2 and have level 3 be able to depopulate quickly itself or induced to do so.
A typical CO2 laser gas fill is 9.5% CO2, 13.5% N2, and 77%, the rest, He. The nitrogen gas is pumped electrically to an energy level that is close to the 001 mode of CO2, the nitrogen imparts energy to CO2.
N2, as you're probably aware, is the major gas of our atmosphere and is transparent to infra-red photons so will not affect the laser's operation nor does it keep Earth warmer than the moon (the moon being close enough to the same distance from the sun as us - specials often assert various made up stuff at this point). O2 is also IR inert, ie most of the Earth’s atmosphere is IR inert. The atmosphere's major IR active gases are CO2, water vapour and ozone O3. The specials will yell H2O is the most active (after lying about CO2, why not lie more) but the same problem arises if you try to make a steam powered laser - that is the amount of vapour is dependant on operating temperature and any extra H2O will condense out as a liquid.
The helium gas helps in removing kinetic energy from the 100 CO2 vibration mode which is the level 3 we mentioned earlier that we wish to depopulate quickly.
And that's the pew-pew( or rather the bgzzzzzzzzzzzzzt) that is a CO2 laser in a very short summary.
If you're a denier (or if you prefer a CO2 sceptic, I'll call you anything you wish if you agree to this) maybe we could organise a bit of an outing to a university - get a TV camera crew, televise you giving personal injury wager then we'll attempt to cut off your finger. In our world, based upon prior observation, and other hi-falootin theory crap, you won't feel a thing .. at first .. as flesh is burnt, blood vessels cauterised, nerve endings killed - there'll be an unmistakable visual and stench - a little after that I'd imagine it wouldn't tickle. BUT - in your world, the laser would fail as the CO2 infra-red crap is all a UN single government hoax (or something) and you will have heroically killed the global warming fraud at it's very base. You will so show the invisible nothing from the end of the laser to be a fraud perpetrated by grant hungry scientists that have been cooking their research because no-one would pay them if they showed teh truth. Please let us know if you want to settle this, I'll ring ACA, 60minutes etc - if any of them wish to pay I'll happily let you keep all the money, I just wish to watch - you could so stick it to those eggheads. | <urn:uuid:71166df6-0330-483b-a39a-546857ef2603> | {
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There are so many opportunities to talk with little ones all day long as they grow.
Newborns to 3-month-olds may:
- tell one person’s voice from another’s
- tell speech from other sounds
- begin to remember things
So you can: Talk to baby a lot! Look her in the eye. Enjoy her responses: a waving arm, a smile, kicking legs, and so on. Talk back using words (“What a strong arm!” “Thanks for that sweet smile!”).
- copy sounds and movements
- turn toward a parent or caregiver’s voice
- make their own sounds
So you can: Talk during meal times. A newborn’s cry to be fed is the beginning of communication and conversation! Babbles and coos are his language as he plays with sound. As you make sounds back at him, he will slowly begin to imitate them.
- copy or say the same sounds over and over, and say mama and dada
- know the names of people and things
- clap and use their bodies to speak with others
So you can: Fill everyday routines with talk. Build vocabulary by describing what you’re doing (“One sock…two socks. Now we can put on your shoes.”).
9- to-12-month-olds may:
- communicate by babbling or pointing
- understand more words and commands
- respond to their own name and connect the names of others
So you can: Acknowledge “nonsense” words, such as ba ba or ma ma, by repeating them or extending the idea (“Yes, ba, ba. Baa, baa black sheep!”).
- enjoy touching, grabbing, squishing, and tasting just about everything
- say more names of familiar people or objects
- rely more on memory for words or songs
So you can: Give toddlers a toy cell phone to play with and “copy” your conversation style.
- use simple two- and three-word sentences and start asking questions
- learn new words quickly while understanding a lot more than they can say
So you can: Close your eyes and explore with your ears! Say, “Let’s listen carefully. What do you hear?” Take turns naming the sounds around you (cars, doors, people).
- use sentences of two to four words
- point to things or pictures when they are names
- repeat your words and phrases
So you can: Notice sounds around the neighborhood and talk with children about who or what might be making them.
- carry on conversations using two to three sentences
- complete a sentence or rhyme in a favorite story
- know by sight the first letter of their name
So you can: Talk to children about whom they might like to send a message to and what they would say. Then write an e-mail together! | <urn:uuid:252e14cb-5f88-47b4-9033-3a259bd0fdc9> | {
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was an American author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter, and early civil rights activist. Johnson is remembered best for his writing, which includes novels, poems, and collections of folklore. He was also one of the first African-American professors at New York University. Later in life he was a professor of creative literature and writing at Fisk University. In 1916 he was asked to become the national organizer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). | <urn:uuid:b0154486-f27f-40cc-a87f-74fa632d07ee> | {
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New research out of the UK finds that solar cells actually enjoy improved efficiency when exposed to the pounding beats of today’s pop and rock music. According to researchers from Queen Mary University of London and Imperial College London, the high frequencies and pitch featured in pop and rock music trigger really “good vibrations” in solar cells that contain a cluster of ‘nano rods.’ Their research found that these vibrations improve efficiency by up to 40 percent, which could be especially good news for those working to develop lower cost, printed solar cells.
To confirm solar cells’ preference for rockin’ beats, the scientists grew billions of zinc oxide nano rods and covered them with an active polymer to form a device that converts sunlight into electricity. Thanks to “special properties of the zinc oxide material, the team was able to show that sound levels as low as 75 decibels (equivalent to a typical roadside noise or a printer in an office) could significantly improve the solar cell performance,” according to a Queen Mary University press release.
“After investigating systems for converting vibrations into electricity this is a really exciting development that shows a similar set of physical properties can also enhance the performance of a photovoltaic,” said Dr Steve Dunn, Reader in Nanoscale Materials from Queen Mary’s School of Engineering and Materials Science.
“We tried playing music instead of dull flat sounds, as this helped us explore the effect of different pitches. The biggest difference we found was when we played pop music rather than classical, which we now realise is because our acoustic solar cells respond best to the higher pitched sounds present in pop music,” said James Durrant, Professor of Photochemistry at Imperial College London, who co-led the study.
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What is dirt?
What is dirt?
A teacher of mine once said: "dirt is what you track in on your mother's
floor, soil is what plants grow in." A scientist would not use the word
"dirt" for the surface layer of the ground where plants grow, that is
"soil." Soil is made up of minerals that come from rocks, and lots of
decaying plant and animal material. It takes a long time for growing things
to form rich soil, an average is about 1000 years for every inch of topsoil,
but that can be very different from one place to another.
Dirt is made of finely-ground rocks and decayed organic matter. It is
actually very complicated stuff.
Richard E. Barrans Jr., Ph.D.
PG Research Foundation, Darien, Illinois
I suggest that you try out the following web site:
It was put together by some real experts on dirt.
Dirt comes from two different things. First, when plants and other things
die, bugs and worms and other animals help break the plants down into little
bits. Dirt that is black and dark has lots of old plants in it. Also, when
rocks stay outside in the sun and rain and wind for a long, long time, they
start to fall apart into smaller and smaller pieces until they become little
tiny grains. That is why some dirt has chunks of rock in it, too.
in a general way, we can call dirt the earth that is the
soil of our planet. The soil is made mostly of substances
called silicates mixed up with a lot of other substances,
so the soil can have different properties, as different
colors, for example.
In another point of view, dirt is the opposite of clean,
but what is clean? a thing is clean when it has no impurities,
no mixtures. When your mom washes your jeans very well,
it is clean. Now if you put it on and go to play outside,
and run and play, do a lot of things, your jeans becomes
dirty, covered with impurities, and must be washed
again. So the dirt over it can be a lot of things: earth
powder, a piece of ice-cream, ink or colored pencils blots,
oil, ketchup, and so on. I mean anything that makes something
unclean can be called dirt.
OK? And thanks for asking NEWTON! it was a pleasure
answer to you!
(Dr. Mabel Rodrigues)
Click here to return to the General Topics Archives
Update: June 2012 | <urn:uuid:58e706cb-0a98-4f74-b94b-d8d52ad69552> | {
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The son of Abraham and Keturah, Midian began a nomadic tribe which wandered the banks of the Red Sea as well as the Syrian desert. The Midianites had a close relationship with the Jewish people. For example, when Moses fled from Pharaoh, he went to the Midians and married Tzipporah, the daughter of a Medianite priest.
Sources: Bridger, David. Ed. The
New Jewish Encyclopedia. NY: Behrman House, Inc. 1976. | <urn:uuid:3cc25482-7bf1-44be-a5b7-67e9becfec46> | {
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XII. USING A CENTRIFUGE
A centrifuge is a mechanical device that can subject an experimental sample to a sustained centrifugal force. Tubes containing experimental samples either in suspension or dissolved in a fluid can be "spun" at high speeds for particular lengths of time to achieve particular objectives. In bioresearch labs, these objectives include the separation, concentration, clarification, characterization, and purification of biological and biochemical materials. Material that has accumulated on the bottom of a tube after centrifugation (if any) is called the "pellet", and the overlying fluid is called the "supernatant solution" or simple the "supernate". Material comprising the pellet is said to have "sedimented".
The force that the sample is subjected to is expressed as some number times the force of gravity, or relative centrifugal force (RCF). This might be 100 x g or 50,000 x g, etc. The lowest such force attainable in the laboratory (on Earth!) is 1 x g. In this case, a centrifuge is not required; rather, a sample can be left standing in a vertical tube on the lab bench, with gravity causing material to move slowly downward and settle onto the tube bottom. The first isolation of cell nuclei was in fact done in this manner! However, use of a centrifuge dramatically decreases the time required, and provides control over the process.
Two major components of a centrifuge are the drive mechanism, and the rotor. The drive mechanism is the source of rotary motion, and is powered by an electric motor, by air pressure, or by oil turbines, depending upon the type of centrifuge. The rotor is the large rotating element of a centrifuge into or onto which samples are loaded. It is driven about a fixed axis (or shaft) by the drive mechanism, with expenditure of large amounts of energy. A loaded rotor must be well-balanced about its axis of rotation, so as to minimize vibration and strain on the shaft and bearings. It is also important for rotors and their associated components to be kept clean and free of debris, both to avoid contamination of samples and to minimize possible rotor corrosion.
TYPES OF CENTRIFUGES:
The "speed" of a centrifuge is measured in revolutions per minute, or rpm. Centrifuges are generally divided into 3 categories based on their maximum attainable speed:
1. "Low-speed": to maximum of ~ 5 x 103 rpm.
2. "High-speed": to maximum of ~2 x 104 rpm.
3. "Ultracentrifuges": to maximum of ~105 rpm.
Centrifuges are either refrigerated or not refrigerated. Refrigerated centrifuges have a built-in refrigeration unit surrounding the rotor, with a temperature sensor and thermostat permitting selection of a particular temperature or a permissible temperature range that is maintained during centrifugation. Many biological samples are temperature sensitive, and centrifugation in the cold (say, 1-4oC) is frequently required.
Centrifuges that are not refrigerated are normally used at whatever temperature the room they are in happens to be. This is typically described in research reports as "room temperature" or "ambient temperature", which sounds somewhat scientific. In fact, such terminology means that the temperature was probably somewhere above 20oC but is actually unknown! For purposes of repeatability, it is a good idea to measure "room temperature" in your room with a thermometer. It should be noted, however, that such measurement will provide only an estimate, because the spinning of the centrifuge itself can generate heat that warms up the centrifuge and any samples contained within. If samples must be kept cold and a refrigerated centrifuge is not available, a non-refrigerated centrifuge is frequently pre-cooled and run in a temperature controlled room ("cold-room").
TYPES OF ROTORS
There are two fundamental types of rotors: "fixed angle" rotors, and "swinging bucket" rotors.
Fixed-angle rotor: In fixed angle rotors the tubes containing samples are placed into shields or openings in the rotor at one particular pre-set angle. The tubes are thus tilted with their tops closer to the shaft than their bottoms, and remain in that fixed position during the run, regardless of rotor speed.
Swinging-bucket rotor: In swinging bucket rotors, the tubes are initially vertical. The bottoms of the sample tubes then swing outward freely as the shaft rotates, and the tubes are actually horizontal during the run. By the time the centrifuge stops, however, the tubes have returned to their starting vertical position. Swinging-bucket rotors are particularly useful for sedimenting a sample through a density gradient (see below). A major advantage is that the density gradient solution (usually sucrose or cesium chloride) can be put into the centrifuge tubes vertically, while centrifugation takes place with the tubes in a horizontal position. Sedimented materials then appear as parallel bands running across the width of the tube, whereas, in a fixed angle rotor, the bands would be diagonal. In the latter case there is reorientation of contents upon removal of tubes from the rotor, whereas no reorientation of tube contents occurs with swinging bucket rotors.
RATES OF SEDIMENTATION
The rate at which a particular type of biological specimen will sediment during centrifugation depends on several factors, including (a) the imposed force (RCF; no. X g), (b) the density (= weight per unit volume) of the specimen, (c) the density of the medium, (d) frictional forces, and (e) the size and shape of the specimen. Regardless of the other factors, a specimen (say, a "particle") will continue to move toward the bottom of a tube at some rate during centrifugation so long as its density is greater than that of the medium through which it is moving. If its density is less than that of the medium, it will not move downward through the medium at all, and, under certain circumstances, the particle might actually move upward! If the density of the particle is equal to that of the medium, the particle will not move in either direction. Enhanced separation and purification of specimens from a mixture can be achieved through use of density gradients. Use of one type of density gradient is illustrated in an exercise below.
PARAMETERS OF A CENTRIFUGE "RUN"
In lab jargon, the entire process of putting samples into a centrifuge, carrying out the centrifugation itself, and removing samples from the centrifuge is called a centrifuge "run". Every "run" is performed under specified conditions of force, time, and temperature, which constitute the variables or "parameters" of a run. The force as RCF (no. x g) is not always known, and thus parameters sometimes also include the speed setting (RPM), rotor type, and centrifuge model, i.e., all of the information needed if one wanted to repeat the procedure.
THE TECH. FACILITY LOW-SPEED "CLINICAL" CENTRIFUGE
(Manufacturer: International Equipment Corp., = IEC)
In the Tech. Facility you will be using an IEC "low-speed"
general purpose clinical centrifuge. This bench-top centrifuge is equipped with an IEC Model No. 215 Rotor (4-Place Rotor). READ THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION ON COMPONENTS OF THE TECH. FACILITY CLINICAL CENTRIFUGE BEFORE PROCEEDING TO THE EXERCISES.
CLINICAL CENTRIFUGE COMPONENTS, SUMMARY:
shields - cylindrical metal cups that hang downward from the trunnion rings, into which the centrifuge tubes are placed.
trunnion rings - metal rings with bar-like extensions on two opposing ends through which the shields are placed, holding them in position while allowing them to swing up and outward once the centrifuge is in motion.
rubber cushions - rubber pads placed at the bottom of the shields, acting as cushions for the centrifuge tubes, to prevent breakage during centrifugation.
drive mechanism - the source of the rotary motion, either electric motors or air or oil turbines, depending upon the type of centrifuge, that turns the shaft.
rotors - centrifuge component, around the periphery of which the sample holders are arranged, that is accelerated to very high rotational speeds.
EXERCISE #1: CENTRIFUGE COMPONENTS
Locate the centrifuge station in the Tech Facility. Examine and familiarize yourself with the components of the IEC "table-top" clinical centrifuge (see Figure 1). First, make sure that the centrifuge is not running. Then, unlatch the lid if it is not already unlatched by pulling the knob toward you and lifting the lid. Look inside at the rotor, trunnion rings, and shields (do not remove anything!), then re-latch the lid.
EXERCISE #2: USING A CENTRIFUGATION NOMOGRAPH
A centrifugation "nomograph" is a graphic device that relates rpm, RCF, and "rotating radius" for use in determining centrifugation parameters. Knowing any two of the three, you can determine the third by lining the two known values up along a straight edge and reading the unknown value where the edge passes through its scale. In the Tech. Facility you will be using the IEC "low-speed" clinical centrifuge equipped with a No. 215 Rotor. According to the manufacturer the maximum rpm for this rotor is 4000 rpm, and the maximum relative centrifugal force (RCF) is 1975 x g. Using the Nomograph in your Tech. Facility workbook (next page), plus the given rpm and RCF values for the 215 rotor, determine the rotating radius in centimeters and inches. (Use a straight edge or ruler.)
EXERCISE #3: USING A NOMOGRAPH TO DETERMINE RCF
Assume that a rotor has a rotating radius of 9.0 cm. Using the centrifugation Nomograph, once again, determine what the RCF will be for the rotor at a speed setting of 10,000 rpm. (Use a straight edge or ruler).
EXERCISE #4: WEIGHING TRUNNION RINGS AND SHIELDS
Several examples of shields and trunnion rings of various weights and different design are in the drawer labeled "matched pairs - shields and trunnion rings". Take all of these shields and trunnion rings out of the drawer and bring them over to the electronic balance. Prepare a Table in your Tech Facility notebook, in which you record the weight already inscribed on each component. Then weigh each piece on the electronic balance, record these measurements (in same Table), and put all of the components back in the proper drawer.
According to the manufacturer (IEC), the shields and trunnion rings have been weighed and matched to 0.5 grams or less. The weight in grams is stamped on each component. Examine the data in your Table. Does the inscribed weight and the measured weight of each piece match exactly? What is the difference in weights? Do the weights of matched components match exactly? Are all of the measured weight variations within the 0.5 gram error limit specified by the manufacturer for matched components?
EXERCISE #5: BALANCING CENTRIFUGE COMPONENTS ON THE BEAM BALANCE
When using any type of centrifuge, all opposing components should be balanced against each other. For the IEC Clinical Centrifuge with swinging bucket rotor, this means that you should, ideally, check the balance of the opposing sets of trunnion rings, shields, and centrifuge tubes as units (all together). This will detect weight differences due to errors such as possible presence of fluid accidentally dripped into one of the shields, or a missing rubber cushion. In practice, opposing sets of trunnion rings and their shields (with cushions inside) are usually given a balance check without the tubes, and placed into the centrifuge. Later, the tubes containing samples are balanced against each other in a separate operation, before being placed into the shields.
If, during a centrifuge "run", there is significant vibration, shaking, or other movement of the centrifuge, this means that opposing components have not been balanced properly. The run must be stopped immediately, otherwise the tubes may break or the centrifuge may be damaged.
In this exercise you will check whether trunnion rings and shields of the same labeled weight do indeed balance each other, using the beam balance.
Remove an opposing set of two trunnion rings with their shields from the Table-top centrifuge. Zero the beam balance, place each ring on a platform with its shield (with cushion inside) standing up in the middle. Without moving any of the sliding beam weights, determine whether they balance one another. If the pointer is only slightly off the mark, that is satisfactory. If not, carefully check that each shield contains one rubber cushion, and that there is no liquid in them (or foreign object). If they do not balance and you cannot determine why, tell the instructor.
After balance of opposing sets is verified on the beam balance, weigh each trunnion ring-shield set on the electronic balance. The allowable maximum difference in the weight of opposing sets is 0.5g. Do the weights of the sets match within 0.5g?
Carefully place each trunnion ring-shield set back in the centrifuge (IN OPPOSING POSITIONS!).
EXERCISE #6: BALANCING SAMPLE TUBES
All tubes to be centrifuged must have an opposing tube. The weight of the tube plus its shield and trunnion ring must match that of its opposing tube plus its shield and trunnion ring. The balance of opposing sets of trunnion rings and shields has already been verified. In this exercise you will balance two "sample tubes" against each other.
(1) Obtain two 250 ml glass beakers, and balance them against each other on the beam balance. Use the slide weights as necessary, and leave the beakers on the balance.
(2) Obtain two blue-cap 15 ml plastic centrifuge tubes. Number the tubes: (1) and (2).
(3) Into tube #1, add water using a squirt bottle, up to the 8 ml mark. Cap the tube and place it into one of the beakers on the balance.
(4) Uncap the second tube, which is empty, and place it into the other beaker. Also place its cap on the same platform.
(5) Using a squirt bottle, fill the empty tube with water until pointer reads zero. (i.e., the two side balance).
(6) Once the tubes are balanced, remove the beakers from the balance and move the slide weights back to the zero position.
(7) Compare the volumes of water in the two tubes. Are they the same? How do account for the differences, if any?
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING A "TABLE-TOP" LOW-SPEED CLINICAL CENTRIFUGE
Note: This is not an exercise but a general guideline on how to use a clinical centrifuge. Read this carefully.
(1) Before using centrifuge, check to see that all opposing trunnion rings and shields are of the same weight. This can be done easily since the weights are inscribed on the trunnion rings, shields.
(2) Check that the shields contain rubber cushions.
(3) Check that opposing sets of trunnion rings and shields (with cushions) balance each other.
(4) Place experimental sample into the centrifuge tube and balance it against another "water balance" tube using the beam balance and squirt bottle (don't forget tube cap!).
(5) Place into trunnion rings, positioning balanced tubes opposite one another.
(6) Once tubes are in place and all rotor positions are filled, close lid of centrifuge.
(7) Set the desired time on timer.
(8) Select appropriate speed setting on centrifuge with the speed selection knob; this simultaneously turns on the centrifuge.
(9) Once centrifuge is turned on, lid must be kept closed.
(10) Do not reopen it until rotor has come to a complete stop at end of run.
(11) When centrifuge has stopped, carefully remove tubes without agitating contents.
(12) Close lid of centrifuge.
(13) Properly dispose of any waste material in appropriate receptacles.
(14) Clean up area around the centrifuge.
EXERCISE #7: CENTRIFUGATION OF CELLS; PELLET AND SUPERNATE
Materials: Two blue-cap conical centrifuge tube
One small tube of WARD'S simulated blood
Pasteur pipet and bulb
Digital lab timer
Your bottle of PBS (phosphate buffered saline,
1) Fill a blue-cap conical centrifuge tube to the 4 ml mark with your PBS solution.
2) Look in refrigerator for plastic beaker marked "WARD'S simulated blood", which has already been diluted into PBS (phosphate buffered saline). Take one aliquot (i.e., one microfuge tube with sample) out of beaker to use in this and the next two exercises.
3) Shake the tube of simulated blood to thoroughly mix contents, and add contents to the tube containing 4 ml PBS. Cap tube and mix thoroughly. Save microfuge tube for later use.
4) Using the beam balance, pre-balance the two plastic beakers marked "BB" (located near the beam balance), then balance your tube of "cell" suspension against a similar tube of water (don't forget to include the tube caps).
5) Once tubes are properly balanced remove beakers from beam balance and move slide weights back to the zero position.
6) Check balance of opposing trunnion rings and shields, if necessary. Place the tubes into shields in the centrifuge, positioning them opposite one another.
7) Close lid of centrifuge, and set a digital lab timer (timer labeled "TF-1" or "TF-2") to 3 min. Timers should be in drawer labeled "Timers"! "Punch in" time of 3 min and 00 seconds. If you have not used a timer like this before, practice setting it in advance.
8) Turn on the centrifuge by turning up the speed selection dial stepwise to the #7 setting. Then quickly start timer (push "start" button).
9) Once the timer goes off the centrifugation "run" is complete. Turn off the timer ("Stop/Reset" button) and the centrifuge (set speed selector back to "OFF" position. DO NOT LIFT OPEN THE LID OF THE CENTRIFUGE AT THIS TIME - THE ROTOR IS STILL SPINNING AND THERE IS POTENTIAL DANGER (AS FROM A TUBE BREAKING). IT MUST COME TO A COMPLETE STOP BEFORE OPENING LID!
10) When the rotor is at a complete stop,
lift the lid and carefully remove the tube containing the experimental sample from its shield. Place it carefully in test tube rack near centrifuge (do not shake it up). What do you see (exactly)? Is there a distinct pellet? A clear supernate? Record observations in your Tech. Facility Notebook. (NOTE: REAL cells stick to centrifuge tube walls too!)
EXERCISE #8: USING A MICROCENTRIFUGE ("MICROFUGE")
The Tech Facility microcentrifuge, located near the Table Top centrifuge, is one of the smaller and simpler models available. It has a 6-place fixed angle rotor that holds six 1.5ml microfuge tubes. This particular instrument has a maximum speed of 6,000 RPM, corresponding to 2,000 x g. Most microfuges can be classified as "High-speed"; what speed classification would you give the Tech Facility microfuge? A "run" is started by positioning tubes containing equal volumes opposite each other (each tube must have a balance partner!), and closing the lid. This microfuge will start when the lid is closed, and will begin to stop when the lid is unlatched. NEVER lift the lid up until the microfuge has stopped spinning.
(1) Draw off and dispose the clear supernatant solution ("supernate") from the tube of "cells" remaining from the previous experiment. Remove fluid down to just where the tube starts to taper.
(2) Resuspend the "cell pellet" in the fluid remaining in the tube by squirting fluid up and down with Pasteur pipette and rubber bulb.
(3) Using Pasteur pipette, transfer the "cell" suspension into your microfuge tube.
(4) Fill another microfuge tube (obtained from drawer labeled "Microcentrifuge Tubes") to the same level (as judged by eye) as the experimental tube, close both caps tightly, and place in opposite positions in Microfuge rotor. (Lid will be unlocked when microfuge is not running).
(5) Set timer to 1 minute.
(6) Press lid closed to start microfuge "run" and start timer.
(7) When timer alarm goes off, press latch that opens lid (and turn off timer).
(8) When rotor has stopped spinning completely, open lid, remove both tubes gently and place them in microfuge tube rack (nearby).
(9) Examine "experimental" tube. Is there a distinct pellet and a clear supernate? Record observations in your Tech. Facility Notebook.
(10) Save the microfuge tube of "cells" for use in a later exercise.
EXERCISE #9: CENTRIFUGE VIDEOTAPE
View the videotape on "Principles and Practices of
Centrifugation". The tape can be found in the file drawer marked "Tech. Fac. Videotapes". Ask for assistance on the use of the Tech Facility VCR and monitor. This video presentation introduces many more aspects of centrifugation and types of centrifuges available, are not covered in this Module. When completed, eject the tape and re-wind it in the separate tape winder. Place tape back into its jacket, and return to file drawer.
PREPARATION OF GRADIENTS
There are two types of gradients used in centrifugation of cells and subcellular components: continuous gradients and discontinuous gradients. In a continuous gradient, the concentration of the gradient agent (usually sucrose or cesium chloride) varies smoothly from highest at the bottom of the tube to lowest at the top. Production of continuous gradients requires use of special mixing devices.
The discontinuous or step gradient is a simpler form of gradient. It involves the addition of successive layers of solutions of various densities/concentrations to a centrifuge tube. The densest solution is first layered (by pipetting) at the bottom of the tube. Slowly and carefully the other successive layers are added in decreasing density, so that there is no mixing between the adjacent layer interfaces. This is facilitated by placing the pipette tip up against the wall of the tube close to the meniscus of each successive layer and moving it gradually upwards with the rising meniscus. Once this is completed, the sample to be fractionated or separated is layered at the top of the gradient in the centrifuge tube. The density of its medium should be less than that of the uppermost gradient layer.
Sucrose is a gradient medium commonly used for fractionation and purification of subcellular organelles (e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes) and viruses.
Advantages to this type of gradient include:
(a) simplicity of preparation, requiring only a series of pre-prepared stock solutions;
(b) adjustable layer heights to provide for sufficient spacing between the adjacent densities/concentrations, thus allowing for good separation and easier recovery of fractions that collect at each layer.
In density step gradient centrifugation, particles in the sample layer will move downward until the density of the surrounding medium matches or exceeds their own. They will then form a layer or band at that position, and further centrifugation will have little effect.
EXERCISE #10: USING A SUCROSE STEP GRADIENT
1. If you have not already done so in an earlier module, make up 10 ml of 0.5M and 0.25M sucrose solutions in PBS (phosphate buffered saline). (Use bottle labeled: Tech. Fac. Sucrose; bottle of PBS can be found in the refrigerator)
2. Obtain a blue-cap 15 ml conical centrifuge tube. Using disposable 5 ml pipettes, carefully layer solutions (3 ml each) with the denser one at the bottom.
Tip: When layering, hold tube at a slight angle, dribbling the solution down the side of the tube. Layering must be done carefully to minimize mixing of solutions at interfaces.
3. Once the step gradient is prepared, carefully set the tube into a test tube rack.
4. Use your microfuge tube of "cells" from the previous exercise, resuspending the "cells" in PBS by squirting as previously.
5. Layer the sample suspension carefully on top of the sucrose step gradient.
6. Balance the tube containing the gradient against a "water balance" tube (use one already marked "Water Bal" if possible) before placing into the centrifuge. (Refer to Exercise #7, Steps 4-5) Do the volumes in the two tubes match exactly? If not, why not?
7. Once a pair of tubes have been properly balanced, lower them carefully into shields, positioning them opposite one another.
Set speed selection dial at setting 7 and centrifuge for 5 min. Remove tube carefully, examine it, and record observations in Tech. Facility Notebook.
8. Return tube to shield and run centrifuge again for 5 min, at setting 7. What do you observe? Explain.
9. When finished, pour tube contents down drain and discard only tubes that had "cells" in them (in proper waste container!). SAVE all water balance tubes for re-use by others (put into rack near centrifuges). | <urn:uuid:3cce1518-0191-4982-bc0e-21bf7db7d4f4> | {
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This book focuses on the role of government in organizing the nation's transportation industries. As the authors show, over the course of the twentieth century transportation in the United States was as much a product of hard-fought politics, lobbying, and litigation as it was a naturally evolving system of engineering and available technology.
2010 | 344 pages | Paper $24.95
American History | Public Policy
View main book page
Table of Contents
Ch.1. Seeking a new regulatory regime in transportation: railroad consolidation in the 1920s
Ch. 2. The new transportation problem: the politics of transportation coordination, 1925-1940
Ch. 3. Constructing commercial aviation, 1944-1973
Ch. 4. Run-up to deregulation: surface transportation, 1949-1970
Ch. 5. Transportation in a "Presidential Nation"
Ch. 6. Richard M. Nixon and planning for deregulation, 1970-1974
Ch. 7. Gerald R. Ford and presidential deregulation, 1974-1977
Ch. 8. Jimmy Carter and deregulation of the "best transportation system in the world," 1977-1980
Ch. 9. The American state and transportation | <urn:uuid:9c036a81-e579-4674-836a-6af1a8d286fb> | {
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POSTED: 1:30 a.m. HST, Dec 22, 2012
LAST UPDATED: 2:11 a.m. HST, Dec 22, 2012
In conjunction with rapidly growing epidemics in obesity and insulin-resistant diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, or OSA, is also very much on the rise.
The American Sleep Apnea Association reports that OSA affects 1 in 4 men and 1 in 9 women in the United States. Eighty percent to 90 percent of moderate and severe OSA cases remain undiagnosed.
Left untreated, OSA is associated with an increased incidence of hypertension, stroke, heart failure, coronary artery disease, cardiac arrhythmia, gastroesophageal reflux disease and memory loss.
Individuals with OSA are also 10 times more likely to die from a motor vehicle accident because of impaired driving performance.
Another key cause of sleep apnea is medication. For example, pain patients who require opiate medications for pain are at higher risk because of varying degrees of respiratory depression. The combination of obesity, depression and medication for chronic pain can result in some of the most severe cases.
OSA affects not only individuals and their families, but also affects productivity and jeopardizes workplace safety. A sleep study done in Australia in 2010 estimated the indirect costs of having sleep disorders to be around $3.1 billion in lost productivity to employers. The cost of work-related motor vehicle accidents associated with sleep disorders amounted to $517 million. Employers have a real economic interest in encouraging their employees to get tested and treated.
Once a DIAGNOSIS is made, physician specialists typically provide recommendations on specific breathing equipment for nighttime use. The most common technical solution involves the use of a breathing device that provides positive airway pressure and helps maintain a regular rhythm.
A good night’s sleep is one of the greatest gifts and pleasures of life. The ability to diagnose sleep apnea and provide equipment to manage the problem is an important part of the solution. Those suffering from poor sleep, whatever the cause, will benefit even more from a whole-person, patient-centered approach.
Sleep wellness can best be achieved with a multidisciplinary team that is able to assist clients with insomnia and weight management, and provide education on lifestyle, physical activity and diet. The team should be combined with medical providers who are available to engage in management of associated conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Outcomes will be optimal if psychologists are able to provide education and insights on healthy sleep behaviors, relaxation techniques and dream therapy.
Ancient Polynesians sailed throughout the Pacific with twin-hulled canoes, navigating by celestial bodies, ocean currents and guidance by the ancestors. The traditional navigator does not simply travel from one place to another; rather, the journey transforms the way-finder. Sleep is not a problem to be solved, but a mystery to be lived.
Ira Zunin, M.D., M.P.H., M.B.A., is medical director of Manakai o Malama Integrative Healthcare Group and Rehabilitation Center and CEO of Global Advisory Services Inc. Please submit your questions to [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:abb53a30-d3c5-4724-85ac-b668a4ca040f> | {
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When politicians and business leaders talk about using technology to streamline service provision to the poor, they conjure up an efficient, values-free process. Helping homeless people might become like Airbnb, where shelter and subsidized housing are matched with available spaces. Assistance for the poor might bypass all the cumbersome application forms and waiting times. Risk assessments could identify children at risk of abuse before the abuse happens.
Technology can be a neutral tool. But, as Virginia Eubanks describes in “Automating Inequality,” the computerized tools applied to social service provision are designed with the institutional biases endemic in our society, starting with the idea that poverty is the fault of poor people and that a goal of our welfare systems is to make sure that nobody gets aid who doesn’t deserve it, even if that means denying aid to people who do. Eubanks calls the use of technology to evaluate and track poor people the “digital poorhouse,” consistent with efforts throughout U.S. history to distinguish between the “deserving” and “undeserving” poor.
Eubanks describes three examples of the application of high technology to social services in the United States. The first, Indiana’s experiment with automatic determination of welfare eligibility, can only be characterized as a disaster. A major goal was to reduce the number of people on welfare, and, by design, it reduced individual caseworkers’ contact with welfare clients, making it harder for them to become advocates.
Once in operation, the system automatically kicked people off assistance who made minor errors in their applications; the results were so clearly inhumane — sometimes denying medical benefits to very sick people — that the experiment was partially abandoned, but not before it had helped achieve one of the main goals: “When the governor signed the contract with IBM in 2006, 38 percent of poor families with children were receiving cash benefits from TANF. By 2014, the number had dropped to 8 percent.”
Next, Eubanks examines Los Angeles’ use of a comprehensive database to match homeless people with appropriate housing services. She argues that in a situation where housing needs far exceed supply (sound familiar?), the system became a form of cost-benefit triage. The people who got help were either very needy (because leaving them on the street would cost more in the long run) or else only needed a small financial intervention to get housing. In other words, resources went to the worst-off and the best-off, leaving vast numbers in the middle unhelped.
At the same time, Eubanks points out, people needing services were expected to answer some very personal questions about mental health and medical history; this involved a major invasion of people’s privacy, linking medical records, criminal history and social service reports in a way that they could be accessed inappropriately, including by the police.
The third example is a software program, the Allegany Family Screening Tool, developed for a Pennsylvania county’s Office of Children, Youth and Families (CYF). The tool was designed to rank families in the database according to their likely risk of child neglect and abuse. As Eubanks discovered, the model disproportionately gives high-risk scores to certain families, based on their use of social services, and generates racially biased results. The model doesn’t evaluate middle-class and wealthy families, because they typically don’t access public social services.
As Eubanks points out, the model’s predictive accuracy was only 76 percent, which meant that in one out of four cases its assessment was wrong about whether children in a particular family were at risk. The actual use of the model was fairly benign, in the sense that caseworkers were expected to use their own judgment as to whether to pay attention to the model’s scores — but it also set up a surveillance tool that could easily be abused by a different county administration or in a different political climate.
“Automating Inequality” is engrossing in its descriptions of how technology is used to track, diagnose and stigmatize the poor. Eubanks argues that the use of technology in this way is neither value-free nor for the benefit of poor people. One test Eubanks suggests about databases and models like this is to consider whether they would be tolerated if the information was collected from middle-class people. She suggests a kind of analog to the “Hippocratic Oath” that software developers could take before setting up a model.
The greatest weakness of the book is that Eubanks doesn’t do very well at linking her general arguments about technology — in particular, the dangers of surveillance and invasion of privacy — to the real-life examples, where negative results are mostly the result of inadequate government funding and/or conservative political agendas. She could have done a lot more in her examples to call out where the stories reinforced the points she makes in her concluding chapters. But the book definitely makes the case that automation of social services does little, if anything, to help poor people, while making it easier to deny them help.
Check out the full July 18 - July 24 issue.
Real Change is a non-profit organization advocating for economic, social and racial justice. Since 1994 our award-winning weekly newspaper has provided an immediate employment opportunity for people who are homeless and low income. Learn more about Real Change. | <urn:uuid:5249f467-cc5c-459f-95ef-6dbcd3902dfc> | {
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For the past week or two my students have been busily building robots in their French class. I have been eagerly anticipating the completion of their robots as I have created a math unit to connect with our shape and space section of the grade 4 math curriculum.
I was told today would be the day they would be ready. So when I got into my classroom after lunch excited to get our math unit underway I have to admit I was a little disappointed. I quickly popped out and asked the French teacher if they could finish them in class with me. With the green light I said to my students ‘Gather your stuff. Time to finish your robots’.
My class eagerly got everything together and as things got underway they asked me to plug-in the hot glue gun. They patiently waited for the glue to heat up and I wondered why they weren’t glueing away. I asked them if they knew how to use it. They answered they did because they had seen it being used but weren’t given the opportunity to use it themselves but instead just gave instructions what to glue where. I got up demonstrated how to use it (just in case a few hadn’t paid close attention to the process before) and showed them the proper way to use it.
Once the demonstration was over I said ‘Go ahead glue your stuff on. You will quickly learn how to use the glue gun and avoid getting your fingers burned. Don’t worry try it out. I’ll be here if you need help.’
Stunned they looked at me and asked if I was sure.
When they saw I was dead serious and would be right there for the first little bit the first few started glueing away.
Of course a few had to try out how hot the glue was. But once they realized it really wasn’t that fascinating they focused on perfecting their creations.
No one failed. All succeeded.
Sometimes all you need is permission to fail in order to succeed. It takes trust on both sides, a bit of space and a net to catch you if you fall.
-Sidenote: I am happy to have robots for tomorrows math class. Let the math madness begin! – | <urn:uuid:3adea91e-1ac8-4d8c-8047-50d9c72c46c3> | {
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Pain science has come a long way in the last 10 years! We’re now able to use modern imaging techniques to see exactly what happens when we’re in pain, and naturally this information is incredibly useful to healthcare professionals (like the osteopaths and sports therapists at our clinic!) when it comes to helping patients to reduce their aches and pains.
So, what’s new in the world of pain science?
100% of pain happens in the brain…
We now know that 100% of the time, 100% of pain happens in the brain. You might remember a little picture in your biology textbook at school, that showed a finger sending pain signals to the brain because it was pricked by a needle, or burnt on a candle. Well, we now know that that’s not true!
The nerve endings around our bodies are always sending information up to the brain about all sorts of things; temperature, stretch, different chemicals that might be present… And it is inside the brain that these signals are moderated and made sense of.
Put simply, based on the information passed to the brain that decides whether the body part is in pain or not.
How your brain can change it’s mind!
In chronic pains lasting for more than a few months, the brain can become more sensitive to pain signals. This sensitisation can result in previously non-painful activities becoming painful for some patients.
The brain uses a back catalogue of experiences to decide exactly how painful something is at a given moment. In bad circumstances, even small injuries can be made to feel especially painful by the brain – have you ever stubbed your toe when your feet are cold? (That’s an example!)
Painkillers work in the brain
Because pain is moderated and experienced in the brain, this is where many painkillers take effect. The chemicals block or change pain signals in the brain to dampen them, or stop the patient from feeling the pain at all.
This is also true of natural painkilling chemicals, like the endorphin hormones that your body releases when you exercise. | <urn:uuid:3b1e04e8-a859-4d9d-9cf8-a5ca530244f2> | {
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British Military & Criminal History
1900 to 1999.
|Home - UK Medals - Gallantry - The George Cross - The Empire Gallantry Medal|
Empire Gallantry Medal
The Empire Gallantry Medal (officially called the Medal of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry) was introduced on 29 December 1922. It was intended to recognise specific acts of gallantry, and was replaced by the George Cross. When the George Cross was introduced in September 1940, living recipients of the EGM could return their EGM and receive the George Cross. Also the next-of-kin of those EGM recipients who had died after 3 September 1939, could exchange the EGM for the GC.
The EGM itself was a circular silver medal, 36 millimetres in diameter, with the recipient's name around the medal's rim.
The obverse (outward facing side) had the seated figure of Britannia, her left hand resting on a shield and her right hand holding a trident. In the upper right corner was a blazing sun. The phrase "For God and the Empire" was around the upper side of this face.
The 1st type of reverse side had 6 lions, with the Royal Cipher in the middle. The 2nd type of reverse side had four lions; two either side of the Royal Cipher.
The EGM's ribbon was altered on several occasions. It was originally plain purple (civil awards), with a thin scarlet central stripe for military awards. From July 1937 the ribbon was rose-pink with pearl-grey edges for civil awards, with the addition of a pearl-grey central stripe for military awards. From 1933, a silver laurel branch was added to the ribbon.
A complete list of EGM (Civilian Division) recipients can be viewed here.
A complete list of EGM (Military Division) recipients can be viewed here.
The decision as to which division a recipient joined was based upon the events of the gallantry and not upon the recipient's occupation or rank. | <urn:uuid:b559f0bc-a3f1-40a2-bf0a-bc551dd50d46> | {
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Python is a great object-oriented and interactive programming language that lets you develop graphics, both static and animated, using built-in vector graphics functions that are provided with Python.
Python 2.6 Graphics Cookbook is a collection of straightforward recipes and illustrative screenshots for creating and animating graphic objects using the Python language. This book makes the process of developing graphics interesting and entertaining by working in a graphic workspace without the burden of mastering complicated language definitions and opaque examples.
If you choose to work through all the recipes from the beginning, you will learn to install Python and create basic programs for making lines and shapes using the built-in Tkinter module. The confusing topic of color manipulation is explored in detail using existing Python tools as well as some new tools in the recipes. Next you will learn to manipulate font size, color, and placement of text as placing text exactly where you want on a screen can be tricky because font height, inter-character spacing, and text window dimensions all interfere with each other. Then you will learn how to animate graphics, for example having more than one independent graphic object co-exist and interact using various Python methods.
You will also learn how you can work with raster images, such as converting their formats using the Python Imaging Library. Next you will learn how you can combine vector images with raster images so that you can animate the raster images with ease. You will also walk through a set of recipes with the help of which you can handle and manipulate blocks of raw data that may be hundreds of megabytes in size using datastreams, files, and hard drives. You will also learn how you can use Inkscape to dismantle existing images and use parts of them for your own graphics and Python programs. At the end of the book you will learn how you can create GUIs for different purposes.
A quick reference for creating interesting graphic animations using Python programming
This book has recipes that show enthusiastic users how easy graphic programming can be. Simple explanations in plain English are used. The recipes are built up, in each chapter, starting as simply as possible and moving to more complex programs with which you can comfortably create 2D vector graphics and animations. You will learn how to combine both vector and photo images seamlessly!
Who this book is for
If you are looking to create animated graphics to represent real-world scenarios then this book is for you. Teachers, scholars, students, and engineers who know it is possible to make fascinating models and demonstrations but have not found a handbook that pulls it all together in one place will find what they need in this recipe bank.
Basic knowledge of Python programming is required and access to the Web and Google will be useful. | <urn:uuid:580287c5-15dc-425c-b352-54c385a712b3> | {
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Ann Curry's Report on Climate Change to Air on NBC this Sunday
In a special one hour documentary airing this Sunday night, NBC News' Ann Curry reports there is virtually no debate among climate scientists: 97 percent now believe climate change is real and the warming is largely caused by human activity. A year in the making, and less than a week after stunning predictions about the future from the influential Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "Ann Curry Reports: Our Year of Extremes - Did Climate Change just Hit Home?," takes viewers on a journey to the Arctic at the top of the world, to drought stricken regions in the American West, to the edge of rising seas in Florida, and into extreme weather events all over the globe.
The report features ordinary people who say their experiences convince them - they are eyewitnesses to climate change, including the Inuit in Greenland, and the victims of Hurricane Sandy. We also hear from some of the world's top climate scientists who explain whether there is a link between climate change and extreme storms, like the deep freeze this past winter in places like Atlanta. They also tell us how to get ready for what some call the new normal.
"If climate scientists are right, we could face a humanitarian crisis of epic proportions," said Curry. "We owe it to our children to put politics aside, and weigh the latest scientific evidence for ourselves. Our report aims to give our viewers a chance to do just that."
Social media users can join the conversation and share their thoughts with hashtag #Extremes as "Ann Curry Reports: Our Year of Extremes - Did Climate Change just Hit Home?" airs this Sunday, April 6 at 7p/6c. | <urn:uuid:783d3eb1-9132-4009-9ba3-f7872c9cbe25> | {
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The USGS Water Science School
Condensation is the term for water that is a gas (water vapor) turning into liquid water. That liquid can become clouds in the sky or be drops of water on the inside of your home windows on a cold winter day. High in the atmosphere, the colder temperatures cause the water vapor to turn back into tiny liquid water droplets—the clouds. Winds in the atmosphere blow the clouds all around the globe.
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.
Credit and copyright: Chris Picking (Starry Night Skies Photography). | <urn:uuid:aa88a829-15ae-4fc2-8540-2c4149fef87a> | {
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- Subject(s):English Literature
- Author(s):Christopher O'Reilly
- Available from: April 2001
Critical introductions to a range of literary topics and genres.
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This book encompasses experiences of the British Empire such as life in Nigeria before the arrival of the British, through to the British retreat from the Empire after the Second World War and on to reggae and ‘dub’ beats of black British poetry today. Includes writing from Indian, African, South African and Caribbean authors such as Salman Rushdie, Chinua Achebe, J.M. Coetzee and Derek Walcott.
Each title includes a wide-ranging yet carefully levelled introductory discussion of a literary period, genre or theme, to provide students with an excellent introduction to an area of literature.
Helps students to address the new assessment objective 4 ('demonstrate understanding of the significance and influence of the contexts in which literary texts are written and received') - worth up to 35% of the A level qualification under new guidelines.
Discussion questions and end-of-section tasks offer an invaluable resource for self study as well as helpful exam preparation.
A mini-anthology of texts and extracts saves teachers time searching for appropriate 'wider reading' texts.
- 1. Approaching post-colonial writing
- 2. Approaching the texts
- 3. Texts and extracts
- 4. Critical approaches
- 5. Resources.
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24 April 2019
Engaging your Latin Students: How to Embrace New Approaches
Stuck on ways to engage your Latin students? Andrew O’Brien talks about how he used...
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If you requested a response, we will make sure to get back to you shortly.× | <urn:uuid:1b3cdb0e-7fc8-4256-b65d-0a06cb0a77ec> | {
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Theodore (602-690), Archbishop of Canterbury, published the first ecclesiastical laws condemning witchcraft in England, in the seventh century. It would seem from this that the fear of witchcraft had been around for a long time before and it continued, reaching its peak in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. At that time, on a county basis, Kent was second only to Essex in indictments with East Kent providing the most cases.
One of East Kent’s earliest recorded cases concerned Eleanor Cobham (c.1400–1452), the second wife of Humphrey Duke of Gloucester (1390-1447). Duke Humphrey was the youngest son of Henry IV (1399–1413) and appointed Lord Warden and Constable of Dover Castle (1415-1447) on 27 November 1415 by his eldest brother, Henry V (1413-1422). Duke Humphrey held the office for 32 years and throughout his tenure he was very popular throughout the Cinque Ports and was generally referred to as ‘Good Duke Humphrey’.
On 16 March 1415-16 (the new year started on 25 March), Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and Croatia (1387-1437) and later Holy Roman Emperor (1433-1437), accompanied by the Archbishop of Rheims, visited Henry V to bring about what was hoped to be a reconciliation between Henry and the King of France, Charles VI (1380-1422). One of Duke Humphrey’s first duties was to challenge the Emperor, as he arrived at Dover, demanding his intentions and assurances that he would not attempt to excise any authority in England. When he was satisfied, the Emperor and his retinue were allowed to disembark. This scene is depicted in one of the windows in the Stone Hall, Maison Dieu.
Henry VI (1422-1461 + 1470-1471) succeeded his father to throne when he was only 6-years old but by Henry V’s will Duke Humphrey was appointed the Lord Protector to his nephew. Following the death of his elder brother, John, Duke of Bedford (1389-1435), Duke Humphrey became second in line to the throne and claimed the right of Regency. However, as the young Henry VI grew up he started to view Duke Humphrey with suspicion that was fuelled by his uncle’s enemies. In 1428, Humphrey had married his mistress, Eleanor Cobham who was said to be beautiful and clever. Eight years later, she was granted the robes of a duchess for the Garter ceremony.
Sometime after this rumour was rife that Eleanor had consulted astrologers who told her that Henry VI would suffer a life threatening illness in the summer of 1441. However, when Duke Humphrey’s enemies consulted their astrologers they found no evidence to show that the king would become seriously ill and therefore, if the rumours were true, Eleanor was guilty of treason. Thomas Southwell, Humphrey’s and Eleanor’s chaplain, Roger Bolinbrook, Eleanor’s personal clerk and Mary Jourdemain, a well-known witch were arrested. They were all charged with treasonable necromancy and following their interrogation, Eleanor was arrested. She denied most of the charges levied against her but did admit to consulting with Mary Jourdemain to obtain potions to help her conceive.
Southwell died while a confession was being extracted from him in the Tower of London. Bolinbrook and Jourdemain were brought to trial. Both found guilty Bolinbrook was hung drawn and quartered and Jourdemain was burnt at Smithfield.
At Eleanor’s trial it was alleged that she had predict Henry VI’s death and used ‘spells’ to become pregnant in order to bear the future king. She was ‘examined’ by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry Chichele, at Leeds Castle and declared a witch. Eleanor was doomed to be burnt at the stake but because of her high birth, was reprieved. Instead, on 13 November 1441 she was made to walk the streets of London holding a burning taper – a punishment usually reserved for prostitutes. She was then obliged to divorce her husband and to spend the rest of her life in prison. At first Eleanor was sent to Chester Castle then Kenilworth, followed by Peel Castle on the Isle of Man and finally, in March 1449, Beaumaris Castle, Angelsea, where she died on 7 July 1452.
The reaction of Dovorians to all of this had been outrage and Henry VI threatened the town with serious penalties. However, two years before, William de la Pole (1396 -1450), the King’s Lord Chamberlain, negotiated a marriage treaty between the King and Margaret of Anjou (1430-1482). The couple married on 22 April 1445 and in November 1446, Henry VI, under Margaret’s influence, pardoned the people of Dover.
Although Duke Humphrey’s power was on the wane, on February 1447 he called Parliament together at Bury St Edmunds. When he arrived he was arrested and charged with high treason and three days later was dead – believed by Dovorians to have been murdered on the orders of William de la Pole. Humphrey’s death meant that next to the royal couple, William de la Pole was the most powerful man in England. In 1448, he was created the first Duke of Suffolk but the next three years saw the loss of nearly all of the English possessions and De la Pole was held responsible. On 28 January 1450, he was arrested, imprisoned in the Tower of London and sentenced to death.
This was then commuted to five years in exile on the Continent but as his ship was crossing the Channel, on 2 May 1450, it was besieged and de la Pole was beheaded. The headless body was dumped on Dover beach and then taken to Wingfield, Suffolk for burial. According to Dover folklore locals, to avenge the death of Duke Humphrey, assassinated De La Pole and the head was buried in a chalk receptacle in St Peter’s Church. This stood, at that time on the northeast side of Market Square. The rest of that story can be read in Haunted Dover, suffice to say, the headless William de la Pole is said to haunt the part of Dover’s Market Square where St Peter’s church once stood.
The first recorded witch trial to take place in Dover was on 30 June 1558. This involved Clement Baker and his wife and was held in front of the Mayor, Thomas Colley and six Jurats (senior councillors). The couple were found guilty and were ordered that they, ‘shall for their evil demeanour and behaviour depart this town of Dover as a banishment for the space of one whole year and a day within this fourteen days next ensuing the date herafter and not come within the same towne upon payn of such punishment and fine as shall happen.’
The punishment was lenient for those days and it was also unusual for a man to be prosecuted. A great work on witchcraft was written by Reginald or Reynold Scott, as he signed himself (1541-1599), of Scot’s Hall, Smeeth, near Ashford. Following considerable research, including attending witch trials he published his 16-volume treatise in 1584, ‘The Discoverie of Witchcraft wherein the Leud dealing of Witches and Witchmongers is notablie detected…’ Throughout, he tried to protect those accused from persecution, saying that most were women and were ‘… commonly old and whose cheefe fault is that they are scolds‘. He went on to say that ‘… in tract of time the witch waxeth odious and tedious to hir neighbors; and they againe are despised and despited of hir: so as sometimes she cursseth one, and sometimes another; and that from the maister of the house, his wife, children, cattell &c. to the little pig that lieth in the stie … Doubtlesse (at length) some of hir neighbors die, or fall sicke; or some of their children are visited with diseases that vex them stangelie: … Which by ignorant parents are supposed to be vengeance of witches.’
The books were received with universal condemnation and as was custom of the day, the common hangman burned them. However, they were reprinted in 1651 and in folio in 1655 and James VI of Scotland (from 1603 James I of England), published ‘Demonologie’ printed in Edinburgh in 1597. The King’s work was aimed at refuting Scott’s sympathetic stance with James calling him that ‘damnable heretic Scot.’
In his work, Scott said that both children and adults were encouraged to inform on relatives and neighbours – children made 25% of witchcraft claims. Once accused, then inhuman tactics were used to extract a confession. Initially they were stripped and the ‘devil’s mark’ – a pimple, wart, growth or supernumerary nipple from which, it was believed the devil or ‘familiar’ could suckle, was searched for and included the internal examination of the anus and sexual organs. If none were found, then the accused was ‘pricked,’ they were scratched all over until a ‘devil’s spot’ was found. It was believed that only the devil or familiar could see one but that it was insensitive to pain and did not bleed, hence the scratching. Next, the confession was obtained. This was obtained by beatings, deprivation of sleep and being walked. The latter was continuous and could last several days during which time the accused was not allowed to go the lavatory although excrement was sometimes washed off with cold water. Throughout all of this, the accused was continually asked leading questions by a cleric, Bible in hand.
The ‘final test’, the accused faced was to be ‘swam’. Wearing only their underclothes, they were dragged to a stream, the harbour or village pond. The big toes and thumbs were tied together cross-wise and a rope was tied around the waist so that the person could be retrieved after the event. They were then thrown into the water and if they drowned they were declared innocent, if they floated, this proved that they were a witch and brought out to be tried in a church court. The evidence from the confession, swim and pricking along with the allegations made by the accusers would be then used and when found guilty the person was either hung or burnt.
The 1631 records of Sandwich, tell of Goodwife Reynold who having ‘been swum for a witch’ and was hanged. In 1645 the same fate was metered out to Widow Drew and in her case the accounts show that ‘been swam for a witch’ cost the locals 2s (10pence) but after her death ‘her goods were sold at auction’ – one assumes to pay for the punishment.
That year, 1645, Joan Wallingford, Joan Cariden, Jane Hott and Elizabeth Harris were found guilty of practising witchcraft at Faversham and the first three were executed. Apparently, Thomas Gardener fell out of a tree or a window and hurt his posterior, which became a source of amusement. Angry, he blamed Joan Wallingford as the true cause of the accident, saying that it had been brought about by witchcraft. Joan, subjected to the usual interrogation procedure, confessed that she was a witch and named the other three as accomplices. Her pet dog was cited as her familiar.
Joan Cariden and Elizabeth Harris, following the usual interrogation, also confessed. Jane Hott denied witchcraft but did ‘admit’ to a familiar – ‘a thing like a hedgehog but as soft as a cat had paid regular visits to suckle from her.’ They were all swum but floated. Jane Hott said that this had happened because one of the spectators had previously had his way with her and had laid bets that she would not sink. Three of the women, Joan Wallingford, Joan Cariden and Jane Hott were hung on Monday 29 September 1645 from a tree near Faversham’s town pump. Why Elizabeth Harris was not included and what happened to her is not clear.
In the 1640s, Nell Garlinge of Coldred was thrown into the village pond but drowned and therefore declared innocent. At about the same time, another woman simply known as Esther was dragged three miles from her hut in Nonnington to Adisham pond where she too was hurled into the cold water. Esther floated and the crowd, ‘mad with superstitious wrath, pelted the poor woman with stones,’ until a farmer called upon his men to rescue her. Unfortunately, he was too late as Esther was dead on his arrival.
Sometimes, good sense did prevail. When Goodwife Gilnot of Barham was accused by her neighbours of witchcraft, Henry Oxinden (1607-1642), the local squire, wrote a letter to Dean Isaac Bargrave (1586-1643) at Canterbury Cathedral, saying: ‘Sir, my earnest request unto you is that you will not lightly believe such false and malicious reports as you hear, or may hear alleged against this woman, whom I believe to be religiously disposed … And for so much as the neighbours help themselves together, and the poor woman’s cry, though it reach to heaven, is scarce heard here upon earth, I thought I was bound in conscience to speak in her behalf.’
The last execution, in England, for witchcraft took place in 1685. So when Hanna Baker of Elham was found guilty of ‘inchanting cattell’ in 1703, she was sent to prison for a year. She was also made to stand in Elham pillory on ‘the day after Ladyday (25 March), St John’s Day (24 June), Michaelmas (29 September) and Christmas (25 December) for the space of six hours.’
The laws against witchcraft were repealed in 1736, but that did not mean that ‘hunts’ were over. In 1762, a quarter of a century later, the wife of John Pritchers of West Langdon was dragged from her house for about a mile along a dirt track. When the posse reached the home of a thirteen-year-old boy whom she was supposed to have bewitched, she was ‘pricked’ in order to find a ‘devils spot.‘ The crowd convinced she was guilty, were about to ‘swim’ her, when a local magistrate intervened and saved the poor woman’s life. The chief perpetrators of what had happened were both convicted.
- Dover Mercury: 16 September 2004 | <urn:uuid:6d9da079-2562-4479-8a01-cddb92e75f9d> | {
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TIL: At a village near the northern tip of France, the symbol of Christ caused Allied soldiers’ deaths during WWI
An officer told me that during the German retreat from the Somme they noticed a peculiar accuracy in the enemy’s firing. The shells followed an easily distinguishable course. So many casualties occurred from this accurate shelling that the officers set themselves to discover the cause.
They found that the circle of shells had for its center the crossroads, and that at the crossroads was a crucifix that stood up clearly as a landmark. Evidently the cross was being used to guide the gunners, and was causing the death of our men.
But a more remarkable thing came to light. The cross stood close to the road, and when the Germans retired they had sprung a mine at the crossroads to delay our advance. Everything near had been blown to bits by the explosion except the crucifix, but that had not a mark upon it. And yet it could not have escaped, except by a miracle.
They therefore set themselves to examine the seeming miracle and came across one of the most astounding cases of fiendish cunning. They found that the Germans had made a concrete socket for the crucifix so that they could take it out or put it in at pleasure.
Before blowing up the crossroads they had taken the cross out of its socket and removed it to a safe distance; then, when the mine had exploded, they put the cross back so that it might be a landmark to direct their shooting. And now they were making use of Christ’s instrument of redemption as an instrument for men’s destruction. | <urn:uuid:67584677-229f-4091-aeb2-d26cba7d9156> | {
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Stone sculpture is seen everywhere in Kathmandu vallery. If one visits the historical sites of the Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, one can see and appreciate the many stone sculptures of deities, animals, serpents, people, bells, water fountains, vessels, dwarfs, and Garudas (mythical half-bird half-human creatures) that were made during the Malla era.
It is the Nepalese people themselves who have fueled the growth of this form stone sculpture art.
Stone Carvers are used to working with traditional themes and images. Deities, serpents, yogis, oxen, lions, and the Buddha are some of the images that they work mostly Now a days. Nearly all-Nepalese stone sculptures are of a religious character. It seems that the artists themselves were greatly imbued with a feeling of religious devotion.
The stone Buddhas from Nepal are sculpted from a harder grey stone found in the Kathmandu valley. Many of these Nepalese Buddhas statues are Sakyamuni Buddha , sage of the Shakya clan. These are often very detailed carvings with intricate robes, auspicious symbols, dragons, & inscribed at the base with the prayer mantra of Chenzrig . It is said that one who recites this mantra will be saved from all dangers.
Himalayan Mart is an only online shop for stone statues in Nepal who is trying to preserve the long tradition of stone carving and expose these extreme cultural heritage of Nepal.
Our collection of stone statues are hand made by local craftsmen in Patan and sculpted from a harder grey stone found in the Kathmandu Vallery. All the stone statue in our collectionThese statues are hand carved, and hand finished with the same tools and techniques used for hundreds of years by generations of craftsmen. | <urn:uuid:bacc1f63-b3fc-4721-b44f-671d03b7b977> | {
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Fourteen people died in Kittery, Maine on July 17, 1902. I came across a list of the dead by accident, while browsing through some old Town Reports. All who died were young, including three pairs of sisters. How had these young people died at the Isles of Shoals? And why had I never heard about this event in Kittery’s history?
I soon learned that all perished by drowning, victims of a capsized whaleboat 200 feet off the shore of Appledore Island. Most of the dead, 12 women and two men, served as waitstaff at the Oceanic Hotel on Star Island, thus the event is recalled as the “Tragedy of the Waitresses.”
At the turn of the 20th century, the Isles of Shoals remained a mecca for summer visitors. The Oceanic Hotel and the Appledore House attracted college students, teachers, and others for the same reasons that young people today take on similar jobs: they offer a great opportunity to spend the summer earning money in a fun social place.
Sources differ in explaining the details of exactly what happened on that overcast July day. Some, including the skipper, Fred Miles, said the boat was overcome by a squall that struck as the boat was pulling into the harbor, while others say the accident resulted more from bad luck than angry seas.
In his book, The Isles of Shoals in Lore and Legend, Lyman Rutledge provides an account based on interviews with shore witnesses. In this version, the whaleboat, loaded with its 16 passengers, set off for an afternoon excursion from the dock at Star Island under gray skies that suggested a brewing squall. After a short sail, the boat was returning to the harbor as the squall struck.
A witness interviewed by Rutledge says that the whaleboat was returning just as the afternoon steamer was completing its crossing from Portsmouth. On the whaleboat, skipper Miles tacked to starboard to pull into Appledore Harbor. With the turn, the boat listed to its port side, and the young women on the boat crowded over to the starboard side, from where they could get a better view of the incoming boat.
But as the whaleboat passed into the lee of the steamer, the heavy wind was cut off. As the sails went slack, the leaning boat shifted hard to starboard. With all the weight concentrated on the starboard side, water began to pour over the gunwales, overcoming the boat. Loaded with rock and iron ballast for stability, the whaleboat sank, stern first, within seconds. Most of the passengers drowned because the suction generated by the sinking boat pulled them under the water.
The capsize must have been a scene of utter chaos, as waves rocked and pulled at the other small boats trying to rescue the waitresses. Skipper Miles and two young women survived, but all the others were lost. As the harbor calmed, rescuers retrieved nine bodies, which were laid out on cots in the music room of the Appledore Hotel. A diver recovered the five remaining victims in the days that followed.
Kittery’s coroner, Edward E. Shapleigh, set out from Portsmouth at around 9:15 that evening to carry out the grim task of documenting the dead.
The dead included two Harvard students who reportedly perished as they tried to hold up some of the young women. Nobody was wearing life jackets, which might have saved them, but even today, it’s unlikely that adult passengers on such an excursion would don life vests.
News organizations from New York to San Francisco reported on the tragedy of the waitresses, with a mixture of facts, hearsay, and imagination. Coroner Shapleigh ruled the sinking an accident, and concluded that no further investigation was warranted, but that didn’t stop the media, families, and community from casting blame.
Some blamed the captain for heading out when a storm was brewing. Others blamed the dockmen for regularly loading too many people in the whaleboat, although Skipper Miles claimed that the boat could hold many more passengers. Miles reportedly blamed the girls for not shifting in the boat, although the event happened so quickly, it’s unlikely that 16 people could have scrambled to the other side in time to prevent the capsize.
A fisherman and lifelong mariner, and the father of 13 children (two who died in infancy), Miles originally hailed from Nova Scotia, but had lived in Portsmouth for many years.
The New York Times reported that when Miles was interviewed at his Hunking Street home the following day, he was “in a state bordering on prostration.” Newspapers around the country circulated the quote below was widely circulated newspapers around.
The Adams sisters are buried in Portsmouth’s South Cemetery. Mary, age 31, had worked for eight years as the order clerk at the Oceanic House, and was considered a valuable employee, along with younger sister Ena, age 22. They lived with their adult siblings in the family home on Marcy Street, their parents having died earlier. Their four brothers served as pallbearers at their funeral.
Her obituary describes Exeter’s Laura Gilmore, age 20 and a recent graduate of Robinson Seminary, as a “charming young woman”, and one of 12 siblings who were “peculiarly attached to one another,” with the older brothers and sisters working to save money to send the youngest one to college.
I wonder how Fred Miles persevered after the tragedy. His wife gave birth to their 13th child that November, a baby girl died two years later. Miles developed tuberculosis and died in 1911, at age 57, leaving behind his wife Mary and 11 children.
This summer, I’ve been taking sailing lessons. As a novice, I am easily confused by the trifecta of sails, wind, and boat dynamics. I crash into the dock on almost every landing, have capsized the boat in a light breeze and no waves, and even managed to bust the tiller. Although Skipper Miles was an experienced mariner, I now better understand how rapidly changing conditions could result in such an event. Sudden squalls happen out at the Shoals every summer, sometimes doing extensive damage to boats, docks and anything else on the water.
The day after the sinking, at the Oceanic House, “guests came from their rooms…in silence and seemed confused as they entered the dining-room where only a little handful of waitresses with haggard faces were there to serve them,” writes Rutledge. “Out of the twenty-two, sixteen were absent, fourteen never to return.”
A Dr. Parks, interviewed by Rutledge, noted, “Had you been an ardent Shoaler at that time could you have forgotten it? Could you have attended a single session for the next fifty years without at least once during the week recalling that fearful tragedy?”
Sources and resources
Comments and additional information appreciated, especially in regards to the technical details of how or why the whaleboat capsized.
“Last chapter: All bodies of drowned on way home.” July 22, 1902, Boston Daily Globe.
“Terrible Drowning Accident: Fourteen Persons Go Down to Death Off the Isles of Shoals.” July 18, 1902, Portsmouth Daily Chronicle (in vertical file at Portsmouth Aetheneum).
“Their last sad journeys: Bodies of the Isles of Shoals victims sent to sorrowing families” July 19, 1902, Boston Daily Globe.
“Tragedy of the Waitresses.” In The Isles of Shoals in Lore and Legend, by Lyman V. Rutledge. Star Island Corporation, 1971.
For more information on staying at the Oceanic Hotel, visit the Star Island Corporation website. Today, Appledore Island is home to the Shoals Marine Laboratory, which offers a variety of visitor programs. | <urn:uuid:812c1173-e57b-4649-92ee-a78c24dcee2f> | {
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By Kieran Guilbert
DAKAR (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - A farming technique practiced for centuries in West Africa, which transforms nutrient-poor rainforest soil into fertile farmland, could combat climate change and revolutionize farming across the continent, researchers said on Tuesday.
Adding kitchen waste and charcoal to tropical soil can turn it into fertile, black soil which traps carbon and reduces emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, according to a study carried out by the University of Sussex in England.
The soils produced by the 700-year-old practice, known as "African dark earths", contain up to 300 percent more organic carbon than other soils, and are capable of supporting far more intensive farming, said the anthropologist behind the study.
"Mimicking this ancient method has the potential to transform the lives of thousands of people living in some of the most poverty and hunger stricken regions in Africa," said James Fairhead, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Sussex.
The research was carried out by anthropologists and soil scientists who lived with communities in Liberia and Ghana while analyzing almost 200 sites across the countries, the study said.
A previous top-down approach from the scientific community and lack of engagement with African farmers may explain why such a simple method had not been studied until now, Fairhead said.
"Relations of power in West Africa had been hiding the skills and wisdom of local farmers," he told the Thomson Reuters Foundation.
"Scientists need to pay more attention and respect to existing practices, especially if these practices can boost food production and sequester carbon."
Similar soils created by pre-Columbian era inhabitants of Brazil's Amazon forest have recently been discovered, said Dawit Solomon, author of the study published last week in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and Environment.
"What is most surprising is that ... these two isolated indigenous communities living far apart in distance and time were able to achieve something that the modern-day agricultural management practices could not achieve until now," he said.
An estimated 180 million people in sub-Saharan Africa are affected by soil degradation, which costs them $68 billion a year, according to a 2014 report by Agriculture for Impact.
Climate change, desertification, the depletion of mineral nutrients, improper use of fertilizer and a lack of infrastructure are compounding the problem, the report found.
(Reporting By Kieran Guilbert, Editing by Emma Batha. Please credit the Thomson Reuters Foundation, the charitable arm of Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, women's rights, trafficking, corruption and climate change. Visit news.trust.org) | <urn:uuid:3ab048ef-c12e-4925-858e-4732ec717959> | {
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BIELEFELD.- The Kunsthalle Bielefeld
is presenting about one hundred and eighty works as part of a comprehensive survey of German Impressionism, an art movement that spread throughout the entire country. Starting with the major Berlin artists Max Liebermann, Max Slevogt, and Lovis Corinth, the show ranges over the many northern, eastern, southern, and southwestern variations of German Impressionist painting. Distinctions will be drawn between German and French Impressionism, and viewers will come to see that German Impressionism was an independent modern movement and a forerunner of Expressionism. The Bielefeld show will feature works on loan from such museums as the Musée dOrsay in Paris, the Kunstmuseum St. Gallen, the Neue Pinakothek in Munich, the Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, the Hamburg Kunsthalle, the Saarland Museum in Saarbrücken, the Galerie Neue Meister in Dresden, and many other public and private collections.
The Revolution in Art
The modern revolution in art began in France. In Paris in 1874, Claude Monet and a group of young, progressive artists exhibited a scandalous painting, whose title described the contents of the picture exactly: Limpression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise). Critics used the paintings title as invective, but artists adopted it for their new program. Instead of imitating nature, the goal of the Impressionists was to paint what they saw. With clear colors and small brush strokes, Impressionism was the first modern artistic revolt against the dark hues of the established, formalist, academic painters of the late nineteenth century.
It took a good ten years for the new artistic atmosphere to influence attitudes throughout Europe. In Germany, the new approach to painting collided with the Empires rigid, conservative taste in art. Still, it quickly found its defenders among the German artists who resisted the academic standards and the kind of art the Kaiser himself officially demandedan art that was essentially oriented toward historical paintings glorifying the Empire.
Max Liebermann, Lovis Corinth, Max Slevogt, and their fellow artists in the newly founded Berliner Secession took on the established academy. With their new works, they became the major representatives of Impressionism in Germany. Elsewhere, artists such as Thomas Herbst in Hamburg, Christian Landenberger in Stuttgart, Fritz von Uhde in Munich, Gotthard Kuehl and Robert Sterl in Dresden, and many others characterized the image of German Impressionism, which became established in the 1890s as the first modern movement in Germany, and, to a great extent, as a further development of the academic plein air painting.
Distinct from the French
While Impressionism in Francewith its emphatically bright, enlightened nuances of colorwas considered an artistic expression of the joy and pleasure in life felt by a stronger, self-confident, and increasingly wealthy bourgeoisie, German Impressionism accentuated completely different things. French lightness was contrasted with German heaviness, expressed through a somewhat darker palette, a closed visual form, and a different selection of themes. Besides turning to nature and intimate family interiors, German artists also painted scenes from the working world and the everyday life of the less privileged classes. The Kaiser himself, probably with no less an artist than Max Liebermann in mind, reviled this kind of work as gutter art.
Containing a breathtaking variety of motifs and styles, the exhibition makes it possible to experience German Impressionism as the mirror of a strife-ridden period between the Empire and the Weimar Republic, between academicism and individuality. At the same time, viewers will find a cornucopia of familiar and unfamiliar works. | <urn:uuid:f1a01257-a7db-40df-9ac8-026bb87a918b> | {
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Thinking about cancer or dealing with cancer risk can be scary or overwhelming, but we believe that receiving information and resources is comforting, empowering, and lifesaving.
All cancers are caused by changes to materials in our bodies called “genes.” These are units of information in every cell of our bodies. Genes tell our bodies which proteins to make based on the type of cell and its needs. Some genes tell our bodies how to fix damage accumulated over time from normal aging, environmental toxins, sun exposure, dietary factors, hormones, and other influences. These damage-controlling genes can repair cells or tell cells when to stop growing and die if there is too much damage to repair.
When genes themselves are damaged, they can develop changes called “mutations.” When mutations occur in the damage-controlling genes, cells can grow out of control and cause cancer.
For most people who develop cancer, the cancer-causing gene mutations happen over the course of a lifetime, leading to cancer later in life. Some people are born with a gene mutation that they inherited from their mother or father. This damaged gene puts them at higher risk for cancer than most people. When cancer occurs because of an inherited gene mutation, it is referred to as "hereditary cancer." | <urn:uuid:8d5b3dca-3bdc-4e7c-aa86-273cbbd90fc8> | {
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Easter Island (Polynesian: Rapa Nui; Spanish: Isla de Pascua) is an island in the South Pacific belonging to Chile. The name "Easter Island" was given by the Dutch explorer who discovered it on Easter Sunday 1722.
Located in the South Pacific between Chile and Tahiti, Easter Island is one of the most isolated inhabited islands in the world. The nearest inhabited land is Pitcairn Island, 1,290 miles to the west. The triangular-shaped island covers only 64 square miles and was formed out of an ancient volcanic eruption.
Easter Island is famous for its tight-lipped statues that stand across the island, erected by the Rapa Nui people between the 10th and 16th centuries AD. Exactly why and how these ancient wonders were assembled is still not fully understood.
History of Easter Island (Rapa Nui)
Although many imaginative theories have been offered for the origins of the Easter Island people and statues, archaeologists and historians believe they have a reliable outline of most of the island's history.
Easter Island's human history began with the settlement of the island by Polynesians around 400 AD, who probably arrived from the islands of Mangareva or Pitcairn to the west. These Polynesian settlers brought bananas, taro, sweet potato, sugarcane, paper mulberry and chickens and established a relatively advanced and complex civilization.
"Easter Island" is of course a European name, but even "Rapa Nui" was not the original name for the island. It was coined by labor immigrants from the original Rapa in the Bass Islands who likened it to their home island. The Rapanui name of Rapa Nui is Te pito o te henua ("Navel of the World") due to its isolation, but this too seems to be derived from another location, possibly a Marquesan landmark.
The European discovery of the island, by the Dutch navigator Jakob Roggeveen, occurred in 1722 on Easter Sunday. Roggeveen found about 2,000-3,000 inhabitants on the island, but it appears that there were as many as 10,000-15,000 of them in the 16th and 17th centuries. The civilization of Easter Island had already degenerated drastically during the 100 years before the arrival of the Dutch, owing to the overpopulation, deforestation and exploitation of the extremely isolated island with its limited natural resources.
Easter Island has very few trees, but this was not always the case. The island once possessed a forest of palms, but it seems the native Easter Islanders completely deforested the island in the process of erecting their statues, as well as constructing fishing boats and buildings. There is evidence that the disappearance of the island's trees coincided with the collapse of the Easter Island civilization. Midden contents from that time period show a sudden drop in quantity of fish and bird bones as the islanders lost the means to construct fishing vessels and the birds lost their nesting sites. Chickens and rats became leading items of diet. There is also some evidence of cannibalism.
The small surviving population of Easter Island eventually developed new traditions to allot the few remaining resources. In the cult of the Birdman (manutara), a competition was established in which every year a representative of each tribe, chosen by the leaders, would dive into the sea and swim across to Motu Nui, a nearby islet, to search for the first egg laid by a Sooty Tern during the season. The first swimmer to return with an egg would secure control of the island's resources for his tribe for the rest of the year. This tradition was still in existence at the time of first contact by Europeans.
However, by the mid-19th century the population had recovered to about 4,000 inhabitants. Then in a mere 20 years, deportation to Peru and Chile and diseases brought by Westerners almost exterminated the whole population, with only 111 inhabitants left on the island in 1877. The island was annexed by Chile in 1888 (by Policarpo Toro). The native Rapanui are gradually recovering from their low population levels.
Today, the tremendous increase of tourism on the island coupled with a large inflow of people from mainland Chile are threatening to alter the Polynesian identity of the island. The possession of the land has created political tensions in the past 20 years, with part of the native Rapanui opposed to private property and in favor of the traditional communal property of their ancestors.
What to See at Easter Island (Rapa Nui)
The ahu (ceremonial platform) at Tahai sits near a canoe ramp made of rounded beach stones and is thought to be among the earliest ahu structures on the island, dating from 690 AD. It was restored by the American archaeologist William Mulloy.
The island's famous moai statues were made from the volcanic rock of this mountain quarry and are scattered across its slopes in various stages of completion.
A hike to the summit of this 400m volcano offers panoramic views of the island's solitude in the South Pacific.
15 of the island's famous moai statues stand here in a military lineup upon a flat rock platform.
This lake-filled crater is filled with remnants of the Birdman cult practiced until 1867.
Quick Facts on Easter Island (Rapa Nui)
|Names:||Easter Island (Rapa Nui)|
|Visitor and Contact Information|
|Coordinates:||27.109409° S, 109.362030° W|
|Address:||Easter Island, Chile|
|Lodging:||View hotels near Easter Island (Rapa Nui)|
- Explore Easter Island – PBS Nova Secrets of Lost Empires
An excellent resource that is probably the second-best thing to actually being there. You can click on any area of the island and see several pictures and commentary on the area. There are also QuickTime movies and panoramic photographs.
- Secrets of Easter Island – PBS Nova
Follow a team of archaeologists and a 75-person crew as they attempt to move a 10-ton moai using only ancient tools.
- Easter Island - Met Museum Timeline of Art History
- Easter Island – Mysterious Places
- Easter Island - Wikipedia
- Moai - Wikipedia
- The Easter Island Foundation's Guide to Easter Island
Provides "All you'll need to know when preparing your trip to Easter Island." Includes an extensive photo gallery and debunking of numerous theories that explain the Easter Island "mysteries." A useful resource.
- A Heady Experience - Washington Post, April 24, 2005 - Travel review of Easter Island.
- "Let Sleeping Moai Lie" by Roderick Eime - Eime describes his lifelong fascination with such mysteries as Easter Island and chronicles his recent three-day trip there. He also includes background information, history of the island, several photographs and travel tips.
- Easter Island Quest - Travel guide with maps, photos, articles on Rapa Nui culture and more.
- Photos of Easter Island (Rapa Nui) - here on Sacred Destinations
Map of Easter Island (Rapa Nui)
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Commodities and Consumption in “Golden Age” Argentina
Summary and Keywords
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the global trade in commodities forged new economic interconnections and contributed to the emergence of modern ways of life. As one of the leading exporters of temperate goods such as wool, beef, and wheat, Argentina was at the forefront of these trends, and the country underwent remarkable expansion between 1875 and 1913. Although export goods linked Argentina to consumers in Europe and elsewhere, these vital relationships were often obscured by the malleable nature of commodities, the far-flung scope of overseas trade, and the perceived divergence between rural and urban worlds. Within Argentina, similar dynamics were also at work, but commodities became referents in disputes over economic distribution, social inequality, and national development. The tensions between the export sector and an increasingly industrialized and urbanized society geared toward mass consumption raised questions as to how to manage the nation’s wealth—conflicts involving commodities that parallel those of other Latin American societies. By placing the economic history of commodities into conversation with recent research on the social, cultural, and political history of consumption, this article reconsiders Argentina’s “Golden Age” of expansion and its aftermath. The connecting and distancing power of commodities reveals how populations in Argentina and abroad experienced modern capitalism, including its signature transformations of the natural world and everyday life.
Beef, wool, hides, wheat, soybeans—these commodities occupy an unquestionably central place in Argentine history. The image of Argentina as breadbasket and butcher to world, a land of endless farms and ranches where gaucho cowboys once roamed, has long informed clichés about this country. Nevertheless, staple commodities are typically greeted with what U.S. historian William Cronon, in his brilliant study of Chicago and the Midwest, calls a mixture of “mystification and boredom.”1 Such reactions stem partly from the fact that many of us today (including most Argentines) are far removed from the everyday routines of tending livestock and crops; moreover, the temperate climate staples that made Argentina and the U.S. Midwest famous lack the exotic, addictive allure often associated with tropical goods like coffee or sugar. Yet commodities have a more dynamic, even fractious history than the clichés and conventional wisdom suggest. For all their seeming mundaneness, the products of Argentina’s grasslands have exerted a tremendous influence over the nation’s fortunes and molded its links to the outside world. While commonly associated with the countryside and its traditions, these goods have enabled urban, modern ways of life in Argentina and among its foreign trading partners. Despite appearing inert, not only have commodities satisfied the essential needs of these societies, they have also proven a repeated wellspring of contention.
This article offers a starting point for exploring these paradoxes by bringing the economic history of commodities into conversation with recent studies of the social, cultural, and political history of consumption in Argentina. Reconsidering commodities from the vantage of consumption has at least two main benefits. First, it illustrates how Argentina’s famed rural abundance was part of broader late-19th-century capitalist transformations associated with industrialization, steam-age globalization, and the commodification of nature. The trade in staple goods supplied consumers in Argentina and abroad with the very necessities of life, while simultaneously obscuring these vital relationships by virtue of the far-flung scope of trade and a perceived divergence between rural and urban worlds. An awareness of the connecting and distancing power of commodities reveals how different populations experienced the signature changes of modern capitalism, including the rise of mass consumption. Second, Argentine history offers repeated examples of how, under certain conditions, supposedly “mystifying” and “boring” commodities attracted public concern. Despite their seeming invisibility to most consumers (especially those located abroad), temperate staples became referents in political disputes over consumption and related aspects of economic distribution, social inequality, and national development. These controversies were rooted in specific historical conditions but mirror the conflicts associated with commodities elsewhere in Latin America and that persist in Argentina today.
Although agro-pastoral goods have played a crucial role throughout Argentine history, the so-called “Golden Age” (roughly 1875–1913) and its immediate aftermath (1914–1950) offer an ideal time frame to pursue this inquiry. Of course, the very idea of a “Golden Age” needs to be treated with extreme caution: it derives from the glowing rhetoric employed by boosters at the time, and it now informs the pessimistic tendency to stress Argentina’s failure to realize its potential (the “what went wrong” school of thought). The country’s supposed golden years were also a Gilded Age, which brought newfound riches but also novel forms of misery and exclusion. There is no doubt, however, that commodities played a fundamental role, for better and worse, in the country’s remarkable expansion at the turn of the 20th century, during which Argentina became one of the hottest economies in the world. From 1880 to 1914, Argentina’s gross domestic product per capita grew at an annual average of 3.3 percent, levels that surpassed those of dominant and rising global powers (1 percent for Great Britain, 2.1 percent for the United States) and countries with similar export profiles (2.2 percent for Canada and 0.5 percent for Australia).2 As staggering quantities of commodities were shipped overseas, no less impressive infusions of capital and migrant labor flowed back into Argentina, which fueled rural production and built the systems that enabled long-distance exchange. That said, exports have long overshadowed other types of economic activity in Argentina, and recent historical research has uncovered a more diversified domestic economy than previously assumed. Locals consumed large quantities of meat and grains, but most residents earned their livelihood in ways that only indirectly, if at all, related to commodities. The tensions between the export sector and an increasingly industrialized, urbanized society geared toward domestic consumption raised questions of how to manage the wealth derived from the nation’s bountiful livestock and crops. After the mid-1910s, prevailing socio-economic forces widened this divide, without, however, eliminating the nation’s reliance on exports.
To understand the origins of these problems, one can begin by considering Argentine commodities from the perspective of their main intended target: overseas markets. Although each commodity has a history all its own, the more salient characteristic is that together they constituted a varied landscape of rural production in Argentina, in which no single good predominated and in which the overall composition of exports was in flux. Not only were additional staples introduced, but the export sector responded to changes in local conditions, technological innovations, and swings in demand abroad, among a host of factors. At the same time, consumers hardly remained static. As Argentina’s commodity offerings shifted, so, too, did the export destinations and purchasing habits abroad. As the scale of rural production increased in Argentina and the scope of global trade widened, there emerged a contradictory mixture of freedom, dependency, and obliviousness among overseas consumers in places like Europe. Imported commodities liberated populations from the burdens of producing their own basic necessities, even as people became subject to new labor demands and grew strangely disconnected from the sources of their daily sustenance and most intimate personal possessions.
Although Argentina’s contributions to these trends reached new heights during the “Golden Age,” exports formed part of a long history of commodity exchange. The origins stretch back to the silver-oriented economy of the colonial period, when much of present-day Argentina was oriented to supplying raw materials for the Central Andes mines or to channeling the flow of silver bullion across the Atlantic. With independence from Spanish rule, a pastoral export economy came more fully into its own. Based in the Littoral grasslands extending from the dominant port city and province of Buenos Aires (the pampas of popular imagination), the types of pastoral goods produced—cattle hides, grease and tallow, salted meats, and sheep’s wool—may seem crude. But these primitive materials were coveted by the most advanced manufacturing sectors of England, northern Europe, and the United States. Greater mechanization and mass production there created demand for imports such as animal skins, which could now be transformed on an unimagined scale into goods like leather shoes. Similar advances allowed the coarse, unwashed wools of the Argentine Littoral to become factory-made carpets, worsted wool clothing, blankets, and other textiles that kept residents of cold climates warm. More unusual commodities like horsehair provided the stuffing for fine furniture, while animal bones were converted into handles, utensils, buttons, and the like.3 Even the rendered fat of the feral animals that grazed on Argentina’s grasslands found its way into modern life as manufactured soap, which despite its gruesome origins became the very emblem of civilization.
Not all routes of the commodity trade led directly to consumers in the industrializing north. Pastoral commodities like salted meats (tasajo and charque) found a market as naval stores and sustenance for the slave societies of Brazil and the Spanish Caribbean. Demand for cotton, sugar, and coffee in the industrial north allowed Argentina to occupy a secondary role as a supplier to these slave-based economies. By 1859, the salted meats that fed enslaved populations and others represented 13.7 percent of total exports from Buenos Aires (by comparison, wool’s share was at 33.7 percent and growing, while cattle hides came in at 31.5 percent, down from a peak of 56.8 percent in 1837).4 Commodities also circulated outside these Atlantic networks. Indigenous societies in the central and southern pampas, many part of the wider Mapuche world of southern South America, engaged in a lively trade in livestock across the Andes into what is now Chile. Many of these animals were seized during Indian raids in Argentina (perhaps as many as 20,000 to 40,000 per year in the mid-19th century, with larger raids far exceeding these numbers).5 The economics of the borderlands were complicated, and for most indigenous people the encroachments of Argentine landowners represented a far greater form of theft. Nevertheless, the combination of rising demand for commodities abroad and the consolidation of a stronger Argentine state created incentives to extend the frontier. The late 1880s saw campaigns bent on the definitive conquest of Indian societies, which descended into brutally violent struggles of an internal colonial character.
The confluence of these trends set the stage for a dramatic leap in commodity exchange in the late 19th century. Three sets of goods—wool, meats, grains—dominated Argentine exports. Wool led the way from the 1860s onward, eventually reaching tens of thousands of tons of raw material produced annually in Buenos Aires province.6 Exports of hides and more traditional pastoral goods continued, but advances in railroad and steamship transportation, long-distance communication, and refrigeration technology resulted in exports of live animals and, from the late 1870s onward, frozen and chilled carcasses. The meat trade underwent the most innovation, yet arguably the most significant change was the sudden rise of grain exports—principally wheat, corn, and linseed. New infrastructures like railways made it profitable to move and sell bulky, low-cost-per-unit commodities like grain across oceans and continents. The resulting boom in agriculture was remarkable: pastoral goods represented 95 percent of exports in 1880, but by 1910 grain crops comprised nearly 60 percent of the total. Argentina sent the vast majority of its harvest abroad, becoming the third largest exporter of grains in the world. Nevertheless, commodity diversification remained a feature (especially in the context of other Latin American export economies), and no single good achieved more than 25 percent of the total.7
This form of exchange was characterized by its flexibility to respond to changing local conditions and the vagaries of global markets. Argentine exporters competed not only with farmers throughout Europe, but also rivals in exporting countries in the Northern Hemisphere (Canada and the United States) and Southern Hemisphere (Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa). Within Argentina, patterns of production shifted within the Littoral and, to a lesser degree, around different geographical zones, including into the 175,000 square miles of territory opened by frontier conquest. The most productive areas in Buenos Aires province went from slaughtering cattle for their hides to sheep raising to experiments with wheat growing and cattle ranching for the export trade. Nature was transformed to keep up with changes in foreign demand: sheep breeds valued primarily for their wool gave way to stock more suited for their meat; rangy criollo cattle were replaced by “improved” pedigree breeds to supply the types of beef coveted by European consumers; and even the grasses of the plains were made over, either into fields of alfalfa for more refined animals or into massive grain farms. Local landowners and workers were joined in the millions by immigrants and foreign investors, and together they all provided the capital, labor, farm machinery, and commercial institutions that boosted overseas exchange.
Where did this cornucopia of goods end up? Markets and consumers changed over time. For instance, Britain and the United States set off the craze for Argentine wool, but port cities on the European continent like Dunkirk in France and Antwerp in Belgium, along with their manufacturing hinterlands, became the dominant poles of the trade by the end of the 19th century. Exports of mutton and beef found their largest market among British consumers, although Argentine meat made inroads elsewhere in Europe during the 20th century, including through byproducts such as meat extracts and Oxo cubes. Grains were the most geographically diffuse, a consequence of the fact that bread and similar carbohydrate foods were mainstays of the European diet. Dominated by a handful of family firms like Bunge & Born (founded in Argentina but with deep roots in Belgium), the grain business was notoriously secretive. Liberal trade policies made Britain more open to imports from places like Argentina (in 1909, it led the way by importing 370,000 tons of Argentine wheat, while Belgium and Italy came in third and fourth place).8 Protectionist measures elsewhere in Europe limited imports that might compete with local farmers, but such policies tended to erode over time as urban populations rose. At the same time, trade expanded with other Latin American countries undergoing population growth and commodity booms of their own: neighboring Brazil was the second largest purchaser of Argentine wheat and the largest of its flour in 1909.9 The outbreak of colonial war in South Africa provided a short-lived opportunity to capitalize on demand for food and war materiel. In the end, however, the societies of Western Europe in the throes of modernizing forces—urbanization, industrialization, rising living standards, mass consumption—exerted the strongest pull on the bounty harvested from the Argentine plains.
Burrowing down to the level of individual consumers, to the women and men who bought these goods, is another challenge altogether. In general, overseas consumers have not garnered attention from Argentine historians (the tendency has been to pass this baton over to scholars working on foreign lands). Yet the interpretive problem is further complicated by the very nature of agro-pastoral goods. The defining trait of commodities is that they are malleable—that is, capable of being transformed into an ever-growing range of manufactured products. Moreover, they can easily shed their places of origin and become interchangeable units suited to myriad applications. The fact that a given ton of wool or wheat came from Argentina may have mattered a great deal to importers and factory owners, who were attuned to differences in quality and price. But customers who purchased finished goods were typically unaware of the origins of the fibers in their clothes or the wheat in the bread purchased at the corner bakery. Lastly, in the European markets where demand was greatest for Argentine commodities, temperate staples were considered so familiar that they were hardly noticed. Imported animals and plants were considered widely “European”—not “Argentine” (or “Canadian” or “Australian,” for that matter). They already constituted a longstanding part of the diet, clothing, and household material culture (despite the enormous variations in local customs within and between these societies). The image of the exporting countries as “white” nations, as “lands of recent settlement” with allegedly similar racial compositions, climates, and landscapes—in short, as “Neo-Europes,” to borrow Alfred W. Crosby’s later phrase—reinforced this tendency.10
Yet there was more going on than simply swapping local production for imports. The sheer volume of commodities arriving from places like Argentina made its impact felt on consumers in ways large and small. Greater supplies of raw materials for industry expanded commercial offerings while often lowering prices; thus more middle-class consumers were able to access items previously off-limits (say, colorful wool carpets to decorate the floors of their homes). Changes in diet were no less significant. Greater segments of Europe’s laboring population became able to eat white bread regularly; at the same time, cheap grain stimulated innovations in the food industry (such as new packaged and convenience foods), while encouraging a comeback of older foods (such as beer) in a more industrial form. Although consumption statistics are fragmentary for this period, the average consumption of meat in the United Kingdom grew by some 25 percent between 1870 and 1900 (these figures tell us little about crucial variations by class, gender, and region).11
The meat trade represents a partial exception to the invisibility of Argentine commodities. Consumers were somewhat more aware of where their mutton and beef came from because of meat’s expense, its privileged place in the food hierarchy, and the very intimacy of eating another animal’s flesh. The novelty of refrigeration contributed to its visibility as well, for early exporters had to overcome the logical reticence of European populations to consume meat shipped from halfway across the globe. This explains why Argentina’s exhibition hall at the 1889 World’s Fair in Paris showcased the wonders of refrigerated meat front and center: a special glass vitrine at the entrance captured visitors’ attention, while gastronomic authorities and other dignitaries received free samples. At stake was nothing less than a profound alteration in what was considered “fresh” and healthy food. Earlier Argentine efforts to encourage salted meat consumption in Europe largely failed—sales pitches to Spaniards and Italians claiming that tasajo was just as tasty as their dried salted cod fell on deaf ears. Shipments of refrigerated meat, too, met with initial resistance but eventually surged from the early 1900s onward. For British markets in particular, meat exporters developed an understanding of consumer taste and spending power in different regions as well as control of the wholesaling and retailing systems to move their product widely. By the early 20th century, companies such as the River Plate Fresh Meat Company emphasized country origins in the very names of their enterprises and in advertising campaigns. Members of landowner organizations such as the Sociedad Rural Argentina nervously strategized about how to beat competitors, who began using marketing slogans like “New Zealand Lamb, Best in the World.” Country names had become part of consumer brands—yet more evidence of the power of temperate commodities to enmesh Argentine producers, foreign rivals, and overseas populations in relationships that spanned the globe.
Rural and Urban Worlds
As one might assume, the “average Argentine’s” view of this activity differed tremendously from that of consumers abroad. It was impossible to ignore the importance of commodities in turn-of-the-century Argentina. Not only were large sectors of the population engaged directly in rural production, news of conditions affecting “los commodities” was the stuff of daily conversation as well. Export staples featured prominently in public affairs because they mattered to the rich and powerful in Argentina. Although recent research has challenged myths of an insular, unchanging, and all-controlling landowning “aristocracy,” there is no question that rural elites exerted a tremendous influence over the country’s political systems. Moreover, commodities were inseparable from dominant visions of the Argentine nation as a land of wealth and progress. Despite inter-elite rivalries, there was shared consensus around liberal ideas that celebrated property ownership and participation in international trade. Nineteenth-century intellectuals envisioned commodities as a force of social improvement: a society of barbaric, nomadic country folk would give way to a hard-working nation of white, European settlers dedicated to civilized agriculture.
But if one looks past the pages of the business section and the worldview of elites, the story of commodities in “Golden Age” Argentina is more multilayered. As in Europe and other export destinations, large segments of the Argentine population encountered livestock and crops primarily as objects of consumption, not as the fruits of their own labor. The same types of commodities that were exported abroad played an oversized role in the lives of domestic consumers. To take but one example, Argentina would by mid-20th century lead the world in per capita consumption of beef by a hefty margin.12 For all the attention lavished on rural production, urban Argentina was in the ascendance, thanks in part to demographic trends and factors that made urban life more attractive. Even living on the edge of the pampas, many Argentine consumers were not fully aware of the economic connections that bound them to the countryside, although this ignorance was surely harder to maintain than their overseas counterparts. Moreover, the consumers that took an interest often reacted with forms of protest that did not fit the more placid elite vision of commodities as national progress.
Understanding these conflicts requires transcending stereotypes of Argentina as simply a collection of farms and ranches. Between 1875 and 1913, Argentina’s population tripled in size, largely because of massive immigration from southern Europe and elsewhere (nearly one-third of the population was foreign born by the end of this period). At the same time, average real per capita incomes grew by 40 percent. Accordingly, domestic consumer demand also drove expansion: according to one estimate, the nation’s overall level of consumption increased ninefold in this same period.13 A larger population with greater purchasing power translated into all manner of local commercial and industrial activity. Imports of consumer goods and raw materials skyrocketed. But Argentine manufacturing surged ahead, too, creating new sources of employment (the number of industrial firms and workers more than doubled between 1895 and 1914), while also suppling local markets with everyday products such as clothing, processed foods, cosmetics, and furniture, to name but a few.14 By the 1920s, more than half of all goods consumed by Argentine society were fabricated locally, and by the late 1930s industry matched agricultural and pastoral activity in terms of overall contribution to GDP.15
These trends energized various regions of the national territory, which had previously been integrated only weakly to the agro-pastoral economy of the Littoral grasslands. Railway networks initially designed to speed the flow of exports abroad eventually extended to other parts of the nation and encouraged commodity production aimed at the domestic market, such as sugar from Tucumán in the northwest and wine from Mendoza in the west. New resource frontiers appeared within Argentina, attracting local and foreign investment and repeating the scramble for land, dispossession of native peoples, and settlement witnessed earlier. The northeast was “opened” as a zone for commercial lumbering as well as tobacco and yerba mate growing, while sheep ranching and fruit cultivation shifted to the Patagonian south.
Numerous regions were affected, but the impact of population growth, industrialization, and diversification was felt most acutely in urban areas, which concentrated the widest array of commercial offerings and greatest density of consumers. Between 1869 and 1914, the percentage of the population that lived in urban areas increased from 43.6 to 57.3 percent. Urbanization extended across the nation: the number of towns with 2,000–10,000 inhabitants jumped from 20 to 221; older provincial capitals increased in size but were outmatched by the growth of former villages like Rosario and Bahía Blanca or cities created from scratch like La Plata. The undisputed leader, however, was Buenos Aires city, which ballooned from a small town into a metropolis of over 1.5 million persons, making it the largest predominantly Spanish-speaking city in the world, the largest in Latin America, and second only to New York on the Atlantic seaboard of the Americas. Within Argentina, nearly one out of four residents lived in the capital and its suburbs.16 The producers of temperate staples channeled impressive quantities of meat and grain to feed these urban populations, but the countryside might have appeared a universe away to residents of Buenos Aires, who inhabited a landscape of paved streets and automobiles, cinema houses and cafes, department stores and corner shops. For all the nation’s reputation as a producer of rural commodities, Argentina was at this time one of the most urbanized societies in the world.
The explanations behind this seeming contradiction lie partly in the characteristics of modern commodity production. The sheer scale of ranching and farming, coupled with greater uses of mechanization and steam-age transportation, ensured that fewer and fewer people were required to generate an enormous surplus of tradable goods. Although the population of the rural Littoral grew quickly, human settlement on the grasslands faced obstacles. Farmers and workers did not necessarily intend to remain permanently: immigrants often had other ambitions, such as amassing a nest egg to return to their homeland. Landowners favored short-term tenancy contracts, which from their perspective allowed greater adaptability to changing market conditions while preserving their privileged social status and political influence. For those individuals who took a chance as settlers, opportunities for advancement existed but became tougher as land prices climbed. Even at the height of the golden years, living conditions on the plains were crushingly bleak for native- and foreign-born laborers, especially in comparison to urban factories and popular neighborhoods (hardly paradises of their own).
While many Argentines came to see city and countryside as worlds apart, it is worth appreciating their dependence on one another. Not only was an increasing share of rural goods destined for urban populations, but city residents who labored on the docks, rail yards, and warehouses as well as in finance and import-export businesses kept the export trade going. During harvest time tens of thousands of city dwellers decamped to the farms of Argentina’s grain belt, joining immigrants and migrants from provinces of the interior. Local manufacturing relied on processing temperate commodities into finished products like textiles, leather goods, and, above all, foodstuffs like canned meat, flour, crackers, and beer. Even had they tried, Argentines could not have separated one world from the other, despite the fact that the economic interests, political concerns, and daily preoccupations of residents in each area were moving further apart.
These tangled relationships between export commodities and domestic consumption—and the tensions they generated within rural and urban Argentina—were addressed, if not entirely resolved, in a number of ways. Efforts to define a shared national identity through food were one such manner. Food historians have shown how immigration, trade, and local industrialization altered local tastes. In places like Córdoba province, a transitional zone between the Littoral and other regions, a diet based on traditional fare like meat, corn, and squash gave way to growing consumption of bread, pasta, and dairy. At the same time, immigrants adopted locals’ habits, including their fondness for infusions of yerba mate and their carnivorous ways.17 Cultural efforts to mediate these changes were exemplified by the food ritual known as the asado (a feast of grilled meats, especially beef).18 Although this custom has centuries-old roots in the region, the asado became reworked during the first half of the 20th century in keeping with new ideas of national identity or argentinidad. The act of grilling meat took on gendered and racialized meanings as well, as the masculine figure of the mythic gaucho was reborn in his white male descendant, the asador. Many actors shaped this process: the artists who portrayed the people and natural world of the pampas in literature, music, theater, and film; the “creole” cooks who disseminated old-fashioned dishes to consumers in bustling cities; the intellectuals and state officials who sought to inculcate respect for national values in an immigrant-heavy population; and, of course, “ordinary” people who exchanged knowledge about esteemed foods.
A closer look, however, reveals that the asado, as practiced by an increasing majority of Argentines, was more a reflection of an urban, industrializing society than timeless rural customs. The updated version depended on a distinctly modern-day separation between work and leisure and related habits of sociability. The cut of meat that became the centerpiece of the ritual—the asado de tira (short rib)—was itself an artefact of the industrial age: only electrical saws adopted in the 1900s could easily cut meat in this fashion, which in any event came from more tender “improved” breeds of cattle. Nevertheless, these realities were disregarded: instead, the asado became a way that residents of the modern city and countryside could celebrate their shared ties to a distant, romanticized rural past, one that now defined what it meant to be authentically Argentine.
Commodities and Consumer Politics
The divergences between rural and urban Argentina were not resolved by culinary rituals alone (wonderfully pleasurable as they might be). Commodities took on greater political significance during the “Golden Age” and its aftermath, as sectors of the population grew frustrated with the enormous influence and wealth amassed by commodity producers. Naturally, there were conflicts in the countryside among the range of actors—landowners, small farmers, tenants, seasonal workers, and others—involved in raising livestock and harvesting crops. These contests resembled those of other commodity-exporting nations like the United States, which saw rural “populisms” that pitted smaller growers and laborers against powerful middlemen, big landowners, and transportation monopolies. In Argentina, however, disputes over labor and property played out primarily at the micro-level of rural society and through recourse to the legal system. Occasionally, they led to collective organizing, as in the violent 1893 uprisings of largely immigrant farmers in Santa Fe province, who vented anger at new tax policies. Although resentments in the countryside flared up sporadically, the locus of contention shifted in the early 20th century to urban spaces like Buenos Aires and to city-based actors such as labor unions, political parties, intellectuals, cultural industries, and national officials.
The grievances expressed against those in command of agro-pastoral production were many. A chorus of voices lamented the high cost of living experienced by laboring Argentines. Many critics (union and leftist activists among them) blamed those who controlled the food supply for being excessively greedy. Food prices for beef and other staples were low by world standards, but working families compared themselves to the middle classes and affluent in Argentina, who enjoyed truly abundant meals on a regular basis. At a deeper level, advocates objected to the fundamental inequalities of their society. Despite the bounty of the pampas, critics contended that the benefits of commodity production were concentrated in the hands of too few. Social reformers documented that in the land where hundreds of thousands of tons of wheat and high-quality beef were exported every year, working Argentines scraped to get by and the poor suffered from malnourishment.19
Other commentators directed their anger not only at landowners but at the influence wielded by the political allies of rural interests and foreign capitalists. Monopolistic grain trading and meatpacking companies and the predominantly British-owned railways received the brunt of attacks from those articulating a new economic nationalism. The terms of debate were sometimes taken to cartoonish extremes (a united Argentine people pitted against a cabal of corrupt oligarchs and imperialists), but the concentration of power was real enough, as were the underlying social inequities and unmet aspirations that made this worldview plausible. These critiques informed cultural expression, too, including writings by intellectuals on the nationalist Right and Left (such as Julio and Rodolfo Irazusta and Raúl Scalabrini Ortiz). The discourses of anti-monopolism even worked their way into popular entertainment like books and cinema, such as the 1938 feature film Kilómetro 111, a melodramatic tale of farm town residents exploited by an uncaring railway company.
These reactions were not unique, as they also surfaced in world regions to which Argentine commodities were exported. European consumers and urban workers, too, expressed dismay at high living costs, monopolistic companies, and the excessive riches of the commodity trade. But while these urban voices often clamored for lowering protectionist trade barriers, their counterparts representing the still sizable numbers of farmers and peasants in European society sought to contain the wave of cheap imports. European governments paid close attention to the politics of food supply, especially during the conflagrations of the First World War. The British statesman Lloyd George’s declaration, during a postwar visit to Buenos Aires, that “the war won by the Allies was due, in great part, to Argentine meat and wheat” may have been an ingratiating exaggeration, but there is no doubt that wartime governments kept anxious watch of climatic conditions, harvest forecasts, and shipping schedules.20 After the war, many states continued to regulate the commodity trade in efforts to guarantee social peace in a time of revolutionary unrest. The business of setting import tariffs and subsidies might not have dazzled the mass public, but it remained politically significant.
The problems associated with commodities and consumption in Argentina, however, became particularly charged and “visible” by the 1930s. Despite cost-of-living activism at the grassroots, state authorities were wary of action, including during the Radical Party era of popular republicanism (1912–1930). Liberal conceptions of laissez-faire commerce remained influential, while any effort aimed at benefiting consumers or redistributing wealth meant confronting entrenched rural interests. Argentina faced a special bind: prized commodities like beef could be exported abroad or consumed domestically. When commodity prices abroad were high, increased exports could mean less supply and higher prices for domestic markets; conversely, state interventions to benefit local consumers by limiting exports could cut into the profits of rural producers. More importantly, growth in Argentina’s export sector decelerated from the 1920s onward, which only raised the stakes of contests over distribution. Conservatives allied with this sector reacted to adverse global markets, followed by the calamity of the Great Depression, by flexing their political muscle: first, by backing panicked efforts to depose the elected Radical Party president over fears of potential demagoguery; and second, by making trade agreements with key partners like Britain and creating state trading boards to stabilize prices. These actions may have secured short-term objectives, but they further eroded the legitimacy of the nation’s ruling elites and failed to address underlying problems. If anything, these heavy-handed moves made it easier for critics to paint commodity producers as oligarchic malefactors and obstacles to national development.
These frictions finally ignited during the First Peronism (1943–1955). Driven by state concerns with guiding a transition to a postwar economy and by the demands of a burgeoning labor movement, Peronist officials pursued new directions in state regulation. They sought to protect local industrialization by boosting consumer spending power while improving living conditions for their political base. Although it was once common to view Peronism as a form of “urban populism,” it is more usefully seen as a nationalist attempt to reconfigure the relationship between rural and urban Argentina, including the balance between commodity exports and domestic consumption. In the countryside, the Perón government stopped well short of radical nationalizations or even modest land reform. Instead, the emphasis was on providing labor protections to rural workers and channeling profits from commodity exports through bureaucracies like the Instituto Argentino de Promoción del Intercambio (IAPI) to fund state social welfare programs and other ends. When combined with a postwar economic boom, these interventions widened the horizons of consumption for working-class Argentines. Peronist-era consumption was about far more than just food, but the ability of the poor to eat better meals and to access coveted foods like beef was taken as evidence of a socially just “New Argentina” in the making. Drawing together these various measures, Peronist authorities declaimed against the by-now-familiar enemies of the people, such as oligarchs, imperialists, and landowners. This rhetoric and the economic policies that accompanied them did little to endear Peronists to commodity exporters, but the fact that they resonated so strongly with a majority of Argentines demonstrates the depth of frustration among those who felt excluded from the bounty of the earlier “Golden Age.”
Commodities have remained a critical part of the nation’s economy and persisted as objects of contention throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. In the early 1950s, Peronist leaders reacted to adverse economic circumstances (some of their own making, others not) to alter course, implementing policies that favored rural exporters and constrained working-class consumption. Amid the partisan turmoil that characterized subsequent decades, a succession of civilian and military governments veered from measures benefiting rural producers to policies designed to channel commodity wealth to other developmental ends. This pattern of contention has resurfaced repeatedly in Argentine politics, most recently during heated clashes between the Cristina Fernández de Kirchner government and landowner organizations over a proposed windfall tax on commodity exports in the late 2000s, followed by the current Mauricio Macri government’s attempts to tip the balance in favor of rural producers. The social divide between rural and urban (and now suburban) Argentina shows few signs of being bridged, especially as more of the population becomes alienated from the ways of the countryside. At the same time, the process of deindustrialization that began in Argentina during the 1970s has made commodity exports more valuable as a source of foreign exchange and taxable state revenue. New export goods such as Malbec wine and apples destined for markets in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere have created additional riches from the 1990s onward. In recent decades, the economic ascendancy of China and other Asian countries has reinvigorated demand for the types of temperate staples that Argentina produces: commodities like soybeans used to make cooking oil and animal feed have surpassed older grain and meat exports. Will a “rising Asia” create the conditions for a new “Golden Age” in Argentina and the rest of Latin America, as some boosters claim? Or will this latest resurgence in commodity exports recreate older dependencies and intensify disputes over who should benefit from the wealth generated by global trade? Whatever the outcome, it is clear that commodities will continue to shape the future of Argentina and its relationship to the wider world.
Discussion of the Literature
The study of Argentine commodities began during the 1875–1913 heyday of expansion, as local residents and visitors assessed the changes taking place. This topic subsequently became of central interest to economic historians. By the 1960s and 1970s, researchers differed sharply in their assessments, reflecting various interpretive traditions (liberal, Marxist, “historical revisionist”) as well as discordant opinions regarding Peronism, among other subjects. Some historians (such as Carlos Díaz Alejandro and Roberto Cortés Conde) stressed the positive gains of the golden years and lamented subsequent stagnation. Inspired by dependency theory approaches, others highlighted the imperialist characteristics of export-led growth and questions of social equity (Aldo Ferrer, Ricardo Ortiz, and Horacio Gilberti, among others). Foreign scholars joined these debates while contributing insights on the social history of rural life (as in James Scobie’s work on wheat farming). The history of domestic consumption received far less attention, although it did feature indirectly in Peter Smith’s study of the politics of beef.
From the 1980s onward, new generations of historians sought to transcend the limitations of the liberal “what went wrong” tradition and left-leaning dependency theory alike. Hilda Sabato’s Capitalismo y ganadería en Buenos Aires (1989) accounted for the decisions taken by landowners, laborers, and others within the possibilities and constraints of the global wool market. Jonathan C. Brown’s study of 19th-century pastoral production explored the deep roots of commodity-led growth. Students of comparative development sought to better understand how factors such as property relations, political institutions, and labor systems in countries with comparable export profiles translated into such dissimilar economic fortunes. Jeremy Adelman’s work on the wheat lands of Argentina and Canada exemplified this approach and advanced lines of inquiry pursued earlier by Carl Solberg, D. C. M. Platt, and Donald Denoon, among others. Rather than highlighting overseas connections, researchers such as Ezequiel Gallo and Ricardo Salvatore delved further into the lives of grain farmers and the impact of turn-of-the-century growth on living standards. Although exports still attracted the lion’s share of academic interest, studies like Donna Guy’s work on sugar in Tucumán helped bring other staple goods and Argentine regions into the conversation.
Over the past two decades, the domestic economy has come into its own as a major focus of historical attention. Fernando Rocchi’s Chimneys in the Desert (2006) shed light on manufacturing’s origins during the golden years of commodity exports and its role in the creation of national markets. The emergence of consumer society from the early 20th century to the First Peronism has been the subject of diverse studies by Eduardo Elena, Natalia Milanesio, Mathew Karush, and others. These works have delved into the social experience of popular sector consumers and the characteristics of mass consumption in Argentina. In a related vein, scholars like Fernando Javier Remedi and Rebekah Pite have explored the history of food, region, and nation. At the same time, researchers circled back to classic topics like rural elites, as in works by Samuel Amaral and Roy Hora portraying landowners not only as profit-maximizing actors but as social and political agents as well. Agrarian capitalism remains a vibrant area of inquiry, as evidenced by the work of Osvaldo Barsky, Jorge Gelman, and others. Scholars are currently exploring new ways of placing commodity exports and the domestic economy within the same frame of analysis, a tendency evidenced in recent synthetic overviews of the 19th and 20th centuries by Hora, Gerchunoff and Llach, and Gerardo Della Paolera and Alan Taylor. Cortés Conde’s essay in An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Latin America (2000) offers a good starting point for those interested in the history of Argentina’s exporting economy during the turn of the century.
Sources on commodities and consumption are to be found in Argentina and around the world. Valuable quantitative information can be located in official publications, such as the Extracto estadístico de la República Argentina, the reports of bureaucracies like the Departamento (subsequently Ministerio) de Agricultura, and national and provincial censuses. National governments in Europe and the Americas also collected statistical data on the commodity trade. Specialist books on commodities provide a wealth of information: see William Goodwin, Wheat Growing in the Argentine Republic (1895)Google PreviewWorldCat; Raúl Lastra, El cultivo del trigo y el maíz (1908)Google PreviewWorldCat; and Paul Link, Sheep Breeding and Wool Production in the Argentine Republic (1934)Google PreviewWorldCat. Similar publications on the meat trade often contain more insights on consumption. Works consulted for this essay include: Sociedad Rural Argentina, Exportation of Meat from the Argentine Republic (1889)Google PreviewWorldCat; James Critchell and Joseph Raymond, A History of the Frozen Meat Trade (1912)Google PreviewWorldCat; Juan E. Richelet, La ganadería argentina y su comercio de carnes (1928)Google PreviewWorldCat; and Hugo Iannini, Comercio de carnes importadas en Inglaterra, Mercado de Smithfield (1936)Google PreviewWorldCat. A statistical portrait of the Argentine economy in this era can be found in: Ernesto Tornquist & Co,The Economic Development of the Argentine Republic in the Last Fifty Years (1919)Google PreviewWorldCat.Emilio Daireaux, Vida y costumbres en el Plata (1888)Google PreviewWorldCatEstanislao Zeballos, La rejión del trigo (1883)Google PreviewWorldCatJules Huret, De Buenos Aires al Gran Chaco (1911)Google PreviewWorldCatJohn Foster Fraser, The Amazing Argentine (1914)Google PreviewWorldCat
Travelogues by locals and foreigners offer crucial insights on the business of commodities as well as snapshots of Argentine landowners, merchants, farmers, and, more rarely, urban consumers: see ; and A través de las cabañas (1888); ; and , among many others.Juan Bialet Massé’s two-volume Informe sobre el estado de la clase obrera (1904)Google PreviewWorldCatMujeres que trabajan (dir. Manuel Romero, 1938)Google PreviewWorldCatKilómetro 111 (dir. Mario Soffici, 1938)Google PreviewWorldCat
The history of consumption in Argentina requires piecing together information from varied sources. These include statistical and reformist materials, such as and reports on working-class consumption in Buenos Aires gathered by the Departamento Nacional de Trabajo. Films provide a window onto Argentina’s emerging consumer society as well as a source of commentary on its problems: see and . The propagandistic tome La nación Argentina, justa, libre, soberana (1950) presents a vision of Peronist economic nationalism.
Adelman, Jeremy. Frontier Development: Land, Labour, and Capital on the Wheatlands of Argentina and Canada, 1890–1914. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.Find this resource:
Barsky, Osvaldo, and Jorge Gelman. Historia del agro argentino: desde la Conquista hasta fines del siglo XX. Buenos Aires: Grijalbo, 2001.Find this resource:
Brown, Jonathan C.A Socioeconomic History of Argentina, 1776–1860. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1979.Find this resource:
Cortés Conde, Roberto. El progreso argentino, 1880–1914. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1979.Find this resource:
Cortés Conde, Roberto. “The Vicissitudes of an Exporting Economy: Argentina, 1875–1930.” In An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Latin America, Victor Bulmer-Thomas, John H. Coatsworth, and Roberto Cortés Conde, eds., Vol. 1, 265–294. Oxford: Palgrave, 2000.Find this resource:
Elena, Eduardo. Dignifying Argentina: Peronism, Citizenship, and Mass Consumption. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011.Find this resource:
Gallo, Ezequiel. La Pampa gringa: la colonización agrícola en Santa Fe (1870–1895). Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1983.Find this resource:
Gerchunoff, Pablo, and Lucas Llach. El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto: un siglo de políticas económicas argentinas. Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1998.Find this resource:
Gilberti, Horacio. Historia económica de la ganadería argentina. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Solar, 1981.Find this resource:
Hora, Roy. Los terratenientes de la pampa argentina: una historia social y política, 1860–1945. Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2005.Find this resource:
Hora, Roy. Historia económica de la Argentina en el siglo XIX. Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2010.Find this resource:
Laborde, Gustavo. El asado: origen, historia, ritual. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2013.Find this resource:
Milanesio, Natalia. Workers Go Shopping in Argentina: The Rise of Popular Consumer Culture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2013.Find this resource:
Perren, Richard. The Meat Trade in Britain 1840–1914. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978.Find this resource:
Pite, Rebekah. Creating a Common Table in Twentieth-Century Argentina: Doña Petrona, Women, and Food. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013.Find this resource:
Remedi, Fernando Javier. Los secretos de la olla: entre el gusto y la necesidad: la alimentación en la Córdoba de principios del siglo XX. Córdoba, Argentina: Centro de Estudios Históricos, 1998.Find this resource:
Rocchi, Fernando. Chimneys in the Desert: Industrialization in Argentina During the Export Boom Years, 1870–1930. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.Find this resource:
Sabato, Hilda. Agrarian Capitalism and the World Market: Buenos Aires in the Pastoral Age, 1840–1890. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990. (Originally published in Spanish by Sudamericana in 1989.)Find this resource:
Scobie, James. Revolution on the Pampas: A Social History of Argentine Wheat, 1860–1910. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964.Find this resource:
Smith, Peter. The Politics of Beef in Argentina: Patterns of Conflict and Change. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.Find this resource:
(1.) William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), xvii.
(2.) Roy Hora, Historia económica de la Argentina en el siglo XIX (Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2010), 259. These estimates vary considerably: at the high end, estimates are 3.7 percent per capita growth and 6.7 percent per annum over 1875–1913; see Roberto Cortés Conde, “The Vicissitudes of an Exporting Economy: Argentina, 1875–1930,” in An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Latin America, Vol. 1, Victor Bulmer-Thomas, John H. Coatsworth, and Roberto Cortés Conde, eds. (Oxford: Palgrave, 2000), 267.
(3.) Jonathan C. Brown, A Socioeconomic History of Argentina, 1776–1860 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 50–68.
(5.) Raúl Mandrini and Sara Ortelli, Volver al país de los araucanos (Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1992), 53–67.
(6.) Hilda Sabato, Agrarian Capitalism and the World Market: Buenos Aires in the Pastoral Age, 1840–1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990), 32.
(7.) Hora, Historia económica, 189, 198.
(8.) Jules Huret, De Buenos Aires al Gran Chaco (Buenos Aires: Hyspamérica, 1986, originally published 1911), 428.
(10.) Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
(11.) Richard Perren, The Meat Trade in Britain 1840–1914 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), 3.
(12.) Eduardo Elena, Dignifying Argentina: Peronism, Citizenship, and Mass Consumption (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011), 88.
(13.) Fernando Rocchi, Chimneys in the Desert: Industrialization in Argentina during the Export Boom Years, 1870–1930 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006). 51.
(15.) Elena, Dignifying Argentina, 24–26.
(16.) Hora, Historia económica, 210, 231.
(17.) Fernando Javier Remedi, Los secretos de la olla. Entre el gusto y la necesidad: la alimentación en la Córdoba de principios del siglo XX (Córdoba, Argentina: Centro de Estudios Históricos, 1998).
(18.) This discussion of the asado is drawn from a fascinating study of neighboring Uruguay by anthropologist Gustavo Laborde. Similar dynamics were at work in Argentina See Gustavo Laborde, El asado: origen, historia, ritual (Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, 2013).
(19.) Elena, Dignifying Argentina, 34–51.
(20.) Juan E. Richelet, La ganadería argentina y su comercio de carnes (Buenos Aires: J. Lajouane y Cia, 1928), 71. | <urn:uuid:9542f141-74ad-49b0-a674-49a9a2fd0ad2> | {
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Chemical symbol Sb One of the metals that may be alloyed with tin to create pewter. First used by British pewterers in the later 17th century. Historically known as ‘regulus’.
A lidded or unlidded measure with a distinctive, slightly bulbous body. When lidded, often classified by the shape of the thumbpiece (e.g. hammerhead, bud, double volute, etc.). Very long history of use. Replaced in the early 19th century by the squatter bulbous measure whose body has a much more pronounced bulge.
A handle-less mug or cup. Most common in England in the 19th century.
A badge, usually made of pewter, issued by parishes to ‘licensed’ beggars to be sewn into their clothing. Issued in Britain and Ireland between the 16th & 19th centuries. Some mediaeval examples are also known, mainly in continental Europe.
See ‘bulbous measure’.
A porringer-like vessel for blood letting, often with capacity marks around the inside of the bowl. Usually has straight, rather than curved, sides.
Chemical symbol Bi A pinkish white metal sometimes added to pewter in small quantities to improve the casting qualities of the alloy. Historically known as ‘tin glass’.
Booge (or Bouge)
The curved wall between the well and rim of a plate or dish.
A domed centre to a plate or dish: also referred to as a ‘bumpy-bottom’.
A trade description for a pewter alloy containing a comparatively high proportion of antimony – typically 92% tin, 6% antimony and 2% copper. This alloy was first introduced by Sheffield manufacturers in the second half of the 18th century and is a product of the industrial revolution. It was also known in its early days as white metal. As an alloy it has characteristics which permit articles to be made by cold-forming the alloy in sheet form (e.g. by spinning or stamping) rather than by casting. N.B. Some earlier books assert, possibly due to ignorance of the contents of the alloy, that Britannia Metal is not pewter!
Bulbous or Bellied Measure
A round bodied, mug-like vessel made in abundance during the 19th century and into the 20th century. Used in pubs and inns to provide varying measures of beer, ale, cider, spirits, etc. Usually lidless and in sizes ranging from a gallon down to very small sizes ).
A salt in the general form of a capstan in use c 1675-1700.
Process whereby molten pewter is poured into a mould to form the desired article. This was the main way of forming pewter articles until the introduction of Britannia Metal allowed items to be cold-formed from sheet metal. However, even then casting continued to be used for certain types of vessel such as measures and pub pots and to provide the thumbpieces, knops, handles, feet, etc. of articles whose bodies were made from sheet metal.
A small vessel with a perforated top used to dispense salt, sugar or sand.
A stemmed cup used for ecclesiastical purposes. Most correctly for use in the Roman Catholic Mass and provided with a small bowl; however, often also used to describe Protestant communion cups, which have far larger bowls.
A piece of sadware, 18 inches (460mm) or greater in diameter.
A Scottish measure with a capacity equal to a half Scots pint, or 1½ pint Imperial measure.
A coin like item usually of pewter, or white metal but sometimes lead or brass and made in a variety of shapes (round, oval, rectangular, octagonal, etc.). Issued to those deemed eligible to take communion. Originating in Scotland, the use of such tokens spread to other countries where significant numbers of Scots settled, e.g. Canada & New Zealand. Some English examples are also found.
The slow formation of a dark layer of oxide on the surface of pewter. Depending on the alloy, the corrosion can range from a very thin and hard layer to a thick and crusty scale.
Chemical symbol Cu A red brown metal alloyed with tin and sometimes antinomy to form pewter.
Used to describe a Scottish tappit hen with a knop on the lid.
A piece of sadware 11 to 18 inches (280 to 460 mm) in diameter.
The body of a tankard, mug, measure, or flagon.
E.P.B.M. Electroplated Britannia Metal.
Eruption. Oxidation (corrosion) which has resulted in surface bubbles.
Fake or Forgery. A piece made purposely to deceive prospective buyers or which has been altered in some way/s (e.g. by adding marks or decoration) with the intention to deceive, usually by suggesting it is of greater age, value or interest than it really is
Fillet. The raised moulding around the drum of a tankard, mug, measure or flagon or around the underside of the rim of a plate or other item of sadware.
Finial. Various. A type of knop on an early spoon; the terminal end of a handle on a tankard, mug, etc.; or the knop on the lid of a flagon or other lidded container.
Flagon. A lidded container, used for ecclesiastical and domestic purposes. Flagons are often referred to by their style, e.g. Spire, Straight-Sided, York, Rembrandt (a Dutch style often illustrated in works by that artist and his contempories), etc.; their lids, e.g. Beefeater (shape similar to a Beefeater’s hat), Bun-Lid, Dome-Lid, etc.; or by their thumbpieces, e.g. Acorn.
Gadrooning. A form of raised, cast decoration found on candlesticks, salts and other vessels. (ref 1, p 15 etc.)
Garnish. A set of sadware for the table.
Gill. A quarter of a pint. (See also noggin or naggin.)
Guernsey measure. A type of measure typical of those made for use in Guernsey; strongly influenced by pewter forms from Normandy.
Hall marks. Similar in appearance (but not meaning) to hall marks used by gold and silversmiths. Designed by the maker and presumably used to make pewter appear as much like silver as possible. (See Pewter Marks: an Introduction)
Hammermen. A term that was used in the British Isles and continental Europe to describe metalworkers (including pewterers) whose work involved use of a hammer.
Harvester. A term used to describe a haystack-shaped measure used in the West-Country from the late 18th century. Also an alternative name for the Irish haystack measure.
Haystack. A term generally applied to a type of measure originally developed in Cork, Ireland with a shape reminiscent of a haystack. Sometimes also called a harvester measure but differing in shape from the West-Country version. Subsequently and later copied in England and the USA.
Hollow-ware. Vessels (such as tankards, measures and flagons) made to hold liquids, as distinct from sadware.
Imperial standard. Established in the Geo IV Weights and Measure Act of 1824 with introduction delayed to 1January 1826. The Act “…completely reorganized British metrology and established Imperial weights and measures; defined the yard, troy and avoirdupois pounds and the gallon (as the standard of measure for liquids and dry goods not measure by heaped measure), [and] …continued the existing system by which local Examiners were responsible for the inspection of trade weights and measures…” (note 2, pg 251)
Jersey Measure. A type of measure produced for use in Jersey; strongly influenced by pewter forms from Normandy.
Journeyman. A craftsman, who had completed his apprenticeship and worked for another master pewterer rather than on his own behalf.
Knop. The finial on the end of a spoon or the knob on lids of flagons, tankards, etc.
Laver. A type of church flagon, lidded or un-lidded, used in Scotland to carry wine or hold water used at baptism.
Lead. Chemical symbol Pb One of the metals that may be alloyed with tin to create pewter. Romano-British pewter often contains a relatively high lead content, making it fairly soft and heavy. Some British pewter of the late 17th,18th & 19th centuries can also contain a significant lead content. Modern pewter is always essentially lead-free.
L.T.P. London Touch Plate. Pewter plates on which master pewterers were required to strike their touch on opening a shop.
Maker’s mark. See Pewter Marks: an Introduction
Mark. See hall mark, maker’s mark, secondary mark, touch mark and verification mark. Also see Pewter Marks: an Introduction for more details.
Measure. A container of a standard capacity. Of particular interest to collectors due to the wide variety of standards suggesting provenance and the seemingly innumerable marks that “were struck, branded or engraved” (2, vii) on them to indicate they conformed.
Mug or pot. A lidless, handled container of various forms and standard capacities. Frequently used in pubs to serve beer, ale, cider or spirits. Pub pieces may have a variety of marks to include makers, capacity, verification, and others which suggest provenance.
Multi-reed. A descriptive term for a plate, dish or charger with several decorative rings at the edge of the rim, usually cast but occasionally incised. Popular from c 1675 to 1715.
Mutchkin. A Scottish measure that is one quarter of a Scots pint (15 fluid ounces).
Narrow rim. A plate (or, rarely, other sadware) with an exceptionally narrow rim, less than 10% of the overall diameter.
Noggin or Naggin. An Irish measure of a quarter of a pint.
O.E.W.S. Old English Wine Standard. A measure of capacity abolished in 1826 in the UK and dominions but continuing in use in the USA (one pint OEWS = 16.7 fluid ounces)
Oxidation. One of the processes which contributes to corrosion.
Paten. A shallow plate used for bread in the Holy Communion/Mass service.
P.C.C.A. Pewter Collectors’ Club of America.
Pewter. An alloy consisting predominately of tin, but alloyed with some other metal(s) to make it stronger and easier to cast or spin. Metals that have been alloyed with tin include copper, antimony, bismuth and lead. The tin content of most pewter exceeds 90%, although there are some exceptions (see lead).
Pilgrim Badge. A badge, usually made of pewter, worn by pilgrims to holy shrines in England and continental Europe between the 13th & 15th centuries. Badges were usually specific to the pilgrimage depicting the saint or images pertaining to the saint or his shrine. They were sewn or pinned onto clothes or worn as pendants. At the end of the journey home, many pilgrims discarded their badges and large quantities have been found on the foreshores of rivers such as the Thames in London and Seine in Paris.
Pip. Pre-imperial pub pot. A pub piece manufactured before the introduction of Imperial measure standards in 1826.
Plate. A piece of sadware, 7 to11 inches (180 to 280 mm) in diameter.
Porringer. A small bowl with either one or two handles or “ears”. Used for eating soft food such as gruel.
Provenance. Attributions to a maker, owner or locality.
Pub Pot. Lidless drinking mug owned by the tavern or pub. See ‘pip’.
Quaich. A very rare style of Scottish handled bowl somewhat similar to a porringer; probably used for drinking from.
Reed. The moulding, usually cast but occasionally incised, round the edge of sadware. Single or multiple reeding is a guide to the period of manufacture.
Repousse. Relief decoration formed by hammering.
Reproduction. A piece made as a copy of an older form without the intention to deceive as to age.
Retainer’s Badge. A badge, often made of pewter, worn by servants of royal or noble houses. Badges depicted elements of the arms of the house, e.g. rose, crown, etc. and were usually attached by a pin .
Sadware. Saucers, plates, dishes and chargers.
Salt. An open vessel used for dispensing salt. Sometimes referred to as salt-cellar (a corruption of the French ‘salière’)
Saucer. An item of sadware less than 7 inches (180mm) in diameter.
Scale. Hard oxide on pewter. Prone to flaking with rough handling.
Secondary marks. Any mark other than a touch mark which was struck on his/her wares by a pewterer. Common secondary marks include hall marks, a rose and crown, crown and X, logos such as “Hard Metal”, the pewterer’s address or even an advertising slogan. (See Pewter Marks: an Introduction)
Single reed. A descriptive term for a plate, dish or charger with a single cast moulding at the edge of the rim (on the upper surface). Popular from c 1690 to 1730, though some pewterers (e.g. those in Bristol, Devon and London, including or those exporting to the US) went on using this style into the 19th century.
Spinning. Process of forming an article by mounting a piece of sheet metal on a chuck and forcing it over a former whilst it is rotating.
Stamping. Process of forming an article by stamping a piece of sheet metal in a press.
Standish. An inkstand, most frequently footed and with a single or double lid.
Tankard. A lidded drinking vessel. (Unlidded drinking vessels are usually called “pots” or “mugs”.) Often classified by the type of lid, e.g. Dome, Double Dome, Flat, or by shape, e.g. Straight-Sided, Tulip.
Tappit hen. A Scottish measure found in various sizes (e.g. chopin and mutchkin) of a distinctive waisted form.
Tavern pot. Properly, a baluster measure owned by the tavern although often used as an alternative term for ‘mug’ or ‘pub pot’.
Tazza. A footed plate or shallow bowl.
Thumbpieces. Types include Acorn, Ball, Bud, Chairback, Double Volute, Erect, Hammerhead, Knopped Ball, Leaf, Palmette, Plume, Ramshorn, Scroll, Shell, Spade, Spray, etc. The style of the thumbpiece on a lidded flagon, tankard or measure is often used to classify the vessel itself as in ‘Bud Baluster Measure’.
Tin. Chemical symbol Sn The principle component of pewter. A silver-grey crystalline metal with a low melting point of 232 Centigrade. For thousands of years tin was mined mainly in Devon and Cornwall. From mediaeval times until the 17th century, kings of England secured control over the mines’ output using the tin produced as a means of raising money.
Tin pest. The disintegration of pure tin into powder at very low temperatures as it loses its crystalline structure. Contrary to the statements in some early books on pewter, tin pest never affects pewter.
Touch mark. See Pewter Marks: an Introduction
Triple reed. Another term used to describe a multi-reed plate, dish or charger with cast rings on the edge of the rim.
Verification Marks. Marks placed on a vessel certifying that the vessel was of correct capacity. Pieces may have been initially verified at source of manufacture, but were frequently verified at their place of use as well. A multiplicity of marks exist for monarchs, counties and localities that add great interest to collectors since they can convey provenance and because there is still a great deal to discover. N.B. Reference two below, published in 1996, is the most extensive work to-date on weights and measures used in the United Kingdom. (See Pewter Marks: an Introduction).
Wavy edge. A piece of sadware whose rim is formed of curved segments. Sometimes cast in this form but often created by adapting standard plates.
White Metal. See Britannia Metal. Beware, however, a white smith is a person who works in cold iron; that is the opposite of a blacksmith, and not somebody who works white metal.
Wrigglework. Zig-zag “engraving,” made by walking a screwdriver-like tool from corner to corner of the blade. Such engraving can often be quite crude and naive. | <urn:uuid:c5660204-a09b-4fd2-8108-924588f9132d> | {
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E:\sjef\uvi\publications\gf6-nec.PDF GARDENERS FACTSHEET NO. 6 FEBRUARY, 1979 Revised Nov. 1994 HOW TO PREPARE YOUR OWN COMPOST Dr. John M. Gerber Vegetable Specialist Plant materials, animal manures and soil microorganisms are combined in a pile to create valuable compost. Compost is partially decomposed organic material which, when added to the garden, improves both the physical structure and fertility of the soil. Annual additions of compost and other organic materials will provide benefits that may not be immediately apparent but improve the soil over time. As partially decayed organic matter continues to decompose in the soil, fine soil particles are collected together into larger crumb-like masses. These larger particles will not pack as close together as smaller particles. This action will improve drainage and aeration and will “lighten” heavy clay soils. Sandy, well-drained soils made up of primarily large size soil particles are likely to dry out rapidly and cause plants to wilt. Additions of organic matter such as compost will increase the ability of sandy soils to retain moisture and nutrients. As compost decomposes in the soil, plant nutrients are slowly released to the plant. Although this will not supply all the nutrients required for optimum growth, it will help supply most of the plant nutrients required in small amounts (trace elements). Nutrients required in large amounts, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, should be supplied in a concentrated form, such as 10-10-10 fertilizer for maximum yields. However, the gardener who is not concerned with maximum production can supply adequate nutrition using only manure and compost. Annual applications of 4 bushels of manure per 100 sq. ft. plus generous amounts of compost will produce adequate yields. THE PILE All plant and animal material will eventually decay if it is exposed to warm, moist conditions. The compost pile provides those conditions so that the microorganisms can rapidly decompose organic materials. | <urn:uuid:ef214ffb-1d23-4ad3-ab1e-b19b9ee869d9> | {
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A renowned biologist answers one of the most
important questions in the life sciences
Darwinian theory explains what happens when
innovations arise among living things, but it doesn’t tell us how those
innovations came about in the first place. As genetics pioneer Hugo de Vries
put it, “Natural selection may explain the survival of the fittest, but it
cannot explain the arrival of the fittest.”
Andreas Wagner, an award-winning evolutionary biologist,
has found that life can innovate itself far faster than scientists previously
thought possible. His research shows how adaptations are not just driven by
chance but rather by a set of laws that allow nature to discover new molecules
and mechanisms in a fraction of the time that random variation would take.
Filled with examples of the remarkable biological
creativity that surrounds us, Arrival of the Fittest breaks new ground
in explaining how innovations in nature occur. Download and start listening now! | <urn:uuid:4c2681b1-cab4-42cc-bb63-a4ca043c8899> | {
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We’ve gone through engine sizes and mods for your strip burner. We’ve discussed the pros and cons of the different types of fuel delivery systems. We’ve even discussed transmissions for your strip burner. The last thing we need to talk about is the differential, also known as the rear-end.
What Is a Differential?
Almost every motor vehicle made these days requires a differential. Every vehicle with an engine and transmission needs one. The differential, in a read drive vehicle, translates the longitudinal rotation (more on that later) of the driveshaft to the axial (later on for this too) rotation that the wheels need to drive the vehicle forwards or back. The differential is also responsible for sending the engine’s torque to the drive wheels.
Vehicle engines are mounted one of two ways in the vehicle: axially, for front wheel drive, and longitudinally for rear drive vehicles, with the front of the engine being at and pointing at the front of the car. Thus, longitudinal rotation is rotation along the lengthwise-front-to-rear- axis of the vehicle. In front wheel drive vehicles, the differential is an integral part of the transmission and the full assembly is called a transaxle.
What Types of Differentials Are There?
There are basically two general types of differentials: those built for passenger vehicles and light trucks and those built for big heavy-duty trucks. Passenger and light truck differentials can be further broken down into three categories: Limited slip differentials, positive traction differentials, and lockup or lockers. There are some people that categorize limited slip and positive traction (posi-trac) differentials in the same category and add another, the open differential. Racers don’t.
The Limited Slip Differential
The limited slip differential is so-named because it is designed to limit slippage of the driven wheel. In other words, when the differential “senses” that one wheel has lost traction, it will send the torque to the wheel with more traction. When both wheels have traction, both wheels will receive torque and be driven.
A good example of this can be seen when a car equipped with a limited slip does a burn out. You may see tread marks from both wheels or you may see marks from only one. However, you may also see the burnout marks swap sides. This is because the diff “senses” the wheel burning rubber losing traction and sends torque to the other wheel, but then that wheel breaks traction. The process can be repeated until the vehicle’s velocity catches up to the applied torque, or the diff can go into posi-mode and deliver torque to both wheels.
Another reason that we have limited slip differentials is about physics. When two wheels on a single axle track through a corner, the wheel on the outside of the turn (example: The left wheel when turning right) has to travel farther. If the differential delivers the same amount of torque to both wheels, the inner axle has a good possibility of stripping gear teeth or snapping.
The Locker or Spool Differential
The differential types listed above all have one drawback when considering them for use in our strip burners. They both introduce or allow some loss of engine torque through internal slippage. This isn’t good for our strip burners. We need full power transferred to the ground all the time. Since we aren’t doing any cornering at speed, we don’t want that slippage.
So what’s a drag racer to do? Install a locking differential. These are known as lockers, locking diffs, spoolers, or spooling differentials.
The Positive Traction Differential
This type of differential is commonly referred to as a posi or posi-trac differential. This is the kind of differential that most race vehicles have, whether straight liners or circle/oval track racers. Oval and circle track racers usually use tires of differing sizes to make up for the difference in distance travelled by the right wheels.
A posi rear-end delivers torque to both wheels, regardless of whether either has full traction or not. You can see this when a dragster does its warmup burnouts. Both tires throw off huge amounts of smoke and leave tire marks (although you won’t see them if the track is “seasoned.”)
The Parts of a Differential
In my more than 40 years of working on cars, I’ve heard some of the major components of a differential given slightly different names, so where a part has multiple names, I will use the ones I know. The two major components of a differential that you can see without opening it are the axle housing and the cover.
Most GM and Ford rear-ends have their cover on the rear of the diff. This cover is usually secured to the housing with anywhere from 10 to 15 bolts, give or take. These differentials can be worked on without removing the driveshaft or dropping them from the vehicle. Most older Mopar axles, however, require you to remove the driveshaft because the central portion of the axle housing itself is two-piece.
The driveshaft connects to an input yoke which is connected to a shaft that passes through a seal into the axle housing. On the other side of that shaft if the pinion gear. The pinion gear drives a large round gear that is sometimes called the ring gear, while others call it the pumpkin gear.
Bolted to the backside of the ring gear is either the carrier or the differential housing. This component is known as the differential housing because this is where the action of the differential, allowing one wheel to turn faster or slower than the other, occurs. I was taught this was the carrier, while others also call it the differential cage.
Inside the carrier are two more sets of gears. Two of the gears are physically connected to the carrier and rotate with it. These are called either spider gears or planetary gears. I learned both terms at an early age. Planetary gear is usually used because they rotate around the two end gears which are connected through internal splines to the axle shafts.
There are a number of other parts inside the differential such as bearing caps, retainer pins and/or caps, shims, and washers. Some differentials are also equipped with shims which help with the differential effect.
The Meat and Potatoes-Gear Ratios
The gear ratio of the differential refers to the ratio between the number of teeth on the ring and pinion gears. This ratio is obtained by counting the number of teeth on the driven gear, the ring or pumpkin, and dividing that number by the number of teeth on the drive gear, the pinion. The higher the number the better. For example, we have a ring gear with 37 teeth and a pinion gear with nine teeth. Our gear ratio is 4.11:1. This means that for every full revolution of the ring gear, the pinion will turn 4.11 full revolutions.
Waitaminit there Mike!?!?! We want more turns of the axle for every turn of the pinion! Yes, yes you do. However, the gear ratio is also a type of mechanical advantage, a torque multiplier if you will. The higher the number/ratio, the more the torque is multiplied. If your engine is putting out 500 pounds-feet and you have a 4.10 rear gear, the final torque applied to the wheels will be in the area of 2050 lb-ft. However, if you’ve got 3.83 gears installed, you’re only putting 1915 lb-ft to the ground. Those 3.83 gears? Strictly street use, my friend.
One thing I’ve got to mention here is that differential gearing is counter-intuitive. A higher number is a lower gear ratio. This means that the 4.11 gears you want for your dragster are lower than the 3.83 gears you want for your street car. I know, it doesn’t make sense, but it is what is.
Ok, now throw all that out the window. Those 4.10 gears are for the engine that makes most of its power in the upper RPM ranges. Some engines, such as some from Buick, Olds, and Pontiac make most of their power in the lower ranges. Cars with these engines, and dragsters that are nitrous-equipped are going to want higher gears, possibly as high as 3.50s or 3.73s. These higher gears help spread the torque range out some and allow you to make use of every bit of torque all the way through the traps.
Use a Gear Ratio Calculator to Choose the Right Gears
There is no hard and fast rule on determining what gears you’re going to want other than use a gear ratio calculator. Exactly what ratio you need for maximum strip performance will depend on your engine’s output, the top speed you’re shooting for, and the size (external diameter) of your tires at speed. That last part is important. Whether you’re running a set of street-legal Goodyear
Eagles or a set of Mickey-Thompson or Hoosier slicks, your tires will expand as their rotational speed increases. This affects the final drive ratio of the rear-end.
Watch an NHRA race with dragsters using those large slicks. As the driver does his burnouts and his launch, pay attention to the rear tires on the car. You’ll notice that the outer diameter of the tire can increase by as much as a foot. The taller the tire is, the more distance it will travel per revolution. For this reason, when building a strip burner, don’t use tires that will completely fill the wheel well if you’re building a closed wheel racer. Remember tire expansion.
Who Makes the Best Racing Differentials and Axles?
What day of the week is it? Who is making the recommendation? My favorites are Strange Engineering and Dana/Spicer. However, some of my racing friends also rear-ends and axles from Wallace Racing and Moser Engineering. | <urn:uuid:becd5e0c-702e-4944-9e49-e8ff3c59c90d> | {
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A Brief Historical Overview of Major Cultural Activism in the First Decades of the 20th Century:
A Speech Presented at a Panel Discussion, The Challenges of Creating a Culture of Culture in the US Left, at LEFT FORUM, March 19, 2011, NYC
By John Pietaro
The art of rebellion is a tradition as old as dissent itself. Radical writers, musicians, painters, actors, dancers and other creative activists have long used their artwork as a weapon in the fight for social justice, toward revolution. If the very nature of expressive freedom lends itself toward a revolutionary voice, then it is arguable that the arts gave birth to radicalism, or in the least offered a view toward its path. Cultural workers have the power to put melody to fiery speeches and add a rainbow of color to the black-and-white of dogma.
In the wake of Marx, Engels and Lenin, artists, drawing on their own heritage of radicalism, forged a central place for cultural workers within the Left. In the United States, three radical movements have demonstrated the strongest use of the arts as tools for activists. In their chronological order they are the Socialist Party USA (dating from 1901), the Industrial Workers of the World (1905) and the Communist Party USA (1919). My brief talk today will offer but a sketch of the cultural institutions these organizations created in the first decades of the twentieth century. This work can be a model for the battles which rage ahead of us.
Labor agitator and leader of the American Railway Union, Eugene V. Debs, forged the Socialist Party in 1901, but one year into the new century. The timing was far from coincidental for the Party called for the dawning of a new day for working people. Its focus was on a wide sort of social change --and its arts endeavors began shortly thereafter. Publisher Charles H. Kerr released the pioneering song book Socialist Songs With Music that same year. In the introduction, Kerr wrote that this book was the first attempt to publish a collection of Socialist songs intended for the use of Socialists within the United States specifically. He added, “We American Socialists are only beginning to sing”.
Initially, the SP’s arts endeavors were loosely organized, used primarily as outreach for Eugene V. Debs’ presidential campaigns. Cultural workers involved included the much celebrated novelist Jack London and groundbreaking poet and folk song collector Carl Sandburg (1878-1967), among other notable contributors including poet and organizer Vachel Lindsay(1879-1931).
As the Socialist Party’s arts activism grew, the Left was able to look toward another grouping to see the possibilities of cultural work come to fruition. Of all US radical organizations, the Industrial Workers of the World , founded in 1905, is perhaps that which has most fully embraced cultural workers. Many, many of its early organizers were writers, musicians or visual artists (often all three!) and successfully used the arts as a tool in organizing workers across the globe.
Joe Hill (Joel Emmanuel Haaglund, aka Joseph Hillstrom, 1878-1915) was—and remains--the IWW’s guiding force. A model for the fighting cultural worker, Hill wrote globally relevant, militant topical songs and biting parodies in support of the union cause and in the process, spawned a legend. Among his most famous pieces are “The Preacher and the Slave”, “Casey Jones, the Union Scab”, “There is Power in the Union”, amidst an stream of others. He became a mythic character in all Left factions when he was silenced by the state of Utah via his infamous unjust execution. Famously, his last written statement was “Don’t mourn for me---organize”.
But Hill was only the most prominent of cultural workers among the IWW. Predating him was Mac McClintock, composer of such well-known pieces as “Big Rock Candy Mountain” and “Halleluiah I’m a Bum” and the leader of the first Industrial Workers Band which shook the mountains of the industrial northwest. Another Wob who offered lasting revolutionary music and prose was Ralph Chaplin, who wrote labor’s anthem, “Solidarity Forever” in 1911. The magnificent force of the Wobblies was seen as a great threat by the powers that be; in this period, and into the next decade, they became the subject of vicious, violent raids which greatly hurt their numbers. While the embrace of the arts remained an IWW staple, the impact their cultural workers provided was curtailed by the constant throttle of a reactionary government hell-bent on destroying them. Another movement would need to pick up on this work if there was to be a real case of “Art as a Weapon” within the US left-wing.
John Reed (1887 – 1920) was a poet, journalist, revolutionary who may best be reflected upon as the artist of conscience who never sought out mythic status. Often reviled by the ruling class for his purposeful refuting of the prestige he was born into, Reed remains an anomaly on the Left. Most vexing is that his deeply relevant role as a revolutionary in the Communist movement he helped to found seems to be only acknowledged begrudgingly.
By 1919 he, along with activist Benjamin Gitlow, led a portion of the Socialist Party’s Left-wing into the formation of the Communist Labor Party, one of the two early communist organizations in this nation which would lead to the founding of the Communist Party of the USA. He also served as a contributing editor of its initial organ, the Revolutionary Age and then became editor of the Communist magazine and a noted public speaker for the cause of the workers’ uprising---this in a time of the Palmer Raids, mass arrests of radicals and the constant threat of the war-time Espionage Act hanging overhead.
Louis Fraina (1892-1953) was already a noted author and editor during his years of activism within the Socialist Party, IWW and, earlier, the Socialist Labor Party. His writings on modern dance and advocacy for free-verse poetry in this period indicate his strong vision of the power of the arts. Upon the SP Left-wing separation, Fraina and Charles Ruthenberg led the largely immigrant Communist Party of America before it joined forces with the Communist Labor Party in 1920, until both merged a year later. Hence, it needs to be stated that the Communist Party was founded by artists!
VJ Jerome—the party’s primary cultural leader who is as criticized for his hard-line Stalinist approach to the role of artists as party functionaries. But he is also praised for having the vision to pull together the strongest, most lasting program of revolutionary arts in the nation and one which had a global impact.
While the IWW struggled to rebuild itself in the face of constant right-wing assault, the Socialist Party began to build its own cultural program, the Rebel Arts Group, led by Samuel H. Friedman, a writer and SP leader. Based out of the Party’s Rand School of Socialist Science in the Greenwich Village section of New York City stands as the Party’s strongest opportunity for the development of arts-activism. Rebel Arts’ agenda was largely theatrical, offering a series of radical plays in various New York union halls. But the Group also focused on a wider array of programming. It sponsored a photography club, a chess club, a drama club, hosted a wide array of concerts in the hall of the Rand School and ran, for a time, its own radio station, WEVD, so named for Debs himself. But as the Popular Front came to a close, so followed Rebel Arts, which continued to present a smaller and smaller array of events through the 1940s, until finally abandoning the complete program by decade’s end.
However, even during the heyday of Rebel Arts, the Socialist Party’s cultural organizers raced to keep up with the then rival Communist Party. As the 1920s moved into the ‘30s, both Michael Gold and VJ Jerome helped to initiate countless cultural workers into their ranks. Further, the Party had legions of “fellow travelers” who were either unofficial members or interested sympathizers, particularly during the Popular Front period. Attempting to list all of the brilliant artists associated with the CP’s cultural projects, journals, organizations, events and front groups in this 20 year period alone would rate a full college course in and of itself. I risk sounding insulting by merely mentioning the names and not the extensive bios of these gifted, radical cultural workers, but I prefer to at least offer some acknowledgement; here goes:
Paul Robeson, John Reed, Michael Gold, Woody Guthrie, Langston Hughes, Meridel Le Seuer, Floyd Dell, Hazel Scott, Nelson Algren, Henry Cowell, Kenneth Burke, Lillian Hellman, Malcolm Cowley, Frank Marshall Davis, Upton Sinclair, Ella Mae Wiggins, Richard Wright, Dashiell Hammet, Tllie Olsen, Waldo Frank, Sam Ornitz, Erskine Caldwell, Louis Engdahl , James Baldwin, Aunt Mollie Jackson, John Dos Passos, John Howard Lawson, Mary Heaton Vorse, Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan, Howard Fast, John Garfield, Sarah Ogan, Edmund Wilson, Sherwood Anderson, EE Cummings, Ernest Hemingway, Hart Crane, Will Geer, Josh White, Rose Pastor Stokes, Isidor Schneider, Granville Hicks, William Gropper, Walter Lowenfels, Jack Gilford, Theodore Dreiser, Rockwell Kent, Florence Reese, Dalton Trumbo, Ring Lardner, Albert Maltz, Marc Blitzstein, Dorothy Parker, John Sloan, Stuart Davis, Abraham Polonsky, Donald Ogden Stewart, John Dos Passos, Lincoln Steffens, Charlie Chaplin, Pete Seeger, Claude McKay, Edith Segal, Aaron Copland, Arturo Giovannitti, Dorothy Day, Louis Untermeyer, Hugo Gellert, Robert Minor, Elie Siegmeister, Ruth Crawford, Alfred Hayes, Leo Hurwitz, Art Young , the Composers Collective of New York, the Workers Theatre Laboratory, the John Reed Club, the Almanac Singers, the Golden Gate Quartet, the New Playwrights, the Group Theatre, the Theatre Union, the Red Dancers, the Film and Photo League, the Provincetown Players, the League of American Writers, the New Dance Group, the American Artists Congress
…………and a seemingly endless list beyond. | <urn:uuid:77df3231-095e-4298-b55b-1adf8779b743> | {
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Urgent: Ask EPA to Stop the Spread of Superbugs
You show me a concern about genetically-modified crops (GM) and I’ll show you a hundred posts on this site alone pointing to Monsanto as the culprit as well as to the dangerous effects of this agricultural system.
Apparently, after promising farmers their GM corn would resist crop pests, Monsanto, and Midwestern corn fields, are seeing the evolution of insects that have begun to resist the toxins in these “super” crops. How are they made? Monsanto’s GM corn is bred to include something called a Bt toxin, a sort of genetic manipulation to make crops produce their own pesticide. Even without the problem of resistant insects, it’s dangerous to feed the masses vegetables that have been injected and manipulated with toxins, especially without being fully tested. Currently, the EPA mandates farmers use non-Bt corn for at least 20% of their fields. But this number should be significantly raised. FRESH, the movie and activist organization promoting food safety, has put out a call-to-action, urging consumers to ask the EPA to enforce their rules requiring the planting of other types of corn.FRESH says this:
To promote crop rotation and to create “refuges” for non-resistant rootworms, the EPA mandates that farmers use non-Bt corn for at least 20% of their fields. But unfortunately, blinded by Monsanto’s promises of higher yields, not all farmers are complying with the regulations. In fact, data from the Center for Science in the Public Interest suggests that one out of every four farmers who plants Bt corn is not in compliance, and the number is growing. This drastically increases the likelihood that pesticide-resistant insects will attack future crops, including organic and non-GM corn.
Take action if superbugs scare you and you’d like to see a safe future for our food.
Image Credit: Creative Commons photo from mattdente. | <urn:uuid:9dcb8e74-d077-4902-880d-52e31b035f19> | {
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By Michelle Roberts
BBC News Online health staff
Prostate cancer is now the most common form of cancer in UK men, but there is considerable debate over whether men should be routinely screened for this disease.
Scanning helps guide biopsy
Although the government does not run a national screening programme, men can request testing. But should they?
Experts' views are mixed.
Prostate cancer, the second most common cause of cancer-related death in UK men, is treatable, but the disease can be advanced before the man gets any symptoms.
The prostate specific antigen (PSA) test can help doctors decide whether prostate cancer is likely, but it is not foolproof.
Some men with prostate cancer do not have a raised PSA and some men with a raised PSA do not have prostate cancer.
For every 100 men with a raised PSA, only about a third will have any cancer cells in their prostate.
If PSA is raised, the man will need a biopsy of their prostate - a needle which extracts cells from the gland - to diagnose the problem. Biopsy can be painful and cancers can still be missed.
Even if cancer is present, a man may die with it rather than from it.
By the age of 80, about 50% of men will have prostate cancer but only 4% will ultimately die of the disease as a result.
Also, the treatments available have significant side-effects, including impotence, incontinence and psychological stress.
And there is no consensus as to the best treatment. A project is running for the next 10-15 years in the UK to work out whether it is best to treat men with prostate cancer with surgery or radiotherapy or simply to monitor them.
Researchers also disagree about whether interventions actually save lives.
Pros and Cons
The NHS's screening committee advises against PSA testing for men with no symptoms who are unlikely to live for longer than 10 years.
Men can get a PSA test from their GP if they wish to after all of the pros and cons have been discussed with them.
Despite this, private health companies like BUPA routinely offer PSA testing to men over the age of 50 as part of "wellman" checks (BUPA Wellness Classic, Premier or Later Life Health Assessment).
Reasons for an increased PSA
A benign prostate growth (BPH)
Ejaculating in the past 48 hours
Vigorous exercise such as riding a bike in the past 48 hours
Prostate biopsy in the past six months
A digital rectal examination in the past week
Dr Peter Mace, clinical director of BUPA Wellness, said:
"Before offering men routine screening for prostate cancer (PSA), we ensure that they are informed of the pros and cons of testing. Ninety per cent of them have the test.
"Where we find an illness, people are very grateful that it has been caught early. Where nothing is found, people are relieved.
"The majority of our health assessment clients have private medical insurance which covers the cost of follow-up tests or treatment.
"We believe that regular health screening is a valuable contributor to people's knowledge of their own health."
A survey by the Prostate Cancer Charity found two-thirds of 150 male GPs would not bother to have a PSA test.
Dr Chris Hiley, head of policy and research at the Prostate Cancer Charity, said: "We believe all men need to know that PSA testing is available from their GP, but that it is not yet clear if lives are saved by the test.
"Men need to be fully informed of the risks and benefits of this type of testing."
Knowledge better than ignorance
Mr Neil O'Donoghue, consultant urologist at University College London, said it was more debatable what to do when the test is positive rather than whether to do the PSA test itself.
"Ignorance is not always bliss in relation to PSA.
"If a man asked me whether he should have a PSA test, I would say he should have it. It's always better to have information. You don't have to do anything about it.
"You still have to take decisions if someone has an elevated PSA. The first is 'Are they going to go for a biopsy?' and the second is 'If the biopsy is positive, what sort of treatment should we offer them?'
He said the best treatment depended on many factors, such as the patient's age and the aggressiveness of the cancer.
He thinks men with a life expectancy of less than 10 years should be offered and could benefit from screening and treatment.
Peter Baker from the Men's Health Forum said: "We are not in a position where we can say men should have a PSA test when they have no symptoms.
"We do not have the evidence yet to say that lives would be saved. We do not know which the best treatment is and if it saves lives.
"I certainly would not advise someone to rush off and have a PSA test. Talk to your doctor."
He said men who are at greater risk of prostate cancer - those with a family history of prostate cancer, whose father or brother had it, and men of Afro-Caribbean descent - should think about it more actively than other men.
Private health checks could be very expensive and that men should be encouraged to get simple health checks for free through the NHS, he added.
"If there's one check that every man should have routinely its blood pressure because blood pressure produces no symptoms but it's a killer," he said. | <urn:uuid:9c073b4d-16d1-467d-a516-206f0619a133> | {
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The Underestimated Power of Field Horsetail
Not everyone knows that this relatively common plant growing wildly in the fields of the northern hemisphere can cure cystitis, hastens wound healing and is responsible for strong nails or hair. Often mistaken for weeds, field horsetails have long been used to prevent and treat many conditions. Not surprisingly, a growing number of pharmaceutical companies and health product manufacturers market products containing field horsetail. Here’s what you should know about the benefits of that plant.
Strong and Beautiful Hair
Field horsetails are a valuable source of silicon, a building block of hair and nails. It is responsible for your skin’s elasticity and tone. Drink a cup of infusion a day to delay skin aging processes and wrinkles. It is recommended to those who have problems with brittle nails and hair. Silicon strengthens your hair, promoting its suppleness and preventing hair loss.
Aids Cystitis and Excessive Sweating Treatments
Due to its diuretic properties, field horsetail plays a very important role in preventing and treating urinary tract conditions, such as cystitis or kidney stones. The plant’s shoots act as a relaxant, alleviating pains accompanying such conditions. This action is due to the high content of flavonoids which increase the urine volume and thus help wash out the excess of bacteria from the urinary tract. Increased urination combats excessive sweating, since toxins are excreted in urine, rather than through the skin.
Remedy for burns, menstrual cramps and ulcers
The versatility of field horsetail is gaining popularity in all the European countries. Doctors recommend its natural infusion to women suffering from heavy and painful periods and cramps. Thanks to its strong relaxing and blood vessel strengthening action, it brings fast relief to women suffering from menstrual cramps.
Moreover, field horsetail infusion improves digestion, contributing to better metabolism, and hastens the healing of wounds and burns. Advocates of home remedies recommend to gargle with it, as it promotes the regeneration of tissues. A treasure trove of health benefits! | <urn:uuid:b066398b-413d-4463-a748-440807ea0310> | {
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N O V E M B E R 1 9 6 1
by David Ben-Gurion
The Jewish people are not only a national and political unit. Since their first appearance on the stage of history they have been the personification of a moral will and the bearers of a historic vision which they inherited from the prophets of Israel. It is impossible to understand the history of the Jewish people and their struggle for existence -- both when they were a nation rooted in their own soil and more or less controlling their own destiny, and when they were a wandering people, exiled and dispersed -- unless we bear in mind the unique idea which their history embodies, and the stubborn opposition, not only physical, political, and military, but also spiritual, moral, and intellectual, which the Jews have always confronted.
In ancient times, our most important neighbors were Egypt and Babylon. The struggle with these mighty neighbors was political and military as well as cultural and spiritual. Israel's prophets spoke out against the spiritual influence of these neighbors on Israel's religio-moral concepts and social patterns. They advocated faith in one God, the unity of the human race, and the dominion of justice. Today, the Jewish people, having held their own, appear again in the same area in which they evolved. The entire environment in this region has been completely transformed since Bible days. The languages, religions, civilizations, and the very names of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples have disappeared. Yet Israel, though largely uprooted for two millenniums, continues its ancient traditions of language, faith, and culture -- as it were, uninterruptedly.
Discuss this article in the Global Views forum of Post &
Little is known about the history of our people during the period of the
Persian rule. The Hellenistic era initiated by the conquest of the East by
Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. led to a desperate struggle between Judaism and
the superb Hellenistic culture. The struggle was not only that of a downtrodden
people fighting foreign oppressors. In the main, it was a cultural contest of
great drama between two unique peoples utterly at variance in material,
political, and philosophical terms, but alike in spiritual grandeur.
The Jewish people's most difficult test came, however, after the birth of Christianity. Unlike the cultures of Egypt and Babylon, Greece and Rome, Christianity was not foreign to Judaism. It stemmed from the Jewish people; its inspiration was from a Jew whose ideas belonged within the framework of the Jewish concepts of his day. The new faith was given its direction away from Judaism by Saul of Tarsus. Called Paul, he was the son of a Jewish citizen of Rome living in Syria. He was brought up in the spirit of Judaism and was a zealous Pharisee, but as a Diaspora Jew he had absorbed something of Hellenistic culture. Once a fanatical opponent of the Christians, he "saw the light," came to believe in Jesus as the Son of God, and gave new direction to the sect. His mission, he believed, was to the Gentiles, and he created a church opposed to Judaism. In the name of Jesus, we find it said, "I am not come to destroy [the law] but to fulfill." Paul, however, was determined to root out the law.
About five hundred years after the defeat of Bar Kochba in 135 A.D., the land of Israel was conquered by the Arabs. Unlike most of the preceding conquerors, these invaders were not merely a military force; they were armed with a new faith, Islam. This religion, though not an outgrowth of the land of Israel, showed clear signs of Jewish influence. The conquests of Mohammed and his disciples were more rapid and remarkable than those of Christianity. All the peoples of the Middle East and North Africa succumbed to the new religion. Only the Jewish people withstood it.
A new ideological trend against the Jewish people's survival arose with the great revolutions of modern times, in France and Russia. The French Revolution, inspired by "Liberty, egalite, fraternity," had powerful effects throughout Europe: it undermined monarchy and feudalism; it gave the Jews the first impetus to emancipation and equality of rights. But this revolution demanded of Jewry the obliteration of its national character. Many Western Jews willingly succumbed, and an assimilationist movement arose which threatened to overwhelm the Jewish people.
The Jewish historic will withstood even this powerful challenge. Emancipation instead led to new expressions of its national character and Messianic yearnings. Much of Jewry divested itself of its theocratic garb and adopted a secular outlook, but its attachment to its historic origins and its homeland became stronger; its ancient language awoke to new life; a secular Hebrew literature was created; and there arose the movements of Chibbat Zion ("Love of Zion") and Zionism. The emancipation which came from without was transformed into self-emancipation -- a movement of liberation from the bonds of dependence on others and life in foreign lands -- and the first foundations were laid for the resuscitation of the national independence in the ancient homeland.
Like the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution also aroused -- and continues to arouse -- repercussions throughout the world. Once again the Jewish people were confronted with an ideological struggle and a historic test, no less grave and difficult than all those that had gone before.
In 1917 the Balfour Declaration was issued; for the first time since the Destruction of the Temple, the Jews were recognized by a world power as a separate nation, and they were promised the right to return to their land. The League of Nations, established at the end of World War I, gave international confirmation to the Balfour Declaration and recognized the historic connection of the Jewish people with their ancient homeland.
In the same year, the Bolshevik Party gained power in Russia, and the new regime, which promised redemption to the world, dealt a grievous blow to the Jewish people: Russian Jewry, the largest and most vital Jewish community in the world, was forcibly cut off from the rest of the Jewish people and their renascent homeland.
But for some time after the Bolshevik regime had attained absolute power, Russian Jewry contributed the finest of its pioneering youth to the revival of the Jewish people in the land of Israel. The achievements of this youth bear witness to the capacities latent in Russian Jewry and the aspirations that live within it, and all the external pressures, physical and spiritual, cannot crush or destroy it. The foundations for the resurgence of the Jewish state were laid mainly by Jews from Russia and eastern Europe, and in May, 1948, the state of Israel was proclaimed.
The adherents of Jewish independence refuse to rely on any foreign verdict. They are well aware of the limited numbers and capacity of the Jewish people; they can respect and esteem the great powers which are responsible for the fate of tens of millions of people and whose influence extends beyond the limits of their own territories. But there is one kingdom in which the Jewish people regard themselves as equal in all respects, even in the capacity to influence humanity at large and the generations to come, and that is the kingdom of the spirit and the vision. In this kingdom, neither quantity nor the size of armies has the last word. It is not through numerical strength or political and economic power that Jerusalem and Athens have left their mark on the culture of a large part of the human race.
In pointing out to the world a new way toward freedom, peace, justice, and equality, the advancement and redemption of humanity, and the realization of the dearest hopes of mankind in our day and in all generations -- in these spheres the great and powerful nations have no monopoly.
The Jewish people, who after two thousand years of wandering and tribulation in every part of the globe have arrived at the first stage of renewed sovereignty in the land of their origins, will not abandon their historic vision and great spiritual heritage -- the aspiration to combine their national redemption with universal redemption for all the peoples of the world. Even the greatest tragedy ever wrought by man against a people -- the Hitlerite holocaust, which destroyed one third of the Jewish people -- did not dim the profound faith of all Jews, including those who went to their death in the ovens of Europe, in their national redemption and in that of mankind.
The Jewish people will not submit to foreign bondage or surrender to the great and the powerful in determining their future and their road to the vision of the Latter Days. In the state of Israel there is no barrier between the Jew and the man within us. Independence is indivisible.
There is no contradiction between spiritual independence and an attachment to humanity as a whole, just as political independence is not incompatible with international ties and economic independence does not necessitate economic autarchy. Every people draws sustenance from others, from the heritage of the generations, from the achievements of the human spirit in all eras and all countries. Mutual dependence is a cosmic and eternal law. There is nothing in the world, large or small, from the invisible electron to the most massive bodies in infinite space, which has no bonds with its fellows or with unlike bodies. The whole of existence is an infinite chain of mutual bonds, and this applies to the world of the spirit as well as to the world of matter. It is less conceivable today than in any previous generation that any people should dwell alone.
Now that, after our long journey through world history and all the countries of the globe, we have returned to our point of departure, and for the third time have established the commonwealth of Israel, we shall not cast off the rich and extensive international experience that we have acquired; we shall not retire into our shell. We shall open wide our windows to every aspect of world culture, and we shall endeavor to acquire all the spiritual and intellectual achievements of our day. We shall learn from all our teachers, but we shall guard our independence. We shall not succumb to separatism or isolationism; we shall preserve our bonds with the world outside, but not accept external domination. The roots of independence lie in the heart, in the soul, in the will of the people, and it is only through inner independence that it is possible to win and maintain external independence. The most dangerous form of bondage is the bondage of the spirit.
The Jewish people's rejection of the dominance of physical force, however, does not mean the denial of the place of physical force in life as a means of defense, to ensure life. We should be denying Jewish history from the days of Joshua Bin-Nun until the Israel Defense Forces if we were to deny the fact that on occasion there is a need and place for physical force to preserve life. That would be foreign to the spirit of the Jewish people.
From the days of the prophets to the times of Einstein, Jewish intuition, both religious and scientific, has always believed in the unity of the universe and of existence, in spite of their numerous forms and expressions. And although, since days of old, the finest sons of the Jewish people, the prophets, sages, and teachers, have always regarded the supreme mission of Israel as residing in the kingdom of the spirit, they have not belittled the body and its needs, for there is no soul without a body, and there can be no universal human ideals without the existence of national independence. In the establishment of the Jewish state, the victory of Jewish over Arab arms played a great and decisive role, but the root and origin of this victory lay in the moral and spiritual superiority of the Jewish defenders.
The faith of the Jewish people in the superiority of the spirit is bound up with their belief in the value of man. Man, according to the faith of the Jewish people, was created in the image of God. There could be no more profound, exalted, and far-reaching expression of the greatness, importance, and value of man than this; for the concept "God" in Judaism symbolizes the apex of goodness, beauty, justice, and truth. Human life, in the eyes of the Jewish people, is precious and sacred. The sons of man, created in the image of God, are equal in rights; they are an end in themselves, not a means. And it is no wonder that the sages of these people based the entire law on one great principle: "And thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." Love of one's neighbor applies not only to Jewish citizens. "The stranger that sojourneth with you shall be unto you as the home-born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt."
Even in ancient days, the people of Israel were distinguished by an original conception of history which had no parallel among the peoples of East or West, neither of Egypt nor Babylon, India nor China, nor Greece and Rome and their heirs in Europe, until modern times. Unlike the other ancient peoples, ours did not look backward to a legendary golden age in the past which has gone never to return, but turned their gaze to the future, to the Latter Days, in which the earth will be filled with knowledge as the waters cover the seas, when the nations will beat their swords into plowshares, when nation will not lift up sword against nation, or learn war any more.
That was the historical philosophy which the prophets of Israel bequeathed to their own peoples and through their people to the best of all nations.
This expectation and faith in the future stood by our people during the tribulations of their long journey through history and have brought us to the beginnings of our national redemption, when we can also see the first gleams of redemption for the whole of humanity.
Copyright © 1961 by David Ben-Gurion. All rights reserved.
The Atlantic Monthly; November, 1961; "The Kingdom of the Spirit"; Volume 208, No. 5; pages 85-87. | <urn:uuid:3d87f213-1e8a-4962-97bd-09fa5fa8ee53> | {
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A quarter of a century after the worldwide web began to transform the Internet into the indispensible tool we all rely on today, we’re now entering a new digital revolution. Over the next four years, the number of connected devices is expected to grow to as many as 50 billion, according to the 2015 Ponemon Global Cyber Impact Report, sponsored by Aon. Business is expected to make up a far larger percentage of Internet of Things (IoT) usage than Consumer – this is more about smart factories and computer-controlled office system than it is shiny gadgets like smart watches and fitness trackers.
What’s more, the risks are becoming physical. Some of these new devices could cause serious real-world damage. We’ve already seen manufacturing plants seriously damaged by cyber attacks and electricity grids and automobiles shut down by hackers. It’s only a matter of time before such threats become more common – and more physically dangerous to both people and property.
With the rise of new technology comes fresh opportunity for business, but also new risk. In the workplace, every new connected device represents a new link in the IT chain. With the age of the Internet of Things upon us, what are the new risks, and what do business leaders need to know to be prepared?
New Technology Big Opportunities
The benefits of Internet connectivity are hard to understate. For businesses, the Internet of Things offers the promise of quantified everything. Employers will be able to track productivity and leverage metrics to uncover new efficiencies. With connected sensors underpinning every square inch of an organization’s footprint, once siloed data sets can be integrated, correlated and cross-referenced, identifying new efficiencies and delivering new value.
The benefits are immense – but so, potentially, are the risks.
“As we move into having smart workplaces and offices, you’re really talking about a technology backbone that’s driving an organization,” says Stephanie Snyder Tomlinson, a cyber insurance expert at Aon. “What impact can that have on a business? What are the potential losses to an organization if you have a network security breach that results in property damage or bodily injury?”
Digital Threats Turn Physical
An unfortunate side effect to some of the most high-profile recent cyber breaches is that many have come to regard cybercrime as solely a privacy issue. It can be far more complex than that.
“If there is a failure of network security or systems,” warns Snyder Tomlinson, “there could be a resultant business income loss. It could be intangible loss in terms of loss of data information assets or, especially as we move into relying more heavily on technology and the Internet of Things, it could be tangible loss as well.”
You don’t need to look very far to get a sense of the potential risks to property and other physical assets when the Internet of Things begins to help run a workplace. As organizations grow increasingly dependent on technology to run their businesses and offices, the attack surface for cybercriminals increases dramatically. Each new device represents an additional access point for hackers.
These scenarios can sound like something out of a science fiction film:
This may sound far-fetched, but it has already become a reality. A cyber attack on a German steel mill in late 2014 caused immense physical damage after hackers installed malware on the network. “It caused the blast furnace to be unable to be shut down, leading to massive property loss,” says Snyder Tomlinson. “The property loss arose from a network security breach. It’s a perfect example of the potential risks when you have companies that are relying on technology to run their business.”
Understanding the level of risk
“There’s always going to be some type of access point into a network, in one way, shape, or form,” says Snyder Tomlinson. “You can have the best network security possible but as everybody says, ‘It’s not if, it’s when.’”
Consequently, many companies are revisiting their approach to cyber security. Organizations previously concerned only with safeguarding client privacy and personally identifiable information are suddenly contemplating a broader spectrum of loss.
“We’re seeing more interest in cyber insurance from manufacturers and critical infrastructure companies, because they recognize that their exposure isn’t necessarily just about private information or the liability arising out of a breach,” says Snyder Tomlinson. “We’re going to continue to see growth in the breadth of cyber coverage over the next several years, where we’re getting into the true property space, because there is the potential to have a property loss arising out of a network security breach or a systems failure.”
This is why businesses need to take a holistic view of their cyber vulnerability, says Snyder Tomlinson. “Cyber risk flows through an entire organization.” A good cyber risk management framework has three key elements, she says:
With the rise of the Internet of Things, cyber crime is no longer simply about loss of information. Increasingly, you need to consider the possibility that cyber could be just as physically disruptive to your business as a natural disaster or a terrorist incident. This is no longer simply a data issue – today, property and potentially even lives could be at stake.
“IoT is all about connectivity, but connectivity is also the biggest vulnerability that could bring it all to its knees.” – James King, Oberthur Technologies
“There have been safety regulations for many, many years, of course, but they rarely consider how a logical attack might affect a physical result. We’ve seen the start of these ‘kinetic cyberattacks’ with Stuxnet and the German steel mill, but the [Industrial Internet of Things] drives a growing attack surface. The equation simply isn’t the same as it has been for IT security, and we’ll need to adapt.” – Tim Erlin, Director of Security, Tripwire
“Security is not a feature that will emerge on its own. Past results have shown that adding security after systems are designed and deployed, i.e., ‘bolting security on,’ is challenging at best and at worst can have catastrophic consequences.” – U.S. Department of Homeland Security
“The benefits of deploying connected devices ecosystem are game changing in nature compared to the risks involved. The ecosystem has to evolve around standardization and interoperability with integrated security at the heart of every solution.” – Satash Jadhav, Director, IoT, Embedded Sales Group – South Asia, Intel | <urn:uuid:34cc1fc2-0634-4b09-aa63-c936cde1b12c> | {
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Want to make a difference? As the Association for Computing Machinery notes, computing drives innovation in the sciences ranging from the human genome project to AIDS vaccine research to environmental monitoring and protection. Perhaps you’re interested in engineering, finance, or the entertainment business—computing has application in these fields too! In fact it’s a discipline that impacts almost everything we do. Requiring creativity, logic, and problem solving, computer science develops foundational skills to set one up for success no matter where one’s career path leads.
At Maryville College, computer science students learn to use mathematical and computational thinking to solve real-world problems. Combining proficiency in programming with an understanding of systems, the curriculum provides students with a broad background in software and hardware. Through Senior Study and internships students can add depth to the area of computer science they find most interesting. | <urn:uuid:fdf093f6-3388-4222-9f10-e9229e545f11> | {
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SPECIAL TOPIC: INSIGHTS TO EXODUS 20:12-17 (THE TEN COMMANDMENTS)
EXODUS 20:13, MURDER (BDB 953, KB 1283)
A. It needs to be remembered that even the commands that seem to be of a social nature are really religious. God's sovereignty over creation and redemption are shadowed in these commands. The command not to murder is, in proper focus, a word about the image of God in every human being and God's care and concern for human life.
B. It needs to be remembered that each command reflects the community of faith. The prohibition on taking a life in an illegal manner is primarily and originally focused with the believing community. Its implications are as wide as humanity!
II. WORD STUDY OF SIGNIFICANT TERMS
1. This is a rare term (rasah, BDB 953, KB 1283) for taking a life, used only 46 times in the OT. There are several other overlapping Hebrew terms used hundreds of times.
2. The term (rasah) seems to have an original limited meaning and an expanded meaning.
a. Originally it related to taking the life of a covenant partner in a legal, premeditated way, often associated with "the kinsman redeemer" or "go'el." This usage involved premeditation but in a sense of legal revenge (cf. Num. 35:30-34; Lev. 24:13-23). In reality the Lex Talionis, "eye for eye," (cf. Gen. 9:5-6) was a way to limit revenge. Later, the cities of refuge (Deut. 4:41; Josh. 20:3) were established so that a covenant member who accidently or passionately killed another member of the community could flee the wrath of the victim's family.
b. Later the term came to refer to the motive or attitude behind the taking of a life. The concept of "intentionality" becomes uppermost! (cf. Exod. 21:12-14; Num. 35:11,22; Deut. 28:24).
c. This distinction becomes very significant in this command. It seems in context to refer only to others within the covenant community. It is related to the kinsman redeemer, or blood revenge. However, the term is used in later passages which reflect the Decalogue, Hosea 4:2 and Jeremiah 7:9, to refer to a murderer. This word relates not only to the law but to the motive. It expands from neighbor to fellow human being.
3. This term certainly does not relate to our modern ethical issue of capital punishment or war. The Jews never had a problem with community execution or holy war (or, for that matter, unholy war!).
4. The best translation for our modern culture would be "premeditated murder."
III. CONTEXTUAL INSIGHTS
A. The sixth, seventh, and eighth commands are made up of only two Hebrew words. They are very short and to the point.
B. Life, like all of life, is related to God. How we treat others reflects our thoughts about God
IV. NEW TESTAMENT PARALLELS
1. His expansion of this commandment (cf. Matt. 5:21-26) gives us the proper orientation for our modern discussion about how to apply this text to our day.
2. Jesus obviously moved the Decalogue from the realm of actions into the realm of motives. We are what we think! "As a man thinks in his heart, so is he." The thought life is much more relevant and significant than we normally give it credit.
1. 1 John. 3:15, this same concept of hate being considered murder is stated.
2. The Greek terms used in Matthew 5:21ff and 1 John 3:15 are different but the meaning is essentially the same.
3. Note the positive aspect in 1 John 4:19-21.
V. APPLICATION TRUTHS
A. Even though an unintentional murder can escape the blood avenger by fleeing to a city of refuge (cf. Numbers 35; Joshua 20), he has to pay the penalty of confinement in that city until the death of the High Priest. The consequences of his act still remain!
B. Although this verse does not directly relate to suicide, as the ancients probably never thought of this event, the text still gives a spiritual principle concerning the sanctity of human life and God's sovereignty and purpose for human life made in His image. This text speaks a strong word to our day in this area!
C. This text does not, however, speak a decisive word to the modern question of: (1) capital punishment or (2) war. For Israel, these were not evil things in themselves. The Israelites were involved in both of these acts. Still, the principle of the significance of life made in God's image and under His control is an important truth in this area.
D. This text does speak a needed word about the dignity and sanctity of human life! We in the believing community are stewards, not only of our own actions, but of our society. The gift of life is both individual and corporate. We are responsible for the physical, social, and psychological abuse of our own bodies as we are the physical, social, and psychological abuse of others in our community. This is especially true in a culture like ours where we are allowed to speak to and, thereby, change the system. We are our brothers' keeper!
EXODUS 20:14, ADULTERY (BDB 610, KB 658)
A. It is obvious that the commandment is related to one's respect for God which is seen in respect for one's neighbor's life, wife, and property (cf. Jer. 5:8). This is verified by the different order of these commands in the Septuagint.
B. The Deuteronomic parallel shows the appropriateness of adopting this ancient truth to our culture.
C. As respect for parents was seen as a key to a stable society, so too, is this command.
D. This command also implies God's ownership and control of our sexual and family lives.
II. WORD STUDY
A.The major term in this text is "adultery." It is crucial that one understands this term in light of ancient Hebrew culture.
1. This term is distinct in an OT context from "fornication." Adultery relates to at least one party in the sexual relationship being married. The term "fornication" implies both parties are not married (cf. Pro. 29:3; 31:3). The distinction is lost in the NT Greek terms.
2. This possibility explains the reason for the emphasis on marital status because it relates to the importance of inheritance rights which were involved in God's promise of "the land." Every 50 years (Jubilee) all land was to revert to the original tribal owners (cf. Lev. 25:8-17).
3. Adultery was culturally condemned before the Mosaic legislation (cf. Gen. 12:10ff; 26:7ff; 39:9).
4. Adultery was seen as a sin against:
a. Neighbor – Exodus 20:14; Deuteronomy 5:18
b. Marriage – Leviticus 18:20
c. God – Genesis 20:1-13; 26:7-11
5. It was punishable by death for both parties:
a. Leviticus 20:10
b. Deuteronomy 22:22-24
c. Ezekiel 16:40 (metaphor)
d. Strict warnings are found in Proverbs 1-9
III. RELATION TO NT
A. Jesus used Leviticus 19:18 as a summary of the Old Revelation (cf. Luke 10:27). This confirms that the Ten Commandments are related to our treatment of others.
B. Jesus intensifies the commands in Matthew 5:28. He places the emphasis on motive rather than action. The Jews saw the mind as the seed-bed of the soul. What one thought was what one really was (Pro. 23:7). This makes the Ten Words almost impossible to keep—that is the purpose! (cf. Gal. 2:15-3:29).
IV. MODERN APPLICATION
A. Marriage is possibly the best modern analogy of a lifelong faith commitment in God's name. It is our best chance to understand the realities of OT covenant concepts (Mal. 2:14). Our respect for our mate in all aspects, including human sexuality, helps us comprehend the thrust of this verse.
B. Marriage stability and loyalty, like respect for parents, is a major pillar of societal strength and longevity.
C. It needs to be emphasized that human sexuality is a gift from God (cf. Gen. 1:27,28; 9:1,7). It was His idea and will for humanity. The guidelines are not meant to thwart mankind's freedom or joy but to give some godly guidelines for fallen humanity. The bounds are revealed for our long-term benefit and happiness. Although mankind has abused sexuality, as they have all of God's gifts, it is still a powerful drive within humankind which must be under God's control and guidance.
D. Sex must be guarded so that the sacredness of the human person (female or male) is respected because they are made in God's image (Gen. 1:27). Our fallen focus on "me" is all too obvious in this area.
EXODUS 20:15, STEAL (BDB 170, KB 198)
I. GENERAL INFORMATION
A. Like all other regulations in the Decalog, our faith, love, and respect for God must be seen in the sacred and secular aspects of our daily lives. It is an abomination to God to claim to know Him and then exploit our covenant partner (cf. 1 John 2:7-11; 4:20-21).
B. This command is meant to help maintain the fellowship of the covenant community. The quality of this spiritual fellowship will attract a confused and seeking world to our God which is the purpose of Scripture.
C. As other commandments have focused on God's ownership of all of life, so too, this one! We are stewards, not owners. Our fallen drive toward possessions, without cost, is behind this prohibition (cf. Ps. 50:10-12).
II. WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
A. This is the third command in the second half of the Decalog which is made up of only two words in Hebrew.
B. The object of the prohibition is absent. This is usually supported by:
1. The context of the two previous commands relating to capital offenses.
2. The presence of applicable parallel passages both immediate (Exod. 21:16) and remote (Deut. 24:7). Also see Genesis 37.
C. However, the short form is also defensible
1. It is recorded for us by inspiration
2. It widens the scope of the injunction
3. There is also a parallel passage in the immediate context which relates to theft—Exodus 22:1ff (not kidnaped).
4. Jesus apparently quotes this passage in reference to stealing (cf. Matt. 19:18).
D. Theft is also dealt with in the other ancient Law Codes, but usually the penalty is death, mutilation, or 30 times restitution.
E. There are some significant parallel passages which define and explain this truth:
1. Leviticus 19:1-18—"You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy"
a. Our lifestyle must reflect the family characteristics of our Father and our God (cf. Lev. 19:18).
b. Our faith must impact our lives daily, both in positive actions and negative prohibition, both informed by proper motives (cf. Lev. 19:17).
c. Compassion for the ostracized and needy, Lev. 19:9-10, 13, is as significant as refusal to rip off our neighbors, v. 11.
2. Amos 8:4-7 – God hates exploitations!
3. Micah 6:6-8 – God wants proper motives in all of our actions. Why we don't steal is the issue!
4. Exodus 22:1ff – Often the missing truth in our modern discussion of robbery is restitution! Sin always costs!
III. APPLICATION TRUTHS
A. Joy Davidman, C. S. Lewis' wife, has written a delightful book on the Decalog. She translates this command "Thou shalt not try to get something for nothing." This assuredly widens the scope beyond possessions. She also says that "property is neither sin nor inalienable right, but a loan, a trust from God."
B. Theft, like all other sins of the fallen heart, are dealt with by a new heart (cf. Jer. 31:31-34; Ezek. 36:26; Eph. 4:28). It is amazing how the old nature of "take" turns into the new nature of "share"!
C. Our respect for God is clearly seen in our respect for other covenant partners! This truth overshadows the Decalog.
D. Fallen people steal in many ways!
1. How does modern man practice stealing?
2. How is restitution related to repentance?
3. How does this verse relate to capitalism's view of property?
EXODUS 20:17, COVET (BDB 326, KB 328)
A. It is possible to see the relationship between the last five commandments as follows:
1. Number 6, 7, and 8 prohibit the injury of a covenant partner in an overt action.
2. Number 9 prohibits the injury of a covenant partner in speech.
3. Number 10 prohibits the injury of a covenant partner in thought.
B. It is true that the act of coveting disrupts the person who is coveting, not the object, the neighbor. However, it is possible that this commandment expects that the thoughts will proceed to actions.
C. Many see this commandment as a unique concept found only in the ancient Law Code of Israel and which is absent in the other law codes of the Ancient Near East. This new concept would be the prohibition of thought. It is true that Israel perceived the thought life to be the origin of evil deeds (cf. Pro. 23:7; James 1:14-15). Yet, this verse seems to relate to thoughts which issue in actions.
Several passages use the term "covet" in connection with a resulting action (cf. Deut. 7:25; Jos. 7:21; Micah 2:2).
D. If it is true that emphasis is placed on that which is listed first and last, the true significance of this command is seen. Exclusive worship of God is first, but our attitudes and motives toward the things of this world affect our true devotion to God. This twin emphasis is also seen in Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, Matt. 6:33 —"But seek first His kingdom and His righteousness; and all these things (cf. vv. 19-32) shall be added to you."
II. WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
A. Exodus 20:17 and Deuteronomy 5:21, although basically the same, have several significant differences:
1. The wife is included in the larger concept of "house" or a person's property in Exodus 20, while she is placed in a separate, seemingly priority, category in Deuteronomy 5.
2. The passage in Exodus 20 has the Hebrew term "covet" which means "desire to acquire," but Deuteronomy 5 has a second term, "desire" (BDB 16, KB 20), as well as "covet." "Covet" speaks of desire which is connected to an action to acquire the object of the desire but "desire" seems to focus on the attitude alone.
3. Also, Exodus 20, written to the children of Israel during their wilderness wandering period, has no mention of "field" in the list of possessions, while Deuteronomy 5 is restating the same commands for a settled society in the Promised Land.
B. The term "covet" is a neutral term. It can refer to desiring good things (cf. Ps. 19:10; 1 Cor. 12:31).
C. Improper desire is the root cause of the fall of Satan, Adam and Eve, and all of us. Paul stressed his personal struggle with coveting in Romans 7:7-8. Coveting is basically a discontentment and lack of trust in God's care and provision.
D. Several NT passages relate to coveting:
1. Mankind's problem is discontentment and greed (cf. Luke 12:15; 1 Tim. 6:8-10).
2. Coveting is included in Jesus' list of defiling sins (cf. Mark 7:17-23; 1 Cor. 5:10; Eph. 5:5; Col. 3:5).
III. APPLICATION TRUTHS
A. The answer to lustful greed and discontentment is:
1. Love – Rom. 13:8-10
2. Contentment – Heb. 13:5; Phil. 4:11-13 (and sharing, Phil. 4:14)
B. The command says "stop" but only Christ gave us the means to stop! In Him we can control our thought life to some degree.
C. God knows our hearts and minds
1. 1 Chronicles 28:9
2. Proverbs 20:27
3. Psalm 139:1,23
4. Jeremiah 17:10
5. Romans 8:27
6. Revelation 2:23
D. Things are not evil, but when they become priority they become sin. Things are not ultimate or eternal; people made in God's image are! Coveting affects the Covenant Community in insidious and destructive ways!
IV. ADDITIONAL NOTES FROM DEUTERONOMY 5:21:
Deuteronomy 5:21, "shall not covet. . .shall not desire," uses two verbs which are synonymous:
A. "covet" – BDB 326, KB 325, Qal imperfect, means "a strong desire" for material things, which can be positive or negative. In this context it is an uncontrollable, selfish desire for something which belongs to a covenant brother.
B. "desire" – BDB 16, KB 20, Hipthpael imperfect, means "desire" (cf. Deut. 14:26) or "lust" (often has a sexual context as in 5:21) for more and more for me at any cost (e.g., Num. 11:4; Ps. 106:14; Pro. 13:4; 21:26; 23:3,6; 24:1).
This relates to one's inner attitudes and motives. It is capstone to all the other commandments. This is the only commandment that deals with why, not how. This one says not only "don't do" but "don't think this." Jesus taught that we should not only not kill, we should not hate, or display an attitude that might result in murder. Jesus took this last commandment and raised the rest of the commandments to the level of inner motive and attitude as over against outer action (cf. Matt. 5:17-48). There is all the difference in the world in a man who does not steal because it is not pleasing to God and the man who does not steal because he is afraid of getting caught. One is acting on Christian principles and the other is acting on self-interest.
1. What is coveting?
2. How does modern man covet?
3. Are our thoughts sin?
4. Why are thoughts so significant in the Christian life?
5. Why is the commandment in Exodus 20:17 somewhat different from the one in Deuteronomy 5:21?
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It could be said that the twentieth century has witnessed the disappearance, or withering away, of political philosophy. An old“fashioned empirical proof of this statement is easy to produce: certainly no Hegel, no Marx, even no Comte, has lived in our century, able to convey to the few and the many alike a powerful vision of our social and political statics and dynamics.
However highly we might think of the philosophical capacities and results of Heidegger, Bergson, Whitehead, or Wittgenstein, we would not single out any of them for his contribution to political philosophy. Heidegger, it is true, ventured into some political action, including speeches, but it is a matter for deep regret. Heideggers was the steepest fall; on a much lower level, there was Sartres indefatigable vituperation against anything rational or decent in civic life.
It is true that contrariwise, authors like Sir Karl Popper and Raymond Aron have been worthy contributors to both general epistemology and political inquiry, always in a spirit of sturdy and humane citizenship. And some modern representatives of that venerable tradition of thought, Thomism, have offered serious reflection on moral, social, and political problems within a comprehensive account of the world. But despite such countervailing considerations, the general diagnosis seems to me to be inescapable: no modern original philosopher has been willing or able to include a thorough analysis of political life within his account of the human world, or, conversely, to elaborate his account of the whole from an analysis of our political circumstances.
To be sure, the effort to understand social and political life did not cease in this century. It even underwent a huge expansion through the extraordinary development of the social sciences, which have increasingly determined the self“understanding of modern men and women. It might be asserted that the collective and multifaceted work of all those sociologists, anthropologists, psychologists, economists, and political scientists has shed more light on our common life than could the exertions of any individual mind, however gifted; that, when it comes to understanding our social and political life, this “collective thought” is necessarily more impartial than even a mind as impartial as Hegels; that in this sense political philosophy, including democratic political philosophy, has an undemocratic character since it cannot be so collectivized; and that accordingly its withering away is a natural accompaniment to the consolidation and extension of democracy.
As is the case with all collective enterprises, the social sciences have many more practitioners than they do ideas and principles. I would even argue that they rest upon one sole principle, the separation of facts and values, which sets them apart from philosophy and testifies to their scientific character. The demise of political philosophy is of a piece with the triumph of this principle. I admit that generally such sweeping statements are better avoided. Nevertheless it is a fact that the fact/value distinction has become not only the presupposition of present“day social science but also the prevalent opinion in society at large. In present conditions, a teenager proves his or her coming of age, a citizen proves his or her competence and loyalty, by making use of this principle. Nowhere has the principle been set forth with more power and brilliance than in the work of Max Weber. The limitless and tormented landscape of twentieth“century social and political thought is commanded by Webers towering presence and overwhelming influence.
Speaking before students just after the end of World War I, Weber asks about his duty as a teacher, about what his audience, and the public at large, can legitimately require of him. He answers, in reflections later published as Science as a Vocation , that they have a claim on his intellectual probity : the teacher, as a scientist, has the obligation to acknowledge that to establish the intrinsic structures of cultural values and to evaluate those values constitute two totally distinct tasks. Weber rigorously distinguishes between science , which ascertains facts and relations between facts, and life , which necessarily involves evaluation and action.
This proposition has become commonplace today, yet it is difficult to understand what exactly it means. To give an example that is more than an example, how does one describe what goes on in a concentration camp without evaluating it? As some commentators have pointed out, Weber, in his historical and sociological studies, does not tire of evaluating even when establishing the facts; no, he ceaselessly evaluates so as to be able to establish the facts. Otherwise how could he tell a “prophet” from a “charlatan”?
However that may be, it is clear that for Weber, intellectual honesty necessarily prevents us from believing or teaching that science can show us how we ought to live; and that this same intellectual probity necessarily prevents us from believing, for instance, that a thing is good because it is beautiful, or the other way around. But what are the causes of his peculiar preoccupation with intellectual probity? In Webers opinion, modern science exposes it to a specific danger.
Modern science exhibits a singular trait: it is necessarily unfinished”it can never be completed. It is open“ended, since there is always more to be known. Weber asks why human beings devote themselves to an activity that can never be completed, why they ceaselessly try to know what they know they will never completely know. The meaning of modern science is to be meaningless. Thus intellectual honesty requires that we not confer an arbitrary meaning on science, that we be faithful to its meaninglessness by fearlessly carrying on its enterprise. This necessary virtue is at the same time inhuman, or superhuman; indeed it is heroic. Since heroism, however necessary, is rare, many so“called scholars or teachers succumb to the temptation to confer arbitrarily some human meaning on science, or its provisional results. Weber believed that the scientist who thus lapses from his duty transforms himself into a petty demagogue or a petty prophet.
What characterizes the modern situation is that only science can be the object of public affirmation or approbation. Other “values””for instance, esthetic or religious “values””cannot be publicly expressed with enough sincerity to hold their own in the public square. At the end of Science as a Vocation , we read:
The fate of an epoch characterized by rationalization, intellectualization, most of all by the disenchantment of the world, led human beings to expel the most sublime and supreme values from public life. They found refuge either in the transcendent realm of mystical life or in the fraternity of direct and reciprocal relationships among isolated individuals. There is nothing fortuitous in the fact that the most eminent art of our time is intimate, not monumental, nor in the fact that nowadays it is only in small communities, in face“to“face contacts, in pianissimo, that we are able to recover something that might resemble the prophetic pneuma that formerly set whole communities ablaze and welded them together . . . . For those who are unable to bear this present fate with manliness, there is only this piece of advice: go back silently”without giving to your gesture the publicity dear to renegades, but simply and without ceremony”to the old churches who keep their arms widely open.
This eloquent conclusion bears, and needs, rereading today. There is nothing antiquated or quaint about it. On the contrary, the stripping down of the public square and the flight into private realms have continued apace, coupled with the ever growing power of science to mold every aspect of our lives, including the most intimate. As a consequence, public life is more and more exclusively filled with private lives: what remains of “the public” is nothing but the publicization of “the private””or so it seems.
Of course, this assessment could be said to miss the fundamental fact of modern society which, under the appearance of meaninglessness, is the coming“into“being of the noblest principles of all, democracy and self“determination. There is no doubt that Weber, however friendly to its political institutions, underestimates the strength and resilience of democracy, perhaps its human meaning and range. In his eyes democracy is no match”no remedy”for the disenchantment of the world, and for a good reason: it results from it. It is unable to reunify modern human beings since it ratifies and, so to speak, institutionalizes their intimate divisions.
If we take seriously Science as a Vocation , we will say that there is a gaping hole, a void, a meaninglessness at the heart of modern life since science, the highest and sole truly public activity, is meaningless. At the same time, if modern man wants to be equal to the task of science, he ought to look this nothingness in the face without blinking. In this sense, nihilism, at least this nihilism, is not only our curse but also our duty. Webers eloquence aimed at keeping us awake and forcing our gaze toward this central nothingness. Thus the most authoritative, nay, the only authoritative voice in the realm of social and political thought in this century was a desperate voice.
It is impossible to put Max Weber behind us. Because he looms so large, it is difficult for us to see how the human phenomenon appeared before he separated science and life. But let us be alert enough to realize how strange and lopsided our intellectual and moral life currently is. Each and every human thing is fair game for science. Through separating facts from values we are able to divert the mighty flow of reality into the bottles of science.
But there is no reciprocity: science is never allowed to come back to illuminate reality and life. Democracy is predicated on the basic intelligence of the common man, which in turn is predicated on the inherent intelligibility of life, at least of the current occurrences of life. As a result, democracy is the regime that has the least tolerance for nihilism. (And nihilism breeds contempt for democracy.) To say that life is intelligible is not to say that it is unproblematic or without mystery. It is only to say that what we do is naturally accompanied by what we think and say, or that we ordinarily give some account of what we do. Our actions are many, and our accounts often conflicting, and so we reflect and deliberate and debate. The life of the mind is inherently dialectical”although, through the separation of facts and values, we have often lost sight of that reality.
Weber well understood that the separation between life and science was in some sense unbearable for ordinary mankind, and he rightly noticed that the attendant discomfort gave rise to fake monumentalism, spurious prophesying, and pedantic fanaticism. Certainly Europe would soon experience all those ugly phenomena on a scale that the desperate Weber had not anticipated even in his most desperate mood. Very roughly, we could say that totalitarianism was the attempt to fuse together science and life. In communism, the fusion was forced through the despotism of “science””understood vulgarly. In Nazism, the fusion came through the despotism of “life””again, understood in an utterly vulgar way.
Totalitarianism was the experimentum crucis for political philosophy in our century. Through it political philosophy was radically tested, and was found wanting. The mere fact that such terrible enterprises could arise was proof that European thinkers had not developed and spread a rational and humane understanding of modern political circumstances. This claim does not presuppose the proposition, abstract to the point of meaninglessness, that “ideas govern the world””only the sound observation that human beings are thinking animals who need tolerably accurate ideas and evaluations to orient themselves in the world. This truism is the truer the more intellectually active and able the person concerned. It would be unfair to extend culpability for this centurys crimes into the past indefinitely, but it is true that, after Hegel elaborated his synthesis, no other philosopher was able to give a satisfactory, that is, an impartial, account of the modern State and society. Political philosophy after Hegel was not able to give a nearly satisfactory account of totalitarianism during and even after the fact.
Michael Oakeshott once remarked that great political philosophies are generally answers to specific political predicaments. It is easy to document this proposition from Plato and Aristotle, through Machiavelli and Hobbes, to Rousseau and Hegel. As I observed at the outset, the twentieth century did not elicit such comprehensive answers from political reflection, and this despite the fact that its predicament was of the most extreme sort: devastating world wars, murderous revolutions, beastly tyrannies. If there ever was a time for writing a new Leviathan , that was it.
But our most impressive documents are novels: which political treatise on communism is a match for 1984 or Animal Farm or One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich or The Yawning Heights ? And what a strange commentary on this situation that, for some readers at least, the most suggestive introduction to Nazi tyranny is to be found in On the Marmor Cliffs (1939), a fable whose author, Ernst Jünger, was a soldier and adventurer with more than a passing complicity with the nihilistic mood that fomented Hitlers rise to power. Some will object that this indictment is unfair, that many penetrating books on communism, fascism, and Nazism have been written by historians, social scientists, and political philosophers; indeed, that the notion of totalitarianism itself got its currency and credit more from philosophy than from literature; and that at least one philosophical book on the subject”Hannah Arendts The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)”won a fame and exercised a power of fascination comparable to those of the literary works I have just mentioned. The objection is valid as far as it goes. We need to take stock of this momentous debate.
For political philosophers, dealing with Nazism and communism was difficult. These unprecedented political phenomena required a specific effort of analysis, yet most of the interpreters no longer had much place in their thought for political categories, especially the notion of regime . Their natural reaction was to make sense of these new forms of politics by subsuming them under nonpolitical categories with which they were more familiar. For instance, communism came to be understood as the domination of “bureaucracy,” or as “bureaucratic state capitalism,” a Trotskyist mantra widely used in France and elsewhere. As for Nazism, not a few on the left would see in it the instrument of “the most reactionary strata of financial capital,” while many on the right saw just another avatar of “eternal Germany.”
Of course these definitions, however fashionable for a time, could not long satisfy honest or discerning people, who eventually elaborated and gave credit to the notion of totalitarianism as a new and specific regime. We can be grateful to those who introduced this notion, because more than any other it helped us to look at the facts, to “save the phenomena,” so to speak, and accordingly to evaluate more adequately the thorough ugliness of the whole thing. At the same time, however, totalitarianism remained an ad hoc construct. The discussion of it mainly concerned the marks, or criteria, of totalitarianism: whether “ideology” or “terror” or both together were principal or necessary components of any “totalitarian” regime. The proponents of the notion were prone to try to outbid one another by concentrating attention on the most extreme characteristics of these regimes, with the result that, as in Hannah Arendts case, the notion is not even applicable to Nazism and communism except in their most extreme fits of terror and murder. This bidding war induced the mainstream of political scientists to renounce the notion completely, or to dilute it until it became unrecognizable and useless.
The facts of Nazism and communism obliged honest and discerning observers to elaborate the notion of a new regime. At the same time, this “regime” was the opposite of a regime. The classical regime, harking back to Platos and Aristotles first elaboration of political philosophy, is what gives political life its relative stability and intelligibility. The totalitarian “regime,” on the contrary, was characterized first of all by its instability and its formlessness. It described itself, accurately, as essentially a movement : the “international Communist movement,” or die NZ“Bewegung (Munich was called by the Nazis die Hauptstadt der Bewegung [the capital of the movement]). Arendt herself was acutely aware of the paradoxical character of totalitarianism. In a piece titled “Ideology and Terror,” Arendt borrows from Montesquieus analysis and classification of regimes to try to categorize the totalitarian regime. For Montesquieu, each regime has a nature and a principle. The principle is the more important, since it is the “spring” that “moves” the regime. Now, explains Arendt, totalitarianism has no principle, not even fear”which is the principle of “despotism” according to Montesquieu. For fear to be a principal motive of action, the individual would need to think or feel that he is able to escape danger through his own actions; under totalitarianism, on the other hand, where the killings wax and wane without any discernible reason, this sense cannot be sustained. Raymond Arons commentary on Arendts analysis is severe but illuminating:
One cannot help asking oneself whether Mrs. Arendts thesis, thus formulated, is not contradictory. A regime without a principle is not a regime . . . . As a regime, it exists solely in its authors imagination. In other words, when Mrs. Arendt elaborates some aspects of Hitlerite and Stalinist phenomena into a regime, a political essence, she brings out and probably exaggerates the originality of German or Russian totalitarianism. Mistaking this admittedly real originality for a fundamentally new regime, she is induced to read into our epoch the negation of classical philosophies and thus to slide into a contradiction: defining a working regime by an essence which so to speak implies the impossibility of its working.
This sharp criticism undoubtedly hits the mark. But Arendt would probably hit back that the “contradiction” is not of her making: it belongs to the “contradictory essence” of totalitarianism.
It is interesting to note that Alain Besançon, a distinguished French historian who studied with Aron, rediscovered and trenchantly brought out this difficulty twenty years later. In an article aptly titled “On the Difficulty of Defining the Soviet Regime,” Besançon tries and exhausts Aristotles and Montesquieus classifications of regimes, concluding that the Soviet regime does not fit into any of them. In his eyes it is an “absolutely new” regime, and its newness lies in the part played by “ideology.” Besançon proposes that instead of “totalitarianism” we simply classify communism as an “ideological regime.” In their different ways, Arendt, Aron, and Besançon all draw our attention to the problem of relating totalitarianism to the tradition of political philosophy. The totalitarian regime seems to be the regime embodying the negation of the idea of regime, and accordingly the irrelevance of classical political philosophy.
More than any other thinker in this century, Leo Strauss tried to recover the genuine meaning of political philosophy. Indeed, political philosophy as originally understood owes its bare survival”fittingly unobtrusive to the point of secretiveness”to Leo Strauss sole and unaided efforts. Without him, the philosophy of history, or historicism of any stripe, would have swallowed political philosophy completely. For Strauss, in seeming contradiction to what I have just said, twentieth“century experiences were motives for going back to political philosophy, specifically to classical political philosophy: “When we were brought face to face with tyranny”with a kind of tyranny that surpassed the boldest imagination of the most powerful thinkers of the past”our political science failed to recognize it. It is not surprising then that many of our contemporaries . . . were relieved when they rediscovered the pages in which Plato and other classical thinkers seemed to have interpreted for us the horrors of the twentieth century.” Thus modern tyranny”Strauss carefully avoids the word “totalitarianism””brings us back to ancient tyranny as described and understood by Plato and other Greek thinkers.
At the same time, Strauss makes clear that there is in modern tyranny something specific, and terrible, that eludes the grasp of classical categories. The return to the Greeks can only be a “first step toward an exact analysis of present“day tyranny,” he argued, for contemporary tyranny is “fundamentally different” from the tyranny analyzed by the ancients. How could Strauss offer such a proposition? Recall that he devoted his life to establishing that classical philosophy elaborated the true understanding of the world, founded on nature which does not change, and that accordingly it does not need to be superseded or improved upon by a new “historical” understanding. Given that, how could Leo Strauss admit that communism and fascism are fundamentally new? How could the political life of man undergo a fundamental change? He answers: “Present“day tyranny, in contradistinction to classical tyranny, is based on the unlimited progress in the conquest of nature which is made possible by modern science, as well as on the popularization or diffusion of philosophic or scientific knowledge.”
Strauss was perfectly aware that such a change, or at least the possibility of such a change, needs to have been taken into account by Greek philosophy if the claim he raises on its behalf is to be upheld. He affirms that that is the case: “Both possibilities”the possibility of a science that issues in the conquest of nature and the possibility of the popularization of philosophy or science”were known to the classics . . . . But the classics rejected them as unnatural, i.e., as destructive of humanity. They did not dream of pre s ent“day tyranny because they regarded its basic presuppositions as so preposterous that they turned their imagination in entirely different directions.” Thus, the Greek thinkers did not imagine modern tyranny because they understood its principles and saw that they would be so much against nature that there was no use dwelling on them.
However galling the affirmation that the Greeks understood us better than we understand them, and ourselves, it is not what most impresses us in Strauss assessment. It is rather that the two principles that make for the specific evil of modern tyranny are part and parcel of the foundation on which modern democracy was built. If this is true, modern tyranny would have as much in common with modern democracy as with ancient, i.e., “natural,” tyranny.
We must not forget that these rare propositions of Strauss on contemporary political circumstances were formulated in the context of an exchange with Alexandre Kojève, one of the most influential interpreters of Hegel in this century. The Russian“born philosopher and French civil servant held that the conceptions of classical political philosophy have lost their relevance because the modern regime, or rather State, precisely through the transformation of nature and the reciprocal recognition implied in democratic citizenship, has basically solved the human problem. The unpalatable traits of modern “tyranny” must not blind us to the fact that “history has come to its end.”
Thus Kojève is not much interested in the totalitarian phenomenon, the ugliness of which disappears against the big picture. However shocking Kojèves benign neglect, even favor, toward Communist totalitarianism, he does draw our attention to the disturbing fact that modern democracy shares with totalitarianism the claim to have solved the human problem. Modern democracy understands itself not as a regime among others, not even as the best regime, but as the only legitimate regime: it embodies the final, because rational, state of humanity.
Here we encounter a topic as difficult and intricate as it is important. In the classical understanding, the plurality of regimes was rooted in the intrinsic diversity of human nature, in the heterogeneity of its parts: human beings were soul and body, and the life of the human soul had its springs in the specific motions of its different parts. In the modern democratic understanding, a human being is first and foremost a self, and mankind as a whole is simply the fulfilled self writ large, which is to say, considered universally. This generalization is valid only if all the selves of all the human beings are in some important sense the same. The affirmation of the self, or the self“affirmation of humankind as composed of selves, thus presupposes the homogeneity of human nature. For the modern understanding, the solution of the human problem is one with the homogenization of human life.
A mighty task”an indefinite one”is contained herein, because that homogeneity can never be complete, or it will be so only “at the end of history,” when nature, human as well as nonhuman, will have been mastered. But in some sense, and this is Kojèves point, we have already reached a sufficient level of mastery. The science necessary for the conquest of nature is without end, it is true, but that means that its power is destined to grow without end, which means that reason allows us to imagine ourselves all“powerful already. As for human life proper, oppressive differences will long continue to arise, but they are in principle already vanquished by the declaration and institutionalization of the equality of rights. In brief, the miracles of science and the good works of democracy are attested enough to legitimate faith that liberal democracy has answered all the big questions of politics.
Of course faith can be lost. When the good works of democracy are less apparent, or when the delicate mechanisms of constitutional government, necessary for guaranteeing rights, are not available in a certain situation, the temptation arises to make good on the promises of democracy by every means available, that is, even or especially by antidemocratic means, to bring science to completion and achieve human homogeneity by overturning democracy.
Herein lies what has been aptly called the “totalitarian temptation.” In this sense, as the French philosopher Claude Lefort has pointed out in Linvention démocratique (1981), his acute analysis of democracy, totalitarianism is the attempt to “embody” or “incorporate” democracy, to transform “indeterminate” democracy into a visible “body.” Democracy is “indeterminate” because, in the democratic dispensation, the “seat of power” is “void””occupied only provisionally by succeeding representatives. The Kings presence was overwhelming; the democratic statesmens is ordinarily underwhelming. As long as the citizens have not accustomed themselves to the worthy but modest function of choosing their representatives, the representatives will not be a match for the majesty of the people. Some demagogue will explain to the people that he will lead them to the empty place so that they themselves will occupy the seat of power: “Totalitarianism establishes a mechanism which . . . aims to weld anew power and society, to obliterate all the signs of social division, to banish the indetermination which haunts democratic experience . . . . From democracy and against it a body is thus made anew.” When writing those lines, Lefort had principally in mind the Soviet regime, but it is clear that “race,” no less than “class,” can offer the basis for the building of this new homogeneous body.
Thus Lefort, drawing part of his inspiration from the phenomenological tradition, brings to our attention the bodily character of the political, or the political character of the body. This close relationship, although coming to the surface of speech in common expressions like “political body” or “body politic,” has long been obscured in our democratic dispensation. Our forefathers, on the contrary, were well aware of it. Indeed how best to define the predemocratic order? If we look for one synthetic trait, then we will define it as an order founded on filiation . Everyones place in society was in principle determined by his or her “birth.” Ones name and estate were determined through heritage. There were only families, poor or rich, common or noble, but each one governed by the head of family.
In contradistinction to ancient cities, in which heads of families were roughly equal politically and participated in the same “public space,” in Western predemocratic societies there was no public space. Or rather, what was public was the family analogy, the logic of filiation and paternity, the fact that the same representation of the human ties or bonds circulated throughout the whole. Ultimately, what was public, that is, what was sacred, was the person of the King, that is, the Kings body .
This familial order, based as it was on the fecundity of the body and on accidents of birth, strikes us today as bizarre and even disgusting. If we are sophisticated enough, we will say with cool competence: it was the value system of our forefathers, ours is different, and our grandchildrens will again be different from it and ours. Im afraid I am not so sophisticated. This familial order was not just a value system or a cultural construct. It drew its strength, its durability, its quasi“universal validity (before democracy) from the general awareness that it was rooted not only in an undoubtedly natural fact, but in the fact that, so to speak, sums up “nature,” that is, birth and filiation.
Even among scholars, it is a common mistake to confuse any political reference to “the body” with “organicism.” It is then seen either as a mere figure of speech, or, more ominously, as a “holistic” representation fraught with oppressive potentialities. As a matter of fact, a “body” is very different from what is generally understood by “organism.” In the latter, the part is strictly subordinated to the whole. In the former, the whole is present and active in each part. Thus the idea of the body is not at all a mechanical, or even a physical, idea. It is, on the contrary, a spiritual idea: each part is at the same time itself and the whole. In this sense, every society, every polity, is a body.
These very sketchy observations help us to understand the meaning and strength of the order of the body, and by the same token to wonder at its swift and nearly complete demise. Lefort describes the nature, and appreciates the enormity, of the process as follows:
The ancien régime was made up of innumerable little bodies that provided people with their bearings. And those little bodies disposed themselves within a huge imaginary body of which the Kings body offers a replica and the token of its integrity. The democratic revolution, long underground, blows up when the Kings body is destroyed, when the head of the body politic falls to the ground, when accordingly the corporeity of society dissolves. Then something happens which I would dare to call the disincorporation of individuals. Extraordinary phenomenon . . . .
Why was it such an “extraordinary phenomenon”? To put it in a nutshell: while previous societies organized themselves so as to bind their members together, while they extolled the ideas of concord and unity, our democratic society organizes itself so as to untie, even to separate, its members, and thus guarantee their independence and their rights. In this sense, our society proposes to fulfill itself as a dis“society. An extraordinary phenomenon indeed!
But will not a society thus dissociating be unable to carry on, to say nothing of prospering? That is the recurrent fear in modern society, voiced by conservatives and socialists alike, with even a few liberals joining in at times. But as a matter of fact, belying all the prophets of doom, democratic societies have maintained their cohesion, they have prospered; indeed, they offer today”the vast bulk of mankind agrees on this point”the only viable and desirable way of organizing a decent common life. So we must infer that their continuous decomposition has been accompanied by a continuous recomposition. What is the principle of this recomposition? To cut a very long story short: it is the principle of representation . As Lefort emphasizes, the order of representation has succeeded the order of incorporation. And the principle behind the principle of representation is the will ”the will of people”a purely spiritual principle. The ultimate mainspring of democratic society is the fecundity of human will, or rather the capacity of the will to produce desirable effects.
Let us retrace our journey so far. I have argued that totalitarianism has been the experimentum crucis for political philosophy in this century, and that political philosophy, thus tested, was found wanting. We are able now to give a more precise assessment. The perplexities that attend the inquiry into the nature of totalitarian regimes do not arise solely from the peculiarly enigmatic essence of those regimes. Or rather, their enigmatic essence derives from another enigma or uncertainty, one that also concerns democracy. The uncertainty is this: where, and what, is the peoples will? How can a purely spiritual principle give form and life to a body politic? The “totalitarian temptation” is made possible by, and takes place in, the uncharted territory between the “body” of predemo cratic society and the “soul” of democratic politics. There is much more here than a glib metaphor. Indeed, we are at the heart of our practical and theoretical difficulties: herein lies the task of political philosophy, if it cares to have one.
We need to return again and again to the contrast between predemocratic and democratic societies, and to the dialectics between the two. This insistence may seem odd to Americans, since the U.S. had no real experience of predemocratic society and does not seem to be worse off for it: as Tocqueville so memorably said, “Americans are born equal, instead of becoming so.” But my proposal is for a philosophical inquiry, not a historical one.
We begin with a paradox. We instinctively think that predemocratic societies gave an advantage to the soul as opposed to the body, even as we instinctively suppose that democratic societies have rejected the excessive pretensions of the soul and have “liberated the body,” or, in Saint“Simonian parlance, “rehabilitated the flesh.” These impressions are not simply erroneous; there is much truth in them. But at the same time we could say that the opposite also is true. We have seen that predemocratic societies were “incorporated” societies, rooted in the fecundity of the body, culminating in the Kings body. As for democratic societies, while they are not particularly religious, they are politically and morally spiritualist, even otherwordly. Electing a representative, unlike begetting an heir, is the work of the will”of the mind or the soul.
That spirituality holds true not only in political relations, but in social and moral life as well. Democratic societies typically insist that all our bonds, including our bodily ones, have their origin in a purely spiritual decision, a decision reached in full spiritual sovereignty. We reject any suggestion that the body could create bonds by itself, that there could be ties rooted essentially in the “flesh.” The “new family” results from the growing understanding of marriage and parenthood as “continuous choice.” Even bodily intercourse is no longer supposed to create bonds by itself, to have meaning by itself: it does so only as far, and as long, as the will makes it so. Such meaning the will is free to confer and withdraw “at will.” We increasingly behave, and we increasingly interpret our behavior, as if we were angels who happen to have bodies. Carnal knowledge is no longer such.
No wonder, then, that what goes by the name of political philosophy or theory today is rather angel ology. In an otherwordly space”perhaps separated from this earth by a “veil of ignorance””beings who are no longer, or not yet, truly human deliberate over the conditions under which they would consent to land on our lowly planet and don our “too solid flesh.” They hesitate a lot, as well they might, and their abstract reasonings are complex and multifarious, if so hypothetical that they carry little weight. Political thought cannot indulge indefinitely to live in an atmosphere that is at the same time rarefied and vulgar. Totalitarianism, it is true, has been defeated without much contribution from political philosophy, and democracy seems to sail on unchallenged. But even in practical terms, it is not prudent to lean exclusively on the workaday virtues of the democratic citizenry.
We need to recapture something of what democracy left behind in its march to supremacy. Modern democracy has successfully asserted and realized the homogeneity of human life, but it is now required to try to recover and salvage the intrinsic heterogeneity of human experiences. The experience of the citizen is different from that of the artist, which in turn is different from that of the religious person, and so on. These decisive articulations of human life would be hopelessly blurred if the current conceit prevailed that every human being, as “creator of his or her own values,” is at the same time an artist, a citizen, and a religious person”indeed, all these things and more. Against this conceit, political philosophers should undertake to bring to light again the heterogeneity of human life.
It might be argued that this heterogeneity is adequately taken care of through the public acknowledgment of the legitimate plurality of human values. Nothing could be more mistaken. As Leo Strauss once tersely remarked, pluralism is a monism, being an “ism. The same self“destructive quality attaches itself to our “values.” To interpret the world of experience as constituted of admittedly diverse “values” is to reduce it to this common genus, and thus to lose sight of that heterogeneity we wanted to preserve. If God is a value, the public space a value, the moral law within my heart a value, the starry sky above my head a value . . . what is not? At the same time, for this is confusions great masterpiece, the “value language” makes us lose the unity of human life”this necessary component of democratic self“consciousness”just as it blurs its diversity: you dont argue about values since their value lies in the valuation of the one who puts value on them. Value language, with the inner dispositions it encourages, makes for dreary uniformity and unintelligible heterogeneity at the same time.
Certainly Max Weber would look with consternation on a state of things he unwillingly did so much to advance. As Science as a Vocation makes clear, he devoted his uncommon strength of mind and soul to the task for which I have just entered my feeble plea: to recover, or to salvage, the genuine diversity of human experiences. He was undoubtedly right to underline that the Beautiful is not the same as the Good or the True. But then, or so it seems to me, he crossed the line. Why interpret this internal differentiation of human life as a conflict, even as a “war””the “war of the gods” attendant to the “polytheism” of human “values”? Why say that we know that some things are beautiful because they are not good? Why say that we know that some beings are good or holy because and inasmuch as they are not beautiful? It seems that Weber here let himself be carried away by the restlessness of his spirit. How impatient we moderns have become! If two things dont match exactly, then they must be enemies.
Perhaps we have been impatient and restless from the beginning. Was not Descartes, the father of Enlightenment, as well the father of our impatience when he deliberately equated what is doubtful with what is false? How much wiser in my opinion was Leibniz, who tranquilly countered that what is true is true, what is false is false, and what is doubtful is . . . well, it is doubtful. We need Leibnizs equanimity more than Descartes impatience, so that we may sojourn within our different experiences, and draw from each its specific lesson.
The same human being, after all, admires what is beautiful, is motivated by what is good, and pursues the truth. Sometimes he comes across a “brave bad man,” as it befell Lord Clarendon; or he meets a fair treacherous woman. These complexities, sometimes even incongruities, of human experience need to be described accurately. Generally, the more bold the colors, the less exact the drawing. Human life does not warrant despair, and the social sciences do not warrant nihilism, because human life is humanly intelligible.
It is possible, even probable, that the democratic regime could not have come into being without the impatience of Descartes and others; it is possible as well that democratic citizens would have fallen asleep if not for the strident clarion calls of Weber and others. But victorious and mature democracy would do well to temper these extreme moods and open itself to the inner diversity of human experience as it claims to be open to the outer diversity of the human species. This would seem to be a tall order: for now, at least, few political philosophers have given it heed.
Pierre Manent is Director of Studies at the école des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris. His books include Tocqueville and the Nature of Democracy and The City of Man . This essay is adapted from a conference paper delivered at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., in June 1999. | <urn:uuid:09341fef-1cdb-4013-8e65-9c45e01de74f> | {
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It doesn’t take long when learning to weave until you encounter your first drafts, and it took me a while to figure out what they were and how they worked. I thought I’d write about how I learned to understand a weaving draft.
A draft can be considered to be the equivalent of a knitting pattern. Actually, not really. It’s more like a chart in a knitting pattern. Its not enough information for a weaver to start a particular project – details such as sett, yardage, material, finished project dimensions are all absent , but it provides information on how to set the loom up and work it to produce a cloth with a particular interlacement.
Drafts are usually divided into four quadrants. In the draft below of a 2/2 twill, I’ve labelled the quadrants A to D.
The Threading (A)
This section shows how the harnesses/shafts of a loom must be threaded. (Editor’s note: I used the term shafts and harnesses interchangeably without realizing and didn’t have time to fix it.) A harnesses job is to raise the threads that are assigned to it so that the weft yarn can pass underneath them. This section tells the weaver what threads each harness lifts and in what order.
The horizontal lines represent each individual harness. The bottom line is the harness closest to you if you’re sitting in front of the loom. You can also tell how many shafts your loom has to have to weave the draft by looking at how many rows are in this section.
Though there are many ways to thread the loom, two common ways to thread is straight threading and point threading.
In straight threading, a warp yarn goes through harness 1, the next yarn goes to harness 2 and so on. After you thread a heddle on the last harness, you go back to harness 1 and continue.
In point threading, you also thread harnesses 1 at a time. When you reach the end however, you change direction and thread the harnesses in the reverse order instead of starting back at harness 1. The original draft is shown below, with the only thing changed is the threading from straight to point threading. The diagonal stripes become horizontal zig zags.
The Tie Up (B)
Treadles (the floor pedals of a loom) are used to raise 1 or more shafts at the same time. The treadles on most loomes are usually fully configurable and can be set up to raise any combination of shafts you want it to. By doing so, the treadles provide the weaver a way to quickly raise combinations of shafts that form a pattern without having to think in terms of indiviaual harnesses (which is the case for my table loom). This section tells the weaver how to connect the treadles to the shafts.
Each column in quadrant B represents a treadle. Column 1 is for the first treadle and so on. If a row of that column is marked with a figure (usually an ‘O’ or its filled in), it means that the treadle needs to be connected to the shaft it is next to.
The Treadling (C)
This section simply tells you what order to press the pedals in to form a particular pattern the cloth. Like the threading, common treadlings are straight and point treadlings – they operate in the same way.
In the example of our 2/2 twill above, if we change the treadling from straight to point, we now get diamond patterns:
You can probably notice by now that by using a point pattern on the threading, treadling, or both, introduces a lines of horizontal and vertical symmetry into the cloth. You can also see in drafts such as this that the pattern in the cloth can be seen in the the tie-up quadrant of the draft.
A final note about our example, you’ll notice that in this draft, the threading and the treadling order is exactly the same. You’ll see the instruction “tromp as writ” come up from time to time, sometimes in drafts where the treadling is absent. This means to simply treadle in the same order as is threaded, I imagine its an old way of saying “treadle as written”.
The Drawdown (D)
This section gives you an idea what the finished cloth pattern will look like – it basically shows you the resulting interesction of the warp and weft yarns, usually with the implicit assumption that the warp is a black yarn and the weft is a white yarn.
Sometimes, more than one repeat is shown in either direction so you can see how one repeat connects with one another when they are laid side by side.
In the diagram below, you can see how you can figure out how to draw this section if you know what’s in the other three. I show how the second pick (weft row) is drawn in our 2/2 point twill draft:
- First you look at the tie up associated with the treadle that is being pressed and determine which shafts are being raised.
- Next you look across the shafts and every column that is filled with a number represents the threads that that are being lifted
- Finally, in the current pick that is being drawn, you darken each square that is directly below the squares being lifted.Continue the process for each pick and you’re done. | <urn:uuid:c30090e9-5ee7-453c-993b-378a198cc76a> | {
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Ajax 1 & Ajax 2
The giants Ephialtes 2 and Otus 1 who attacked heaven (see Zeus and GIANTS).
Ants transformed into men by Zeus (see Aeacus).
The two asses who carried Dionysus 2, when he wanted to reach the temple of Zeus in order to recover his sanity.
The asses who rode the SILENS and the SATYRS when they came to assist Zeus in his war against the GIANTS.
The asses who devoured Lycius 2, the man who wished to sacrifice asses against Apollo's will.
Those who lived in Atlantis.
BACCHANTS. (See MAENADS.)
I.e., all birds, offspring of Chaos & Eros.
See Heracles 1.
Horned generation of CENTAURS which grew out of the earth.
Horned generation of CENTAURS, children of the NYMPHS LAMUSIDES (see NYMPHS).
People of Cyprus changed into bullocks by Aphrodite.
Malefactors punished by Heracles 1 and turned into apes by Zeus.
Two youths who sprang from the ashes of Orion's daughters.
DIONYSUS 2'S NURSES
Those who reared Dionysus 2.
The dragons yoked to the car of Triptolemus.
The winged dragons yoked to the chariot of Medea.
EMATHIDES. (See PIERIDES.)
Those who were involved in the battle that followed the quarrel between Perseus 1 and Phineus 1, at the court of Cepheus 1.
EUMENIDES. (See ERINYES.)
Dino, Enyo 1 and Pephredo. Sisters of the GORGONS and old women from birth. The three had but one eye and one tooth, and these they passed to each other in turn (see Perseus 1).
See BESTIARY and Phineus 2.
HYADES 2. (See NYMPHS LAMUSIDES.)
JUDGES OF THE DEAD
Those who judge the dead: Aeacus, Minos 2 and Rhadamanthys (see Underworld).
See Other Deities.
"Maidens" are called the three daughters of Scamander 2 and Acidusa, who are honoured in Boeotia up to this day
Scamander 2 was king in Boeotia. He named the Inachus river after himself, and the stream near by he called Glaucia from his mother. The spring Acidusa he named after his wife. Scamander 2 was son of Deimachus 4, a companion of Heracles 1 who took part in the latter's expedition against Troy and fell fighting there. Deimachus 4 was son of Eleon, a Boeotian who brought up his grandson Scamander 2.
Scamander 2's mother Glaucia was a Trojan. She fell in love with Deimachus 4 when he was fighting against the Trojans. When he died Glaucia fled for refuge and told Heracles 1 of her love affair with Deimachus 4. Later, when she gave birth to Scamander 2, Heracles 1 delivered both the child and the mother to Eleon in Boeotia. Glaucia was a daughter of the river god Scamander 1 and Idaea 1.
These are the mares which gave birth to the CENTAURS after consorting with Centaurus.
MARES OF DIOMEDES 1
See HERACLES 1'S LABOURS.
MARES OF LAOMEDON 1
Eurymede 2 and Melanippe 5, sisters of Meleager who grieved the death of their brother and were turned into birds by Artemis.
The daughters of Minyas, having gone mad, conceived a craving for human flesh, and drew lots for their children. The lot fell upon Leucippe 4 to contribute her son Hippasus 11 to be torn to pieces. See Minyas and the Minyans
MOLIONES. (See MOLIONIDES.)
These were twin-brothers with their bodies joined to one another (see Elis).
Offspring of Gaia (Earth).
NYMPHS LAMUSIDES. (HYADES 2.)
Horned rockdwellers, children of Pan.
See Other Deities.
PHORCIDES. (See GRAEAE.)
Nine sisters who defied the MUSES in a contest of song and were defeated. The MUSES themselves are sometimes called by this name.
These women denied the divinity of Aphrodite and, through the goddess' wrath, they became the first to prostitute their bodies.
These are the Tyrrhenian sailors who attempted to delude Dionysus 2. They are also said to have leapt ashore and captured Dionysus 2 whom they stripped of his possessions and tied with ropes running behind his back. However, the god saved himself by turning them into dolphins. The SAILORS were Acoetes 2, Aethalides 2, Alcimedon 2, Dictys 3, Epopeus 3, Libys, Lycabas 2, Medon 6, Melas 7, Opheltes 3, and Simon (according to Hyginus); or else they were Acoetes 2, Aethalion, Alcimedon 2, Dictys 3, Epopeus 3, Libys, Lycabas 2, Medon 6, Melanthus 2, Opheltes 3, and Proreus 2 (according to Ovid) (Hyg.Fab.134; Nonn.45.120ff., 45.167, 47.630; Ov.Fast.3.723; Ov.Met.3.581-691).
The oldest among the SATYRS; they are a mortal race.
SOIL'S OFFSPRING. (See AUTOCHTHONOUS.)
SUITORS OF HIPPODAMIA 3
Those who were obliged to win her hand through a chariot race with her father, who would kill them if they were overtaken in the race (see Oenomaus 1).
Three sisters, virgin and winged, who were teachers in divination and were inspired through eating honey.
See Divinities of Waters & Landscapes.
These have been called nurses of Zeus: Adrastia 1, Aex, Alcinoe 1, Amalthea, Cynosura, Eupheme 1, Glauce 5, Hagno, Helice 1, Ide 3, Ithome, Neda, Oenoe 1, Phrixa, and Theisoa. See Dictionaries. | <urn:uuid:362b071e-1bc1-4394-9b68-4d7c966cf00f> | {
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By Janice Faulk Duplantis
Soup may be the first course of a meal or it can be the whole meal. A steaming hot bowl of soup is wonderful to warm up to on a cold winter day, while a bowl of chilled gazpacho or fruit soup can be perfect for cooling off on a hot summer day.
"Soup" is a basic term used to describe a liquid food made from any combination of vegetables, fruit, meat and/or fish cooked in a liquid. This article will discuss some of the more common variations of soup and offer information and tips on preparing, serving and storing homemade soups.
Common Types of Soup...
Bisque - a thick, rich cream soup usually containing seafood. Newer recipes may use poultry or vegetables in place of seafood. At one time bisques were thickened with rice, but today they are more frequently thickened with roux.
Bouillabaisse - a highly seasoned seafood stew made of fish, shellfish, onions, tomatoes, white wine, olive oil, garlic, saffron and herbs.
Broth & Bouillon (Stock) - a strained liquid that is the result of cooking vegetables, meat or fish and other seasonings in water.
Chowder - a thick, chunky soup or stew usually containing seafood, potatoes, and milk or cream. The word ‘chowder’ comes from the French word ‘cauldron,’ which means cooking kettle. Vegetables or fish stewed in a cauldron became known as chowder in English-speaking nations (a corruption of the name of the pot or kettle in which they were cooked). The first chowders prepared on the North American continent were brought by French fishermen to Canada.
Consomme - a clear soup made of strained meat or vegetable broth, served hot or as a cold jelly.
Court Bouillon - a broth made from cooking various vegetables and herbs, usually an onion studded with a few whole cloves, celery, carrots and bouquet garni (parsley, thyme and bay leaf), perhaps with a little wine, lemon juice or vinegar; used as a poaching base for fish, seafood or vegetables.
Cream soups - soups that are thickened with a white sauce.
Gazpacho - an uncooked soup made of a pureed mixture of fresh tomatoes, sweet bell peppers, onions, celery, cucumber, bread crumbs, garlic, olive oil, vinegar and sometimes lemon juice which is served cold; also may be served 'chunky-style.'
Gumbo - a Cajun/Creole delicacy of South Louisiana, reflecting its rich history: wild game or seafood (from the Acadians), thickened with okra (from the Africans), file (from the Indians) and/or roux (from the French). Gumbo is a thick, robust soup with hundreds of variations including chicken and sausage gumbo, shrimp and okra gumbo, oyster gumbo and seafood gumbo.
Minestrone - a thick soup of Italian origin containing assorted vegetables, peas and beans, pasta (such as vermicelli or macaroni) and herbs in a meat or vegetable broth.
Stew - a dish containing meat, vegetables and a thick soup-like broth made from a combination of the stewing liquid and the natural juices of the food being stewed.
How to Remove Fat from Soup...
Soup always tastes better and is healthier if the excess fat (grease) is removed during cooking and before serving. Try any of the following techniques to remove fat:
> Use a large spoon to skim the fat off soup as it simmers.
> While cooking soup, place the pot slightly to one side of the burner. The off-centered bubbling will encourage fat to accumulate on one side of the pot for easier removal.
> A leaf of lettuce dropped in a pot of soup will absorb grease from the top.
> To remove the last spots of fat floating on the surface, drag a clean, unprinted paper towel across the top. It will oak up most of the remaining oil.
> Refrigerate cooked stews and soups overnight before serving. The fat will rise and solidify in a layer at the top. The fat may then be removed by breaking it up into large pieces and lifting it away with a spoon.
> When in a hurry to skim the fat from soup, float an ice cube in the soup to help congeal the fat and make it easier to remove.
If the Soup is too Salty...
Try one of the following methods to correct over-salting:
(1) Add a whole, peeled raw potato to the soup and simmer for 10 to 15 minutes. The potato will absorb the salt. Remove the potato before serving the soup. (Do not discard the potato – it is perfectly good for later use in another recipe.)
(2) Stir in 1 teaspoon of vinegar and 1 teaspoon of brown sugar for each quart of liquid.
To Thicken Soup...
The best method of thickening most soups and stews is to remove some of the cooked vegetables, puree them in a blender, and return the pureed mixture to the soup. (Do not fill the blender more than one-third full with hot vegetables to prevent getting burned from splashes of hot puree.)
In the event that the soup is short on vegetables or there are none in the soup, try one of the following thickening techniques:
~ Make a paste of all-purpose flour mixed with twice as much cold broth or water. The ratio of flour to liquid is 1-1/2 teaspoons of flour to 1 tablespoon of liquid for every 1 cup of soup. Slowly stir the paste into simmering soup and continue to simmer for 5 to 10 minutes.
~ A roux of butter and flour may also be used as a thickener. The longer the roux is cooked, the darker and more flavorful it becomes. Be careful not to scorch the roux or it will give the soup an unpleasant burned taste.
~ Cream is another alternative to not only thicken, but add a luxurious richness to soups.
~ A cornstarch slurry of 1 part cornstarch to 2 parts liquid will also thicken soup; do not boil or the solution will break down.
Freezing and Reheating Soup...
Most soups freeze beautifully. Consider preparing large batches of soup so that there will be extra to freeze and serve at a later date.
- Chill soup in the refrigerator and skim off any fat that rises to the surface before freezing.
- Freezing cream-based soups may cause separation. If the soup does separate while reheating, whisk vigorously with a wire whisk or try blending it in a blender for a few minutes to smooth it out.
- Reheat frozen soups in the microwave or thaw at room temperature and heat in a heavy saucepan over low heat on the stovetop.
- To avoid overcooking starchy ingredients like potatoes, pasta and rice, heat thawed soup only long enough to warm throughout.
Miscellaneous Soup Making Tips and Info...
- If the soup is not intended as the main course, count on one quart of soup to serve six adults. As a main dish, plan on two servings per quart.
- A hot soup will help recondition the palate between meal courses or after consumption of alcoholic beverages.
- Ideally, cold soups should be served in chilled dishes.
- Adjust seasonings of cold soups just before serving. Chilled foods tend to dull the taste buds and will require more seasoning than hot soups.
- Be aware that herbs will have a more intense flavor if added at the end of the long cooking process.
- Savory soups and stews always taste better if made a day or two in advance, refrigerated and then reheated just prior to serving.
- Wine is a wonderful flavor addition to soups and stews. When using wine in soup, use less salt as the wine tends to intensify saltiness. Wine should be added at a ratio of no more than 1/4 cup of wine to 1 quart of soup.
- Beer is also a good addition to soups and stews. A good rule of thumb is 1 cup of beer to 3 cups of soup.
- Freeze the liquids drained from canned mushrooms or vegetables for later use in soups or stews.
- Since liquids boil at a lower temperature at high altitudes, cooking time may need to be extended at altitudes above 2500 feet.
- Soups and stews should only simmer while cooking, ‘never’ brought to a hard boil.
"Is it soup, yet?"
Naturally, the best soups are made with a base of homemade broth and fresh ingredients, but this method can be very time-consuming and labor intensive. If you like, time spent in the kitchen preparing soup may be reduced by using canned or frozen broths and vegetables while still yielding an excellent product.
Remember, there are no really good ‘quick’ soup recipes because any truly good soup needs time during preparation for flavor to fully develop. Always plan on providing enough time to prepare a really good soup or stew.
About the Author: Janice Faulk Duplantis currently maintains a web site that focuses on both Easy Gourmet and French/Cajun Cuisine. Visit http://www.bedrockpress.com to see what Bedrock Press has to offer. Janice also publishes 4 monthly ezines: Gourmet Bytes, Lagniappe Recipe, Favorite Recipes and Cooking 101. Subscribe at http://www.bedrockpress.com/subscribe.html | <urn:uuid:46fc3644-4878-4be4-ab7c-9d6467628d8e> | {
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Artists develop notions of something greater than competence, greater than excellence, and become intoxicated with perfection of their craft, perfection of their technique, and perfection of their repertoire of skills culminating in what they hope will one day be the perfect story, perfect poem, perfect painting, or perfect performance. Once in his career Laurence Olivier, the greatest actor of the 20th century, gave what he knew and everyone knew who was present that night was a perfect performance of Hamlet. “My God,” he wondered, “How did I do it and how will I ever be able to do it again?”
All artists want to “get better” and to “get it right.” They devote their entire careers to getting better and getting it right. The development of expertise is the artist’s most crucial task. If there is one thing that all successful creative people have in common it’s that they all work hard developing their skills, the foundation of their success.
To strive to improve one’s performance continually and to more and more often get it right, requires qualities that are not common. One is self-confidence; another is an objectivity about one’s artistic and sometimes personal shortcomings and limitations—a capacity for stern, dispassionate self-criticism. If an artist shows you his work and you don’t notice the flaws in it that are so apparent to him, he will doubt your critical judgment and may not ask you again. Tell a ballerina her performance was breathtaking and she will say, “I missed a beat and my right foot wasn’t arched properly. “
The most difficult task for artists is to find and put into their work the right voice, the presence of the artist in the work. E.L Doctorow said, “I wait until I find a narrative voice. Then I listen to that and start writing.” John Updike wrote, “I notice that as I write it comes out as a sort of Updike prose. I sit down in such different moods, wearing such different clothes, and out this comes—like a kind of handwriting. It’s always mine, and there’s no way I can seem to get around it. Isn’t it funny you have only one voice?”
Artists may have to spend many years finding what their proper subject matter and voice may be. When they do find it, everything suddenly comes out into the clear light of day: “Now I know how to say what I’ve been trying to say.” At times—sometimes in mid-career—they discover that what they have been doing has been all wrong. The work doesn’t express them. When halfway through her life painter Mary Cassatt discovered her true subject—mothers with their children—and the right style, she destroyed all but a few of her previous works, signifying a new beginning. In mid-career painter Georgia O’Keefe decided her art was too influenced by other people and set out in a new direction.
Every art is physically and mentally exhausting. When they finish a day’s work, artists feel they have lifted a thousand pounds. They have a compulsion to work. The reason artists, like experts in all other fields, most often cite for their enormous energy, commitment, and focus necessary to excel is their motivation to concentrate on the task and put out effort to improve their performance.
Non-artists cannot be motivated or even forced to work at an artistic task to the extent that a person with an intense interest does willingly. There has probably never been a great artist who didn’t have a strong sense of single-mindedness and an ability to persevere, overcome difficulties, and concentrate on reaching his goals while resisting distractions. An interesting question is, “Why do some people but not others possess those qualities, and why do virtually all creative people?”
The artist’s main goal is production. When they have not worked at their craft for 48 hours, or 24 hours, or one hour, they get uneasy. When they are away from their work without a brush in their hand or something to write with or dancing slippers on their feet they are completely out of their element.
You cannot distinguish between true artists and their work. They are exactly what they do. A composer is his music, a writer his language. Every molecule in their body is the molecule of an artist. A director is one who directs; an actor acts. That’s what they do and that’s all there is to it. Their work is on their mind almost every waking moment.
Artists grow accustomed to loneliness. Even as children they spent much of their time alone. The common notion that artists are different and have different points of view, habits, personalities, and preoccupations than the majority of humankind is correct. There is often a distance, a gap, between them and their neighbors, even other members of their family, even their lovers and spouses who are not involved themselves in art.
They must incorporate the other person in their work or find a way of coping with that distance, or those sharing their lives must find a way. That may not be possible. Nobel Prize winning author Saul Bellow said, “I have always put the requirements of what I was writing first—before jobs, before children, before any material or practical interest, and if I discover that anything interferes with what I’m doing, I chuck it. Perhaps this is foolish, but it has been the case with me.” Bellow was married five times.
The artist, realizing that she’s looking at the world from a vantage point that’s not available to everyone, can say, “I am different. I see things differently. I value different things.” Everyone else wants to be rich. The artist wants fulfillment.
If they are truly artists, they are especially equipped and seem to have been born with not only magical “creative stuff” but with tenacity, strength, powerful will, and patience. In the achievements of successful artists you always see gifts coupled with extraordinary application, the former meaningless without the latter. A man I know was curious and attended an art show to ask a famous sculptor if he had advice for his son John, a sculptor who was just beginning. The sculptor said, “Yes I do have advice. It’s very simple. You tell John to pick up his mallet and his chisel and make chips.” A poet who lived several hundred years before Plato wrote, “Before the Gates of Excellence the high Gods have placed sweat.” Artists are great believers in sweat and making chips.
Who sets the standard for perfection that all artists measure themselves against? The work of everyone is compared with the virtuoso. Miles Davis in jazz. Arthur Rubenstein playing Chopin. A novel by Faulkner.
French philosopher-playwright Jean Paul Sartre wrote that man exists first and only afterwards defines himself. He is what “he will have planned to be; he is what he conceives himself to be.” Artists may not talk much about being artists, preferring if they are any good, working to talking about working. But they conceive themselves to be artists. They have planned to be artists. They are creative in the grandest sense of creating themselves from scratch.
Henry David Thoreau, as great a clear-thinking artist as there ever was, wrote, “I know of no more encouraging fact than the unquestionable ability of man to elevate his life by conscious endeavor.” The Japanese say, “Irrigators guide water, fletchers straighten arrows, and as for wise people, they shape themselves.” Artists are shaping themselves from their first exposure to their art.
A cat becomes all the cat it will ever be without having to think about it. All that’s necessary is to be born a cat. But people who aspire to be artists have considerably more work to do than cats. The highest development of an artist’s capabilities to aim for and reach perfection is worth giving up almost everything for.
© 2015 David J. Rogers
For my interview from the international teleconference with Ben Dean about Fighting to Win, click on the following link:
Order Fighting to Win: Samurai Techniques for Your Work and Life eBook by David J. Rogers
Order Waging Business Warfare: Lessons From the Military Masters in Achieving Competitive Superiority | <urn:uuid:251544f8-f73e-43a0-a091-3c0e1d288587> | {
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University of Cape Town
Department of Physics
Weekly Problem Set 9
Wednesday 14 April 2010
Read these instructions very carefully: You have been assigned to a group of 3 for the duration of this tutorial.
Work together on the problems below and call a tutor if needed. Each student needs to be working on paper
during this time. Each student then must hand in individual, full solutions before 10:00 a.m. on Wednesday 21
April into the special box in the Course I laboratory. Your marked tutorials will be returned in the PHY1023H
pigeonholes and solutions will go up on the notice board.
1. Determine the (indefinite) integrals of the following functions:
(a) 9 x (b) 5 x2 (c) x4 / 5 (d) 7 (e) x-3 (f) 7 x2 + 2 x.
2. Shown is a force-distance graph for a constantly decreasing (N)
force acting on a mass moving in the x-direction. 40
(a) From the graph, calculate how much work is done by this force 30
in moving the mass from point A to point B.
(b) Write down the integral (with the appropriate numerical values)
that will enable you to calculate the work done by the force in
moving the block from A to B.
(c) Solve the integral. 10
Do you get same answer as you got in (a)?
0 15 20
3. Consider the lines below which mark the paths of a moving particle.
A B C D E F
(a) Which paths describe motion in one dimension?
(b) Which paths describe motion in two dimensions?
(c) Which paths could be used to describe motion having constant velocity?
(d) Which paths could be used to describe motion having acceleration (change in velocity?)
4. Look at the picture alongside. It shows photographs taken of
two balls: one is projected horizontally at some height, and at
the same time a second ball is dropped from rest from the same
height. Both balls fall under the influence of gravity. Look
carefully at the picture. What can you conclude about the
motion of the two balls? Does your conclusion depend on how
fast the one ball is projected horizontally?
5. In each situation below, photographs were taken of a ball as it moved from its starting position
(shown shaded) to its final position (shown solid). The photographs were taken the same time apart
and superimposed on top of each other in each of the frames below.
A B C D
(a) Copy these pictures on your page and add in a continuous line representing the path of the ball. How
sure are you of your answers in each case?
(b) Which pictures could be describing motion in one dimension?
(c) Which pictures could be describing motion in two dimensions?
(d) Which pictures could be describing motion having constant velocity?
(e) For each picture, describe (in words) what might have been photographed. In other words, describe
the motion of the ball in each case.
6. For each of the situations below, (i) draw the “freeze frame” representation (ii) draw in velocity
vectors at each of the position of the photograph, and (iii) indicate the direction of the acceleration.
Label your diagrams clearly. Draw the lift as a circle.
(a) A lift moving up with constant velocity
(b) A lift going up and speeding up.
(c) A lift going down and speeding up.
(d) A lift moving up and slowing down.
(e) A lift going down and slowing down.
7. For one region of an engine cycle, the pressure P of the gas in the engine cylinder is related to the
volume V by
P=5V + 3 where the volume is in m3 and the pressure in pascals.
(a) Draw a rough graph of this relationship
(b) Using your graph, determine how much work is done when the volume of the cylinder is increased
from 0.4 m3 to 0.9 m3.
(c) Calculate the work done when the volume of the cylinder is increased from 0.4 m3 to 0.9 m3 using an
integral. Compare your answer to (b)
(d) Explain carefully the physical meaning of the integral. | <urn:uuid:77e08654-7094-4bf7-adaf-4448cd81ac89> | {
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The bird flu virus that killed 32 people in Thailand and Vietnam last year has remerged in both countries, killing seven so far in Vietnam since December.
Furthermore, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that the virus might have spread to neighbouring countries. Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar lack sophisticated surveillance capacity and may not have spotted human cases, said Peter Cordingley, WHO spokesman for the Western Pacific region earlier this week.
Thailand has confirmed outbreaks of the virus for the first time this year. The virus killed twelve people there last year, and authorities have declared a high alert throughout the country after detecting bird flu in fighting cocks yesterday (20 January).
Link to full news story in The Australian
Read more about bird flu in SciDev.Net's bird flu news focus. | <urn:uuid:656748a0-903f-4907-aa89-ad8f0c708711> | {
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Brigham Young University
Church History Symposium
Preserving the History of the Latter-day Saints
Edited by Richard E. Turley Jr. and Steven C. Harper
Published by the Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, in cooperation with Deseret Book Company, Salt Lake City
© 2010 by Brigham Young University
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books, Inc.
Any uses of this material beyond those allowed by the exemptions in U.S. copyright law, such as section 107, “Fair Use,” and section 108, “Library Copying,” require the written permission of the publisher, Religious Studies Center, 167 HGB, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602. The views expressed herein are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the position of Brigham Young University or the Religious Studies Center.
Cover painting by Alvin Gittins © 1997 Intellectual Reserve, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cover design by Carmen Cole
Unlike most religious movements such as Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, whose origins are somewhat veiled in antiquity, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints developed in a time of modern record keeping. Rather than being obscured by the passage of centuries or millennia, the origins of the church are situated in recent historical time. A written record has been kept at nearly every major step of the church’s organization and growth.
The pattern of keeping records dates back to the earliest days of the church, when Joseph Smith, the church’s founding prophet, announced the divine decree, “Behold, there shall be a record kept among you” (D&C 21:1). Leaders of the church have strived to obey that command. Contemporaneous records were kept of revelations received by the prophet, the calling and interaction of early leaders, missionary assignments, the building of temples, and much more.
The Latter-day Saints continue to be a record-keeping people. In fact, there may be no other people on earth of comparable size who have a richer record-keeping tradition than the people nicknamed Mormons. It is a part of the church’s administrative system, reaching from small committees to the church’s general conferences and from new members to the most senior leaders. Because of this tradition, scholars can readily evaluate Latter-day Saint history from a wealth of primary documents.
On February 27, 2009, professional historians and students of church history gathered for the fourth annual Brigham Young University Church History Symposium. A cooperative effort between the Religious Studies Center at BYU and the Church History Department in Salt Lake City, the symposium featured presentations on preserving the history of the Latter-day Saints.
Marlin K. Jensen, church historian and recorder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, delivered the symposium’s keynote address. Assistant church historian and recorder Richard E. Turley Jr. spoke on the significance of his predecessors in that office. One of those former assistant church historians, James B. Allen, spoke on William Clayton’s influential role in the preservation of the Latter-day Saint past. Other scholars addressed a variety of relevant topics that ranged from the church’s earliest efforts at record keeping to the challenging task of preserving its increasingly global and complex history.
Many of the symposium’s presentations are published in this volume. Readers will find these papers filled not only with research about the church’s past but also the experiences and adventures of many who have taken seriously the commission to preserve the history of the Latter-day Saints.
Richard E. Turley Jr.
Steven C. Harper | <urn:uuid:2ce0d7b5-8dc4-4f3e-9532-28b3aa7b85ad> | {
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Thank you, Fabrizio, for all your comments!
Замечательная композиция! :)
Раньше поселок Озерки так и назывался - Сейвясто.
Озеро Ушаковское was Tervajärvi ("Смоляное озеро")
I do not know for sure, but I think, that the symbol looks like a municipal coat of arms. Actually in Finland the rural municipalieties did not have arms of coats like the cities had.
However during the 1950'sthe rural municipalities started to get ones just like boroughs.
As for the territories, which were transferred to the Soviet union in 1944 (Moscow Armistice) and congfirmed in 1947 (Paris peace treauty), therre were no coat of arms for the rural municipalities.
Because of that some cultural societies started to make coat of arms as if they had officially existed.
So I would guess, that that coat of arms has been made afterwards as a symbol of the past municipality or the past Evangelical Lutheran parish.
The Evangelical Lutheran parishes were also the secular local government until 1865/1866.
Бусловка was in Finnish Sarvijoki (Horn river).
Спасибо. По Вашей ссылке речь о крепостной пушке, а согласно документам по Выборгской крепости батарея №5 имела на вооружении батарейные пушки. Калибр у них один, но пушки разные. | <urn:uuid:18766756-4805-443d-b04c-32e0d07bef96> | {
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Lizard Head has changed landscape of SW Colorado
Lizard Head has fallen
Mancos Times-Tribune, Dec. 29, 1911
The skyline of the mountains to the southwest of Telluride was changed last night when through some mighty upheaval of nature, the taller spire of Lizard Head fell with a roar to the depths below.
During the night people living on the mesas near Ophir heard a sliding, grinding noise, which disturbed the atmosphere and gave the impression of an earthquake. This morning they discovered that the upstanding rock which had been given the name of Lizard Head was gone.
The smaller spire which was formerly inconspicuous by the side of the head is now standing single and alone, pointing to the sky, a long sentinel of last night’s upheaval. Millions of tons of rocks, conglomerate and earth went down without apparent cause or reason.
Geologists had argued in the past that Lizard Head was a mass on San Juan tufts supported on a round peak, and the only theory advanced for the falling of the spire is that the rock had disintegrated and cleft from the round dome underneath it.
The base of the mountain is formed of Mancos shale, above which was about 200 feet of San Miguel conglomerate, surmounted by a top of San Juan tufts. The tufts were about 300 feet in height with nearly vertical walls, bedded in andestic greccia.
So far as is known, the peak was first known and named in 1875, although prospectors had probably been through the region earlier than that. It was made celebrated by the Rio Grande railroad in later years, being used extensively in the literature sent out by the road.
The happening is a unique one in mountain natural history, as no record exists in local circles of so great a mass of rock ever falling before.
The above article was printed in “Great Sage Plain to Timberline — Our Pioneer Ancestors” — Volume III. Since the book’s printing, requests have been made asking about a photograph of Lizard Head prior to Dec. 29, 1911. If any of our readers have this photograph, we would appreciate a copy of it. Call June Head at 565-3880 or Virginia Graham at 565-7767.
The four volumes of “Great Sage Plain to Timberline — Our Pioneer Ancestors” may be purchased at Books or Let It Grow Nursery in Cortez. Volume 4 will be available for sale during the free performance shown below by the Historical Society.
Friday, June 8, 7 p.m. at Hampton Hall, First United Methodist Church, 515 N. Park, Cortez is the date for the Historical Society’s free performance of “The History & Legend of Disappointment Valley with Marsha Bankston as Lizzy Knight.” The public is invited. Refreshments will be served. Marsha will also have a reprint of her mother’s book “Where Eagles Winter” for sale for $20, plus a new book by Marsha titled “Lizzy Knight, from English Blacksmith to Colorado Pioneer Cattle Woman” for sale at $10. For information on this program, please contact Vivienne and Philip Kenyon, the program coordinators, at 565-7714.
June Head is the historian for the Montezuma County Historical Society. She can be contacted for comments, corrections or questions at 565-3880. | <urn:uuid:712f3fd6-e863-4057-9a6f-066568efd0ce> | {
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During the school year, I’m not always in touch with what’s going on in the entertainment world, but just today I cam across this review: ‘Princess Kaguya’ a royal pleasure. This animated full length movie is based on the 10th century Japanese tale Taketori monogatari 竹取物語. Wow! A 1,000-year-old Japanese classical tale has made it’s way to the big screen–not just in Charlotte, NC, but around the globe!* This is just another example of the joy western audiences can discover by exploring Japanese literature and culture.
The Tale of Princess Kaguya Trailor–sorry, no dialogue. Just Japanese singing in the background.
“A Princess’ Crime and Punishment”?? Not sure that was the best choice for a tagline, but…
David Mitchell’s novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent movie adaption is the most prominent example of a recent Hollywood blockbuster that draws directly from Japanese literature. Mithchell’s film (and novel) are based on the 20th century author Mishima Yukio’s (三島由紀夫) tetralogy “Sea of Fertility” (Hōjō no Umi 豊饒の海). Mishima’s works (including the four novels in this tetralogy) can usually be found in English bookstores, so read them! Mishima and other 20th century authors are widely translated into English and other languages for a number of reasons. One practical reason for this is that modern Japanese literature is written in the modern Japanese language. Therefore people studying Japanese can read these works and are more likely to enjoy them. “The Tale of Princess Kaguya” or, Taketori monogatari, is a classical Japanese work, written in classical Japanese. Classical Japanese is a little bit more difficult to read and understand and is not spoken today, so the casual student of Japanese is not likely to hear or come in contact with it unless they really go out of their way to study and enjoy it. So, I am very surprised and happy to see that this new animated movie draws on a classical Japanese literary text as its inspiration! Hopefully it will get people’s interest in Japanese literature beyond modern authors like Mishima and Haruki Murakami and into the foundations of modern Japanese lit.!
Taketori monogatari’s common English title is “The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.” So, even though Princess Kaguya (Kaguya-hime かぐや姫) is the star of the tale, the title refers to a “bamboo cutter.” The bamboo cutter in the story is a poor old man who lives with his wife in [what I imagine to be] the solitude of the densely forested mountains. A bamboo cutter’s job would have been to perhaps collect bamboo for kindling/ firewood and for building material. The old man and his wife are childless, but one day while collecting bamboo the old man discovers this beautiful, “three-inch tall” girl inside a bamboo stalk. The tale then quickly turns into something reminiscent of a western fairy-tale, with suitors travelling from far and wide to win Kaguya-hime as their bride. What’s kind of far-out about this tale is that Kaguya-hime is an alien! She has been exiled from the Moon to Earth as a punishment, and at the end of the story these aliens come to Earth to retrieve her!!
“The Moon people come to retrieve Kaguya-hime”
This tale (monogatari 物語) dates back to the 10th century (ca. 909). This was Japan’s Heian 平安 era, typically represented by high aristocrat culture, which was lavish, elite, and very much exclusive, barring the common people from participating in it. Composing poetry and creating poetry anthologies were typical literary pursuits in Japan prior to Taketori monogatari which is not poetry, but rather a lengthy narrative tale. A great deal of quasi-historical literature was also produced at the time. And, I should mention that a lot of formal writing (whether for religion, law, or creative pursuits) was done in Chinese. From a writing point of view, these means that people wrote usually in Chinese characters. From a language point of view, this means that both Chinese AND Japanese sentence syntax were used (and often mixed together). Furthermore, both Chinese-like pronunciations and Japanese pronunciations were used to read the Chinese characters.
Taketori monogatari is written mostly in the homegrown Japanese hiragana characters though, which points to a shift in Japanese literature (and a shift in the sense of literary-self). Hiragana was more easily learned and therefore more accessible to a larger audience, of whom women came to be a larger proportion of, whereas literature thick with Chinese characters was more exclusive–accessible to the highest educated aristocratic men and those in the religious class. The author of Taketori monogatai is unknown, but after it’s publication woman in Japan began to produce literature in a variety of genres and in a number of different contexts. The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari 源氏物語) written in the early 11th century by Murasaki Shikibu 紫式部 is a good example of Japanese literature by women that is probably pretty well known to western readers.
There is so much more that I could get into about the time period (Heian era), the genre (monogatari 物語), and other Taketori monogatari fun facts, but one thing I want to point out is that this movie, “The Tale of Princess Kaguya,” is not exactly an “adaptation of a Japanese folk tale,” as the author says in the movie review. That is, Taketori monogatari is not a Japanese folk tale–it is most definitely an elaborate piece of classical Japanese literature, which is based on a number of Japanese (and Chinese!) myths. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter has been translated into a number of languages, so I recommend that fans of this movie get a hold of one! It is not long and is an easy read. English versions of it appear in a number of J-lit anthologies. There is also a bi-lingual, illustrated version that was translated by the great Donald Keene and is the version that I would recommend if you just like the movie and only want to read this story. Getting a J-lit anthology is good, however, if you want to maybe get a taste of other classical Japanese, Heian literature, which ranges from the very funny, to strangely erotic, to depressing, to the deeply moving.
My introduction to Japanese literature class is studying about Heian literature now, so I’m excited to see this movie review online. The students in my class are from all over the world (only 1 Japanese student!) so I’ll have to ask them if “The Tale of Princess Kaguya” has come out in their home countries or not.
*actually, the article doesn’t make it clear if the film has been released in all over America, or if it’s just some special, local showing. After reading the article, I assumed that since it was Studio Ghibli that it was being shown all over the place–this may not be the case though. Sorry! | <urn:uuid:9ac0aac5-be39-4dab-afe7-17cbb0ba87a2> | {
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by Prof Louis-Albert Tchuem Tchuenté, Pamela Bongkiyung, Prof Russell Stothard
In the fight against Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs), it has become obvious that learning from other countries’ successes will help many others to control and eliminate these diseases. This is how the China-Africa meeting and collaboration came about in 2012.
Whilst on a visit to the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, we caught up with Prof. Louis-Albert Tchuem Tchuenté regarding the China-Africa Meeting on Schistosomiasis Elimination and Training Course on Malacology, organised in Cameroon from the 24 – 28 October 2016.
Prof. Louis-Albert Tchuem-Tchuenté is an NTD Ambassador for Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. He also heads the Centre for Schistosomiasis & Parasitology in Cameroon and is a professor of parasitology. He lectures at the University of Yaoundé I and is Country Director for the COUNTDOWN project in Cameroon. His expertise in Schistosomiasis and Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis spans over 30 years. He is Cameroon’s National Coordinator for the control of Schistosomiasis and Intestinal Worms.
Discussions with Prof. Louis-Albert revealed that this China-Africa meeting started a long time ago. Given that China has a vast amount of experience in Schisto control and has successfully eliminated Schisto in many of their provinces; many African countries still struggling with schisto can learn from the Chinese experience. Very few areas have Schisto in China and Schisto has been eliminated as a public health problem there. The highest prevalence is probably 1-2 percent and the plan now is to interrupt the transmission everywhere.
According to Prof. Louis-Albert, China invested a lot on their elimination agenda including treatment, environmental modification and snail control. Most of the schistosomiasis cases in China are zoonotic because they have a lot of animals who act as reservoir hosts. That is why they have invested a lot of money to modify the environment so that the animals do not maintain the parasite life-cycle.
One of the highest components of this is the snail control. Schistosomiasis has two main hosts: vertebrate hosts (including human beings and animals) and the snails. In the transmission, you have both factors that make this happen. The snails are in the water and if you don’t change the environment, the snails remain present. Even if you reduce the transmission, then at some stage it just needs one person who is infected to defecate or urinate into the environment, to rebuild the transmission cycle. That is why it is very important to control the snails. The Chinese have done so successfully and have vast experience in snail control.
Based on this, it became important for African countries to benefit from the Chinese experience. That is why the World Health Organisation(WHO), together with the Chinese government, decided to have this China-Africa cooperation, for the elimination of schistosomiasis in Africa.
This began at the governmental level between China, WHO and the governments in Africa. The agenda was further discussed at the China-Health Ministerial Forum that reviews valuable health development issues. During the 2013 Minister’s Forum held in Beijing, an agreement was reached on this partnership and the initiative approved. This move was necessary to progress granted things take time at the government level. That is why the China team, WHO and African governments decided to start an institutional-based cooperation. This initiative was developed to sustain a China – Africa Cooperation for Schistosomiasis Elimination.
China has several provinces that are endemic for schistosomiasis and it was important to link these provinces to different African countries depending on the relationship they have. That is why in the first phase, ten countries were selected in Africa and were linked with different provinces in China.
The first meeting to set-up the institution-based cooperation was launched in 2015, in Malawi. The meeting launched the initiative and the memorandum of understanding between the partners. The memorandum was signed between different African institutions and Chinese institutions for research. The meeting in Cameroon was the second meeting and it was focused on snail and malacology training. Another component of the training was using mollusciciding to control the snails. The Chinese team and ten countries participated in the meeting in Cameroon.
The rationale for collaboration is clear as it fosters relationships between various actors and allows in-depth knowledge of what works in practice. This knowledge gets refined for better use through creating more cost-effective solutions which are sustainable in the long term for NTD control and elimination.
To continue this cross-sharing of knowledge, COUNTDOWN will be at the upcoming British Society of Parasitology Autumn Symposium taking place on 28th September 2017 taking place at The Linnean Society in London. This session will focus on ‘The Multidisciplinarity of Parasitology: Host-Parasite Evolution and Control in an Ever-Changing World’. | <urn:uuid:7c42dd5d-a45d-4d6e-8764-d9d90705bd78> | {
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The merchant is portrayed as a fashionista that is married to who is described as a shrewish woman and regrets it greatly in The Canterbury Tales. Often, such insight leads to a variety of discussions and disagreements among people in the 14th century. These emendations included various expansions of the Cook's Tale, which Chaucer never finished, , , the , and the. The Franklin is the only pilgrim to be involved in running the society. He was skinny and bad-tempered.
The most respected of the tales was at this time the Knight's, as it was full of both. Neither you, nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again. He is portrayed as a perfect example of a scholar. Giving to poor parishioners round about From his own goods and Easter offerings. Chaucer, however, came up with the ingenuous literary device of having a pilgrimage, a technique that allowed him to bring together a diverse group of people. She is compassionate toward animals, weeping when she sees a mouse caught in a trap, and feeding her dogs roasted meat and milk.
He is a Good Samaritan and has a compassionate soul. While both of them explore the significance of social class, the two texts deal with the subject with very different approaches. . The next member of the company is the Friar—a member of a religious order who lives entirely by begging. The Yeoman wears green from head to toe and carries an enormous bow and beautifully feathered arrows, as well as a sword and small shield. The estates structure suggest that the pilgrims will be defined by their work, but while many of the portraits adopt an appropriate language, only few show their subject doing what his or her office requires. The baker in Into the Woods was ironically a wise men that was hardworking, respectful and a man that, in the end, saved everyone.
They treated whoever was lower than them as such. The two children that remained thought that Ugolini was chewing himself out of hunger, and offered themselves as meals for him. Her special talent was her knowledge of all the remedies of love. Despite of his valorous deeds, the knight never boasted of his actions, nor bored his listeners. Storytelling was the main entertainment in England at the time, and storytelling contests had been around for hundreds of years. The Summoner is someone who summons the people to stand before the court to right their sins. And we know that Petrarch, on his own shewing, was so pleased with the story of Griselda that he learnt it by heart as well as he could, for the express purpose of repeating it to friends, before the idea of turning it into Latin occurred to him.
The zeitgeist of the Middle Ages can be seen through his illustration of differences between classes in moral behavior, economic power, the autonomy and education of women during the Middle Ages. When attempting to regain his throne, Pedro was murdered by this brother. As befits a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. The proud king constructed a large gold statue that he demanded his subjects pray to or else be cast into a pit of flames. Liminality is also evident in the individual tales. This friar is jovial, pleasure-loving, well-spoken, and socially agreeable.
Chaucer describes the knight as a worthy man who had fought in the Crusades. According to Helen Cooper, the basic organization then is by rank, but with some telling exceptions and some haphazardness: society is not an ordered hierarchy, not least because the people who compose it are reluctant to stay in their places. This essay will analyze the characteristics and personalities of the Knight, Squire, Monk, Plowman, Miller, and Parson of Chaucer's tale. Oxford Guides to Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales, Oxford University Press, 1996. Like Emma, some characters in The Canterbury Tales attempt to transcend their social class. Elton, who is supposed to be more superior in terms of class. This sentiment was universally agreed upon by later critics into the mid-15th century.
At the end of a career that would be considered by most artists as an extremely successful one, what could have caused Chaucer to apologize for any of the works which defined literary success? He is in good shape unlike other monks who are thin because they fast often. His name is Harry Bailey. As a commoner, he was familiar with and was accepted by the lower classes as well as by the higher classes; thus, throughout his life, he was able to observe both the highest and the lowest, and his gifted mind made the best of these opportunities. The squire was able to ride horses really well, write words with music, and could draw. He had made a lot of money during the plague. The pilgrims presented first are representative of the highest social rank, with social rank descending with every new pilgrim introduced.
It is now widely rejected by scholars as an authentic Chaucerian tale, although some scholars think he may have intended to rewrite the story as a tale for the Yeoman. The Broadview Anthology of British Literature. The Third Estate consisted of peasants like The Miller. Summary The division of society portrayed by Chaucer is not obvious. Another learning goal that I want my students to understand is that technology may change and evolve, but human nature stays the same. Among this group of pilgrims are the Manciple, who profits from buying food for the lawyers in the Inns of Court, and the vulgar Miller, who steals from his customers.
Writers were encouraged to write in a way that kept in mind the speaker, subject, audience, purpose, manner, and occasion. Virtus: Moral Limitations of the Political Sphere in the Middle Ages. Despite his vow of poverty, the donations he extracts allow him to dress richly and live quite merrily. Characters belonging to the Second Estate were the nobility and included The Knight. The Parson and the Plowman comprise the next group of pilgrims, the virtuous poor or lower class. Since women betrayed these men, the Monk does not trust them. Nevertheless, according to Jill Mann, the Shipman had bad habits of thievery, piracy, and mass murder Chaucer and Medieval Estates Satire: The Literature of Social Classes and The General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, Cambridge, 1973. | <urn:uuid:61806f45-cba2-42f3-ace7-040544ad2066> | {
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Certain stories motivate children to be honest
A moral story that praises a character’s honesty is more effective in getting young children to tell the truth than a story that emphasizes the negative repercussions of lying, according to research published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.
The findings suggest that stories such as “The Boy Who Cried Wolf” and “Pinocchio” may not be effective cautionary tales when it comes to inspiring honest behaviour in children.
Stories have long been employed to instill moral and cultural values in young children, but there is little research exploring the effectiveness of such stories.
“As parents of young children, we wanted to know how effective the stories actually are in promoting honesty,” says Victoria Talwar of McGill’s Dept. of Educational Psychology. “Is it ‘in one ear, out the other,’ or do children listen and take the messages to heart?”
“We should not take it for granted that classic moral stories will automatically promote moral behaviours,” says Kang Lee of the Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study at the University of Toronto.
To find out which stories were most effective in motivating children to be honest, Lee, Talwar, and colleagues conducted an experiment with 268 children ages 3 to 7. Each child played a game that involved guessing the identity of a toy based on the sound it made. In the middle of the game, the experimenter left the room for a minute to grab a book, instructing the child not to peek at a toy that was left on the table. For most children, this temptation was too hard to resist.
When the experimenter returned, she read the child a story, either “The Tortoise or the Hare,” “The Boy Who Cried Wolf,” “Pinocchio,” or “George Washington and the Cherry Tree.” Afterward, the experimenter asked the child to tell the truth about whether he or she peeked at the toy.
Contrary to the researchers’ expectations the stories which associate lying with negative consequences, such as public humiliation and even death, e.g. “Pinocchio” and “The Boy Who Cried Wolf” were no more effective at promoting honest behaviour than a fable unrelated to honesty, in this case “The Tortoise and the Hare.”
Only the story in which a young George Washington is praised by his father for honestly admitting to having cut down the latter’s favourite cherry tree seemed to inspire the kids to admit to peeking. The children who heard the apocryphal tale in which the future first president is praised by his father for confessing his transgression were three times more likely to tell the truth than their peers who heard other stories. (The father’s response to his son’s confession, for those who do not know the tale, is to say “My son, that you should not be afraid to tell the truth is more to me than a thousand trees! Yes – though they were blossomed with silver and had leaves of the purest gold!”)
An additional experiment indicated that the positive focus of the George Washington story was responsible for kids’ honest behaviour. When the researchers changed the ending so that it took a negative turn, children who heard the story were no longer more likely to admit to peeking.
Talwar believes that the original story about George Washington is effective because it demonstrates “the positive consequences of being honest by giving the message of what the desired behaviour is, as well as demonstrating the behaviour itself.”
“Our study shows that to promote moral behaviour such as honesty, emphasizing the positive outcomes of honesty rather than the negative consequences of dishonesty is the key,” adds Lee. “This may apply to other moral behaviours as well.”
Lee, Talwar, and colleagues caution that more research is necessary to determine whether moral stories influence kids’ behaviour long-term.
Still, they have been quick to take advantage of the findings. Talwar reports a shift in her own parenting practices: “It really seems to work. I use this now with my child.”
In addition to Lee and Talwar, co-authors include Anjanie McCarthy and Ilana Ross of the University of Toronto, Angela Evans of Brock University, and Cindy Arruda of McGill University.
To read the full article, go here.
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Juniad Bahadar Khan; Murad Ali; Fazal Wahab MEE10:101, pp. 68. ING/School of Engineering, 2010.
Ultra wideband (UWB) is based on transmission with very short pulses of low energy. The use of UWB technology will increase in the fields of wireless communication in the near
future. The wider bandwidth of UWB technology has several advantages such as excellent penetration ability, multi-user support and high channel capacity. UWB has many applications due to its low power consumption, low cost and low interference. UWB poses design challenges for low power and low complex systems at wider bandwidth. For digital systems, it also requires high sampling rate and intensive computation to estimate gain and delay of multipath channel.
In this thesis, the performance of non-coherent transmitted- reference (TR), frequency-shifted reference (FSR) and code-shifted reference (CR) systems are compared with the
orthogonal Gold code (OG) code reference (CR) systems for single and multi-user for low data rates. First, the performance of non-coherent receivers for single-user system working in
residential line of sight (LOS) is evaluated. The results and performance comparisons are presented for TR, FSR, CR and OG-CR systems. Secondly, the performance comparison of
TR, FSR, CR and OG-CR are presented in multi-user environment. The simulation results validate that CR and OG-CR have better performance than TR and FSR in multi-user
environment. Finally, results show that CR shows better performance than OG-CR for few users and almost same performance as OG-CR at high SNR with more number of users. | <urn:uuid:c9618dfc-f063-4827-81e5-d42d7dc6b2c6> | {
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Diseases are not always as hard to defeat as tuberculosis and HIV, even when the damage they inflict is devastating. But when the disease is effectively taboo – its name an unmentionable word in polite conversation – it doesn't get the attention it deserves.
Syphilis kills around 1 million babies a year. These babies die because their mothers have a sexually transmitted disease that often has no symptoms and is not talked about. Some survive, but are blind or deaf. It's a terrible price to pay for our prurience.
But now the realisation that tackling syphilis will make a sizeable dent in the millennium development goal to cut child deaths has provided a big incentive to tackle the last taboo. As I wrote here last June, a study published in the Lancet Infectious Diseases journal showed that infant deaths from syphilis could be halved by the use of a simple blood test for pregnant women and same-day antibiotic treatment.
Today a new group was launched in London to ensure that this test and treatment get to the women who need it. The Global Congenital Syphilis Partnership includes major players such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Save the Children, the World Health Organisation and the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, as well as from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, whose dedicated scientists developed the test.
And it's beautifully simple. At the launch, Professor Rosanna Peeling of the London School, who has pioneered the work, held up a small piece of white plastic that houses a tiny well. Into the well go a drop of blood from the pregnant woman's finger and two drops of buffer. Like a pregnancy test, either one or two lines appear in a window within 15 minutes. If she is positive for syphilis, she gets a dose of antibiotics on the spot and is cured. And that's that. Done early enough in the pregnancy, this simple intervention will probably save her baby's life.
Peeling and her colleagues have now demonstrated the efficacy of the test in a variety of settings in seven countries, including the steamy heat of the Amazon jungle. All seven – Brazil, China, Haiti, Peru, Zambia, Uganda and Tanzania – have chosen to adopt it. It costs less than £1 per woman. Peeling, who has been in global health for many years, talked of "incredible progress with a very simple solution".
The test can be offered to women when they come for their first antenatal check-up, along with an HIV test. And the trials have shown that the numbers not only of women but also of men who come for antenatal checks increase if they are being offered a test and same-day cure for syphilis. This simple intervention, it appears, could have an even bigger benefit than the massive gain of ending congenital syphilis. It would be criminal if it did not now reach all those who need it. | <urn:uuid:b303ae9d-401e-4cf8-8c45-851508f82bf7> | {
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Aboriginal Resources and Services Portal - Library and Archives Canada provides a window to vast and rich collections of resources created by or about Aboriginal peoples in Canada from private and government sources, digital copies of these works, virtual exhibitions, finding aids and other tools to locate materials. The site also features a directory of Aboriginal authors, artists, illustrators, newspapers, library and archival communities, and more.
Language Map of Aboriginal Peoples - The Atlas of Canada provides maps of boundaries of Aboriginal Languages across Canada.
First Nations: British Columbia - BC Archives presents a First Nations gallery which includes both “aboriginal accounts as well as European ethnographic collections of stories” to provide a historical background for the First Nations people of British Columbia.
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Aboriginal Peoples Television Network - Find out about the latest news, catch up on your shows, and find out what is happening on the network.
CBC Aboriginal - Aims to provide better access to the volume of programming produced by the CBC which relates to Aboriginal life in Canada, creating a resource tool for schools, the larger community as whole and Aboriginal communities in particular. | <urn:uuid:8c10972e-d0e5-44e9-b785-ebcf10298f9b> | {
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Most herbalists know Ashitaba as the longevity plant (Angelica keiskei), a perennial plant native to Japan that has been used medicinally and as a food for thousands of years. It grows well in areas near seacoasts and is hardy to temperatures as low as 0 degrees Fahrenheit. The leaves and roots are edible---you can eat them either raw or cooked. Medicinal uses include this plant's use as a diuretic and laxative and it is also reported to provide support for the immune system (though never ingest it without discussing it with your doctor first).
Using the Ashitaba Plant
Purchase seeds from a seed. Plant seeds in fall in a cold frame---spring planting usually results in lower germination rates. Provide sunlight and keep your soil moist.
Transplant seedlings into individual pots when they are one inch tall, or large enough to handle without damaging them. Use standard potting soil and keep your plants in these pots until spring. Then plant them in their permanent outdoor location, which should have full sun or partial shade and moist soil of any type.
Dry your ashitaba plant by cutting off flower spikes with leaves attached in late summer or fall, when the flowers are in full bloom. Bundle several flower spikes together, tie them with string or twine and then hang them from a clothesline in a warm, dark, dry, well-ventilated area. They should dry in seven to 10 days. Strip the dried plant material from the stems and store it in plastic zipper bags or tightly sealed glass jars.
Brew tea with fresh or dried ashitaba leaves, flowers and stems. To use fresh plant material, chop it into small pieces and then place one to two tablespoons of this material into a teacup. Then pour boiling water over it and allow it to steep for five to 10 minutes before you drink it. To use dried plant material, use only one teaspoon of the plant per cup. Steep in the same way as for fresh tea.
Fill gelatin capsules (see Resources) with dried plant material that you have ground to powder in a clean coffee grinder. Consult with an acupuncturist or other knowledgeable herbal practitioner to determine the dosage that is right for you.
Cut ashitaba leaves and include them fresh in soups and other dishes. The recommended amount is one leaf or shoot for every two cups of soup. Slice or dice the leaves and simmer in your soup for no longer than five minutes, or simply add them to the soup when it is ready to serve. | <urn:uuid:ae912391-3b9a-46f3-ba6b-931a4feabd04> | {
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A2 Elementary level
To provide clarification, review and practice of adjectives for describing appearances in the context of Game of thrones characters
To provide speaking practice in a controlled environment in the context of appearance/tour groups
To provide specific information listening practice using a text about describing people in the context of appearances/tour groups
Procedure (37-51 minutes)
Show the images to students. Ask them to describe what they see. Elicit for adjectives related to appearance. Script: what do you see? how does s/he look like? Divide the board in 3 categories: Height/Age/Looks. Ask them in which category each adjective goes. Nominate Ss and confirm with class.
Use the adjectives that were written earlier on board to clarify meaning. Elicit for meaning before explaining. Possible unknown words: 1. young: If word is unknown use CCQ: How old are you S1? And you S2? Oh, you are young. I am 37. I am old. 2. handsome: If word is unknown use CCQ: Do you like the man on this picture? Yes/No. So, you (don't) think he is handsome, right? Yes, I (don't) think he is handsome. After eliciting, explain that we use handsome for a man and beautiful for a woman. Elicit for opposite. 3. Fair hair. Ask if anyone knows what fair means in this context. If not use CCQ: S1, what colour is your hair? Black. Oh, your hair is not fair then. S2, what colour is your hair? Blonde. Oh, you have fair hair. Elicit for opposite. write on board the following (from exercise 3, p28): middle-aged, medium height, average looking, pretty. Ask them to put them in the correct category. Nominate Ss, confirm w/c. Ask w/c if they know what these adjectives mean. If not clarify: Script: middle-aged: young (20y.o)__________________old (70 y.o.) Do you think he is closer to young or old? How old do you think a middle-aged person is? medium height: short(1.40m)__________________tall (1.90m). Do you think he is closer to short or tall? How tall do you think a medium height person is? average looking, pretty: ugly______________________good looking. Do you think an average person is closer to ugly or good looking? Look at the images again. Work in pairs (groups if not possible). Take notes and describe the Game of Throne characters. Demostrate with a student. I think Tyrion is medium aged and short. What do you think? You have 3 minutes. Monitor for assistance. Feedback: Nominate 2-3 Ss for answers. At this stage pay attention for pronunciation slips. Model and drill individually, then w/c.
1. Defining adjective's place in the sentence: Write on board. He's a man handsome. Ask Ss if they think that this is the correct form. Ask them to find the noun in the sentence. Ask them to find the adjective in the sentence. Tell them that the adjective is placed before the noun. Write one more example: The big is school. Nominate Ss to correct the sentence. 2. Defining that adjectives don't have a plural form. Write on board: They are youngs children. Ask them if this is correct. Ask them to find the adjective in the sentence. Explain that the adjective don't have plural form. Write one more example: They are fats people. Nominate Ss to correct. (Use different colours to write on board)
Write a list of adjectives on the board: thin-fat, ugly. Explain that these adjectives are not polite to use when you talk to someone face to face. Model a phrase: Oh, Ss' name, you look very thin. Ask them if they know what adjective to use instead of thin. If not tell them "slim" is more appropriate.
Tell Ss to think of famous people. Hand out the category copies (redesigned Grammar ex.1 p.28). Tell them to write the name of one famous person for each category. Tell them that this is a secret. Work alone. Demonstrate with a Ss and check for understanding. -T: S tell me the name of a famous film star... -S: Al Pacino What do you have to do? Give them two minutes. Monitor Ss Script: Work in pairs (groups if not possible). One S says a name. The others try to find the category. Demonstrate with S: -T: Ss Read a name from your list. -S: Angelia Jolie -T: Is she a famous film star? -S: Yes, she is. Check for understanding: What do you have to do? Are you working alone? Give them 3 minutes. Feedback: Nominate 1-2 Ss and play the dialogue. At this point check for pronunciation slips and correct by modelling and drilling.
Ask them to look at the image of the man in Listening task 1. Where is the man on the right? How does he look like? Write down your answers Demonstrate with a S: where is the man? what do you think? Does he look old? Work in pairs. You have 2 minutes. Monitor. Feedback: Nominate Ss for answers. Elicit as much descriptive adjectives as time allows.
Listen to the audio. A man and a woman talk on the phone. Answer these questions: Where is Brian (the man)? What does the woman talk to him about? Play the audio and monitor. Check your answers with your pair (group if not possible) Feedback: Nominate Ss for the answers and confirm with w/c.
Look at exercise 3. There are 3 names: Delilah Williams etc. There are 4 images (show them). Now listen to the dialogue again and: Match the people 1-3 to the images A-D. There is one extra image. Compare your answers to your pairs. Feedback. Nominate Ss and confirm with w/c | <urn:uuid:a4121ebe-6b6a-41d5-b214-633d92d6e3a9> | {
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the National Science Foundation
This resource is a set of free interactive Java-based courseware for science and mathematics structured around collections of activities, lessons, and discussions. The interactive tools, the central piece of the courseware, are organized by topic and aligned to several well-known textbooks in STEM education. Learners will find 100+ interactive activities covering Numbers, Geometry, Algebra, Probability, Statistics, Modeling, and more. Educators may freely download accompanying standards-based lessons organized by grade band.
Editor's Note: CSERD, the Computational Science Education Reference Desk, is a Pathways portal of the National Science Digital Library. CSERD activities are frequently tested in the classroom setting in an effort to provide optimal experiences for learners.
Please note that this resource requires
Java Applet Plug-in.
Java computational tools, Java math, Java tools, algebra tools, computational collection, digital tools, geometry tools, high school math, math tools, middle school math, modeling tools, probability tools, statistics tools
Metadata instance created
February 1, 2011
by Caroline Hall
%0 Electronic Source %D December 31, 2009 %T CSERD: Interactivate %E Panoff, Robert %V 2016 %N 28 May 2016 %8 December 31, 2009 %9 application/java %U http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/
Disclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications. | <urn:uuid:98358250-f189-457f-bdcb-a8e314cc2600> | {
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National Park & Preserve
Denali, the "High One", is the name Athabascan native people gave the massive peak that crowns the 600 mile-long Alaska Range. Denali is also the name of an immense national park and preserve created from the former Mount McKinley National Park. The changes in names and boundaries that have occurred over the years can be confusing, as they indicate the way various parts of the park and preserve may be used today. In 1917 Mount McKinley National Park was established as a wildlife refuge. The park and the massif including North America's highest peak were named for former senator—later President—William McKinley. In 1980, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) enlarged the boundary by four million acres and redesignated it as Denali National Park and Preserve. At six million acres, the park is larger than Massachusetts. It exemplifies interior Alaska's character as one of the world's last great frontiers for wilderness adventure. It remains largely wild and unspoiled, as the Athabascans knew it.
Mount McKinley has been called the Alaskan landscape's most impressive feature. While you may not see this great peak during your stay here, it is there! Mount McKinley is the highest mountain on the North American continent. Measured from the 2,000-foot lowlands near Wonder Lake to its summit, this mountain could be called the tallest in the world. The vertical relief of 18,000 feet, greater even than that of Mount Everest, tops out on the snowy summit at 20,320 feet. McKinley's north summit is North America's second highest peak at 19,470 feet. Temperatures at the summit are severe even in summer. Winter lows at just 14,500 feet can plummet below -95°F! During storms, winds can gust to more than 150 miles per hour. Permanent snowfields cover more than 50 percent of the mountain and feed the many glaciers that surround its base. The mountain's granite and slate core is, in fact, overlain by ice that is hundreds of feet thick in places.
Mount McKinley reigns in lofty isolation over the Alaska Range, that magnificent 600-mile arc of mountains that divides south-central Alaska from the interior plateau. Its life as a mountain range began some 65 million years ago, the result of the Denali Fault, North America's largest crustal break. This fault, where two tectonic plates have moved against each other, stretches for 1,300 miles from the Yukon border down to the Aleutian peninsula. There, the Alaska and Aleutian Ranges meet in a mad jumble of peaks that includes active volcanoes. Earthquake tremors both mild and moderate are frequent occurrences in the park and preserve. The building of these massive mountains began out of a flat lowland. The material that Earth's inner turmoil thrust up has subsequently been eroded, sculpted, and weighed down by huge masses of ice. Numerous glaciers still radiate from the high peaks of the Alaska Range, where the frigid temperatures prevent their melting. Some of the glaciers are visible from the park road. The debris-laden snout of the 35-mile-long Muldrow Glacier lies within a half mile of the park road. The park and preserve owes its beautiful landscape contrasts—wide, low plains and dark, somber mountains, brightly colored peaks and sheer granite domes—to the Denali Fault. Geologists say that Mount McKinley still rises.
More than 430 species of flowering plants as well as many species of mosses, lichens, fungi, algae, and others grace the slopes and valleys of Denali. Only plants adapted to long, bitterly cold winters can survive in this subarctic wilderness. Deep beds of intermittent permafrost—ground frozen for thousands of years— underlie portions of the park and preserve. Only the thinnest layer of topsoil thaws each summer to support life. After the continental glaciers retreated 10,000 to 14,000 years ago, hundreds of years were required to begin building new soils, and to begin the slow process of revegetation. Denali’s lowlands and slopes consist of two major plant associations, taiga and tundra.
- Taiga (pronounced ti-ga), a Russian term meaning "land of little sticks", aptly suggests the scant tree growth here near the Arctic Circle. Much of the park and preserve's taiga lies in valleys along the rivers. White and black spruce, the most common trees are interspersed with quaking aspen, paper birch alder, and balsam poplar. Stands of deciduous trees occur along streamside gravel bars or where soils have been disturbed by fire or other action. Woods are frequently carpeted with mosses and lichens. Many open areas are filled with shrubs such as dwarf birch, blueberry, and a variety of willow species. The limit of tree growth occurs at about 2,700 feet in the park and preserve. For comparison, the elevation at the park hotel is 1,750 feet. Above the tree limit, taiga gives way to tundra.
- Tundra is a fascinating world of dwarfed shrubs and miniaturized wildflowers adapted to a short growing season. There are two types, moist tundra and dry tundra, with myriad gradations in between.
- Moist tundra varies in composition: some areas contain tussocks of sedges and cottongrass; others contain dwarfed shrubs, particularly willows and birches.
- Plants of the dry tundra live scattered among barren rocks at higher elevations. Tiny highlands plants grow closely matted to the ground, creating their own livable microclimate. Flowered dryas, dwarf tireweed, moss campion, dwarf rhododendron, and forget-me-not (Alaska's state flower) dot the rocky landscape, offering stunning summer displays of delicate blossoms. Although small in stature they loom large in importance because their nutrients provide food that sustains even the largest species of park wildlife.
Many generations of native Athabascans wandered over this region before Caucasians began to discover and explore it. Nomadic bands hunted lowland hills of Denali's northern reaches spring through fall for caribou, sheep, and moose. They preserved berries for winter, netted fish and gathered edible plants. As snows began to fall they migrated to lower elevations, closer to the river valleys' better protection from winter's severe weather. Much of the Alaska Range formed a mighty barrier between interior Athabascans and Cook Inlet Athabascans to the south.
The park was originally established to protect its large mammals, not because of majestic Mount McKinley. Charles Sheldon conceived the plan to conserve the region as a national park. Naturalist, hunter, and conservationist, Sheldon first traveled here in 1906 and again in 1907 with a packer and guide named Harry Karstens. Karstens later made the first ascent of Mt. McKinley's south peak and would serve as the park's first superintendent. Sheldon devoted much of his 1907 travels to studying boundaries for the proposed national park that would include territories suitable for a game refuge. When Sheldon returned to the East in 1908, the Game Committee of the Boone and Crockett Club, of which he was chairman, launched the campaign to establish a national park. Largely due to these efforts, Mount McKinley National Park was established in 1917. Its populations of Dan sheep and other wildlife were now legislatively protected. However, Mount McKinley itself was not wholly included within the boundaries.
Sheldon wanted to call the park Denali, but his suggestion would not be followed until 1980. That year the boundary was expanded to include both the Denali caribou herd's wintering and calving grounds and the entire Mount McKinley massif. More than tripled in size, the park became Denali National Park and Preserve. It was also designated an International Biosphere Reserve significant for its potential for subarctic ecosystems research. Predator-prey relationships exist in balance here as they may have existed elsewhere before human intrusions. Denali National Park and Preserve remains a subarctic wilderness of wildlife and glaciated mountains.
The General park map handed out at the visitor center is available on the park's map webpage.For information about topographic maps, geologic maps, and geologic data sets, please see the geologic maps page.
For information on other photo collections featuring National Park geology, please see the Image Sources page.
Collier, Michael., 1989.
Alaska Natural History Association.
ISBN 0-930931-04-1, paperback, 48 pages, color & b/w photos, charts, drawings.
Parks and Plates: The Geology of Our National Parks, Monuments & Seashores.
Lillie, Robert J., 2005.
W.W. Norton and Company.
9" x 10.75", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout
The spectacular geology in our national parks provides the answers to many questions about the Earth. The answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. Parks and Plates is a visual and scientific voyage of discovery!
Ordering from your National Park Cooperative Associations' bookstores helps to support programs in the parks. Please visit the bookstore locator for park books and much more.
For information about permits that are required for conducting geologic research activities in National Parks, see the Permits Information page.
The NPS maintains a searchable data base of research needs that have been identified by parks.
A bibliography of geologic references is being prepared for each park through the Geologic Resources Evaluation Program (GRE). Please see the GRE website for more information and contacts.
NPS Geology and Soils PartnersAssociation of American State Geologists
Geological Society of America
Natural Resource Conservation Service - Soils
U.S. Geological Survey
We offer resources for teachers, students, and parents to learn about Denali's natural world and cultural heritage. We have some excellent resources for teachers, suggestions for parents visiting the park with children, and some facts and games for kids. More educational materials will be available at this site in the near future. Check it out, and be sure to come back soon to learn more about Denali.
General information about the park's education and intrepretive programs is available on the park's education webpage.For resources and information on teaching geology using National Park examples, see the Students & Teachers pages. | <urn:uuid:5e474059-eb0d-4443-b097-a12d5acb98d5> | {
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Street orphans, Victorian London. Photo from G.F.A. Best's ''Shaftesbury''. UK's government is reducing the standard of living by dismantling the Health Service, reducing/removing Benefits, selling off National assets, and taxing workers to pay more for far less. The fittest will survive, but going backwards isn't progress, and contradicts the concept of civilized society. Those implementing such deprivation are protected by their social and economic position from any ill effects to…
Word Counts Of Histories Most Famous Books: Is Your Favourite Here?
Queen Elizabeth I, the second daughter of King Henry VIII, was born in 1533 and died in 1603. Henry VIII was disappointed when Anne Boleyn birthed a daughter instead of a son to be heir to his throne. However, Queen Elizabeth I would later be considered the greatest English ruler in history. Art, music, and literature flourished under her reign. Click the image above to learn more. | <urn:uuid:64dbbac9-9ba8-49b1-8cca-4faeb2c4ec0c> | {
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Butterfly Buffet: The Feeding Preferences of Painted Ladies
Can you imagine a world without butterflies? Although butterflies are insects, most people think they are beautiful, peaceful creatures and enjoy them as part of nature. They are also helpful as pollinators for plants and trees. But currently, seventeen species of butterflies are endangered, two are threatened and three are extinct (Prairie Frontier 2009). I've always liked butterflies, but I really became interested when I got a habitat as a gift and raised five caterpillars. I became even more fascinated after a field trip to a butterfly exhibit. I really enjoyed learning about butterflies so I decided to study them, with the hopes of one day doing a field conservation project to help them.
Butterflies are insects and belong to two groups: true butterflies and skippers. True butterflies (Papilionoidea) are split into many families. This project focuses on the species of butterfly called Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui ), which belongs to the brush-foot family (Nymphalidae) (Schappert 2000). The Painted Lady is also nicknamed the "Cosmopolitan" butterfly because it is the most widespread butterfly in the world (eNature FieldGuides 2009). They live year-round in warm areas, which is important because this project takes place in Arizona in December. Painted Ladies go through a complete metamorphosis of four stages: the egg or ovum, the caterpillar or larva, the chrysalis or pupa, and the adult or imago (Schaffer 1999). It takes 7 to 10 days as a caterpillar and 9 to 14 days as a chrysalis before the butterfly emerges (Insect Lore, 2009). As seen in Figure 1, adult butterflies have antennae, compound eyes, a proboscis, six legs, a hard exoskeleton, a pair of forewings and hindwings, and a three-section body (Schappert 2000).
I believe that the anatomy of the butterfly plays a role in which flowers attract them for feeding. The head has many sensors and on the bottom part of the head is the proboscis, which is like a skinny straw that the butterfly uses to reach down into a flower to drink the nectar. The compound eye is made up of thousands of eyes that help the butterfly see at wide angles (Prairie Frontier 2009). Butterflies can see a large spectrum of color, including ultraviolet light, and Painted Ladies have four types of color receptors so they can see patterns in flowers that we can't see (Stokes 1991). Because of its eyesight, a butterfly may be attracted to a particular color flower more than another color, or see the details in a flower's structure that attract it and cause it to show a preference for feeding on that flower.
The characteristics of flowers may also play a role in how they attract a butterfly for feeding. The flower has to be able to support the weight of the butterfly, and its legs have to be able to latch on to sit on the flower because butterflies don't hover while they feed (Boriqua 2009, Roth 2001). The shape of the flower or its blossom arrangement may also be a factor in attracting butterflies for feeding. Clustered flowers and flowers with spikes that have small, closely packed blooms may attract butterflies because they offer more sips of nectar in one visit. Daisy-type flowers might attract butterflies in this same way because the "button" in the center is really a group of miniature petal-less flowers packed close together (Roth 2001). But some large single flowers will attract butterflies too, although they have a limited amount of nectar in one flower. "Something important to think about is the length of the tube of the flower because the butterfly has to be able to reach its proboscis inside to drink the nectar" (Boriqua 2009).
Another important fact affecting a butterfly's behavior is that they are cold-blooded so they need warmth to be active, usually above 50°F. When the Sun shines, the butterfly spreads its wings to bask and gain energy. They are more active, including feeding, earlier in the day when it is warmer and sunnier, and at nighttime or on cloudy days they rest with their wings folded to conserve energy (Kracht 2009, Ortho 2001).
I thought of my project idea, did some reading research and then conducted interviews with specialists from the butterfly pavilion at the Desert Botanical Gardens in Arizona. The research question I asked is, Do Painted Lady butterflies have a preference for what flowers they feed on? My hypothesis was: Given a choice of flowers to feed on, the Painted Lady butterflies will display a preference for certain flowers because of the color or the structure of the flower, rather than feeding randomly. The dependent variable was the number of times a butterfly feeds on a flower. The two independent variables studied were flower color and flower structure. There were several constant variables: (1) type of butterfly (Painted Lady, Vanessa cardui ); (2) age of the butterfly (less than two weeks old); (3) habitat (size, materials, setup, feeding apparatus); (4) testing conditions (outdoor temperature above 50°F, sunlight); (5) length of the feeding time (three hours); (6) flowers (naturally grown, not cut from a florist).
The design for this project included 12 testing subjects (Painted Lady butterflies) split evenly into three groups. Each group participated in three experimental trials for each independent variable (color and structure), which were conducted over six days, with three hours of data collection each day. This was for a total of 54 hours of data collection spread over 18 days.
- 6 Butterfly Garden habitats (ordered from Insect Lore)
- 3 sets of Painted Lady caterpillar cultures (ordered from Insect Lore)
- sugar water solution (3 teaspooons sugar dissolved in 1 cup of water); kept refrigerated
- plastic lids or paper plates, and paper towels as needed
- 8 strips of wood (71/2 inches by 3/8 inch by 3/8 inch)
- 16 pieces of Styrofoam (11/2 inches by 11/2 inches by 2 inches)
live plants in bloom, in the garden or in pots:
a) flowering lantana in four different colors (purple, red, yellow, white)
b) flowers in the same color family of purple: sage (spiky flower), argyranthemum (a daisy- like flower), lantana (a clustered flower) and petunia (a large single flower)
- Order and receive by mail from Insect Lore six Butterfly Garden habitats (one for a growing habitat, four for testing, and one for a resting habitat) and three live caterpillar cultures.
- Set up habitats indoors and raise caterpillars following the instructions (Insect Lore, 2009). Raise caterpillars in culture cups (Figure 2). After all the caterpillars in a cup get into their chrysalises, pin the paper disk to which they are attached to the inside of the growing habitat (Figure 3).
- Build an apparatus to hold flowers for feeding. Cut wood and Styrofoam according to the materials list. Construct the apparatus (Figure 4) by attaching a foam block at each end of a wood strip with the wood positioned toward the top of the foam. Repeat, and this time position the wood toward the bottom of the foam so this wood strip can fit under the other. Position these two wood strips with foam blocks like a cross. Poke two holes in the top of each foam block to hold the flowers. Repeat to make three more flower-holding apparatuses.
- One day after the caterpillars hatch from their chrysalises, move four butterflies each into its own testing habitat . These will be the testing subjects for Group I. Leave the others in the growing habitat. All habitats are stored indoors except during testing sessions.
- Feed butterflies with the sugar water solution as follows: Wet a paper towel with solution. Crumple the paper towel and place it on a plastic lid or paper plate in the bottom of the habitat. Repeat when paper towel is dry. Important: Butterflies in the growing habitat are fed continuously. Butterflies in the testing habitats are fed with sugar water after testing is completed each day, and the paper towel is removed at 8 p.m.
- Testing: Check weather.com in the morning. Plan testing to start after 50°F when there is good sunshine. Vary the time to get the best conditions. At the decided time, set up the testing habitats by cutting and attaching flowers (Figure 5) to the feeding apparatuses according to testing schedule (see Figure 6). Observe for three hours and record the feedings on the data collection sheet.
- Criteria for feedings: A feeding is counted when the butterfly inserts its proboscis into the flower. Separate feedings are counted if the butterfly flies off the flower and then returns to it to feed again. It is not counted as a feeding if the butterfly only lands on the flower but does not eat.
- At the end of the three-hour testing session, remove the apparatuses and throw away the flowers. Feed butterflies with sugar water solution, as in Step 2, to be sure they get enough to eat.
- Testing is complete for the group of four subjects after three trials of both color and structure. Remove butterflies from their habitats after the six days of testing, and place them in the resting habitat if it is too cold to release them outside (temperatures must be greater than 50°F at night).
- Place four different butterflies into the testing habitats as Group II subjects. Repeat Steps 3-6 and follow the testing schedule. Repeat the same steps for the last four butterflies in Group III.
Data from all trials for Groups I to III testing what color flower butterflies prefer to feed on is in Table 1. Results show that Painted Lady butterflies prefer to feed on purple flowers and like white flowers the least. They fed on purple flowers 45% of the time, red flowers 24%, yellow flowers 22% and white flowers 9% of the time (Graph 1). Overall, the results show that Painted Lady butterflies do not feed randomly; they have a preference for feeding on purple flowers.
Table 2 shows the data from all of the trials for Groups I to III, which tested which flower structure the butterflies prefer to feed on. Results show that Painted Lady butterflies prefer to feed on clustered flowers and like the large single flower the least. They fed on clustered flowers 65% of the time, spiky flowers 20%, daisy-like flowers 10% and the large single flowers 5% of the time, as shown in Graph 2. The results show that Painted Lady butterflies do not feed randomly; they show a preference for feeding on clustered flowers.
To get extra information about which flowers were the butterflies' favorites, data was also recorded when a butterfly landed on a flower but did not feed at all, and when butterflies stayed to feed on a flower longer than three minutes at a time. Results in Tables 3-6 show that butterflies most often "landed only, without feeding" on white flowers (22% of the time) compared to purple flowers (1% of the time); and on large single flowers (71% of the time) compared to clustered flowers, which they never landed on without feeding (0%). They fed longer (greater than three minutes) on purple and red flowers (both 6% of the feedings) compared to white flowers (less than 1% of the feedings); and longer on clustered flowers (4% of the feedings) compared to large single flowers, which they never fed on for longer than three minutes (0%).
The data from this project answers the research question and supports the hypothesis. It shows that given a choice of flowers to feed on, Painted Lady butterflies do display a preference for certain flowers depending on the color or structure of a flower. They prefer to feed on purple flowers (45%) compared to other colors, and prefer clustered flowers (65%) to other structures. I was not surprised because my background research made me think that a clustered flower is a good choice because it gives a place for the butterfly to land and can support its weight, and also provides many sips of nectar close by to make feeding very efficient. Purple is a favorite color, and this may be because of the butterfly's eyesight. Butterflies can see ultraviolet light, and purple is the wavelength of visible light closest to ultraviolet, and that may be why butterflies are most attracted to purple. Purple may also stand out better against the green leaves of a plant. There was a large difference between these results, and the butterflies feeding on the white flowers 9% of the time and large single flowers only 5%. White is all of the visible colors being reflected, and maybe the butterfly cannot see that color as well and so is not attracted to it. I believe that the butterflies do not like large single flowers as much because they do not offer much nectar in one visit, and it may be hard for the butterfly to reach its proboscis deep inside because it is a bigger flower.
Another observation from my data collection was that when a butterfly fed on a flower it liked, it often stayed on that flower longer to feed. If it was an unpopular flower, it often just landed on the flower without feeding. Butterflies have sensors for tasting on their feet, so when they land on a flower they can decide right away if they like that flower or not. The data for landing only, without feeding, give extra support to show what their feeding preferences were. Purple flowers were a favorite of the butterflies, who landed on them only 1% of the time without feeding, compared to 22% for white flowers. Clustered flowers were a definite favorite, with no occasions in which a butterfly landed without feeding, compared to 71% of the time on the large single flower. They also fed longer on purple flowers and clustered flowers, which shows that they really do prefer these flowers.
I made many interesting observations during my data collection. At the start of this project, I planned on doing the testing inside because I knew that butterflies need light and warmth to be active. The room would be at a constant warm temperature, and I would have the lights on a schedule. I thought those would be the best conditions, but I observed that the butterflies were feeding very little or not at all, and mostly rested with their wings closed. I thought that maybe the butterflies need the light and warmth from the Sun to be active and feed. The moment I carried the habitats outside, they opened their wings to bask and soon became active. I also observed changes in their feeding habits depending on the weather; they fed more when it was sunny than when it was cloudy outside. If I could do this experiment again, I would do it in the spring when there are more types of flowers in bloom so I could have a wider selection to test. An idea for a future project would be to use different color flowers or different flowers that fit in the structure categories. It would be interesting to see what the feeding preferences are of a different species of butterfly, and how that might compare to Painted Ladies. I would be especially interested in Monarchs.
- Painted Lady butterflies display a preference for feeding on certain flowers rather than feeding randomly.
- Painted Lady butterflies prefer to feed on flowers of a particular color: purple flowers (45%); rather than red (24%), yellow (22%) or white flowers (9%).
- Painted Lady butterflies prefer to feed on flowers of a particular structure: clustered flowers (65%) rather than rather than spiky flowers (20%), daisy-like flowers (10%) or large single flowers (5%).
- Painted Lady butterflies feed more often and for a longer time on flowers that they like, with purple flowers and clustered flowers being preferred.
Biodiversity is the variety of all living organisms and the ecosystems that they are part of. It helps provide the basic human needs such as food, shelter, and medicine. It composes ecosystems that maintain oxygen in the air, enrich the soil, purify the water, and regulate climate. (CIEL 2009)
Because human society is growing quickly and uses a huge amount of resources, there has been a sharp increase in the loss of biodiversity, so it is important to remember that every living thing on Earth has a part in the circle of life. Insects are an important part of our world because they have the largest number of species and the largest number of individual organisms; "their combined biomass represents an important food resource for other animals, and they contain much of the raw materials for the energy and nutrients that are cycled through ecosystems" (Schappert 2000). So insects are a very important part of biodiversity.
Studying butterflies is important for general scientific learning. "It also gives important information about ecosystems because we don't completely understand what the role or impact of butterflies might be. Information learned can be helpful to preserve and restore habitats, as well as provide adequate food in migration pathways or exhibits" (Kracht 2009). Because insects have a reputation for causing problems, many people are not concerned about their conservation. Luckily, people are not as unsympathetic about butterfly conservation as they are about other insects, because butterflies need our help. Along with problems like weather, pollution and predators, butterflies are at risk because of habitat loss and ecosystem damage caused mostly by people. Butterflies need a lot of host plants to lay eggs on in order to reproduce well, and they also need flowering nectar plants to feed on. Without good habitats that provide both of these things, there will not be enough homes for butterflies, which could lead to a decline in their numbers and make them more vulnerable to extinction (Schappert 2000).
Putting This Work into Action
The Monarch butterfly is facing challenges because of habitat loss, climate change and human development; it is a protected species. This butterfly is unique because it is the only one we know of that makes a two-way migration, like birds do. Monarchs migrate because they are not able to tolerate cold climates during the winter. Monarchs on the East Coast of North America travel to Mexico during the winter, and those in the western U.S. north of the Rocky Mountains travel to California (Lockwood 2007, Nelson 2007). But where do Monarch butterflies that live south of the Rocky Mountains go? And are there ever eastern or western Monarchs that migrate on a different path? It has now been noticed that Monarchs migrate through parts of Arizona along the San Pedro River and through Guadalupe Canyon into Sonora (Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum 2009). This may be because of changes in their behavior, away from following their usual migration pathways, or because changes in climate are forcing them to go a different way. But Arizona should prepare to help conserve and protect Monarchs. Arizona has a hot dry climate, and nectar flowers are not always plentiful. Also, Monarchs only lay their eggs in milkweed, so that host plant has to be available to them. Conservation programs should be put in place so that Monarchs have proper habitats to use during their migration. Monarch migrations are considered "endangered biological phenomena" so it is especially important to protect these butterflies as part of biodiversity (Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum 2009). I believe that projects like this one may help the Monarchs in Arizona by educating people about butterflies in general, their necessary food sources and how to help by planting backyard gardens to provide habitats for butterflies.
I know that doing this project helped me decide on the conservation project I want to do: I want to set up a special habitat and get it certified by Monarch Watch as a Monarch waystation. I plan to work through my Girl Scout troop to find a sponsor location, and get volunteers and donations to set this up as my Silver Award service project.
Boriqua, Joan. Interviewed by Katelyn Boisvert. Desert Botanical Garden Butterfly Exhibit, Arizona. 11 November 2009.
"Butterflies and Wildflowers." Prairie Frontier. Retrieved on 5 December 2009 from
"Butterfly Pavilion: Product Instruction Guide." Insect Lore. Retrieved on 24 November 2009 from http://www.insectlore.com/xinsectucational_stuff/instructions/garden.html
Kracht, Cristin. Interviewed by Katelyn Boisvert. Desert Botanical Garden Butterfly Exhibit, Arizona. 11 November 2009.
Lockwood, Sophie. Butterflies (World of Insects). Chicago: Child's World, 2007.
"Migration and Overwintering." Monarch Butterfly: North America's Migrating Insect. Retrieved on 15 February 2010 from http://fs.des.us/monarchbutterfly/migration/index.shtml
"Migratory Pollinators Program." Center for Sonoran Desert Studies, Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. Retrieved on 15 February 2010 from http://www.desertmuseum.org/pollination/monarchs.php
Nelson, Sara. Butterflies. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2007.
Ortho's All About Attracting Hummingbirds and Butterflies. Des Moines, Iowa: Meredith Books, 2001.
"Painted Lady." ENature: Field Guides. Retrieved on 7 December 2009 from http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?recnum=BU0047
Roth, Sally. Attracting Hummingbirds and Butterflies to Your Backyard: Watch Your Garden Come Alive with Beauty on the Wing. New York: Rodale Books, 2001.
Schaffer, Donna. Painted Lady Butterflies (Life Cycles). New York: Bridgestone Books, 1999.
Schappert, Phillip Joseph. World for Butterflies: Their Lives, Behavior and Future. Buffalo, N.Y: Firefly Books, 2000.
Stokes, Donald W., Ernest Williams, and Lillian Stokes. Butterfly Book: The Complete Guide to Butterfly Gardening, Identification, and Behavior. Boston: Little Brown, 1991.
"What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important?" Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL). Retrieved on 15 February 2010 from http://www.ciel.org/Biodiversity/WhatIsBiodiversity.html | <urn:uuid:2c5f8933-ea0d-43df-a5ab-dc2c4e86fa9f> | {
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Re: teaching relational basics to people, questions
Date: Sat, 28 Nov 2009 20:33:36 GMT
Mr. Scott wrote:
> But what if there is more than one row? The information content of a table
> is the logical sum (disjunction) of the information represented by each row.
The conventional view is that is that the information in a table is the logical conjunction of the information represented by the rows in the table. Just because the table is formed by a summing operation doesn't change that.
> But those can easily be transformed into into truth-valued constraints,
> can't they?
Not easy if users aren't required to know default values. I don't see why they should. Contrary to Dr. Strangelove, the whole point of defaults is to avoid users having to know them! Received on Sat Nov 28 2009 - 14:33:36 CST | <urn:uuid:f2f22fa1-2d08-4670-ac24-73b46adc26b3> | {
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A few days ago, I was walking home and passed by a bush of white flowers in full bloom. They looked pretty spectacular lit by the afternoon sun. On taking a closer look, I realized that what I thought were flowers were actually flower bunches, each of them made up of hundreds of tiny flowers. And on each bunch, there was a single honeybee zipping about from flower to flower.
Watching these bees through my camera lens, I could see something quite interesting. As they landed on the flowers, they would kick up grains of pollen that would rise up like dust. And then the bees would do something quite odd – they would fiddle with their knees. I zoomed in to see what was going on.
There’s something quite peculiar about this photograph. What’s that fleshy appendage stuck to the knees of the honeybee? It looks, to me, somewhat like a human ear. And even stranger – the bees don’t have it when they arrive on the flower. But in a few minutes this thing begins to grow, and in about 15 minutes it’s as engorged as you see in the picture.
In addition to collecting nectar from flowers, honey bees also collect pollen. And what you’re seeing in these photographs is an incredible adaptation that helps bees go about their business of collection. It’s called a pollen basket, and here is how it works.
Bees are hairy creatures, and they get covered in pollen. They rake themselves clean with combs that are built into the inner surfaces of their hind legs. Next, they move all this collected pollen to a joint between the segments of their legs – their knees. This joint functions as a pollen press, and it squeezes the pollen into handy little pellets. But these pellets need to be stored somehow. And so, here is the next adaptation. The outer surface of the hind leg is concave, and it is covered in many small hairs. It’s a basket! This is where the bees store these compressed pollen pellets, and that’s what you see in the above picture. The basket is actually transparent, and so the fleshy color in the pictures above is the color of pollen.
The weird thing about this is that the basket is open at the bottom. So why doesn’t the pollen fall out? That’s because there’s a single strong hair that prevents this from happening, which functions as the lid of the basket.
Although I couldn’t quite make out the details, watching this elaborate packing process through the zoom lens was quite mesmerizing and I was merrily snapping away. The bees didn’t seem to notice me at all, but I realized that I was getting odd looks from my neighbors, so I decided it was time to take my leave. | <urn:uuid:ab9bcb73-9f4b-4013-a24a-dc8e0f05efd9> | {
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Most people have a strong desire of conceiving a child at a point in their life. Understanding the concept of natural or normal fertility is crucial so that a couple or an individual can figure out when is the right time to seek help? Approximately 85 percent of people are able to achieve pregnancy within the first year of their attempt at conception. Chances are that the conception would happen during the initial months itself. On the other hand, around 7% of the couples will be able to conceive by the second year. Hence, infertility can more or less be defined as the failure to conceive within a period 12 months.
Nidan Child Care is one of the leaders in infertility treatment. The clinic offers an amalgamation of Pediatricians and Gynecologists and is facilitated with 24X7 emergency care. It is also the leading infertility treatment center in Noida. Hence, in case you are unable to conceive within the first 12 months, it is recommended that you consult a reproductive endocrinologist. However, there are a few other scenarios that occur prematurely and may indicative of infertility. You are advised to visit infertility treatment center in Noida in the following cases:
1) Irregular menstrual cycles
A regular cycle of periods happening in between duration of every 21 to 35 days is suggestive that a female is ovulating regularly. The female body ovulates an egg approximately 2 weeks prior to the period when the next period happens. If a woman gets her periods at an interval greater than that of 35 days in total, it could be that irregular or absolutely no ovulation is happening at all. Ovulation of eggs is a crucial phenomenon for conceiving a child. Hence, you should visit an infertility treatment center in Noida in cases of irregular periods.
2) When you turn 35 years or older
For a few varying reasons, the number of eggs produced by a female decreases with her age. There might be no eggs produced at all for months in a row as compared to an egg produced every month during her younger years. Also, with ageing the quality of the egg or its chances of being genetically normal decreases manifolds. Hence, it is ideal to visit an infertility treatment center in Noida in case a couple is trying to conceive when the woman is around or above 35 years of age.
3) History of pelvic infections or diseases that might have been transmitted sexually
STDs like Chlamydia or Gonorrhea lead the Fallopian Tubes to develop scars and senses of inflammation. It is necessary for the Fallopian Tubes to be open for male sperms to traverse the tube and fuse with the ovulated egg and thereafter fertilize the same. In cases of having a history of pelvic infections or STDs it is advised to visit an infertility treatment center in Noida. HSG test will be performed on you in order to check in case fallopian tubes have open ends.
4) Abnormalities in male semen
If the male partner is known to have prior issues with fertility, it is advised that you get a semen evaluation done.
The Various Processes Involved In the Evaluation of Fertility
1) History of infertility and physical evaluations:
At the outset, your fertility physician will carry out a very thorough evaluation of the history of your fertility. This may be followed by further round of questions such as how much time has it been since you are attempting pregnancy? Do you experience pain during period or intercourse? Is this your first instance of pregnancy? Do you suffer any STD, etc.
2) Transvaginal Ultrasound:
Ultrasound helps in the evaluation of the uterus, Fallopian tubes and ovaries. It can also detect abnormalities related to the uterus like fibroids or polyps. Similarly, abnormalities related to the ovary such as ovarian cysts can also be detected with the help of ultrasound.
3) Laboratory Testing:
Depending on the evaluation, your reproductive physician at the infertility treatment center in Noida may prescribe blood test. The aim of such test is to evaluate the count of hormones like estradiol or FSH that promote ovarian function and overall numbers of eggs produced.
4) Hysterosalpingogram (HSG):
This test helps in evaluating the patency of the fallopian tube. Many abnormalities related to the uterus as well as ovaries can also be detected by HSG.
The Various Options for Infertility Treatment
1) Spreading awareness and education about infertility:
In our society, infertility is seen as a taboo and considered to be a curse. Whereas, the occurrence of the phenomenon is largely dominated by Science and has nothing to do with fictional beliefs. Almost anyone can be affected by infertility. Hence, it is necessary to spread education and awareness about infertility in order to be able to cope with it.
2) Medication to artificially induce ovulation:
There are medications that can be consumed in order to stimulate the ovary so that it may develop eggs. These medications can be consumed orally or can also be injected into the body. It stimulates the hypothalamus – the part of brain which is responsible for ovulation.
3) In Vitro Fertilization:
The most widely recognized form of artificial fertilization of the egg – In Vitro Fertilization has revolutionized the treatment for infertility. In this process, eggs are collected from the mother and are artificially fertilized with help of sperms outside the body. The first baby to be born by this procedure was in the year 1978 in England.
The concept of Infertility is quite vast in itself and is one about which any amount of study put together is not enough. You can seek more knowledge by visiting Nidan Mother and Childcare Infertility Treatment Center in Noida. | <urn:uuid:597249bf-b229-4ad1-952a-1a3423ed5882> | {
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What is the economic impact of Missouri’s forest products? To answer this, MDC undertakes periodic assessments of the economic impact of the forest products industry on the state as a whole by working with data collected by the Federal government
MDC’s Community Forestry Program advises, coordinates, and facilitates the efforts that affect Missouri’s community-owned trees. We use surveys, inventories and models to assess the status of Missouri's' urban forests.
Amphibians and Reptiles, Birds, Community Ecology, Environmental Health, Fire Ecology, Geographic Information Systems, Invasives/Nuisance, Invertebrates, Mammals, Natural Resource Economics, Plant Research, Soils/Geology, Techniques, Tree Research, Trees/Plants, Wildlife Research
The Missouri Ozark Forest Ecosystem Project is a long-term, landscape-scale experiment that measures how the living and non-living parts of a forested ecosystem respond to forest management. | <urn:uuid:7489caa5-2445-40b3-8c98-cc00cd3e968e> | {
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Agenda item 29
RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
The General Assembly
Adopts the following Declaration:
Fifty years ago the United Nations was born out of the sufferings caused by the Second World War. The determination, enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations, "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war" is as vital today as it was fifty years ago. In this, as in other respects, the Charter gives expression to the common values and aspirations of humankind.
The United Nations has been tested by conflict, humanitarian crisis and turbulent change, yet it has survived and played an important role in preventing another global conflict and has achieved much for people all over the world. The United Nations has helped to shape the very structure of relations between nations in the modern age. Through the process of decolonization and the elimination of apartheid, hundreds of millions of human beings have been and are assured the exercise of the fundamental right of self-determination.
At this time, following the end of the cold war, and as the end of the century approaches, we must create new opportunities for peace, development, democracy and cooperation. The speed and extent of change in today's world point to a future of great complexity and challenge and to a sharp increase in the level of expectations of the United Nations.
Our resolve on this historic occasion is clear. The commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations must be seized as an opportunity to redirect it to greater service to humankind, especially to those who are suffering and are deeply deprived. This is the practical and moral challenge of our time. Our obligation to this end is found in the Charter. The need for it is manifest in the condition of humankind.
On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, we, the Member States and observers of the United Nations, representing the peoples of the world:
-Solemnly reaffirm the Purposes and Principles of the Charter of the United Nations and our commitments to them;
-Express our gratitude to all men and women who have made the United Nations possible, done its work and served its ideals, particularly those who have given their lives during service to the United Nations;
-Are determined that the United Nations of the future will work with renewed vigour and effectiveness in promoting peace, development, equality and justice and understanding among the peoples of the world;
-Will give to the twenty-first century a United Nations equipped, financed and structured to serve effectively the peoples in whose name it was established.
In fulfilment of these commitments we will be guided in our
future cooperation by the following, with respect to peace, development,
equality, justice and the United Nations Organization:
1. To meet these challenges, and while recognizing that action to secure global peace, security and stability will be futile unless the economic and social needs of people are addressed, we will:
-Promote methods and means for the peaceful settlement of disputes in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and enhance the capabilities of the United Nations in conflict prevention, preventive diplomacy, peace-keeping and peace-building;
-Strongly support United Nations, regional and national efforts on arms control, limitation and disarmament and the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, in all aspects, and other weapons of mass destruction, including biological and chemical weapons and other forms of particularly excessively injurious or indiscriminate weapons, in pursuit of our common commitment to a world free of all these weapons;
-Continue to reaffirm the right of self-determination of all peoples, taking into account the particular situation of peoples under colonial or other forms of alien domination or foreign occupation, and recognize the right of peoples to take legitimate action in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to realize their inalienable right of self- determination. This shall not be construed as authorizing or encouraging any action that would dismember or impair, totally or in part, the territorial integrity or political unity of sovereign and independent States conducting themselves in compliance with the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples and thus possessed of a Government representing the whole people belonging to the territory without distinction of any kind;
-Act together to defeat the threats to States and people posed by terrorism, in all its forms and manifestations, and transnational organized crime and the illicit trade in arms and the production and consumption of and trafficking in illicit drugs;
-Strengthen consultation and cooperation between regional arrangements or agencies and the United Nations in the maintenance of international peace and security.
2. A dynamic, vigorous, free and equitable international economic
environment is essential to the well-being of humankind and to
international peace, security and stability. This objective must
be addressed, in greater measure and more effectively, by the
United Nations system.
3. The United Nations has played an important role in the promotion of economic and social development and has, over the years, provided life- saving assistance to women, children and men around the world. But the pledge recorded in the Charter that all Members of the United Nations shall take joint and separate action in cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of higher standards of living, full employment and conditions of economic and social progress and development has not been adequately implemented.
4. It must be recognized that notwithstanding past efforts, the gap between the developed and developing countries remains unacceptably wide. The specific problems of countries with economies in transition with respect to their twofold transition to democracy and a market economy should also be recognized. In addition, accelerating globalization and interdependence in the world economy call for policy measures designed to ensure the maximization of the benefits from and the minimization of the negative effects of these trends for all countries.
5. Of greatest concern is that one fifth of the world's 5.7 billion people live in extreme poverty. Extraordinary measures by all countries, including strengthened international cooperation, are needed to address this and related problems.
6. In response to these facts and circumstances, the United Nations has convened a number of specifically focused global conferences in the last five years. From these conferences, a consensus has emerged, inter alia, that economic development, social development and environmental protection are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development, which is the framework of our efforts to achieve a higher quality of life for all people. At the core of this consensus is the recognition that the human person is the central subject of development and that people must be at the centre of our actions towards and concerns for sustainable development.
7. In this context, we reaffirm that democracy, development and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, are interdependent and mutually reinforcing.
8. In order to foster sustained economic growth, social development, environmental protection and social justice in fulfilment of the commitments we have made on international cooperation for development, we will:
-Promote an open and equitable, rule-based, predictable and non- discriminatory multilateral trading system and a framework for investment, transfers of technology and knowledge, as well as enhanced cooperation in the areas of development, finance and debt as critical conditions for development;
-Give particular attention to national and international action to enhance the benefits of the process of globalization for all countries and to avoid the marginalization from and promote the integration of the least developed countries and countries in Africa into the world economy;
-Improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the United Nations system for development and strengthen its role in all relevant fields of international economic cooperation;
-Invigorate the dialogue and partnership between all countries in order to secure the existence of a favourable political and economic environment for the promotion of international cooperation for development based on the imperatives of mutual benefit and interest and genuine interdependence, while recognizing that each country is ultimately responsible for its own development but reaffirming that the international community must create a supportive international environment for such development;
-Promote social development through decisive national and international action aimed at the eradication of poverty as an ethical, social, political and economic imperative of humankind and the promotion of full employment and social integration;
-Recognize that the empowerment and the full and equal participation of women is central to all efforts to achieve development;
-Reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies in order to meet the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, recognizing that environmental sustainability constitutes an integral part of the development process;
-Intensify cooperation on natural disaster reduction and major technological and man-made disasters, disaster relief, post-disaster rehabilitation and humanitarian assistance in order to enhance the capabilities of affected countries to cope with such situations.
9. We reiterate the affirmation by the Charter of the dignity
and worth of the human person and the equal rights of men and
women and reaffirm that all human rights are universal, indivisible,
interdependent and interrelated.
10. While the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is the duty of all States, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms, the universal nature of which is beyond question. It is also important for all States to ensure the universality, objectivity and non-selectivity of the consideration of human rights issues.
11. We will therefore:
-Promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms, which are inherent to all human beings;
-Strengthen laws, policies and programmes that would ensure the full and equal participation of women in all spheres of political, civil, economic, social and cultural life as equal partners and the full realization of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all women;
- Promote and protect the rights of the child;
-Ensure that the rights of persons who can be particularly vulnerable to abuse or neglect, including youth, persons with disabilities, the elderly and migrant workers, are protected;
- Promote and protect the rights of indigenous people;
-Ensure the protection of the rights of refugees and of displaced persons;
-Ensure that the rights of persons belonging to national, ethnic and other minorities are protected, and that such persons are able to pursue economic and social development and live in circumstances of full respect for their identity, traditions, forms of social organization and cultural and religious values.
12. The Charter of the United Nations has provided a durable
framework for the promotion and development of international law.
The continued promotion and development of international law must
be pursued with a view to ensuring that relations between States
are based on the principles of justice, sovereign equality, universally
recognized principles of international law and respect for the
rule of law. Such action should take account of developments under
way in such areas as technology, transport, information and resourcerelated
fields and international financial markets, as well as the growing
complexity of the work of the United Nations in the humanitarian
and refugee assistance fields.
13. We are determined to:
-Build and maintain justice among all States in accordance with the principles of the sovereign equality and territorial integrity of States;
-Promote full respect for and implementation of international law;
- Settle international disputes by peaceful means;
-Encourage the widest possible ratification of international treaties and ensure compliance with the obligations arising from them;
-Promote respect for and the implementation of international humanitarian law;
-Promote the progressive development of international law in the field of development, including that which would foster economic and social progress;
-Promote respect for and implementation of international law in the field of human rights and fundamental freedoms and encourage ratification of or accession to international human rights instruments;
-Promote the further codification and progressive development of international law.
14. In order to be able to respond effectively to the challenges
of the future and the expectations of the United Nations held
by peoples around the world, it is essential that the United Nations
itself be reformed and modernized. The work of the General Assembly,
the universal organ of the States Members of the United Nations,
should be revitalized. The Security Council should, inter alia,
be expanded and its working methods continue to be reviewed in
a way that will further strengthen its capacity and effectiveness,
enhance its representative character and improve its working efficiency
and transparency; as important differences on key issues continue
to exist, further in-depth consideration of these issues is required.
The role of the Economic and Social Council should be strengthened
to enable it to carry out effectively, in the modern age, the
tasks it has been assigned with respect to the well-being and
standards of life of all people. These and other changes, within
the United Nations system, should be made if we are to ensure
that the United Nations of the future serves well the peoples
in whose name it was established.
15. In order to carry out its work effectively, the United Nations must have adequate resources. Member States must meet, in full and on time, their obligation to bear the expenses of the Organization, as apportioned by the General Assembly. That apportionment should be established on the basis of criteria agreed to and considered to be fair by Member States.
16. The secretariats of the United Nations system must improve significantly their efficiency and effectiveness in administering and managing the resources allocated to them. For their part, Member States will pursue and take responsibility for reforming that system.
17. We recognize that our common work will be the more successful if it is supported by all concerned actors of the international community, including non-governmental organizations, multilateral financial institutions, regional organizations and all actors of civil society. We will welcome and facilitate such support, as appropriate.
40th plenary meeting
24 October 1995 . | <urn:uuid:03e5948a-8361-44f4-95c6-1c08fb5fb727> | {
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It depends on what your application is. If it doesn’t involve databases, then there’s no need to call mysql_real_escape_string(), similarly if the input needs to be in HTML then htmlspecialchars() would not be appropriate. However, if you are inserting untrusted content into a database that will in the future be output to a HTML page and you do not want said output’s HTML code to be parsed, then you should modify the input with both. Note that it is more common (and generally better) to invoke htmlspecialchars() when output occurs.
They are used for completely different things. htmlspecialchars() converts special HTML characters into entities so that they can be output without problems (or a risk of XSS), while mysql_real_escape_string() escapes sensitive SQL characters so interpolated queries can be performed without the risk of SQL injection.
real_escape_string is for making a legal query to INPUT
htmlspecialchars is used for legal OUTPUT to your html/xhtml | <urn:uuid:1d15a71c-2191-4724-94d1-b0ecbe36595b> | {
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Anthropologists have constructed the world's first complete articulated Neanderthal skeleton to expand public and scientific understanding of the group, as well as of the differences between Neanderthals and modern humans. Their research will be published online March 11, 2005 in The Anatomical Record Part B: The New Anatomist, and will be available via Wiley InterScience (http://www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ar).
Questions about Neanderthals have persisted for nearly 150 years, many based upon an early erroneous stereotype of a slouched, bent-kneed biped with primitive mental capacity. Over the years, many artists have put forth images of Neanderthals, yet no one had ever constructed a complete skeleton using authentic fossil skeletal material. Anthropologists G.J. Sawyer of the American Museum of Natural History in New York and Blaine Maley of Washington University in St. Louis, MO set out to be the first, in an attempt to contribute to a more objective understanding of Neanderthals.
"The primary purpose was to provide a more scientific understanding of Neanderthal skeletal anatomy based on the totality of available evidence, and to help us get a better estimation of stature differences between modern humans and our Neanderthal cousins," said the authors. "Our results would be used to educate the scientific community and the public on these differences, as well as give us a potential vehicle for undertaking more accurate biomechanical studies on Neanderthal positional and locomotor behaviors."
They based their reconstruction on a skeleton known as La Ferrassie 1, which had been found in France in 1909. It is a well preserved and fairly complete fossil skeleton, though missing a fully complete rib cage, vertebral column, and pelvis. These missing elements were obtained from other individual skeletons, all adult males from Europe or the Levant. Other casts of Neanderthals were also used as reference. Reproductions of modern human bones were added to the reconstruction only where Neanderthal parts were not available.
"For the first time, this reconstruction allows direct skeletal comparison between an articulated Neanderthal to that of a modern human, which reveals just how appreciable their morphological differences are," the authors report.
They found notable contrasts in the Neanderthal's rib cage and pelvis compared to those of modern humans. The Neanderthal thoracic area included a flaring lower rib area, indicating a bell-shaped trunk, not the barrel-shape that had previously been suggested. Further, they report a slightly shorter skeleton than previous estimates – 163.8 cm – although the height might have been slightly underestimated due to variation in vertebrate spacing and the use of bone casts from a potentially shorter individual.
"Reconstruction is by definition artistic and carries an element of subjectivity," the authors caution. "Although the rib cage and pelvis are visually compelling and convincing in demonstrating the relative difference in Neanderthals and modern humans, the introduction of some degree of artistic license makes it difficult to comment on the significance of these findings."
The reconstructed Neanderthal skeleton is currently on display at the Dolan DNA Learning Center in Cold Spring Harbor, NY and will eventually go on permanent display at the American Museum of Natural History.
"It is our hope that the reconstruction will serve as a practical tool for future human evolutionary research to study Neanderthal lifeways, specifically Neanderthal biomechanics – covering all aspects of body movement – including both arm movements and methods of locomotion," the authors conclude.
Article: "Neanderthal Reconstructed." G.J. Sawyer and Blaine Maley, The Anatomical Record Part B: The New Anatomist; Published Online: March 11, 2005 (DOI: 10.1002/ar.b.20057).
AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system. | <urn:uuid:a822b878-398f-483e-84e5-9b3272849f05> | {
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|What precedence for shift-left/shift-right operators? [email protected] (Timon Christl) (2002-06-28)|
|Re: What precedence for shift-left/shift-right operators? [email protected] (Thomas R. Truscott) (2002-07-02)|
|Re: What precedence for shift-left/shift-right operators? [email protected] (Timon Christl) (2002-07-04)|
|From:||"Thomas R. Truscott" <[email protected]>|
|Date:||2 Jul 2002 01:16:05 -0400|
|Organization:||SAS Institute Inc.|
|Posted-Date:||02 Jul 2002 01:16:03 EDT|
> ... this means that for example 1+2+3+4<<2 means
> "sum up 1, 2,3 and 4, then shift it left two times". I find the Pascal
> way more intuitive: ...
However the language does it, programmers will occasionally do it wrong.
The gcc compiler issues a helpful warning:
suggest parentheses around + or - inside shift
Another mistake I have seen is "if (x << y)" when the programmer
meant "if (x < y)". (Vanilla gcc does not warn about that.)
One can try to design the language to reduce mistakes.
To avoid the 1+2<<3 problem, require parentheses when mixing operators.
To avoid the if (x << y)" problem, require "boolean" values in the if.
I think language designers (and standards people) prefer this to warnings,
perhaps because they see warnings as vague and "non-normative".
But this is just converting warnings into mandatory errors.
I think mandatory warnings would also be appropriate.
Return to the
Search the comp.compilers archives again. | <urn:uuid:bf555f61-9956-4a09-991e-96e57327759f> | {
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Hogan, Cynthia A. PhD
Years ago, I had the pleasure of working with several individuals who were interpreting in the operating room for a surgical resident with hearing loss. While the sign language interpreters had normal hearing, they had difficulty hearing the surgeon clearly because of operating room noise, the noise from a small fan in the surgeon's headgear, and the surgeon's use of a clear plastic face shield, which changed the acoustic signal the interpreters had to hear and translate for the resident. This situation gave me an opportunity to learn about the audiological challenges that the operating room presents, even for those who have normal hearing.
Figure. iStockphoto...Image Tools
The importance of accurate communication in the operating room cannot be understated. Noise increases the chance of miscommunication, and small errors in the discrimination of speech or sounds can have a significant negative impact on the patient and staff.
In addition, the demands of performing complicated tasks in the operating room increase the cognitive effort required for their successful completion. The presence of typical operating room noise can increase the cognitive burden of the surgical team, who have to multitask as they perform, assist, or monitor procedures.
Figure. Cynthia A. H...Image Tools
The usual sources of noise in the operating room include moving equipment, doors opening and closing, metal tools, suction devices, monitors and alarms, air-handling systems, and conversation among staff in the room and via intercom devices. When noise levels rise, conversation also gets louder as speakers try to hear their own voices and make themselves heard over the noise—a phenomenon called the Lombard effect—increasing the overall noise level.
Music is another frequent contributor to noise in the operating room. It has been suggested that music provides a soothing background, reducing staff member stress and patient anxiety. However, music that is pleasant and relaxing to one listener may be unpleasant and agitating to another.
POORER PERFORMANCE IN NOISE
Since the early 1970s, a number of studies have investigated noise levels in the operating room (see bibliography). Most of these studies quantified noise levels and their sources, and some measured the effects on surgical-team performance and patients’ perception of noise.
Effect of Noise on Auditory Processing in the Operating Room
Way TJ, Long A, et al J Am Coll Surg 2013;216(5):933-938
Adding to the literature is this recently published investigation into the effect of noise, particularly music, on auditory processing in the operating room. The study tested 15 surgeons who had varying lengths of surgical experience, averaging six years, and normal hearing sensitivity, with pure-tone thresholds less than 25 dB at 500, 1,000, 2,000 and 4,000 Hz in each ear.
Speech testing was completed in a “simulated” operating room using low- and high-predictability sentences from the Speech Perception in Noise Test–Revised (SPIN–R) in four conditions: SPIN-R in quiet, SPIN-R filtered (to simulate the filter effect of a surgical mask), SPIN-R filtered plus OR noise, and SPIN-R filtered plus OR noise plus music.
Prior to this analysis, speech, noise, and music levels were measured in a variety of operating rooms to determine average values, which were then used in the study. In the filtered speech plus noise condition, the OR noise level was 65 dB SPL, while in the noise plus music condition, which added classic rock music to the mix, the level was 74.2 dB SPL.
The surgeons were seated in a double-walled booth, with speech and filtered speech presented at 70 dB SPL from speakers placed at ±45 degrees azimuth. They were asked to repeat the last word they heard in both an un-tasked and tasked state.
In the tasked state, the surgeons completed a manual dexterity task while responding to the speech test. Using the Ethicon Endo-Surgery Train Anywhere Skill Kit and a computer plus webcam, they moved pegs from one container to another with two Maryland graspers.
Task, predictability of sentence, and noise were found to be statistically significant factors in the study. Performance was poorer in the tasked compared with the un-tasked state, in the low-predictability than the high-predictability condition, and in the noise than in the quiet condition.
In the tasked state, scores were poorer in noise and poorer yet in noise plus music. There was no statistically significant difference in the unfiltered versus filtered condition, and the addition of music was significant in the tasked condition only.
ROLE OF THE AUDIOLOGIST
Staff should be educated about the “dangers” of noise in the operating room, the authors concluded. They suggested that institutions determine a means to provide accurate communication and safety for staff and patients in the operating room while allowing music.
The authors made several recommendations for future studies, including to use a more realistic complex task in order to investigate the effects of noise and task complexity on hearing, to evaluate the influence of surgeon experience level on communication ability in the operating room, and to determine the effects of noise on other operating room personnel—i.e., anesthesiology staff and nurses. They also suggested that an exploration of the effects of noise on surgeons and other operating room staff who have hearing loss or are nonnative English speakers is warranted.
Audiologists can play several important roles in overcoming some of the potentially negative effects of noise in the operating room. One role is to educate operating room personnel about the influence of noise and music on communication and how to overcome these effects. Another is working with planning teams on possible ways to reduce noise through the physical aspects of new or remodeled operating rooms, including reduction of reverberation. Audiologists should also be prepared to offer those with and without hearing loss solutions for improved communication in the noisy operating room environment.
As for the difficulty our sign language interpreters were experiencing in the operating room, we came up with a solution that worked for them. We clipped an FM microphone under the surgeon's face shield—it took a few attempts using different microphone styles, microphone placements, and clips—and the interpreters wore behind-the-ear FM receivers with custom vented earmolds.
The FM system reduced the effects of operating room noise on the interpreters’ ability to hear the surgeon's communications, improving the accuracy of the interpretation for the resident.
Read past Journal Club columns in a special collection on the HJ website: http://bit.ly/HJJournalClub.
Read this article on HJ's free iPad app and tap the following links for extra information: http://bit.ly/AppHearingJ.
* Ginsberg SH, Pantin E, Kraidin J, Solina A, Panjwani S, Yang G. Noise levels in modern operating rooms during surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2013;27(3):528-530.
* Hasfeldt D, Laerkner E, Birkelund R. Noise in the operating room—what do we know? A review of the literature. J Perianesth Nurs 2010;25(6):380-386.
* Kurmann A, Peter M, Tschan F, Mühlemann K, Candinas D, Beldi G. Adverse effect of noise in the operating theater on surgical-site infection. Br J Surg 2011;98(7):1021-1025.
* Wahr JA, Abernathy JH 3rd. Environmental hygiene in the operating room: cleanliness, godliness, and reality. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2013;51(1):93-104.
© 2013 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. | <urn:uuid:35e176fb-8766-4ef3-8f08-89fec1c27bed> | {
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How did the universe begin? Cosmologists aren't the only ones plagued by this question. When we look up at a starry sky on a clear night, we can't help but ask ourselves: Where did it all come from? How did it all begin? Modern cosmologists attempt to answer these questions with the Big Bang Theory.
Before the Big Bang, there was no time or space. The Big Bang marked the beginning of the universe's expansion from a singularity (or something close to a singularity) — a single point that was infinitely small, infinitely hot, and infinitely dense.
Since the Big Bang, the universe has gone through several eras distinguished by the behavior of the universe's fundamental forces and particles.
Though physicists have a decent understanding of the early stages of the universe, the immediate fractions of a second following the Big Bang, known as the Planck Era, are not well understood. From the moment of initial expansion to 10-43 seconds afterwards, cosmologists suspect that the four fundamental forces at work in the universe today (strong, weak, electromagnetism, and gravity) were combined into a single unified force.
Grand Unification Era
The Grand Unification Era followed the Planck Era, taking place between 10-43 seconds and 10-35 seconds. The era began with gravity’s separation from the other three forces and ended with the separation of the strong force from the electroweak force.
At the beginning of the Electroweak Era (10-35 to 10-10 seconds), the strong force decoupled from the electroweak force, releasing a tremendous amount of energy and triggering a sudden rapid expansion known as inflation. As space expanded more rapidly than the speed of light, extremely energetic interactions created elementary particles such as photons, gluons, and quarks. The era ended with the separation of electromagnetism from the weak force.
Elementary Particle Era
Between 10-10 seconds and 0.001 second, the Elementary Particle Era, a “particle soup” filled the universe. Quarks and antiquarks, electrons and positrons, and other particles and antiparticles continually swapped mass for energy via matter-antimatter collisions. As the universe cooled, the temperature dipped too low to re-create pairs of particles from photons and the particles continued to annihilate without being replaced. A slight asymmetry between the amount (or possibly the behavior) of matter and antimatter enabled matter to dominate and become the universe’s primary ingredient. The cooler temperature also enabled the strong nuclear force to draw quarks together to form protons and neutrons.
Era of Nucleosynthesis
Fusion continued in the Era of Nucleosynthesis (0.001 seconds – 3 minutes), when protons and neutrons combined into the first atomic nuclei, hydrogen, some of which fused further into helium and lithium. Cooling continued and soon temperatures dipped too low for fusion to continue in the Era of Nuclei (3 minutes – 380,000 years). Big Bang nucleosynthesis had left the universe with roughly 75% hydrogen nuclei, 25% helium nuclei, and trace amounts of lithium and deuterium nuclei. The plasma of positively charged nuclei and negatively charged free electrons filled the universe, trapping photons in its midst.
Era of Atoms
The Era of Atoms (380,000 years – 1 billion years or so) began as the universe finally cooled and expanded enough for the nuclei to capture free electrons, forming fully-fledged, neutral atoms. Previously trapped photons were finally free to move through space, and the universe became transparent for the first time. These photons have been passing through space ever since, forming the cosmic microwave background. The universe’s expansion has redshifted the initially energetic photons to microwave wavelengths. The CMB also marks the furthest point back in time we can observe — the time before is sometimes referred to as the dark age.
The differences in density seen in the CMB provided the seeds for galaxy formation. The first galaxies formed when the universe was roughly 1 billion years old and heralded the current Era of Galaxies. | <urn:uuid:d208b900-6bc7-40c1-89e9-e5d818ca92dc> | {
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During 1962, NASA faced three major tasks: keeping North American moving on the command and service modules, defending its decision to fly the lunar-orbit rendezvous mode, and finding a contractor to develop the separate landing vehicle required by that approach.
North American engineers spent the opening months of the year at desks, at drawing boards, and in conference rooms. Although not all the pieces of the Apollo stack had been defined, the first job was obviously to build a three-man earth-orbital spacecraft. This Phase A or Block I version, already worked out by NASA in considerable depth, still required detailed analyses, precise engineering specifications, and special manufacturing tools. The contractor also had to make scale-model spacecraft for wind-tunnel tests and full-size mockups of wood and metal for study and demonstration uses.1
1. Ralph B. Oakley, "Historical Summary: S & ID Apollo Program," North American Space & Info. Syst. Div., 20 Jan. 1966; North American, "Project Apollo, Pre-Contractural Documentation and Orbital Rendezvous: A Literature Survey," SID 61-470, 29 Dec. 1961. | <urn:uuid:4ef4ed98-d1d3-4967-85ca-98ca3144fc68> | {
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At the crossroads between Fort de Vaux, Verdun and Ford de Douaumont, the dying Lion marks the spot of the German furthest advancement. It’s just a hundred meters short of Fort de Soueville, Verdun’s last defense.
The German troops were Bavarian. Hence the Bavarian lion.
Two Hotchkiss machine guns fired from this position, providing additional firepower to the 155mm guns in the disappearing turret.
The entrance to the Fort Souville, heavily bombarded by the Germans.
There were no trees in the area, so the turret guns would have a clear view of the ravines below.
This is the top of the disappearing turret that housed two 155 short-barrel guns. With the 80-ton counterweight, the guns were raised to fire. Then the mechanism would lower them to re-load.
The German bombardment lifted a lot of ground to expose the concrete walls of the gun tower.
This is an observation point
The Hotchkiss guns controlled the ravine in the direction of Fort Douaumont. To avoid them, the German attacked from the left.
The German attack was stopped in the trenches below. It came to bayonet combat.
The famous “Trench of the Bayonets” near Fort de Douaumont. The French soldiers lie below with the rifles still in their hands. Unfortunately, all the original bayonets and even the replacement fake ones have been stolen. The only thing to see are wooden crosses. The story is here http://www.battledetective.com/casefiles17.html
The Verdun Memorial
The Verdun Ossuary and Cemetery.
After the war, the decision was made to plant a few million trees to cover the destruction. Most of these trees started in the 1920s and continue to propagate naturally.
You must be aware that the area contains an estimated 80,000 unburied French and German soldiers as well as the countless unexploded munitions. | <urn:uuid:486ba714-4684-4a53-976c-ce4ab5593026> | {
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Born German, Made American. To prove their patriotism, immigrants abandoned their old identities. By Nicolas Kumanoff
Tens of millions of Americans claim German descent. Their immigrant ancestors built up a vibrant culture and recorded unique achievements. Today, both have been largely forgotten. A TV documentary series tells the story.
The 2000 census reports 47 million people claiming German heritage, the largest single ethnic group in the U.S. Yet less than 1.4 million claim to actually speak German.
Their story was told over two evenings in March on the German-French ARTE public TV channel, in a four-part documentary series by Fritz Baumann.
In "The Promised Land," "The Price of Freedom," "Little Germanies" and "A People Vanish," Baumann vividly depicts the German experience in America.
The Germans founded their own settlements, the first of which was Germantown, established near Philadelphia by Mennonites in 1683. There would soon be many other German religious communities, their inhabitants splintering off, rejecting the others as too worldly - and seeking land further west.
Most German immigrants were economic refugees. The cities of New York, Philadelphia and New Orleans were their ports of entry. Although huge German communities would emerge in all three, most Germans got out as soon as they could, seeking the plentiful and affordable farm and pasture land they had all heard about.
Baumann recounts in detail a unique story, even by Old West standards, of the German settlements in Texas, whose settlers would eventually create what is considered the only treaty between whites and Native Americans still in force today.
In 1842, a group of noblemen, eager to both get rid of malingerers and capitalize on America's riches, hatched a scheme. They decided to found a German colony, together with the Association for the Protection of German Immigrants to Texas. For a big fee, the association promised transatlantic passage, infrastructure such as schools and churches, and generally promised to take care of the settlers until their first harvest. The group bought tracts of land in Texas, at the time an independent republic.
An initial party of 600 families embarked from Bremen in 1844. When, after 65 days, they arrived at the swampy mouth of the Guadalupe River, cholera and yellow fever broke out. More than half the settlers died within two years. The association failed to keep its promise of protecting the settlers. In other words, they were left on their own.
To survive, the Germans had to adapt. The grain they had brought with them didn't grow in the hot Texas plains, so they learned how to plant corn and sweet potatoes from the native population and other settlers. In place of dark bread, the Germans ate tortillas.
Meanwhile, further immigrant trains continually arrived and pushed north, putting pressure on both the existing small-parcel farms and the native population, notably the proud and warlike Comanches.
As the whites began destroying the buffalo herds on which the Comanches' existence depended, tensions increased. There were killings on both sides. Finally, in May 1847, the governor of Texas (by then the 28th state in the Union) told the leader of the German settlers, John Meusebach, they would have to move elsewhere.
Meusebach decided instead to seek a treaty with the tribe. He rode off with a group of settlers to negotiate.
Nick Bradford, the spokesman of the Comanche Nation, recounts how the 42 Germans emptied their magazines by shooting into the air, then rode into the Comanche camp unarmed.
Meusebach, whose red hair and flowing beard would earn him the title Chief Red Sun, offered the Comanches $3,000 in return for the right to settle the area and live in peace. The two peoples would coexist as brothers, Meusebach assured them.
The treaty allowed Meusebach's settlers to go unharmed into Indian territory and the Indians to go to the white settlements, and promised mutual reports on wrongdoing. It opened more than 3 million acres of land to settlement. To distinguish themselves from the Yankee settlers whom the Comanches hated and feared, the Germans were told to smoke pipes while in their fields. That way they were safe from attack.
To this day, the 1847 Meusebach-Comanche Treaty is believed to be the sole pact between whites and Native Americans that has never been broken. Every May, an "intertribal pow-wow" commemorates the occasion and reunites members of both communities. "The Germans did not just want to take and own," says Bradford. "They wanted to share."
Wherever they went in America, Germans established printing presses and newspapers. The printed word played a central role in German culture in America. In 1743, the first New World edition of the Bible was printed in German by Christoph Sauer. It was still a common sight in German-American households 200 years later. Even Benjamin Franklin printed a German newspaper, the Philadelphische Zeitung. That paper folded within a year, but many others would be more successful.
At its zenith in the 1880s, the German language press in North America boasted over 800 daily and weekly periodicals.
New York had four German-language dailies - more than even Berlin at the time. The New Yorker Staats-Zeitung had over 60,000 readers, more than the 40,000 circulation of The New York Times. At its peak in 1938, the Staats sold 80,000 copies a day. Today, fewer than 20 periodicals, mostly weeklies or monthlies, are left. Why?
The last of the films, "A People Vanishes," shows how these tens of millions of German-Americans, whose culture, language and communities had been kept alive over centuries, completely abandoned their old identities during the world wars, when Germany twice became America's enemy.
Before the United States entered World War I, public opinion was far from unanimous on what, if any, side to back. German-Americans often vocally opposed Washington's increasing support for the Allies and advocated neutrality instead. Yet Germany's military conduct, especially the sinking of the liner Lusitania in 1915, discredited this position.
Beginning in 1917, a virulent anti-German sentiment spread. In several states, German language instruction was banned from schools and German books burned in the streets. German terms were excised from the language: Sauerkraut became "liberty cabbage" and frankfurters became hot dogs.
Indeed, anyone with a German name was a target for harassment. A widely publicized notice from the American Defense Society stated that a German-American, "unless known by years of association to be absolutely loyal, should be treated as a potential spy."
Ethnic Germans responded by suppressing their heritage to prove their patriotism. Names were anglicized, organizations renamed. Parents forbid their children to speak German outside the home. German-Americans held parades to demonstrate their loyalty. One memorable banner read: "Born in Germany, Made in America."
The process of cultural realignment was therefore taking place well before World War II, when America once again fought a Germany that, this time, became associated with a depravity previously unheard of. The deathblow for German culture in the United States was dealt by the "fatherland" itself.
Much was lost. Kurt Vonnegut, a child of third-generation German immigrants, writes in his autobiographical novel "Palm Sunday":
". . .the anti-Germanism in this country during the First World War so shamed and dismayed my parents that they resolved to raise me without acquainting me with the language or the literature or the music or the oral family histories which my ancestors had loved. They volunteered to make me ignorant and rootless as proof of their patriotism."
- Nicolas Kumanoff is a Berlin-based editor and translator. | <urn:uuid:54ddbb91-12f3-42bc-bfad-b24040d47e03> | {
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How IPv6 Is Implemented?
The most apparent impact of the limitation of the IPv4 is that eventually service providers are unable to issue publicly accessible IP addresses for their customers. They will be no longer to expand existing customer base, unless they offer shared IP access. Theoretically, it is possible for IANA to allocate APv6 addresses right now to ISPs and other service providers. However, it is impossible to do is the appropriate routing technologies are not available. That said, a tipping point and powerful driver is needed to reach a situation where the migration to IPv6 is inevitable.
In this situation, all service providers will be demanded to connect through the completely native IPv6 standard, which is an un-translated IPv6 addressing. There will also be a significant corporate impact of this implementation. From Internet accessibility point of view, companies should begin to consider how IPv6 will affect their operations. For some time, it is possible to support both IPv4 and IPv6, especially if companies want to retain the older standards in their local area networks. Fortunately, there are some intermediate methods to smoothen the whole transition.
Larger companies and organizations may have their own IPv4 addressing blocks, so they will require special implementations to support IPv6 for external access. This allows them to manage their own internal address space, while relying on their ISP for their IPv6-based external access. It is important, because IPv6 will eventually become a de-factor standard in network and Internet connectivity. Thankfully, most modern network equipments and operating systems already provide support for IPv6 connectivity. So it won’t be long before companies start to switch to IPv6 even for internal uses. This will allows for more seamless transition to the Internet, because each device can have their unique IPv6 address.
For the time being, it is appropriate for companies to create a migration roadmap that may span up to 5 years in the future. When the final goals are achieved, it is preferable if all devices; including any network-connected devices, such as printers, scanner, fax and others also get their own IPv6 addresses. In the meantime, companies should look for mainstream vendors that develop appropriate systems and applications for their upcoming IPv6 migration. As bandwidth becomes more freely available and more devices can be connected to the Internet, it makes a perfect business sense to invest on the performance improvements provided by IPv6.
All the necessary pieces of the great IPv6 puzzle should be all present at the moment. Latest mainstream operating system offer native IPv6 support. Applications, including CRM software, FTP servers, web servers and database have also become IPv6 aware. For quite some time, network equipments have been IPv6 enabled. Unfortunately, companies may find out that they are missing the native IPv6 connectivity from local ISP. But the overall adoption may be expected to rocket when all the pieces are on the table. It is the responsibility of Internet practitioners to speed up the IPv6 adoption, due to the massive growth of Internet-connected devices. | <urn:uuid:0166b7fd-8b09-47dc-8a69-bfeb87e64020> | {
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The emotional toll that disaster brings can sometimes be even more devastating than the financial strains of damage and loss of home, business, or personal property.
Understand Disaster Events
- Everyone who sees or experiences a disaster is affected by it in some way.
- It is normal to feel anxious about your own safety and that of your family and close friends.
- Profound sadness, grief, and anger are normal reactions to an abnormal event.
- Acknowledging your feelings helps you recover.
- Focusing on your strengths and abilities helps you heal.
- Accepting help from community programs and resources is healthy.
- Everyone has different needs and different ways of coping.
- It is common to want to strike back at people who have caused great pain.
Children and older adults are of special concern in the aftermath of disasters. Even individuals who experience a disaster "second hand" through exposure to extensive media coverage can be affected.
Contact local faith-based organizations, voluntary agencies, or professional counselors for counseling. Additionally, FEMA and state and local governments of the affected area may provide crisis counseling assistance.
Recognize Signs of Disaster Related Stress
When adults have the following signs, they might need crisis counseling or stress management assistance:
- Difficulty communicating thoughts.
- Difficulty sleeping.
- Difficulty maintaining balance in their lives.
- Low threshold of frustration.
- Increased use of drugs/alcohol.
- Limited attention span.
- Poor work performance.
- Headaches/stomach problems.
- Tunnel vision/muffled hearing.
- Colds or flu-like symptoms.
- Disorientation or confusion.
- Difficulty concentrating.
- Reluctance to leave home.
- Depression, sadness.
- Feelings of hopelessness.
- Mood-swings and easy bouts of crying.
- Overwhelming guilt and self-doubt.
- Fear of crowds, strangers, or being alone.
Easing Disaster-Related Stress
The following are ways to ease disaster-related stress:
- Talk with someone about your feelings - anger, sorrow, and other emotions - even though it may be difficult.
- Seek help from professional counselors who deal with post-disaster stress.
- Do not hold yourself responsible for the disastrous event or be frustrated because you feel you cannot help directly in the rescue work.
- Take steps to promote your own physical and emotional healing by healthy eating, rest, exercise, relaxation, and meditation.
- Maintain a normal family and daily routine, limiting demanding responsibilities on yourself and your family.
- Spend time with family and friends.
- Participate in memorials.
- Use existing support groups of family, friends, and religious institutions.
- Ensure you are ready for future events by restocking your disaster supplies kits and updating your family disaster plan. Doing these positive actions can be comforting.
Source: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) | <urn:uuid:26cb84d8-b5fa-4c91-9505-f1d043607614> | {
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The scrypt key derivation function
scrypt key derivation function was originally developed
for use in the Tarsnap online
backup system and is designed to be far more secure against
hardware brute-force attacks than alternative functions such as
We estimate that on modern (2009) hardware, if 5 seconds are spent
computing a derived key, the cost of a hardware brute-force attack
scrypt is roughly 4000 times greater than the cost
of a similar attack against bcrypt (to find the same password), and
20000 times greater than a similar attack against PBKDF2.
Details of the
scrypt key derivation function are given in
a paper which was presented at the
- Colin Percival, Stronger Key Derivation via Sequential Memory-Hard Functions, presented at BSDCan'09, May 2009.
- Conference presentation slides: PDF.
There is an Internet Draft for scrypt: draft-josefsson-scrypt-kdf-05, which is under review and will hopefully become an RFC.
The scrypt encryption utility
A simple password-based encryption utility is available as a
demonstration of the
scrypt key derivation function. On
modern hardware and with default parameters, the cost of cracking the
password on a file encrypted by
scrypt enc is approximately
100 billion times more than the cost of cracking the same password on
a file encrypted by
openssl enc; this means that a
five-character password using
scrypt is stronger than a
ten-character password using
scrypt utility can be invoked as
scrypt enc infile
[outfile] to encrypt data (if
outfile is not
specified, the encrypted data is written to the standard output), or
scrypt dec infile [outfile] to decrypt data (if
outfile is not specified, the decrypted data is written to
the standard output).
scrypt also supports three
-t maxtimewill instruct
scryptto spend at most
maxtimeseconds computing the derived encryption key from the password; for encryption, this value will determine how secure the encrypted data is, while for decryption this value is used as an upper limit (if
scryptdetects that it would take too long to decrypt the data, it will exit with an error message).
scryptto use at most the specified fraction of the available RAM for computing the derived encryption key. For encryption, increasing this value might increase the security of the encrypted data, depending on the
maxtimevalue; for decryption, this value is used as an upper limit and may cause
scryptto exit with an error.
scryptto use at most the specified number of bytes of RAM when computing the derived encryption key.
If the encrypted data is corrupt,
scrypt dec will exit with
a non-zero status. However,
scrypt dec may produce
output before it determines that the encrypted data was corrupt,
so for applications which require data to be authenticated, you must
store the output of
scrypt dec in a temporary location and
scrypt's exit code before using the decrypted data.
Using scrypt as a KDF
To use scrypt as a
key derivation function (KDF), take a look at the
lib/crypto/crypto_scrypt.h header, which provides:
/** * crypto_scrypt(passwd, passwdlen, salt, saltlen, N, r, p, buf, buflen): * Compute scrypt(passwd[0 .. passwdlen - 1], salt[0 .. saltlen - 1], N, r, * p, buflen) and write the result into buf. The parameters r, p, and buflen * must satisfy r * p < 2^30 and buflen <= (2^32 - 1) * 32. The parameter N * must be a power of 2 greater than 1. * * Return 0 on success; or -1 on error. */ int crypto_scrypt(const uint8_t *, size_t, const uint8_t *, size_t, uint64_t, uint32_t, uint32_t, uint8_t *, size_t);
The scrypt project
Development of scrypt takes place in the scrypt git repository.
scrypt key derivation function and the
encryption utility are discussed on the
[email protected] mailing list.
scrypt utility has been tested on FreeBSD, NetBSD,
OpenBSD, Linux (Slackware, CentOS, Gentoo, Ubuntu), Solaris, OS X,
Cygwin, and GNU Hurd. To build
scrypt, extract the tarball
./configure && make.
|Version||Release date||GPG-signed SHA256 hash|
Other scrypt software
Use in other languages
- Go scrypt package: scrypt is part of the Go standard library.
py-scrypt: python scrypt bindings; supports Python 2 and 3,
and is available in
- Haskell scrypt: Haskell library providing scrypt bindings.
- node-scrypt: a native node/io C++ wrapper for scrypt.
- pbhogan's scrypt: a Ruby gem for scrypt.
Alternate implementations and uses of scrypt
- scrypt-jane: a flexible implementation of scrypt, allowing for new mixing and hash functions to be added easily.
- jkalbhenn's scrypt: uses scrypt as a KDF for base91-encoded passwords.
- npwd: uses scrypt as part of a stateless password management system, written in node.js.
- cpwd: uses scrypt as part of a stateless password management system, written in C (ported from npwd).
- litecoin uses a simplified version of scrypt. | <urn:uuid:c37fc6e1-1ffb-457c-a06e-27d801ae56c1> | {
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|(US), (Canadian) Also called: film|
|a. a sequence of images of moving objects photographed by a camera and providing the optical illusion of continuous movement when projected onto a screen|
|b. a form of entertainment, information, etc, composed of such a sequence of images and shown in a cinema, etc|
any of various complex photographic cameras that are designed to record a succession of images on a reel of film that is repositioned after each exposure. Commonly, exposures are made at the rate of 24 or 30 frames per second on film that is either 8, 16, 35, or 70 mm in width.
Learn more about motion-picture camera with a free trial on Britannica.com. | <urn:uuid:52173d8b-3f85-4fbc-ac48-4b9748082166> | {
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Upon reading Hans-Herman Hoppe’s article “On Free Immigration and Forced Integration,” I couldn’t help but wonder whether he first reached the conclusion that he wanted to reach and then constructed a set of arguments to support that conclusion.
Hoppe begins his article by correctly pointing out that from a theoretical standpoint, open immigration does, in fact, increase people’s standard of living. He also correctly observes that those who use the welfare state as an excuse for controlling immigration (as his associate Llewellyn Rockwell does) are “wrongheaded.”
Nevertheless, Hoppe ends up concluding that open borders for the United States should be rejected in favor of a government-controlled and government-regulated immigration policy.
Let’s examine the chain of reasoning that leads Hoppe to this conclusion.
Hoppe first suggests that simply because a government is instituted, especially a government that has the power to tax and to build roads, the government has the power to control the entry of foreigners. Here are his exact words:
“Moreover, with the establishment of a government and state borders, immigration takes on an entirely new meaning. Immigration becomes immigration by foreigners across state borders, and the decision as to whether or not a person should be admitted no longer rests with private property owners or associations of such owners but with the government as the ultimate sovereign of all domestic residents and the ultimate super-owner of all their properties.”
Hoppe’s basic assumption, however, is wrong. Simply because a government exists, it does not follow that such a government has to have the power to control the entry of people into its jurisdiction. Hoppe is apparently thinking of the old idea of sovereignty that guides the European world. That is, Europeans commonly believe that the powers of government arise from the very nature of government and its sovereignty.
But sovereignty — and all the powers that arise from sovereignty — was not the original basis that upon which the U.S. government was founded. The U.S. government was called into existence through the Constitution, a document that expressly enumerated the powers that the national government would have. Thus, the powers of our national government did not originate from some vague European notion of sovereignty but rather they arose from the express of enumeration of powers in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution.
In other words, if a power is enumerated in the Constitution or it is necessary and proper to the implementation of the enumerated powers, then the government could exercise it. If not, then the power could not be exercised. The Constitution, not old European notions of sovereignty, was designed to be the source of our national government’s powers. (It’s true as time went on that the U.S. government assumed powers far beyond those enumerated, and sometimes under the notion of “sovereignty.” But the illegitimate usurpation of power is an issue separate and apart from the original nature and design of the Constitution.)
Thus, the national government could levy taxes and build post roads because Article 1, Section 8 gave it power to do so. But since Article 1, Section 8 did not give it the power to restrict the free movements of people into the United States, it cannot lawfully exercise such power. Again, the national government’s powers come from the Constitution. (Of course, as all of us know, the U.S. government, especially in the 20th century, has exercised powers not permitted by the Constitution, but that’s a different issue.)
Moreover, there is no inherent reason that the U.S. government has to have the power to post gendarmes at the border, ready to shoot or repatriate anyone who tries to enter the United States illegally. The U.S. government has sovereignty within its borders with respect to certain criminal offenses, civil matters, taxation, and so forth. But this doesn’t necessarily translate into a governmental power to control who enters the jurisdiction. Anyone who enters the jurisdiction is subject to the laws of the jurisdiction.
Hoppe is right to suggest that public ownership of roads presents a problem with respect to immigration (especially roads that connect to bridges that connect to another country). His analysis of the problem, however, is faulty.
Hoppe correctly points out that in a society in which there is no government and in which all property is privately owned (including roads, rivers, airports, and harbors), there is no issue of freedom of immigration. The issue is simply whether private owners of property will permit others to enter onto their property.
Hoppe then leaps to a next step-one in which government taxes people and owns the roads, rivers, airports, and harbors. The leap causes him to ignore an important logical step in his own analysis — a situation in which government exists but in which all property is privately owned.
For example, suppose all property, including roads, is privately owned and the owners institute government to protect them from domestic marauders (murderers, thieves, etc.) and invaders and to establish a judiciary to resolve disputes between the owners. Let’s also assume that the owners constitutionally prohibit the government from levying any taxes higher than a 1 percent tariff on imported goods. Let’s also suppose that the constitution that called the government into existence expressly forbids the government from controlling the free movements of people into its jurisdiction.
Now, how does the immigration issue arise in this context? Doesn’t the matter continue to be one of private owners’ deciding who is going to enter onto their property? The fact is that under this scenario, the issue of immigration still does not arise despite the fact that government does in fact exist.
Now, let’s proceed to the situation to which Hoppe leaped. Let’s assume that the government has been given the power to own roads, rivers, airports, and harbors. Hoppe suggests that there is a problem with immigration because the government now has the power to let in unrestricted numbers of foreigners who very well might have been excluded if those areas had been privately owned. He suggests that if these publicly owned properties had been owned by a king, there would be a greater likelihood that only competent and superior people would be admitted into the country. With a democratic form of government, Hoppe suggests, the outcome is likely to be the opposite. Hoppe writes:
“As far as immigration is concerned, a king will want to prevent the emigration of productive subjects, in particular of his best and most productive subjects, because losing them would lower the value of the kingdom…. On the other hand, a king will want to expel his non-productive and destructive subjects (criminals, bums, beggars, gypsies, vagabonds, etc.), for their removal from his territory would increase the value of his realm….”
“[For] a democratic ruler it makes little, if any, difference whether productive or unproductive people, geniuses or bums leave the country. They have all one equal vote. In fact, democratic rulers might well be more concerned about the loss of a bum than that of a productive genius…. [A] democratic ruler, quite unlike a king, undertakes little to actively expel those people whose presence within the country constitutes a negative externality (human trash, which drives individual property values down).”
Hoppe’s logic, thus, goes like this: In the absence of government and in a society in which property is privately owned, there is no issue of immigration. But once government is formed, immigration policy must become an issue not only because government is sovereign but also because government owns the roads and other means by which people can enter the country. Therefore, Hoppe says, since there has to be an official immigration policy, it might as well be one in which government officials permit only superior people to enter, which, in Hoppe’s words, would entail “a systematic pro-European bias.” He continues:
“A relatively correct immigration policy … implies that all immigrants must demonstrate through tests not only (English) language proficiency, but all-around superior (above-average) intellectual performance and character structure as well as a compatible system of values — with the predictable result of a systematic pro-European bias.”
Before we address Hoppe’s “relatively correct immigration policy,” let’s first examine the fallacies in his underlying assumptions.
Isn’t the question of roads, airports, rivers, etc. a problem of public ownership of property rather than a problem of immigration? If so, shouldn’t it be separated out and addressed on its own merits and demerits? In the beginning of his article, Hoppe was careful to separate out the issues of welfare and immigration: “To be sure, the welfare state should be destroyed, root and branch. However, in any case the problems of immigration and welfare are analytically distinct problems, and they must be treated accordingly.”
Ah, then why not the same treatment with respect to public ownership of roads (and rivers, airports, and harbors)? Why not indeed? Why shouldn’t such public ownership be destroyed as well, root and branch? Aren’t immigration and public ownership of property analytically distinct problems that should be treated accordingly? Why does Hoppe use public ownership of property as a springboard for his “relatively correct immigration policy”?
Furthermore, Hoppe seems to assume that if roads were privately owned, we wouldn’t have a problem with the immigration of non-European people such as Latin Americans. That assumption would seem to be baseless, especially in light of the current situation in the United States. Today, tens of thousands of poor Latin American immigrants, most of whom would undoubtedly not meet Hoppe’s criteria for acceptability, come into the United States and find privately owned places in which to live and private businesses in which to work. In other words, after entering the United States, say, on public roads, they don’t end up living on those roads. They are assimilated into the private sector both in housing and in business.
Why is there any reason to believe that the owners of private roads would act any differently than the owners of houses and businesses? Why should we assume that people who owned the roads, rivers, and harbors would think as Hoppe rather than as the people who are today renting housing to undocumented Latin American workers and giving them jobs?
Hoppe also confuses and mixes up the concepts of public ownership of property, integration laws, private property, and immigration. He writes: “Furthermore, if the government admits a person while there is not even one domestic resident who wants to have this person on his property, the result is forced integration (also non-existent under private property anarchism).”
However, if the government permits foreigners to cross a government owned international bridge and travel north on a government-owned road, it doesn’t follow that the government is authorizing such people to trespass onto anyone’s private property. If there is a law requiring private property owners to permit the foreigners to enter onto their property or requiring businesses to hire foreigners, then that’s a problem with integration laws, not with immigration laws. If no integration laws exist, then Hoppe is not being forced to integrate with anyone; if he objects to sharing public facilities with foreigners, he has the simple solution of avoiding the use of public facilities — and continuing call to for their privatization.
Hoppe also fails to address a glaring flaw in his own analysis — a situation in which immigrants are crossing the border not on publicly owned property but rather on privately owned property and with the consent of the owner. Let’s consider an example.
Let’s assume that two brothers own adjoining ranches that they inherited from their grandparents. One brother is an American, and his ranch is located on the New Mexico side of the border. The other brother is Mexican, and his adjoining ranch is located on the Mexican side of the border. The two brothers have no fences between their properties. There is, of course, no river and no public road dividing the two ranches. There is only an imaginary line called “the border” running through an enormous expanse of land.
The American brother invites the Mexican brother onto his property. Uh, oh! What would Hoppe do? Would he permit an armed U.S. government gendarme to trespass onto the American brother’s land to prevent the Mexican brother from crossing the imaginary line that divides the two brothers’ ranches? Or would he hold that this situation would entail, in his words, “the freedom of independent private property owners to admit or exclude others from their own property”?
Hoppe’s own analysis leaves him on the horns of an enormous dilemma. On the one hand, he writes, “Now, if the government excludes a person while even one domestic resident wants to admit this very person onto his property, the result is forced exclusion.” Yet if Hoppe concedes the right of foreigners to freely cross borders to enter onto private property with the consent of the owner, wouldn’t that threaten the viability of his “relatively correct immigration policy” by which the government is keeping out immigrants who are trying to enter the country via the government-owned roads?
Would Hoppe maintain his “relatively correct immigration policy” by prohibiting the Mexican brother from crossing over or threaten his “relatively correct immigration policy” by protecting private-property rights? Unfortunately, Hoppe’s article fails to provide an answer.
Hoppe also believes that it would be preferable to remove the power to control immigration and place it in the hands of the states and even localities. Does this mean that each state would (and should) have the power to keep out people from other states? That each city in California could keep out other people from California? After all, there’s little doubt that Texans, for example, given the power to do so, would immediately enact immigration controls on the border — that is, the northern border, especially in order to keep out all those weird New Yorkers who are notorious for polluting Texas culture with such ideas as rent control and gun control. Unfortunately, Hoppe doesn’t address this issue in his article.
It’s hard to see how Hoppe can avoid an unpleasant final result of his “relatively correct immigration policy”: the end of America’s democratic system and the implementation of a totalitarian government. After all, Hoppe himself admits that democratic governments cannot be trusted to do the “right” thing when it comes to immigration and that this is an inherent defect. Thus, Hoppe’s goal to receive only “superior” immigrants, by his own admission, becomes simply a “hope” under a democratic government. If there’s no reason to believe that a democracy will ever do the “right” thing when it comes to immigration, then the question is, how long will Hoppe and his cohorts continue to hope before they finally take “dramatic steps” to achieve their goal?
Now let’s examine Hoppe’s “relatively correct immigration policy.” It’s not difficult to detect its fundamental flaws: First, it relies on governmental central planning to determine the “correct” type of immigrant. Second, Hoppe’s interpretation of what constitutes a correct type of immigrant is itself flawed.
It is absolutely amazing that despite the failures of central planning all over the world, there are still people who place their faith in it. Hoppe says, “The best one may hope for is that democratic rulers follow a policy of utmost discrimination: of strict discrimination in favor of the human qualities of skill, character, and cultural compatibility.”
But even assuming that these are proper criteria, how are government officials supposed to apply them in advance? How many penniless immigrants who would have been turned away at the border by Hoppe’s central planners have turned out be major success stories? Even Hoppe’s vaunted test to determine “(English) language proficiency [and] all-around superior (above-average) intellectual performance and character structure as well as a compatible system of values” is no guarantee of results. For one thing, must every person be proficient in English and if so, how does that measure a person’s intelligence or character? Today, there are thousands of people along the southern border of the United States who cannot speak English. Does that mean they are not intelligent or that they lack character? (Conversely, there are lots of people who speak English who are unethical and dumb.)
Or does proficiency in any language count, including Swahili and Spanish? (It’s not clear why Hoppe put the word “English” in parentheses.) Suppose the finest French chef in the world wants to immigrate to the United States but doesn’t speak a word of English. Would Hoppe’s immigration policy let him in? What if the finest chef in Haiti wants to immigrate but he also speaks only French? Would Hoppe let him in?
Is Hoppe’s test going to be multiple-choice or essay? How do we know that a given person is answering the questions on values truthfully? What about a child who might grow up to be a Thomas Edison? How does Hoppe’s test make its determination years in advance?
The fact is that there is no way a central planner can make such determinations, at least not accurately. As Friedrich Hayek pointed out, competition is a discovery device. It enables us to discover who are the best entrepreneurs, inventors, mathematicians, musicians, and so forth. And the only way to discover who they are is “after the fact” of immigration, through the competitive process.
Consider the famous athlete Jesse Owens. As a descendant of black African slaves, Owens would never have been able to pass a German immigration test if Owens had wished to move to Germany. He simply would not have been able to meet the criteria for a “superior” German citizen, and there is no possibility that a German central planner would have approved Owens’s application to immigrate to Germany. Yet, when it came down to athletic ability, the 1936 Olympics confirmed that Owens — a black man — was very much the superior of his white Aryan counterparts.
Consider another example. Hoppe says that the immigration test he advocates to ensure the immigration of superior people would have a pro-European bias. What does that mean? It means that Hoppe’s immigration test would admit the likes of Swedes, Germans, Frenchmen, and Englishmen. In other words, people who historically have had a strong cultural commitment to Social Security, national health care, gun control, regulation, and other aspects of the nanny state. And it would probably have a prejudice against Latin Americans and thereby end up excluding people who historically have had a strong work ethic and a deep commitment to free enterprise, family values, and religious principles.
Hoppe’s approach to immigration is obviously a throwback to the old European notion of governmental sovereignty. It is the opposite of the principles of a constitutional republic on which our nation was founded. And Hoppe’s reliance on the “wisdom” of governmental central planning to ensure that “superior” people predominate in America is a rejection of America’s historical legacy of open immigration and the reliance on freedom and competition to determine a “natural” aristocracy.
Let’s reject Hans-Herman Hoppe’s plan for America. Let’s reject the European philosophy that our Founding Fathers rejected. Let’s instead re-light the beacon on the Statue of Liberty, open our borders, and once again embrace the tired, poor, huddled masses yearning to breathe free. Let’s recapture the principles of freedom enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. | <urn:uuid:cf8b8b46-853e-4d11-a0ae-aa24460179cc> | {
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As I mentioned in a previous post I am reading through Charlotte Mason’s six volumes on her educational philosophy. I have slowly begun to read A Philosophy of Education which is the sixth and final volume of Miss Mason’s series.
I am a reader who loves to settle in with a good book and binge read for hours. Life does make that a bit difficult now but these writings are not ones to gulp down but to sip slowly. Savor. Let the words and thoughts and ideas settle in a bit.
Chapter One is on Self-Education. I have actually read this chapter twice, marked passages with my book darts, and finally copied them in my journal.
The love of learning is something I hope that all of my children will have by the time they leave my home. Actually I want them to have a love of learning long before they leave my home. That love of acquiring knowledge, learning something new, diving into a book and walking away with a deeper understanding…I want them to have that.
In my mind, self-education results in that love of learning. Self-education is when the child takes ownership and responsibility. She understands the importance of learning or knowledge. There is a desire to learn something new or to comprehend something better. Even in the face of hard work or challenges, that desire to learn makes the struggle worth it.
“A person is not built up from without but from within, that is, he is living, and all external educational appliances and activities which are intended to mould his character are decorative and not vital.” A Philosophy of Education p 28
We can set up a reward system for work completed. Offer a prize when a skill is mastered. Take them for ice cream when a math text is completed. This is all trying to build up from without and in the end will not result in that love of learning. If we must always have a prize or reward or pat on the back for our learning and accomplishments, then we are just puppets. Controlled by whatever or whoever will give us the most praise or the highest reward.
If the child understands the benefit and beauty of knowledge and learning, then it becomes a part of them, of her character. She knows to seek out information, to dive into a book, to practice for herself. Not for a sticker or a good mark on a transcript. Then self-education is born.
“The teacher who allows his scholars the freedom of the city of books is at liberty to be their guide, philosopher and friend; and is no longer the mere instrument of forcible intellectual feeding.” A Philosophy of Education p 32
Self-education does not mean leaving the child on her own. Instead of making a list of what must be learned, rewarding what appears to be mastered, and moving on down the list, you walk alongside the child. Helping her find information, discover the beauty around her that inspires, providing good, living books, and discussing those things that engage them.
I want to stress that I don’t see self-education as leaving the child to learn alone or to struggle through difficult concepts without help. I am walking beside them, discussing, helping, supporting, and often struggling right alongside them. Perhaps one day I will master higher math, eh? But I want them to own their education. Value it. See the purpose.
I always enjoy seeing what books will come home from the library with my children. An old edition of a book of poetry, a cookbook on grilling, a survival guide, or a how-to book on pressing flowers. Always stacks of literature; new and old.
Hopefully the love of learning will continue. This self-education will be a life long pursuit. The wonder of new ideas and beautiful stories and endless possibilities will never die.
What are your thoughts on self-education? I would love to hear them. Thanks for listening to my rambling thoughts.
**Please note that this post contains affiliate links. This means that when you click on a link and make a purchase, I earn a very small percentage. It is no ways effects your shopping experience. Thank you! | <urn:uuid:4deac00d-9df0-461b-8ffd-dc96b7c0c777> | {
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There used to be a “Marlboro” stop on the railroad line through that area of Pender County, said Mike Taylor, director of the Pender County Public Library.
An 1859 railroad timetable for the Wilmington & Weldon Railroad shows Marlboro as one of the first few stops out of town.
The name of the community near Rocky Point is likely related to this stop, Taylor said.
Why the stop is so named is unknown, but Taylor said it’s likely related to the layer of marlstone underneath the ground in the Rocky Point region. He said the rock broke the ground’s surface in several places, which might have inspired people to call that area Marlboro.
Mark Koenig, executive director of the Wilmington Railroad Museum, said the stops often took their names from large estates or farms nearby, and there might have been an estate there.
Date posted: May 25, 2011
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|Native to||India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan|
|Ethnicity||Santal and Teraibasi Santali|
|6.3 million (2001 census – 2011)|
Official language in
sat – Santali
mjx – Mahali
It is spoken by around 6.2 million people in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal. Most of its speakers live in India, in the states of Jharkhand, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Tripura, Mizoram and West Bengal.
- 1 History
- 2 Contribution of Pandit Raghunath Murmu
- 3 Grammatical sketch
- 4 Phonology
- 5 Morphology
- 6 Syntax
- 7 Reciprocal influence of Santali language on other languages
- 8 Rising significance of Santali
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 Further reading
- 12 External links
Till the nineteenth century Santali remained an oral language and all collective traditional knowledge, history, stories, songs etc. were transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. The interest of Europeans in the study of Indian languages led to the first efforts at documenting Santali language. Bengali and the Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries like Campbell, Skrefsrud and Bodding. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, documentation and translations of collected folk tales, study of the basic morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.
There is no single script which is uniformly accepted by all Santals. Devanagari remains the script recognized for teaching learning of the language in Jharkhand, Bengali script in West Bengal. A major share of the original documented corpus as well as the most authentic and scientific research efforts are available in the Roman Script.
Contribution of Pandit Raghunath Murmu
A need for the separate script was felt by some visionary Santals, as none of the existing scripts was sufficient to communicate the Santali language phonetically. This further resulted in the invention of new script called Ol Chiki. This script was invented by Pandit Raghunath Murmu in 1925. He is popularly known as Guru Gomke among the Santals, a title awarded to him by the Mayurbhanj Adibasi Mahasabh. He is respected among Santals for his noble deed, action and contribution of the script Ol Chiki for the Santal society. He wrote over 150 books covering a wide range of subjects. It includes works such as grammar, novels, drama, poetry, and short stories in Santali using Ol Chiki as part of his extensive programme. Among the most acclaimed of his works are Darege Dhan, Sidhu Kanhu, Bidu Chandan and Kherwal Bir Pandit.
The following brief grammatical sketch is based on Ghosh 2008. It does not purport to give a full account of the language's grammar but rather give an impression of the structure of the language.
Santali has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur almost only in Indo-Aryan loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.
|Stop||voiceless||p (pʰ)||t (tʰ)||ʈ (ʈʰ)||c (cʰ)||k|
|voiced||b (bʱ)||d (dʱ)||ɖ (ɖʱ)||ɟ (ɟʱ)
In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralized in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalized and unreleased.
Santali has eight non-nasal and six nasal vowels.
|High||i ĩ||u ũ|
|Mid-low||ɛ ɛ̃||ɔ ɔ̃|
There are numerous diphthongs.
Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing agglutinating language.
Three numbers are distinguished, singular, dual and plural.
The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:
|Nominative||-Ø||Subject and object|
-ak', -rɛak' (inanimate)
|Instrumental-Locative||-tɛ||Instrument, cause, motion|
Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person -ɲ, 2nd person -m, 3rd person -t. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.
The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.
The interrogative pronouns have different form for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.
The indefinite pronouns are:
The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particulate ('just this', 'just that') forms.
The basic cardinal numbers are:
The numerals are used with numeral classifiers. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. babar 'two each'.
Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject.
Transitive verbs with pronominal objects take infixed object markers.
Santali is an SOV language, though topics can be fronted.
Reciprocal influence of Santali language on other languages
Santali, belonging to the Austroasiatic family and having a tradition traceable from pre-Aryan days, retained its distinct identity and co-existed with languages belonging to the Indo-Aryan family, within the boundaries of Bengal, Orrisa, Jharkhand and other states. This affiliation is generally accepted, but there are many cross-questions and puzzles. Relative influences between Santali and other Indian languages are not yet fully studied. In modern Indian languages like Western Hindi the steps of evolution from Midland Prakrit Sauraseni could be traced clearly, but in the case of Bengali such steps of evolution are not aways clear and distinct and one has to look at other influences that moulded Bengali's essential characteristics. A notable work in this field was initiated by linguist Byomkes Chakrabarti in the 1960s. Sri Chakrabarti investigated the complex process of assimilation of non-Aryan elements, particularly the Santali elements, by Bengali and he showed the overwhelming influence of Bengali on Santali. His formulations are based on the detailed study of reciprocal influences on all aspects of both the languages and try to bring out the unique features of both the languages. More research is awaited in this prospective area.
Rising significance of Santali
A great recognition of Santali was reached in December 2013 when the University Grants Commission of India decided to introduce the language in the National Eligibility Test to prepare future lecturers for the language in colleges and universities.
- Languages of India
- Languages with official status in India
- List of Indian languages by total speakers
- National Translation Mission
- Santali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Mahali at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
- Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Santali". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Mahali". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- "Santali: A Language of India". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. SIL International. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
- "Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet’, Ol, Santali)". Scriptsource.org. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
- "Santali Localization". Andovar.com. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
- Syllabus for UGC NET Santali, Dec 2013
- Byomkes Chakrabarti (1992). A comparative study of Santhali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
- Ghosh, A. (2008). Santali. In: Anderson, G. The Munda Languages. London: Routledge.
- Hembram, P. C. (2002). Santhali, a natural language. New Delhi: U. Hembram.
- Newberry, J. (2000). North Munda dialects: Mundari, Santhali, Bhumia. Victoria, B.C.: J. Newberry. ISBN 0-921599-68-4
- Mitra, P. C. (1988). Santhali, the base of world languages. Calcutta: Firma KLM.
- Зограф Г. А. (1960/1990). Языки Южной Азии. М.: Наука (1-е изд., 1960).
- Лекомцев, Ю. K. (1968). Некоторые характерные черты сантальского предложения // Языки Индии, Пакистана, Непала и Цейлона: материалы научной конференции. М: Наука, 311—321.
- Grierson, George A. (1906). Linguistic Survey of India. Volume IV, Mundā and Dravidian languages. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
- Maspero, Henri. (1952). Les langues mounda. Meillet A., Cohen M. (dir.), Les langues du monde, P.: CNRS.
- Neukom, Lukas. (2001). Santhali. München: LINCOM Europa.
- Pinnow, Heinz-Jürgen. (1966). A comparative study of the verb in the Munda languages. Zide, Norman H. (ed.) Studies in comparative Austroasiatic linguistics. London—The Hague—Paris: Mouton, 96-193.
- Sakuntala De. (2011). Santali : a linguistic study. Memoir (Anthropological Survey of India). Kolkata: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India,.
- Vermeer, Hans J. (1969). Untersuchungen zum Bau zentral-süd-asiatischer Sprachen (ein Beitrag zur Sprachbundfrage). Heidelberg: J. Groos.
- Bodding, Paul O. (1929). A Santal dictionary. Oslo: J. Dybwad.
- A. R. Campbell (1899). A Santali-English dictionary. Santal Mission Press.
- English-Santhali/Santhali-English dictionaries
- Macphail, R. M. (1964). An Introduction to Santhali, Parts I & II. Benagaria: The Santhali Literature Board, Santhali Christian Council.
- Minegishi, M., & Murmu, G. (2001). Santhali basic lexicon with grammatical notes. Tōkyō: Institute for the Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-791-2
Grammars and primers
- Bodding, Paul O. 1929/1952. A Santal Grammar for the Beginners, Benagaria: Santal Mission of the Northern Churches (1st edition, 1929).
- Col, F T (1896). Santạli primer. Manbhum.
- Macphail, R. M. (1953) An Introduction to Santali. Firma KLM Private Ltd.
- Muscat, George. (1989) Santali: A New Approach. Sahibganj, Bihar : Santali Book Depot.
- Skrefsrud, Lars Olsen (1873) A Grammar of the Santhal Language. Benares: Medical Hall Press.
- Saren, Jagneswar "Ranakap Santali Ronor" (Progressive Santali Grammar), 1st edition, 2012.
- Pandit Raghunath Murmu (1925) ronor : Mayurbhanj, Odisha Publisher ASECA, Mayurbhanj
- Bodding, Paul O., (ed.) (1923—1929) Santhali Folk Tales. Oslo: Institutet for sammenlingenden kulturforskning, Publikationen. Vol. I—III.
- Campbell, A. (1891). Santal folk tales. Pokhuria, India: Santal Mission Press.
- Murmu, G., & Das, A. K. (1998). Bibliography, Santhali literature. Calcutta: Biswajnan. ISBN 81-7525-080-1
- Santali Genesis Translation.
- The Dishom Beura, India's First Santali Daily News Paper. Publisher, Managobinda Beshra, National Correspondent: Mr. Somenath Patnaik
|Santali language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator|
- "We Santhals" web site
- National Translation Mission's (NTM) Santhali Pages
- OLAC resources in and about the Santali language
- OLAC resources in and about the Mahali language
- http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
- http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-A6AF-2@view Santali language in RWAAI Digital Archive | <urn:uuid:31a7bcb9-bb8d-456d-897c-bb505fefef18> | {
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Buried ancient Egyptian city revealed by radar imaging
Source: telegraph.co.ukThe 3,500-year-old capital of Egypt’s foreign occupiers has been revealed by archaeologists using radar imaging.
Satellite image with radar imaging offering an overview of the outlines of a city with streets, buildings and temples underneath the green farm fields and modern town of Tel al-Dabaa, Northeast of Cairo, Egypt
Egypt was ruled for a century from 1664-1569 BC by the Hyksos, a warrior people from Asia, possibly Semitic in origin, whose summer capital was in the northern Delta area.
Irene Mueller, the head of the Austrian archaeological team, said the main purpose of the project was to determine how far the underground city extended.
The radar imaging showed the outlines of streets, houses and temples underneath the green farm fields and modern town of Tel al-Dabaa.
Such non-invasive techniques are the best way define the extent of the site, the team said in a statement. Egypt’s Delta is densely populated and heavily farmed, making extensive excavation difficult, unlike in southern Egypt with its more famous desert tombs and temples.
The Austrian team of archaelogists has been working on the site since 1975.
Article from: Telegraph.co.uk
Also tune into:
Ralph Ellis - Egypt, The Hyksos, Pharaohs and the Bible
Michael Tsarion - Sorcerers and Magicians: Amenists, Atonists, Druids and Scythians
Michael Tsarion - Sorcerers and Magicians: Amenists, Atonists, Druids and Scythians Continued
Ralph Ellis - King Jesus in England, "The Stone", Cleopatra Selene and Statue of Liberty
Michael Tsarion - Astro-Theology
Robert Bauval - Black Genesis & The Ancient People of Nabta Playa
Robert Bauval - Black Genesis, Architecture, Science & Mars Anom | <urn:uuid:b7476f2e-7310-4537-8a48-82cc9287c973> | {
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Middle-ear infections (otitis media) are inflammation or infections located in the middle ear space. Ear infections can occur as a result of a cold or upper respiratory infection, or may occur in isolation in the presence of chronic middle ear fluid.
While children or adults may develop an ear infection, the following are some of the factors that may increase a person’s risk of developing ear infections:
Being around someone who smokes
Family history of ear infections
A weak immune system
Spending time in a day care setting
Having a cold or upper respiratory infection
Being bottle-fed while lying on his or her back
Chronic fluid within the middle ear
Middle-ear infections are usually a result of dysfunction of the eustachian tube, a canal that links the middle ear with the throat area. The eustachian tube helps to equalize the pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear.
When this tube is not working properly, it prevents normal pressure equalization, causing a buildup of fluid behind the eardrum. Additionally, it can be a source of bacteria to enter the middle ear. When this fluid cannot drain, it allows for the growth of bacteria and viruses in the ear that can lead to an ear infection. The following are some of the reasons that the eustachian tube may not work properly:
Young age (the eustachian tube of young children is underdeveloped and does not work as efficiently as adults’)
A malformation of the eustachian tube
Enlarged and chronically inflamed adenoids
Types of Middle-Ear Infections
Different types of otitis media include the following:
Acute otitis media. This middle-ear infection occurs abruptly, causing swelling and redness. Fluid and mucus become trapped inside the ear, causing the child to have a fever and ear pain.
Otitis media with effusion. Fluid (effusion) and mucus continue to accumulate in the middle ear after an initial infection subsides. The child may experience a feeling of fullness in the ear, and it may affect his or her hearing, or cause no symptoms.
Chronic otitis media with effusion. Fluid remains in the middle ear for a prolonged period or returns again and again, even though there is no infection. May result in difficulty fighting new infection and may affect a person’s hearing.
The following are the most common symptoms of an ear infection. However, each child may experience symptoms differently.
Fever, especially in infants and younger children
Fluid draining from ear canals
Loss of balance
It may be more difficult to detect an ear infection in young children who have not learned to speak yet. Symptoms in children and nonverbal individuals may include:
Difficulty sleeping or staying asleep
Tugging or pulling at one or both ears
The symptoms of ear infections may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your child's health care provider for a diagnosis.
Diagnosing Ear Infections
In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination, your child's health care provider will inspect the outer ear(s) and eardrum(s) using an otoscope. The otoscope is a lighted instrument that allows the health care provider to see inside the ear. A pneumatic otoscope blows a puff of air into the ear to test eardrum movement.
Tympanometry is a test that can be performed in most health care providers’ offices to help determine how the middle ear is functioning. It does not test hearing, but it helps to detect any changes in pressure in the middle ear. This is a difficult test to perform in younger children because the child needs to remain still and not cry, talk or move.
A hearing test may be performed for children who have frequent ear infections.
Specific treatment for ear infections will be determined by your health care provider based on the following:
Age, overall health and medical history
Extent of the condition
Tolerance for specific medications, procedures or therapies
Expectations for the course of the condition
Your opinion or preference
Treatment may include:
Antibiotics by mouth or eardrops
Medication for pain and fever
A combination of the above
If fluid remains in the ear(s) for longer than three months and the infection continues to reoccur even with the use of antibiotics, your health care provider may suggest that small tubes be placed in the ear(s). This surgical procedure, called myringotomy and tympanostomy tube placement, involves making a small opening in the eardrum to drain the fluid and relieve the pressure from the middle ear. A small tube is placed in the opening of the eardrum to ventilate the middle ear and prevent fluid from accumulating. The child's hearing is restored after the fluid is drained. The tubes usually fall out on their own after six to 12 months.
Your surgeon may also recommend the removal of the adenoids (lymph tissue located in the space above the soft roof of the mouth, also called the nasopharynx) if they are infected or enlarged. Removal of the adenoids has shown to help some people with chronic ear infections.
Treatment will depend on the type of ear infection. Consult your health care provider regarding treatment options.
Effects of an Ear Infection
In addition to the symptoms of ear infections listed above, untreated ear infections can result in any or all of the following:
Infection in other parts of the head
Scarring or perforation of the eardrum
Permanent hearing loss
Problems with speech and language development (children)
There are many organisms that live in our bodies and on the surface of the skin. These are usually harmless and do not cause any damage. But there are many organisms like viruses, fungi and bacteria that can cause infectious disorders known as infections. There are many kinds of infections that can affect the various parts of the body. These are generally caused by various things starting from contaminated food, to transmission from an infected person and more. Read on to know more about the kind of infections and their causes.
Getting vaccinated on time can help in preventing many infections. This is especially important if you are travelling to various countries.
The most common ear infections happen because of bacterial or viral growth in the middle ear, the part which lies just behind the ear drum. Middle-ear infections can be very painful and children are most commonly reported in children. Most of these infections are caused by the blockage of the Eustachian tube, which connects the ear and the throat, causing the build-up of fluids and swelling. Here is a guide to the most common forms of ear infections and their symptoms, ranging from the acute to the chronic.
Acute infections have intense symptoms but can be cured with time and treatment. They generally last for shorter durations.
In Chronic cases of infections, the patient complains of recurrent symptoms multiple times. Chronic ear infections have the potential of causing permanent damage to the ear.
Symptoms reported by most patients with Ear infections:
1. Pain in the ear (Mild to severe): This is caused due to increased pressure owing to the blockage of the Eustachian tube. Collection of fluid inside the ear would increase the intensity of pain in most cases. Children will keep tugging at their ear and most likely be cranky.
2. Redness and swelling: Both of these are inevitable accompanying symptoms in case of any infection in the body.
3. Oozing of the fluids: The blockage leads to the fluid being released from the ear which can be watery, thick yellow or mixed with blood depending on the severity and type of infection.
One of the side-effects of monsoon, besides waterlogging, is the health hazard the rain brings with it - cases of vector-borne, fungal, allergies and parasitic infections. The worse hits are the children, who are susceptible to viral and skin infections after getting wet.
We should avoid getting drenched and should always carry an umbrella. Even when we are drenched, we must immediately follow preventive measures because if left untreated, it can leave permanent scars on the skin. In case of a skin infection, use an anti-fungal powder to avoid any further infection. Always keep your skin dry. Don't wear wet clothes. Also, wet shoes should be changed instantly. These small precautions go a long way in having a healthy and infection-free skin.
When you encounter with severe throat pain and infection, it can disturb your routine heavily.
One needs a complete the antibiotic as advised by your doctor in complete dose and complete duration, half-hearted treatment and treatment taken by on own google search will definitely cause harm and produce bacterial resistance which becomes more difficult to treat therefore if the throat infection appears to be severe, it is better to consult a doctor in time because chronic throat infections can lead to issues related to heart valves and the matter becomes more serious when the heart valves get established infection secondary to the throat infection.
During this weather fungal infections has become a very common problem.
Here are few do' s and donts:
1. Keep affected area dry including skin folds
2. Do not share cloths as these infections are communicable
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Proposals aiming to boost innovative climate change solutions often include some form of publicly-supported global venture capital (VC) fund. The rationale for such a fund is that government funding is generally available for R&D and private financing is available for the commercialization of mature technologies; but funding is unavailable for entrepreneurial activities—such as proof-of-concept, piloting, firm-building, and marketing—that happen between these two stages. Given this situation, a global climate change VC fund could have a decidedly stimulating effect. Of course, it would also be important for governments not to put all their eggs in this basket, since the VC instrument could quickly reach its limits.
The financing gap is particularly severe for climate change mitigation and adaptation technologies for a number of reasons. Not only is the market for these technologies still at a very early stage of development but it is also driven by regulation. Both of these factors represent significant risks for investors. In addition, low carbon technologies tend to be more capital-intensive and require much more start-up financing than other typical VC investment sectors like information technology. The funding gap is particularly deep in the developing world, which presents a riskier business environment and a more fragmented market for investors.
Several VC-style climate-change funds have recently been launched. The Carbon Trust, established by the British government, already invests in clean-technology firms based in the UK. In partnership with the Qatar Investment Authority, the Carbon Trust plans to set up a £250 million fund called the Qatar-UK Clean Technology Investment Fund, to be supported by both governments. The fund will primarily invest in the UK, but also to some extent in continental Europe and the Gulf Region. This will be the first major publicly-supported climate change VC fund of its size involving more than one country. | <urn:uuid:a87c64b1-abd9-48fe-892f-ebe6e00acbbd> | {
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