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How to Become a Dental Assistant
Dental assistants hand tools to dentists as they work on patients.
There are several possible paths to becoming a dental assistant. Some states require assistants to graduate from an accredited program and pass a state exam. In other states, there are no formal educational requirements.
High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, and anatomy. Some states require assistants to graduate from an accredited program and pass a state exam. Most programs are offered by community colleges, take about 1 year to complete, and lead to a certificate or diploma. Programs that last 2 years, also offered in community colleges, are less common and lead to an associate’s degree. The Commission on Dental Accreditation (CODA), part of the American Dental Association, approved more than 250 dental-assisting training programs in 2013.
Accredited programs include classroom and laboratory work in which students learn about teeth, gums, jaws, and other areas that dentists work on and the instruments that dentists use. These programs also include supervised, practical experience.
Dental assistants who do not have formal education in dental assisting may learn their duties through on-the-job training. A dental assistant or dentist in the office teaches the new assistant dental terminology, the names of the instruments, how to complete daily tasks, how to interact with patients, and other activities necessary to help keep the dental office running smoothly.
Detail oriented. Dental assistants must follow specific rules and protocols to help dentists treat patients. Assistants must be aware of what practices they are allowed to complete in the state where they work.
Interpersonal skills. Dental assistants must work closely with dentists and patients. Sometimes, patients are in extreme pain and/or mental stress, so the assistant should be sensitive to their emotions.
Listening skills. Dental assistants should be able to listen to patients and other healthcare workers. They need to follow directions from a dentist or dental hygienist, so they can help treat patients and do tasks, such as taking an x ray.
Organizational skills. Dental assistants should have excellent organizational skills. They should have the correct tools in place for a dentist or dental hygienist to use when treating a patient.
Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations
Some states require dental assistants to be certified; requirements vary by state. To obtain certification, dental assistants must pass the Certified Dental Assistant (CDA) exam from the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB). To take the exam, dental assistants must either have graduated from an accredited program or have a high school diploma, and complete the required amount of on-the-job training. Applicants must also have current certification in CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation).
Some states require that dental assistants be licensed or register with DANB to complete regulated tasks, such as coronal polishing, in a dentist’s office; requirements vary by state. In other states, there are no formal educational requirements to become an entry-level dental assistant. Contact state boards of dentistry for specific requirements. | <urn:uuid:8d2e475e-904a-404d-b6c5-dfd4278de650> | {
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A team at the University of Delaware has received US$ 250,000 in additional funding to continue its research on “breathable membrane” linings for pit latrines.
The breathable fabric helps to prevent groundwater pollution, while also protecting sanitation workers from exposure to pathogens. Heat from biodegradation of the feces or from the sun gradually expels water vapour, but prevents the escape of particulate or dissolved constituents.
The first phase of the research (November 2011 – October 2013) was funded through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s Grand Challenges Explorations Fund.
Dentel is piloting the membrane technology in the slums of Kanpur, India, in collaboration with WaterAid. He wants to get them in place before the beginning of the rainy season in June. Since the membrane is reusable, the cost of using susch a sophisticated technology can be reduced.
At the same time, Dentel is working with UD engineering colleagues Daniel Cha and Paul Imhoff to apply the technology in wastewater treatment facilities in the USA and South Korea.
For more information you can follow and take part in a discussion about the research with Prof Dentel on the SuSan Forum.
Source: Karen B. Roberts, Bacteria fighting fabric, UDaily, 17 Apr 2014 | <urn:uuid:c33889ac-3ee0-429e-9078-82321c2da75a> | {
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For an explosive reaction, mixing up bicarbonate of soda or dropping a certain type of mint into a glass of Diet Coke is nothing on Catania in Sicily. Known as the ‘City of the Volcano’, much of modern Catania is constructed from the lava that ran through the city after Mount Etnaerupted with devastating consequences in 1669. The death toll wasn’t so cool, but the fact that it left many of the existing Baroque buildings permanently covered in a layer of black soot is rather exceptional.
Take a stroll through the central square of Piazza del Duomo to see the contrast between lava and limestone, before shopping up a storm on Via Etnea. Then follow the lava trail to Piazza Stesicoroand explore Villa Bellini with its views of the still-active volcano (the tallest in Europe) – a vista to which no half-baked DIY science experiment can compare.
Catania’s Top 10
10. Arco di San Benedetto This arch was built in 1704 by defending forces – in pitch darkness!
5. Chiesa di San Giuliano Some love it and some hate it, but all agree that the floor mosaic is a masterpiece.
9. Piazza dell’Università Stop here if hungry, thirsty and just plain greedy. Or for sustenance before tackling Mount Etna.
4. Roman Amphitheatre Back in the day, this could seat 16,000 spectators. The main event now is the ruins themselves.
8. Le Ciminiere Here you’ll find a large collection of modern art, relics, and photography from WWII.
3. Odeon A crumbling façade has done little to spoil the grandeur of this giant Roman theatre.
7. St Agata’s Cathedral Houses the not-so-well-preserved remains of the young virgin, Agata.
2. Fontana dell’Elefante The famous Fountain of the Elephant is the symbol of the city. Trunk envy?
6. Castello Ursino Once surrounded by a proper moat, the whole area became landlocked after a 1693 earthquake.
1. Chiesa di San Nicolò all’Arena Proof that it is what’s on the inside that counts…
- Catania Duomo – This cathedral, dating from the mid – 18th century, is considered one of the finest examples of baroque architecture.
- U Liotru – The Elephant Fountain, dating from 1736, is the symbol of the city and portrayed by an elephant topped with an Egyptian obelisk.
- Odeon – This ancient theatre and arena dates from the 3rd century.
- Greek Acropolis – The highest point in ancient Catania, the acropolis was only recently excavated and found to contain many archaeological relics and parts of ancient Greek and Roman buildings.
- Roman Forum and Amphitheatre – The remains of the forum and amphitheatre, built during the period when Rome ruled the region, stand prominently in the city centre.
Catania Art & Culture
- Castello Ursino – Built by Frederick II in the mid – 13th century, the castle houses the Civic Museum of Catania.
- Palazzo Gravina – Cruyllas – This building was once the home of the composer Bellini.
- Palazzo Biscari – One of the most beautiful buildings in the city, it was the home of Prince Biscari. It contains frescoes, statues, artworks and archaeological treasures.
- Festival of Sant Agata – This three – day festival held in early February honours the city’s patron saint. Highlights include a costumed procession and fireworks.
- Theatres – There are 25 active theatres in Catania, each specializing in a different type of show, for example, puppets, opera or ballet.
- Corso Italia – All the boutiques of the most famous Italian designers are on this street.
- Carlo Alberto Market – In this open – air marketplace, dozens of stalls sell all kinds of goods and food products. Bargaining is expected.
- Porto Uzeda Shops – A collection of shops selling trinkets and souvenirs including the famous Sicilian puppets.
- Via Etnea – This is Catania’s primary shopping street. All kinds of shops, but clothing, shoes and wearable accessories predominate.
- La Pescheria – This extraordinary fish market sells the freshest seafood right off the boat. Even if you don’t buy, it’s worth a trip to look.
Gay & Lesbian Catania
- Agedo, Circolo Gay Lesbico Trans Open Mind, I Fratelli dell’Elphis Gay Credenti and Arcigay – Gay associations.
- Piazza Grenoble, Porto and Villa Bellini – Cruising spots.
- Sauna Mykonos and Terme di Achille – Gay saunas.
- Pegaso’s Circus and Pegaso’s Disco Bar – Gay bars.
- Le Capannine Disco Club – A popular LGBT club.
- Mt Etna – Europe’s largest active volcano is a must-see experience. The views are fantastic.
- Botanical Garden – On the grounds of the University of Catania, these gardens are the oldest in Sicily.
- Picturesque villages – Take a tour of some of the famous villages in the region, such as Castelmola and Taormina. You will see the most if you hire a guide.
- Deep-Sea Fishing – Excursion boats for deep-sea fishing leave from Catania Harbour.
- Jog around and through the city’s central park, Villa Bellini.
- Enjoy swimming and diving from Letojanni beach.
- Watch the Calcio Catania football team at the Stadio Angelo Massimino.
- Go skiing at the Mt Etna Ski Resort.
- See the “dragon” boat races of the Circolo Canoa Catania.
Get inspired in January at Habita, Catania’s three-day interior-design festival. Leave plenty of room in your suitcase…
February brings the Festival of Sant’Agata, marked by days of celebration.
On February’s Saint Biago Day,people eat leftover panettone washed down with a glass of wine to bless their throats. Now there’s a tradition that needs to catch on everywhere!
Farmers get fancy for the Olive and Bruschetta Festival (also in February), celebrated with a parade on decorated tractors, plus music, dancing and food.
Carnevale comes around 40 days before Easter, with massive celebrations lasting for several weeks.
When To Go
- Catania enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate with warm, wet winters and scorching summers.
- The hottest and busiest months are June to September, when tourists flock to soak up the sun.
- August sees loads of locals leaving town, meaning less crowds but also less restaurants open.
Walking around Catania is easy, convenient and the best way to take in the city.
If you plan on visiting the coast, it is best to hire a car or order a taxi. For getting up Mount Etna, the private train line Circumetnea is your best bet.
Catania is on the east coast of Sicily and with over 300,000 people, is second only to the capital of Palermo in population on the island. In terms of where the city in ranks in Italy in sheer beauty however, the answer is quite simple. High, very high. You can hardly after all, choose a more divine and vivid milieu for a city than the base of Mount Etna and the shores of the Ionian Sea. While the active volcano, well over twice the height of Vesuvius, is a persistent reminder of inherent danger, the peak provides Catania with a dramatic backdrop.
No wonder then, that the ancient Greeks set up here almost 3,000 years ago. Indeed, with such a long history, Catania's evolution as a city has been one of the most extraordinary in modern Italy. After the fall of the Roman Empire, everyone from the Byzantine Empire to the House of Bourbon, from the 6th to the 19th century, held sway over Catania's fortunes. The net result for visitors today is a magnificent cityscape rife with superb historic attractions.
Attractions & Activities
Restaurants & Nightlife
Like the rest of Sicily, Catania has a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild winters and hot summers.
- Winter (December to February) 5-17°C
- Spring (March to May) 6-24°C
- Summer (June to September) 16-32°C
- Fall (October to November) 10-25°C
22 hotels in Catania, IT
Come and experience the comfortable accommodation blended with warm hospitality and an excellent service at Hotel Villa Romeo Catania. GeneralThis property includes a conference room suitable for... More
UNA Hotel Palace Catania is set in a prestigious building, offering downtown location, welcoming hospitality and modern amenities. GeneralThe UNA Hotel Palace provides 9 well-equipped conference... More
For a comfortable, pleasant and relaxing vacation in Catania, choose to stay at the Il Principe Hotel Catania and take pleasure in its soothing ambience as well as modern amenities. GeneralGuests... More
Set in a historic building, the NH Hotel Bellini Catania offers quality services and maximum comfort thus making it an ideal base for both business and leisure guests, who wish to explore the city.... More
Providing a serene ambience combined with luxurious services, Manganelli Palace Hotel Catania is a fine place for a holiday of any kind. GeneralGuests on business can utilise the on-site... More
Combining a sense of modern elegance with a time-honoured tradition of gracious service, this hotel is the perfect destination to enjoy a wide variety of recreational activities, and a... More
Offering excellent services and comfortable accommodation, this property is the perfect base for both business as well as leisure travellers. GeneralThe hotel offers a well-appointed congress... More
Best Western Hotel Mediterraneo is situated in a highly strategic position and is the perfect point to discover the surprising city. General Easily reached from the port, station and the airport... More
Boasting an ideal location with excellent accommodation and friendly service, the La Ville Hotel Catania offers you a unique experience and loads you with memories that you can treasure for life. ... More | <urn:uuid:df56739f-faea-4196-80f0-6b4ad35ea7a1> | {
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Put under stress through physical exertion such as long-distance walking or running human bones gain in strength as the fibers are added or redistributed according to where strains are highest. Because the structure of human bones can inform us about the lifestyles of the individuals, they can provide valuable clues for biological anthropologists. Research by Alison Macintosh, a doctoral candidate at Britains Cambridge University, shows that after the emergence of agriculture in Central Europe from around 5300 B.C., the bones of those living in the fertile soils of the Danube river valley became progressively less strong.
Work published by Cambridge biological anthropologist Colin Shaw enabled Macintosh to interpret this male decline in relation to Cambridge University students. Using Shaws study of bone rigidity among modern Cambridge undergrads, Macintosh suggests that male physicality mobility among earliest farmers (around 7,300 years ago) was, on average, at a level near that of todays student cross-country runners. Within just over 3,000 years, average mobility had dropped to the level of those students rated as sedentary, after which the decline slowed. cam.ac.uk
Humans may be born with language skills
Humans are unique in their ability to acquire language. But how? A study published in the Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences suggests we are born with the basic fundamental knowledge of language.
Certain aspects appear to be shared across languages and might stem from linguistic principles that are active in all human brains. A natural question then arises: Are infants born with knowledge of what the human words might sound like?
The results of this new study suggest that the sound patterns of human languages are the product of an inborn biological instinct, very much like birdsong, said Iris Berent of Northeastern University in Boston, who co-authored the study with a research team from the International School of Advanced Studies in Italy. northeastern.edu
Advance warning systems help drivers
Most drivers have experienced a traffic signal that turns yellow just as they approach an intersection, which makes it difficult for them to decide whether to stop or proceed through it. The wrong choice in this situation may lead to crashes, especially at high-speed intersections. A major factor making driving difficult is hazards that are sudden and hard to predict.
Roadside and in-vehicle display warning systems may help drivers handle these hazards by predicting their occurrence and providing a warning to the driver, according to a new study published in the journal Human Factors.
Clemson University psychology professor Leo Gugerty and his colleagues designed two driving simulator studies to compare the effectiveness of six types of roadway or in-vehicle warning systems. Participants were asked to navigate through traffic lights while their driving responses were measured based on the presence or absence of warning signals.
In both studies, warnings led to more stopping at dilemma zone intersections and milder decelerations when stopping compared with no warning, said Gugerty, lead author on the paper. Drivers predominant response to warnings was anticipatory slowing on approaching the intersection, not speeding up. newsstand.clemson.edu | <urn:uuid:6ac34888-c100-4e2a-ab71-ea7af01cd9eb> | {
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The first time I came across Newstead Abbey was when I received my second-hand copy of Leslie Marchand‘s “Byron: A Portrait”. In the middle of the biography, as usual, there is a section with pictures and portraits, one of them, of a beautiful building, with a footnote that read “Newstead Priory, Nottinghamshire”. I didn’t know how, or when, but I knew that I would, eventually, visit it. Several years after, last month, I finally stood in front of it, and I was even able to wander its rooms! The following is a brief account of the history of Newstead Abbey and Byron.
First of all, Newstead Abbey was never an Abbey. As Marchand noted, it was a Priory. So, what is the difference between the two? Well, an abbey is a catholic convent managed by an abbess or an abbot, whereas a priory is managed by a prior or a prioress -a lower rank than abbess or abbot-, and it is a subsidiary of an abbey. That being clarified, let us get into some historical background. Newstead was founded by Henry II in 1163 as an Augustinian Priory, and dissolved 400 years later by another Henry (VIII) in 1539 during the English Reformation. The king granted the building to Sir John Byron, who had to demolish the church, but was given permission to keep the façade, which turned into the iconic image we now know.
Now, Sir John Byron left the state to his son, also John, who left it to his son, named, in a creative strike, also John. This third John, who was an MP and a Royalist commander, was granted the title of Baron Byron of Rochdale for the first time in 1643. Flash forward to 1798, when, -after a Richard and two more Williams- William Byron (The Wicked Lord), uncle of our Byron‘s father , dies. George Gordon, fatherless and a student at Harrow at the time, inherits the title and the state and becomes Lord Byron the sixth. Marchand explains that the news caused Byron much embarrassment in school and that at one point he burst into tears in class. After all, he was ten years old.
When Byron, accompanied by his mother and her maid, arrived at Newstead, he was confronted with a reality far from what he probably had expected. The Wicked Lord had sold most of the contents of the house, including structural parts of the building. The result was that Newstead was in ruins when it became Byron‘s. However, the poet decided to move there and invest in repairing part of it, enough to make it habitable.
In a letter from November 2nd, 1808, Byron writes to his mother about the repairs at Newstead:
I am furnishing the house more for you than for myself, and I shall establish you in it before I sail for India […] I am now fitting the green drawing room, the red (as a bedroom) and the rooms over as sleeping rooms, they will be soon completed, at least I hope so.
Indeed, if you book a tour of the house, you will be able to visit the aforementioned rooms, which contain the furniture that Byron himself used, including his bed in Cambridge, his writing table, and even his coffee machine and his famous cranium-cup (see below). There are also most of the most well-known paintings of the poet and his relatives, a couple of busts (see above), several first editions of his works and other curiosities, such as the helmet he was to wear in Greece, his jacket (which is very beautiful, so much that I would totally wear it every day), his ring, his fencing and boxing equipment or his shoes and pistols.
The gardens are another of the elements of the state. They are divided into sixteen zones and occupy the enormous extension behind the house and next to the Garden Lake. Although there has always been gardening activity in Newstead, each family added a new zone, with new kinds of flora. As for the Byrons, they were responsible for the Great Garden and the ornamental ponds, canals, waterfalls and cascades. There is a field between the Garden Lake and the house, where Byron planted an oak in 1798, the protagonist of his poem To an Oak at Newstead, written ten years later. The oak became a tourist attraction after Byron’s death. The tree had to be cut down in 1915, and its remains are now an ivy-covered stump. In 1988, the Earl of Lytton planted another oak next to the original one to commemorate Byron‘s 200th anniversary. Another curiosity is that behind the façade of the church there is a monument, placed where Byron thought the altar would have been. This monument is the tomb of his dog, Boatswain, and it was intended to eventually become the poet’s resting place as well. Sadly, Byron‘s wish was not fulfilled, and he is buried in the family vault in Hucknall.
Due to money issues, Byron had to sell Newstead in 1818. It was purchased by Thomas Wildman, who devoted time and money to the restoration of the place. After his death, William Frederick Webb bought it, and it was during that time when his friend Dr Livingstone spent time in the state in the 1860s. When Webb died, he left it to his children, and eventually his grandchild, Charles Ian Fraser, sold it to Julien Cahn, who gave it to the Nottingham Corporation in 1931 and became Sir Julien Cahn.
A final anecdote: the remains of the first Byrons can be found in the house’s gift shop. For real.
If you are interested in visiting the house and/or gardens, you can book a private tour in Newstead Abbey’s official website.
- Lansdown, Richard. A New Selection: Byron’s Letters and Journals. Oxford: OUP. 2015.
- Marchand, Leslie A. Byron: A Portrait. London: Random House. 1993.
- “Newstead Abbey: Historic House and Gardens. A Tour of the House” Nottingham City Council.
- “Newstead Abbey: A Tour of the Garden” Nottingham City Council. | <urn:uuid:7b0933c9-87c5-4dc5-b586-f19adf6882ac> | {
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Or their equivalent from South Korea ?
Or their equivalent from South Korea ?
Days after a Malaysian airliner with 239 people aboard went missing en route to Beijing, searchers are still struggling to find any confirmed sign of the plane. Authorities have acknowledged that they didn't even know what direction it was heading when it disappeared.
In 2009, Air France Flight 447 en route to Paris from Rio de Janeiro vanished over the Atlantic Ocean, triggering the most expensive and exhaustive search effort ever conducted for a plane. After two years, officials could only narrow the location of the plane's black box down to an area the size of Switzerland.
What took two years for other experts in the search for the black box, took only five days for consultants who applied the Bayes' Theorem, to finally find the device 12,000 feet under water.
"It's a very short, simple equation that says you can start out with hypothesis about something — and it doesn't matter how good the hypothesis is," said Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, author of "The Theory That Would Not Die: How Bayes' Rule Cracked the Enigma Code, Hunted Down Russian Submarines, and Emerged Triumphant from Two Centuries of Controversy."
The hypothesis is subject to change, based on probability, but can still be used with the theorem. Pretty much based on the concept of learning from experience, one can say.
It is because of this character of the formula — forcing researchers to change their hypothesis with each new information — that the probability becomes more accurate.
Bayes' Theorem, which is also used in Google's driverless cars and predictions in stock markets, is based on probability. Because the theorem starts with a hypothesis – something McGrayne said "can be very subjective" – it had been seen as controversial until the 1960s. But because it forces researchers to change their hypothesis with each new piece of information, the probability becomes more accurate.
The theorem was used in World War II to locate German U-boats and the lost nuclear submarine U.S.S. Scorpion. It was also used during the Cold War to spot Soviet submarines.
"The AF 447 search is rooted in Bayesian inference," Lawrence D. Stone, chief scientist at Virginia-based scientific consultancy Metron – which was contacted to apply Bayes' Theorem in the search for the Air France plane – wrote in ORMS Today magazine in 2011. Bayes' Theorem "allows the organization of available data with associated uncertainties and computation of the PDF (probability distribution function) for target location given these data," he said.
Despite assistance from Australia, China, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, Vietnam, Philippines and the United States, Malaysian search efforts are even further from locating Flight MH370. The search area has been expanded to almost 27,000 square nautical miles – an area roughly equivalent to the state of Indiana – authorities said. That's more than 10,000 nautical square miles larger than the search for Air France Flight 447, before Bayes' Theorem was applied.
Stone told Al Jazeera that in the current search for flight MH370, it is "highly unlikely" that Bayes' Theorem is being applied.
That is not to suggest it is totally absent.
Bayes' Theorem is pervasive, and those involved in the current search have applied a certain Bayesian flavour in their search, "but it then got upset when their prior calculations were incorrect," said statistician Professor Bradley Efron of Stanford University, as quoted by Al Jazeera, referring to the conclusion by Malaysian authorities that the MAS plane could have ended up in the Strait of Malacca.
Bayes' Theorem, after all, is all about learning from experience, which is probably why Efron said one would need "reasonably accurate past experiences" for the theorem to work. In other words, to calculate accurately to locate the plane."
... and has been very actively posting from that other account.
And he has been posting a lot under the AC moniker too.
On another site (the alt site) I've outlined the bribe that Dianne Feinstein took back in the 1980's and the way she took it and from whom she received the bribe.
I wasn't the only one on the dock when Feinstein and her entourage arrived. The Taiwanese Kuomingtang people were there too.
My target wasn't Feinstein. I was merely interested in the struggle between two groups of people from Taiwan that took place on the American soil.
In the course of my own investigation Dianne Feinstein's name kept popping up.
In other words, if the Kuomingtang people has the info on Dianne taking bribes (and I know they still keep that dossier) I will not be surprised that information will somehow "fall" into the hands of the CIA operatives.
Right now CIA is keeping a very low key, but once CIA obtains what they need on Feinstein, sparks will fly, investigation will be launched, justice department will be involved, court hearings (secret and/or open courts) will held, and Feinstein will find herself on the roasting pole very very soon, if she thinks she can take on the mighty CIA.
"Yes, there is a club. No, you(*) are not a member."
If it was 50 years ago, yes, even I want to join that club.
But this is year 2014. That club has lost all its luster, and people are leaving.
Many people have left, including me, since 2003.
I only go back once a while on business trips. That's all.
Whew ! And I was feeling so lonely.
Fact is, our country, the United States of America, was founded by a bunch of idiots, idiots who cared about their liberties.
The problem we are facing right now is, most of the Americans have grown so "smart" that they willy-nilly give up their liberties in exchange for some pie-in-the-sky promise of "security".
For me, I rather stay as an idiot than being so smart that I end up losing all my liberties.
They are of the same kind, not dupes.
On one side we got scumbags.
On the other side we got assholes.
In other words, it's a showdown between the scumbags and the assholes.
Assholes accusing scumbags of torturing people, but in the meantime it was the assholes who defended the scumbags when they violated the Constitutions, ignoring the Bill of Rights, invading the privacy of Hundreds of Millions of the American Citizens, and billions more people outside of America.
As this is Slashdot, and most people who come to Slashdot are geeks, I'll say this -
We geeks comes in all color, size and hairstyle (some without hair), and work in many professions. But most of the geeks I that know are makers.
It's us that crank our brain, outline the possibilities, do the design, create the prototype, and only after we are satisfied with what we have create, we let the world enjoy the fruit of our labor.
Nevertheless, $100k is a lot of money...
True, $100K may be a lot of money, if it's the price you pay to put a device into your $10K car.
But we are talking about a jet plane that is worth $100M and up.
What is the ratio of $100K to the original plane pricetag of $100M ? 1: 1000
Allow me to put it in the context of your car - Let's say your car's price tag is $10K, What will that device cost you, if it's 1000th of your car ? $10 ??
I ain't as famous as Larry but I can tell you this one thing -
As a geek, I equate my time spent on sitting through a board meeting as worse than hell.
Regarding the "wheeling and dealing on the phone", I do not do that.
I still go down to the face-to-face level.
No matter if the other fella happens to be a big shot like that Larry fella or a wide-eyed young entrepreneur-in-training looking for a seed funding, a face to face session can gain me a lot of valuable info (mostly subliminal / body language) that I can't get from either teleconference (or worse, over the phone).
A guy with a low 5-digit and a guy with a lower than mine 4-digit UID were having their parties back in '99 and I was working my ass off pulling cables trying to fulfill Al Gore's "Information Superhiway" prophecy.
Man, I totally missed the damn boat !!
... because after 40 years in the military, getting a pension check means you're a "Taker"
There should not be any stigma, whether it be positive or negative, attach to the word "taker".
Just like anything else, there are good and bad in every category.
If a person has served his/her country for the past 40 years in the military, of course that individual (and his/her spouse) ought to enjoy the fruit of his/her lifelong endeavor.
A check from the gov is insignificant, in the light of the contribution that has been paid forth, in advance.
Way too many of them lazy fuckers who just do not have that urge to make themselves better are sucking the gov dry.
We, as the taxpayers, should not bear the cost of paying those lazy fuckers to continue to be lazy fuckers.
Let's be clear - there are some who are down on their luck (I was very poor before, I know the physical and emotional stresses extreme poverty brings) who needs temporary assistance. I have no qualm of giving them a hand.
But we should draw a limit somewhere - and should not continue in paying those who claim they can't find any work a monthly check just because they tell us they can't find a job.
Are there no job or are those people being too choosy ?
There are millions of illegal aliens in America who can find jobs - the claim of there is no job in America just won't fly.
If those who are getting monthly checks from the gov refuse to work, then they should be on their own.
As I said, I had been poor before, so poor that I didn't even have a place to stay in winter (yes, I did spent some winter nights sleeping on a bench in a park) but at least once I got a chance I grab it and no matter how tough/dangerous that job was, how miserable the pay was, as long as the pay could get myself back to the society, I grabbed it.
Do you agree with the Slashdot Beta program ?
And so the NRA's smear campaign continues to influence idiots like you
I am a card carrying member of both the NRA and the ACLU.
I am an American who treasure the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, and am willing to do anything and everything to protect my country from traitors such as that asshole Feinstein.
If doing so makes me an "idiot", so be it, and I hope that America has more "idiots" like me than "geniuses" such as your kind.
I say it's time to double-down
You gotta understand that assholes like Dianne Feinstein doesn't think like us.
She thinks she's in the 0.1% elite, and for that, she ought to have the immunity from the same BIG BROTHER that she has thrown her support for.
As for us, asshole Feinstein look at us as if we are peons, slaves for the elites, that we do not have any right to enjoy the protection granted by the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, and that we ought to be stripped of everything, and kow-tow to her and her kinds.
Loose bits sink chips. | <urn:uuid:be0769cf-e94f-4e1a-98cd-9ebae5838da9> | {
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This Monstrous Soviet Missile Helicopter Would Have Been a Flying Nightmare
Giant copter would have launched giant missiles
The Soviet Union considered building a massive helicopter that could launch surface-t0-air missiles in mid-air.
The advent of vertical-landing “jump jet” warplanes inspired the idea, Yefim Gordon and Sergey Komissarov write in Unflown Wings: Unbuilt Soviet/Russian Aircraft Projects Since 1925.
Jump jets such as the Soviet Yak-38 could operate from impromptu forward airstrips—stretches of road or forest clearings. The improvised air bases needed some way to defend themselves against air attack.
So the Yakovlev design bureau proposed a mammoth cargo helicopter, the VVP-6, that could airlift an entire surface-to-air missile battery in one flight. The photo above depicts a different Soviet helicopter prototype.
The VVP-6 was a flying monster. A desktop model of the concept—not much else survives—reveals its surprising layout. The VVP-6’s fuselage looks similar to an amphibious landing vehicle, but with three stubby wings on each side and a six-blade rotor atop each wing.
Four turboshaft engines would have driven each rotor. The VVP-6 would have been 160 feet long—almost as big as a Boeing 777 airliner.
The huge copter’s top deck would have fit three pairs of SA-1 surface-to-air missiles, lying flat like sardines in a can. The lower deck would have carried spare missiles and the radar systems.
A grandiose idea, perhaps, but not an insane one. At least until you get to this part.
“One source describes them [the missiles] as ‘ready to fire on their launchers,’” Gordon and Komissarov write. In other words, somebody planned to launch big missiles—the later SA-2 was 35 feet long—from a helicopter in flight.
Gordon and Komissarov rightly judge the idea as crazy. The SA-1 launchers “rotated through 360 degrees in order to track the target before launch, and the huge flames belched by the missiles at the moment of launch would certainly damage the vehicle’s rotors.”
Not to mention that it would have been a sitting duck for enemy missiles, flak guns and fighters. Finding a forward landing zone large enough for the helicopter to set down also would have been interesting.
The authors don’t say when Yakovlev proposed the VVP-6. Given that the SA-1 entered service in 1954 and vertical take-off jump jets were a hot idea in the 1960s, the mid-to-late ’60s seems like a reasonable guess.
In any event, when the idea of jump jet warplanes more or less fizzled, so did the giant missile-launching helicopter concept. | <urn:uuid:17fa12f3-7f3c-40f0-a444-0d99669dc6da> | {
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Larger PDF file of map
Existing land use is relatively consistent with the building uses within specific areas on campus. Areas for improvement include the use of lands for parking, athletic and recreation fields, and open space.
The Existing Building Use plan describes some issues associated with conflicting building uses as they relate to land use patterns. Adjusting building uses will improve the land use into the future.
The academic land use zone is centrally located, however split by parking just east of Education / Business Hall. Housing is split into two areas. One is adjacent to, and potentially in the academic core. The other is on the east side of campus, within its own neighborhood. Athletics and recreation uses are consolidated and located on the west side of campus. Buildings in the athletics zone are located on the eastern side of this land use zone. This preserves the open space that surrounds the entire rim of campus, and is sensitive the internal campus views and to the views of the campus from the community.
Parking zones are scattered to meet the needs of various programs throughout the land use plan. Over time, the campus must integrate the parking amongst other uses. It is an integral component of the physical environment.
Open spaces must be planned in order to maintain a collegiate atmosphere. They are the fundamental component of creating a campus setting. They help organize the campus to create a successful environment. Fort Lewis has a variety of open spaces that range from formal man made spaces, to the informal, more natural spaces. Besides places for contemplation and recreation, these spaces are programmable and used for academic achievement.
The college sits atop a plateau overlooking historic Durango. It is one of the most unique settings for a campus in the nation. As it grows, the campus must be sensitive to the fact that its site and physical environment are key to its success. | <urn:uuid:a305d0f5-37d1-448c-b104-a8cc8b0fde9b> | {
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A seething queen lies in wait to kill the king
For ten years, Clytaemnestra has been anticipating her husband’s return from the Trojan War. Outwardly rejoicing at his arrival, inwardly she murderously resents his decision to sacrifice their daughter Iphigenia at the war's outset, in order to propitiate the goddess Artemis and summon the winds to blow the Greek fleet to Troy. To make things worse, Agamemnon has brought back a present for himself, one of the spoils of Troy, Priam’s daughter, Apollo’s priestess, Cassandra the prophet. Clytaemnestra honors her husband by laying down precious crimson tapestries for him to tread upon as he enters the house. At first the King demurs, then acquiesces to the presumptuous idea. Cassandra, dressed as a priestess of Apollo, refuses to speak. The Queen enters the house, then Cassandra has a prophetic vision of death, her death, Agamemnon’s death, and all the previous deaths that have occurred in the house of Atreus. She rips off her priestly garments, curses Apollo and goes inside. The door to the house opens, revealing a ghastly scene. Meanwhile, a chorus of old men comment on the action.
This was amazingly good, so profound, so angry at the evil in the world, and studded with amazing imagery. The play is about war and the legacy of war. There is also a strong feminist streak. Clytaemnestra has had enough – she is going to overthrow the patriarchy. The Athenian audience would contrast her with Penelope – one gone half mad with vindictive hatred and the other with hopeful loyalty. The truths this 2,500 year old play tells about war and human nature are the same truths today. The joy of the warrior at returning home; the resentment of the women at being pawns. Women bear the brunt of the brutality.
The poetry is excellent, written by a soldier writing about war. One of the first images is the truly terrifying one of a gagged Iphigenia hoisted up like a goat to be slaughtered. The echoes in the plot and the imagery are found in the framing story of the House of Atreus – the child murders. The play is riddled with net and yoke images, of people trapped by fate and their own choices. The King walks on the tapestries, the Queen stabs him to death. The violence at home echoes the violence at Troy. | <urn:uuid:8911d693-4bc9-4dc9-b221-5293879fcec9> | {
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The Aramaic New Testament
Galilean Aramaic in the Context of Early Christianity
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About The Translation
The Gospel of Mark
The Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel of Luke
The Gospel of John
Conversational Galilean Online (GAL101)
Conversational Galilean Study Groups (GAL110)
The Aramaic Lord’s Prayer (ARC010)
Differences of Dialect
The Book of Common Prayer
About The Site
What Is This All About?
What is Galilean Aramaic?
What This Project Is Not
Terms of Service
Frequently Asked Questions
The Lord’s Prayer in Galilean Aramaic
My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?
An Overview of Semitic Languages
The True Children of Abraham Debate
He Who Lives By The Sword
Sermon on the Mount? Or the Plain?
Problems With Peshitta Primacy
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Sorry, your blog cannot share posts by email. | <urn:uuid:93e33c4a-1e5f-4008-a49e-95187c868466> | {
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Teach children about the life of our Lord and His Mother, Mary, by using the Mysteries of the Holy Rosary as a guide.
This game uses classic art to illustrate the twenty important events in the life of Christ and the Blessed Virgin Mary as presented in the Holy Rosary. Children match up the individual events with the appropriate group of Mysteries. Classic art has been used to depict the events and highlight details from them. A clear over-sized font helps make this printable game useful for early readers as well as those with visual challenges.
Focus: Organizing and sorting information
Theme: The Holy Rosary, Mysteries of the Holy Rosary
|File Size||2.75 MB|
|Create Date||June 28, 2013|
|Category Tags||Art Game Glorious Mysteries Joyful Mysteries Luminous Mysteries Montessori Games Rosary Sorrowful Mysteries Virgin Mary|
|Popular Categories||Art, Art Games, Blessed Virgin Mary, CCD & Religious Ed. Materials, CCD Games, Matching, Rosary|
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An electroscope is a device that is used to demonstrate properties of static electricity. Static electricity is a phenomenon that takes many forms. It can be an electric shock you can get after walking over a carpet, or it can be a lightning bolt from the sky. The electroscope demonstrates the repulsive force that is exerted between two nearby objects with the same electric charge. In this activity you will learn to make your own electroscope. You won't need any exotic materials for this activity, all that is needed is readily available and can even be found in your house.
First of all you must brush-up your knowledge about static electricity. The following links can help to a large extent; they have been listed according to their level of presentation:
To make an electroscope all you need is listed below:
1. An empty glass jar such as a jam jar.
2. A length of stiff copper wire about 12 cm long (or a large steel paper clip).
3. A sheet of aluminum kitchen foil about 20 cm square.
4. A strip of thin metal foil about 6cm x 0.5cm from a sweet wrapper.
5. A disc of cardboard about 10cm in diameter.
6. A small plug of M-seal putty.
Make a very small hole in the centre of the cardboard disc. Bend over about 1.5cm of the copper wire at one end to make a right angle. Hold the other end of the copper wire between your fingers and thumb and push about one-third of its length through the hole in the cardboard disc.
Secure this short length of the wire against the disc with adhesive putty like the M-seal. Roll-up the kitchen foil into a ball about 3cm in diameter and push it firmly onto the unbent end of the copper wire to a depth of about 1cm, taking care not to push the sharp end of wire into your hand.
Fold the strip of sweet foil in half to make an inverted V-shape and carefully hook it over the bent end of the wire. Place the whole disc assembly on top of the glass jar with the aluminium ball above the jar and the hooked length of the wire inside of the jar.
Ensure that the foil strip remains in place on the hook. You now have your completed electroscope. Now you would want to test it.
All you need to test it is listed below:
1. A piece of silk the size of a handkerchief (or piece of cotton cloth).
2. A PVC plastic rod about 25cm long (or length of hard plastic material).
Introduce a charge on the plastic rod by grasping it at one end and gently rubbing the far end with the piece of silk. Move the charged end of the rod near to the surface of the foil ball on the top of the electroscope, whilst closely watching the behavior of the inverted V-shaped metal strip on the wire hook within the jar. The ends of the strip should move further and further apart as the rod is moved closer and closer to the foil ball. An alternative to the charged plastic rod is a toy balloon. You can charge it up by brushing it against your hair.
The electroscope works best on a dry day. On wet or humid days it might not work at all, because water vapour in the air continuously discharges the static charge that you are trying to create on the rod.
There are many other variations to this simple design. Do you want to explore them? It's very easy! just click on a link listed below and you will come across a new design. | <urn:uuid:c783edb0-ffae-4415-af4c-f42de9e8a683> | {
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A new exhibition in Cumbria has revealed that Roman foot soldiers faced a battle of a different kind against a microscopic foe.
Head lice were common among Roman soldiers in Cumbria
The Romans, sent to the northern front of the empire and Hadrian's Wall, came head to head with lice.
A new display of items from an excavation outside Carlisle Castle includes a soldier's comb with a fully intact, three-millimetre-long louse.
Archaeologists say the louse is around 2,000 years old.
The dig was part of Carlisle City Council's Gateway City Millennium Project which took place between November 1998 and March 2001.
The excavation was located within the Roman fort of Luguvalium, which was founded in AD72-3.
Some of the finds from the excavation are on display in the castle, and the exhibition is being relaunched in April to include some newly-conserved finds.
Archaeologist Carol Allen, who has been working on the project, said the louse was from excavations in the earliest part of the fort.
She said: "The louse is one of the largest and most complete ever found in the Roman world."
Fellow archaeologist John Zant said thousands of artefacts were discovered at the Carlisle site and many have been well preserved.
He said: "We are very fortunate in Carlisle because the earliest Roman levels from where this comb came are waterlogged.
"So we have a lot of artefacts which we wouldn't normally have, made of wood and leather and even textile.
"It gives us a rare insight into what was happening in a Roman fort in the first century AD.
"It is one of only around six Roman sites in western Europe where you get this kind of evidence surviving so it is particularly important." | <urn:uuid:cc1effd1-0f8f-474e-bae4-360bbfeef871> | {
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Regions and countries manage and sustain oceanic resources and services with varying degrees of success. Our empirical analysis discusses the extent to which this variation can be explained by common-pool resource (CPR) characteristics, controlling for institutional quality, island status, the existence of marine-protected areas, and the ratification of marine environmental agreements. Using data from the Ocean Health Index (OHI), we confirm that the problems related to CPRs are not restricted to fisheries. Other oceanic services and assets, including the provision of oceanic natural products, habitat health, and species richness, also decline with the number of neighboring countries. By contrast, the aspects of ocean health-like sustainable tourism, the preservation of iconic species, or the mitigation of trash pollution benefit from neighborhood stress. Overall, there is little evidence that economic development (expressed in per capita gross domestic product [GDP] and used as a proxy for institutional quality) contributes to sustaining oceanic resources. In general, the OHI appears to capture the established characteristics of various oceanic resources and services very well. Accordingly, it represents an important data source for improving our understanding of the variation in oceanic resources and services, an indispensable factor in developing and achieving sustainable development strategies for the ocean. | <urn:uuid:e5c94104-a0bb-44c9-943d-83b98e136fad> | {
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This first of two volumes extends from the founding of the colony of Georgia in 1733 up to the Progressive era. From the beginning, Georgia women were instrumental in shaping the state, yet most histories minimize their contributions. The essays include women of many ethnicities and classes who played an important roles.
To view this DRM protected ebook on your desktop or laptop you will need to have Adobe Digital Editions installed. It is a free software. We also strongly recommend that you sign up for an AdobeID at the Adobe website. For more details please see FAQ 1&2. To view this ebook on an iPhone, iPad or Android mobile device you will need the Adobe Digital Editions app, or BlueFire Reader or Txtr app. These are free, too. For more details see this article.
|Size: ||4.2 MB|
|Publisher: ||University of Georgia Press|
|Date published: || 2010|
|ISBN: ||9780820339009 (DRM-PDF)|
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Passion Sunday - It Ain't What it Used to Be
The Importance of Passion Sunday
Eons ago, back before 1970, the season of Lent had a slightly different structure than it does now. If you happen to look at a missal from back then, you'll notice that there are only four Sundays of Lent, followed by Passion Sunday, followed by Palm Sunday. In a current missal you will typically see that Palm Sunday is now labeled “Passion (Palm) Sunday”.
Why is this? What did a separate day signify before 1970?
According to Dom Gueranger in The Liturgical Year, “This Sunday is called Passion Sunday, because the Church begins, on this day, to make the sufferings of our Redeemer her chief thought”. Traditionally, all statues and crucifixes were veiled at the Vespers for Passion Sunday. The Introit, Gradual and Tract all are petitions to save the just from the persecution of the unjust and the Tract even foreshadows the scourging.
Introit: “Judge me, O God, and distinguish my cause from the nation that is not holy: deliver me from the unjust and deceitful man: for thou art my God and my strength...”
Gradual: “Deliver me, O Lord, from my enemies; teach me to do thy will. Thou, O Lord, art my deliverer from the enraged Gentiles: thou wilt put me out of the reach of those that assault me; and thou wilt rescue me from the unrighteous man.”
Tract: “Many a time have they fought against me from my youth. Let Israel now say: They have often attacked me from my youth. But they could not prevail over me: the wicked have wrought upon my back. They have lengthened their iniquity: the Lord who is just, will cut the necks of sinners.”
The Epistle is from Heb 9, 11-15 and is St. Paul's exposition of Christ as both the High Priest and the perfect victim who was sacrificed for our salvation.
The Gospel is from John 8: 46-59 and is the condemnation of the Jews by Christ in the temple. He tells them that they do not know God and that before Abraham was I AM. They try to stone him but he slips away.
The Communion Antiphon is the final Passion foreshadowing of the Mass. The verse is the words Christ used to institute the Eucharist at the Last Supper: “'This is my body, which shall be given up for you: this is the cup of the new covenant in my blood,' says the Lord, 'do this as often as you receive it, in remembrance of me.'”
Other Names for Passion Sunday
Passion Sunday was also known as “Judica Sunday” in reference to the Introit “Judica me, Deus, et discerne causam meam de gente non sancta...”, similar to Laetare and Gaudete Sundays being named after the first word of the Introit for those days.
The Sunday is also known as Neomania, the Sunday of the new moon, because it always falls after the new moon which regulates the feast of Easter.
The Greek Church simply calls this Sunday the fifth Sunday of the holy fasts.
The stational Mass for Passion Sunday was celebrated at the basilica of St. Peter. It was considered such an important day that no other feast had precedence.
Elimination of Passion Sunday
So why was this Sunday eliminated from the liturgical year?
According to Cardinal Bugnini in his Reform of the Liturgy, “Also suppressed as a title is 'Passiontide.' The whole of it now becomes, even externally, a part of Lent...The readings and prayers used in antiquity on the third, fourth, and fifth Sundays have been restored (the Sundays of 'the Samaritan,' 'theMan Born Blind,' and 'Lazarus'). The final two weeks are dominated by preparation for the celebration of the passion.”
And so, on March 21, 1969, the Sacred Congregation of Rites published the General Norms for the Liturgical Year and the Calendar which stated that “The Sundays of this season are called the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Sundays of Lent. The Sixth Sunday, which marks the beginning of Holy Week, is called Passion Sunday (Palm Sunday).”
In spite of the suppression of Passion Sunday, the tradition still echoes in the new rite. It is still permitted to veil the statues and crucifixes at vespers before the fifth Sunday of Lent if your parish wants to do it before Holy Thursday. You can also still hear, if your parish uses the propers of the season, Psalm 42, 1-2 as the Introit on this day. “Judge me, O God, and distinguish my cause from the nation that is not holy: deliver me from the unjust and deceitful man: for thou art my God and my strength...”
The Reform of the Liturgy 1948-1975, Annibale Bugnini, 1990, Liturgical Press
Documents on the Liturgy 1963-1979, 1982, Liturgical Press
The Liturgical Year, Vol. 6,Dom Prosper Gueranger, O.S.B., Loreto Publications
Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described, Adrian Fortescue & J. B. O'Connell, 1996, Saint Austin Press
Missale Romanum, 1964, Benziger Brothers
Saint Joseph Sunday Missal,1999, Catholic Book Publishing
Circular Letter Concerning the Preparation and Celebration of the Easter Feasts,1988, Congregation for Divine Worshop, USCCB | <urn:uuid:11a2f88d-28ca-498e-9645-bfb73ba66c42> | {
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Several important characters in The Little Prince aren’t people—but from the way they’re described, you’d hardly know that they’re any different. They walk (well, the snake slithers), talk, and have opinions. They feel emotions, including love. They seem like they could be people, just the way that other characters in the book are people. The prince’s flower, for example, is described the same way that a pretty, appearance-conscious young lady would be:
But the flower was not satisfied to complete the preparations for her beauty in the shelter of her green chamber. She chose her colours with the greatest care. She dressed herself slowly. She adjusted her petals one by one. She did not wish to go out into the world all rumpled, like the field poppies. It was only in the full radiance of her beauty that she wished to appear. (8.2)
These details show us that the flower cares how she looks, wants people to be impressed, and takes her sweet time preparing for her entrances.
In other sections, the snake claims to have authority, just as the king does (although the snake says he has more), while the fox offers up some of the most complicated philosophy that any character in this book has to share.
Or, rather, the lack of names. Nobody in this book has a name, and this is important.
All the people the prince meets on different planets don’t have names. We’re talking about the king, the businessman, the geographer, and all those guys. Some of them seem so concerned with their own importance that they don’t need names. Others seem so focused on their jobs or tasks, that those jobs appear to stand in for or make up their identities (the lamplighter comes to mind).
On the one hand, you could say it makes sense that the snake, the flower, and the fox remain unnamed. They’re animals, or vegetables. They’re not people. But, on the other hand, the prince loves the flower, and he makes friends with the fox. Based on these facts, you’d think the flower and the fox might have names. Wouldn’t giving something a name be part of the taming process?
However, we think that leaving these creatures and characters unnamed makes the ideas and relationships they convey more universal and appealing to people from all over the world. For instance, if the fox was named Pierre and the flower was named Francoise, they’d sound decidedly French, which might distance them from readers in other parts of the world.
Even the narrator and the prince don’t have names. Certainly, when it comes to thinking about the narrator, the fact that he doesn’t have a name makes him even more of an everyday guy or an everyman. With no name, he could be anybody, making it easier for all readers to identify with him.
Even though many characters are concerned with being special or identifying what makes them important, they don’t use names to do this. Friendship provides uniqueness. As the prince says of the fox, “I have made him my friend, and now he is unique in all the world” (21.52). “Friend” might be the best name, in The Little Prince, that one could hope to have.
Maybe the most important defining feature of characters in The Little Prince is how they think. After all, they don’t have names, and—with the exception of the prince himself—we don’t find out what they look like, really, either. (Can you name the hair color of anybody in the book besides the prince? That would be an unfair quiz question.)
We know the fox has great wisdom and philosophy based on the ideas he shares with the prince. But these ideas of the fox’s tell us something else about him, too. The fox is generous and fair. Sure, he makes the prince work for these ideas by going through the process of taming, but the fox rewards him with these ideas. The fox has no problem sharing very precious wisdom.In contrast, someone like the geographer hoards his knowledge, putting it carefully into a book.
At the very beginning, we see that the narrator uses his Drawing Number One as a friendship test (which, unfortunately, no one passes—until the prince enters the scene.) So people’s thoughts and opinions are understood to be a means of getting to really know them. | <urn:uuid:309cf2b5-0c07-4d6c-9c0b-677ffc08a789> | {
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The origin of the distinguished Bjornson family can be traced to the rugged Scandinavian country of Norway. The surname Bjornson is derived from the Old Norse personal name Bjorn, which means bear. The suffix -sen and its variants are translatable as son of.
Bjornson migration to the United States
Some of the first settlers of this family name were:
Bjornson Settlers in United States in the 20th Century
Bjorn Knut Bjornson, who arrived in Wisconsin in 1914
Contemporary Notables of the name Bjornson (post 1700)
Bjornsterne Martinius Bjornson (1832-1910), Norwegian writer and statesman
Maria Bjornson (b. 1949), British stage designer
^ Filby, P. William, Meyer, Mary K., Passenger and immigration lists index : a guide to published arrival records of about 500,000 passengers who came to the United States and Canada in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. 1982-1985 Cumulated Supplements in Four Volumes Detroit, Mich. : Gale Research Co., 1985, Print (ISBN 0-8103-1795-8)
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How do you help your kids want to eat more vegetables? The simple answer is to offer them more vegetables.
Sound too easy? I promise, it’s not. Research has actually shown that the kids who are offered more vegetables eat more vegetables. Makes sense, right?
But sometimes it doesn’t seem so easy, especially when you hear moans and groans from kids at the dinner table.
Here are five ways to help your kids want to eat more vegetables (notice I didn’t say 5 ways to sneak in more vegetables or 5 ways to get your kids to eat more vegetables. We want them to want to eat their veggies!).
1. Put out a veggie plate before meals. Before lunch and dinner, set out a veggie plate or tray for the kids to snack on while you are fixing the meal. Include vegetables that you know they like along with some new ones, or previously disliked vegetables. Make the plate colorful and appetizing with bite-sized pieces.
2. Offer dip. Some vegetables can be too bitter for young taste buds. Dip can help transform a bitter disliked veggie into a fast favorite. Try homemade salad dressing, hummus, or greek yogurt for dipping.
3. Let kids help pick out vegetables at the market. Kids are curious, let them choose a new vegetable each week to try. Whether they like it or not, they will be more likely to try it if they had a hand in picking it out. When they don’t like a vegetable, offer the encouragement that they might like it next time since taste buds change all the time.
4. Grow your own vegetables/herbs. Whether you have a giant backyard with room for a garden or a fire escape with room for a few pots, you can grow something. Make it a fun project with your kids to plant, grow, and tend to your veggies and herbs. Kids who taste vegetables straight off the vine usually fall in love at first bite!
5. Take kids to pick fresh produce at a local farm. If you have a farm close enough to you, take the kids out on a u-pick day. Kids love to learn about how things grow, and are more likely to eat vegetables that they pull out of the ground themselves. If you don’t have a farm near enough with a picking option, visit a local farmer’s market.
And of course, one of the best ways to encourage your kids to eat more vegetables is to eat more vegetables yourself! Yes, you! If you are a picky eater, especially with veggies, I encourage you to take either the Hated Veggie Challenge or the New Veggie Adventure Challenge. I have a feeling that you will surprise yourself with what you thought you didn’t like.
How do you encourage your kids to eat more vegetables? | <urn:uuid:e247f03f-8ee9-435f-8168-0bd21943da03> | {
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A common sight in Africa, vultures can regularly be seen circling the skies in search of their next meal. They are opportunistic carnivores meaning they don’t like to work for their food. When they are circling above and they see that lions have brought down their prey, you can be sure they will signal to their vulture friends that lunch is served.
While fully capable of fending for themselves like other birds of prey, vultures prefer to take what isn’t theirs. They are large birds, intimidating in appearance, and will protest loudly when challenged. But in the end, when stood up to, will fly away only to return and try again.
Vultures are thieves; they steal what doesn’t belong to them. You might think upon initial observation that vultures are fearful – but the more you watch them it’s obvious that they are not fearful – they’re just plain lazy, resourceful, and clever. They know that the mighty lion can easily bring them down with one swipe of their paw. They know that they put their very lives at risk to steal from the lion, but they are gambling on the lion’s becoming weary of chasing them away as they won’t easily give up on a free meal.
Lions will eat until they are gorged with meat as they often go long periods of time without bringing down an animal for a meal. For every time they are successful at bringing down a meal, there are 4 or 5 other attempts when they have failed. The effort they put out and the danger they put themselves in when hunting (for animals with sharp hooves and horns won’t go down easily) takes much of their energy. Once they have hunted and eaten, they often don’t want to bother with chasing away the vultures. The problem is if they don’t chase away the vultures, there will be no leftovers to eat when they get hungry again.
Vultures don’t announce their arrival. While they are often seen in groups, they search alone for carcasses. Once a carcass has been sighted, one lone vulture will begin to circle and others will soon join him. Then, the familiar circling pattern of vultures overhead can be seen. At first just a few birds will land, tentatively approaching their targeted meal. Once the first bites have been taken, those circling overhead land swiftly for their meal. Their work must be swift, as other scavengers, hyenas and jackals, or the ones who originally took down the kill, like lions, are sure to be nearby. There’s not much time so their work is in earnest.
Genesis 15:11 NLT “Some vultures swooped down to eat the carcasses, but Abram chased them away.”
God had called Abram out from among his relatives to go to an unknown land. Abram in obedience left everything he knew and traveled without knowing where his final destination would be. He only knew that God was faithful, promised him a great family and nation that would be born from his family, and He was making a covenant with Abram to prove His faithfulness.
Abram, with great effort, had come to this point in his life and offered sacrifices to God. In no time at all, the vultures began to circle and swoop down to eat what he had worked hard to give to God. Abram was tired, but spent an entire night chasing away the vultures. At the end of the process, Abram’s journey to seeing God’s promise to him began as God made a covenant with him.
I’ve learned that what I’ve laid at the altar as a sacrifice to God needs protection from the vultures. Like the mighty lion, it only takes one swipe to shoo them away but the very appearance of a vulture can be intimidating and they will surely return to try again.
The vultures are circling; they’re searching for a way to quickly steal what doesn’t belong to them. The question is am I ready to protect what I’ve offered? Or, am I willing to let circumstances, the vultures of hailstorms (see Day 10 blog), weariness, doubt, and fear rob me of my future?
No, I won’t let a vulture take my sacrifice. | <urn:uuid:46af0d1e-73d6-4ab6-bd52-83233cd55a3b> | {
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RECORD: Darwin, C. R. 1875. The movements and habits of climbing plants. 2d edition. London: John Murray.
REVISION HISTORY: Digitised by David Price 2001. Corrections, illustrations and updates by John van Wyhe 2002, 8.2006. Proofread and corrected by Sue Asscher 7.2008. RN3
NOTE: See R. B. Freeman's bibliographical introduction.
The so-called first edition of this work was published as:
Darwin, 1865. On the movements and habits of climbing plants. [Read 2 February] Journal of the Linnean Society of London (Botany) 9: 1-118, 13 text figures. Text
The following matter was added to the 1882 edition:
APPENDIX TO PREFACE (1882).
Since the publication of this Edition two papers by eminent botanists have appeared; Schwendener, 'Das Winden der Pflanzen' (Monatsberichte der Berliner Akademie, Dec. 1881), and J. Sachs, 'Notiz über Schlingpflanzen' (Arbeiten des botanischen Instituts in Würzburg, Bd. ii. p. 719, 1882). The view "that the capacity of revolving, on which most climbers depend, is inherent, though undeveloped, in almost every plant in the vegetable kingdom" ('Climbing Plants,' p. 205), has been confirmed by the observations on circumnutation since given in 'The Power of Movement in Plants.'
On pp. 28, 32, 40, 53, statements are made with reference to the supposed acceleration of the revolving movement towards the light. It appears from the observations given in 'The Power of Movement in Plants,' p. 451, that these conclusions were drawn from insufficient observations, and are erroneous.
The copy scanned is reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the Natural History Museum (London). With thanks to Judith Magee of the Natural History Museum.
MOVEMENTS AND HABITS
MOVEMENTS AND HABITS
BY CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S.,
SECOND EDITION, REVISED.
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
The right of Translation is reserved.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION; or, THE PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE. Sixth Edition. Sixteenth Thousand. MURRAY.
THE DESCENT OF MAN, AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX. Second Edition, revised and augmented. Eleventh Thousand. MURRAY.
THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DOMESTICATION. Second Edition, revised. Fourth Thousand. With Illustrations. MURRAY.
THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS. With Photographic and other Illustrations. 1872. Ninth Thousand. MURRAY.
ON THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES BY WHICH BRITISH AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE FERTILISED BY INSECTS; and on the GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING. With numerous Woodcuts. MURRAY.
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. With Illustrations. Third Thousand. MURRAY.
A NATURALIST'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD; or, A JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES INTO THE NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTRIES visited during the voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle,' under the command of Captain FITZROY, R.N. Twelfth Thousand. MURRAY.
ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS. Second Edition. SMITH, ELDER & Co.
GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS. SMITH, ELDER & Co.
GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA. SMITH, ELDER & Co.
A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. HARDWICKE.
FACTS AND ARGUMENTS FOR DARWIN. By FRITZ MÜLLER. Translated by W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. With Illustrations. Post 8vo. MURRAY.
LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND
AND CHARING CROSS.
THIS Essay first appeared in the ninth volume of the 'Journal of the Linnean Society,' published in 1865. It is here reproduced in a corrected and, I hope, clearer form, with some additional facts. The illustrations were drawn by my son, George Darwin. Fritz Müller, after the publication of my paper, sent to the Linnean Society (Journal, vol. ix., p. 344) some interesting observations on the climbing plants of South Brazil, to which I shall frequently refer. Recently two important memoirs, chiefly on the difference in growth between the upper and lower sides of tendrils, and on the mechanism of the movements of twining plants, by Dr. Hugo de Vries, have appeared in the 'Arbeiten des Botanischen Instituts in Würzburg,' Heft. iii., 1873. These memoirs ought to be carefully studied by every one interested in the subject, as I can here give only references to the more important points. This excellent observer, as
well as Professor Sachs,* attributes all the movements of tendrils to rapid growth along one side; but, from reasons assigned towards the close of my fourth chapter, I cannot persuade myself that this holds good with respect to those due to a touch. In order that the reader may know what points have interested me most, I may call his attention to certain tendril-bearing plants; for instance, Bignonia capreolata, Cobæa, Echinocystis, and Hanburya, which display as beautiful adaptations as can be found in any part of the kingdom of nature. It is, also, an interesting fact that intermediate states between organs fitted for widely different functions, may be observed on the same individual plant of Corydalis claviculata and the common vine; and these cases illustrate in a striking manner the principle of the gradual evolution of species.
* An English translation of the 'Lehrbuch der Botanik' by Professor Sachs, has recently (1875), appeared under the title of 'Text-Book of Botany,' and this is a great boon to all lovers of natural science in England.
Introductory remarks — Description of the twining of the Hop — Torsion of the stems — Nature of the revolving movement and manner of ascent — Stems not irritable — Rate of revolution in various plants — Thickness of the support round which plants can twine — Species which revolve in an anomalous manner Pages .. 1-44
Plants which climb by the aid of spontaneously revolving and sensitive petioles — Clematis — Tropæolum — Maurandia, flower-peduncles moving spontaneously and sensitive to a touch — Rhodochiton — Lophospermum, internodes sensitive — Solanum, thickening of the clasped petioles — Fumaria — Adlumia — Plants which climb by the aid of their produced midribs — Gloriosa — Flagellaria — Nepenthes — Summary on leaf-climbers .. 45-83
Nature of tendrils — BIGNONIACEÆ, various species of, and their different modes of climbing — Tendrils which avoid the light, and creep into crevices — Development of adhesive discs — Excellent adaptations for seizing different kinds of supports — POLEMONIACEÆ — Cobæa scandens, much branched and
hooked tendrils, their manner of action — LEGUMINOSÆ — COMPOSITÆ — SMILACEÆ — Smilax aspera, its inefficient tendrils — FUMARIACEÆ — Corydalis claviculata, its state intermediate between that of a leaf-climber and a tendril-bearer .. Pages 84-126
CUCURBITACEÆ. — Homologous nature of the tendrils — Echinocystis lobata, remarkable movements of the tendrils to avoid seizing the terminal shoot — Tendrils not excited by contact with other tendrils or by drops of water — Undulatory movement of the extremity of the tendril — Hanburya, adherent discs — VITACEÆ — Gradation between the flower-peduncles and tendrils of the vine — Tendrils of the Virginian Creeper turn from the light, and after contact develop adhesive discs — SAPINDACEÆ — PASSIFLORACEÆ — Passiflora gracilis — Rapid revolving movement and sensitiveness of the tendrils — Not sensitive to the contact of other tendrils or of drops of water — Spiral contraction of tendrils — Summary on the nature and action of tendrils .. 127-182
HOOK AND ROOT-CLIMBERS.—CONCLUDING REMARKS.
Plants climbing by the aid of hooks, or merely scrambling over other plants — Root-climbers, adhesive matter secreted by the rootlets — General conclusions with respect to climbing plants, and the stages of their development .. 183-206
INDEX .. 207
MOVEMENTS AND HABITS
Introductory remarks — Description of the twining of the Hop — Torsion of the stems — Nature of the revolving movement, and manner of ascent — Stems not irritable — Rate of revolution in various plants — Thickness of the support round which plants can twine — Species which revolve in an anomalous manner.
I WAS led to this subject by an interesting, but short paper by Professor Asa Gray on the movements of the tendrils of some Cucurbitaceous plants.* My observations were more than half completed before I learnt that the surprising phenomenon of the spontaneous revolutions of the stems and tendrils of climbing plants had been long ago observed by Palm and by Hugo von Mohl,† and had subsequently been the subject of two memoirs by Dutrochet.‡ Nevertheless,
* 'Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences,' vol. iv. Aug. 12, 1858, p. 98.
† Ludwig H. Palm, 'Ueber das Winden der Pflanzen;' Hugo von Mohl, 'Ueber den Bau und das Winden der Ranken und Schlingpflanzen,' 1827. Palm's Treatise was published only a few weeks before Mohl's. See also 'The Vegetable Cell' (translated by Henfrey), by H. von Mohl, p. 147 to end.
‡ "Des Mouvements révolutifs
I believe that my observations, founded on the examination of above a hundred widely distinct living species, contain sufficient novelty to justify me in publishing them.
Climbing plants may be divided into four classes. First, those which twine spirally round a support, and are not aided by any other movement. Secondly, those endowed with irritable organs, which when they touch any object clasp it; such organs consisting of modified leaves, branches, or flower-peduncles. But these two classes sometimes graduate to a certain extent into one another. Plants of the third class ascend merely by the aid of hooks; and those of the fourth by rootlets; but as in neither class do the plants exhibit any special movements, they present little interest, and generally when I speak of climbing plants I refer to the two first great classes.
This is the largest subdivision, and is apparently the primordial and simplest condition of the class. My observations will be best given by taking a few special cases. When the shoot of a Hop (Humulus lupulus) rises from the ground, the two or three first-formed joints or internodes are straight and remain stationary; but the next-formed, whilst very young,
spontanés," &c., 'Comptes Rendus, ' tom. xvii. (1843) p. 989; "Recherches sur la Volubilité des Tiges," &c., tom. xix. (1844) p. 295.
may be seen to bend to one side and to travel slowly round towards all points of the compass, moving, like the hands of a watch, with the sun. The movement very soon acquires its full ordinary velocity. From seven observations made during August on shoots proceeding from a plant which had been cut down, and on another plant during April, the average rate during hot weather and during the day is 2 hrs. 8 m. for each revolution; and none of the revolutions varied much from this rate. The revolving movement continues as long as the plant continues to grow; but each separate internode, as it becomes old, ceases to move.
To ascertain more precisely what amount of movement each internode underwent, I kept a potted plant, during the night and day, in a well-warmed room to which I was confined by illness. A long shoot projected beyond the upper end of the supporting stick, and was steadily revolving. I then took a longer stick and tied up the shoot, so that only a very young internode, 1¾ of an inch in length, was left free. This was so nearly upright that its revolution could not be easily observed; but it certainly moved, and the side of the internode which was at one time convex became concave, which, as we shall hereafter see, is a sure sign of the revolving movement. I will assume that it made at least one revolution during the first twenty-four hours. Early the next morning its position was marked, and it made a second revolution in 9 hrs.; during the latter part of this revolution it moved much quicker, and the third circle was performed in the evening in a little over
3 hrs. As on the succeeding morning I found that the shoot revolved in 2 hrs. 45 m., it must have made during the night four revolutions, each at the average rate of a little over 3 hrs. I should add that the temperature of the room varied only a little. The shoot had now grown 3½ inches in length, and carried at its extremity a young internode 1 inch in length, which showed slight changes in its curvature. The next or ninth revolution was effected in 2 hrs. 30 m. From this time forward, the revolutions were easily observed. The thirty-sixth revolution was performed at the usual rate; so was the last or thirty-seventh, but it was not completed; for the internode suddenly became upright, and after moving to the centre, remained motionless. I tied a weight to its upper end, so as to bow it slightly and thus detect any movement; but there was none. Some time before the last revolution was half performed, the lower part of the internode ceased to move.
A few more remarks will complete all that need be said about this internode. It moved during five days; but the more rapid movements, after the performance of the third revolution, lasted during three days and twenty hours. The regular revolutions, from the ninth to thirty-sixth inclusive, were effected at the average rate of 2 hrs. 31 m.; but the weather was cold, and this affected the temperature of the room, especially during the night, and consequently retarded the rate of movement a little. There was only one irregular movement, which consisted in the stem rapidly making, after an unusually slow revolution, only the
segment of a circle. After the seventeenth revolution the internode had grown from 1¾ to 6 inches in length, and carried an internode 1 7/8 inch long, which was just perceptibly moving; and this carried a very minute ultimate internode. After the twenty-first revolution, the penultimate internode was 2½ inches long, and probably revolved in a period of about three hours. At the twenty-seventh revolution the lower and still moving internode was 8 3/8, the penultimate 3½, and the ultimate 2½ inches in length; and the inclination of the whole shoot was such, that a circle 19 inches in diameter was swept by it. When the movement ceased, the lower internode was 9 inches, and the penultimate 6 inches in length; so that, from the twenty-seventh to thirty-seventh revolutions inclusive, three internodes were at the same time revolving.
The lower internode, when it ceased revolving, became upright and rigid; but as the whole shoot was left to grow unsupported, it became after a time bent into a nearly horizontal position, the uppermost and growing internodes still revolving at the extremity, but of course no longer round the old central point of the supporting stick. From the changed position of the centre of gravity of the extremity, as it revolved, a slight and slow swaying movement was given to the long horizontally projecting shoot; and this movement I at first thought was a spontaneous one. As the shoot grew, it hung down more and more, whilst the growing and revolving extremity turned itself up more and more.
With the Hop we have seen that three internodes
were at the same time revolving; and this was the case with most of the plants observed by me. With all, if in full health, two internodes revolved; so that by the time the lower one ceased to revolve, the one above was in full action, with a terminal internode just commencing to move. With Hoya carnosa, on the other hand, a depending shoot, without any developed leaves, 32 inches in length, and consisting of seven internodes (a minute terminal one, an inch in length, being counted), continually, but slowly, swayed from side to side in a semicircular course, with the extreme internodes making complete revolutions. This swaying movement was certainly due to the movement of the lower internodes, which, however, had not force sufficient to swing the whole shoot round the central supporting stick. The case of another Asclepiadaceous plant, viz., Ceropegia Gardnerii, is worth briefly giving. I allowed the top to grow out almost horizontally to the length of 31 inches; this now consisted of three long internodes, terminated by two short ones. The whole revolved in a course opposed to the sun (the reverse of that of the Hop), at rates between 5 hrs. 15 m. and 6 hrs. 45 m. for each revolution. The extreme tip thus made a circle of above 5 feet (or 62 inches) in diameter and 16 feet in circumference, travelling at the rate of 32 or 33 inches per hour. The weather being hot, the plant was allowed to stand on my study-table; and it was an interesting spectacle to watch the long shoot sweeping this grand circle, night and day, in search of some object round which to twine.
If we take hold of a growing sapling, we can of course bend it to all sides in succession, so as to make the tip describe a circle, like that performed by the summit of a spontaneously revolving plant. By this movement the sapling is not in the least twisted round its own axis. I mention this because if a black point be painted on the bark, on the side which is uppermost when the sapling is bent towards the holder's body, as the circle is described, the black point gradually turns round and sinks to the lower side, and comes up again when the circle is completed; and this gives the false appearance of twisting, which, in the case of spontaneously revolving plants, deceived me for a time. The appearance is the more deceitful because the axes of nearly all twining-plants are really twisted; and they are twisted in the same direction with the spontaneous revolving movement. To give an instance, the internode of the Hop of which the history has been recorded, was at first, as could be seen by the ridges on its surface, not in the least twisted; but when, after the 37th revolution, it had grown 9 inches long, and its revolving movement had ceased, it had become twisted three times round its own axis, in the line of the course of the sun; on the other hand, the common Convolvulus, which revolves in an opposite course to the Hop, becomes twisted in an opposite direction.
Hence it is not surprising that Hugo von Mohl (p. 105, 108, &c.) thought that the twisting of the axis caused the revolving movement; but it is not
possible that the twisting of the axis of the Hop three times should have caused thirty-seven revolutions. Moreover, the revolving movement commenced in the young internode before any twisting of its axis could be detected. The internodes of a young Siphomeris and Lecontea revolved during several days, but became twisted only once round their own axes. The best evidence, however, that the twisting does not cause the revolving movement is afforded by many leaf-climbing and tendril-bearing plants (as Pisum sativum, Echinocystis lobata, Bignonia capreolata, Eccremocarpus scaber, and with the leaf-climbers, Solanum jasminoides and various species of Clematis), of which the internodes are not twisted, but which, as we shall hereafter see, regularly perform revolving movements like those of true twining-plants. Moreover, according to Palm (pp. 30, 95) and Mohl (p. 149), and Léon,* internodes may occasionally, and even not very rarely, be found which are twisted in an opposite direction to the other internodes on the same plant, and to the course of their revolutions; and this, according to Léon (p. 356), is the case with all the internodes of a certain variety of Phaseolus multiflorus. Internodes which have become twisted round their own axes, if they have not ceased to revolve, are still capable of twining round a support, as I have several times observed.
Mohl has remarked (p. 111) that when a stem twines round a smooth cylindrical stick, it does not become
* 'Bull. Bot Soc. de France,' tom. v. 1858, p. 356.
twisted.* Accordingly I allowed kidney-beans to run up stretched string, and up smooth rods of iron and glass, one-third of an inch in diameter, and they became twisted only in that degree which follows as a mechanical necessity from the spiral winding. The stems, on the other hand, which had ascended ordinary rough sticks were all more or less and generally much twisted. The influence of the roughness of the support in causing axial twisting was well seen in the stems which had twined up the glass rods; for these rods were fixed into split sticks below, and were secured above to cross sticks, and the stems in passing these places became much twisted. As soon as the stems which had ascended the iron rods reached the summit and became free, they also became twisted; and this apparently occurred more quickly during windy than during calm weather. Several other facts could be given, showing that the axial twisting stands in some relation to inequalities in the support, and likewise to the shoot revolving freely without any support. Many plants, which are not twiners, become in some degree twisted round their own axes;† but this occurs so much more
* This whole subject has been ably discussed and explained by H. de Vries, 'Arbeiten des Bot. Instituts in Würzburg,' Heft iii. pp. 331, 336. See also Sachs ('Text-Book of Botany,' English translation, 1875, p. 770), who concludes "that torsion is the result of growth continuing in the outer layers after it has ceased or begun to cease in the inner layers."
† Professor Asa Gray has remarked to me, in a letter, that in Thuja occidentalis the twisting of the bark is very conspicuous. The twist is generally to the right of the observer; but, in noticing about a hundred trunks, four or
generally and strongly with twining-plants than with other plants, that there must be some connexion between the capacity for twining and axial twisting. The stem probably gains rigidity by being twisted (on the same principle that a much twisted rope is stiffer than a slackly twisted one), and is thus indirectly benefited so as to be enabled to pass over inequalities in its spiral ascent, and to carry its own weight when allowed to revolve freely.*
I have alluded to the twisting which necessarily follows on mechanical principles from the spiral ascent of a stem, namely, one twist for each spire completed. This was well shown by painting straight lines on living stems, and then allowing them to twine; but, as I shall have to recur to this subject under Tendrils, it may be here passed over.
The revolving movement of a twining plant has been compared with that of the tip of a sapling, moved round and round by the hand held some way down the stem; but there is one important difference. The upper part of the sapling when thus moved
five were observed to be twisted in an opposite direction. The Spanish chestnut is often much twisted: there is an interesting article on this subject in the 'Scottish Farmer,' 1865, p. 833.
* It is well known that the stems of many plants occasionally become spirally twisted in a monstrous manner; and after my paper was read before the Linnean Society, Dr. Maxwell Masters remarked to me in a letter that "some of these cases, if not all, are dependent upon some obstacle or resistance to their upward growth." This conclusion agrees with what I have said about the twisting of stems, which have twined round rugged supports; but does not preclude the twisting being of service to the plant by giving greater rigidity to the stem.
remains straight; but with twining plants every part of the revolving shoot has its own separate and independent movement. This is easily proved; for when the lower half or two-thirds of a long revolving shoot is tied to a stick, the upper free part continues steadily revolving. Even if the whole shoot, except an inch or two of the extremity, be tied up, this part, as I have seen in the case of the Hop, Ceropegia, Convolvulus, &c., goes on revolving, but much more slowly; for the internodes, until they have grown to some little length, always move slowly. If we look to the one, two, or several internodes of a revolving shoot, they will be all seen to be more or less bowed, either during the whole or during a large part of each revolution. Now if a coloured streak be painted (this was done with a large number of twining plants) along, we will say, the convex surface, the streak will after a time (depending on the rate of revolution) be found to be running laterally along one side of the bow, then along the concave side, then laterally on the opposite side, and, lastly, again on the originally convex surface. This clearly proves that during the revolving movement the internodes become bowed in every direction. The movement is, in fact, a continuous self-bowing of the whole shoot, successively directed to all points of the compass; and has been well designated by Sachs as a revolving nutation.
As this movement is rather difficult to understand, it will be well to give an illustration. Take a sapling and bend it to the south, and paint a black line on the
convex surface; let the sapling spring up and bend it to the east, and the black line will be seen to run along the lateral face fronting the north; bend it to the north, the black line will be on the concave surface; bend it to the west, the line will again be on the lateral face; and when again bent to the south, the line will be on the original convex surface. Now, instead of bending the sapling, let us suppose that the cells along its northern surface from the base to the tip were to grow much more rapidly than on the three other sides, the whole shoot would then necessarily be bowed to the south; and let the longitudinal growing surface creep round the shoot, deserting by slow degrees the northern side and encroaching on the western side, and so round by the south, by the east, again to the north. In this case the shoot would remain always bowed with the painted line appearing on the several above specified surfaces, and with the point of the shoot successively directed to each point of the compass. In fact, we should have the exact kind of movement performed by the revolving shoots of twining plants.*
It must not be supposed that the revolving movement is as regular as that given in the above illustration; in very many cases the tip describes an ellipse, even a very narrow ellipse. To recur once again to
* The view that the revolving movement or nutation of the stems of twining plants is due to growth is that advanced by Sachs and H. de Vries; and the truth of this view is proved by their excellent observations.
our illustration, if we suppose only the northern and southern surfaces of the sapling alternately to grow rapidly, the summit would describe a simple arc; if the growth first travelled a very little to the western face, and during the return a very little to the eastern face, a narrow ellipse would be described; and the sapling would be straight as it passed to and fro through the intermediate space; and a complete straightening of the shoot may often be observed in revolving plants. The movement is frequently such that three of the sides of the shoot seem to be growing in due order more rapidly than the remaining side; so that a semi-circle instead of a circle is described, the shoot becoming straight and upright during half of its course.
When a revolving shoot consists of several internodes, the lower ones bend together at the same rate, but one or two of the terminal ones bend at a slower rate; hence, though at times all the internodes are in the same direction, at other times the shoot is rendered slightly serpentine. The rate of revolution of the whole shoot, if judged by the movement of the extreme tip, is thus at times accelerated or retarded. One other point must be noticed. Authors have observed that the end of the shoot in many twining plants is completely hooked; this is very general, for instance, with the Asclepiadaceæ. The hooked tip, in all the cases observed by me, viz, in Ceropegia, Sphærostema, Clerodendron, Wistaria, Stephania, Akebia, and Siphomeris, has exactly the same kind of movement as the
other internodes; for a line painted on the convex surface first becomes lateral and then concave; but, owing to the youth of these terminal internodes, the reversal of the hook is a slower process than that of the revolving movement.* This strongly marked tendency in the young, terminal and flexible internodes, to bend in a greater degree or more abruptly than the other internodes, is of service to the plant; for not only does the hook thus formed sometimes serve to catch a support, but (and this seems to be much more important) it causes the extremity of the shoot to embrace the support much more closely than it could otherwise have done, and thus aids in preventing the stem from being blown away during windy weather, as I have many times observed. In Lonicera brachypoda the hook only straightens itself periodically, and never becomes reversed. I will not assert that the tips of all twining plants when hooked, either reverse themselves or become periodically straight, in the manner just described; for the hooked form may in some cases be permanent, and be due to the manner of growth of the species, as with the tips of the shoots of the common vine, and more plainly with those of Cissus discolor—plants which are not spiral twiners.
The first purpose of the spontaneous revolving movement, or, more strictly speaking, of the con-
* The mechanism by which the end of the shoot remains hooked appears to be a difficult and complex problem, discussed by Dr. H. de Vries (ibid. p. 337): he concludes that "it depends on the relation between the rapidity of torsion and the rapidity of nutation."
tinuous bowing movement directed successively to all points of the compass, is, as Mohl has remarked, to favour the shoot finding a support. This is admirably effected by the revolutions carried on night and day, a wider and wider circle being swept as the shoot increases in length. This movement likewise explains how the plants twine; for when a revolving shoot meets with a support, its motion is necessarily arrested at the point of contact, but the free projecting part goes on revolving. As this continues, higher and higher points are brought into contact with the support and are arrested; and so onwards to the extremity; and thus the shoot winds round its support. When the shoot follows the sun in its revolving course, it winds round the support from right to left, the support being supposed to stand in front of the beholder; when the shoot revolves in an opposite direction, the line of winding is reversed. As each internode loses from age its power of revolving, it likewise loses its power of spirally twining. If a man swings a rope round his head, and the end hits a stick, it will coil round the stick according to the direction of the swinging movement; so it is with a twining plant, a line of growth travelling round the free part of the shoot causing it to bend towards the opposite side, and this replaces the momentum of the free end of the rope.
All the authors, except Palm and Mohl, who have discussed the spiral twining of plants, maintain that such plants have a natural tendency to grow spirally. Mohl believes (p. 112) that twining stems have
a dull kind of irritability, so that they bend towards any object which they touch; but this is denied by Palm. Even before reading Mohl's interesting treatise, this view seemed to me so probable that I tested it in every way that I could, but always with a negative result. I rubbed many shoots much harder than is necessary to excite movement in any tendril or in the foot-stalk of any leaf climber, but without any effect. I then tied a light forked twig to a shoot of a Hop, a Ceropegia, Sphærostema, and Adhatoda, so that the fork pressed on one side alone of the shoot and revolved with it; I purposely selected some very slow revolvers, as it seemed most likely that these would profit most from possessing irritability; but in no case was any effect produced.* Moreover, when a shoot winds round a support, the winding movement is always slower, as we shall immediately see, than whilst it revolves freely and touches nothing. Hence I conclude that twining stems are not irritable; and indeed it is not probable that they should be so, as nature always economizes her means, and irritability would have been superfluous. Nevertheless I do not wish to assert that they are never irritable; for the growing axis of the leaf-climbing, but not spirally twining, Lophospermum scandens is, certainly irritable; but this case gives me confidence that ordinary twiners
* Dr. H. de Vries also has shown (ibid. p. 321 and 325) by a better method than that employed by me, that the stems of twining plants are not irritable, and that the cause of their winding up a support is exactly what I have described.
do not possess any such quality, for directly after putting a stick to the Lophospermum, I saw that it behaved differently from a true twiner or any other leaf-climber.*
The belief that twiners have a natural tendency to grow spirally, probably arose from their assuming a spiral form when wound round a support, and from the extremity, even whilst remaining free, sometimes assuming this form. The free internodes of vigorously growing plants, when they cease to revolve, become straight, and show no tendency to be spiral; but when a shoot has nearly ceased to grow, or when the plant is unhealthy, the extremity does occasionally become spiral. I have seen this in a remarkable manner with the ends of the shoots of the Stauntonia and of the allied Akebia, which became wound up into a close spire, just like a tendril; and this was apt to occur after some small, ill-formed leaves had perished. The explanation, I believe, is, that in such cases the lower parts of the terminal internodes very gradually and successively lose their power of movement, whilst the portions just above move onwards and in their turn become motionless; and this ends in forming an irregular spire.
When a revolving shoot strikes a stick, it winds round it rather more slowly than it revolves. For instance, a shoot of the Ceropegia, revolved in 6 hrs.,
* Dr. H. de Vries states (ibid. p. 322) that the stem of Cuscuta is irritable like a tendril.
but took 9 hrs. 30 m. to make one complete spire round a stick; Aristolochia gigas revolved in about 5 hrs., but took 9 hrs. 15 m. to complete its spire. This, I presume, is due to the continued disturbance of the impelling force by the arrestment of the movement at successive points; and we shall hereafter see that even shaking a plant retards the revolving movement. The terminal internodes of a long, much-inclined, revolving shoot of the Ceropegia, after they had wound round a stick, always slipped up it, so as to render the spire more open than it was at first; and this was probably in part due to the force which caused the revolutions, being now almost freed from the constraint of gravity and allowed to act freely. With the Wistaria, on the other hand, a long horizontal shoot wound itself at first into a very close spire, which remained unchanged; but subsequently, as the shoot twined spirally up its support, it made a much more open spire. With all the many plants which were allowed freely to ascend a support, the terminal internodes made at first a close spire; and this, during windy weather, served to keep the shoots in close contact with their support; but as the penultimate internodes grew in length, they pushed themselves up for a considerable space (ascertained by coloured marks on the shoot and on the support) round the stick, and the spire became more open.*
It follows from this latter fact that the position
* See Dr. H. de Vries (ibid. p. 324) on this subject.
occupied by each leaf with respect to the support, depends on the growth of the internodes after they have become spirally wound round it. I mention this on account of an observation by Palm (p. 34), who states that the opposite leaves of the Hop always stand in a row, exactly over one another, on the same side of the supporting stick, whatever its thickness may be. My sons visited a hop-field for me, and reported that though they generally found the points of insertion of the leaves standing over each other for a space of two or three feet in height, yet this never occurred up the whole length of the pole; the points of insertion forming, as might have been expected, an irregular spire. Any irregularity in the pole entirely destroyed the regularity of position of the leaves. From casual inspection, it appeared to me that the opposite leaves of Thunbergia alata were arranged in lines up the sticks round which they had twined; accordingly, I raised a dozen plants, and gave them sticks of various thicknesses, as well as string, to twine round; and in this case one alone out of the dozen had its leaves arranged in a perpendicular line: I conclude, therefore, Palm's statement is not quite accurate.
The leaves of different twining-plants are arranged on the stem (before it has twined) alternately, or oppositely, or in a spire. In the latter case the line of insertion of the leaves and the course of the revolutions coincide. This fact has been well shown by Dutrochet,*
* Comptes Rendus, 1844, tom. xix. p. 295, and Annales des Sc. Nat. 3rd series, Bot., tom. ii. p. 163.
who found different individuals of Solanum dulcamara twining in opposite directions, and these had their leaves in each case spirally arranged in the same direction. A dense whorl of many leaves would apparently be incommodious for a twining plant, and some authors assert that none have their leaves thus arranged; but a twining Siphomeris has whorls of three leaves.
If a stick which has arrested a revolving shoot, but has not as yet been encircled, be suddenly taken away, the shoot generally springs forward, showing that it was pressing with some force against the stick. After a shoot has wound round a stick, if this be withdrawn, it retains for a time its spiral form; it then straightens itself, and again commences to revolve. The long, much-inclined shoot of the Ceropegia previously alluded to offered some curious peculiarities. The lower and older internodes, which continued to revolve, were incapable, on repeated trials, of twining round a thin stick; showing that, although the power of movement was retained, this was not sufficient to enable the plant to twine. I then moved the stick to a greater distance, so that it was struck by a point 2½ inches from the extremity of the penultimate internode; and it was then neatly encircled by this part of the penultimate and by the ultimate internode. After leaving the spirally wound shoot for eleven hours, I quietly withdrew the stick, and in the course of the day the curled portion straightened itself and recommenced revolving; but the lower and not curled portion of the penultimate internode did
not move, a sort of hinge separating the moving and the motionless part of the same internode. After a few days, however, I found that this lower part had likewise recovered its revolving power. These several facts show that the power of movement is not immediately lost in the arrested portion of a revolving shoot; and that after being temporarily lost it can be recovered. When a shoot has remained for a considerable time round a support, it permanently retains its spiral form even when the support is removed.
When a tall stick was placed so as to arrest the lower and rigid internodes of the Ceropegia, at the distance at first of 15 and then of 21 inches from the centre of revolution, the straight shoot slowly and gradually slid up the stick, so as to become more and more highly inclined, but did not pass over the summit. Then, after an interval sufficient to have allowed of a semi-revolution, the shoot suddenly bounded from the stick and fell over to the opposite side or point of the compass, and reassumed its previous slight inclination. It now recommenced revolving in its usual course, so that after a semi-revolution it again came into contact with the stick, again slid up it, and again bounded from it and fell over to the opposite side. This movement of the shoot had a very odd appearance, as if it were disgusted with its failure but was resolved to try again. We shall, I think, understand this movement by considering the former illustration of the sapling, in which the growing surface was supposed to creep round
from the northern by the western to the southern face; and thence back again by the eastern to the northern face, successively bowing the sapling in all directions. Now with the Ceropegia, the stick being placed to the south of the shoot and in contact with it, as soon as the circulatory growth reached the western surface, no effect would be produced, except that the shoot would be pressed firmly against the stick. But as soon as growth on the southern surface began, the shoot would be slowly dragged with a sliding movement up the stick; and then, as soon as the eastern growth commenced, the shoot would be drawn from the stick, and its weight coinciding with the effects of the changed surface of growth, would cause it suddenly to fall to the opposite side, reassuming its previous slight inclination; and the ordinary revolving movement would then go on as before. I have described this curious case with some care, because it first led me to understand the order in which, as I then thought, the surfaces contracted; but in which, as we now know from Sachs and H. de Vries, they grow for a time rapidly, thus causing the shoot to bow towards the opposite side.
The view just given further explains, as I believe, a fact observed by Mohl (p. 135), namely, that a revolving shoot, though it will twine round an object as thin as a thread, cannot do so round a thick support. I placed some long revolving shoots of a Wistaria close to a post between 5 and 6 inches in diameter, but, though aided by me in many ways, they could
not wind round it. This apparently was due to the flexure of the shoot, whilst winding round an object so gently curved as this post, not being sufficient to hold the shoot to its place when the growing surface crept round to the opposite surface of the shoot; so that it was withdrawn at each revolution from its support.
When a free shoot has grown far beyond its support, it sinks downwards from its weight, as already explained in the case of the Hop, with the revolving extremity turned upwards. If the support be not lofty, the shoot falls to the ground, and resting there, the extremity rises up. Sometimes several shoots, when flexible, twine together into a cable, and thus support one another. Single thin depending shoots, such as those of the Sollya Drummondii, will turn abruptly backwards and wind up on themselves. The greater number of the depending shoots, however, of one twining plant, the Hibbertia dentata, showed but little tendency to turn upwards. In other cases, as with the Cryptostegia grandiflora, several internodes which were at first flexible and revolved, if they did not succeed in twining round a support, become quite rigid, and supporting themselves upright, carried on their summits the younger revolving internodes.
Here will be a convenient place to give a Table showing the direction and rate of movement of several twining plants, with a few appended remarks. These plants are arranged according to Lindley's 'Vegetable Kingdom' of 1853; and they have been selected from
all parts of the series so as to show that all kinds behave in a nearly uniform manner.*
The Rate of Revolution of various Twining Plants.
Lygodium scandens (Polypodiaceæ) moves against the sun.
|June||18,||1st circle was made in||.
||(late in evening)|
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||(very hot day)|
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
||(very hot day)|
||5th ,, ,, ,,||.
Lygodium articulatum moves against the sun.
|July||19,||1st circle was made in||.
||16||30||(shoot very young)|
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
Ruscus androgynus (Liliaceæ), placed in the hot-house, moves against the sun.
|May||24,||1st circle was made in||.
||6||14||(shoot very young)|
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
||5th ,, ,, ,,||.
||6th ,, ,, ,,||.
||7th ,, ,, ,,||.
* I am much indebted to Dr. Hooker for having sent me many plants from Kew; and to Mr. Veitch, of the Royal Exotic Nursery, for having generously given me a collection of fine specimens of climbing plants. Professor Asa Gray, Prof. Oliver, and Dr. Hooker have afforded me, as on many previous occasions, much information and many references.
Asparagus (unnamed species from Kew) (Liliaceæ) moves against the sun, placed in hothouse.
|Dec.||26,||1st circle was made in||. .
Tamus communis (Dioscoreaceæ). A young shoot from a tuber in a pot placed in the greenhouse: follows the sun.
|July,||7,||1st circle was made in||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .||3
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
||6th ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
Lapagerea rosea (Philesiaceæ), in greenhouse, follows the sun.
|March||9,||1st circle was made in||. .
||26||15|| (shoot young)
||2nd circle ,, ,,||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||when placed in the hothouse; but the next day the shoot remained stationary.|
Roxburghia viridiflora (Roxburghiaceæ) moves against the sun; it completed a circle in about 24 hours.
Humulus Lupulus (Urticaceæ) follows the sun. The plant was kept in a room during warm weather.
|April||9,||2 circles were made in||. .
||3rd circle was
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||6th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||7th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||8th ,, ,, ,,||. .
With the Hop a semicircle was performed, in travelling from the light, in 1 hr. 33 m.; in travelling to the light, in 1 hr. 13 m.; difference of rate, 20 m.
Akebia quinata (Lardizabalaceæ), placed in hothouse, moves against the sun.
|March||17,||1st circle was made in||. .
||4||0|| (shoot young)
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .
Stauntonia latifolia (Lardizabalaceæ), placed in hothouse, moves against the sun.
|March||28,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .
Sphærostema marmoratum (Schizandraceæ) follows the sun.
|August||5th,||1st circle was made
||2nd circle was made in||. .
Stephania rotunda (Menispermaceæ) moves against the sun.
|May||27,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .
Thryallis brachystachys (Malpighiaceæ) moves against the sun: one shoot made a circle in 12 hrs., and another in 10 hrs. 30 m.; but the next day, which was much colder, the first shoot took 10 hrs. to perform only a semicircle.
Hibbertia dentata (Dilleniaceæ), placed in the hothouse, followed the sun, and made (May 18th) a circle in 7 hrs. 20 m.; on the 19th, reversed its course, and moved against the sun, and made a circle in 7 hrs.; on the 20th, moved against the sun one-third of a circle, and then stood still; on the 26th, followed the
sun for two-thirds of a circle, and then returned to its starting-point, taking for this double course 11 hrs. 46 m.
Sollya Drummondii (Pittosporaceæ) moves against the sun; kept in greenhouse.
|April||4,||1st circle was made in||.
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||(very cold day)
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
Polygonum dumetorum (Polygonaceæ). This case is taken from Dutrochet (p. 299), as I observed, no allied plant: follows the sun. Three shoots, cut off a plant, and placed in water, made circles in 3 hrs. 10 m., 5 hrs. 20 m., and 7 hrs. 15 m.
Wistaria Chinensis (Leguminosæ), in greenhouse, moves against the sun.
|May||13,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .
||6th ,, ,, ,,||. .
Phaseolus vulgaris (Leguminosæ), in greenhouse, moves against the sun.
|May,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
Dipladenia urophylla (Apocynaceæ) moves against the sun.
||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .
Dipladenia crassinoda moves against the sun.
||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .
Ceropegia Gardnerii (Asclepiadaceæ) moves against the sun.
|Shoot very young, 2
inches in length ..
||1st circle was performed in||7
|Shoot still young ..||2nd ,,
|Long shoot ..||3rd ,, ,, ,, ,,||6
|Long shoot ..||4th ,, ,, ,, ,,||5
|Long shoot ..||5th ,, ,, ,, ,,||6
Stephanotis floribunda (Asclepiadaceæ) moves against the sun and made a circle in 6 hrs. 40 m., a second circle in about 9 hrs.
Hoya carnosa (Asclepiadaceæ) made several circles in from 16 hrs. to 22 hrs. or 24 hrs.
Ipomœa purpurea (Convolvulaceæ) moves against the sun. Plant placed in room with lateral light.
|1st circle was made in 2 hrs. 42 m.||Semicircle, from the light in 1 hr. 14 m., to the light 1 hr. 28 m.: difference 14 m.|
|2nd circle was made in 2 hrs. 47 m.||Semicircle, from the light in 1 hr. 17 m., to the light 1 hr. 30 m.: difference 13 m|
Ipomœa jucunda (Convolvulaceæ) moves against the sun, placed in my study, with windows facing the north-east. Weather hot.
|1st circle was made in 5 hrs. 30 m.||Semicircle, from the light in 4 hrs. 30 m., to the light 1 hr. 0 m.: difference 3 hrs. 30 m.|
|2nd circle was made in 5 hrs. 20 m. (Late in afternoon: circle completed at 6 hrs. 40 m. P.M.)||Semicircle, from the light in 3 hrs. 50 m., to the light 1 hr. 30 m.: difference 2 hrs. 20 m.|
We have here a remarkable instance of the power of light in retarding and hastening the revolving movement.
Convolvulus sepium (large-flowered cultivated var.) moves against the sun. Two circles, were made each in 1 hr. 42 m.: difference in semicircle from and to the light 14 m.
Rivea tiliæfolia (Convolvulaceæ) moves against the sun, made four revolutions in 9 hrs.; so that, on an average, each was performed in 2 hrs. 15 m.
Plumbago rosea (Plumbaginaceæ) follows the sun. The shoot did not begin to revolve until nearly a yard in height; it then made a fine circle in 10 hrs. 45 m. During the next few days it continued to move, but irregularly. On August 15th the shoot followed, during a period of 10 hrs. 40 m., a long and deeply zigzag course and then made a broad ellipse. The figure apparently represented three ellipses, each of which averaged 3 hrs. 33 m. for its completion.
Jasminum pauciflorum, Bentham (Jasminaceæ), moves against the sun. A circle was made in 7 hrs. 15 m., and a second rather more quickly.
Clerodendrum Thomsonii (Verbenaceæ) follows the sun.
||12,||1st circle was made in||.
||5||45||(shoot very young)|
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||a semicircle ,,||.
||(directly after the
plant was shaken on being moved)
||3rd circle ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
Tecoma jasminoides (Bignoniaceæ) moves against the sun.
||17,||1st circle was made in||.
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||(very cold day)|
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceæ) moves against sun.
||14,||1st circle was made in||.
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
||(late in afternoon)|
Adhadota cydonæfolia (Acanthaceæ) follows the sun. A young shoot made a semicircle in 24 hrs.; subsequently it made a circle in between 40 hrs. and 48 hrs. Another shoot, however, made a circle in 26 hrs. 30 m.
Mikania scandens (Compositæ) moves against the sun.
|March||14,||1st circle was made in||3||10||
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||3
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||3
||4th ,, ,, ,,||3
||5th ,, ,, ,,||2
||6th ,, ,, ,,||2
||This circle was made after a copious watering with cold water at 47° Fahr.|
Combretum argenteum (Combretaceæ) moves against the sun. Kept in hothouse.
|Jan.||24,||1st circle was made in||2||55||Early in morning, when the temperature of the house had fallen a little.|
||2 circles each at an average of ..||2
||4th circle was made in||2
Combretum purpureum revolves not quite so quickly as C. argenteum.
Loasa aurantiaca (Loasaceæ). Revolutions variable in their course: a plant which moved against the sun.
|June||20,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .||4
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .||3
||6th ,, ,, ,,||. .||3
Another plant which followed the sun in its revolutions.
|July||11,||1st circle was made in||. .
Very hot day.
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .||1
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .||1
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .||1
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
Scyphanthus elegans (Loasaceæ) follows the sun.
|June||13,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .||1
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .||1
||4th ,, ,, ,,||. .||1
||5th ,, ,, ,,||. .||2
Siphomeris or Lecontea (unnamed sp.) (Cinchonaceæ) follows the sun.
|May||25,||semicircle was made in||.
||10||27||(shoot extremely young)|
||2st circle ,, ,,||.||10
||(shoot still young)|
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
||5th ,, ,, ,,||.
||Taken from the hothouse, and placed in a room in my house.|
||6th ,, ,, ,,||.
Manettia bicolor (Cinchonaceæ), young plant, follows the sun.
|July||7,||1st circle was made in||. .
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||. .||6
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||. .||6
Lonicera brachypoda (Caprifoliaceæ) follows the sun, kept in a warm room in the house.
|April,||1st circle was made in||.
|April,||2nd circle was made in||12||20||(a distinct shoot, very young, on same plant)|
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
||4th ,, ,, ,,||.
||In this latter circle, the semicircle from the light took 5 hrs. 23 m., and to the light 2 hrs. 37 min.: difference 2 hrs 46m.|
Aristolochia gigas (Aristolochiaceæ) moves against the sun.
|July||22,||1st circle was made in||.
||8||0||(rather young shoot)|
||2nd ,, ,, ,,||.
||3rd ,, ,, ,,||.
In the foregoing Table, which includes twining plants belonging to widely different orders, we see that the rate at which growth travels or circulates round the axis (on which the revolving movement depends), differs much. As long as a plant remains under the same conditions, the rate is often remarkably uniform, as with the Hop, Mikania, Phaseolus, &c. The Scyphanthus made one revolution in 1 hr. 17 m., and this is the quickest rate observed by me; but we shall hereafter see a tendril-bearing Passiflora revolving more rapidly. A shoot of the Akebia quinata made a revolution in 1 hr. 30 m., and three revolutions at the average rate of 1 hr. 38 m.; a Convolvulus made two revolutions at the average of 1 hr. 42 m., and Phaseolus vulgaris three at the average of 1 hr. 57 m. On the other hand, some plants take 24 hrs. for a single revolution, and the Adhadota sometimes required 48 hrs.; yet this latter plant is an efficient twiner.
Species of the same genus move at different rates. The rate does not seem governed by the thickness of the shoots: those of the Sollya are as thin and flexible as string, but move more slowly than the thick and fleshy shoots of the Ruscus, which seem little fitted for movement of any kind. The shoots of the Wistaria, which become woody, move faster than those of the herbaceous Ipomœa or Thunbergia.
We know that the internodes, whilst still very young, do not acquire their proper rate of movement; hence the several shoots on the same plant may sometimes be seen revolving at different rates. The two or three, or even more, internodes which are first formed above the cotyledons, or above the root-stock of a perennial plant, do not move; they can support themselves, and nothing superfluous is granted.
A greater number of twiners revolve in a course opposed to that of the sun, or to the hands of a watch, than in the reversed course, and, consequently, the majority, as is well known, ascend their supports from left to right. Occasionally, though rarely, plants of the same order twine in opposite directions, of which Mohl (p. 125) gives a case in the Leguminosæ, and we have in the table another in the Acanthaceæ. I have seen no instance of two species of the same genus twining in opposite directions, and such cases must be rare; but Fritz Müller* states that although Mikania
* Journal of the Linn. Soc. (Bot.) vol. ix. p. 344. I shall have occasion often to quote this interesting paper, in which he corrects or confirms various statements made by me.
scandens twines, as I have described, from left to right, another species in South Brazil twines in an opposite direction. It would have been an anomalous circumstance if no such cases had occurred, for different individuals of the same species, namely, of Solanum dulcamara (Dutrochet, tom. xix. p. 299), revolve and twine in two directions: this plant, however; is a most feeble twiner. Loasa aurantiaca (Léon, p. 351) offers a much more curious case: I raised seventeen plants: of these eight revolved in opposition to the sun and ascended from left to right; five followed the sun and ascended from right to left; and four revolved and twined first in one direction, and then reversed their course,* the petioles of the opposite leaves affording a point d'appui for the reversal of the spire. One of these four plants made seven spiral turns from right to left, and five turns from left to right. Another plant in the same family, the Scyphanthus elegans, habitually twines in this same manner. I raised many plants of it, and the stems of all took one turn, or occasionally two or even three turns in one direction, and then, ascending for a short space straight, reversed their course and took one or two turns in an opposite direction. The reversal of the curvature occurred at any point in the stem, even in the middle of an internode. Had I not seen this case, I should have thought its occurrence
* I raised nine plants of the hybrid Loasa Herbertii, and six of these also reversed their spire in ascending a support.
most improbable. It would be hardly possible with any plant which ascended above a few feet in height, or which lived in an exposed situation; for the stem could be pulled away easily from its support, with but little unwinding; nor could it have adhered at all, had not the internodes soon become moderately rigid. With leaf-climbers, as we shall soon see, analogous cases frequently occur; but these present no difficulty, as the stem is secured by the clasping petioles.
In the many other revolving and twining plants observed by me, I never but twice saw the movement reversed; once, and only for a short space, in Ipomœa jucunda; but frequently with Hibbertia dentata. This plant at first perplexed me much, for I continually observed its long and flexible shoots, evidently well fitted for twining, make a whole, or half, or quarter circle in one direction and then in an opposite direction; consequently, when I placed the shoots near thin or thick sticks, or perpendicularly stretched string, they seemed as if constantly trying to ascend, but always failed. I then surrounded the plant with a mass of branched twigs; the shoots ascended, and passed through them, but several came out laterally, and their depending extremities seldom turned upwards as is usual with twining plants. Finally, I surrounded a second plant with many thin upright sticks, and placed it near the first one with twigs; and now both had got what they liked, for they twined up the parallel sticks, sometimes winding round one and sometimes round several; and the shoots travelled
laterally from one to the other pot; but as the plants grew older, some of the shoots twined regularly up thin upright sticks. Though the revolving movement was sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other, the twining was invariably from left to right;* so that the more potent or persistent movement of revolution must have been in opposition to the course of the sun. It would appear that this Hibbertia is adapted both to ascend by twining, and to ramble laterally through the thick Australian scrub.
I have described the above case in some detail, because, as far as I have seen, it is rare to find any special adaptations with twining plants, in which respect they differ much from the more highly organized tendril-bearers. The Solanum dulcamara, as we shall presently see, can twine only round stems which are both thin and flexible. Most twining plants are adapted to ascend supports of moderate though of different thicknesses. Our English twiners, as far as I have seen, never twine round trees, excepting the honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum), which I have observed twining up a young beech-tree nearly 4½ inches in diameter. Mohl (p. 134) found that the Phaseolus multiflorus and Ipomœa purpurea could not,
* In another genus, namely Davilla, belonging to the same family with Hibbertia, Fritz Müller says (ibid. p. 349) that "the stem twines indifferently from left to right, or from right to left; and I once saw a shoot which ascended a tree about five inches in diameter, reverse its course in the same manner as so frequently occurs with Loasa."
when placed in a room with the light entering on one side, twine round sticks between 3 and 4 inches in diameter; for this interfered, in a manner presently to be explained, with the revolving movement. In the open air, however, the Phaseolus twined round a support of the above thickness, but failed in twining round one 9 inches in diameter. Nevertheless, some twiners of the warmer temperate regions can manage this latter degree of thickness; for I hear from Dr. Hooker that at Kew the Ruscus androgynus has ascended a column 9 inches in diameter; and although a Wistaria grown by me in a small pot tried in vain for weeks to get round a post between 5 and 6 inches in thickness, yet at Kew a plant ascended a trunk above 6 inches in diameter. The tropical twiners, on the other hand, can ascend thicker trees; I hear from Drs. Thomson and Hooker that this is the case with the Butea parviflora, one of the Menispermaceæ, and with some Dalbergias and other Leguminosæ.* This power would be necessary for any species which had to ascend by twining the large trees of a tropical forest; otherwise they would hardly ever be able to reach the light. In our temperate countries it would be injurious to the twining plants which die down every year if
* Fritz Müller states (ibid. p. 349) that he saw on one occasion in the forests of South Brazil a trunk about five feet in circumference spirally ascended by a plant, apparently belonging to the Menispermaceæ. He adds in his letter to me that most of the climbing plants which there ascend thick trees, are root-climbers; some being tendril-bearers.
they were enabled to twine round trunks of trees, for they could not grow tall enough in a single season to reach the summit and gain the light.
By what means certain twining plants are adapted to ascend only thin stems, whilst others can twine round thicker ones, I do not know. It appeared to me probable that twining plants with very long revolving shoots would be able to ascend thick supports; accordingly I placed Ceropegia Gardnerii near a post 6 inches in diameter, but the shoots entirely failed to wind round it; their great length and power of movement merely aid them in finding a distant stem round which to twine. The Sphærostemma marmoratum is a vigorous tropical twiner; and as it is a very slow revolver, I thought that this latter circumstance might help it in ascending a thick support; but though it was able to wind round a 6-inch post, it could do this only on the same level or plane, and did not form a spire and thus ascend.
As ferns differ so much in structure from phanerogamic plants, it may be worth while here to show that twining ferns do not differ in their habits from other twining plants. In Lygodium articulatum the two internodes of the stem (properly the rachis) which are first formed above the root-stock do not move; the third from the ground revolves, but at first very slowly. This species is a slow revolver: but L. scandens made five revolutions, each at the average rate of 5 hrs. 45 m.; and this represents fairly well the usual rate, taking quick and slow movers, amongst
phanerogamic plants. The rate was accelerated by increased temperature. At each stage of growth only the two upper internodes revolved. A line painted along the convex surface of a revolving internode becomes first lateral, then concave, then lateral and ultimately again convex. Neither the internodes nor the petioles are irritable when rubbed. The movement is in the usual direction, namely, in opposition to the course of the sun; and when the stem twines round a thin stick, it becomes twisted on its own axis in the same direction. After the young internodes have twined round a stick, their continued growth causes them to slip a little upwards. If the stick be soon removed, they straighten themselves, and recommence revolving. The extremities of the depending shoots turn upwards, and twine on themselves. In all these respects we have complete identity with twining phanerogamic plants; and the above enumeration may serve as a summary of the leading characteristics of all twining plants.
The power of revolving depends on the general health and vigour of the plant, as has been laboriously shown by Palm. But the movement of each separate internode is so independent of the others, that cutting off an upper one does not affect the revolutions of a lower one. When, however, Dutrochet cut off two whole shoots of the Hop, and placed them in water, the movement was greatly retarded; for one revolved in 20 hrs. and the other in 23 hrs., whereas they ought to have revolved in between 2 hrs. and 2 hrs. 30 m.
Shoots of the Kidney-bean, cut off and placed in water, were similarly retarded, but in a less degree. I have repeatedly observed that carrying a plant from the greenhouse to my room, or from one part to another of the greenhouse, always stopped the movement for a time; hence I conclude that plants in a state of nature and growing in exposed situations, would not make their revolutions during very stormy weather. A decrease in temperature always caused a considerable retardation in the rate of revolution; but Dutrochet (tom. xvii. pp. 994, 996) has given such precise observations on this head with respect to the common pea that I need say nothing more. When twining plants are placed near a window in a room, the light in some cases has a remarkable power (as was likewise observed by Dutrochet, p. 998, with the pea) on the revolving movement, but this differs in degree with different plants; thus Ipomœa jucunda made a complete circle in 5 hrs. 30 m.; the semicircle from the light taking 4 hrs. 30 m., and that towards the light only 1 hr. Lonicera brachypoda revolved, in a reversed direction to the Ipomœa, in 8 hrs.; the semicircle from the light taking 5 hrs. 23 m., and that to the light only 2 hrs. 37 m. From the rate of revolution in all the plants observed by me, being nearly the same during the night and the day, I infer that the action of the light is confined to retarding one semicircle and accelerating the other, so as not to modify greatly the rate of the whole revolution. This action of the light is remarkable,
when we reflect how little the leaves are developed on the young and thin revolving internodes. It is all the more remarkable, as botanists believe (Mohl, p. 119) that twining plants are but little sensitive to the action of light.
I will conclude my account of twining plants by giving a few miscellaneous and curious cases. With most twining plants all the branches, however many there may be, go on revolving together; but, according to Mohl (p. 4), only the lateral branches of Tamus elephantipes twine, and not the main stem. On the other hand, with a climbing species of Asparagus, the leading shoot alone, and not the branches, revolved and twined; but it should be stated that the plant was not growing vigorously. My plants of Combretum argenteum and C. purpureum made numerous short healthy shoots; but they showed no signs of revolving, and I could not conceive how these plants could be climbers; but at last C. argenteum put forth from the lower part of one of its main branches a thin shoot, 5 or 6 feet in length, differing greatly in appearance from the previous shoots, owing to its leaves being little developed, and this shoot revolved vigorously and twined. So that this plant produces shoots of two kinds. With Periploca Græca (Palm, p. 43) the uppermost shoots alone twine. Polygonum convolvulus twines only during the middle of the summer (Palm, p. 43, 94); and plants growing vigorously in the autumn show no inclination to climb. The majority of Asclepiadaceæ are twiners;
but Asclepias nigra only "in fertiliori solo incipit scandere subvolubili caule" (Willdenow, quoted and confirmed by Palm, p. 41). Asclepias vincetoxicum does not regularly twine, but occasionally does so (Palm, p. 42; Mohl, p. 112) when growing under certain conditions. So it is with two species of Ceropegia, as I hear from Prof. Harvey, for these plants in their native dry South African home generally grow erect, from 6 inches to 2 feet in height,—a very few taller specimens showing some inclination to curve; but when cultivated near Dublin, they regularly twined up sticks 5 or 6 feet in height. Most Convolvulaceæ are excellent twiners; but in South Africa Ipomœa argyræoides almost always grows erect and compact, from about 12 to 18 inches in height, one specimen alone in Prof. Harvey's collection showing an evident disposition to twine. On the other hand, seedlings raised near Dublin twined up sticks above 8 feet in height. These facts are remarkable; for there can hardly be a doubt that in the dryer provinces of South Africa these plants have propagated themselves for thousands of generations in an erect condition; and yet they have retained during this whole period the innate power of spontaneously revolving and twining, whenever their shoots become elongated under proper conditions of life. Most of the species of Phaseolus are twiners; but certain varieties of the P. multiflorus produce (Léon, p. 681) two kinds of shoots, some upright and thick, and others thin and twining. I have seen striking instances of this curious
case of variability in "Fulmer's dwarf forcing-bean," which occasionally produced a single long twining shoot.
Solanum dulcamara is one of the feeblest and poorest of twiners: it may often be seen growing as an upright bush, and when growing in the midst of a thicket merely scrambles up between the branches without twining; but when, according to Dutrochet (tom. xix. p. 299), it grows near a thin and flexible support, such as the stem of a nettle, it twines round it. I placed sticks round several plants, and vertically stretched strings close to others, and the strings alone were ascended by twining. The stem twines indifferently to the right or left. Some others pecies of Solanum, and of another genus, viz. Habrothamnus, belonging to the same family, are described in horticultural works as twining plants, but they seem to possess this faculty in a very feeble degree. We may suspect that the species of these two genera have as yet only partially acquired the habit of twining. On the other hand with Tecoma radicans, a member of a family abounding with twiners and tendril-bearers, but which climbs, like the ivy, by the aid of rootlets, we may suspect that a former habit of twining has been lost, for the stem exhibited slight irregular movements which could hardly be accounted for by changes in the action of the light. There is no difficulty in understanding how a spirally twining plant could graduate into a simple root-climber; for the young internodes of Bignonia Tweedyana and of Hoya carnosa revolve
and twine, but likewise emit rootlets which adhere to any fitting surface, so that the loss of twining would be no great disadvantage and in some respects an advantage to these species, as they would then ascend their supports in a more direct line.*
* Fritz Müller has published some interesting facts and views on the structure of the wood of climbing plants in 'Bot. Zeitung,' 1866, pp. 57, 65.
Plants which climb by the aid of spontaneously revolving and sensitive petioles — Clematis — Tropæolum — Maurandia, flower-peduncles moving spontaneously and sensitive to a touch — Rhodochiton — Lophospermum — internodes sensitive — Solanum, thickening of the clasped petioles — Fumaria — Adlumia — Plants which climb by the aid of their produced midribs — Gloriosa — Flagellaria — Nepenthes — Summary on leaf-climbers.
WE now come to our second class of climbing plants, namely, those which ascend by the aid of irritable or sensitive organs. For convenience' sake the plants in this class have been grouped under two sub-divisions, namely, leaf-climbers, or those which retain their leaves in a functional condition, and tendril-bearers. But these sub-divisions graduate into each other, as we shall see under Corydalis and the Gloriosa lily.
It has long been observed that several plants climb by the aid of their leaves, either by their petioles (foot-stalks) or by their produced midribs; but beyond this simple fact they have not been described. Palm and Mohl class these plants with those which bear tendrils; but as a leaf is generally a defined object, the present classification, though artificial, has at least some advantages. Leaf-climbers are, moreover, intermediate in many respects between twiners and tendril-bearers. Eight species of Clematis and seven of Tropæolum were
observed, in order to see what amount of difference in the manner of climbing existed within the same genus; and the differences are considerable.
CLEMATIS. — C. glandulosa. — The thin upper internodes revolve, moving against the course of the sun, precisely like those of a true twiner, at an average rate, judging from three revolutions, of 3 hrs. 48 m. The leading shoot immediately twined round a stick placed near it; but, after making an open spire of only one turn and a half, it ascended for a short space straight, and then reversed its course and wound two turns in an opposite direction. This was rendered possible by the straight piece between the opposed spires having become rigid. The simple, broad, ovate leaves of this tropical species, with their short thick petioles, seem but ill-fitted for any movement; and whilst twining up a vertical stick, no use is made of them. Nevertheless, if the footstalk of a young leaf be rubbed with a thin twig a few times on any side, it will in the course of a few hours bend to that side; afterwards becoming straight again. The under side seemed to be the most sensitive; but the sensitiveness or irritability is slight compared to that which we shall meet with in some of the following species; thus, a loop of string, weighing 1.64 grain (106.2 mg.) and hanging for some days on a young footstalk, produced a scarcely perceptible effect. A sketch is here given of two young leaves which had naturally caught hold of two thin branches. A forked twig placed so as to press lightly on the under side of a young
footstalk caused it, in 12 hrs., to bend greatly, and ultimately to such an extent that the leaf passed to the opposite side of the stem; the forked stick having been removed, the leaf slowly recovered its former position.
The young leaves spontaneously and gradually change their position: when first developed the petioles are upturned and parallel to the stem; they then slowly bend downwards, remaining for a short time at right
With two young leaves clasping two twigs, with the clasping portions thickened.
angles to the stem, and then become so much arched downwards that the blade of the leaf points to the ground with its tip curled inwards, so that the whole petiole and leaf together form a hook. They are thus enabled to catch hold of any twig with which they may be brought into contact by the revolving movement of the internodes. If this does not happen, they retain their hooked shape for a considerable time, and then bending upwards reassume their original upturned
position, which is preserved ever afterwards. The petioles which have clasped any object soon become much thickened and strengthened, as may be seen in the drawing.
Clematis montana. — The long, thin petioles of the leaves, whilst young, are sensitive, and when lightly rubbed bend to the rubbed side, subsequently becoming straight. They are far more sensitive than the petioles of C. glandulosa; for a loop of thread weighing a quarter of a grain (16.2 mg.) caused them to bend; a loop weighing only one-eighth of a grain (8.1 mg.) sometimes acted and sometimes did not act. The sensitiveness extends from the blade of the leaf to the stem. I may here state that I ascertained in all cases the weights of the string and thread used by carefully weighing 50 inches in a chemical balance, and then cutting off measured lengths. The main petiole carries three leaflets; but their short, sub-petioles are not sensitive. A young, inclined shoot (the plant being in the greenhouse) made a large circle opposed to the course of the sun in 4 hrs. 20 m., but the next day, being very cold, the time was 5 hrs. 10 m. A stick placed near a revolving stem was soon struck by the petioles which stand out at right angles, and the revolving movement was thus arrested. The petioles then began, being excited by the contact, to slowly wind round the stick. When the stick was thin, a petiole sometimes wound twice round it. The opposite leaf was in no way affected. The attitude assumed by the stem after the petiole had
clasped the stick, was that of a man standing by a column, who throws his arm horizontally round it. With respect to the stem's power of twining, some remarks will be made under C. calycina.
Clematis Sieboldi. — A shoot made three revolutions against the sun at an average rate of 3 hrs. 11 m. The power of twining is like that of the last species. Its leaves are nearly similar in structure and in function, excepting that the sub-petioles of the lateral and terminal leaflets are sensitive. A loop of thread, weighing one-eighth of a grain, acted on the main petiole, but not until two or three days had elapsed. The leaves have the remarkable habit of spontaneously revolving, generally in vertical ellipses, in the same manner, but in a less degree, as will be described under C. microphylla.
Clematis calycina. — The young shoots are thin and flexible: one revolved, describing a broad oval, in 5 hrs. 30 m., and another in 6 hrs. 12 m. They followed the course of the sun; but the course, if observed long enough, would probably be found to vary in this species, as well as in all the others of the genus. It is a rather better twiner than the two last species: the stem sometimes made two spiral turns round a thin stick, if free from twigs; it then ran straight up for a space, and reversing its course took one or two turns in an opposite direction. This reversal of the spire occurred in all the foregoing species. The leaves are so small compared with those of most of the other species, that the petioles at first seem ill-adapted for clasping.
Nevertheless, the main service of the revolving movement is to bring them into contact with surrounding objects, which are slowly but securely seized. The young petioles, which alone are sensitive, have their ends bowed a little downwards, so as to be in a slight degree hooked; ultimately the whole leaf, if it catches nothing, becomes level. I gently rubbed with a thin twig the lower surfaces of two young petioles; and in 2 hrs. 30 m. they were slightly curved downwards; in 5 hrs., after being rubbed, the end of one was bent completely back, parallel to the basal portion; in 4 hrs. subsequently it became nearly straight again. To show how sensitive the young petioles are, I may mention that I just touched the under sides of two with a little water-colour, which when dry formed an excessively thin and minute crust; but this sufficed in 24 hrs. to cause both to bend downwards. Whilst the plant is young, each leaf consists of three divided leaflets, which barely have distinct petioles, and these are not sensitive; but when the plant is well grown, the petioles of the two lateral and terminal leaflets are of considerable length, and become sensitive so as to be capable of clasping an object in any direction.
When a petiole has clasped a twig, it undergoes some remarkable changes, which may be observed with the other species, but in a less strongly marked manner, and will here be described once for all. The clasped petiole in the course of two or three days swells greatly, and ultimately becomes nearly twice as
thick as the opposite one which has clasped nothing. When thin transverse slices of the two are placed under the microscope their difference is conspicuous: the side of the petiole which has been in contact with the support, is formed of a layer of colourless cells with their longer axes directed from the centre, and these are very much larger than the corresponding cells in the opposite or unchanged petiole; the central cells, also, are in some degree enlarged, and the whole is much indurated. The exterior surface generally becomes bright red. But a far greater change takes place in the nature of the tissues than that which is visible: the petiole of the unclasped leaf is flexible and can be snapped easily, whereas the clasped one acquires an extraordinary degree of toughness and rigidity, so that considerable force is required to pull it into pieces. With this change, great durability is probably acquired; at least this is the case with the clasped petioles of Clematis vitalba. The meaning of these changes is obvious, namely, that the petioles may firmly and durably support the stem.
Clematis microphylla, var. leptophylla. — The long and thin internodes of this Australian species revolve sometimes in one direction and sometimes in an opposite one, describing long, narrow, irregular ellipses or large circles. Four revolutions were completed within five minutes of the same average rate of 1 hr. 51 m.; so that this species moves more quickly than the others of the genus. The shoots, when placed near a vertical stick, either twine round it, or clasp it
with the basal portions of their petioles. The leaves whilst young are nearly of the same shape as those of C. viticella, and act in the same manner like a hook, as will be described under that species. But the leaflets are more divided, and each segment whilst young terminates in a hardish point, which is much curved downwards and inwards; so that the whole leaf readily catches hold of any neighbouring object. The petioles of the young terminal leaflets are acted on by loops of thread weighing 1/8th and even 1/16th of a grain. The basal portion of the main petiole is much less sensitive, but will clasp a stick against which it presses.
The leaves, whilst young, are continually and spontaneously moving slowly. A bell-glass was placed over a shoot secured to a stick, and the movements of the leaves were traced on it during several days. A very irregular line was generally formed; but one day, in the course of eight hours and three quarters, the figure clearly represented three and a half irregular ellipses, the most perfect one of which was completed in 2 hrs. 35 m. The two opposite leaves moved independently of each other. This movement of the leaves would aid that of the internodes in bringing the petioles into contact with surrounding objects. I discovered this movement too late to be enabled to observe it in the other species; but from analogy I can hardly doubt that the leaves of at least C. viticella, C. flammula, and C. vitalba move spontaneously; and, judging from C. Sieboldi, this probably is the case with
C. montana and C. calycina. I ascertained that the simple leaves of C. glandulosa exhibited no spontaneous revolving movement.
Clematis viticella, var. venosa. — In this and the two following species the power of spirally twining is completely lost, and this seems due to the lessened flexibility of the internodes and to the interference caused by the large size of the leaves. But the revolving movement, though restricted, is not lost. In our present species a young internode, placed in front of a window, made three narrow ellipses, transversely to the direction of the light, at an average rate of 2 hrs. 40 m. When placed so that the movements were to and from the light, the rate was greatly accelerated in one half of the course, and retarded in the other, as with twining plants. The ellipses were small; the longer diameter, described by the apex of a shoot bearing a pair of not expanded leaves, was only 4⅝ inches, and that by the apex of the penultimate internode only 1 1/8 inch. At the most favourable period of growth each leaf would hardly be carried to and fro by the movement of the internodes more than two or three inches, but, as above stated, it is probable that the leaves themselves move spontaneously. The movement of the whole shoot by the wind and by its rapid growth, would probably be almost equally efficient as these spontaneous movements, in bringing the petioles into contact with surrounding objects.
The leaves are of large size. Each bears three pairs of lateral leaflets and a terminal one, all supported on
rather long sub-petioles. The main petiole bends a little angularly downwards at each point where a pair of leaflets arises (see fig. 2), and the petiole of the terminal leaflet is bent downwards at right angles; hence the whole petiole, with its rectangularly bent extremity, acts as a hook. This hook, the lateral petioles being directed a little upwards; forms an excellent grappling apparatus, by which the leaves
A young leaf of Clematis viticella.
readily become entangled with surrounding objects. If they catch nothing, the whole petiole ultimately grows straight. The main petiole, the sub-petioles, and the three branches into which each basi-lateral sub-petiole is generally subdivided, are all sensitive. The basal portion of the main petiole, between the stem and the first pair of leaflets, is less sensitive than the remainder; it will, however, clasp a stick
with which it is left in contact. The inferior surface of the rectangularly bent terminal portion (carrying the terminal leaflet), which forms the inner side of the end of the hook, is the most sensitive part; and this portion is manifestly best adapted to catch a distant support. To show the difference in sensibility, I gently placed loops of string of the same weight (in one instance weighing only .82 of a grain or 53.14 mg.) on the several lateral sub-petioles and on the terminal one; in a few hours the latter was bent, but after 24 hrs. no effect was produced on the other sub-petioles. Again, a terminal sub-petiole placed in contact with a thin stick became sensibly curved in 45 m., and in 1 hr. 10m. moved through ninety degrees; whilst a lateral sub-petiole did not become sensibly curved until 3 hrs. 30 m. had elapsed. In all cases, if the sticks are taken away, the petioles continue to move during many hours afterwards; so they do after a slight rubbing; but they become straight again, after about a day's interval, that is if the flexure has not been very great or long continued.
The graduated difference in the extension of the sensitiveness in the petioles of the above-described species deserves notice. In C. montana it is confined to the main petiole, and has not spread to the sub-petioles of the three leaflets; so it is with young plants of C. calycina, but in older plants it spreads to the three sub-petioles. In C. viticella the sensitiveness has spread to the petioles of the seven leaflets, and to the subdivisions of the basi-lateral sub-petioles. But in
this latter species it has diminished in the basal part of the main petiole, in which alone it resided in C. montana; whilst it has increased in the abruptly bent terminal portion.
Clematis flammula. — The rather thick, straight, and stiff shoots, whilst growing vigorously in the spring, make small oval revolutions, following the sun in their course. Four were made at an average rate of 3 hrs. 45 m. The longer axis of the oval, described by the extreme tip, was directed at right angles to the line joining the opposite leaves; its length was in one case only 1 3/8, and in another case 1 6/8 inch; so that the young leaves were moved a very short distance. The shoots of the same plant observed in midsummer, when growing not so quickly, did not revolve at all. I cut down another plant in the early summer, so that by August 1st it had formed new and moderately vigorous shoots; these, when observed under a bell-glass, were on some days quite stationary, and on other days moved to and fro only about the eighth of an inch. Consequently the revolving power is much enfeebled in this species, and under unfavourable circumstances is completely lost. The shoot must depend for coming into contact with surrounding objects on the probable, though not ascertained spontaneous movement of the leaves, on rapid growth, and on movement from the wind. Hence, perhaps, it is that the petioles have acquired a high degree of sensitiveness as a compensation for the little power of movement in the shoots.
The petioles are bowed downwards, and have the
same general hook-like form as in C. viticella. The medial petiole and the lateral sub-petioles are sensitive, especially the much bent terminal portion. As the sensitiveness is here greater than in any other species of the genus observed by me, and is in itself remarkable, I will give fuller details. The petioles, when so young that they have not separated from one another, are not sensitive; when the lamina of a leaflet has grown to a quarter of an inch in length (that is, about one-sixth of its full size), the sensitiveness is highest; but at this period the petioles are relatively much more fully developed than are the blades of the leaves. Full-grown petioles are not in the least sensitive. A thin stick placed so as to press lightly against a petiole, having a leaflet a quarter of an inch in length, caused the petiole to bend in 3 hrs. 15 m. In another case a petiole curled completely round a stick in 12 hrs. These petioles were left curled for 24 hrs., and the sticks were then removed; but they never straightened themselves. I took a twig, thinner than the petiole itself, and with it lightly rubbed several petioles four times up and down; these in 1 hr. 45 m. became slightly curled; the curvature increased during some hours and then began to decrease, but after 25 hrs. from the time of rubbing a vestige of the curvature remained. Some other petioles similarly rubbed twice, that is, once up and once down, became perceptibly curved in about 2 hrs. 30 m., the terminal sub-petiole moving more than the lateral sub-petioles; they all became straight again in between 12 hrs. and 14 hrs. Lastly, a
length of about one-eighth of an inch of a sub-petiole, was lightly rubbed with the same twig only once; it became slightly curved in 3 hrs., remaining so during 11 hrs., but by the next morning was quite straight.
The following observations are more precise. After trying heavier pieces of string and thread, I placed a loop of fine string, weighing 1.04 gr. (67.4 mg.) on a terminal sub-petiole: in 6 hrs. 40 m. a curvature could be seen; in 24 hrs. the petiole formed an open ring round the string; in 48 hrs. the ring had almost closed on the string, and in 72 hrs. seized it so firmly, that some force was necessary for its withdrawal. A loop weighing .52 of a grain (33.7 mg.) caused in 14 hrs. a lateral sub-petiole just perceptibly to curve, and in 24 hrs. it moved through ninety degrees. These observations were made during the summer: the following were made in the spring, when the petioles apparently are more sensitive:—A loop of thread, weighing one-eighth of a grain (8.01 mg.), produced no effect on the lateral sub-petioles, but placed on a terminal one, caused it, after 24 hrs., to curve moderately; the curvature, though the loop remained suspended, was after 48 hrs. diminished, but never disappeared; showing that the petiole had become partially accustomed to the insufficient stimulus. This experiment was twice repeated with nearly the same result. Lastly, a loop of thread, weighing only one-sixteenth of a grain (4.05 mg.) was twice gently placed by a forceps on a terminal sub-petiole (the plant being, of course, in a still and closed room), and this weight certainly caused a flexure, which very
slowly increased until the petiole moved through nearly ninety degrees: beyond this it did not move; nor did the petiole, the loop remaining suspended, ever become perfectly straight again.
When we consider, on the one hand, the thickness and stiffness of the petioles, and, on the other hand, the thinness and softness of fine cotton thread, and what an extremely small weight one-sixteenth of a grain (4.05 mg.) is, these facts are remarkable. But I have reason to believe that even a less weight excites curvature when pressing over a broader surface than that acted on by a thread. Having noticed that the end of a suspended string which accidentally touched a petiole, caused it to bend, I took two pieces of thin twine, 10 inches in length (weighing 1.64 gr.), and, tying them to a stick, let them hang as nearly perpendicularly downwards as their thinness and flexuous form, after being stretched, would permit; I then quietly placed their ends so as just to rest on two petioles, and these certainly became curved in 36 hrs. One of the ends touched the angle between a terminal and lateral sub-petiole, and it was in 48 hours caught between them as by a forceps. In these cases the pressure, though spread over a wider surface than that touched by the cotton thread, must have been excessively slight.
Clematis vitalba. — The plants were in pots and not healthy, so that I dare not trust my observations, which indicate much similarity in habits with C. flammula. I mention this species only because I have seen many
proofs that the petioles in a state of nature are excited to movement by very slight pressure. For instance, I have found them embracing thin withered blades of grass, the soft young leaves of a maple, and the flower-peduncles of the quaking-grass or Briza. The latter are about as thick as the hair of a man's beard, but they were completely surrounded and clasped. The petioles of a leaf, so young that none of the leaflets were expanded, had partially seized a twig. Those of almost all the old leaves, even when unattached to any object, are much convoluted; but this is owing to their having come, whilst young, into contact during several hours with some object subsequently removed. With none of the above-described species, cultivated in pots and carefully observed, was there any permanent bending of the petioles without the stimulus of contact. In winter, the blades of the leaves of C. vitalba drop off; but the petioles (as was observed by Mohl) remain attached to the branches, sometimes during two seasons; and, being convoluted, they curiously resemble true tendrils, such as those possessed by the allied genus Naravelia. The petioles which have clasped some object become much more stiff, hard, and polished than those which have failed in this their proper function.
TROPÆOLUM. — I observed T. tricolorum, T. azureum, T. pentaphyllum, T. peregrinum, T. elegans, T. tuberosum, and a dwarf variety of, as I believe, T. minus.
Tropæolum tricolorum, var. grandiflorum. — The flexible shoots, which first rise from the tubers, are
as thin as fine twine. One such shoot revolved in a course opposed to the sun, at an average rate, judging from three revolutions, of 1 hr. 23 m.; but no doubt the direction of the revolving movement is variable. When the plants have grown tall and are branched, all the many lateral shoots revolve. The stem, whilst young, twines regularly round a thin vertical stick, and in one case I counted eight spiral turns in the same direction; but when grown older, the stem often runs straight up for a space, and, being arrested by the clasping petioles, makes one or two spires in a reversed direction. Until the plant grows to a height of two or three feet, requiring about a month from the time when the first shoot appears above ground, no true leaves are produced, but, in their place, filaments coloured like the stem. The extremities of these filaments are pointed, a little flattened, and furrowed on the upper surface. They never become developed into leaves. As the plant grows in height new filaments are produced with slightly enlarged tips; then others, bearing on each side of the enlarged medial tip a rudimentary segment of a leaf; soon other segments appear, and at last a perfect leaf is formed, with seven deep segments. So that on the same plant we may see every step, from tendril-like clasping filaments to perfect leaves with clasping petioles. After the plant has grown to a considerable height, and is secured to its support by the petioles of the true leaves, the clasping filaments on the lower part of the stem wither and drop off; so that they perform only a temporary service.
These filaments or rudimentary leaves, as well as the petioles of the perfect leaves, whilst young, are highly sensitive on all sides to a touch. The slightest rub caused them to curve towards the rubbed side in about three minutes, and one bent itself into a ring in six minutes; they subsequently became straight. When, however, they have once completely clasped a stick, if this is removed, they do not straighten themselves. The most remarkable fact, and one which I have observed in no other species of the genus, is that the filaments and the petioles of the young leaves, if they catch no object, after standing for some days in their original position, spontaneously and slowly oscillate a little from side to side, and then move towards the stem and clasp it. They likewise often become, after a time, in some degree spirally contracted. They therefore fully deserve to be called tendrils, as they are used for climbing, are sensitive to a touch, move spontaneously, and ultimately contract into a spire, though an imperfect one. The present species would have been classed amongst the tendril-bearers, had not these characters been confined to early youth. During maturity it is a true leaf-climber.
Tropæolum azureum. — An upper internode made four revolutions, following the sun, at an average rate of 1 hr. 47 m. The stem twined spirally round a support in the same irregular manner as that of the last species. Rudimentary leaves or filaments do not exist. The petioles of the young leaves are very sensitive: a single light rub with a twig caused one
to move perceptibly in 5 m., and another in 6 m. The former became bent at right angles in 15 min., and became straight again in between 5 hrs. and 6 hrs. A loop of thread weighing 1/8th of a grain caused another petiole to curve.
Tropæolum pentaphyllum. — This species has not the power of spirally twining, which seems due, not so much to a want of flexibility in the stem, as to continual interference from the clasping petioles. An upper internode made three revolutions, following the sun, at an average rate of 1 hr. 46 m. The main purpose of the revolving movement in all the species of Tropæolum manifestly is to bring the petioles into contact with some supporting object. The petiole of a young leaf, after a slight rub, became curved in 6 m.; another, on a cold day, in 20 m., and others in from 8 m. to 10 m. Their curvature usually increased greatly in from 15 m. to 20 m., and they became straight again in between 5 hrs. and 6 hrs., but on one occasion in 3 hrs. When a petiole has fairly clasped a stick, it is not able, on the removal of the stick, to straighten itself. The free upper part of one, the base of which had already clasped a stick, still retained the power of movement. A loop of thread weighing 1/8th of a grain caused a petiole to curve; but the stimulus was not sufficient, the loop remaining suspended, to cause a permanent flexure. If a much heavier loop be placed in the angle between the petiole and the stem, it produces no effect; whereas we have seen with Clematis montana that the angle between the stem and petiole is sensitive.
Tropæolum peregrinum. — The first-formed internodes of a young plant did not revolve, resembling in this respect those of a twining plant. In an older plant the four upper internodes made three irregular revolutions, in a course opposed to the sun, at an average rate of 1 hr. 48 min. It is remarkable that the average rate of revolution (taken, however, but from few observations) is very nearly the same in this and the two last species, namely, 1 hr. 47 m., 1 hr. 46 m., and 1 hr. 48 m. The present species cannot twine spirally, which seems mainly due to the rigidity of the stem. In a very young plant, which did not revolve, the petioles were not sensitive. In older plants the petioles of quite young leaves, and of leaves as much as an inch and a quarter in diameter, are sensitive. A moderate rub caused one to curve in 10 m., and others in 20 m. They became straight again in between 5 hrs. 45m. and 8 hrs. Petioles which have naturally come into contact with a stick, sometimes take two turns round it. After they have clasped a support, they become rigid and hard. They are less sensitive to a weight than in the previous species; for loops of string weighing .82 of a grain (53.14 mg.), did not cause any curvature, but a loop of double this weight (1.64 gr.) acted.
Tropæolum elegans. — I did not make many observations on this species. The short and stiff internodes revolve irregularly, describing small oval figures. One oval was completed in 3 hrs. A young petiole, when rubbed, became slightly curved in 17 m.; and
afterwards much more so. It was nearly straight again in 8 hrs.
Tropæolum tuberosum. — On a plant nine inches in height, the internodes did not move at all; but on an older plant they moved irregularly and made small imperfect ovals. These movements could be detected only by being traced on a bell-glass placed over the plant. Sometimes the shoots stood still for hours; during some days they moved only in one direction in a crooked line; on other days they made small irregular spires or circles, one being completed in about 4 hrs. The extreme points reached by the apex of the shoot were only about one or one and a half inches asunder; yet this slight movement brought the petioles into contact with some closely surrounding twigs, which were then clasped. With the lessened power of spontaneously revolving, compared with that of the previous species, the sensitiveness of the petioles is also diminished. These, when rubbed a few times, did not become curved until half an hour had elapsed; the curvature increased during the next two hours, and then very slowly decreased; so that they sometimes required 24 hrs. to become straight again. Extremely young leaves have active petioles; one with the lamina only .15 of an inch in diameter, that is, about a twentieth of the full size, firmly clasped a thin twig. But leaves grown to a quarter of their full size can likewise act.
Tropæolum minus (?). — The internodes of a variety named "dwarf crimson Nasturtium" did not revolve,
but moved in a rather irregular course during the day to the light, and from the light at night. The petioles, when well rubbed, showed no power of curving; nor could I see that they ever clasped any neighbouring object. We have seen in this genus a gradation from species such as T. tricolorum, which have extremely sensitive petioles, and internodes which rapidly revolve and spirally twine up a support, to other species such as T. elegans and T. tuberosum, the petioles of which are much less sensitive, and the internodes of which have very feeble revolving powers and cannot spirally twine round a support, to this last species, which has entirely lost or never acquired these faculties. From the general character of the genus, the loss of power seems the more probable alternative.
In the present species, in T. elegans, and probably in others, the flower-peduncle, as soon as the seed-capsule begins to swell, spontaneously bends abruptly downwards and becomes somewhat convoluted. If a stick stands in the way, it is to a certain extent clasped; but, as far as I have been able to observe, this clasping movement is independent of the stimulus from contact.
ANTIRRHINEÆ. — In this tribe (Lindley) of the Scrophulariaceæ, at least four of the seven included genera have leaf-climbing species.
Maurandia Barclayana. — A thin, slightly bowed shoot made two revolutions, following the sun, each in 3 hrs. 17 min.; on the previous day this same shoot revolved in an opposite direction. The shoots do not twine spirally, but climb excellently by the aid of
their young and sensitive petioles. These petioles, when lightly rubbed, move after a considerable interval of time, and subsequently become straight again. A loop of thread weighing 1/8th of a grain caused them to bend.
Maurandia semperflorens. — This freely growing species climbs exactly like the last, by the aid of its sensitive petioles. A young internode made two circles, each in 1 hr. 46 min.; so that it moved almost twice as rapidly as the last species. The internodes are not in the least sensitive to a touch or pressure. I mention this because they are sensitive in a closely allied genus, namely, Lophospermum. The present species is unique in one respect. Mohl asserts (p. 45) that "the flower-peduncles, as well as the petioles, wind like tendrils;" but he classes as tendrils such objects as the spiral flower-stalks of the Vallisneria. This remark, and the fact of the flower-peduncles being decidedly flexuous, led me carefully to examine them. They never act as true tendrils; I repeatedly placed thin sticks in contact with young and old peduncles, and I allowed nine vigorous plants to grow through an entangled mass of branches; but in no one instance did they bend round any object. It is indeed in the highest degree improbable that this should occur, for they are generally developed on branches which have already securely clasped a support by the petioles of their leaves; and when borne on a free depending branch, they are not produced by the terminal portion of the internode
which alone has the power of revolving; so that they could be brought only by accident into contact with any neighbouring object. Nevertheless (and this is the remarkable fact) the flower-peduncles, whilst young, exhibit feeble revolving powers, and are slightly sensitive to a touch. Having selected some stems which had firmly clasped a stick by their petioles, and having placed a bell-glass over them, I traced the movements of the young flower-peduncles. The tracing generally formed a short and extremely irregular line, with little loops in its course. A young peduncle 1½ inch in length was carefully observed during a whole day, and it made four and a half narrow, vertical, irregular, and short ellipses—each at an average rate of about 2 hrs. 25 m. An adjoining peduncle described during the same time similar, though fewer, ellipses. As the plant had occupied for some time exactly the same position, these movements could not be attributed to any change in the action of the light. Peduncles, old enough for the coloured petals to be just visible, do not move. With respect to irritability,* I rubbed two young peduncles (1½ inch in length) a few times very lightly with a thin twig; one was rubbed on the upper, and the other on the lower side, and they became in between 4 hrs. and 5 hrs. distinctly bowed towards
* It appears from A. Kerner's interesting observations, that the flower-peduncles of a large number of plants are irritable, and bend when they are rubbed or shaken: Die Schutzmittel des Pollens, 1873, p. 34.
these sides; in 24 hrs. subsequently, they straightened themselves. Next day they were rubbed on the opposite sides, and they became perceptibly curved towards these sides. Two other and younger peduncles (three-fourths of an inch in length) were lightly rubbed on their adjoining sides, and they became so much curved towards one another, that the arcs of the bows stood at nearly right angles to their previous direction; and this was the greatest movement seen by me. Subsequently they straightened themselves. Other peduncles, so young as to be only three-tenths of an inch in length, became curved when rubbed. On the other hand, peduncles above 1½ inch in length required to be rubbed two or three times, and then became only just perceptibly bowed. Loops of thread suspended on the peduncles produced no effect; loops of string, however, weighing .82 and 1.64 of a grain sometimes caused a slight curvature; but they were never closely clasped, as were the far lighter loops of thread by the petioles.
In the nine vigorous plants observed by me, it is certain that neither the slight spontaneous movements nor the slight sensitiveness of the flower-peduncles aided the plants in climbing. If any member of the Scrophulariaceæ had possessed tendrils produced by the modification of flower-peduncles, I should have thought that this species of Maurandia had perhaps retained a useless or rudimentary vestige of a former habit; but this view cannot be maintained. We may suspect that, owing to the principle of correlation,
the power of movement has been transferred to the flower-peduncles from the young internodes, and sensitiveness from the young petioles. But to whatever cause these capacities are due, the case is interesting; for, by a little increase in power through natural selection, they might easily have been rendered as useful to the plant in climbing, as are the flower-peduncles (hereafter to be described) of Vitis or Cardiospermum.
Rhodochiton volubile. — A long flexible shoot swept a large circle, following the sun, in 5 hrs. 30 m.; and, as the day became warmer, a second circle was completed in 4 hrs. 10 m. The shoots sometimes make a whole or a half spire round a vertical stick, they then run straight up for a space, and afterwards turn spirally in an opposite direction. The petioles of very young leaves about one-tenth of their full size, are highly sensitive, and bend towards the side which is touched; but they do not move quickly. One was perceptibly curved in 1 hr. 10 m., after being lightly rubbed, and became considerably curved in 5 hrs. 40 m.; some others were scarcely curved in 5 hrs. 30 m., but distinctly so in 6 hrs. 30 m. A curvature was perceptible in one petiole in between 4 hrs. 30 m. and 5 hrs., after the suspension of a little loop of string. A loop of fine cotton thread, weighing one sixteenth of a grain (4.05 mg.), not only caused a petiole slowly to bend, but was ultimately so firmly clasped that it could be withdrawn only by some little force. The petioles, when coming into contact with a stick, take
either a complete or half a turn round it, and ultimately increase much in thickness. They do not possess the power of spontaneously revolving.
Lophospermum scandens, var. purpureum. — Some long, moderately thin internodes made four revolutions at an average rate of 3 hrs. 15 m. The course pursued was very irregular, namely, an extremely narrow ellipse, a large circle, an irregular spire or a zigzag line, and sometimes the apex stood still. The young petioles, when brought by the revolving movement into contact with sticks, clasped them, and soon increased considerably in thickness. But they are not quite so sensitive to a weight as those of the Rhodochiton, for loops of thread weighing one-eighth of a grain did not always cause them to bend.
This plant presents a case not observed by me in any other leaf-climber or twiner,* namely, that the young internodes of the stem are sensitive to a touch. When a petiole of this species clasps a stick, it draws the base of the internode against it; and then the internode itself bends towards the stick, which is caught between the stem and the petiole as by a pair of pincers. The internode afterwards straightens itself, excepting the part in actual contact with the stick. Young internodes alone are sensitive, and these are sensitive on all sides along their whole length. I made
* I have already referred to the case of the twining stem of Cuscuta, which, according to H. de Vries (ibid. p. 322) is sensitive to a touch like a tendril.
fifteen trials by twice or thrice lightly rubbing with a thin twig several internodes; and in about 2 hrs., but in one case in 3 hrs., all were bent: they became straight again in about 4 hrs. afterwards. An internode, which was rubbed as often as six or seven times, became just perceptibly curved in 1 hr. 15 m., and in 3 hrs. the curvature increased much; it became straight again in the course of the succeeding night. I rubbed some internodes one day on one side, and the next day either on the opposite side or at right angles to the first side; and the curvature was always towards the rubbed side.
According to Palm (p. 63), the petioles of Linaria cirrhosa and, to a limited degree, those of L. elatine have the power of clasping a support.
SOLANACEÆ. — Solanum jasminoides. — Some of the species in this large genus are twiners; but the present species is a true leaf-climber. A long, nearly upright shoot made four revolutions, moving against the sun, very regularly at an average rate of 3 hrs. 26 m. The shoots, however, sometimes stood still. It is considered a greenhouse plant; but when kept there, the petioles took several days to clasp a stick: in the hothouse a stick was clasped in 7 hrs. In the greenhouse a petiole was not affected by a loop of string, suspended during several days and weighing 2½ grains (163 mg.); but in the hothouse one was made to curve by a loop weighing 1.64 gr. (106.27 mg.); and, on the removal of the string, it became straight again. Another petiole was not at all acted on by a loop
weighing only .82 of a grain (53.14 mg.) We have seen that the petioles of some other leaf-climbing plants are affected by one-thirteenth of this latter weight. In this species, and in no other leaf-climber seen by me, a full-grown leaf is capable of clasping a stick; but in the greenhouse the movement was so extraordinarily
Solanum jasminoides, with one of its petioles clasping a stick.
slow that the act required several weeks; on each succeeding week it was clear that the petiole had become more and more curved, until at last it firmly clasped the stick.
The flexible petiole of a half or a quarter grown leaf which has clasped an object for three or four days increases much in thickness, and after several weeks becomes so wonderfully hard and rigid that it
can hardly be removed from its support. On comparing a thin transverse slice of such a petiole with one from an older leaf growing close beneath, which had not clasped anything, its diameter was found to be fully doubled, and its structure greatly changed. In two other petioles similarly compared, and here represented, the increase in diameter was not quite so great. In the section of the petiole in its ordinary state (A), we see a semilunar band of cellular tissue (not
A. Section of a petiole in its ordinary state.
B. Section of a petiole some weeks after it had clasped a stick, as shown in fig 3.
well shown in the woodcut) differing slightly in appearance from that outside it, and including three closely approximate groups of dark vessels. Near the upper surface of the petiole, beneath two exterior ridges, there are two other small circular groups of vessels. In the section of the petiole (B) which had clasped during several weeks a stick, the two exterior ridges have become much less prominent, and the two groups of woody vessels beneath them much increased in diameter. The semilunar band has been converted into a complete ring of very hard, white, woody
tissue, with lines radiating from the centre. The three groups of vessels, which, though near together, were before distinct, are now completely blended. The upper part of this ring of woody vessels, formed by the prolongation of the horns of the original semilunar band, is narrower than the lower part, and slightly less compact. This petiole after clasping the stick had actually become thicker than the stem from which it arose; and this was chiefly due to the increased thickness of the ring of wood. This ring presented, both in a transverse and longitudinal section, a closely similar structure to that of the stem. It is a singular morphological fact that the petiole should thus acquire a structure almost identically the same with that of the axis; and it is a still more singular physiological fact that so great a change should have been induced by the mere act of clasping a support.*
FUMARIACEÆ. — Fumaria officinalis. — It could not have been anticipated that so lowly a plant as this Fumaria should have been a climber. It climbs by the aid of the main and lateral petioles of its compound leaves; and even the much-flattened terminal
* Dr. Maxwell Masters informs me that in almost all petioles which are cylindrical, such as those bearing peltate leaves, the woody vessels form a closed ring; semilunar bands of vessels being confined to petioles which are channelled along their upper surfaces. In accordance with this statement, it may be observed that the enlarged and clasped petiole of the Solanum, with its closed ring of woody vessels, has become more cylindrical than it was in its original unclasped condition.
portion of the petiole can seize a support. I have seen a substance as soft as a withered blade of grass caught. Petioles which have clasped any object ultimately become rather thicker and more cylindrical. On lightly rubbing several petioles with a twig, they became perceptibly curved in 1 hr. 15 m., and subsequently straightened themselves. A stick gently placed in the angle between two sub-petioles excited them to move, and was almost clasped in 9 hrs. A loop of thread, weighing one-eighth of a grain, caused, after 12 hrs. and before 20 hrs. had elapsed, a considerable curvature; but it was never fairly clasped by the petiole. The young internodes are in continual movement, which is considerable in extent, but very irregular; a zigzag line, or a spire crossing itself; or a figure of 8 being formed. The course during 12 hrs., when traced on a bell-glass, apparently represented about four ellipses. The leaves themselves likewise move spontaneously, the main petioles curving themselves in accordance with the movements of the internodes; so that when the latter moved to one side, the petioles moved to the same side, then, becoming straight, reversed their curvature. The petioles, however, do not move over a wide space, as could be seen when a shoot was securely tied to a stick. The leaf in this case followed an irregular course, like that made by the internodes.
Adlumia cirrhosa. — I raised some plants late in the summer; they formed very fine leaves, but threw up no central stem. The first-formed leaves were not
sensitive; some of the later ones were so, but only towards their extremities, which were thus enabled to clasp sticks. This could be of no service to the plant, as these leaves rose from the ground; but it showed what the future character of the plant would have been, had it grown tall enough to climb. The tip of one of these basal leaves, whilst young, described in 1 hr. 36 m. a narrow ellipse, open at one end, and exactly three inches in length; a second ellipse was broader, more irregular, and shorter, viz., only 2½ inches in length, and was completed in 2 hrs. 2 m. From the analogy of Fumaria and Corydalis, I have no doubt that the internodes of Adlumia have the power of revolving.
Corydalis claviculata. — This plant is interesting from being in a condition so exactly intermediate between a leaf-climber and a tendril-bearer, that it might have been described under either head; but, for reasons hereafter assigned, it has been classed amongst tendril-bearers.
Besides the plants already described, Bignonia unguis and its close allies, though aided by tendrils, have clasping petioles. According to Mohl (p. 40), Cocculus Japonicus (one of the Menispermaceæ) and a fern, the Ophioglossum Japonicum (p. 39), climb by their leaf-stalks.
We now come to a small section of plants which climb by means of the produced midribs or tips of their leaves.
LILIACEÆ. — Gloriosa Plantii. — The stem of a half-grown plant continually moved, generally describing an irregular spire, but sometimes oval figures with the longer axes directed in different lines. It either followed the sun, or moved in an opposite course, and sometimes stood still before reversing its direction. One oval was completed in 3 hrs. 40 m.; of two horseshoe-shaped figures, one was completed in 4 hrs. 35 m. and the other in 3 hrs. The shoots, in their movements, reached points between four and five inches asunder. The young leaves, when first developed, stand up nearly vertically; but by the growth of the axis, and by the spontaneous bending down of the terminal half of the leaf, they soon become much inclined, and ultimately horizontal. The end of the leaf forms a narrow, ribbon-like, thickened projection, which at first is nearly straight, but by the time the leaf gets into an inclined position, the end bends downwards into a well-formed hook. This hook is now strong and rigid enough to catch any object, and, when caught, to anchor the plant and stop the revolving movement. Its inner surface is sensitive, but not in nearly so high a degree as that of the many before-described petioles; for a loop of string, weighing 1.64 grain, produced no effect. When the hook has caught a thin twig or even a rigid fibre, the point may be perceived in from 1 hr. to 3 hrs. to have curled a little inwards; and, under favourable circumstances, it curls round and permanently seizes an object in from 8 hrs. to 10 hrs.
The hook when first formed, before the leaf has bent downwards, is but little sensitive. If it catches hold of nothing, it remains open and sensitive for a long time; ultimately the extremity spontaneously and slowly curls inwards, and makes a button-like, flat, spiral coil at the end of the leaf. One leaf was watched, and the hook remained open for thirty-three days; but during the last week the tip had curled so much inwards that only a very thin twig could have been inserted within it. As soon as the tip has curled so much inwards that the hook is converted into a ring, its sensibility is lost; but as long as it remains open some sensibility is retained.
Whilst the plant was only about six inches in height, the leaves, four or five in number, were broader than those subsequently produced; their soft and but little-attenuated tips were not sensitive, and did not form hooks; nor did the stem then revolve. At this early period of growth, the plant can support itself; its climbing powers are not required, and consequently are not developed. So again, the leaves on the summit of a full-grown flowering plant, which would not require to climb any higher, were not sensitive and could not clasp a stick. We thus see how perfect is the economy of nature.
COMMELYNACEÆ. — Flagellaria Indica. — From dried specimens it is manifest that this plant climbs exactly like the Gloriosa. A young plant 12 inches in height, and bearing fifteen leaves, had not a single leaf as yet produced into a hook or tendril-like filament; nor did
the stem revolve. Hence this plant acquires its climbing powers later in life than does the Gloriosa lily. According to Mohl (p. 41), Uvularia (Melanthaceæ) also climbs like Gloriosa.
These three last-named genera are Monocotyledons; but there is one Dicotyledon, namely Nepenthes, which is ranked by Mohl (p. 41) amongst tendril-bearers; and I hear from Dr. Hooker that most of the species climb well at Kew. This is effected by the stalk or midrib between the leaf and the pitcher coiling round any support. The twisted part becomes thicker; but I observed in Mr. Veitch's hothouse that the stalk often takes a turn when not in contact with any object, and that this twisted part is likewise thickened. Two vigorous young plants of N. lævis and N. distillatoria, in my hothouse, whilst less than a foot in height, showed no sensitiveness in their leaves, and had no power of climbing. But when N. lævis had grown to a height of 16 inches, there were signs of these powers. The young leaves when first formed stand upright, but soon become inclined; at this period they terminate in a stalk or filament, with the pitcher at the extremity hardly at all developed. The leaves now exhibited slight spontaneous movements; and when the terminal filaments came into contact with a stick, they slowly bent round and firmly seized it. But owing to the subsequent growth of the leaf, this filament became after a time quite slack, though still remaining firmly coiled round the stick. Hence it would appear that the
chief use of the coiling, at least whilst the plant is young, is to support the pitcher with its load of secreted fluid.
Summary on Leaf-climbers. — Plants belonging to eight families are known to have clasping petioles, and plants belonging to four families climb by the tips of their leaves. In all the species observed by me, with one exception, the young internodes revolve more or less regularly, in some cases as regularly as those of a twining plant. They revolve at various rates, in most cases rather rapidly. Some few can ascend by spirally twining round a support. Differently from most twiners, there is a strong tendency in the same shoot to revolve first in one and then in an opposite direction. The object gained by the revolving movement is to bring the petioles or the tips of the leaves into contact with surrounding objects; and without this aid the plant would be much less successful in climbing. With rare exceptions, the petioles are sensitive only whilst young. They are sensitive on all sides, but in different degrees in different plants; and in some species of Clematis the several parts of the same petiole differ much in sensitiveness. The hooked tips of the leaves of the Gloriosa are sensitive only on their inner or inferior surfaces. The petioles are sensitive to a touch and to excessively slight continued pressure, even from a loop of soft thread weighing only the one-sixteenth of a grain (4.05 mg.); and there is reason to believe that the rather thick and
stiff petioles of Clematis flammula are sensitive to even much less weight if spread over a wide surface. The petioles always bend towards the side which is pressed or touched, at different rates in different species, sometimes within a few minutes, but generally after a much longer period. After temporary contact with any object, the petiole continues to bend for a considerable time; afterwards it slowly becomes straight again, and can then re-act. A petiole excited by an extremely slight weight sometimes bends a little, and then becomes accustomed to the stimulus, and either bends no more or becomes straight again, the weight still remaining suspended. Petioles which have clasped an object for some little time cannot recover their original position. After remaining clasped for two or three days, they generally increase much in thickness either throughout their whole diameter or on one side alone; they subsequently become stronger and more woody, sometimes to a wonderful degree; and in some cases they acquire an internal structure like that of the stem or axis.
The young internodes of the Lophospermum as well as the petioles are sensitive to a touch, and by their combined movement seize an object. The flower-peduncles of the Maurandia semperflorens revolve spontaneously and are sensitive to a touch, yet are not used for climbing. The leaves of at least two, and probably of most, of the species of Clematis, of Fumaria and Adlumia, spontaneously curve from side to side, like the internodes, and are thus better adapted to
seize distant objects. The petioles of the perfect leaves of Tropæolum tricolorum, as well as the tendril-like filaments of the plants whilst young, ultimately move towards the stem or the supporting stick, which they then clasp. These petioles and filaments also show some tendency to contract spirally. The tips of the uncaught leaves of the Gloriosa, as they grow old, contract into a flat spire or helix. These several facts are interesting in relation to true tendrils.
With leaf climbers, as with twining plants, the first internodes which rise from the ground do not, at least in the cases observed by me, spontaneously revolve; nor are the petioles or tips of the first-formed leaves sensitive. In certain species of Clematis, the large size of the leaves, together with their habit of revolving, and the extreme sensitiveness of their petioles, appear to render the revolving movement of the internodes superfluous; and this latter power has consequently become much enfeebled. In certain species of Tropæolum, both the spontaneous movements of the internodes and the sensitiveness of the petioles have become much enfeebled, and in one species have been completely lost.
Nature of tendrils — BIGNONIACEÆ, various species of, and their different modes of climbing — Tendrils which avoid the light and creep into crevices — Development of adhesive discs — Excellent adaptations for seizing different kinds of supports — POLEMONIACEÆ — Cobæa scandens, much branched and hooked tendrils, their manner of action — LEGUMINOSÆ — COMPOSITÆ — SMILACEÆ — Smilax aspera, its inefficient tendrils — FUMARIACEÆ — Corydalis claviculata, its state intermediate between that of a leaf-climber and a tendril-bearer.
BY tendrils I mean filamentary organs, sensitive to contact and used exclusively for climbing. By this definition, spines, hooks and rootlets, all of which are used for climbing, are excluded. True tendrils are formed by the modification of leaves with their petioles, of flower-peduncles, branches,* and perhaps stipules.
* Never having had the opportunity of examining tendrils produced by the modification of branches, I spoke doubtfully about them in this essay when originally published. But since then Fritz Müller has described (Journal of Linn. Soc. vol. ix. p. 344) many striking cases in South Brazil. In speaking of plants which climb by the aid of their branches, more or less modified, he states that the following stages of development can be traced: (1.) Plants supporting themselves simply by their branches stretched out at right angles—for example, Chiococca. (2.) Plants clasping a support with their unmodified branches, as with Securidaca. (3.) Plants climbing by the extremities of their branches which appear like tendrils, as is the case according to Endlicher with Helinus. (4.) Plants with their branches much modified and temporarily converted into tendrils, but which may be again
Mohl, who includes under the name of tendrils various organs having a similar external appearance, classes them according to their homological nature, as being modified leaves, flower-peduncles, &c. This would be an excellent scheme; but I observe that botanists are by no means unanimous on the homological nature of certain tendrils. Consequently I will describe tendril-bearing plants by natural families, following Lindley's classification; and this will in most cases keep those of the same nature together. The species to be described belong to ten families, and will be given in the following order:—Bignoniaceæ, Polemoniaceæ, Leguminosæ, Compositæ, Smilaceæ, Fumariaceæ, Cucurbitaceæ, Vitaceæ, Sapindaceæ, Passifloraceæ.*
transformed into branches, as with certain Papilionaceous plants. (5.) Plants with their branches forming true tendrils, and used exclusively for climbing—as with Strychnos and Caulotretus. Even the unmodified branches become much thickened when they wind round a support. I may add that Mr. Thwaites sent me from Ceylon a specimen of an Acacia which had climbed up the trunk of a rather large tree, by the aid of tendril-like, curved or convoluted branchlets, arrested in their growth and furnished with sharp recurved hooks.
* As far as I can make out, the history of our knowledge of tendrils is as follows:—We have seen that Palm and von Mohl observed about the same time the singular phenomenon of the spontaneous revolving movement of twining-plants. Palm (p. 58), I presume, observed likewise the revolving movement of tendrils; but I do not feel sure of this, for he says very little on the subject. Dutrochet fully described this movement of the tendril in the common pea. Mohl first discovered that tendrils are sensitive to contact; but from some cause, probably from observing too old tendrils, he was not aware how sensitive they were, and thought that prolonged pressure was necessary to excite their movement. Professor Asa Gray, in a paper already quoted, first noticed the extreme sensitiveness and rapidity of the movements of the tendrils of certain Cucurbitaceous plants.
BIGNONIACEÆ. — This family contains many tendril-bearers, some twiners, and some root-climbers. The tendrils always consist of modified leaves. Nine species of Bignonia, selected by hazard, are here described, in order to show what diversity of structure and action there may be within the same genus, and to show what remarkable powers some tendrils possess. The species, taken together, afford connecting links
Unnamed species from Kew.
between twiners, leaf-climbers, tendril-bearers, and root-climbers.
Bignonia (an unnamed species from Kew, closely allied to B. unguis, but with smaller and rather broader leaves). — A young shoot from a cut-down plant made three revolutions against the sun, at an average rate of 2 hrs. 6m. The stem is thin and flexible; it twined round a slender vertical stick, ascending from left to right, as perfectly and as regularly as any true twining-plant. When thus ascending, it makes no use of its tendrils or petioles; but when it twined round a
rather thick stick, and its petioles were brought into contact with it, these curved round the stick, showing that they have some degree of irritability. The petioles also exhibit a slight degree of spontaneous movement; for in one case they certainly described minute, irregular, vertical ellipses. The tendrils apparently curve themselves spontaneously to the same side with the petioles; but from various causes, it was difficult to observe the movement of either the tendrils or petioles, in this and the two following species. The tendrils are so closely similar in all respects to those of B. unguis, that one description will suffice.
Bignonia unguis. — The young shoots revolve, but less regularly and less quickly than those of the last species. The stem twines imperfectly round a vertical stick, sometimes reversing its direction, in the same manner as described in so many leaf-climbers; and this plant though possessing tendrils, climbs to a certain extent like a leaf-climber. Each leaf consists of a petiole bearing a pair of leaflets, and terminates in a tendril, which is formed by the modification of three leaflets, and closely resembles that above figured (fig. 5). But it is a little larger, and in a young plant was about half an inch in length. It is curiously like the leg and foot of a small bird, with the hind toe cut off. The straight leg or tarsus is longer than the three toes, which are of equal length, and diverging, lie in the same plane. The toes terminate in sharp, hard claws, much curved downwards, like those on a bird's foot. The petiole of the leaf is sensitive to contact;
even a small loop of thread suspended for two days caused it to bend upwards; but the sub-petioles of the two lateral leaflets are not sensitive. The whole tendril, namely, the tarsus and the three toes, are likewise sensitive to contact, especially on their under surfaces. When a shoot grows in the midst of thin branches, the tendrils are soon brought by the revolving movement of the internodes into contact with them; and then one toe of the tendril or more, commonly all three, bend, and after several hours seize fast hold of the twigs, like a bird when perched. If the tarsus of the tendril comes into contact with a twig, it goes on slowly bending, until the whole foot is carried quite round, and the toes pass on each side of the tarsus and seize it. In like manner, if the petiole comes into contact with a twig, it bends round, carrying the tendril, which then seizes its own petiole or that of the opposite leaf. The petioles move spontaneously, and thus, when a shoot attempts to twine round an upright stick, those on both sides after a time come into contact with it, and are excited to bend. Ultimately the two petioles clasp the stick in opposite directions, and the foot-like tendrils, seizing on each other or on their own petioles, fasten the stem to the support with surprising security. The tendrils are thus brought into action, if the stem twines round a thin vertical stick; and in this respect the present species differs from the last. Both species use their tendrils in the same manner when passing through a thicket. This plant is one of the most efficient climbers
which I have observed; and it probably could ascend a polished stem incessantly tossed by heavy storms. To show how important vigorous health is for the action of all the parts, I may mention that when I first examined a plant which was growing moderately well, though not vigorously, I concluded that the tendrils acted only like the hooks on a bramble, and that it was the most feeble and inefficient of all climbers!
Bignonia Tweedyana. — This species is closely allied to the last, and behaves in the same manner; but perhaps twines rather better round a vertical stick. On the same plant, one branch twined in one direction and another in an opposite direction. The internodes in one case made two circles, each in 2 hrs. 33 m. I was enabled to observe the spontaneous movements of the petioles better in this than in the two preceding species: one petiole described three small vertical ellipses in the course of 11 hrs., whilst another moved in an irregular spire. Some little time after a stem has twined round an upright stick, and is securely fastened to it by the clasping petioles and tendrils, it emits aërial roots from the bases of its leaves; and these roots curve partly round and adhere to the stick. This species of Bignonia, therefore, combines four different methods of climbing generally characteristic of distinct plants, namely, twining, leaf-climbing, tendril-climbing, and root-climbing.
In the three foregoing species, when the foot-like tendril has caught an object, it continues to grow
and thicken, and ultimately becomes wonderfully strong, in the same manner as the petioles of leaf-climbers. If the tendril catches nothing, it first slowly bends downwards, and then its power of clasping is lost. Very soon afterwards it disarticulates itself from the petiole, and drops off like a leaf in autumn. I have seen this process of disarticulation in no other tendrils, for these, when they fail to catch an object, merely wither away.
Bignonia venusta. — The tendrils differ considerably from those of the previous species. The lower part, or tarsus, is four times as long as the three toes; these are of equal length and diverge equally, but do not lie in the same plane; their tips are bluntly hooked, and the whole tendril makes an excellent grapnel. The tarsus is sensitive on all sides; but the three toes are sensitive only on their outer surfaces. The sensitiveness is not much developed; for a slight rubbing with a twig did not cause the tarsus or the toes to become curved until an hour had elapsed, and then only in a slight degree. Subsequently they straightened themselves. Both the tarsus and toes can seize well hold of sticks. If the stem is secured, the tendrils are seen spontaneously to sweep large ellipses; the two opposite tendrils moving independently of one another. I have no doubt, from the analogy of the two following allied species, that the petioles also move spontaneously; but they are not irritable like those of B. unguis and B. Tweedyana. The young internodes sweep large circles, one being completed in 2 hrs. 15 m., and
a second in 2 hrs. 55 m. By these combined movements of the internodes, petioles, and grapnel-like tendrils, the latter are soon brought into contact with surrounding objects. When a shoot stands near an upright stick, it twines regularly and spirally round it. As it ascends, it seizes the stick with one of its tendrils, and, if the stick be thin, the right- and left-hand tendrils are alternately used. This alternation follows from the stem necessarily taking one twist round its own axis for each completed circle.
The tendrils contract spirally a short time after catching any object; those which catch nothing merely bend slowly downwards. But the whole subject of the spiral contraction of tendrils will be discussed after all the tendril-bearing species have been described.
Bignonia littoralis. — The young internodes revolve in large ellipses. An internode bearing immature tendrils made two revolutions, each in 3 hrs. 50 m.; but when grown older with the tendrils mature, it made two ellipses, each at the rate of 2 hrs. 44 m. This species, unlike the preceding, is incapable of twining round a stick: this does not appear to be due to any want of flexibility in the internodes or to the action of the tendrils, and certainly not to any want of the revolving power; nor can I account for the fact. Nevertheless the plant readily ascends a thin upright stick by seizing a point above with its two opposite tendrils, which then contract spirally. If the tendrils seize nothing, they do not become spiral.
The species last described, ascended a vertical stick by twining spirally and by seizing it alternately with its opposite tendrils, like a sailor pulling himself up a rope, hand over hand; the present species pulls itself up, like a sailor seizing with both hands together a rope above his head.
The tendrils are similar in structure to those of the last species. They continue growing for some time, even after they have clasped an object. When fully grown, though borne by a young plant, they are 9 inches in length. The three divergent toes are shorter relatively to the tarsus than in the former species; they are blunt at their tips and but slightly hooked; they are not quite equal in length, the middle one being rather longer than the others. Their outer surfaces are highly sensitive; for when lightly rubbed with a twig, they became perceptibly curved in 4 m. and greatly curved in 7 m. In 7 hrs. they became straight again and were ready to re-act. The tarsus, for the space of one inch close to the toes, is sensitive, but in a rather less degree than the toes; for the latter, after a slight rubbing, became curved in about half the time. Even the middle part of the tarsus is sensitive to prolonged contact, as soon as the tendril has arrived at maturity. After it has grown old, the sensitiveness is confined to the toes, and these are only able to curl very slowly round a stick. A tendril is perfectly ready to act, as soon as the three toes have diverged, and at this period their outer surfaces first become irritable. The irritability spreads but little from one part when
excited to another: thus, when a stick was caught by the part immediately beneath the three toes, these seldom clasped it, but remained sticking straight out.
The tendrils revolve spontaneously. The movement begins before the tendril is converted into a three-pronged grapnel by the divergence of the toes, and before any part has become sensitive; so that the revolving movement is useless at this early period. The movement is, also, now slow, two ellipses being completed conjointly in 24 hrs. 18 m. A mature tendril made an ellipse in 6 hrs.; so that it moved much more slowly than the internodes. The ellipses which were swept, both in a vertical and horizontal plane, were of large size. The petioles are not in the least sensitive, but revolve like the tendrils. We thus see that the young internodes, the petioles, and the tendrils all continue revolving together, but at different rates. The movements of the tendrils which rise opposite one another are quite independent. Hence, when the whole shoot is allowed freely to revolve, nothing can be more intricate than the course followed by the extremity of each tendril. A wide space is thus irregularly searched for some object to be grasped.
One other curious point remains to be mentioned. In the course of a few days after the toes have closely clasped a stick, their blunt extremities become developed, though not invariably, into irregular disc-like balls which have the power of adhering firmly to the wood. As similar cellular outgrowths will be
fully described under B. capreolata, I will here say nothing more about them.
Bignonia æquinoctialis, var. Chamberlaynii. — The internodes, the elongated non-sensitive petioles, and the tendrils all revolve. The stem does not twine, but ascends a vertical stick in the same manner as the last species. The tendrils also resemble those of the last species, but are shorter; the three toes are more unequal in length, the two outer ones being about one-third shorter and rather thinner than the middle toe; but they vary in this respect. They terminate in small hard points; and what is important, cellular adhesive discs are not developed. The reduced size of two of the toes as well as their lessened sensitiveness, seem to indicate a tendency to abortion; and on one of my plants the first-formed tendrils were sometimes simple, that is, were not divided into three toes. We are thus naturally led to the three following species with undivided tendrils:—
Bignonia speciosa. — The young shoots revolve irregularly, making narrow ellipses, spires or circles, at rates varying from 3 hrs. 30 m. to 4 hrs. 40 m.; but they show no tendency to twine. Whilst the plant is young and does not require a support, tendrils are not developed. Those borne by a moderately young plant were five inches in length. They revolve spontaneously, as do the short and non-sensitive petioles. When rubbed, they slowly bend to the rubbed side and subsequently straighten themselves; but they are not highly sensitive. There is something strange in
their behaviour: I repeatedly placed close to them, thick and thin, rough and smooth sticks and posts, as well as string suspended vertically, but none of these objects were well seized. After clasping an upright stick, they repeatedly loosed it again, and often would not seize it at all, or their extremities did not coil closely round. I have observed hundreds of tendrils belonging to various Cucurbitaceous, Passifloraceous, and Leguminous plants, and never saw one behave in this manner. When, however, my plant had grown to a height of eight or nine feet, the tendrils acted much better. They now seized a thin, upright stick horizontally, that is, at a point on their own level, and not some way up the stick as in the case of all the previous species. Nevertheless, the non-twining stem was enabled by this means to ascend the stick.
The extremity of the tendril is almost straight and sharp. The whole terminal portion exhibits a singular habit, which in an animal would be called an instinct; for it continually searches for any little crevice or hole into which to insert itself. I had two young plants; and, after having observed this habit, I placed near them posts, which had been bored by beetles, or had become fissured by drying. The tendrils, by their own movement and by that of the internodes, slowly travelled over the surface of the wood, and when the apex came to a hole or fissure it inserted itself; in order to effect this the extremity for a length of half or quarter of an inch, would often bend itself at right angles to the basal part. I have watched this process
between twenty and thirty times. The same tendril would frequently withdraw from one hole and insert its point into a second hole. I have also seen a tendril keep its point, in one case for 20 hrs. and in another for 36 hrs., in a minute hole, and then withdraw it. Whilst the point is thus temporarily inserted, the opposite tendril goes on revolving.
The whole length of a tendril often fits itself closely to any surface of wood with which it has come into contact; and I have observed one bent at right angles, from having entered a wide and deep fissure, with its apex abruptly re-bent and inserted into a minute lateral hole. After a tendril has clasped a stick, it contracts spirally; if it remains unattached it hangs straight downwards. If it has merely adapted itself to the inequalities of a thick post, though it has clasped nothing, or if it has inserted its apex into some little fissure, this stimulus suffices to induce spiral contraction; but the contraction always draws the tendril away from the post. So that in every case these movements, which seem so nicely adapted for some purpose, were useless. On one occasion, however, the tip became permanently jammed into a narrow fissure. I fully expected, from the analogy of B. capreolata and B. littoralis, that the tips would have been developed into adhesive discs; but I could never detect even a trace of this process. There is therefore at present something unintelligible about the habits of this plant.
Bignonia picta. — This species closely resembles the
last in the structure and movements of its tendrils. I also casually examined a fine growing plant of the allied B. Lindleyi, and this apparently behaved in all respects in the same manner.
Bignonia capreolata. — We now come to a species having tendrils of a different type; but first for the internodes. A young shoot made three large revolutions, following the sun, at an average rate of 2 hrs. 23 m. The stem is thin and flexible, and I have seen one make four regular spiral turns round a thin upright stick, ascending of course from right to left, and therefore in a reversed direction compared with the before described species. Afterwards, from the interference of the tendrils, it ascended either straight up the stick or in an irregular spire. The tendrils are in some respects highly remarkable. In a young plant they were about 2½ inches in length and much branched, the five chief branches apparently representing two pairs of leaflets and a terminal one. Each branch is, however, bifid or more commonly trifid towards the extremity, with the points blunt yet distinctly hooked. A tendril bends to any side which is lightly rubbed, and subsequently becomes straight again; but a loop of thread weighing ¼th of a grain produced no effect. On two occasions the terminal branches became slightly curved in 10 m. after they had touched a stick; and in 30 m. the tips were curled quite round it. The basal part is less sensitive. The tendrils revolved in an apparently capricious manner, sometimes very slightly or not at all; at other times they
described large regular ellipses. I could detect no spontaneous movement in the petioles of the leaves.
Whilst the tendrils are revolving more or less regularly, another remarkable movement takes place, namely, a slow inclination from the light towards the darkest side of the house. I repeatedly changed the position of my plants, and some little time after the revolving movement had ceased, the successively formed tendrils always ended by pointing to the darkest side. When I placed a thick post near a tendril, between it and the light, the tendril pointed in that direction. In two instances a pair of leaves stood so that one of the two tendrils was directed towards the light and the other to the darkest side of the house; the latter did not move, but the opposite one bent itself first upwards and then right over its fellow, so that the two became parallel, one above the other, both pointing to the dark: I then turned the plant half round; and the tendril which had turned over recovered its original position, and the opposite one which had not before moved, now turned over to the dark side. Lastly, on another plant, three pairs of tendrils were produced at the same time by three shoots, and all happened to be differently directed: I placed the pot in a box open only on one side, and obliquely facing the light; in two days all six tendrils pointed with unerring truth to the darkest corner of the box, though to do this each had to bend in a different manner. Six wind-vanes could not have more truly shown the direction of the wind, than did
these branched tendrils the course of the stream of light which entered the box. I left these tendrils undisturbed for above 24 hrs., and then turned the pot half round; but they had now lost their power of movement, and could not any longer avoid the light.
When a tendril has not succeeded in clasping a support, either through its own revolving movement or that of the shoot, or by turning towards any object which intercepts the light, it bends vertically downwards and then towards its own stem, which it seizes together with the supporting stick, if there be one. A little aid is thus given in keeping the stem secure. If the tendril seizes nothing, it does not contract spirally, but soon withers away and drops off. If it seizes an object, all the branches contract spirally.
I have stated that after a tendril has come into contact with a stick, it bends round it in about half an hour; but I repeatedly observed, as in the case of B. speciosa and its allies, that it often again loosed the stick; sometimes seizing and loosing the same stick three or four times. Knowing that the tendrils avoided the light, I gave them a glass tube blackened within, and a well-blackened zinc plate: the branches curled round the tube and abruptly bent themselves round the edges of the zinc plate; but they soon recoiled from these objects with what I can only call disgust, and straightened themselves. I then placed a post with extremely rugged bark close to a pair of tendrils; twice they touched it for an hour or two, and twice they withdrew; at last one of the hooked extremities
curled round and firmly seized an excessively minute projecting point of bark, and then the other branches spread themselves out, following with accuracy every inequality of the surface. I afterwards placed near the plant a post without bark but much fissured, and the points of the tendrils crawled into all the crevices in a beautiful manner. To my surprise, I observed that the tips of the immature tendrils, with the branches not yet fully separated, likewise crawled just like roots into the minutest crevices. In two or three days after the tips had thus crawled into the crevices, or after their hooked ends had seized minute points, the final process, now to be described, commenced.
This process I discovered by having accidentally left a piece of wool near a tendril; and this led me to bind a quantity of flax, moss, and wool loosely round sticks, and to place them near tendrils. The wool must not be dyed, for these tendrils are excessively sensitive to some poisons. The hooked points soon caught hold of the fibres, even loosely floating fibres, and now there was no recoiling; on the contrary, the excitement caused the hooks to penetrate the fibrous mass and to curl inwards, so that each hook caught firmly one or two fibres, or a small bundle of them. The tips and the inner surfaces of the hooks now began to swell, and in two or three days were visibly enlarged. After a few more days the hooks were converted into whitish, irregular balls, rather above the 1/20th of an inch (1.27 mm.) in diameter, formed of coarse cellular tissue,
which sometimes wholly enveloped and concealed the hooks themselves. The surfaces of these balls secrete some viscid resinous matter, to which the fibres of the flax, &c., adhere. When a fibre has become fastened to the surface, the cellular tissue does not grow directly beneath it, but continues to grow closely on each side; so that when several adjoining fibres, though excessively thin, were caught, so many crests of cellular matter, each not as thick as a human hair, grew up between them, and these, arching over on both sides, adhered firmly together. As the whole surface of the ball continues to grow, fresh fibres adhere and are afterwards enveloped; so that I have seen a little ball with between fifty and sixty fibres of flax crossing it at various angles and all embedded more or less deeply. Every gradation in the process could be followed—some fibres merely sticking to the surface, others lying in more or less deep furrows, or deeply embedded, or passing through the very centre of the cellular ball. The embedded fibres are so closely clasped that they cannot be withdrawn. The outgrowing tissue has so strong a tendency to unite, that two balls produced by distinct tendrils sometimes unite and grow into a single one.
On one occasion, when a tendril had curled round a stick, half an inch in diameter, an adhesive disc was formed; but this does not generally occur in the case of smooth sticks or posts. If, however, the tip catches a minute projecting point, the other branches form discs, especially if they find crevices to crawl
into. The tendrils failed to attach themselves to a brick wall.
I infer from the adherence of the fibres to the discs or balls, that these secrete some resinous adhesive matter; and more especially from such fibres becoming loose if immersed in sulphuric ether. This fluid likewise removes small, brown, glistening points which can generally be seen on the surfaces of the older discs. If the hooked extremities of the tendrils do not touch anything, discs, as far as I have seen, are never formed;* but temporary contact during a moderate time suffices to cause their development. I have seen eight discs formed on the same tendril. After their development the tendrils contract spirally, and become woody and very strong. A tendril in this state supported nearly seven ounces, and would apparently have supported a considerably greater weight, had not the fibres of flax to which the discs were attached yielded.
From the facts now given, we may infer that though the tendrils of this Bignonia can occasionally adhere to smooth cylindrical sticks and often to rugged bark, yet that they are specially adapted to climb trees clothed with lichens, mosses, or other such productions; and I hear from Professor Asa Gray that the Polypodium incanum abounds on the forest-trees in the districts of
* Fritz Müller states (ibid. p. 348) that in South Brazil the trifid tendrils of Haplolophium, (one of the Bignoniaceæ) without having come into contact with any object, terminate in smooth shining discs. These, however, after adhering to any object, sometimes become considerably enlarged.
North America where this species of Bignonia grows. Finally, I may remark how singular a fact it is that a leaf should be metamorphosed into a branched organ which turns from the light, and which can by its extremities either crawl like roots into crevices, or seize hold of minute projecting points, these extremities afterwards forming cellular outgrowths which secrete an adhesive cement, and then envelop by their continued growth the finest fibres.
Eccremocarpus scaber (Bignoniaceæ). — Plants, though growing pretty well in my green-house, showed no spontaneous movements in their shoots or tendrils; but when removed to the hot-house, the young internodes revolved at rates varying from 3 hrs. 15 m. to 1 hr. 13 m. One large circle was swept at this latter unusually quick rate; but generally the circles or ellipses were small, and sometimes the course pursued was quite irregular. An internode, after making several revolutions, sometimes stood still for 12 hrs. or 18 hrs., and then recommenced revolving. Such strongly marked interruptions in the movements of the internodes I have observed in hardly any other plant.
The leaves bear four leaflets, themselves subdivided, and terminate in much-branched tendrils. The main petiole of the leaf, whilst young, moves spontaneously, and follows nearly the same irregular course and at about the same rate as the internodes. The movement to and from the stem is the most conspicuous, and I have seen the chord of a curved petiole which formed an angle of 59° with the stem, in an
hour afterwards making an angle of 106°. The two opposite petioles do not move together, and one is sometimes so much raised as to stand close to the stem, whilst the other is not far from horizontal. The basal part of the petiole moves less than the distal part. The tendrils, besides being carried by the moving petioles and internodes, themselves move spontaneously; and the opposite tendrils occasionally move in opposite directions. By these combined movements of the young internodes, petioles, and tendrils, a considerable space is swept in search of a support.
In young plants the tendrils are about three inches in length: they bear two lateral and two terminal branches; and each branch bifurcates twice, with the tips terminating in blunt double hooks, having both points directed to the same side. All the branches are sensitive on all sides; and after being lightly rubbed, or after coming into contact with a stick, bend in about 10 m. One which had become curved in 10 m. after a light rub, continued bending for between 3 hrs. and 4 hrs., and became straight again in 8 hrs. or 9 hrs. Tendrils, which have caught nothing, ultimately contract into an irregular spire, as they likewise do, only much more quickly, after clasping a support. In both cases the main petiole bearing the leaflets, which is at first straight and inclined a little upwards, moves downwards, with the middle part bent abruptly into a right angle; but this is seen in E. miniatus more plainly than in E. scaber. The tendrils in this genus act in some respects like those of Bignonia
capreolata; but the whole does not move from the light, nor do the hooked tips become enlarged into cellular discs. After the tendrils have come into contact with a moderately thick cylindrical stick or with rugged bark, the several branches may be seen slowly to lift themselves up, change their positions, and again come into contact with the supporting surface. The object of these movements is to bring the double hooks at the extremities of the branches, which naturally face in all directions, into contact with the wood. I have watched a tendril, half of which had bent itself at right angles round the sharp corner of a square post, neatly bring every single hook into contact with both rectangular surfaces. The appearance suggested the belief, that though the whole tendril is not sensitive to light, yet that the tips are so, and that they turn and twist themselves towards any dark surface. Ultimately the branches arrange themselves very neatly to all the irregularities of the most rugged bark, so that they resemble in their irregular course a river with its branches, as engraved on a map. But when a tendril has wound round a rather thick stick, the subsequent spiral contraction generally draws it away and spoils the neat arrangement. So it is, but not in quite so marked a manner, when a tendril has spread itself over a large, nearly flat surface of rugged bark. We may therefore conclude that these tendrils are not perfectly adapted to seize moderately thick sticks or rugged bark. If a thin stick or twig is placed near a tendril, the terminal branches wind quite round it,
and then seize their own lower branches or the main stem. The stick is thus firmly, but not neatly, grasped. What the tendrils are really adapted for, appears to be such objects as the thin culms of certain grasses, or the long flexible bristles of a brush, or thin rigid leaves such as those of the Asparagus, all of which they seize in an admirable manner. This is due to the extremities of the branches close to the little hooks being extremely sensitive to a touch from the thinnest object, which they consequently curl round and clasp. When a small brush, for instance, was placed near a tendril, the tips of each sub-branch seized one, two, or three of the bristles; and then the spiral contraction of the several branches brought all these little parcels close together, so that thirty or forty bristles were drawn into a single bundle, which afforded an excellent support.
POLEMONIACEÆ. — Cobæa scandens. — This is an excellently constructed climber. The tendrils on a fine plant were eleven inches long, with the petiole bearing two pairs of leaflets, only two and a half inches in length. They revolve more rapidly and vigorously than those of any other tendril-bearer observed by me, with the exception of one kind of Passiflora. Three large, nearly circular sweeps, directed against the sun were completed, each in 1 hr. 15 m.; and two other circles in 1 hr. 20 m. and 1 hr. 23 m. Sometimes a tendril travels in a much inclined position, and sometimes nearly upright. The lower part moves but little and the petiole not at all; nor do
the internodes revolve; so that here we have the tendril alone moving. On the other hand, with most of the species of Bignonia and the Eccremocarpus, the internodes, tendrils, and petioles all revolved. The long, straight, tapering main stem of the tendril of the Cobæa bears alternate branches; and each branch is several times divided, with the finer branches as thin as very thin bristles and extremely flexible, so that they are blown about by a breath of air; yet they are strong and highly elastic. The extremity of each branch is a little flattened, and terminates in a minute double (though sometimes single) hook, formed of a hard, translucent, woody substance, and as sharp as the finest needle. On a tendril which was eleven inches long I counted ninety-four of these beautifully constructed little hooks. They readily catch soft wood, or gloves, or the skin of the naked hand. With the exception of these hardened hooks, and of the basal part of the central stem, every part of every branchlet is highly sensitive on all sides to a slight touch, and bends in a few minutes towards the touched side. By lightly rubbing several sub-branches on opposite sides, the whole tendril rapidly assumed an extraordinarily crooked shape. These movements from contact do not interfere with the ordinary revolving movement. The branches, after becoming greatly curved from being touched, straighten themselves at a quicker rate than in almost any other tendril seen by me, namely, in between half an hour and an hour. After the tendril has caught any object, spiral contraction likewise
begins after an unusually short interval of time, namely, in about twelve hours.
Before the tendril is mature, the terminal branchlets cohere, and the hooks are curled closely inwards. At this period no part is sensitive to a touch; but as soon as the branches diverge and the hooks stand out, full sensitiveness is acquired. It is a singular circumstance that immature tendrils revolve at their full velocity before they become sensitive, but in a useless manner, as in this state they can catch nothing. This want of perfect co-adaptation, though only for a short time, between the structure and the functions of a climbing-plant is a rare event. A tendril, as soon as it is ready to act, stands, together with the supporting petiole, vertically upwards. The leaflets borne by the petiole are at this time quite small, and the extremity of the growing stem is bent to one side so as to be out of the way of the revolving tendril, which sweeps large circles directly over head. The tendrils thus revolve in a position well adapted for catching objects standing above; and by this means the ascent of the plant is favoured. If no object is caught, the leaf with its tendril bends downwards and ultimately assumes a horizontal position. An open space is thus left for the next succeeding and younger tendril to stand vertically upwards and to revolve freely. As soon as an old tendril bends downwards, it loses all power of movement, and contracts spirally into an entangled mass. Although the tendrils revolve with unusual rapidity, the movement lasts for only a short
time. In a plant placed in the hot-house and growing vigorously, a tendril revolved for not longer than 36 hours, counting from the period when it first became sensitive; but during this period it probably made at least 27 revolutions.
When a revolving tendril strikes against a stick, the branches quickly bend round and clasp it. The little hooks here play an important part, as they prevent the branches from being dragged away by the rapid revolving movement, before they have had time to clasp the stick securely. This is especially the case when only the extremity of a branch has caught hold of a support. As soon as a tendril has bent round a smooth stick or a thick rugged post, or has come into contact with planed wood (for it can adhere temporarily even to so smooth a surface as this), the same peculiar movements may be observed as those described under Bignonia capreolata and Eccremocarpus. The branches repeatedly lift themselves up and down; those which have their hooks already directed downwards remaining in this position and securing the tendril, whilst the others twist about until they succeed in arranging themselves in conformity with every irregularity of the surface, and in bringing their hooks into contact with the wood. The use of the hooks was well shown by giving the tendrils tubes and slips of glass to catch; for these, though temporarily seized, were invariably lost, either during the re-arrangement of the branches or ultimately when spiral contraction ensued.
The perfect manner in which the branches arranged themselves, creeping like rootlets over every inequality of the surface and into any deep crevice, is a pretty sight; for it is perhaps more effectually performed by this than by any other species. The action is certainly more conspicuous, as the upper surfaces of the main stem, as well as of every branch to the extreme hooks, are angular and green, whilst the lower surfaces are rounded and purple. I was led to infer, as in former cases, that a less amount of light guided these movements of the branches of the tendrils. I made many trials with black and white cards and glass tubes to prove it, but failed from various causes; yet these trials countenanced the belief. As a tendril consists of a leaf split into numerous segments, there is nothing surprising in all the segments turning their upper surfaces towards the light, as soon as the tendril is caught and the revolving movement is arrested. But this will not account for the whole movement, for the segments actually bend or curve to the dark side besides turning round on their axes so that their upper surfaces may face the light.
When the Cobæa grows in the open air, the wind must aid the extremely flexible tendrils in seizing a support, for I found that a mere breath sufficed to cause the extreme branches to catch hold by their hooks of twigs, which they could not have reached by the revolving movement. It might have been thought that a tendril, thus hooked by the extremity of a single branch, could not have fairly grasped its support.
But several times I watched cases like the following: a tendril caught a thin stick by the hooks of one of its two extreme branches; though thus held by the tip, it still tried to revolve, bowing itself to all sides, and by this movement the other extreme branch soon caught the stick. The first branch then loosed itself, and, arranging its hooks, again caught hold. After a time, from the continued movement of the tendril, the hooks of a third branch caught hold. No other branches, as the tendril then stood, could possibly have touched the stick. But before long the upper part of the main stem began to contract into an open spire. It thus dragged the shoot which bore the tendril towards the stick; and as the tendril continually tried to revolve, a fourth branch was brought into contact. And lastly, from the spiral contraction travelling down both the main stem and the branches, all of them, one after another, were ultimately brought into contact with the stick. They then wound themselves round it and round one another, until the whole tendril was tied together in an inextricable knot. The tendrils, though at first quite flexible, after having clasped a support for a time, become more rigid and stronger than they were at first. Thus the plant is secured to its support in a perfect manner.
LEGUMINOSÆ. — Pisum sativum. — The common pea was the subject of a valuable memoir by Dutrochet,* who discovered that the internodes and tendrils
* Comptes Rendus, tom. xvii. 1843, p. 989.
revolve in ellipses. The ellipses are generally very narrow, but sometimes approach to circles. I several times observed that the longer axis slowly changed its direction, which is of importance, as the tendril thus sweeps a wider space. Owing to this change of direction, and likewise to the movement of the stem towards the light, the successive irregular ellipses generally form an irregular spire. I have thought it worth while to annex a tracing of the course pursued by the upper internode (the movement of the tendril being neglected) of a young plant from 8.40 A.M. to 9.15 P.M. The course was traced on a hemispherical glass placed over the plant, and the dots with figures give the hours of observation; each dot being joined by a straight line. No doubt all the lines would have been curvilinear if the course had been observed at much shorter intervals. The extremity of the petiole, from which the young tendril arose, was two inches from the glass, so that if a pencil two inches in length could have been affixed to the petiole, it would have traced the annexed figure on the under side of the glass; but it must be remembered that the figure is reduced by one-half. Neglecting the first great sweep towards the light from the figure 1 to 2, the end of the petiole swept a space 4 inches across in one direction, and 3 inches in another. As a full-grown tendril is considerably above two inches in length, and as the tendril itself bends and revolves in harmony with the internode, a considerably wider space is swept than is here represented on a reduced scale. Dutrochet
observed the completion of an ellipse in 1 hr. 20 m.; and I saw one completed in 1 hr. 30 m. The direction followed is variable, either with or against the sun.
Dutrochet asserts that the petioles of the leaves
Side of room with window.
Diagram showing the movement of the upper internode of the common Pea, traced on a hemispherical glass, and transferred to paper; reduced one-half in size. (Aug. 1st.)
|1 . .
||9 . .||1
||16 . .||5
|2 . .||10
||10 . .||2
||,,||17 . .||5
|3 . .||11
||,,||11 . .||3
||,,||18 . .||6
|4 . .||11
||,,||12 . .||3
||,,||19 . .||7
|5 . .||12
||P.M.||13 . .||3
||,,||20 . .||7
|6 . .||12
||,,||14 . .||4
||,,||21 . .||8
|7 . .||1
||15 . .||5
||,,||22 . .||9
|8 . .||1
spontaneously revolve, as well as the young internodes and tendrils; but he does not say that he
secured the internodes; when this was done, I could never detect any movement in the petiole, except to and from the light.
The tendrils, on the other hand, when the internodes and petioles are secured, describe irregular spires or regular ellipses, exactly like those made by the internodes. A young tendril, only 1 1/8 inch in length, revolved. Dutrochet has shown that when a plant is placed in a room, so that the light enters laterally, the internodes travel much quicker to the light than from it: on the other hand, he asserts that the tendril itself moves from the light towards the dark side of the room. With due deference to this great observer, I think he was mistaken, owing to his not having secured the internodes. I took a young plant with highly sensitive tendrils, and tied the petiole so that the tendril alone could move; it completed a perfect ellipse in 1 hr. 30 m.; I then turned the plant partly round, but this made no change in the direction of the succeeding ellipse. The next day I watched a plant similarly secured until the tendril (which was highly sensitive) made an ellipse in a line exactly to and from the light; the movement was so great that the tendril at the two ends of its elliptical course bent itself a little beneath the horizon, thus travelling more than 180 degrees; but the curvature was fully as great towards the light as towards the dark side of the room. I believe Dutrochet was misled by not having secured the internodes, and by having observed a plant of which the internodes and tendrils no longer
curved in harmony together, owing to inequality of age.
Dutrochet made no observations on the sensitiveness of the tendrils. These, whilst young and about an inch in length with the leaflets on the petiole only partially expanded, are highly sensitive; a single light touch with a twig on the inferior or concave surface near the tip caused them to bend quickly, as did occasionally a loop of thread weighing one-seventh of a grain (9.25 mg.). The upper or convex surface is barely or not at all sensitive. Tendrils, after bending from a touch, straighten themselves in about two hours, and are then ready to act again. As soon as they begin to grow old, the extremities of their two or three pairs of branches become hooked, and they then appear to form an excellent grappling instrument; but this is not the case. For at this period they have generally quite lost their sensitiveness; and when hooked on to twigs, some were not at all affected, and others required from 18 hrs. to 24 hrs. before clasping such twigs; nevertheless, they were able to utilise the last vestige of irritability owing to their extremities being hooked. Ultimately the lateral branches contract spirally, but not the middle or main stem.
Lathyrus aphaca. — This plant is destitute of leaves, except during a very early age, these being replaced by tendrils, and the leaves themselves by large stipules. It might therefore have been expected that the tendrils would have been highly organized, but this is not so. They are moderately long, thin, and un-
branched, with their tips slightly curved. Whilst young they are sensitive on all sides, but chiefly on the concave side of the extremity. They have no spontaneous revolving power, but are at first inclined upwards at an angle of about 45°, then move into a horizontal position, and ultimately bend downwards. The young internodes, on the other hand, revolve in ellipses, and carry with them the tendrils. Two ellipses were completed, each in nearly 5 hrs.; their longer axes were directed at about an angle of 45° to the axis of the previously made ellipse.
Lathyrus grandiflorus. — The plants observed were young and not growing vigorously, yet sufficiently so, I think, for my observations to be trusted. If so, we have the rare case of neither internodes nor tendrils revolving. The tendrils of vigorous plants are above 4 inches in length, and are often twice divided into three branches; the tips are curved and are sensitive on their concave sides; the lower part of the central stem is hardly at all sensitive. Hence this plant appears to climb simply by its tendrils being brought, through the growth of the stem, or more efficiently by the wind, into contact with surrounding objects, which they then clasp. I may add that the tendrils, or the internodes, or both, of Vicia sativa revolve.
COMPOSITÆ. — Mutisia clematis. — The immense family of the Compositæ is well known to include very few climbing plants. We have seen in the Table in the first chapter that Mikania scandens is a regular twiner, and F. Müller informs me that in S.
Brazil there is another species which is a leaf-climber. Mutisia is the only genus in the family, as far as I can learn, which bears tendrils: it is therefore interesting to find that these, though rather less metamorphosed from their primordial foliar condition than are most other tendrils, yet display all the ordinary characteristic movements, both those that are spontaneous and those which are excited by contact.
The long leaf bears seven or eight alternate leaflets, and terminates in a tendril which, in a plant of considerable size, was 5 inches in length. It consists generally of three branches; and these, although much elongated, evidently represent the petioles and midribs of three leaflets; for they closely resemble the same parts in an ordinary leaf, in being rectangular on the upper surface, furrowed, and edged with green. Moreover, the green edging of the tendrils of young plants sometimes expands into a narrow lamina or blade. Each branch is curved a little downwards, and is slightly hooked at the extremity.
A young upper internode revolved, judging from three revolutions, at an average rate of 1 hr. 38 m.; it swept ellipses with the longer axes directed at right angles to one another; but the plant, apparently, cannot twine. The petioles and the tendrils are both in constant movement. But their movement is slower and much less regularly elliptical than that of the internodes. They appear to be much affected by the light, for the whole leaf usually sinks down during the
night and rises during the day, moving, also, during the day in a crooked course to the west. The tip of the tendril is highly sensitive on the lower surface; and one which was just touched with a twig became perceptibly curved in 3 m., and another in 5 m.; the upper surface is not at all sensitive; the sides are moderately sensitive, so that two branches which were rubbed on their inner sides converged and crossed each other. The petiole of the leaf and the lower parts of the tendril, halfway between the upper leaflet and the lowest branch, are not sensitive. A tendril after curling from a touch became straight again in about 6 hrs., and was ready to re-act; but one that had been so roughly rubbed as to have coiled into a helix did not become perfectly straight until after 13 hrs. The tendrils retain their sensibility to an unusually late age; for one borne by a leaf with five or six fully developed leaves above, was still active. If a tendril catches nothing, after a considerable interval of time the tips of the branches curl a little inwards; but if it clasps some object, the whole contracts spirally.
SMILACEÆ. — Smilax aspera, var. maculata. — Aug. St.-Hilaire* considers that the tendrils, which rise in pairs from the petiole, are modified lateral leaflets; but Mohl (p. 41) ranks them as modified stipules. These tendrils are from 1½ to 1¾ inches in length, are thin, and have slightly curved, pointed extremities. They diverge a little from each other, and stand at first nearly upright. When lightly rubbed on either
* 'Leçons de Botanique,' &c., 1841, p. 170.
side, they slowly bend to that side, and subsequently become straight again. The back or convex side when placed in contact with a stick became just perceptibly curved in 1 hr. 20 m., but did not completely
surround it until 48 hrs. had elapsed; the concave side of another became considerably curved in 2 hrs. and clasped a stick in 5 hrs. As the pairs of tendrils grow old, one tendril diverges more and more from the other, and both slowly bend backwards and downwards, so that after a time they project on the opposite side
of the stem to that from which they arise. They then still retain their sensitiveness, and can clasp a support placed behind the stem. Owing to this power, the plant is able to ascend a thin upright stick. Ultimately the two tendrils belonging to the same petiole, if they do not come into contact with any object, loosely cross each other behind the stem, as at B, in fig. 7. This movement of the tendrils towards and round the stem is, to a certain extent, guided by their avoidance of the light; for when a plant stood so that one of the two tendrils was compelled in thus slowly moving to travel towards the light, and the other from the light, the latter always moved, as I repeatedly observed, more quickly than its fellow. The tendrils do not contract spirally in any case. Their chance of finding a support depends on the growth of the plant, on the wind, and on their own slow backward and downward movement, which, as we have just seen, is guided, to a certain extent, by the avoidance of the light; for neither the internodes nor the tendrils have any proper revolving movement. From this latter circumstance, from the slow movements of the tendrils after contact (though their sensitiveness is retained for an unusual length of time), from their simple structure and shortness, this plant is a less perfect climber than any other tendril-bearing species observed by me. The plant whilst young and only a few inches in height, does not produce any tendrils; and considering that it grows to only about 8 feet in height, that the stem is zigzag and is furnished, as well as the petioles, with
spines, it is surprising that it should be provided with tendrils, comparatively inefficient though these are. The plant might have been left, one would have thought, to climb by the aid of its spines alone, like our brambles. As, however, it belongs to a genus, some of the species of which are furnished with much longer tendrils, we may suspect that it possesses these organs solely from being descended from progenitors more highly organized in this respect.
FUMARIACEÆ. — Corydalis claviculata. — According to Mohl (p. 43), the extremities of the branched stem, as well as the leaves, are converted into tendrils. In the specimens examined by me all the tendrils were certainly foliar, and it is hardly credible that the same plant should produce tendrils of a widely different homological nature. Nevertheless, from this statement by Mohl, I have ranked this species amongst the tendril-bearers; if classed exclusively by its foliar tendrils, it would be doubtful whether it ought not to have been placed amongst the leaf-climbers, with its allies, Fumaria and Adlumia. A large majority of its so-called tendrils still bear leaflets, though excessively reduced in size; but some few of them may properly be designated as tendrils, for they are completely destitute of laminæ or blades. Consequently, we here behold a plant in an actual state of transition from a leaf-climber to a tendril-bearer. Whilst the plant is rather young, only the outer leaves, but when full-grown all the leaves, have their extremities converted into more or less perfect tendrils. I have examined specimens
from one locality alone, viz. Hampshire; and it is not improbable that plants growing under different conditions might have their leaves a little more or less changed into true tendrils.
Whilst the plant is quite young, the first-formed leaves are not modified in any way, but those next formed have their terminal leaflets reduced in size, and soon all the leaves assume the structure represented in the following drawing. This leaf bore nine leaflets; the lower ones being much subdivided. The terminal portion of the petiole, about 1½ inch in length (above the leaflet f), is thinner and more elongated than the lower part, and may be considered as the tendril. The leaflets borne by this part are greatly reduced in size, being, on an average, about the tenth of an inch in length and very narrow; one small leaflet measured one-twelfth of an inch in length and one-seventy-fifth in breadth (2.116 mm. and .339 mm.), so that it was almost microscopically minute. All the reduced leaflets have branching nerves, and terminate in little spines, like those of the fully developed leaflets. Every gradation could be traced, until we come to branchlets (as a and d in the figure) which show no vestige of a lamina or blade. Occasionally all the terminal branchlets of the petiole are in this condition, and we then have a true tendril.
The several terminal branches of the petiole bearing the much reduced leaflets (a, b, c, d) are highly sensitive, for a loop of thread weighing only the one-sixteenth of a grain (4.05 mg.) caused them to become
greatly curved in under 4 hrs. When the loop was removed, the petioles straightened themselves in about the same time. The petiole (e) was rather less sensitive; and in another specimen, in which the corresponding
Leaf-tendril, of natural size.
petiole bore rather larger leaflets, a loop of thread weighing one-eighth of a grain did not cause curvature until 18 hrs. had elapsed. Loops of thread weighing one-fourth of a grain, left suspended on the lower
petioles (f to l) during several days, produced no effect. Yet the three petioles f, g, and h were not quite insensible, for when left in contact with a stick for a day or two they slowly curled round it. Thus the sensibility of the petiole gradually diminishes from the tendril-like extremity to the base. The internodes of the stem are not at all sensitive, which makes Mohl's statement that they are sometimes converted into tendrils the more surprising, not to say improbable.
The whole leaf, whilst young and sensitive, stands almost vertically upwards, as we have seen to be the case with many tendrils. It is in continual movement, and one that I observed swept at an average rate of about 2 hrs. for each revolution, large, though irregular, ellipses, which were sometimes narrow, sometimes broad, with their longer axes directed to different points of the compass. The young internodes, likewise revolved irregularly in ellipses or spires; so that by these combined movements a considerable space was swept for a support. If the terminal and attenuated portion of a petiole fails to seize any object, it ultimately bends downwards and inwards, and soon loses all irritability and power of movement. This bending down differs much in nature from that which occurs with the extremities of the young leaves in many species of Clematis; for these, when thus bent downwards or hooked, first acquire their full degree of sensitiveness.
Dicentra thalictrifolia. — In this allied plant the
metamorphosis of the terminal leaflets is complete, and they are converted into perfect tendrils. Whilst the plant is young, the tendrils appear like modified branches, and a distinguished botanist thought that they were of this nature; but in a full-grown plant there can be no doubt, as I am assured by Dr. Hooker, that they are modified leaves. When of full size, they are above 5 inches in length; they bifurcate twice, thrice, or even four times; their extremities are hooked and blunt. All the branches of the tendrils are sensitive on all sides, but the basal portion of the main stem is only slightly so. The terminal branches when lightly rubbed with a twig became curved in the course of from 30 m. to 42 m., and straightened themselves in between 10 hrs. and 20 hrs. A loop of thread weighing one-eighth of a grain plainly caused the thinner branches to bend, as did occasionally a loop weighing one-sixteenth of a grain; but this latter weight, though left suspended, was not sufficient to cause a permanent flexure. The whole leaf with its tendril, as well as the young upper internodes, revolves vigorously and quickly, though irregularly, and thus sweeps a wide space. The figure traced on a bell-glass was either an irregular spire or a zigzag line. The nearest approach to an ellipse was an elongated figure of 8, with one end a little open, and this was completed in 1 hr. 53 m. During a period of 6 hrs. 17 m. another shoot made a complex figure, apparently representing three and a half ellipses. When the lower part of the petiole bearing the leaflets
was securely fastened, the tendril itself described similar but much smaller figures.
This species climbs well. The tendrils after clasping a stick become thicker and more rigid; but the blunt hooks do not turn and adapt themselves to the supporting surface, as is done in so perfect a manner by some Bignoniaceæ and Cobæa. The tendrils of young plants, two or three feet in height, are only half the length of those borne by the same plant when grown taller, and they do not contract spirally after clasping a support, but only become slightly flexuous. Full-sized tendrils, on the other hand, contract spirally, with the exception of the thick basal portion. Tendrils which have caught nothing simply bend downwards and inwards, like the extremities of the leaves of the Corydalis claviculata. But in all cases the petiole after a time is angularly and abruptly bent downwards like that of Eccremocarpus.
CUCURBITACEÆ. — Homologous nature of the tendrils — Echinocystis lobata, remarkable movements of the tendrils to avoid seizing the terminal shoot — Tendrils not excited by contact with another tendril or by drops of water — Undulatory movement of the extremity of the tendril — Hanburya, adherent discs — VITACÆ — Gradation between the flower-peduncles and tendrils of the vine — Tendrils of the Virginian Creeper turn from the light, and, after contact, develop adhesive discs — SAPINDACEÆ — PASSIFLORACEÆ — Passiflora gracilis — Rapid revolving movement and sensitiveness of the tendrils — Not sensitive to the contact of other tendrils or of drops of water — Spiral contraction of tendrils — Summary on the nature and action of tendrils.
CUCURBITACEÆ. — The tendrils in this family have been ranked by competent judges as modified leaves, stipules, or branches; or as partly a leaf and partly a branch. De Candolle believes that the tendrils differ in their homological nature in two of the tribes.* From facts recently adduced, Mr. Berkeley thinks that Payer's view is the most probable, namely, that the tendril is "a separate portion of the leaf itself;" but much may be said in favour of the belief that it is a modified flower-peduncle.†
* I am indebted to Prof. Oliver for information on this head. In the Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, 1857, there are numerous discussions on the nature of the tendrils in this family.
† 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1864, p. 721. From the affinity of the Cucurbitaceæ to the Passifloraceæ, it might be argued that the tendrils of the former are modified flower-peduncles, as is certainly the case with those of Passion-
Echinocystis lobata. — Numerous observations were made on this plant (raised from seed sent me by Prof. Asa Gray), for the spontaneous revolving movements of the internodes and tendrils were first observed by me in this case, and greatly perplexed me. My observations may now be much condensed. I observed thirty-five revolutions of the internodes and tendrils; the slowest rate was 2 hrs., and the average rate, with no great fluctuations, 1 hr. 40 m. Sometimes I tied the internodes, so that the tendrils alone moved; at other times I cut off the tendrils whilst very young, so that the internodes revolved by themselves; but the rate was not thus affected. The course generally pursued was with the sun, but often in an opposite direction. Sometimes the movement during a short time would either stop or be reversed; and this apparently was due to interference from the light, as, for instance, when I placed a plant close to a window. In one instance, an old tendril, which had nearly ceased revolving, moved in one direction, whilst a young tendril above moved in an opposite course. The two uppermost internodes alone revolve; and as soon as the lower one grows old, only its upper part continues to move. The ellipses or circles swept by the summits of the internodes are about three inches in diameter; whilst those swept by the tips of the
flowers. Mr. R. Holland (Hardwicke's 'Science-Gossip, ' 1865, p. 105) states that "a cucumber grew, a few years ago in my own garden, where one of the short prickles upon the fruit had grown out into a long, curled tendril."
tendrils, are from 15 to 16 inches in diameter. During the revolving movement, the internodes become successively curved to all points of the compass; in one part of their course they are often inclined, together with the tendrils, at about 45° to the horizon, and in another part stand vertically up. There was something in the appearance of the revolving internodes which continually gave the false impression that their movement was due to the weight of the long and spontaneously revolving tendril; but, on cutting off the latter with sharp scissors, the top of the shoot rose only a little, and went on revolving. This false appearance is apparently due to the internodes and tendrils all curving and moving harmoniously together.
A revolving tendril, though inclined during the greater part of its course at an angle of about 45° (in one case of only 37°) above the horizon, stiffened and straightened itself from tip to base in a certain part of its course, thus becoming nearly or quite vertical. I witnessed this repeatedly; and it occurred both when the supporting internodes were free and when they were tied up; but was perhaps most conspicuous in the latter case, or when the whole shoot happened to be much inclined. The tendril forms a very acute angle with the projecting extremity of the stem or shoot; and the stiffening always occurred as the tendril approached, and had to pass over the shoot in its circular course. If it had not possessed and exercised this curious power, it would infallibly have struck against the extremity of the shoot and been
arrested. As soon as the tendril with its three branches begins to stiffen itself in this manner and to rise from an inclined into a vertical position, the revolving motion becomes more rapid; and as soon as the tendril has succeeded in passing over the extremity of the shoot or point of difficulty, its motion, coinciding with that from its weight, often causes it to fall into its previously inclined position so quickly, that the apex could be seen travelling like the minute hand of a gigantic clock.
The tendrils are thin, from 7 to 9 inches in length, with a pair of short lateral branches rising not far from the base. The tip is slightly and permanently curved, so as to act to a limited extent as a hook. The concave side of the tip is highly sensitive to a touch; but not so the convex side, as was likewise observed to be the case with other species of the family by Mohl (p. 65). I repeatedly proved this difference by lightly rubbing four or five times the convex side of one tendril, and only once or twice the concave side of another tendril, and the latter alone curled inwards. In a few hours afterwards, when the tendrils which had been rubbed on the concave side had straightened themselves, I reversed the process of rubbing, and always with the same result. After touching the concave side, the tip becomes sensibly curved in one or two minutes; and subsequently, if the touch has been at all rough, it coils itself into a helix. But the helix will, after a time, straighten itself, and be again ready to act. A loop of thin thread only one-sixteenth of
a grain in weight caused a temporary flexure. The lower part was repeatedly rubbed rather roughly, but no curvature ensued; yet this part is sensitive to prolonged pressure, for when it came into contact with a stick, it would slowly wind round it.
One of my plants bore two shoots near together, and the tendrils were repeatedly drawn across one another, but it is a singular fact that they did not once catch each other. It would appear as if they had become habituated to contact of this kind, for the pressure thus caused must have been much greater than that caused by a loop of soft thread weighing only the one-sixteenth of a grain. I have, however, seen several tendrils of Bryonia dioica interlocked, but they subsequently released one another. The tendrils of the Echinocystis are also habituated to drops of water or to rain; for artificial rain made by violently flirting a wet brush over them produced not the least effect.
The revolving movement of a tendril is not stopped by the curving of its extremity after it has been touched. When one of the lateral branches has firmly clasped an object, the middle branch continues to revolve. When a stem is bent down and secured, so that the tendril depends but is left free to move, its previous revolving movement is nearly or quite stopped; but it soon begins to bend upwards, and as soon as it has become horizontal the revolving movement recommences. I tried this four times; the tendril generally rose to a horizontal position in an hour or an hour and
a half; but in one case, in which a tendril depended at an angle of 45° beneath the horizon, the uprising took two hours; in half an hour afterwards it rose to 23° above the horizon and then recommenced revolving. This upward movement is independent of the action of light, for it occurred twice in the dark, and on another occasion the light came in on one side alone. The movement no doubt is guided by opposition to the force of gravity, as in the case of the ascent of the plumules of germinating seeds.
A tendril does not long retain its revolving power; and as soon as this is lost, it bends downwards and contracts spirally. After the revolving movement has ceased, the tip still retains for a short time its sensitiveness to contact, but this can be of little or no use to the plant.
Though the tendril is highly flexible, and though the extremity travels, under favourable circumstances, at about the rate of an inch in two minutes and a quarter, yet its sensitiveness to contact is so great that it hardly ever fails to seize a thin stick placed in its path. The following case surprised me much: I placed a thin, smooth, cylindrical stick (and I repeated the experiment seven times) so far from a tendril, that its extremity could only curl half or three-quarters round the stick; but I always found that the tip managed in the course of a few hours to curl twice or even thrice round the stick. I at first thought that this was due to rapid growth on the outside; but by coloured points and measurements I proved that
there had been no sensible increase of length within the time. When a stick, flat on one side, was similarly placed, the tip of the tendril could not curl beyond the flat surface, but coiled itself into a helix, which, turning to one side, lay flat on the little flat surface of wood. In one instance a portion of tendril three-quarters of an inch in length was thus dragged on to the flat surface by the coiling in of the helix. But the tendril thus acquires a very insecure hold, and generally after a time slips off. In one case alone the helix subsequently uncoiled itself, and the tip then passed round and clasped the stick. The formation of the helix on the flat side of the stick apparently shows us that the continued striving of the tip to curl itself closely inwards gives the force which drags the tendril round a smooth cylindrical stick. In this latter case, whilst the tendril was slowly and quite insensibly crawling onwards, I observed several times through a lens that the whole surface was not in close contact with the stick; and I can understand the onward progress only by supposing that the movement is slightly undulatory or vermicular, and that the tip alternately straightens itself a little and then again curls inwards. It thus drags itself onwards by an insensibly slow, alternate movement, which may be compared to that of a strong man suspended by the ends of his fingers to a horizontal pole, who works his fingers onwards until he can grasp the pole with the palm of his hand. However this may be, the fact is certain that a tendril which has caught a round stick
with its extreme point, can work itself onwards until it has passed twice or even thrice round the stick, and has permanently grasped it.
Hanburya Mexicana. — The young internodes and tendrils of this anomalous member of the family, revolve in the same manner and at about the same rate as those of the Echinocystis. The stem does not twine, but can ascend an upright stick by the aid of its tendrils. The concave tip of the tendril is very sensitive; after it had become rapidly coiled into a ring owing to a single touch, it straightened itself in 50 m. The tendril, when in full action, stands vertically up, with the projecting extremity of the young stem thrown a little on one side, so as to be out of the way; but the tendril bears on the inner side, near its base, a short rigid branch, which projects out at right angles like a spur, with the terminal half bowed a little downwards. Hence, as the main vertical branch revolves, the spur, from its position and rigidity, cannot pass over the extremity of the shoot, in the same curious manner as do the three branches of the tendril of the Echinocystis, namely, by stiffening themselves at the proper point. The spur is therefore pressed laterally against the young stem in one part of the revolving course, and thus the sweep of the lower part of the main branch is much restricted. A nice case of co-adaptation here comes into play: in all the other tendrils observed by me, the several branches become sensitive at the same period: had this been the case with the Hanburya, the inwardly directed, spur-like branch, from being
pressed, during the revolving movement, against the projecting end of the shoot, would infallibly have seized it in a useless or injurious manner. But the main branch of the tendril, after revolving for a time in a vertical position, spontaneously bends downwards; and in doing so, raises the spur-like branch, which itself also curves upwards; so that by these combined movements it rises above the projecting end of the shoot, and can now move freely without touching the shoot; and now it first becomes sensitive.
The tips of both branches, when they come into contact with a stick, grasp it like any ordinary tendril. But in the course of a few days, the lower surface swells and becomes developed into a cellular layer, which adapts itself closely to the wood, and firmly adheres to it. This layer is analogous to the adhesive discs formed by the extremities of the tendrils of some species of Bignonia and of Ampelopsis; but in the Hanburya the layer is developed along the terminal inner surface, sometimes for a length of 1¾ inches, and not at the extreme tip. The layer is white, whilst the tendril is green, and near the tip it is sometimes thicker than the tendril itself; it generally spreads a little beyond the sides of the tendril, and is fringed with free elongated cells, which have enlarged globular or retort-shaped heads. This cellular layer apparently secretes some resinous cement; for its adhesion to the wood was not lessened by an immersion of 24 hrs. in alcohol or water, but was quite loosened by a similar immersion in ether or turpentine.
After a tendril has once firmly coiled itself round a stick, it is difficult to imagine of what use the adhesive cellular layer can be. Owing to the spiral contraction which soon ensues, the tendrils were never able to remain, excepting in one instance, in contact with a thick post or a nearly flat surface; if they had quickly become attached by means of the adhesive layer, this would evidently have been of service to the plant.
The tendrils of Bryonia dioica, Cucurbita ovifera, and Cucumis sativa are sensitive and revolve. Whether the internodes likewise revolve I did not observe. In Anguria Warscewiczii, the internodes, though thick and stiff, revolve: in this plant the lower surface of the tendril, some time after clasping a stick, produces a coarsely cellular layer or cushion, which adapts itself closely to the wood, like that formed by the tendril of the Hanburya; but it is not in the least adhesive. In Zanonia Indica, which belongs to a different tribe of the family, the forked tendrils and the internodes revolve in periods between 2 hrs. 8 m. and 3 hrs. 35 m., moving against the sun.
VITACEÆ. — In this family and in the two following, namely, the Sapindaceæ and Passifloraceæ, the tendrils are modified flower-peduncles; and are therefore axial in their nature. In this respect they differ from all those previously described, with the exception, perhaps, of the Cucurbitaceæ. The homological nature, however, of a tendril seems to make no difference in its action.
Vitis vinifera. — The tendril is thick and of great length; one from a vine growing out of doors and not vigorously, was 16 inches long. It consists of a peduncle (A), bearing two branches which diverge equally from it. One of the branches (B) has a scale at its base; it is always, as far as I have seen, longer than the other and often bifurcates. The branches when rubbed become curved, and subse-
Tendril of the Vine.
|A. Peduncle of tendril.||C. Shorter branch.|
|B. Longer branch, with a scale at its base.||D. Petiole of the opposite leaf.|
quently straighten themselves. After a tendril has clasped any object with its extremity, it contracts spirally; but this does not occur (Palm, p. 56) when no object has been seized. The tendrils move spon-
taneously from side to side; and on a very hot day, one made two elliptical revolutions, at an average rate of 2 hrs. 15 m. During these movements a coloured line, painted along the convex surface, appeared after a time on one side, then on the concave side, then on the opposite side, and lastly again on the convex side. The two branches of the same tendril have independent movements. After a tendril has spontaneously revolved for a time, it bends from the light towards the dark: I do not state this on my own authority, but on that of Mohl and Dutrochet. Mohl (p. 77) says that in a vine planted against a wall the tendrils point towards it, and in a vineyard generally more or less to the north.
The young internodes revolve spontaneously; but the movement is unusually slight. A shoot faced a window, and I traced its course on the glass during two perfectly calm and hot days. On one of these days it described, in the course of ten hours, a spire, representing two and a half ellipses. I also placed a bell-glass over a young Muscat grape in the hot-house, and it made each day three or four very small oval revolutions; the shoot moving less than half an inch from side to side. Had it not made at least three revolutions whilst the sky was uniformly overcast, I should have attributed this slight degree of movement to the varying action of the light. The extremity of the stem is more or less bent downwards, but it never reverses its curvature, as so generally occurs with twining plants.
Various authors (Palm, p. 55; Mohl, p. 45; Lindley, &c.) believe that the tendrils of the vine are modified flower-peduncles. I here give a drawing (fig. 10) of the ordinary state of a young flower-stalk: it consists
Flower-stalk of the Vine.
|A. Common Peduncle.||C. Sub-Peduncle, bearing the flower-buds.|
|B. Flower-tendril, with a scale at its base.||D. Petiole of the opposite leaf.|
of the "common peduncle" (A); of the "flower-tendril" (B), which is represented as having caught a twig; and of the "sub-peduncle" (C) bearing the flower-buds. The whole moves spontaneously, like a true tendril, but in a less degree; the movement,
however, is greater when the sub-peduncle (C) does not bear many flower-buds. The common peduncle (A) has not the power of clasping a support, nor has the corresponding part of a true tendril. The flower-tendril (B) is always longer than the sub-peduncle (C) and has a scale at its base; it sometimes bifurcates, and therefore corresponds in every detail with the longer scale-bearing branch (B, fig. 9) of the true tendril. It is, however, inclined backwards from the sub-peduncle (C), or stands at right angles with it, and is thus adapted to aid in carrying the future bunch of grapes. When rubbed, it curves and subsequently straightens itself; and it can, as is shown in the drawing, securely clasp a support. I have seen an object as soft as a young vine-leaf caught by one.
The lower and naked part of the sub-peduncle (C) is likewise slightly sensitive to a rub, and I have seen it bent round a stick and even partly round a leaf with which it had come into contact. That the sub-peduncle has the same nature as the corresponding branch of an ordinary tendril, is well shown when it bears only a few flowers; for in this case it becomes less branched, increases in length, and gains both in sensitiveness and in the power of spontaneous movement. I have twice seen sub-peduncles which bore from thirty to forty flower-buds, and which had become considerably elongated and were completely wound round sticks, exactly like true tendrils. The whole length of another sub-peduncle, bearing only
eleven flower-buds, quickly became curved when slightly rubbed; but even this scanty number of flowers rendered the stalk less sensitive than the other branch, that is, the flower-tendril; for the latter after a lighter rub became curved more quickly and in a greater degree. I have seen a sub-peduncle thickly covered with flower-buds, with one of its higher lateral branchlets bearing from some cause only two buds; and this one branchlet had become much elongated and had spontaneously caught hold of an adjoining twig; in fact, it formed a little sub-tendril. The increasing length of the sub-peduncle (C) with the decreasing number of the flower-buds is a good instance of the law of compensation. In accordance with this same principle, the true tendril as a whole is always longer than the flower-stalk; for instance, on the same plant, the longest flower-stalk (measured from the base of the common peduncle to the tip of the flower-tendril) was 8½ inches in length, whilst the longest tendril was nearly double this length, namely 16 inches.
The gradations from the ordinary state of a flower-stalk, as represented in the drawing (fig. 10), to that of a true tendril (fig. 9) are complete. We have seen that the sub-peduncle (C), whilst still bearing from thirty to forty flower-buds, sometimes becomes a little elongated and partially assumes all the characters of the corresponding branch of a true tendril. From this state we can trace every stage till we come to a full-sized perfect tendril, bearing on the branch
which corresponds with the sub-peduncle one single flower-bud! Hence there can be no doubt that the tendril is a modified flower-peduncle.
Another kind of gradation well deserves notice. Flower-tendrils (B, fig. 10) sometimes produce a few flower-buds. For instance, on a vine growing against my house, there were thirteen and twenty-two flower-buds respectively on two flower-tendrils, which still retained their characteristic qualities of sensitiveness and spontaneous movement, but in a somewhat lessened degree. On vines in hothouses, so many flowers are occasionally produced on the flower-tendrils that a double bunch of grapes is the result; and this is technically called by gardeners a "cluster." In this state the whole bunch of flowers presents scarcely any resemblance to a tendril; and, judging from the facts already given, it would probably possess little power of clasping a support, or of spontaneous movement. Such flower-stalks closely resemble in structure those borne by Cissus. This genus, belonging to the same family of the Vitaceæ, produces well-developed tendrils and ordinary bunches of flowers; but there are no gradations between the two states. If the genus Vitis had been unknown, the boldest believer in the modification of species would never have surmised that the same individual plant, at the same period of growth, would have yielded every possible gradation between ordinary flower-stalks for the support of the flowers and fruit, and tendrils used exclusively for climbing. But the vine clearly gives us such a case; and it
seems to me as striking and curious an instance of transition as can well be conceived.
Cissus discolor. — The young shoots show no more movement than can be accounted for by daily variations in the action of the light. The tendrils, however, revolve with much regularity, following the sun; and, in the plants observed by me, swept circles of about 5 inches in diameter. Five circles were completed in the following times:—4 hrs. 45 m., 4 hrs. 50 m., 4 hrs. 45 m., 4 hrs. 30 m., and 5 hrs. The same tendril continues to revolve during three or four days. The tendrils are from 3½ to 5 inches in length. They are formed of a long foot-stalk, bearing two short branches, which in old plants again bifurcate. The two branches are not of quite equal length; and as with the vine, the longer one has a scale at its base. The tendril stands vertically upwards; the extremity of the shoot being bent abruptly downwards, and this position is probably of service to the plant by allowing the tendril to revolve freely and vertically.
Both branches of the tendril, whilst young, are highly sensitive. A touch with a pencil, so gentle as only just to move a tendril borne at the end of a long flexible shoot, sufficed to cause it to become perceptibly curved in four or five minutes. It became straight again in rather above one hour. A loop of soft thread weighing one-seventh of a grain (9.25 mg.) was thrice tried, and each time caused the tendril to become curved in 30 or 40 m. Half this weight produced no effect. The long foot-stalk is much less
sensitive, for a slight rubbing produced no effect, although prolonged contact with a stick caused it to bend. The two branches are sensitive on all sides, so that they converge if touched on their inner sides, and diverge if touched on their outer sides. If a branch be touched at the same time with equal force on opposite sides, both sides are equally stimulated and there is no movement. Before examining this plant, I had observed only tendrils which are sensitive on one side alone, and these when lightly pressed between the finger and thumb become curved; but on thus pinching many times the tendrils of the Cissus no curvature ensued, and I falsely inferred at first that they were not at all sensitive.
Cissus antarcticus. — The tendrils on a young plant were thick and straight, with the tips a little curved. When their concave surfaces were rubbed, and it was necessary to do this with some force, they very slowly became curved, and subsequently straight again. They are therefore much less sensitive than those of the last species; but they made two revolutions, following the sun, rather more rapidly, viz., in 3 hrs. 30 m. and 4 hrs. The internodes do not revolve.
Ampelopsis hederacea (Virginian Creeper). — The internodes apparently do not move more than can be accounted for by the varying action of the light. The tendrils are from 4 to 5 inches in length, with the main stem sending off several lateral branches, which have their tips curved, as may be seen in the upper figure (fig. 11). They exhibit no true spontaneous revolving
movement, but turn, as was long ago observed by Andrew Knight,* from the light to the dark. I have seen several tendrils move in less than 24 hours, through an angle of 180° to the dark side of a case in which a plant was placed, but the movement is sometimes much slower. The several lateral branches often move independently of one another, and sometimes irregularly, without any apparent cause. These tendrils are less sensitive to a touch than any others observed by me. By gentle but repeated rubbing with a twig, the lateral branches, but not the main stem, became in the course of three or four hours slightly curved; but they seemed to have hardly any power of again straightening themselves. The tendrils of a plant which had crawled over a large box-tree clasped several of the branches; but I have repeatedly seen that they will withdraw themselves after seizing a stick. When they meet with a flat surface of wood or a wall (and this is evidently what they are adapted for), they turn all their branches towards it, and, spreading them widely apart, bring their hooked tips laterally into contact with it. In effecting this, the several branches, after touching the surface, often rise up, place themselves in a new position, and again come down into contact with it.
In the course of about two days after a tendril has arranged its branches so as to press on any surface, the curved tips swell, become bright red, and form on
* Trans. Phil. Soc. 1812, p. 314.
their under-sides the well-known little discs or cushions with which they adhere firmly. In one case the tips were slightly swollen in 38 hrs. after coming into contact with a brick; in another case they were considerably swollen in 48 hrs., and in an additional 24 hrs. were firmly attached to a smooth board; and lastly, the tips of a younger tendril not only swelled but became attached to a stuccoed wall in 42 hrs. These adhesive discs resemble, except in colour and in being larger, those of Bignonia capreolata. When they were developed in contact with a ball of tow, the fibres were separately enveloped, but not in so effective a manner as by B. capreolata. Discs are never developed, as far as I have seen, without the stimulus of at least temporary contact with some object.* They are generally first formed on one side of the curved tip, the whole of which often becomes so much changed in appearance, that a line of the original green tissue can be traced only along the concave surface. When, however, a tendril has clasped a cylindrical stick, an irregular rim or disc is sometimes formed along the inner surface at some little distance from the curved
* Dr. M'Nab remarks (Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh, vol xi. p. 292) that the tendrils of Amp. Veitchii bear small globular discs before they have come into contact with any object; and I have since observed the same fact. These discs, however, increase greatly in size, if they press against and adhere to any surface. The tendrils, therefore, of one species of Ampelopsis require the stimulus of contact for the first development of their discs, whilst those of another species do not need any such stimulus. We have seen an exactly parallel case with two species of Bignoniaceæ.
tip; this was also observed (p. 71) by Mohl. The discs consist of enlarged cells, with smooth projecting hemispherical surfaces, coloured red; they are at first gorged with fluid (see section given by Mohl, p. 70), but ultimately become woody.
As the discs soon adhere firmly to such smooth surfaces as planed or painted wood, or to the polished leaf of the ivy, this alone renders it probable that some cement is secreted, as has been asserted to be the case (quoted by Mohl, p. 71) by Malpighi. I removed a number of discs formed during the previous year from a stuccoed wall, and left them during many hours, in warm water, diluted acetic acid and alcohol; but the attached grains of silex were not loosened. Immersion in sulphuric ether for 24 hrs. loosened them much, but warmed essential oils (I tried oil of thyme and peppermint) completely released every particle of stone in the course of a few hours. This seems to prove that some resinous cement is secreted. The quantity, however, must be small; for when a plant ascended a thinly whitewashed wall, the discs adhered firmly to the whitewash; but as the cement never penetrated the thin layer, they were easily withdrawn, together with little scales of the whitewash. It must not be supposed that the attachment is effected exclusively by the cement; for the cellular outgrowth completely envelopes every minute and irregular projection, and insinuates itself into every crevice.
A tendril which has not become attached to any body, does not contract spirally; and in course of a
week or two shrinks into the finest thread, withers and
A. Tendril fully developed, with a young leaf on
the opposite side of the stem.
B. Older tendril, several weeks after its attachment to a wall, with the branches thickened and spirally contracted, and with the extremities developed into discs. The unattached branches of this tendril have withered and dropped off.
drops off. An attached tendril, on the other hand, contracts spirally, and thus becomes highly elastic, so
that when the main foot-stalk is pulled the strain is distributed equally between all the attached discs. For a few days after the attachment of the discs, the tendril remains weak and brittle, but it rapidly increases in thickness and acquires great strength. During the following winter it ceases to live, but adheres firmly in a dead state both to its own stem and to the surface of attachment. In the accompanying diagram (fig. 11.) we see the difference between a tendril (B) some weeks after its attachment to a wall, with one (A) from the same plant fully grown but unattached. That the change in the nature of the tissues, as well as the spiral contraction, are consequent on the formation of the discs, is well shown by any lateral branches which have not become attached; for these in a week or two wither and drop off, in the same manner as does the whole tendril if unattached. The gain in strength and durability in a tendril after its attachment is something wonderful. There are tendrils now adhering to my house which are still strong, and have been exposed to the weather in a dead state for fourteen or fifteen years. One single lateral branchlet of a tendril, estimated to be at least ten years old, was still elastic and supported a weight of exactly two pounds. The whole tendril had five disc-bearing branches of equal thickness and apparently of equal strength; so that after having been exposed during ten years to the weather, it would probably have resisted a strain of ten pounds!
SAPINDACEÆ. — Cardiospermum halicacabum. — In this
family, as in the last, the tendrils are modified flower-peduncles. In the present plant the two lateral branches of the main flower-peduncle have been converted into a pair of tendrils, corresponding with the single "flower-tendril" of the common vine. The main peduncle is thin, stiff, and from 3 to 4½ inches in length. Near the summit, above two little bracts, it divides into three branches. The middle one divides
Upper part of the flower-peduncle with its two tendrils.
and re-divides, and bears the flowers; ultimately it grows half as long again as the two other modified branches. These latter are the tendrils; they are at first thicker and longer than the middle branch, but never become more than an inch in length. They taper to a point and are flattened, with the lower clasping surface destitute of hairs. At first they project straight up; but soon diverging, spontaneously curl downwards so as to become symmetrically and elegantly hooked, as represented in the diagram. They are now, whilst the flower-buds are still small, ready for action.
The two or three upper internodes, whilst young, steadily revolve; those on one plant made two circles, against the course of the sun, in 3 hrs. 12 m.; in a second plant the same course was followed, and the two circles were completed in 3 hrs. 41 m.; in a third plant, the internodes followed the sun and made two circles in 3 hrs. 47 m. The average rate of these six revolutions was 1 hr. 46 m. The stem shows no tendency to twine spirally round a support; but the allied tendril-bearing genus Paullinia is said (Mohl, p. 4) to be a twiner. The flower-peduncles, which stand up above the end of the shoot, are carried round and round by the revolving movement of the internodes; and when the stem is securely tied, the long and thin flower-peduncles themselves are seen to be in continued and sometimes rapid movement from side to side. They sweep a wide space, but only occasionally revolve in a regular elliptical course. By the combined movements of the internodes and peduncles, one of the two short hooked tendrils, sooner or later, catches hold of some twig or branch, and then it curls round and securely grasps it. These tendrils are, however, but slightly sensitive; for by rubbing their under surface only a slight movement is slowly produced. I hooked a tendril on to a twig; and in 1 hr. 45 m. it was curved considerably inwards; in 2 hrs. 30 m. it formed a ring; and in from 5 to 6 hours from being first hooked, it closely grasped the stick. A second tendril acted at nearly the same rate; but I observed one that took 24 hours before it curled twice round a
thin twig. Tendrils which have caught nothing, spontaneously curl up to a close helix after the interval of several days. Those which have curled round some object, soon become a little thicker and tougher. The long and thin main peduncle, though spontaneously moving, is not sensitive and never clasps a support. Nor does it ever contract spirally,* although a contraction of this kind apparently would have been of service to the plant in climbing. Nevertheless it climbs pretty well without this aid. The seed-capsules though light, are of enormous size (hence its English name of balloon-vine), and as two or three are carried on the same peduncle, the tendrils rising close to them may be of service in preventing their being dashed to pieces by the wind. In the hothouse the tendrils served simply for climbing.
The position of the tendrils alone suffices to show their homological nature. In two instances one of two tendrils produced a flower at its tip; this, however, did not prevent its acting properly and curling round a twig. In a third case both lateral branches which ought to have been modified into tendrils, produced flowers like the central branch, and had quite lost their tendril-structure.
I have seen, but was not enabled carefully to observe, only one other climbing Sapindaceous plant, namely,
* Fritz Müller remarks (ibid. p. 348) that a related genus, Serjania, differs from Cardiospermum in bearing only a single tendril; and that the common peduncle contracts spirally, when, as frequently happens, the tendril has clasped the plant's own stem.
Paullinia. It was not in flower, yet bore long forked tendrils. So that, Paullinia, with respect to its tendrils, appears to bear the same relation to Cardiospermum that Cissus does to Vitis.
PASSIFLORACEÆ. — After reading the discussion and facts given by Mohl (p. 47) on the nature of the tendrils in this family, no one can doubt that they are modified flower-peduncles. The tendrils and the flower-peduncles rise close side by side; and my son, William E. Darwin, made sketches for me of their earliest state of development in the hybrid P. floribunda. The two organs appear at first as a single papilla which gradually divides; so that the tendril appears to be a modified branch of the flower-peduncle. My son found one very young tendril surmounted by traces of floral organs, exactly like those on the summit of the true flower-peduncle at the same early age.
Passiflora gracilis. — This well-named, elegant, annual species differs from the other members of the group observed by me, in the young internodes having the power of revolving. It exceeds all the other climbing plants which I have examined, in the rapidity of its movements, and all tendril-bearers in the sensitiveness of the tendrils. The internode which carries the upper active tendril and which likewise carries one or two younger immature internodes, made three revolutions, following the sun, at an average rate of 1 hr. 4 m.; it then made, the day becoming very hot, three other revolutions at an average rate of between 57 and 58 m.; so that the average of all six revolutions was
1 hr. 1 m. The apex of the tendril describes elongated ellipses, sometimes narrow and sometimes broad, with their longer axes inclined in slightly different directions. The plant can ascend a thin upright stick by the aid of its tendrils; but the stem is too stiff for it to twine spirally round it, even when not interfered with by the tendrils, these having been successively pinched off at an early age.
When the stem is secured, the tendrils are seen to revolve in nearly the same manner and at the same rate as the internodes.* The tendrils are very thin, delicate, and straight, with the exception of the tips, which are a little curved; they are from 7 to 9 inches in length. A half-grown tendril is not sensitive; but when nearly full-grown they are extremely sensitive. A single delicate touch on the concave surface of the tip soon caused one to curve; and in 2 minutes it formed an open helix. A loop of soft thread weighing 1/32nd of a grain (2.02 mg.) placed most gently on the tip, thrice caused distinct curvature. A bent bit of thin platina wire weighing only 1/50th of a grain (1.23 mg.) twice produced the same effect; but this latter weight, when left suspended, did not suffice to cause a permanent curvature. These trials were made under a bell-glass, so that the loops of thread and wire were
* Prof. Asa Gray informs me that the tendrils of P. acerifolia revolve even at a quicker rate than those of P. gracilis; four revolutions were completed (the temperature varying from 88°-92° Fahr.) in the following times, 40 m., 45 m., 38½ m., and 46 m. One half-revolution was performed in 15 m.
not agitated by the wind. The movement after a touch is very rapid: I took hold of the lower part of several tendrils, and then touched their concave tips with a thin twig and watched them carefully through a lens; the tips evidently began to bend after the following intervals—31, 25, 32, 31, 28, 39, 31, and 30 seconds; so that the movement was generally perceptible in half a minute after a touch; but on one occasion it was distinctly visible in 25 seconds. One of the tendrils which thus became bent in 31 seconds, had been touched two hours previously and had coiled into a helix; so that in this interval it had straightened itself and had perfectly recovered its irritability.
To ascertain how often the same tendril would become curved when touched, I kept a plant in my study, which from being cooler than the hot-house was not very favourable for the experiment. The extremity was gently rubbed four or five times with a thin stick, and this was done as often as it was observed to have become nearly straight again after having been in action; and in the course of 54 hrs. it answered to the stimulus 21 times, becoming each time hooked or spiral. On the last occasion, however, the movement was very slight, and soon afterwards permanent spiral contraction commenced. No trials were made during the night, so that the tendril would perhaps have answered a greater number of times to the stimulus; though, on the other hand, from having no rest it might have become exhausted from so many quickly repeated efforts.
I repeated the experiment made on the Echinocystis, and placed several plants of this Passiflora so close together, that their tendrils were repeatedly dragged over each other; but no curvature ensued. I likewise repeatedly flirted small drops of water from a brush on many tendrils, and syringed others so violently that the whole tendril was dashed about, but they never became curved. The impact from the drops of water was felt far more distinctly on my hand than that from the loops of thread (weighing 1/32nd of a grain) when allowed to fall on it from a height, and these loops, which caused the tendrils to become curved, had been placed most gently on them. Hence it is clear, that the tendrils either have become habituated to the touch of other tendrils and drops of rain, or that they were from the first rendered sensitive only to prolonged though excessively slight pressure of solid objects, with the exclusion of that from other tendrils. To show the difference in the kind of sensitiveness in different plants and likewise to show the force of the syringe used, I may add that the lightest jet from it instantly caused the leaves of a Mimosa to close; whereas the loop of thread weighing 1/32nd of a grain, when rolled into a ball and placed gently on the glands at the bases of the leaflets of the Mimosa, caused no action.
Passiflora punctata. — The internodes do not move, but the tendrils revolve regularly. A half-grown and very sensitive tendril made three revolutions, opposed to the course of the sun, in 3 hrs. 5 m., 2 hrs. 40 m. and 2 hrs. 50 m.; perhaps it might have travelled more
quickly when nearly full-grown. A plant was placed in front of a window, and, as with twining stems, the light accelerated the movement of the tendril in one direction and retarded it in the other; the semicircle towards the light being performed in one instance in 15 m. less time and in a second instance in 20 m. less time than that required by the semicircle towards the dark end of the room. Considering the extreme tenuity of these tendrils, the action of the light on them is remarkable. The tendrils are long, and, as just stated, very thin, with the tip slightly curved or hooked. The concave side is extremely sensitive to a touch—even a single touch causing it to curl inwards; it subsequently straightened itself, and was again ready to act. A loop of soft thread weighing 1/14th of a grain (4.625 mg.) caused the extreme tip to bend; another time I tried to hang the same little loop on an inclined tendril, but three times it slid off; yet this extraordinarily slight degree of friction sufficed to make the tip curl. The tendril, though so sensitive, does not move very quickly after a touch, no conspicuous movement being observable until 5 or 10 m. had elapsed. The convex side of the tip is not sensitive to a touch or to a suspended loop of thread. On one occasion I observed a tendril revolving with the convex side of the tip forwards, and in consequence it was not able to clasp a stick, against which it scraped; whereas tendrils revolving with the concave side forward, promptly seize any object in their path.
Passiflora quadrangularis. — This is a very distinct
species. The tendrils are thick, long, and stiff; they are sensitive to a touch only on the concave surface towards the extremity. When a stick was placed so that the middle of the tendril came into contact with it, no curvature ensued. In the hothouse a tendril made two revolutions, each in 2 hrs. 22 m.; in a cool room one was completed in 3 hrs., and a second in 4 hrs. The internodes do not revolve; nor do those of the hybrid P. floribunda.
Tacsonia manicata. — Here again the internodes do not revolve. The tendrils are moderately thin and long; one made a narrow ellipse in 5 hrs. 20 m., and the next day a broad ellipse in 5 hrs. 7 m. The extremity being lightly rubbed on the concave surface, became just perceptibly curved in 7 m., distinctly in 10 m., and hooked in 20 m.
We have seen that the tendrils in the last three families, namely, the Vitaceæ, Sapindaceæ and Passifloraceæ, are modified flower-peduncles. This is likewise the case, according to De Candolle (as quoted by Mohl), with the tendrils of Brunnichia, one of the Polygonaceæ. In two or three species of Modecca, one of the Papayaceæ, the tendrils, as I hear from Prof. Oliver, occasionally bear flowers and fruit; so that they are axial in their nature.
The Spiral Contraction of Tendrils.
This movement, which shortens the tendrils and renders them elastic, commences in half a day, or in a day or two after their extremities have caught some
object. There is no such movement in any leaf-climber, with the exception of an occasional trace of it in the petioles of Tropæolum tricolorum. On the other hand, the tendrils of all tendril-bearing plants, contract spirally after they have caught an object with the following exceptions. Firstly, Corydalis claviculata, but then this plant might be called a leaf-climber. Secondly and thirdly, Bignonia unguis with its close allies, and Cardiospermum; but their tendrils are so short that their contraction could hardly occur, and would be quite superfluous. Fourthly, Smilax aspera offers a more marked exception, as its tendrils are moderately long. The tendrils of Dicentra, whilst the plant is young, are short and after attachment only become slightly flexuous; in older plants they are longer and then they contract spirally. I have seen no other exceptions to the rule that tendrils, after clasping with their extremities a support, undergo spiral contraction. When, however, the tendril of a plant of which the stem is immovably fixed, catches some fixed object, it does not contract, simply because it cannot; this, however, rarely occurs. In the common Pea the lateral branches alone contract, and not the central stem; and with most plants, such as the Vine, Passiflora, Bryony, the basal portion never forms a spire.
I have said that in Corydalis claviculata the end of the leaf or tendril (for this part may be indifferently so called) does not contract into a spire. The branchlets, however, after they have wound round
thin twigs, become deeply sinuous or zigzag. Moreover the whole end of the petiole or tendril, if it seizes nothing, bends after a time abruptly downwards and inwards, showing that its outer surface has gone on growing after the inner surface has ceased to grow. That growth is the chief cause of the spiral contraction of tendrils may be safely admitted, as shown by the recent researches of H. de Vries. I will, however, add one little fact in support of this conclusion.
If the short, nearly straight portion of an attached tendril of Passiflora gracilis, (and, as I believe, of other tendrils,) between the opposed spires, be examined, it will be found to be transversely wrinkled in a conspicuous manner on the outside; and this would naturally follow if the outer side had grown more than the inner side, this part being at the same time forcibly prevented from becoming curved. So again the whole outer surface of a spirally wound tendril becomes wrinkled if it be pulled straight. Nevertheless, as the contraction travels from the extremity of a tendril, after it has been stimulated by contact with a support, down to the base, I cannot avoid doubting, from reasons presently to be given, whether the whole effect ought to be attributed to growth. An unattached tendril rolls itself up into a flat helix, as in the case of Cardiospermum, if the contraction commences at the extremity and is quite regular; but if the continued growth of the outer surface is a little lateral, or if the process begins near the base, the terminal portion cannot be rolled up within the basal portion, and the
tendril then forms a more or less open spire. A similar result follows if the extremity has caught some object, and is thus held fast.
The tendrils of many kinds of plants, if they catch nothing, contract after an interval of several days or weeks into a spire; but in these cases the movement takes place after the tendril has lost its revolving power and hangs down; it has also then partly or wholly lost its sensibility; so that this movement can be of no use. The spiral contraction of unattached tendrils is a much slower process than that of attached ones. Young tendrils which have caught a support and are spirally contracted, may constantly be seen on the same stem with the much older unattached and uncontracted tendrils. In the Echinocystis I have seen a tendril with the two lateral branches encircling twigs and contracted into beautiful spires, whilst the main branch which had caught nothing remained for many days straight. In this plant I once observed a main branch after it had caught a stick become spirally flexuous in 7 hrs., and spirally contracted in 18 hrs. Generally the tendrils of the Echinocystis begin to contract in from 12 hrs. to 24 hrs. after catching some object; whilst unattached tendrils do not begin to contract until two or three or even more days after all revolving movement has ceased. A full-grown tendril of Passiflora quadrangularis which had caught a stick began in 8 hrs. to contract, and in 24 hrs. formed several spires; a younger tendril, only two-thirds grown, showed the first trace of contraction in
two days after clasping a stick, and in two more days formed several spires. It appears, therefore, that the contraction does not begin until the tendril is grown to nearly its full length. Another young tendril of about the same age and length as the last did not catch any object; it acquired its full length in four days; in six additional days it first became flexuous, and in two more days formed one complete spire. This first spire was formed towards the basal end, and the contraction steadily but slowly progressed towards the apex; but the whole was not closely wound up into a spire until 21 days had elapsed from the first observation, that is, until 17 days after the tendril had grown to its full length.
The spiral contraction of tendrils is quite independent of their power of spontaneously revolving, for it occurs in tendrils, such as those of Lathyrus grandiflorus and Ampelopsis hederacea, which do not revolve. It is not necessarily related to the curling of the tips round a support, as we see with the Ampelopsis and Bignonia capreolata, in which the development of adherent discs suffices to cause spiral contraction. Yet in some cases this contraction seems connected with the curling or clasping movement, due to contact with a support; for not only does it soon follow this act, but the contraction generally begins close to the curled extremity, and travels downwards to the base. If, however, a tendril be very slack, the whole length almost simultaneously becomes at first flexuous and then spiral. Again, the tendrils of some few plants
never contract spirally unless they have first seized hold of some object; if they catch nothing they hang down, remaining straight, until they wither and drop off: this is the case with the tendrils of Bignonia, which consist of modified leaves, and with those of three genera of the Vitaceæ, which are modified flower-peduncles. But in the great majority of cases, tendrils which have never come in contact with any object, after a time contract spirally. All these facts taken together, show that the act of clasping a support and the spiral contraction of the whole length of the tendril, are phenomena not necessarily connected.
The spiral contraction which ensues after a tendril has caught a support is of high service to the plant; hence its almost universal occurrence with species belonging to widely different orders. When a shoot is inclined and its tendril has caught an object above, the spiral contraction drags up the shoot. When the shoot is upright, the growth of the stem, after the tendrils have seized some object above, would leave it slack, were it not for the spiral contraction which draws up the stem as it increases in length. Thus there is no waste of growth, and the stretched stem ascends by the shortest course. When a terminal branchlet of the tendril of Cobæa catches a stick, we have seen how well the spiral contraction successively brings the other branchlets, one after the other, into contact with the stick, until the whole tendril grasps it in an inextricable knot. When a tendril has caught a yielding object, this is sometimes enveloped and
still further secured by the spiral folds, as I have seen with Passiflora quadrangularis; but this action is of little importance.
A far more important service rendered by the spiral contraction of the tendrils is that they are thus made highly elastic. As before remarked under Ampelopsis, the strain is thus distributed equally between the several attached branches; and this renders the whole far stronger than it otherwise would be, as the branches cannot break separately. It is this elasticity which protects both branched and simple tendrils from being torn away from their supports during stormy weather. I have more than once gone on purpose during a gale to watch a Bryony growing in an exposed hedge, with its tendrils attached to the surrounding bushes; and as the thick and thin branches were tossed to and fro by the wind, the tendrils, had they not been excessively elastic, would instantly have been torn off and the plant thrown prostrate. But as it was, the Bryony safely rode out the gale, like a ship with two anchors down, and with a long range of cable ahead to serve as a spring as she surges to the storm.
When an unattached tendril contracts spirally, the spire always runs in the same direction from tip to base. A tendril, on the other hand, which has caught a support by its extremity, although the same side is concave from end to end, invariably becomes twisted in one part in one direction, and in another part in the opposite direction; the oppositely turned spires being separated by a short straight portion. This curious
and symmetrical structure has been noticed by several botanists, but has not been sufficiently explained.* It occurs without exception with all tendrils which after catching an object contract spirally, but is of course most conspicuous in the longer tendrils. It never occurs with uncaught tendrils; and when this appears to have occurred, it will be found that the tendril had originally seized some object and had afterwards been torn free. Commonly, all the spires at one end of an attached tendril run in one direction, and all those at
A caught tendril of Bryonia dioica, spirally contracted in reversed directions.
the other end in the opposite direction, with a single short straight portion in the middle; but I have seen a tendril with the spires alternately turning five times
* See M. Isid. Léon in Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, tom. v. 1858, p. 680. Dr. H. de Vries points out (p. 306) that I have overlooked, in the first edition of this essay, the following sentence by Mohl: "After a tendril has caught a support, it begins in some days to wind into a spire, which, since the tendril is made fast at both extremities, must of necessity be in some places to the right, in others to the left." But I am not surprised that this brief sentence, without any further explanation did not attract my attention.
in opposite directions, with straight pieces between them; and M. Léon has seen seven or eight such alternations. Whether the spires turn once or more than once in opposite directions, there are as many turns in the one direction as in the other. For instance, I gathered ten attached tendrils of the Bryony, the longest with 33, and the shortest with only 8 spiral turns; and the number of turns in the one direction was in every case the same (within one) as in the opposite direction.
The explanation of this curious little fact is not difficult. I will not attempt any geometrical reasoning, but will give only a practical illustration. In doing this, I shall first have to allude to a point which was almost passed over when treating of Twining-plants. If we hold in our left hand a bundle of parallel strings, we can with our right hand turn these round and round, thus imitating the revolving movement of a twining plant, and the strings do not become twisted. But if we hold at the same time a stick in our left hand, in such a position that the strings become spirally turned round it, they will inevitably become twisted. Hence a straight coloured line, painted along the internodes of a twining plant before it has wound round a support, becomes twisted or spiral after it has wound round. I painted a red line on the straight internodes of a Humulus, Mikania, Ceropegia, Convolvulus, and Phaseolus, and saw it become twisted as the plant wound round a stick. It is possible that the stems of some plants by spontaneously turning on
their own axes, at the proper rate and in the proper direction, might avoid becoming twisted; but I have seen no such case.
In the above illustration, the parallel strings were wound round a stick; but this is by no means necessary, for if wound into a hollow coil (as can be done with a narrow slip of elastic paper) there is the same inevitable twisting of the axis. When, therefore, a free tendril coils itself into a spire, it must either become twisted along its whole length (and this never occurs), or the free extremity must turn round as many times as there are spires formed. It was hardly necessary to observe this fact; but I did so by affixing little paper vanes to the extreme points of the tendrils of Echinocystis and Passiflora quadrangularis; and as the tendril contracted itself into successive spires, the vane slowly revolved.
We can now understand the meaning of the spires being invariably turned in opposite directions, in tendrils which from having caught some object are fixed at both ends. Let us suppose a caught tendril to make thirty spiral turns all in the same direction; the inevitable result would be that it would become twisted thirty times on its own axis. This twisting would not only require considerable force, but, as I know by trial, would burst the tendril before the thirty turns were completed. Such cases never really occur; for, as already stated, when a tendril has caught a support and is spirally contracted, there are always as many turns in one direction as in the other; so that
the twisting of the axis in the one direction is exactly compensated by the twisting in the opposite direction. We can further see how the tendency is given to make the later formed coils opposite to those, whether turned to the right or to the left, which are first made. Take a piece of string, and let it hang down with the lower end fixed to the floor; then wind the upper end (holding the string quite loosely) spirally round a perpendicular pencil, and this will twist the lower part of the string; and after it has been sufficiently twisted, it will be seen to curve itself into an open spire, with the curves running in an opposite direction to those round the pencil, and consequently with a straight piece of string between the opposed spires. In short, we have given to the string the regular spiral arrangement of a tendril caught at both ends. The spiral contraction generally begins at the extremity which has clasped a support; and these first-formed spires give a twist to the axis of the tendril, which necessarily inclines the basal part into an opposite spiral curvature. I cannot resist giving one other illustration, though superfluous: when a haberdasher winds up ribbon for a customer, he does not wind it into a single coil; for, if he did, the ribbon would twist itself as many times as there were coils; but he winds it into a figure of eight on his thumb and little finger, so that he alternately takes turns in opposite directions, and thus the ribbon is not twisted. So it is with tendrils, with this sole difference, that they take several consecutive turns in one direction and then the same number in an opposite
direction; but in both cases the self-twisting is avoided.
Summary on the Nature and Action of Tendrils.
With the majority of tendril-bearing plants the young internodes revolve in more or less broad ellipses, like those made by twining plants; but the figures described, when carefully traced, generally form irregular ellipsoidal spires. The rate of revolution varies from one to five hours in different species, and consequently is in some cases more rapid than with any twining plant, and is never so slow as with those many twiners which take more than five hours for each revolution. The direction is variable even in the same individual plant. In Passiflora, the internodes of only one species have the power of revolving. The Vine is the weakest revolver observed by me, apparently exhibiting only a trace of a former power. In the Eccremocarpus the movement is interrupted by many long pauses. Very few tendril-bearing plants can spirally twine up an upright stick. Although the power of twining has generally been lost, either from the stiffness or shortness of the internodes, from the size of the leaves, or from some other unknown cause, the revolving movement of the stem serves to bring the tendrils into contact with surrounding objects.
The tendrils themselves also spontaneously revolve. The movement begins whilst the tendril is young, and is at first slow. The mature tendrils of Bignonia littoralis move much slower than the internodes. Generally,
the internodes and tendrils revolve together at the same rate; in Cissus, Cobæa, and most Passifloræ, the tendrils alone revolve; in other cases, as with Lathyrus aphaca, only the internodes move, carrying with them the motionless tendrils; and, lastly (and this is the fourth possible case), neither internodes nor tendrils spontaneously revolve, as with Lathyrus grandifloru and Ampelopsis. In most Bignonias, Eccremocarpus, Mutisia, and the Fumariaceæ, the internodes, petioles and tendrils all move harmoniously together. In every case the conditions of life must be favourable in order that the different parts should act in a perfect manner.
Tendrils revolve by the curvature of their whole length, excepting the sensitive extremity and the base, which parts do not move, or move but little. The movement is of the same nature as that of the revolving internodes, and, from the observations of Sachs and H. de Vries, no doubt is due to the same cause, namely, the rapid growth of a longitudinal band, which travels round the tendril and successively bows each part to the opposite side. Hence, if a line be painted along that surface which happens at the time to be convex, the line becomes first lateral, then concave, then lateral, and ultimately again convex. This experiment can be tried only on the thicker tendrils, which are not affected by a thin crust of dried paint. The extremities are often slightly curved or hooked, and the curvature of this part is never reversed; in this respect they differ from the ex-
tremities of twining shoots, which not only reverse their curvature, or at least become periodically straight, but curve themselves in a greater degree than the lower part. In most other respects a tendril acts as if it were one of several revolving internodes, which all move together by successively bending to each point of the compass. There is, however, in many cases this unimportant difference, that the curving tendril is separated from the curving internode by a rigid petiole. With most tendril-bearers the summit of the stem or shoot projects above the point from which the tendril arises; and it is generally bent to one side, so as to be out of the way of the revolutions swept by the tendril. In those plants in which the terminal shoot is not sufficiently out of the way, as we have seen with the Echinocystis, as soon as the tendril comes in its revolving course to this point, it stiffens and straightens itself, and thus rising vertically up passes over the obstacle in an admirable manner.
All tendrils are sensitive, but in various degrees, to contact with an object, and curve towards the touched side. With several plants a single touch, so slight as only just to move the highly flexible tendril, is enough to induce curvature. Passiflora gracilis possesses the most sensitive tendrils which I have observed: a bit of platina wire 1/50th of a grain (1.23 mg.) in weight, gently placed on the concave point, caused a tendril to become hooked, as did a loop of soft, thin cotton thread weighing 1/32nd of a grain (2.02 mg.) With the tendrils of several other plants, loops weighing 1/16th of
a grain (4.05 mg.) sufficed. The point of a tendril of Passiflora gracilis began to move distinctly in 25 seconds after a touch, and in many cases after 30 seconds. Asa Gray also saw movement in the tendrils of the Cucurbitaceous genus, Sicyos, in 30 seconds. The tendrils of some other plants, when lightly rubbed, moved in a few minutes; with Dicentra in half-an-hour; with Smilax in an hour and a quarter or half; and with Ampelopsis still more slowly. The curling movement consequent on a single touch continues to increase for a considerable time, then ceases; after a few hours the tendril uncurls itself, and is again ready to act. When the tendrils of several kinds of plants were caused to bend by extremely light weights suspended on them, they seemed to grow accustomed to so slight a stimulus, and straightened themselves, as if the loops had been removed. It makes no difference what sort of object a tendril touches, with the remarkable exception of other tendrils and drops of water, as was observed with the extremely sensitive-tendrils of Passiflora gracilis and of the Echinocystis. I have, however, seen tendrils of the Bryony which had temporarily caught other tendrils, and often in the case of the vine.
Tendrils of which the extremities are permanently and slightly curved, are sensitive only on the concave surface; other tendrils, such as those of the Cobæa (though furnished with horny hooks directed to one side) and those of Cissus discolor, are sensitive on all sides. Hence the tendrils of this latter plant, when stimulated
by a touch of equal force on opposite sides, did not bend. The inferior and lateral surfaces of the tendrils of Mutisia are sensitive, but not the upper surface. With branched tendrils, the several branches act alike; but in the Hanburya the lateral spur-like branch does not acquire (for excellent reasons which have been explained) its sensitiveness nearly so soon as the main branch. With most tendrils the lower or basal part is either not at all sensitive, or sensitive only to prolonged contact. We thus see that the sensitiveness of tendrils is a special and localized capacity. It is quite independent of the power of spontaneously revolving; for the curling of the terminal portion from a touch does not in the least interrupt the former movement. In Bignonia unguis and its close allies, the petioles of the leaves, as well as the tendrils, are sensitive to a touch.
Twining plants when they come into contact with a stick, curl round it invariably in the direction of their revolving movement; but tendrils curl indifferently to either side, in accordance with the position of the stick and the side which is first touched. The clasping movement of the extremity is apparently not steady, but undulatory or vermicular in its nature, as may be inferred from the curious manner in which the tendrils of the Echinocystis slowly crawled round a smooth stick.
As with a few exceptions tendrils spontaneously revolve, it may be asked,—why have they been endowed with sensitiveness?—why, when they come into contact
with a stick, do they not, like twining plants, spirally wind round it? One reason may be that they are in most cases so flexible and thin, that when brought into contact with any object, they would almost certainly yield and be dragged onwards by the revolving movement. Moreover, the sensitive extremities have no revolving power as far as I have observed, and could not by this means curl round a support. With twining plants, on the other hand, the extremity spontaneously bends more than any other part; and this is of high importance for the ascent of the plant, as may be seen on a windy day. It is, however, possible that the slow movement of the basal and stiffer parts of certain tendrils, which wind round sticks placed in their path, may be analogous to that of twining plants. But I hardly attended sufficiently to this point, and it would have been difficult to distinguish between a movement due to extremely dull irritability, from the arrestment of the lower part, whilst the upper part continued to move onwards.
Tendrils which are only three-fourths grown, and perhaps even at an earlier age, but not whilst extremely young, have the power of revolving and of grasping any object which they touch. These two capacities are generally acquired at about the same period, and both fail when the tendril is full grown. But in Cobæa and Passiflora punctata the tendrils begin to revolve in a useless manner, before they have become sensitive. In the Echinocystis they retain their sensitiveness for some time after they have ceased to
revolve and after they have sunk downwards; in this position, even if they were able to seize an object, such power would be of no service in supporting the stem. It is a rare circumstance thus to detect any superfluity or imperfection in the action of tendrils—organs which are so excellently adapted for the functions which they have to perform; but we see that they are not always perfect, and it would be rash to assume that any existing tendril has reached the utmost limit of perfection.
Some tendrils have their revolving motion accelerated or retarded, in moving to or from the light; others, as with the Pea, seem indifferent to its action; others move steadily from the light to the dark, and this aids them in an important manner in finding a support. For instance, the tendrils of Bignonia capreolata bend from the light to the dark as truly as a wind-vane from the wind. In the Eccremocarpus the extremities alone twist and turn about so as to bring their finer branches and hooks into close contact with any dark surface, or into crevices and holes.
A short time after a tendril has caught a support, it contracts with some rare exceptions into a spire; but the manner of contraction and the several important advantages thus gained have been discussed so lately, that nothing need here be repeated on the subject. Tendrils soon after catching a support grow much stronger and thicker, and sometimes more durable to a wonderful degree; and this shows how much their internal tissues must be changed. Occasionally it is
the part which is wound round a support which chiefly becomes thicker and stronger; I have seen, for instance, this part of a tendril of Bignonia æquinoctialis twice as thick and rigid as the free basal part. Tendrils which have caught nothing soon shrink and wither; but in some species of Bignonia they disarticulate and fall off like leaves in autumn.
Any one who had not closely observed tendrils of many kinds would probably infer that their action was uniform. This is the case with the simpler kinds, which simply curl round an object of moderate thickness, whatever its nature may be.* But the genus Bignonia shows us what diversity of action there may be between the tendrils of closely allied species. In all the nine species observed by me, the young internodes revolve vigorously; the tendrils also revolve, but in some of the species in a very feeble manner; and lastly the petioles of nearly all revolve, though with unequal power. The petioles of three of the species, and the tendrils of all are sensitive to contact. In the first-described species, the tendrils resemble in shape a bird's foot, and they are of no service to the stem in spirally ascending a thin upright stick, but they can seize firm hold of a twig or branch. When
* Sachs, however ('Text-Book of Botany,' Eng. Translation, 1875, p. 280), has shown that which I overlooked, namely, that the tendrils of different species are adapted to clasp supports of different thicknesses. He further shows that after a tendril has clasped a support it subsequently tightens its hold.
the stem twines round a somewhat thick stick, a slight degree of sensitiveness possessed by the petioles is brought into play, and the whole leaf together with the tendril winds round it. In B. unguis the petioles are more sensitive, and have greater power of movement than those of the last species; they are able, together with the tendrils, to wind inextricably round a thin upright stick; but the stem does not twine so well. B. Tweedyana has similar powers, but in addition, emits aërial roots which adhere to the wood. In B. venusta the tendrils are converted into elongated three-pronged grapnels, which move spontaneously in a conspicuous manner; the petioles, however, have lost their sensitiveness. The stem of this species can twine round an upright stick, and is aided in its ascent by the tendrils seizing the stick alternately some way above and then contracting spirally. In B. littoralis the tendrils, petioles, and internodes, all revolve spontaneously The stem, however, cannot twine, but ascends an upright stick by seizing it above with both tendrils together, which then contract into a spire. The tips of these tendrils become developed into adhesive discs. B. speciosa possesses similar powers of movement as the last species, but it cannot twine round a stick, though it can ascend by clasping the stick horizontally with one or both of its unbranched tendrils. These tendrils continually insert their pointed ends into minute crevices or holes, but as they are always withdrawn by the subsequent spiral contraction, the habit seems to us in our ignorance useless. Lastly,
the stem of B. capreolata twines imperfectly; the much-branched tendrils revolve in a capricious manner, and bend from the light to the dark; their hooked extremities, even whilst immature, crawl into crevices, and, when mature, seize any thin projecting point; in either case they develop adhesive discs, and these have the power of enveloping the finest fibres.
In the allied Eccremocarpus the internodes, petioles, and much-branched tendrils all spontaneously revolve together. The tendrils do not as a whole turn from the light; but their bluntly-hooked extremities arrange themselves neatly on any surface with which they come into contact, apparently so as to avoid the light. They act best when each branch seizes a few thin stems, like the culms of a grass, which they afterwards draw together into a solid bundle by the spiral contraction of all the branches. In Cobæa the finely-branched tendrils alone revolve; the branches terminate in sharp, hard, double, little hooks, with both points directed to the same side; and these turn by well-adapted movements to any object with which they come into contact. The tips of the branches also crawl into dark crevices or holes. The tendrils and internodes of Ampelopsis have little or no power of revolving; the tendrils are but little sensitive to contact; their hooked extremities cannot seize thin objects; they will not even clasp a stick, unless in extreme need of a support; but they turn from the light to the dark, and, spreading out their branches in contact with any nearly flat surface, develop discs.
These adhere by the secretion of some cement to wall, or even to a polished surface; and this is more than the discs of the Bignonia capreolata can effect.
The rapid development of these adherent discs is one of the most remarkable peculiarities possessed by any tendrils. We have seen that such discs are formed by two species of Bignonia, by Ampelopsis, and, according to Naudin,* by the Cucurbitaceous genus Peponopsis adhærens. In Anguria the lower surface of the tendril, after it has wound round a stick, forms a coarsely cellular layer, which closely fits the wood, but is not adherent; whilst in Hanburya a similar layer is adherent. The growth of these cellular out-growths depends, (except in the case of the Haplolophium and of one species of Ampelopsis,) on the stimulus from contact. It is a singular fact that three families, so widely distinct as the Bignoniaceæ, Vitaceæ, and Cucurbitaceæ, should possess species with tendrils having this remarkable power.
Sachs attributes all the movements of tendrils to rapid growth on the side opposite to that which becomes concave. These movements consist of revolving nutation, the bending to and from the light, and in opposition to gravity, those caused by a touch, and spiral contraction. It is rash to differ from so great an authority, but I cannot believe that one at least of
* Annales des Sc. Nat. Bot. 4th series, tom. xii. p. 89.
these movements—curvature from a touch—is thus caused.* In the first place it may be remarked that the movement of nutation differs from that due to a touch, in so far that in some cases the two powers are acquired by the same tendril at different periods of growth; and the sensitive part of the tendril does not seem capable of nutation. One of my chief reasons for doubting whether the curvature from a touch is the result of growth, is the extraordinary rapidity of the movement. I have seen the extremity of a tendril of Passiflora gracilis, after being touched, distinctly bent in 25 seconds, and often in 30 seconds; and so it is with the thicker tendril of Sicyos. It appears hardly credible that their outer surfaces could have actually grown in length, which implies a permanent modification of structure, in so short a time. The growth, moreover, on this view must be considerable, for if the touch has been at all rough the extremity is coiled in two or three minutes into a spire of several turns.
When the extreme tip of the tendril of Echinocystis caught hold of a smooth stick, it coiled itself in a few hours (as described at p. 132) twice or thrice round
* It occurred to me that the movement of notation and that from a touch might be differently affected by anæsthetics, in the same manner as Paul Bert has shown to be the case with the sleep-movements of Mimosa and those from a touch. I tried the common pea and Passiflora gracilis, but I succeeded only in observing that both movements were unaffected by exposure for 1½ hrs. to a rather large dose of sulphuric ether. In this respect they present a wonderful contrast with Drosera, owing no doubt to the presence of absorbent glands in the latter plant.
the stick, apparently by an undulatory movement. At first I attributed this movement to the growth of the outside; black marks were therefore made, and the interspaces measured, but I could not thus detect any increase in length. Hence it seems probable in this case and in others, that the curvature of the tendril from a touch depends on the contraction of the cells along the concave side. Sachs himself admits* that "if the growth which takes place in the entire tendril at the time of contact with a support is small, a considerable acceleration occurs on the convex surface, but in general there is no elongation on the concave surface, or there may even be a contraction; in the case of a tendril of Cucurbita this contraction amounted to nearly one-third of the original length." In a subsequent passage Sachs seems to feel some difficulty in accounting for this kind of contraction. It must not however be supposed from the foregoing remarks that I entertain any doubt, after reading De Vries' observations, about the outer and stretched surfaces of attached tendrils afterwards increasing in length by growth. Such increase seems to me quite compatible with the first movement being independent of growth. Why a delicate touch should cause one side of a tendril to contract we know as little as why, on the view held by Sachs, it should lead to extraordinarily rapid growth of the opposite side. The chief or sole reason for the belief that the curvature of
* 'Text-Book of Botany, 1875, p. 779.
a tendril when touched is due to rapid growth, seems to be that tendrils lose their sensitiveness and power of movement after they have grown to their full length; but this fact is intelligible, if we bear in mind that all the functions of a tendril are adapted to drag up the terminal growing shoot towards the light. Of what use would it be, if an old and full-grown tendril, arising from the lower part of a shoot, were to retain its power of clasping a support? This would be of no use; and we have seen with tendrils so many instances of close adaptation and of the economy of means, that we may feel assured that they would acquire irritability and the power of clasping a support at the proper age—namely, youth—and would not uselessly retain such power beyond the proper age.
HOOK AND ROOT-CLIMBERS. — CONCLUDING REMARKS.
Plants climbing by the aid of hooks, or merely scrambling over other plants — Root-climbers, adhesive matter secreted by the rootlets — General conclusions with respect to climbing plants, and the stages of their development.
Hook-Climbers. — In my introductory remarks, I stated that, besides the two first great classes of climbing plants, namely, those which twine round a support, and those endowed with irritability enabling them to seize hold of objects by means of their petioles or tendrils, there are two other classes, hook-climbers and root-climbers. Many plants, moreover, as Fritz Müller has remarked,* climb or scramble up thickets in a still more simple fashion, without any special aid, excepting that their leading shoots are generally long and flexible. It may, however, be suspected from what follows, that these shoots in some cases tend to avoid the light. The few hook-climbers which I have observed, namely, Galium aparine, Rubus australis, and some climbing
* Journal of Linn. Soc. vol. ix. p. 348. Professor G. Jaeger has well remarked ('In Sachen Darwin's, insbesondere contra Wigand,' 1874, p. 106) that it is highly characteristic of climbing plants to produce thin, elongated, and flexible stems. He further remarks that plants growing beneath other and taller species or trees, are naturally those which would be developed into climbers; and such plants, from stretching towards the light, and from not being much agitated by the wind, tend to produce long, thin and flexible shoots.
Roses, exhibit no spontaneous revolving movement. If they had possessed this power, and had been capable of twining, they would have been placed in the class of Twiners; for some twiners are furnished with spines or hooks, which aid them in their ascent. For instance, the Hop, which is a twiner, has reflexed hooks as large as those of the Galium; some other twiners have stiff reflexed hairs; and Dipladenia has a circle of blunt spines at the bases of its leaves. I have seen only one tendril-bearing plant, namely, Smilax aspera, which is furnished with reflexed spines; but this is the case with several branch-climbers in South Brazil and Ceylon; and their branches graduate into true tendrils. Some few plants apparently depend solely on their hooks for climbing, and yet do so efficiently, as certain palms in the New and Old Worlds. Even some climbing Roses will ascend the walls of a tall house, if covered with a trellis. How this is effected I know not; for the young shoots of one such Rose, when placed in a pot in a window, bent irregularly towards the light during the day and from the light during the night, like the shoots of any common plant; so that it is not easy to understand how they could have got under a trellis close to the wall.*
* Professor Asa Gray has explained, as it would appear, this difficulty in his review (American Journal of Science, vol. xl. Sept. 1865, p. 282) of the present work. He has observed that the strong summer shoots of the Michigan rose (Rosa setigera) are strongly disposed to push into dark crevices and away from the light, so that they would be almost sure to place themselves under a trellis. He adds that the lateral shoots, made on the following spring, emerged from the trellis as they sought the light.
Root-climbers. — A good many plants come under this class, and are excellent climbers. One of the most remarkable is the Marcgravia umbellata, the stem of which in the tropical forests of South America, as I hear from Mr. Spruce, grows in a curiously flattened manner against the trunks of trees; here and there it puts forth claspers (roots), which adhere to the trunk, and, if the latter be slender, completely embrace it. When this plant has climbed to the light, it produces free branches with rounded stems, clad with sharp-pointed leaves, wonderfully different in appearance from those borne by the stem as long as it remains adherent. This surprising difference in the leaves, I have also observed in a plant of Marcgravia dubia in my hothouse. Root-climbers, as far as I have seen, namely, the Ivy (Hedera helix), Ficus repens, and F. barbatus, have no power of movement, not even from the light to the dark. As previously stated, the Hoya carnosa (Asclepiadaceæ) is a spiral twiner, and likewise adheres by rootlets even to a flat wall. The tendril-bearing Bignonia Tweedyana emits roots, which curve half round and adhere to thin sticks. The Tecoma radicans (Bignoniaceæ), which is closely allied to many spontaneously revolving species, climbs by rootlets; nevertheless, its young shoots apparently move about more than can be accounted for by the varying action of the light.
I have not closely observed many root-climbers, but can give one curious fact. Ficus repens climbs up a wall just like Ivy; and when the young rootlets
are made to press lightly on slips of glass, they emit after about a week's interval, as I observed several times, minute drops of clear fluid, not in the least milky like that exuded from a wound. This fluid is slightly viscid, but cannot be drawn out into threads. It has the remarkable property of not soon drying; a drop, about the size of half a pin's head, was slightly spread out on glass, and I scattered on it some minute grains of sand. The glass was left exposed in a drawer during hot and dry weather, and if the fluid had been water, it would certainly have dried in a few minutes; but it remained fluid, closely surrounding each grain of sand, during 128 days: how much longer it would have remained I cannot say. Some other rootlets were left in contact with the glass for about ten days or a fortnight, and the drops of secreted fluid were now rather larger, and so viscid that they could be drawn out into threads. Some other rootlets were left in contact during twenty-three days, and these were firmly cemented to the glass. Hence we may conclude that the rootlets first secrete a slightly viscid fluid, subsequently absorb the watery parts, (for we have seen that the fluid will not dry by itself,) and ultimately leave a cement. When the rootlets were torn from the glass, atoms of yellowish matter were left on it, which were partly dissolved by a drop of bisulphide of carbon; and this extremely volatile fluid was rendered very much less volatile by what it had dissolved.
As the bisulphide of carbon has a strong power
of softening indurated caoutchouc, I soaked in it during a short time several rootlets of a plant which had grown up a plaistered wall; and I then found many extremely thin threads of transparent, not viscid, excessively elastic matter, precisely like caoutchouc, attached to two sets of rootlets on the same branch. These threads proceeded from the bark of the rootlet at one end, and at the other end were firmly attached to particles of silex or mortar from the wall. There could be no mistake in this observation, as I played with the threads for a long time under the microscope, drawing them out with my dissecting-needles and letting them spring back again. Yet I looked repeatedly at other rootlets similarly treated, and could never again discover these elastic threads. I therefore infer that the branch in question must have been slightly moved from the wall at some critical period, whilst the secretion was in the act of drying, through the absorption of its watery parts. The genus Ficus abounds with caoutchouc, and we may conclude from the facts just given that this substance, at first in solution and ultimately modified into an unelastic cement,* is used by the Ficus repens to cement its rootlets to any surface which it ascends. Whether other plants, which climb by their rootlets, emit any cement I do not know; but the rootlets of the
* Mr. Spiller has recently shown (Chemical Society, Feb. 16, 1865), in a paper on the oxidation of india-rubber or caoutchouc, that this substance, when exposed in a fine state of division to the air, gradually becomes converted into brittle, resinous matter, very similar to shell-lac.
Ivy, placed against glass, barely adhered to it, yet secreted a little yellowish matter. I may add, that the rootlets of the Marcgravia dubia can adhere firmly to smooth painted wood.
Vanilla aromatica emits aërial roots a foot in length, which point straight down to the ground. According to Mohl (p. 49), these crawl into crevices, and when they meet with a thin support, wind round it, as do tendrils. A plant which I kept was young, and did not form long roots; but on placing thin sticks in contact with them, they certainly bent a little to that side, in the course of about a day, and adhered by their rootlets to the wood; but they did not bend quite round the sticks, and afterwards they re-pursued their downward course. It is probable that these slight movements of the roots are due to the quicker growth of the side exposed to the light, in comparison with the other side, and not because the roots are sensitive to contact in the same manner as true tendrils. According to Mohl, the rootlets of certain species of Lycopodium act as tendrils.*
* Fritz Müller informs me that he saw in the forests of South Brazil numerous black strings, from some lines to nearly an inch in diameter, winding spirally round the trunks of gigantic trees. At first sight he thought that they were the stems of twining plants which were thus ascending the trees: but he afterwards found that they were the aërial roots of a Philodendron which grew on the branches above. These roots therefore seem to be true twiners, though they use their powers to descend, instead of to ascend like twining plants. The aërial roots of some other species of Philodendron hang vertically downwards, sometimes for a length of more than fifty feet.
Concluding Remarks on Climbing Plants.
Plants become climbers, in order, as it may be presumed, to reach the light, and to expose a large surface of their leaves to its action and to that of the free air. This is effected by climbers with wonderfully little expenditure of organized matter, in comparison with trees, which have to support a load of heavy branches by a massive trunk. Hence, no doubt, it arises that there are so many climbing plants in all quarters of the world, belonging to so many different orders. These plants have been arranged under four classes, disregarding those which merely scramble over bushes without any special aid. Hook-climbers are the least efficient of all, at least in our temperate countries, and can climb only in the midst of an entangled mass of vegetation. Root-climbers are excellently adapted to ascend naked faces of rock or trunks of trees; when, however, they climb trunks they are compelled to keep much in the shade; they cannot pass from branch to branch and thus cover the whole summit of a tree, for their rootlets require long-continued and close contact with a steady surface in order to adhere. The two great classes of twiners and of plants with sensitive organs, namely, leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers taken together, far exceed in number and in the perfection of their mechanism the climbers of the two first classes. Those which have the power of spontaneously revolving and of grasping objects with which they come in contact, easily pass
from branch to branch, and securely ramble over a wide, sun-lit surface.
The divisions containing twining plants, leaf-climbers, and tendril-bearers graduate to a certain extent into one another, and nearly all have the same remarkable power of spontaneously revolving. Does this gradation, it may be asked, indicate that plants belonging to one subdivision have actually passed during the lapse of ages, or can pass, from one state to the other? Has, for instance, any tendril-bearing plant assumed its present structure without having previously existed as a leaf-climber or a twiner? If we consider leaf-climbers alone, the idea that they were primordially twiners is forcibly suggested. The internodes of all, without exception, revolve in exactly the same manner as twiners; some few can still twine well, and many others in an imperfect manner. Several leaf-climbing genera are closely allied to other genera which are simple twiners. It should also be observed, that the possession of leaves with sensitive petioles, and with the consequent power of clasping an object, would be of comparatively little use to a plant, unless associated with revolving internodes, by which the leaves are brought into contact with a support; although no doubt a scrambling plant would be apt, as Professor Jaeger has remarked, to rest on other plants by its leaves. On the other hand, revolving internodes, without any other aid, suffice to give the power of climbing; so that it seems probable that leaf-climbers were in most cases at first twiners, and subse-
quently became capable of grasping a support; and this, as we shall presently see, is a great additional advantage.
From analogous reasons, it is probable that all tendril-bearers were primordially twiners, that is, are the descendants of plants having this power and habit. For the internodes of the majority revolve; and, in a few species, the flexible stem still retains the capacity of spirally twining round an upright stick. Tendril-bearers have undergone much more modification than leaf-climbers; hence it is not surprising that their supposed primordial habits of revolving and twining have been more frequently lost or modified than in the case of leaf-climbers. The three great tendril-bearing families in which this loss has occurred in the most marked manner, are the Cucurbitaceæ, Passifloraceæ, and Vitaceæ. In the first, the internodes revolve; but I have heard of no twining form, with the exception (according to Palm, p. 29. 52) of Momordica balsamina, and this is only an imperfect twiner. In the two other families I can hear of no twiners; and the internodes rarely have the power of revolving, this power being confined to the tendrils. The internodes, however, of Passiflora gracilis have the power in a perfect manner, and those of the common Vine in an imperfect degree: so that at least a trace of the supposed primordial habit has been retained by some members of all the larger tendril-bearing groups.
On the view here given, it may be asked, Why have the species which were aboriginally twiners been converted in so many groups into leaf-climbers or tendril-
bearers? Of what advantage has this been to them? Why did they not remain simple twiners? We can see several reasons. It might be an advantage to a plant to acquire a thicker stem, with short internodes bearing many or large leaves; and such stems are ill fitted for twining. Any one who will look during windy weather at twining plants will see that they are easily blown from their support; not so with tendril-bearers or leaf-climbers, for they quickly and firmly grasp their support by a much more efficient kind of movement. In those plants which still twine, but at the same time possess tendrils or sensitive petioles, as some species of Bignonia, Clematis, and Tropæolum, it can readily be observed how incomparably better they grasp an upright stick than do simple twiners. Tendrils, from possessing this power of grasping an object, can be made long and thin; so that little organic matter is expended in their development, and yet they sweep a wide circle in search of a support. Tendril-bearers can, from their first growth, ascend along the outer branches of any neighbouring bush, and they are thus always fully exposed to the light; twiners, on the contrary, are best fitted to ascend bare stems, and generally have to start in the shade. Within tall and dense tropical forests, twining plants would probably succeed better than most kinds of tendril-bearers; but the majority of twiners, at least in our temperate regions, from the nature of their revolving movement, cannot ascend thick trunks, whereas this can be affected by tendril-
bearers if the trunks are branched or bear twigs, and by some species if the bark is rugged.
The advantage gained by climbing is to reach the light and free air with as little expenditure of organic matter as possible; now, with twining plants, the stem is much longer than is absolutely necessary; for instance, I measured the stem of a kidney-bean, which had ascended exactly two feet in height, and it was three feet in length: the stem of a pea, on the other hand, which had ascended to the same height by the aid of its tendrils, was but little longer than the height reached. That this saving of the stem is really an advantage to climbing plants, I infer from the species that still twine but are aided by clasping petioles or tendrils, generally making more open spires than those made by simple twiners. Moreover, the plants thus aided, after taking one or two turns in one direction, generally ascend for a space straight, and then reverse the direction of their spire. By this means they ascend to a considerably greater height, with the same length of stem, than would otherwise have been possible; and they do this with safety, as they secure themselves at intervals by their clasping petioles or tendrils.
We have seen that tendrils consist of various organs in a modified state, namely, leaves, flower-peduncles, branches, and perhaps stipules. With respect to leaves, the evidence of their modification is ample. In young plants of Bignonia the lower leaves often remain quite unchanged, whilst the upper ones have
their terminal leaflets converted into perfect tendrils; in Eccremocarpus I have seen a single lateral branch of a tendril replaced by a perfect leaflet; in Vicia sativa, on the other hand, leaflets are sometimes replaced by tendril-branches; and many other such cases could be given. But he who believes in the slow modification of species will not be content simply to ascertain the homological nature of different kinds of tendrils; he will wish to learn, as far as is possible, by what actual steps leaves, flower-peduncles, &c., have had their functions wholly changed, and have come to serve merely as prehensile organs.
In the whole group of leaf-climbers abundant evidence has been given that an organ, still subserving the functions of a leaf, may become sensitive to a touch, and thus grasp an adjoining object. With several leaf-climbers the true leaves spontaneously revolve; and their petioles, after clasping a support grow thicker and stronger. We thus see that leaves may acquire all the leading and characteristic qualities of tendrils, namely, sensitiveness, spontaneous movement, and subsequently increased strength. If their blades or laminæ were to abort, they would form true tendrils. And of this process of abortion we can follow every step, until no trace of the original nature of the tendril is left. In Mutisia clematis, the tendril, in shape and colour, closely resembles the petiole of one of the ordinary leaves, together with the midribs of the leaflets, but vestiges of the laminæ are still occasionally retained. In four genera of the Fumariaceæ we can
follow the whole process of transformation. The terminal leaflets of the leaf-climbing Fumaria officinalis are not smaller than the other leaflets; those of the leaf-climbing Adlumia cirrhosa are greatly reduced; those of Corydalis claviculata (a plant which may indifferently be called a leaf-climber or a tendril-bearer) are either reduced to microscopical dimensions or have their blades wholly aborted, so that this plant is actually in a state of transition; and, finally, in the Dicentra the tendrils are perfectly characterized. If, therefore, we could behold at the same time all the progenitors of Dicentra, we should almost certainly see a series like that now exhibited by the above-named three genera. In Tropæolum tricolorum we have another kind of passage; for the leaves which are first formed on the young stems are entirely destitute of laminæ, and must be called tendrils, whilst the later formed leaves have well-developed laminæ. In all cases the acquirement of sensitiveness by the mid-ribs of the leaves appears to stand in some close relation with the abortion of their laminæ or blades.
On the view here given, leaf-climbers were primordially twiners, and tendril-bearers (when formed of modified leaves) were primordially leaf-climbers. The latter, therefore, are intermediate in nature between twiners and tendril-bearers, and ought to be related to both. This is the case: thus the several leaf-climbing species of the Antirrhineæ, of Solanum, Cocculus, and Gloriosa, have within the same family and even within the same genus, relatives which are twiners. In the
genus Mikania, there are leaf-climbing and twining species. The leaf-climbing species of Clematis are very closely allied to the tendril-bearing Naravelia. The Fumariaceæ include closely allied genera which are leaf-climbers and tendril-bearers. Lastly, a species of Bignonia is at the same time both a leaf-climber and a tendril-bearer; and other closely allied species are twiners.
Tendrils of another kind consist of modified flower-peduncles. In this case we likewise have many interesting transitional states. The common Vine (not to mention the Cardiospermum) gives us every possible gradation between a perfectly developed tendril and a flower-peduncle covered with flowers, yet furnished with a branch, forming the flower-tendril. When the latter itself bears a few flowers, as we know sometimes is the case, and still retains the power of clasping a support, we see an early condition of all those tendrils which have been formed by the modification of flower-peduncles.
According to Mohl and others, some tendrils consist of modified branches: I have not observed any such cases, and know nothing of their transitional states, but these have been fully described by Fritz Müller. The genus Lophospermum also shows us how such a transition is possible; for its branches spontaneously revolve and are sensitive to contact. Hence, if the leaves on some of the branches of the Lophospermum were to abort, these branches would be converted into true tendrils. Nor is there anything improbable
in certain branches alone being thus modified, whilst others remained unaltered; for we have seen with certain varieties of Phaseolus, that some of the branches are thin, flexible, and twine, whilst other branches on the same plant are stiff and have no such power.
If we inquire how a petiole, a branch or flower-peduncle first became sensitive to a touch, and acquired the power of bending towards the touched side, we get no certain answer. Nevertheless an observation by Hofmeister* well deserves attention, namely, that the shoots and leaves of all plants, whilst young, move after being shaken. Kerner also finds, as we have seen, that the flower-peduncles of a large number of plants, if shaken or gently rubbed bend to this side. And it is young petioles and tendrils, whatever their homological nature may be, which move on being touched. It thus appears that climbing plants have utilized and perfected a widely distributed and incipient capacity, which capacity, as far as we can see, is of no service to ordinary plants. If we further inquire how the stems, petioles, tendrils, and flower-peduncles of climbing plants first acquired their power of spontaneously revolving, or, to speak more accurately, of successively bending to all points of the compass, we are again silenced, or at most can only remark that the power of moving, both spontaneously and from various stimulants, is far more
* Quoted by Cohn, in his remarkable memoir, "Contractile Gewebe im Pflanzenreiche," 'Abhandl. der Schlesischen Gesell.' 1861, Heft i. s. 35.
common with plants, than is generally supposed to be the case by those who have not attended to the subject. I have given one remarkable instance, namely that of the Maurandia semperflorens, the young flower-peduncles of which spontaneously revolve in very small circles, and bend when gently rubbed to the touched side; yet this plant certainly does not profit by these two feebly developed powers. A rigorous examination of other young plants would probably show slight spontaneous movements in their stems, petioles or peduncles, as well as sensitiveness to a touch.* We see at least that the Maurandia might, by a little augmentation of the powers which it already possesses, come first to grasp a support by its flower-peduncles, and then, by the abortion of some of its flowers (as with Vitis or Cardiospermum), acquire perfect tendrils.
There is one other interesting point which deserves notice. We have seen that some tendrils owe their origin to modified leaves, and others to modified flower-peduncles; so that some are foliar and others axial in their nature. It might therefore have been expected that they would have presented some difference in function. This is not the case. On the contrary, they
* Such slight spontaneous movements, I now find, have been for some time known to occur, for instance with the flower-stems of Brassica napus and with the leaves of many plants: Sachs' 'Text-Book of Botany' 1875, pp. 766, 785. Fritz Müller also has shown in relation to our present subject ('Jenaischen Zeitschrift,' Bd. V. Heft 2, p. 133) that the stems, whilst young, of an Alisma and of a Linum are continually performing slight movements to all points of the compass, like those of climbing plants.
present the most complete identity in their several characteristic powers. Tendrils of both kinds spontaneously revolve at about the same rate. Both, when touched, bend quickly to the touched side, and afterwards recover themselves and are able to act again. In both the sensitiveness is either confined to one side or extends all round the tendril. Both are either attracted or repelled by the light. The latter property is seen in the foliar tendrils of Bignonia capreolata and in the axial tendrils of Ampelopsis. The tips of the tendrils in these two plants become, after contact, enlarged into discs, which are at first adhesive by the secretion of some cement. Tendrils of both kinds, soon after grasping a support, contract spirally; they then increase greatly in thickness and strength. When we add to these several points of identity the fact that the petiole of Solanum jasminoides, after it has clasped a support, assumes one of the most characteristic features of the axis, namely, a closed ring of woody vessels, we can hardly avoid asking, whether the difference between foliar and axial organs can be of so fundamental a nature as is generally supposed?*
We have attempted to trace some of the stages in the genesis of climbing plants. But, during the endless fluctuations of the conditions of life to which all organic beings have been exposed, it might be expected that some climbing plants would have lost
* Mr. Herbert Spencer has recently argued ('Principles of Biology,' 1865, p. 37 et seq.) with much force that there is no fundamental distinction between the foliar and axial organs of plants.
the habit of climbing. In the cases given of certain South African plants belonging to great twining families, which in their native country never twine, but reassume this habit when cultivated in England, we have a case in point. In the leaf-climbing Clematis flammula, and in the tendril-bearing Vine, we see no loss in the power of climbing, but only a remnant of the revolving power which is indispensable to all twiners, and is so common as well as so advantageous to most climbers. In Tecoma radicans, one of the Bignoniaceæ, we see a last and doubtful trace of the power of revolving.
With respect to the abortion of tendrils, certain cultivated varieties of Cucurbita pepo have, according to Naudin,* either quite lost these organs or bear semi-monstrous representatives of them. In my limited experience, I have met with only one apparent instance of their natural suppression, namely, in the common bean. All the other species of Vicia, I believe, bear tendrils; but the bean is stiff enough to support its own stem, and in this species, at the end of the petiole, where, according to analogy, a tendril ought to have existed, a small pointed filament projects, about a third of an inch in length, and which is probably the rudiment of a tendril. This may be the more safely inferred, as in young and unhealthy specimens of other tendril-bearing plants similar rudiments may occasionally be observed. In the bean
* Annales des Sc. Nat. 4th series, Bot. tom. vi. 1856, p. 31.
these filaments are variable in shape, as is so frequently the case with rudimentary organs; they are either cylindrical, or foliaceous, or are deeply furrowed on the upper surface. They have not retained any vestige of the power of revolving. It is a curious fact, that many of these filaments, when foliaceous, have on their lower surfaces, dark-coloured glands like those on the stipules, which excrete a sweet fluid; so that these rudiments have been feebly utilized.
One other analogous case, though hypothetical, is worth giving. Nearly all the species of Lathyrus possesses tendrils; but L. nissolia is destitute of them. This plant has leaves, which must have struck every one with surprise who has noticed them, for they are quite unlike those of all common papilionaceous plants, and resemble those of a grass. In another species, L. aphaca, the tendril, which is not highly developed (for it is unbranched, and has no spontaneous revolving-power), replaces the leaves, the latter being replaced in function by large stipules. Now if we suppose the tendrils of L. aphaca to become flattened and foliaceous, like the little rudimentary tendrils of the bean, and the large stipules to become at the same time reduced in size, from not being any longer wanted, we should have the exact counterpart of L. nissolia, and its curious leaves are at once rendered intelligible to us.
It may be added, as serving to sum up the foregoing views on the origin of tendril-bearing plants, that L. nissolia is probably descended from a plant which was
primordially a twiner; this then became a leaf-climber, the leaves being afterwards converted by degrees into tendrils, with the stipules greatly increased in size through the law of compensation.* After a time the tendrils lost their branches and became simple; they then lost their revolving-power (in which state they would have resembled the tendrils of the existing L. aphaca), and afterwards losing their prehensile power and becoming foliaceous would no longer be thus designated. In this last stage (that of the existing L. nissolia) the former tendrils would reassume their original function of leaves, and the stipules which were recently much developed being no longer wanted, would decrease in size. If species become modified in the course of ages, as almost all naturalists now admit, we may conclude that L. nissolia has passed through a series of changes, in some degree like those here indicated.
The most interesting point in the natural history of climbing plants is the various kinds of movement which they display in manifest relation to their wants. The most different organs—stems, branches, flower-peduncles, petioles, mid-ribs of the leaf and leaflets, and apparently aërial roots—all possess this power.
The first action of a tendril is to place itself in a proper position. For instance, the tendril of Cobæa
* Moquin-Tandon (Eléments de Tératologie. 1841, p. 156) gives the case of a monstrous bean, in which a case of compensation of this nature was suddenly effected; for the leaves completely disappeared and the stipules grew to an enormous size.
first rises vertically up, with its branches divergent and with the terminal hooks turned outwards; the young shoot at the extremity of the stem is at the same time bent to one side, so as to be out of the way. The young leaves of Clematis, on the other hand, prepare for action by temporarily curving themselves downwards, so as to serve as grapnels.
Secondly, if a twining plant or a tendril gets by any accident into an inclined position, it soon bends upwards, though secluded from the light. The guiding stimulus no doubt is the attraction of gravity, as Andrew Knight showed to be the case with germinating plants. If a shoot of any ordinary plant be placed in an inclined position in a glass of water in the dark, the extremity will, in a few hours, bend upwards; and if the position of the shoot be then reversed, the downward-bent shoot reverses its curvature; but if the stolon of a strawberry, which has no tendency to grow upwards, be thus treated, it will curve downwards in the direction of, instead of in opposition to, the force of gravity. As with the strawberry, so it is generally with the twining shoots of the Hibbertia dentata, which climbs laterally from bush to bush; for these shoots, if placed in a position inclined downwards, show little and sometimes no tendency to curve upwards.
Thirdly, climbing plants, like other plants, bend towards the light by a movement closely analogous to the incurvation which causes them to revolve, so that their revolving movement is often accelerated or retarded
in travelling to or from the light. On the other hand, in a few instances tendrils bend towards the dark.
Fourthly, we have the spontaneous revolving movement which is independent of any outward stimulus, but is contingent on the youth of the part, and on vigorous health; and this again of course depends on a proper temperature and other favourable conditions of life.
Fifthly, tendrils, whatever their homological nature may be, and the petioles or tips of the leaves of leaf-climbers, and apparently certain roots, all have the power of movement when touched, and bend quickly towards the touched side. Extremely slight pressure often suffices. If the pressure be not permanent, the part in question straightens itself and is again ready to bend on being touched.
Sixthly, and lastly, tendrils, soon after clasping a support, but not after a mere temporary curvature, contract spirally. If they have not come into contact with any object, they ultimately contract spirally, after ceasing to revolve; but in this case the movement is useless, and occurs only after a considerable lapse of time.
With respect to the means by which these various movements are effected, there can be little doubt from the researches of Sachs and H. de Vries, that they are due to unequal growth; but from the reasons already assigned, I cannot believe that this explanation applies to the rapid movements from a delicate touch.
Finally, climbing plants are sufficiently numerous to form a conspicuous feature in the vegetable kingdom, more especially in tropical forests. America, which so abounds with arboreal animals, as Mr. Bates remarks, likewise abounds according to Mohl and Palm with climbing plants; and of the tendril-bearing plants examined by me, the highest developed kinds are natives of this grand continent, namely, the several species of Bignonia, Eccremocarpus, Cobæa, and Ampelopsis. But even in the thickets of our temperate regions the number of climbing species and individuals is considerable, as will be found by counting them. They belong to many and widely different orders. To gain some rude idea of their distribution in the vegetable series, I marked, from the lists given by Mohl and Palm (adding a few myself, and a competent botanist, no doubt, could have added many more), all those families in Lindley's 'Vegetable Kingdom' which include twiners, leaf-climbers, or tendril-bearers. Lindley divides Phanerogamic plants into fifty-nine Alliances; of these, no less than thirty-five include climbing plants of the above kinds, hook and root-climbers being excluded. To these a few Cryptogamic plants must be added. When we reflect on the wide separation of these plants in the series, and when we know that in some of the largest, well-defined orders, such as the Compositæ, Rubiaceæ, Scrophulariaceæ, Liliaceæ, &c., species in only two or three genera have the power of climbing, the conclusion is forced on our minds that the capacity of revolving, on which most climbers depend, is inherent,
though undeveloped, in almost every plant in the vegetable kingdom.
It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are distinguished from animals by not having the power of movement. It should rather be said that plants acquire and display this power only when it is of some advantage to them; this being of comparatively rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, and food is brought to them by the air and rain. We see how high in the scale of organization a plant may rise, when we look at one of the more perfect tendril-bearers. It first places its tendrils ready for action, as a polypus places its tentacula. If the tendril be displaced, it is acted on by the force of gravity and rights itself. It is acted on by the light, and bends towards or from it, or disregards it, whichever may be most advantageous. During several days the tendrils or internodes, or both, spontaneously revolve with a steady motion. The tendril strikes some object, and quickly curls round and firmly grasps it. In the course of some hours it contracts into a spire, dragging up the stem, and forming an excellent spring. All movements now cease. By growth the tissues soon become wonderfully strong and durable. The tendril has done its work, and has done it in an admirable manner.
Abortion of tendrils, 200
Adlumia cirrhosa, 76
Advantages gained by climbing, 189
Alisma, spontaneous movement of, 198
Anguria Warscewiczii, 136
America, number of climbing plants of, 205
Ampelopsis hederacea, 144
Bates, Mr., on number of arboreal animals in America, 205
Bean, common, abortion of tendrils, 200, [202
Bignonia, various species of, bearing tendrils, 86
Brassica napus, spontaneous movement of peduncles, 198
Bryonia dioica, 131, 136
Caoutchouc secreted by roots of Ficus repens, 186
Cardiospermum halicacabum, 150
Ceropegia Gardnerii, 6
—— ——, manner of twining, 20
——, a species which has lost the power of twining in South Africa, 42
Cissus discolor, 143
Clematis, various species of, leaf-climbers, 46
Cobæa scandens, 106
Corydalis claviculata, 121
Cucurbitaceæ, nature of tendrils, 127
Cucurbita pepo, aborted tendrils, 200
Cuscuta, stems of, irritable, 17, 71
Dicentra thalictrifolia, 124
Dipladenia, furnished with hooks, 184
Discs, adhesive, developed by tendrils, 94, 100, 135, 136, 145, 179
Dutrochet, reference to papers on climbing plants, 1
Eccremocarpus scaber, 103
Echinocystis lobata, 128
Ferns, twining, 38
Ficus repens, a root-climber, 185
Flagellaria Indica, 79
Flower-peduncles of Maurandia sensitive, and revolve spontaneously, 67
Fumaria officinalis, 75
Galium aparine, a hook-climber, 183
Gradations of structure leading to the development of perfect tendrils, 195, 196
Gray, Asa, reference to paper on tendrils of Cucurbitaceæ, 1
—— —— on tendrils of Passiflora, 154
—— —— —— —— Sicyos, 172
—— —— on Rosa setigera, 184
Gloriosa Plantii, 78
Hanburya Mexicana, 134
Harvey, Prof., on the loss of power of twining, 42
Hedera helix, 185, 188
Hibbertia dentata, 35
—— —— , shoots of, turn downwards, [203
Hofmeister, on irritability of young petioles, 197
Hop, powers of twining, 2
Hoya carnosa, 6, 43, 185
Humulus lupulus, 2
India-rubber secreted by roots of Ficus repens, 186
Ipomœa argyræoides, 42
Ivy, 185, 188
Jaeger, Prof. G., on climbing plants, [183, 199
Kerner, on the irritability of flower-peduncles, 197
Lathyrus aphaca, 115
—— ——, probable manner of development of its tendrils, 201
——, grandiflorus, 116
—— nissolia, grass-like leaves replacing tendrils, 201
Leaves, position of, on twining plants, 19
—— —— summary on, 81
—— —— climb more securely than twiners, 192
Léon, M., on a variety of Phaseolus, 42
———, on spiral contraction of tendrils, 166
Light, action on twining plants, 40
——, avoidance of, by tendrils, 98, 105, 110, 138, 145, 175
Linum, spontaneous movement of, 198
Loasa aurantiaca, 34
Lophospermum scandens, 71
Lygodium articulatum, 38
M'Nab, Dr., on Ampelopsis Veitchii, 146
Marcgravia, a root-climber, 185, 188
Masters, Dr. M., on torsion, 10
Masters, Dr. M., on the woody vessels of petioles, 75
Maurandia, a leaf-climber, 66
Mikania scandens, 33
Mohl, Hugo, reference to work of, 1
Moquin-Tandon, on the abortion of the leaves of the bean, 202
Müller, Fritz, on the structure of the wood of climbing plants, 44
—— —— on plants scrambling over other plants, 183
—— —— on the development of branches into tendrils, 84
—— —— on roots of Philodendron, 188
—— —— on the spontaneous movements of certain plants, 198
Mutisia clematis, 116
Naudin on abortion of tendrils, 200
Nutation, revolving, 11
Ophioglossum Japonicum, 77
Palm, reference to work of, 1
Passiflora acerifolia, 154
——— gracilis, 153
——— punctata, 156
——— quadrangularis, 157
Pea, common, 112
Peduncles of Maurandia sensitive and revolve spontaneously, 67
Phaseolus, torsion of axes, 9
———, non-twining variety, 42
Philodendron, roots of, 188
Pisum sativum, 112
Polygonum convolvulus, 41
Rhodochiton volubile, 70
Roots acting like tendrils, 188
Rosa setigera, shoots bend from the light, 184
Rubus australis, 183
Sachs, Prof., on torsion, 9
—— —— on cause of revolving movement, 22
—— —— on tendrils adapted to clasp supports of different thickness, 176
—— —— on cause of movement of tendrils when touched, 180
Sensitiveness of tendrils, nature of, 197
Smilax aspera, 118, 184
Spencer, Herbert, on the relation of axial and foliar organs, 199
Spiller, Mr., on the oxidation of india-rubber, 187
Spruce, Mr., on Marcgravia, 185
Solanum dulcamara, 34, 43
—— jasminoides, 72
Spiral contraction of tendrils, 158
Summary on twining plants, 39
Summary on leaf-climbers, 81
Summary on the movements of tendrils, 169, 202
Summit of twining plants, often hooked, [13
Support, thickness of, round which plants can twine, 22, 36
——, thickness of, which can be embraced by tendrils, 176
Tacsonia manicata, 158
Tamus elephantipes, 41
Tecoma radicans, 43, 185
Tendrils, history of our knowledge of, 85
——, spiral contraction of, 158
——, summary on, 169, 202
——, cause of movement when touched, [180
Tendril-bearers climb more securely than twiners, 192
Tendrils, abortion of, 200
Torsion of the axes of twining plants, 7
Tropæolum, various species of, leaf-climbers, 60
Twining plants, 2
————, shoots of, sometimes spontaneously become spiral, 17
———— table of rates of revolution of various species, 24
———— anomalous cases of, 41
Twisting of the axes of twining plants, 7
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———— cause of movements of tendrils, 180
Vitis vinifera, 137
Zanonia Indica, 136
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Citation: John van Wyhe, editor. 2002-. The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. (http://darwin-online.org.uk/)
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Toronto, CANADA - Adults with type 2 diabetes who eat unhealthy, high-fat meals may experience memory declines immediately afterward, but this can be offset by taking antioxidant vitamins with the meal, according to new research from Baycrest.
There is already growing evidence linking diabetes to cognitive complications in humans. Adults with type 2 diabetes are especially vulnerable to acute meal-induced memory deficits after eating unhealthy foods.
This latest study, led by Baycrest and published in the July issue of Nutrition Research, suggests that taking high doses of antioxidant vitamins C and E with the meal may help minimize those memory slumps.
"Our bottom line is that consuming unhealthy meals for those with diabetes can temporarily further worsen already underlying memory problems associated with the disease,"said lead author Michael Herman Chui, who conducted the research as a University of Toronto pathobiology undergraduate in the Kunin-Lunenfeld Applied Research Unit (KLARU) at Baycrest. "We've shown that antioxidant vitamins can minimize oxidative stress from the meal and reduce those immediate memory deficits."
Type 2 diabetes is associated with chronic oxidative stress, a major contributor to cognitive decline and Alzheimer disease. Consuming unhealthy foods can induce this type of stress which is triggered by acute elevations of free radicals - unstable molecules that can damage tissue, including brain tissue. These destructive molecule reactions typically occur over a one-to-three hour period after food ingestion.
Dr. Carol Greenwood, senior author of the study and a nationally recognized expert in how diet impacts brain function, cautioned that relying on antioxidant vitamins at meal time is not a quick fix. "While our study looked at the pill form of antioxidants, we would ultimately want individuals to consume healthier foods high in antioxidants, like fruits and vegetables," said Dr. Greenwood, a KLARU senior scientist at Baycrest.
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle that includes regular exercise, a low fat diet rich in antioxidants, and staying mentally active and socially engaged in a variety of activities, is the best medicine for optimizing cognitive health during the lifespan, she said.
In the study, 16 adults (aged 50 years and older) with type 2 diabetes participated in an unblinded trial where they attended three weekly sessions that involved consuming a different test meal. One meal consisted of high fat products - a danish pastry, cheddar cheese and yogurt with added whipped cream; the second meal consisted of only water consumption; and the third test meal was the high-fat meal plus high doses of vitamins C (1000 mg) and E (800 IU) tablets.
Fifteen minutes after starting meal ingestion, participants completed a series of neuropsychological tests lasting 90 minutes that measured their recall abilities for words they had heard and paragraph information they had read. These cognitive skills are associated with the brain's memory centre - the hippocampus.
Researchers found that vitamin supplementation consistently improved recall scores relative to the meal alone. Participants who ate the high fat meal without vitamin supplements showed significantly more forgetfulness of words and paragraph information in immediate and time delay recall tests, relative to those who had the water meal or the meal with antioxidant vitamins. Those on water meal and meal with vitamins showed similar levels in cognitive performance.
Dr. Greenwood and medical student M.H. Chui emphasize that their findings require further replication in larger studies with more participants. Future studies will need to look at whether antioxidant vitamins are directly targeting oxidative stress reactions or triggering an independent memory-enhancing ability which is simply masking the detrimental effects.
The study was funded by a grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
Baycrest is an academic health sciences centre, internationally-renowned for its care of aging adults and its excellence in aging brain research, clinical treatments and promising cognitive rehabilitation strategies. Baycrest is fully affiliated with the University of Toronto. | <urn:uuid:bc6409b5-d237-4d0e-883a-b5c55426352d> | {
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You are here: MEDICA Portal. Magazine & More. MEDICA Magazine. Topic of the Month. Volume archives. Our Topics in 2010. December 2010: The Immune System.
Parasitic worms in the service of science
Many people are disgusted when they see a worm in their food. The idea of being the host of one is all the more appalling; © panthermedia.net/Christian Lötte
In the so-called developing countries, vermicular diseases are still common in many people today. The parasites or endoparasites, respectively, live in cavities or in the blood for instance. Intestinal parasites like the tapeworm adhere to the inside of the intestine. Although it does not reproduce there, the immune system of course is going to try to excrete the foreign matter again. But this is exactly why parasites use a clever trick – they secrete messengers, which down-regulate our immune system.
After all, it is a normal immune system response to produce antibodies against foreign substances, which render the intruder harmless. Yet this usually cannot kill off an endoparasite, like for instance a tapeworm. However, cohabitation with the parasites becomes possible. And even if it doesn’t sound pretty, both – human being and parasite – benefit from this arrangement. The parasite stays alive and the human barely reacts with discomfort, but continues to live normally. But beyond that, the reduced activity of the immune system seems to have another consequence for human beings: they react less allergic to their environment. Allergies occur noticeably less for instance in people in the Third World. This is why the drastic increase of allergies in Europe is attributed to the constantly improving hygiene precautions. But is this theory valid and how can the gained knowledge be put into action?
Scientist’s hope lies in finding a
way to extract active intestinal
parasites to be able to produce
a drug; © panthermedia.net
Scientists in action
In their search for evidence, scientists sometimes take some unusual approaches. Professor David Pritchard from the University of Nottingham for instance, deliberately infected himself with hookworm larvae to prove that they are suited for treating disorders of the immune system, for instance asthma or Crohn’s disease, because they would stimulate the part of the immune system that’s in charge of the entire “defense“.
In a publication in the University’s own magazine “Vision Magazine/Edition 9“, Pritchard is quoted as follows: “ The driving force of any immune response is a cell called the T-cell. T-cells called T-helper 1 fight bacteria – and if that part of the immune system over-reacts you get diseases like Crohn’s, psoriasis, and rheumatoid arthritis. On the other side are T-helper 2 cells which fight worm infection, but when this side of the immune system overreacts you get allergies. In the middle is a more recently discovered population of T-cells called regulatory T-cells. These keep everything in check. Our hypothesis is that the worms are expanding the population of regulatory T-cells to down-regulate the rest of the immune response. “
Whether this is actually the case however is not yet conclusively investigated, as Professor Peter G. Kremsner, Institute Director of the Institute for Tropical Medicine in Tübingen explains on inquiry:”You can only speculate. The idea has been around for a long time. But we still don’t know exactly whether T cells are in fact responsible for the down-regulation of the immune system. Even though the T2 immune response increases the regulatory response in the event of a parasite infestation and the inflammatory response is partially lowered, which benefits patients with allergies or autoimmune diseases –nitric oxide also acts in a similar way. An exact conclusion about the underlying mechanism is always difficult with complex microorganisms. “
The hope for a drug
Behind every research there naturally is the desire to produce a pharmaceutical remedy, to also be able to offer allergic persons an effective treatment. After all, so far there are no treatments that are 100 percent effective. Kremsner sums it up like this: “There is hope that we can either develop extracts in vitro or place worms into the intestines, which eventually die off again on their own. The latter might not sound so nice, but the psychological strain of many allergic persons is certainly strong enough to also consider this option. Unfortunately, thus far there is no successful clinical trial confirming this. But I think that this approach offers big potential. For people who suffer from multiple allergies, there is no curative treatment at this point, only a pure symptomatic treatment. That’s why this approach should definitely be pursued and researched with combined efforts. “
Whether this approach ultimately will proof effective, remains to be seen. Until then, people who for instance can call a tapeworm their very own, may want to believe that everything also has a good side.
(Translated by Elena O'Meara) | <urn:uuid:b3035ccc-b927-40e3-8381-36c0848e3972> | {
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Cold War in the Arctic? Countries Seek Piece of Pie
As it stands, Arctic policy is already a dense network of legal and political agreements between different national and supranational stakeholders. Now the European Union wants to play a greater role in shaping it.
Changes in the Arctic could have worldwide consequences.
There is very little if any awareness among many Europeans that the European Union includes Arctic territory. To some extent this is due to the fact that the term "Arctic" needs to be more precisely defined. While it is generally accepted that the Arctic is not confined to the geographic North Pole, definitions vary of how far the Arctic region actually extends. On Canadian maps the North Circumpolar Region includes Churchill -- population 963 and polar-bear capital of the world -- and the southern shores of Hudson Bay. However, Churchill lies to the south of the 60th parallel. In European terms, this would mean that Scotland is an Arctic region. Demarcations of the Arctic in terms of climatic and plant-geographical factors, such as temperature and timber line, are also open to interpretation.
A less contentious definition of the Arctic is that area above the Arctic Circle, which is located at latitude 66.55 degrees north. This is the definition adopted by the EU Commission: in geographical terms the "Arctic region" is the area around the North Pole to the north of the Arctic Circle. This makes the European Union an Arctic stakeholder. Apart from the Arctic Ocean and a number of its seas, the Arctic includes territory of eight different countries: the three EU members Denmark (Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, and Sweden, as well as Iceland, Norway, Russia, Canada, and the United States (Alaska). Admittedly, the European Union does not directly abut the Arctic Ocean since the entire Scandinavian Arctic coast is Norwegian territory and Greenland, although it belongs to Denmark, is not integrated in the European Union. However, in terms of climate and plant geography, and location within the Arctic Circle, the north of the European Union can be regarded as part of the Arctic.
The Commission thus did well to emphasize that the European Union is "inextricably linked" to the Arctic region through a combination of history, geography, economy, and scientific achievements. Furthermore, it argues that this link is not confined to its three Arctic states. Norway and Iceland are members of the European Economic Area. Russia, together with Norway and Iceland, is an EU partner in the Northern Dimension Policy, a project launched in 2005-2006 to strengthen cooperation in northern Europe. In addition, the European Union is linked to the United States and Canada by the transatlantic partnership and NATO.
For centuries the Arctic attracted adventurers, explorers, and traders. This inhospitable region offered the prospect of profits from furs, fishing and whaling, gold, and raw materials. Above all, it drew those in search of the legendary Northwest Passage through the archipelago that today belongs to Canada and the Northeast Passage around the North Cape and along the coast of Siberia.
Economic interests and shipping routes are also key to the current focus on the Arctic. The ice sheet in the Arctic Ocean is shrinking as a result of climate change. At the Arctic Change 2008 conference held in Quebec in December 2008, scientists and Inuit inhabitants reported on the dramatic changes taking place in the Arctic. According to Christian Haas from the Alfred Wegener Institute in Bremen, who is currently teaching at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, the reduction in Arctic sea ice coverage from an average of seven million square kilometers between 1979 and 2000 to just over four million square kilometers is only one factor in the equation. There has also been a significant reduction in ice thickness, which could conceivably lead to the complete disappearance of Arctic Ocean ice during the summer thaw.
Between 1903 and 1906 Roald Amundsen led the first expedition to traverse the Northwest Passage and in the process spent two winters trapped in the Arctic ice. Over the last two summers both the Northwest and the Northeast passages have been open to shipping for the first time. Taking ships through northern Canada's network of islands instead of through the Panama Canal would cut 8000 kilometers off the journey from Europe to Asia and represent considerable savings in terms of fuel and time.
There is also increased interest in the potential extraction of raw materials from the Arctic Ocean floor. Since the end of the 1970s, the Prudhoe Bay oil field on Alaska's North Slope has been the largest field in North America, producing 15 billion barrels of crude oil. The latest assessment by the US Geological Survey indicates that the Arctic probably contains 90 billion barrels of oil and almost 50 trillion cubic meters of natural gas that have not yet been discovered and could be extracted using existing technology. These reserves are located predominantly in offshore coastal areas, with smaller amounts also found on land. Moreover, it is thought that permafrost areas in northern Alaska and the coastal seabed of the Arctic Ocean contain enormous quantities of gas hydrates consisting of ice and methane that could provide a future source of natural gas. Significant deposits of minerals such as diamonds, gold, zinc, nickel, and molybednum have also been found.
Disputed Ocean Floor
This information has been around for a long time and is based on verifiable data or conclusions drawn from comparative research into geological formations. In particular, the countries bordering the Arctic Ocean -- Canada, Russia, Denmark/Greenland, the United States, and Norway -- have been gathering information for years in order to validate their claims to the resource-rich seabed. Nevertheless, for a long time the Arctic remained a remote issue for policymakers and the general public.
This changed in the summer of 2007. On August 2, Russian submersibles dropped a titanium capsule containing a Russian flag onto the seafloor at the North Pole at a depth of 4261 meters. This spectacular piece of symbolism transformed the question of sovereign rights in the Arctic region, which until then had been the sole preserve of scientists and legal experts, into an urgent political issue. Headlines suddenly appeared referring to a new Cold War in the Arctic, a race for sovereign rights, and even an arms buildup in the far north.
In the view of observers like Michael Byers, political scientist at the University of British Columbia, this is nonsense. As he sees it, the only race going on is a scientific one to accrue the data required to determine who will have jurisdiction over the ocean floor.
Legal Framework Requirements
The most significant international agreement for the current debate on jurisdiction and sovereign rights in the Arctic is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Often described as a "constitution for the oceans," the convention, which came into force in 1994, has now been ratified by 155 nations, including Germany. The United States is the only major industrial nation not to have signed the treaty.
The UNCLOS permits coastal states to establish an "exclusive economic zone" extending up to 200 nautical miles -- the so-called 200-mile-zone -- within which they exercise sovereign rights over both the waters and the seabed. However, this sovereign territory may be extended depending on how far the continental land mass extends out under the ocean. In such cases the outer boundaries of this so-called continental shelf must be precisely defined and documented.
Cut-off lines are determined by a number of factors, including the structure of the ocean floor, sediment thickness and ocean depth. Such definitions can be a matter of dispute, as in the case of the Lomonosov Ridge, a mountain range extending over 1500 kilometers under the Arctic Ocean. Determining whether this geological formation is part of the continental shelf of Russia, Canada, or Denmark/Greenland is crucial to deciding which country has sovereign rights over the seabed around the North Pole.
- Part 1: Countries Seek Piece of Pie
- Part 2: The European Union's Role
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Climate ChangeGlobal Warming: Curbing Carbon Before It's Too Late | <urn:uuid:fa2f22f9-74b9-4fb0-be37-d155e50fc3d3> | {
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The following Short Note on environmental aesthetics was guest-edited by Tom Baugh.
as a matter of aesthetic appreciation, has a very long history. For as long as
we know, through writing and symbols humans have expressed aesthetic concepts.
Since prehistoric times, ‘secret’ geometries have been embedded in the writing
and symbols... geometries that established proportions to enhance visual
harmony. Over the millennia, humans built structures with aesthetic intention
guided by these geometries. Coming to relatively recent times, empathy theory
introduced the concept of form-feeling, emphasizing the direct connection
between what is seen and what we feel….between the objective and the embedded geometries.
what is beyond the seen: “imaginative vision” or “new vision/visibility” has
not always been discussed as part of the larger perceptual field since it
required admitting or recognizing the existence a scale that is beyond
immediately accessible to the humans. More
than a decade ago, architectural theorist Anthony Vidler (2004) asked for an expanded field of ecological
aesthetics that would show new process-oriented spatial formations and new inter-disciplinarity.
Vidler maintained that some of the most important notions of ecological
aesthetics are not in the sphere of “vision,” or the seen, thus calling for a careful
“reorganization” of the world as we perceive it.
consciousness and “new vision” as the artist, writer, and educator Gyorgy
Kepes described it, are therefore
the starting points for the aesthetics
of relationships rather than aesthetics of objects. Ecological consciousness
requires seeing things below and above the mezzo-scale of nature. It teaches us
that as our understanding of the relationships between “things” grows, so will
the spaces that we will build have an additional ethical dimension.
are two ways in architecture and related fields today in which this aesthetics
of connectedness instead of aesthetics of separation shows itself: on one hand are
projects that insist on visualizing the invisible – such are those visualizing climate
change. It also includes metaphorical use of patterns, what Kepes thought to be
a primary visual source of interconnectedness, in the urban and landscape
design as well as on façade design. Being able to understand things on micro
and macro scale are part of necessary knowledge. On the other hand, and probably
more substantial, is a level of complexity involved in human life that is being
introduced into architecture.
will have to learn to think in terms of relationships rather than objects on
all levels of architectural effort; and that is where ecology is invaluable to
architecture. Ecology teaches us to appreciate the visible in a new way, but it
also teaches us to assume, until the moment we understand the invisible
relationships, that there is more that what we can see. This concept needs to
be included in ecological aesthetics, at least when one discusses architecture.
As a field, architecture has an unlimited potential of creating environments
that propagate beauty as we know it but, at the same time, it has ethical
dimension of creating environments that include a myriad of life functions that
are part of the architectural program. It just seems that beautification of an
architectural object will not be enough anymore; every architectural effort
carries the potential to include life processes and organizational thinking
particular to relational world that ecology offers.
University Nikola Tesla Union
Published on May 24, 2016
G. Kepes, Language of vision (Chicago: P. Theobald, 1967).
A. Vidler, "Architecture's Expanded Field. Finding Inspiration in Jellyfish
and Geopolitics, Architects Today Are Working within Radically New Frames of
Reference," Artforum International 42, no. 8 (2004). | <urn:uuid:315eca7a-bd14-4e75-97cc-31e086bb3372> | {
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There’s a lot of buzz surrounding antioxidants and the free radicals they neutralize, but many don’t actually know what antioxidants and free radicals are. To better understand the importance of an antioxidant-rich diet, you may benefit from learning a bit about what they do.
Atoms and groups of atoms with an odd number of electrons can be created when certain molecules come into contact with oxygen. These are called free radicals and they are highly reactive. If they interact with DNA or cell membranes, they can cause serious damage.
Antioxidants prevent cellular damage because they interact with free radicals and terminate their chain reaction before they can interact with cells and DNA to cause damage. Vitamin E, beta-carotene and vitamin C are some of the most vital antioxidants.
Making sure you get enough of these disease fighters in your diet is essential for keeping cells healthy and your body disease-free. To be sure you’re getting enough, you should consider a vitamin supplement like those available through Dr. Newton’s Naturals. Ultimate Reds contains the antioxidant power to neutralize free radicals and support a healthy immune system.
Don’t wait until you get sick to start pumping your body with orange juice. Keep your body healthy and strong with Ultimate Reds from Dr. Newton’s Naturals. | <urn:uuid:2f41e236-0236-49ff-b206-624a9f5d2604> | {
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Opponents to Common Core State Standards argue that holding students and teachers to what some consider more difficult educational standards just wouldn’t work in Mississippi. Some also feel the federal government’s role in implementing the standards is overextending its reach when it comes to teaching the state’s children.
“I think the real trouble for some is in the way it’s going to be tested,” said Sen. John Polk, R-Hattiesburg, who supports Common Core. “Is it a national program, developed by the federal government and are they going to get involved in the education of our children more than they are?”
But supporters believe the standards will help students develop more analytical thinking skills and hopefully pursue loftier educational goals.
And thus the debate rolls on.
No one is arguing education is a necessary means to improving economic conditions in Mississippi.
No one wants to deny a child the opportunity to have the best possible education.
The argument lies in what the standards entail and whether the standards, created and adopted by a board of governors and educators across the country, will help Mississippi students meet higher educational goals with minimal interference from the federal government.
Sen. Joey Fillingane, R-Sumrall, said he has listened to both sides of the argument.
“But the thing that I always come back to, and until I’m proven wrong about this I’m going to stick with it, is that Common Core is a set or list of teaching goals,” Fillingane said, “like every first-grader ought to be able to read at this level and be able to do this kind of mathematics and science, and the same for on up the ladder.
“The way in which you teach those goals is really left up to the local school districts and the local superintendents and the local teachers. The most important (part of Common Core) is the goals, which is the entire purpose.”
The state adopted the Common Core State Standards in 2010. Local school districts began implementing those goals in 2011-12.
It’s too early to tell whether Common Core State Standards are the magic bullet Mississippi schools need to raise the bar for its students, but what we do know is what we’ve been doing before Common Core hasn’t been working. | <urn:uuid:2410804b-531c-46ca-94c3-4f943eb15c2b> | {
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One of the most delightful things I did as my wife and I raised three children was to take each of them through the book of Proverbs in the Bible.
I started each of them between the ages of 8 to 10, and we talked about “everything under the sun” as they got ready to face a tough world.
When one of my daughters had grown up and was in college, she told me this story. One of the boys she knew had received a $5,000 inheritance. He used it to buy a $10,000 car, rolled it, and then borrowed the money to buy another $10,000.00 car.
“Dad,” she said, “that isn’t wise, is it?”
“Yes!” I said. (Yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, oh yes!)
So some of it seems to have rubbed off.
Here are few pointers on teaching Proverbs to children:
I invited my kids by saying something like this, “Wisdom is the right use of what little we know and what little we have. Others may be smarter or have more things than us. But, if we use what we have wisely, we will do better than someone who knows more or has more but doesn’t use those things very well.”
I may then tell them that as we talk about the Proverbs, we will be talking about how to have friends, how to use our money in the right way, what to do about anger and other issues I know they will be interested in.
It’s good to begin with chapter 10 if the child is under 13 years old.
Explore the larger passages in chapters 1-9 when they can sit still longer.
Keep the time short; 5-10 minutes max unless they are hooked and they want to go on. Keep the number of proverbs few.
Allow these times together to be “jumping off” points that allow the child to explore the meaning on their own or just explore the issues it raises. We don’t have to get a verse completely’right to make progress. We just have to get them to discuss it.
Keep them asking for more.
Kids will ask what a verse means. Draw from your own life when possible. The kids will enjoy it and ,frankly, this will make the parent look smart.
Don’t be afraid to tell kids about the dumb things you did that you learned from, within reason of course. It might even encourage them to tell you about the dumb things they did. Good to know about those. Successes are nice to talk about too.
Stress what the book says; this will make a person wise. That is, it will make them shrewd, smart, savvy or crafty in a good sense of the term. That is the meaning of the Hebrew word that is translated as “subtlety” in chapter one, verse four. As they learn to compete in a larger world, these verses give them a vital edge.
Keep these talks as “lecture free” as possible. Keep them upbeat and positive. This is not the time to remind them to pick up their clothes or be nice to their sister.
I liked the King James Version a lot. The
other versions seem weak and mushy compared to it.
Explaining the book to girls:
One outraged comment was: “It’s a boy book!”
So I had to explain a few things since the book refers to men most of the time. The word “man” is meant to include”“woman.” (Wo-man lit means the “man with the womb.”) I then pointed out”that God speaks here through the voice of a woman as a way of showing that He does not favor one kind of person over another. The girl is the wise one here. Finally, the last chapter talks about the good things a good woman does and that a smart person doesn’t overlook them. That seemed to satisfy her.
Did it work? Yeah, I think so. Our kids gave us very few problems when they became teenagers, for lots of reasons. Some kids are just easy to get along with and they make their parents look good. They also had a great mom and still do. But our conflicts were much less when compared to other families we knew. I think their being “wise” had a part in that.
Please send your articles of faith to’[email protected]. Join us wherever you are on Thursday morning at 8 a.m. for prayer. Thank you for contributing to this column. | <urn:uuid:4f79979b-49fd-4577-9034-d019b186c694> | {
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The Australian Curriculum: English Year Level Description for Year One states:
"Students engage with a variety of texts for enjoyment. They listen to and view multimodal texts in designed to entertain and inform. These include Aboriginal stories, picture books, non fiction and dramatic performances. They participate in shared reading and viewing using a range of literary texts, and recognise the entertaining nature of literature"
"In Year 1, students communicate with peers, teachers and students from other classes."
"Students create a range of imaginative texts including performances and literary retellings."
The Year One learning sequence contained in this post was developed by teacher Claire Keenan from Woodlands PS in our work as a Teacher Development School.
The sequence is linked to The Australian Curriculum - English content descriptions.
You can access The Australian Curriculum by clicking this link:
The sequence refers to the texts "How the Birds Got Their Colours" told by Mary Albert and complied by Pamela Lofts.
Our next Woodlands Australian Curriculum Implementation (WACI) Club is on 19 June from 4pm to 5pm at Woodlands PS. We are focusing on:
Sharing learning sequences and judging standards linked to "Reading and Viewing"
Or please email [email protected]
Craigie Heights WACI Club is on 26 June from 4:00pm to 5:00pm atCraigie Heights Primary School. This WACI Club will focus on sharing learning sequences and assessment processes for "Punctuation Across the Modes." Please register via IPL.
WACI Clubs are FREE events.
Woodlands Teacher Development School now has an app available through the app store for FREE. Download the app to keep up to date with events, information and blog spots in regards to Australian Curriculum: English! Search for Woodlands Teacher Development School in the App Store!
Also follow us on Twitter @WoodlandsTDS
Copyright notice for use of Australian Curriculum material
In regards to the planning tool in this post:
© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority 2013.
This is an extract from the Australian Curriculum.
ACARA neither endorses nor verifies the accuracy of the information provided and accepts no responsibility for incomplete or inaccurate information. In particular, ACARA does not endorse or verify that:
- The content descriptions are solely for a particular year and subject;
- All the content descriptions for that year and subject have been used; and
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Learn something new every day More Info... by email
Monopoly® is a board game which is produced by Parker Brothers, a game company currently owned by Hasbro. In the game, players use dice to move around a board, landing on property which they have the option to purchase and develop. If land is already owned, players must pay rents to the property's owner and developer. The game also includes “Chance” and “Community Chest” squares associated with cards which can influence player's fortunes, forcing them to move to various spaces on the board, requiring them to pay taxes or other fees, or awarding them money.
The history of the game of Monopoly® is quite fascinating. The earliest version of the game was developed by Elizabeth Magie, and it was intended to be an educational illustration of the ways in which landlords abuse tenants with rents. Her version of the game would be familiar to modern players of Monopoly®, although there are some marked differences, of course. Magie's game quickly spread, and was picked up by a number of people, spreading slowly through the United States until it landed in the household of a man named Charles Darrow.
Darrow clearly knew a potentially profitable thing when he saw it, and he developed the famous “Atlantic City” version of Monopoly®, with each square being associated with a location in Atlantic City. He patented the game in 1935, and attempted to sell it to Parker Brothers. The company initially rejected Monopoly® as being too hard to play and too long, later changing their minds, which turned out to be a good decision, since an estimated 750 million people played the game between 1935 and 2007.
Charles Darrow is often credited as the inventor of Monopoly®, although this is technically incorrect, and this has been a source of friction and dispute in the past. Some people argue that the game was clearly a folk game before Darrow got his hands on it, arguing that Parker Brothers essentially stole the rights to the game from its earlier developers, profiting immensely as a result. Others believe that Darrow's refinements and additions to the game were what made it so popular, and that he is entitled to the credit for Monopoly®.
In any case, this two to eight player game has become immensely popular around the world, with numerous regional spinoffs and updated versions designed to reflect changes in the economy. Players struggle for economic supremacy over a Monopoly® board in some region of the world every night, and competition can get fierce. Masters of the game can even play in professional tournaments. | <urn:uuid:bfbd5fb7-ab86-48d0-b9c3-709514d22bf7> | {
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By all accounts, Matthew was a special student. Every day he showed up to school eager to learn and full of questions. Never lacking in energy, Matthew would often get distracted by the littlest thing and sometimes found it difficult to focus. When his teacher began assigning students regular journal requirements that asked students to both listen to the instructor and write at the same time, Matthew became flustered and was unable to process both tasks at once. His frustrations were quickly realized by his teacher, who after some time addressed these concerns by classifying him as a "special education student." This label, given to Matthew in the third grade, cast a shadow over his ability to learn for the remainder of his time in school.
Unfortunately, Matthew's story is not uncommon. Too often we're witnessing students who are in need of additional attention or supplemental learning materials get categorized as "challenged" and placed into specialized classes that don't adequately address the real issues. To be clear, I am certainly not knocking the institution of special education; in many cases, it provides learning-disabled children with the opportunity to find their place in the classroom. It opens doors for students who would otherwise get lost in the fray. It is, by all accounts, a necessary and impactful way of addressing our most challenged students. But it's not always the answer.
Special education currently impacts the lives of millions of American children -- and disproportionately black males. Today, young black men are placed into special education programs at alarming rates. These students are often relegated to less rigorous learning environments that stifle both their educational and social development. Once a child is labeled as challenged, their chances of reaching their full potential become limited. The fact is, these children may be facing real-life challenges that don't necessarily involve the classroom, but they stem from issues at home.
Take, for instance, Matthew. While his teacher noticed his inability to perform two tasks at once and his limited attention span, she assumed that this meant he needed special education. What she failed to realize was that Matthew came from a single-parent home and often arrived to school without a proper breakfast. His abilities in the classroom may have needed some additional attention, but because of lower expectations and a lack of awareness by his teacher, he was misdiagnosed and faced years of ill-fated classroom learning. This systematic failure to properly educate black males is a problem that we must immediately address.
Dozens of recent reports shows that minorities are disproportionately placed in special education programs. Yet, we have yet to address the reasons why. We are failing our kids and these implications are discouraging. A large percentage of the students who are placed into special education can be mainstreamed if diagnosed correctly and taught in ways that meet their needs. Further, our country's failure to properly educate these children contributes to the overall startling statistics relating to black men; everything from drop-out rates to incarceration. While we address the issues in the classroom with the quick fix of special education, the long-term effects speak for themselves.
It's time we start looking at how the system is failing our kids by first implementing early and often screenings. Further, we must remove the stigma from our special education students. Educators must make a commitment to invest in each and every child and find collaborative methods to best meet the needs of special education students while help to instilling self-esteem. They must ask the tough questions and get to the bottom of issues that may stem from problems at home instead of assuming they're problems with one's ability to learn.
Our kids need support not saviors. Without parental involvement, community and school-based support, key legislation and teacher training, these students don't have a chance of living up to their full potential. Let's move towards a positive culture of teaching that embraces all learning styles for all kids. When we begin to treat each and every student as special by accepting and embracing their unique way of learning, we are forgoing the quick-fix of labels and making long term investments in our children's future.
As you can imagine, we will never know the full extent of Matthew's potential. Because he carried the special education label, over the years, his love of learning and his grades diminished. Fortunately, he does have a job, but his path would have been markedly different if he were able to complete his education. Going forward, let's make sure that the thousands of other Matthews out there are well equipped to complete theirs -- even, if necessary, by way of special education -- without the negative labels. | <urn:uuid:20296b4e-b054-43b6-9bb2-87e9e22a33d2> | {
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Nature is brutal and unforgiving.
The big boys of the wild will bully or kill and even eat the smaller ones.
The smaller creatures know this and most of them have evolved their own sneaky and pesky ways of survival.
The Maned Rat a.k.a Crested Rat is one of those little fellas that will go to any length to defend themselves.
The porcupine-like rat turns its quills into lethal weapons by coating them with a plant toxin.
Once a predator like a leopard or jackal approaches, the nocturnal rat will not run or shrink from a fight like many small animals would do. With a more than enough dose of the toxin ouabain in its gunroom, this fluffy ball will stand its ground and hand the foolish predator its excruciating prescription.
Scientists say that the dogs that have attacked the crested rat have suffered everything from temporary paralysis for a couple of weeks to death.
But how does the Crested Rat build its nuclear weapon?
Well, according to NatGeoWild TV, researchers made their discovery after presenting a wild-caught crested rat with branches and roots of the Acokanthera tree, whose bark includes the toxin ouabain.
The rat gnawed and chewed the tree’s bark but avoided the nontoxic leaves and fruit. It then applied the pasty, deadly drool to spiky flank hairs. Microscopes later revealed that the hairs are actually hollow quills that rapidly absorb the ouabain-saliva mixture, offering an unpleasant surprise to predators that attempt to taste the rat. No other animals are known to use a truly deadly external poison, researchers say.
This rat can be found in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Sudan, Somalia, and Ethiopia.
In Uganda, you can find the Crested Rat in the magnificent Kidepo Valley National Park in northern Uganda.
The crested rat poison study appeared August 3 on the website of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. | <urn:uuid:2e008d3e-d630-47e9-8cdd-adfc60adf47c> | {
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In my July 19 column in The Japan Times, I write about how the heck Japan ended up with two separate electrical grids, a topic very much in the news because the incompatibility of the grids greatly exacerbated the power shortage that resulted from the March 11 earthquake and tsunami. (And while we’re on that topic, please check out my updated list of power-saving tips specific to Japan.)
The diagram above shows the dividing line between the grids. All the electricity to the west (left) of the line operates at 60 Hz, while everything to the east (right) runs at 50 Hz. But the truth isn’t quite that neat. What that diagram doesn’t show is that Nagano Prefecture is a kongō chiku 混合地区, or all mixed up. Most of the electricity in the prefecture oscillates at 60 Hz, but the municipalities shown in green on the diagram below, borrowed from Chubu Electric’s website, get their juice at 50 Hz. Now wouldn’t you like to know how the heck that came about? | <urn:uuid:23f39d34-a3a5-497a-95a1-8c61f0d80bdd> | {
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This is a simulation of John Conway's game of life on the surface of a klein bottle. A klein bottle is a shape that you can only embed without intersections in a minimum of four dimensions, and is what happens when you take two Möbius strips (to make a Möbius strip you take a belt or something similar, make a loop out of it, but with a half turn in it so that when you run your finger along the surface of the strip, you go around twice (but on opposite ``sides'' each time) on the strip's one side to return to the original location). The game of life is an example of a cellular automata, and it has these rules:
In this simulation, cells which are alive in the current generation are white, and then if they turn off they turn blue and then fade to black. Cells which alive for many generations in a row, however, turn red after a while. | <urn:uuid:c9a5267d-47af-467e-917f-59a5bbd60e77> | {
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A golden retriever is helping children learn how to read in an Iowa City elementary school. Julie Robinson is principal at Penn Elementary and owner of Sidda, the school’s resident "learning dog."
Robinson says she first brought Sidda to the school two years ago, after seeing research that reading to a dog can boost a child’s confidence level and literacy skills.
"I’ve found that to be true," Robinson said. "Reluctant readers that wouldn’t necessarily read out loud to me, because they’re afraid of making a mistake, will sit down and read out loud to Sidda." Sidda has done more than improve reading skills. Robinson says she’s also effective in calming a child who is in the throngs of a temper tantrum.
"She’s great at de-escalating that because it’s just hard to stay angry and upset when you’ve got this dog looking at you with these big brown eyes…she’s licking your hand and you’re petting her," Robinson said. "It really helps de-escalate things much more quickly." Robinson bought Sidda from a Kansas based therapy dog program called Canine, Assistance, Rehabilitation, Education and Services – or CARES. The dog has proven to be a valuable tool in improving the social behavior of students at Penn.
Robinson provided an example: "We had a little kindergartener last year who would never come in when the bell rang. We told him that Sidda needed to be brushed every day, but she needed to be brushed when the bell rang. We told him if he would come in when the bell rang, he could be the person to brush Sidda." Problem solved. Robinson says administrators and parents have been extremely supportive of the school’s dog.
"She really just creates a nice atmosphere at school," Robinson said. Sidda also spends time in the school’s health office, sitting with children who were injured at recess or are sick and waiting for a parent to come take them home. Other schools in Iowa that have learning dogs include College Community in Cedar Rapids and West Liberty Elementary School. | <urn:uuid:9bfa62da-d93a-4fc5-a8d2-5f56d78cf570> | {
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1974 — June 28th: Vannevar Bush Dies
Scientist and mathematician Vannever Bush was one of the early computer pioneers and played a critical role in war-time technology. Vannevar was responsible for the invention of the “proximity fuse” which detonates a warhead as it becomes close to it’s target. He also played a critical role in the creation of the Manhattan Project, emphasizing to the United States the urgency of developing an Atomic Bomb. Vannevar created an electromechanical difference machine for analyzing targeting differentials during World War II. He was born in Massachusetts on March 11, 1890. | <urn:uuid:e71e4923-8803-4a2a-bfd4-c6cae2f8526b> | {
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Donald Trump ranks as the worst president in United States history, according to a survey of political scientists.
All presidents were ranked in the 2018 Presidents and Executive Politics Presidential Greatness Survey. Experts part of the Presidents and Executive Politics Section of the American Political Science Association were asked to rank each president on a scale of 0-100.
Trump earned the lowest average score – 12.34. Abraham Lincoln finished in first place, with a score of 95.03. George Washington was second, at 92.59. Franklin D. Roosevelt was third, Teddy Roosevelt was fourth and Thomas Jefferson was fifth.
As far as recent presidents, Barack Obama was No. 8, George W. Bush was No. 30, Bill Clinton was No. 13, George H.W. Bush was No. 17 and Ronald Reagan was No. 9.
The bottom five presidents were Andrew Johnson at No. 40, Franklin Pierce at No. 41, William Henry Harrison at No. 42, James Buchanan at No. 43 and Trump at No. 44.
Lincoln topped the list the last time the group conducted a poll in 2014. | <urn:uuid:0803a226-f212-469e-a5d6-f1d19b0d90ef> | {
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I have read that some vegetables need honeybees to pollinate them and that these days there aren't many wild bees around so that led me to a few questions. I was already concerned about not having bees because I have blueberries and fruit trees that will need them but I really didn't even consider vegetables because I thought they were mostly wind pollinated.
What vegetables need bees to pollinate them?
Do you have trouble with bees finding their way to your garden to take care of this task?
There is a house about 3 miles away from me that has a bunch of hives in their yard. Is this close enough for the bees to find me?
Does anyone know of a good starter kit to bring some bees in? I really would rather not do the whole raising bees for honey thing because it seems like a lot to learn when I have so much to learn about raising fruits and vegetables...
jkehl, the hives that are 3 miles away are a possibility as bees will certainly travel looking for nectar. However, if there are plant between their hives and your garden that are more preferred by them they may not make it to your place.
(By the way, many folks that raise bees are always looking for other places to set up a hive or two. You might go meet them and see if they'd consider your garden area as a choice.)
Insect pollination is definitely required for cucurbits (squash, pumpkins, melons, etc) but not necessarily by bees. There are other insects/bugs out there that will help with that job. (Or you can hand-pollinate also! Can be tedious in large gardens though!) By the way, some newer varieties of cucumbers are self-pollinating ("Jazzer" is one of them) and I grow a variety that is parthenocarpic called "Little Leaf" that doesn't rely on insects for pollination.
Tomatoes and peppers don't rely on insects for pollinating, so you're good to go there. Same is true for beans and eggplant.
Before I get too long-winded let me also just suggest that to bring in the pollinators, be they bees or other helpful insects it is always good to plant flowering plants to lure them in and allow them a place to set up house-keeping. Many local weeds/wildflowers allowed to grow around your garden will attract a diverse population of pollinators. Many of them prefer plants that have smaller-petaled flowers such as Queen Anne's Lace and many other plants in the Umbelliferae family, too. (Might wanna check my spelling on that big word!).
Thanks Shoe. I was thinking about approaching them to see if they'd place a hive at my place. I remember we had a hive a neighbor kept at our place when I was a kid. I am planning to plant a lot of flowers around to attract them, but I'm kind of right in the middle of a forest up on a hill so I was a little worried that they would find me. I checked out a few books from the libraries on bee keeping but quickly got overwhelmed. So I'll aproach the neighbors first. They don't have a very big yard and it has probably 20 hives in it so they may be agreeable.
Be sure to let them know you don't use Sevin dust and the like in your garden as that will kill the bees. And if you have lots of flowering trees nearby (tulip poplar comes to mind) that might entice them to bring you a hive, too!
Hope you check back in and let us know how it goes. It sounds like it would be a win-win situation for everyone.
There wasn't much in the way of flowering trees there when I started. 99% of the trees are Hickory, Oak or Pine. I did find one row of what I believe are flowering dogwoods that must be 30 plus years old along the property line. Everything had grown up around them but I've opened them up now and taken off all the vines so hopefully they'll come back.
I've put in around 25 fruit trees though and 100 blueberry bushes so the bees should have plenty to keep them busy.
I don't know anything about your part of the country, but my husband and I are going to try to attract some mason bees by drilling some holes in scrap lumber. The lumber yard gave us a couple of pieces of scrap 4" x 6" fir, into which we will drill holes 3 and 1/4" deep, about an inch apart with a 5/16" drill bit. Then we'll put them up around the yard near where we are planting fruit trees and berry bushes. I saw plenty of native bees in the yard last year, so I think we'll be able to encourage some to come and stay.
Mason bees are what lived here before we imported European honey bees. You can mail order them in their ready-made homes, or you can make the homes and see if they move in. ("Build it and they will come.")
One of several upsides: they are docile and rarely sting, a plus if you are sensitive to bee stings or if you have kids or pets.
I may look at doing that. I have tons of scrap lumber because there was an old mobile home and two tumble down sheds on the land when I bought it. My wife's not thrilled with the idea of honeybees and informed me I should 'keep them away from her'. Plus I just read in the paper today that a lot of honey bees in the U.S. are dying this year for some as yet unexplained reason.
Just did a quick Google search on Mason Bees and there is a lot I need to read... I wonder if they'd like the hot humid climate down here. Seems like they're native to the Pacific Northwest.
We have some type of ground bees here in middle TN - I thought they were mason bees, but guess not? Whatever they are, they aren't aggressive. I swell something fierce if I get stung or bit by just about any critter, so I'm pretty cautious - these guys have never given me a moment's trouble, even though they tend to build their tunnels very near our larger pond and some shade gardens I have installed. They love the crab apple when it's in bloom, and I figure they're probably helping out in my veggie garden when I'm not looking ;o)
If you have sourwood trees, honey bees will be happy and so will the beekeepers if you convince them to set up a hive for you. (*they* say sourwood honey is very good ;o)
Hmm wonder if those are mason bees. I may just wait and see what comes around this season because my blueberries and fruit trees won't need pollination this year anyway. I was mainly worried about veges for this year and I guess I can try the hand pollination thing if nothing shows up.
I was the kind of kid that caught or got stung by every insect out there and I never remember seeing anything that looks like the mason bee pictures I see online. Of course that was in the midwest so maybe they're down here in the south. If fireants pollinated I'd be set!
I'm not sure what sourwood is like but I don't think I have any. 99% of my trees are pine, oak or hickory. There are a very few cherry, dogwood and what I think is black locust but judging by how few of them there are and where I found them, I think they were planted by some previous owner.
Please becareful where you order bees from, and the kinds that are out there. Check with your state's agricultural department on beekeepers, and they can help you. Some places do not check for the Africanized bee gene, which is dominate.
Horseshoe, it is not as much as beekeepers looking for places to put their hives as much as farmers renting the hives. Bees count for a third of our vegetable/fruit supply, and because of low wild bee populations, renting hives has become a necessity. Mites are the biggest reasons of low bee counts.
If you get a chance to visit a apiary, get some honey. Do not get just the common clover honey, but honey from orchards and such. I got honey from wildflowers, and some from fruit orchards, and man that is good. I have people tell me to only buy local honey to build up a resistance to local allergies.
Honeybees are disappearing in 22 states so far. Also Spain and Poland are reporting massive hive die off. If this continues with the honeybees, I wonder what is happening to the other types of bees. So far I have seen nothing to report that they are disappearing. But then it is still winter and I guess we will find out this summer. If all the honeybees and other bees disappear, then we are real bad trouble. I read or hear so many times about people finding swarms of bees in the spring and killing them. I wont to scream at them that they are killing themselves. If the bees go, then the human population will not be far behind. So if you see a swarm this spring, call a beekeeper to get them. To find out who keeps bees in your area contact your local extension agent. They will be glad to put you in touch with one. LIZ
Thanks for the information goldeneagle and LC2sgarden. It's funny but until a year or so ago I never gave a thought to bees or what they do. I'm sure that most people are this way. Until it interferes with their daily life in some way (ie food prices go up or there's a food shortage) they just don't think about it. Unless it shows up on the network nightly news.
I wonder why they don't pick up on this. It sounds like a news thing, easy to scare folks with. They probably figure it's too hard for most people to connect bees with food production since most people don't see food produced anymore.
Well I was definetly worried about nothing as far as bees go. With the warm-up we've had the last few days, there are bees and other winged insects all over the place in my garden. I've seen things I think are mason bees, very large bumble bees/yellow jackets and wasps. Not much in terms of honey bees but lots of them were doing what looked like pollinating behavior, Buzzing around flowers. It has been very dry here so I was watering some this week and all sorts of them came around to drink the water.
Bees are disapearing all over the world...it's called Colony Colapse disorder or CCD and its a real problem for the whole global community. A Study that was done has led many scientist to believe the increase in GPS systems and Cell phones are to blame. It seems the cellular and GPS signals interfier with the bees ability to find their way home, so they get lost and die.
Cell phones or fruit and veggies...We may have to make a choice some day.
If anyone wants to know more http://www.nowpublic.com/bee_disappearance_ccd_and_cell_phones_scientists_believe_a_link_exists
GardenChick1982 wrote:A Study that was done has led many scientist to believe the increase in GPS systems and Cell phones are to blame. It seems the cellular and GPS signals interfier with the bees ability to find their way home, so they get lost and die.
It could be extraterrestrials abducting our bees.
My point is that I wouldn't consider that science as it is hypothesis with no significant supporting evidence. It's wild speculation.
There is evidence that mites, viruses and other pathogens are decimating the honey bee population. There are probably other factors but I'm highly skeptical that cellular and GPS signals are responsible for the decline of the honey bee.
There is evidence that mites, viruses and other pathogens are decimating the honey bee population. There are probably other factors but I'm highly skeptical that cellular and GPS signals are responsible for the decline of the honey bee.
Actually there is quite a bit of evidence that mites are destroying the bees. Has been for several years. When you find the mites in the hives on dead bees and those mites are carrying a virus that does in fact kill bees.Thats pretty remarkable evidence.
I did'nt know bees used GPS. What mode of communication does GPS use? Is it electromagnetic or what? : )
With CCD there are no bees left to study...thats the diffrence. They just dont return to the hive. And a paracite would not effect bees world wide and yes bees do use the magnetic poles of the earth just like a compass a few kind of migration birds have had some trouble coping with some of our new techniologies too
There are lots of local things that kill bees but CCD is a bit different... Its has spread world wide and it's the apparent disapearance of so many bees around the world that has scientist baffled
GardenChick1982 wrote:With CCD there are no bees left to study...thats the diffrence. They just dont return to the hive.
That's the same type of rhetoric that is used by UFO conspiracy nuts.
And crackpot science (aka pseudoscience) of the paranoid delusional; the lack of evidence, is evidence.
Using the similar rhetoric that you are using. Since honeybees are being abducted by aliens there is no evidence of what is happening to them; therefore the lack of evidence is evidence that they are being abducted by aliens.
GardenChick1982 wrote:And a paracite would not effect bees world wide
False. You have obviously never heard of a pandemic. Pandemics often affect a worldwide population.
The Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 killed about 1% of the human population. It is thought that pandemics may have nearly wiped out the human species. One of the factors that may have caused the dinosaurs to go extinct is pandemics. Often in nature there is a domino effect; like a meteor strikes the earth causing large amount of deaths, triggering volcanic eruptions and tidal waves which cause large amounts of deaths, the immediate effect would be global warming, the midterm effect would be global cooling, and a long-term effect would be global warming; all of which can make conditions excellent for opportunists viruses and bacteria to wreak havoc.
Disease is a part of the life cycle. It's elementary science, a hard and tested fact.
Example/analogy. One of the biggest killers of humans is mosquitoes and malaria. It's a worldwide problem. It's largely been kept at bay in Western civilization with the likes of chlorinated water, land management and insecticides. However it demonstrates that even a host that carries parasites and other diseases can have a devastating effect worldwide on populations.
Parasites have had a devastating effect on man worldwide; so why would you think that the same could not be true for honeybees?
GardenChick1982 wrote:bees do use the magnetic poles of the earth just like a compass a few kind of migration birds have had some trouble coping with some of our new techniologies too
You fail to understand that the type of magnetism that is used by the magnetic poles is vastly different than the type of magnetism that is used in GPS and cellular technology.
For the most part the magnetic poles are standing waves (static magnetism). Whereas the magnetism that is used by radio technology is alternating. For the most part radio technology does not disturb the magnetic poles; if it did then compresses would not work and migratory species would be in big trouble. For the most part migratory species are doing good, and for the most part, compasses work; so that flies in the face of the pseudoscience that you're trying to erroneously connect alleged radio wave interference with magnetic navigation.
GardenChick1982 wrote:There are lots of local things that kill bees but CCD is a bit different... Its has spread world wide and it's the apparent disapearance of so many bees around the world that has scientist baffled
Scientists for the most part are not baffled. Colony Collapse Disorder is largely if not entirely because of parasitic mites and viruses and other pathogens that are often transmitted by the mites. Pesticides are thought to be a contributing factor.
The way that honeybees reproduce limit their genetic diversity which can make them more vulnerable to parasites and viruses and such. Their lack of genetic diversity often means the gene pool doesn't have mutants that have defenses against mutant viruses and such. Their limited gene pool makes them less able to adapt.
The links that you gave are pseudoscience and have an anti-Semitic (aka anti-Corporation/technology) leanings. The links you gave seem to be largely motivated by politics; rather than science. Learn from history; pseudoscience, ignorance, hate and paranoia have often been used as a political agenda to seize power.
GardenChick1982 wrote:Most other bee problems would be relatively localized
This obviously isn't a typical bee problem. Pandemics by definition are widespread and often even worldwide.
Often pandemics are triggered by many common phenomenon aligning itself in an unusual opportunistic way (much like a perfect storm scenario).
GardenChick1982 wrote:...and/or happing much sooner with the time line such toxins where introduced
False. Pandemics have occurred even before there was mankind. Pandemics are nothing new. Study some science and history.
If cell and GPS signals were interfering with honey bee navigation it would be very easy to prove. If there was anything to allegations that cell and GPS signals are interfering with honey bee navigation then why haven't these "scientists" given us any hard evidence? That seems to indicate that they are advocating a political agenda and or have some other ulterior motive.
It should be really easy to prove. They set up cell transmitters towers in the middle of farmers fields don't they? Then why not set up honey bee hives at varying distances from cell transmitters and run a chart to correlate the productivity of the hive from the distance from the cell tower; if the hypothesis that you are advocating this true the statistics should obviously support it.
It could also be done in lab conditions. A warehouse could be used. A warehouse could be screened in; to block out outside radio transmissions. A honeybees hive and flowers could be located in the warehouse so the honeybees could go about their natural activities. A transmitter could be located in the warehouse and it could be used to simulate the typical cell phone and GPS frequency and power. The transmitter could be randomly turned on and off and if the cell phone and GPS transmissions interfered with the honey bee population it should be almost immediately evident and should be easy to prove statistically. If the hypothesis that you are advocating had any substance to it hive productivity should drop dramatically or cease entirely when the transmitters are turned on.
Most farmers are not dummies. I find that most farmers are pretty smart when it comes to nature. I suspect with all the cell phones towers that are being set up in farm fields; that farmers would know it and would be able to prove that statistically if there was any dramatic reduction in honey bee productivity in relation to cell phone transmissions.
Sorry but what you are advocating seems to be some sort of antiestablishment political agenda; that is probably from flunkies that have not been able to make it in the real world scientific community.
Honeybees are loyal to one crop - if there are trees in bloom, they willk work those blossoms until the end before looking for another source. If other trees then come into flower, they will work those.
If you have lots of wildflowers in your area and no trees are in bloom, the bees will decide whether they prefer the wildflowers, or whatever is growing in your garden. They will not necessarily work both at the same time. However, bees from different hives may choose to work different flowers - it depends on what their needs are. Bees collect both nectar and pollen.
Bumble bees will work different flowers at the same time - so for backyard gardens, it is actually better to encourage bumble bees, rather than honeybees. Native bees, including Mason Bees are also great in backyard gardens, they are not agressive unless molested. I have two mason bee nests.
The person who has bees working in the ground --- they are probably bumble bees. Bumble bees come in different sizes.
I think this is true: If you keep bees in your backyard they must be registered with the State. Doesn't matter if it's one hive or many. Honeybees will protect their home aggessively - they are not pets. You will need special clothing and equipment, plus a sterile area to process the excess honey.
Having hives within three miles of your home is a "good thing" wish I had some nearby as I rarely see honeybees here :(
I don't know if that's true or not. I heard a theory that seems to suggest that part of the reason that the honeybees are on the decline is because diverse wildlife and diverse crops are on the decline. The theory goes that in order for honeybees to have a healthy immune system they need to have a diverse diet to get a wide array of nutrients so they can produce their own antibiotics and antivirals and serums and such to have a healthy immune system. The theory goes that since honeybees have a less diverse diet they are more vulnerable to parasites, bacteria, molds, funguses, and viruses.
It's much like the poisonous dart/arrow frogs have to have a certain type of ant in their diet before they will produce the poison that protects them. If the poisonous dart frogs don't get their naturals food supply they will stop producing the poison. Since most domesticated poisonous dart frogs are fed insects that are not their natural food source, they become nonpoisonous.
Ignoramus - It has been many years since I have kept bees, so it's quite possible that new studies have found old ones to be no longer valid.
At the time I kept bees there were no mites that shortened their life. The reason I gave them up was because at the time I lived in South Florids and I knew sooner or later "killer bees" would show up and I was not prepared to deal with them. Soon thereafter, the mite problems started to show up, and more recently colony decline.
No doubt a combination of pesticides, mites, and your suggestion of diverse crops being unavailable, has added to the burden honeybees have to endure.
Over here in UK there is worries that our bee's are in decline and there appears to be several reasons.
1, there is a parasite from overseas that has began to attack the hives by burying there eggs into the back of the bees and the grubs feed on the bees and kill them.
2, People are using too many pesticides to protect the crops / flowers / fruit etc and this in turn has a devastating effect on our bees and other pollinating insects.
3, our climate is changing at such a fast rate that the bees and plants cant compete, the bees are out doing their job by day and the Temp falls rapidly evening that some types of bees are killed off, very wet weather last few years and shorter seasons are all being put forward as a reason for the decline of all out bees.
there is now talk that some of our native birds are in decline too and over use of pesticides are being targeted as a main cause as the pesticides get taken in by the adult birds and this is passed onto the chicks who cant survive with the chemicals used.
I know this must be a factor but I also think there must be more reasons due to our changing world.
Experts no tell us that IF we loose our bee's, the world will starve in about 10 -15 years as crops wont get pollinated and we could never hand pollinate fast enough to feed a district let a lone a country or a world, so I think here, there is a lot of rubbish being talked but, there is also a lot of genuine real known causes for our decline in our bee and insect population and maybe we should all stop and question what we do, has what we do got a cost to something else, but that wont come about till we are awakened to the real facts and we see with our own eyes that for years, we have ignored natures warnings.
WeeNel - I am so sorry to read about the plight of bees in my native Country (I was born and raised in Cornwall.)
When I was a child there was little, if any, pesticides used in the growing of crops. Our garden was always alive with native bumble bees. They were so tame, I could stroke their furry bodies without fear.
It is true, that without bees to pollinate our food, there would be very few choices left. Even the animals we use for food eat plants that require pollination.
Honeybee NC I am sure that IF we loose our pollinating insects there will definitely be a huge problem with food crops and our garden plants /trees / flowers etc, when you think of fields of corn, wheat, veg etc, no bees or other pollinators due to whatever reason, then yes, I do think there is a problem about to happen IF were not careful, I am no expert just reading articles is enough for me.
You were raised in a beautiful part of the country and must have had an ideal childhood as even now there are still loads of farms, open country and forests but, it is changing and folks say not for the best, we watched a TV program not to long ago re the changing population and lack of property for local people who live in the country, work the land yet cant afford to buy property in the areas they were brought up in as all the homes are bought up be high earners from the cities who want to have holiday homes in the small populated areas, they don't contribute to these areas as the fill there big cars with food, wine etc, come and stay for 2 weeks and are off again, it's a hard situation to fix but must be hell for any local young people who want to stay / work in the area they have known all there lives, all this a far distant way from bees eh. hope you still have wonderful memories of your life in Cornwall an area where the true/ real English gardens were an everyday sight. Best regards and good luck. WeeNel.
WeeNel - Corn doesn't actually need bees for pollination. I suspect wheat and other grains don't either. Tomatoes and peppers don't. These, and perhaps other vegetables, are wind pollinated. I read recently that peas and beans self-polinate. So, even if honeybees disappear, there will still be food crops, just not as many to pick from.
Ants help pollinate in a limited way.
In my own garden, I see lots of bumble and native bees, but rarely a honey bee.
Yes, I do miss Cornwall, especially the long walks along the cliffs.
I'm glad you pointed that out, Honeybee, I've been debating on whether to add my two cents worth; I never like seeing "experts say" things that could be misinterpreted as doom and gloom.
But yes, you're correct, there are many foods that don't rely on insect pollination and you've touched on some of them. Nearly all grains...wheat, oats, barley, even rice, are self pollinizing.
Tomatoes, snap beans, soybeans, lime/butterbeans, peas, etc are self-pollinated. Care might be taken with peppers that might tend to more easily cross pollinate than tomatoes thereby changing your variety/seed stock, but that is easily dealt with. Lettuces are also self pollinizing.
I would be concerned about many of the Brassica's though, needing insects. And many "fruits", referring to fruit trees and brambles, etc, not the age-old topic of "tomato is a fruit". *grin
Squashes are an easy plant to hand pollinate; it would be tedious for the massive farms to take on the job though but ants and other insects might help out during a bee shortage, eh?
And potatoes also come to mind, never reliant on flowers or insects to begat a crop.
Shoe (off to pull some Chinese cabbage in this wonderfully cool weather!~)
I have to admit, I don't actually sit up at night and loose sleep over what might survive if we don't have pollinating insects and ofcource wheat might self pollinate along with a few other things that we use in the food chain however, IF the problem of over use of chemicals, killing off a lot of pollinating insect which in turn means a lot of dead birds and other living things, it is worth considering what we would have to pay for food IF farmers had to hire lots of people to hand pollinate the food most city people rely on daily for family meals, and I really don't want to live with 10 acres of ground where my flowerbeds are bare, my poppies don't make seeds and my indoor grown tomato, cucumbers etc cant get pollinated naturally because we, the humans managed to kill off all the insects we had working for our benefit since the world began, BUT, then again, I could easily hand pollinate all my own stuff and make faces at all the people who really didn't know we were killing off the bees and insects which in turn affects other species who eat insects but hey what the heck, were all looking out for ourselves anyway, ha, ha, ha, did that get to the heart strings or what. Anyway, on a serious note, I do think we have to consider what we do today will MAYBE effect our future generations tomorrow. I really do think we over pollute the rivers, seas, air etc, so maybe we need to look at how to change things a bit, even if it's just to make us feel good. Happy gardening. WeeNel.
Horseshoe - I didn't know lettuce was self-pollinating. As a past bee keeper, I've learned which plants/trees keep these ladies happy. For instance, orange trees don't need bees, but a larger fruit set is obtained with them. I suspect this is true for other fruit trees, but I only kept bees in South Florida, so didn't pay much attention to other fruit trees as most of them don't grow there. As far as I know, other tropical fruit trees are not reliant upon honeybees, either.
Quoting:There are no honey bees native to the Americas. In 1622, European colonists brought the dark bee (A. m. mellifera) to the Americas, followed later by Italian bees (A. m. ligustica) and others. Many of the crops that depend on honey bees for pollination have also been imported since colonial times
Thanks, Honeybee...good to know that about oranges. At least we won't have a major shortage of those! Yummy! :>)
Yep, like you, I've heard production is better when bees are available for most fruit trees. I thought apples were dependent on them but I suppose a quick Google will tell me for sure. (Maybe I keep thinking of apple blossom honey, one of my favorites!)
It would be interesting to find out which fruit trees are indigenous to North America and were around before the honey bees came. Hmmm, maybe that's a good project for me to work on this winter sometime.
Shoe (cold here, WET, and our first frost/freeze tonight; hope you have your things covered)
Horseshoe - I don't know if apple or pear trees are dependant on honeybees. During the years I had honeybees in South Florida, there was no internet to answer such questions. Sad to say; I'm allergic to oranges and all other citrus fruit :(
It's supposed to get into the low 30's here tonight, but because we are on top of the hill, I don't think it will freeze here. My daughter lives at the bottom of the hill, and she has already had one night of frost. We did have to throw another blanket on the bed last night!
For anyone who would like to attract bees, plant salvia! I have a big patch of May Night Salvia and a beginning patch of pink. The bees hang around them ALL day long. Also, many people are afraid of getting stung but as long as you don't make any threatening moves, there's no worry. I can't work out in the sun so have to get out very early in the morning to weed flowerbeds, pick vegetables, etc. Many of the flowers in my butterfly beds (including the salvias) are loaded with bees that time of day. I work right along side of them and have never been stung (I've been gardening for 30+ years). Also Jeff, I'm not exactly sure where Rome, GA is but sourwood trees do grow here in Vicksburg, MS. They are a beautiful tree and honey bees do love them. The tree is hard to miss this time of year--they turn a beautiful shade of red and have clusters of tiny seeds hanging from them. The leaves are oblong.
what can I do to ensure that if I build a bee habitat, that the pesky wasps/yellow jackets won't move in? I see two or three yellow jackets a day, and my garden's not even in full swing yet.
(reason I ask is that hubby is VERY allergic to bee stings) he's a mailman, and just the other day, he reached in to put mail in a curbside mailbox, and there was apparently a nest underneath the box that he didn't see. He got stung and had to race home to take some Benadryl (we live on his mail route, thank heavens).
so, if I say to him, 'darlin', we need to build a bee box, I don't want him to freak out. :)
Are you planning to plant flowers to attract them or just put out a bee box? If you put out flowers, you could plant the well away from your house. My flowerbed is right next to our patio but even when hubby and I sit out on our swing, the bees never bother us--they're too preoccupied with the flowers.
For those of you who have expressed interest in keeping bees:
Raising honeybees is a specialized occupation and should not be taken on unless their care is thoroughly understood. They must also be registered with the State in which you live and have to be inspected by the State once a year. A yearly permit is required. Honeybees will sting any animal (dog, cat, human, etc) that comes close to their home.
Native bees, on the other hand, are easy to keep. Simply purchase the necessary equipment online, set it up according to directions, and the bees will do the rest. I have a native bee nest under the eave of my porch.
I've never figured out where bumble bees nest. There are bumble bee nest boxes that can be purchased, but I am doubtful they work. I wish I knew where the bumble bees that visit our garden over-winter so I could make an effort to protect their nest.
As long as bees find food (nectar and pollen) close to their home, they will stay in the vicinity. I don't think native bees require nectar, but am not sure about this.
Bees are not inclined to sting unless molested. However, I've had wasps sting me without provocation!
honeybee, about 10 years ago i suddenly had lots of bumbles show up in my garden. i worked with them everyday with no problem. my husband went to change the propane tank on our mobile home one day and got stung 4 times. apparently they were nesting in the wall of the trailer and the vibration upset them. after that i had to change the tank and never got stung. the garden was only about 20 feet away. my great grandmother said that bumbles like to stay close to they're food source so watch early and late and maybe you can track down the nest.
flsusie - I've never been stung by a bumble bee, but have read that the sting is very painful. I've tried to hunt down bumble bee nests by watching where the bees come and go from, but have never succeeded. There is a large wooded area behind our property, so I suspect they nest back there. If our winter is very wet, we see very few bumble bees the following summer. Because they nest in the ground, I suspect that some times their home gets flooded.
I could be wrong but here in UK, you need a queen bee to get your bee's to stay in the HIVE, the Hive being the home where the bee's feed, work and care for all the baby bees the queen will produce, she needs nursery bee's and soldier bees to guard the hive and worker bee's to bring the pollen to the hive to feed all the other bee's and baby ones, well that is a simplistic way the hives work but you also have to be responsible when keeping bee's as the last thing you want or are allowed to do is cause your bee's to swarm, worry or upset the neighbors, or by fighting with other types of bee's insects or even pets, so there is more to bee keeping than just sending off for a few bee's to use as pollinators for your garden,
I would get a book, video or info pack re bee keeping before you decide IF you a) have the time and b) do you really want to introduce a hive that will end up with hundreds of bees in it on your garden. Yes there are dozens of different types of Bee's, they are solitary bees who bury into the ground and lay 1 egg then leave, there are honey bees, there are bumble bees just to name a few but you need to decide as not all those bees live in a hive where you keep them in the one area, most will just up and leave as there is no structure to their lives and don't live in groups. good luck. WeeNel.
Quoting:the bumble bee does not have a barbed stinger so can sting more then once.
I didn't know that.
Female Honeybees only sting once, then die. The queen honeybee has a stinger, but she usually reserves hers for stinging other queens to death. Male honeybees - called drones - have no stinger, but the chances of you ever seeing one is zero to none - unless of course, you are a beekeeper. The only thing drones do is mate with one queen bee - then they die!
Interesting thought's, my personal experience is I've never been Stung by a Bumblebee. I play with them constantly in the Garden's, hold them on my Finger, Transfer them from the Hyssop to the Russian Sage, and was not even sure they had a Stinger, I Do miss the Honeybee's though.
I contacted President Obama about the Disappearence of the Honeybee's, and was infotmed by the White House that 12 Billion Dollars was allocated into the Private Investigation into the Disappearance of the Honeybee in New Jersey.
Stung by a bumblebee here. At least it was a large beelike creature. A few years ago one got tangled in my hair and without thinking, I reached up to comb it out with my fingers. It stung on the tip of the ring finger and was incredibly painful. My mind can still feel the pain. OTOH, I can walk among bees, yellowjackets, wasps, etc and have no problems.
We also have boring bees here. They bore into wooden structures. I suspect they are a pollinator but have never seen them pollinate anything but holes in wood.
Quoting:Monsanto Round-up Ready Crops, killed the Honeybees...
I would not be surprised if it were found to be true.
I avoid foods that contain GMOs as much as possible.
If you feel the same way I do, please do what you can to get our Government to have GMO listed on labels. GMOs have been banned in Europe. If it becomes impossible to avoid them in food in this country, I may have to move back to England!
they usually get people to sign petitions for legislation relating to first amendment issues, but I've seen other petitions there as well. Perhaps if we as a community start getting the word out as a true grass roots, we can get some progress...
Honeybee, I e-mail the President regularly and am very active in signing petition's against GMO's and am very vocal here in my community. To date the President has allocated 12 billion dollars into private research into the disappearance of Honeybees. Some of you may want to check a site I visit regularly to get involved, right now California has a state referendum to label GMO's on this site as a petition that anyone can sign, the site is Organic Consumer's Organization.
I am sooo Sorry, the name is the OCA, Organic Consumer's Association, from what I understand Honeybee, they are voting on it again. I am getting ready to Eat I promise I'll give you some updates tonight. Just got through making some Atlantic Cod Tempura with chipotle cream, and mac and cheese and it's calling my name, and a little ratatouille on the side...
People internationally are growing in their attempt to stop the Production of GMO, from what I understand there are 17 European nation's currently involved in suing the company's responsible, like BASF, Monsanto, Bayer.
Honeybee, I wrote the President an e-mail about Honeybee's disappearing in my garden's even though I'm surrounded by farmland, what shocked me was he responded. I can send you a copy of the e-mail if you'd like, I have mixed emotion's about this Government that we live under, but I feel most of them are used car salesmen, and will tell you anything to take a dime from your pocket. http://organicconsumers.org/monsanto/index.cfm
This is the California bill for labeling in of GMO...it would be the first in the Country since 1996...
I wanted to tell you , this year I went a little crazy about getting Pollinator's to my Garden, so I actually sat at a garden supply store with flower's abloom everywhere and watched which one's had Bee's, there were two, Hyssop, and Russian Sage, my garden's are full of them now...
I only had a few Honeybees this year, better than last year though only one a baby it died on my finger weak and sick, but the Bumblebee's were everywhere.
It's true I got a little excited when I heard the Bees buzzing about, it transformed me to a youthful gaze planting garden's with my mother, I watched the bees going from Flower to Flower on the cucumber vines, and was peculiar at the onset of tiny bees transferring pollen, that I had never seen before, hopefully I will attract more Honeybees next year.
I've found my success in marigolds, rosemary, bipinnatus cosmos, sunflowers (found 5 bees on just 1 flower) and common perennial bulbs and corms like daffodils and crocuses. Your success must keep you going year after year.
One year I sowed crimson clover as a cover crop, and when it bloomed it was covered with honeybees. I hated having to turn it under. If you allow some of your vegetables/herbs to go to seed, you will see lots of bees, including honeybees, bumble bees and tiny native bees. Fireflies also hang out in vegetables that I allow to go to seed.
Bloomfly22 - thank you for being so "bee friendly."
Clovers are just wonderful for bees. I had white flowered clover mixed into my lawn, and when i was going to spray with herbicide, my lawn was buzzing with bees! I plan to incorporate some clover in with my moss verbena to make a butterfly and bee garden.
If you have the space I would recommend to you to start learning all you can about the Bee business. The bees are facinating to watch and they work so hard for you so you can have a great supply of food. I think the Honey alone would benifit anyone, its so healthy for you. Check out the You Tube videos on Bee Keeping. If I had the space I would do it myself.
jwgold - the first thing to consider before adding a bee hive to ones garden is: "Where will the bees find food?" A few vegetables and flowers in ones garden is not enough to support even a single hive of bees.
If there are orchards within two miles or so, then honeybees can make a living while the trees are in bloom. After that, they must either sustain themselves on the honey already collected, or move away. This is why professional bee keepers move their bees from crop to crop.
When I lived in South Florida, I was fortunate to be in an area that had many plants or trees in bloom year round. I cannot say the same for this area, and would not consider this a good location for a beehive.
As mentioned in one of my posts above, I recommend having native bee nests.
I have always wanted to keep honeybees, but i am afraid of the sting, and as HBNC stated, there are not enough food sources in my area for them to really thrive.
I get out in my little back yard garden pretty early each morning, and i must say that watching the bees at work is mesmerizing. Now that the squashes and pumpkins are flowering, I see several types of bees at them. It is funny to see them circle the huge flower, land and work the stamen/pistil(?). Many of them take a short break,just sitting still inside the bloom for several moments...then emerge all dusted in gold. It never fails to make me laugh as the bee flies off all lazy and pollen-drunk to the next job on her route.
Talk about dedication, I read that a bee will wear out her wings before her life expectancy is reached. Sadly There is no bee retirement plan..the same source also says that when she can no longer do her job, the worker bee is denied entrance to the hive, and she just dies. Aahh well, that's nature.
scarletbean - it's always good to find another honeybee admirer ^_^
In the garden this morning there were large and small bumble bees, two strains of honeybees, several native bees, a wasp, and two tiny butterflies. All were enjoying the pollen/nectar of the various herbs currently in bloom, especially the Greek oregano.
I like your photo. I know how hard it is to capture a honeybee in action!
I read some articles blaming a combination of Varroa mites AND insect viruses for Colony Collapse Disorder.
Looking around a little more, I see articles blaming almost anything you can think of. I'm guessing that the jujry is still out.
Speaking of Brassicas like broccoli going to seed, here are some heirloom Italian "leaf broccoli" in bloom after overwintering. Our few bees did like it in early spring when not much erlse was in bloom!
Brassica oleracea var. 'Spigariello'
Easybake - it's hard to tell the size of the bees in your photos, but if they are smaller than honeybees, then I suspect they are some kind of native bee. There are so many native bees, I don't know which are which. I have several kinds that visit my garden - ALL are welcome.
dervish2 - when you refer to bees falling asleep on the Agastache, I assume you mean bumble bees. This is normal. When I go into the garden early in the morning, I frequently see sleeping bumble bees. Honeybees will, on occasion, sleep in the gaden overnight, but their normal habit is to return to their hive.
Bumble bees nest in the ground, so yes, chemical sprays could affect their life cycle. You might want to do some research into bumble bee nests and supply suitable homes for them on your own property. If I remember correctly, only the queen bumble bee survives the winter. She has to start from scratch each spring to build a small colony of bumble bees.
I'm fortunate to have lots of bumble bees present in the garden. I assume they nest in the nearby woods.
A new plant I used this summer was borage. It has a lovely blue flower that is actually edible and is beautiful in a salad. The bees, both honey and bumble were all over these blooms. The leaves of the plant are also edible. They taste like a mild cucumber, but the leaves are fuzzy. The first leaves that open are not as fuzzy and can be used in a salad. All my borage seeds germinated easily and it grows best in full sun. I will try to post a picture tomorrow.
Mornin' bee lovers! I too have hyssop, the anise type which has lovely lavender blue fluffy flowers in a kind of long puff(plus the anise/licorice scent), they attract tons of bees. Right next to it is some catnip, the plain type with white flowers. The bees AND little white butterflies are on these flowers all day long! I counted 12 butterflies and 8 bees, both bumble and honey one time. It is only a small plant, maybe a foot high and 9 inches in width. Next year, both of these will play a larger role in the garden. Funny the cats are kind of non committal about the catnip plant, but if i pick it they are just silly over it.
Zinnias! i see bumble bees like crazy on my regular ole zinnias. I love the sleepy ones in the early morning, especially when compared to the busy honeybees. I imagine the honeybees have great disdain for their larger out all night cousins, the bumblebees. "humph! SOME bees have to WORK for a living!" I guess the bumblebees just give them the bee equivalent of an eye roll. Tee hee!
Another big hit with the bumblebees...red pentas.
I see bumbles come to my zucchini plants more often than I thought. I have zucchini popping up all over the plants, to many that i know what to do with lol! The bees really worked hard with my plants, that's for sure.
Yep, bfly22...it seems any kind of squash blossom gets the bees out of bed in a hurry! I like to see the fuzzy bees dusted with pollen doing lazy circles around the zukes, pumpkins and yellow squash. Here in Tn I still have 1 zuke plant, but i doubt it will produce anymore this late in our season. In fact, it was cold enough to put a bumblebee out of commission yesterday, it was just laying on a zinnia. I brought it in in a pitcher, let it get warm til it got sunny out. It was interesting to watch it revive and have a sip of sugarwater. As soon as it got outside in the sun it flew off. Nice. | <urn:uuid:c48ff9b2-bc01-4277-8b4b-19bbf3832dda> | {
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The first humans
Transcript of The first humans
my world history
How old are humans?
6 - 2 million b.c.
What are primates?
Where did the first humans (homo sapiens means wise people) come from? They started in Africa and spread over the earth. Neanderthals lived in Europe when the Homo sapiens arrived.
the first homo sapiens on earth were hunter-gatherers. They hunted for animals and collected food to live.
these hunter-gatherers had to
adapt to their new environments:
- which plants can be eaten?
- which animals can we hunt?
- how do we survive?
when the climate would change these people
had to move to another area:
- during the ice ages they moved south
- during the warmer periods they moved north
- they also had to follow the animals that were also
moving because of changing temperatures.
Some groups of people formed even larger communities
to benefit from this. Bigger groups can do bigger and better things. A big group like this is a clan with a clan-leader being the most important person that made all the
Various cave paintings have been found that show
how people lived 20.000 years ago. For example the
painting in the cave of Lascaux in France.
These paintings show that humans were capable of complex thoughts and skills.
Another evidence for complex thoughts is that humans
bury their dead. This and paintings show how humans reacted to mysterious and powerful forces, like animals and death.
Early people believed in animism, they believed that spirits lived in animals, rocks, trees, water, weather and sun. Some tribes in Africa and South America still do!
this paleolithic era with hunter-gatherers ends when humans learn a new skill that changed the world: farming.
Early humans made tools from stone. This era
was called the old stone age or Paleolithic era. It lasted from 2,5 million years ago to 10.000 years ago. They also discovered and mastered fire, an important skill.
From the early humans two new groups developed. Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals. Homo sapiens (wise people) could form words, Neanderthals did not. These groups lived near each other but eventually the Neaderthals dissapeared.
Answer the assessment questions on pages 75.
Also answer questions 3,4,5,6,7,9 and 10 on page 76 and the three questions on page 77. Do this in your notebook and write by hand. Not on the computer!
International School Twente
Read pages 60-63 and answer the questions:
Where did people appear first on earth? Explain your answer.
Who are Lucy and Ardi?
Describe Michael Brunet's discovery and explain why this could be important?
Answer question 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 on page 67. | <urn:uuid:f07c1bc1-b68d-4b86-9ea0-cb42601704f5> | {
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Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays form a semienclosed coastal basin that opens onto the much larger Gulf of Maine. Subtidal circulation in the bay is driven by local winds and remotely driven flows from the gulf. The local-wind forced flow is estimated with a regional shallow water model driven by wind measurements. The model uses a gravity wave radiation condition along the open-ocean boundary. Results compare reasonably well with observed currents near the coast. In some offshore regions however, modeled flows are an order of magnitude less energetic than the data. Strong flows are observed even during periods of weak local wind forcing. Poor model-data comparisons are attributable, at least in part, to open-ocean boundary conditions that neglect the effects of remote forcing. Velocity measurements from within Massachusetts Bay are used to estimate the remotely forced component of the flow. The data are combined with shallow water dynamics in an inverse-model formulation that follows the theory of Bennett and McIntosh , who considered tides. We extend their analysis to consider the subtidal response to transient forcing. The inverse model adjusts the a priori open-ocean boundary condition, thereby minimizing a combined measure of model-data misfit and boundary condition adjustment. A "consistency criterion" determines the optimal trade-off between the two. The criterion is based on a measure of plausibility for the inverse solution. The "consistent" inverse solution reproduces 56% of the average squared variation in the data. The local-wind-driven flow alone accounts for half of the model skill. The other half is attributable to remotely forced flows from the Gulf of Maine. The unexplained 44% comes from measurement errors and model errors that are not accounted for in the analysis. Copyright 1996 by the American Geophysical Union.
Additional publication details
Open-ocean boundary conditions from interior data: Local and remote forcing of Massachusetts Bay | <urn:uuid:cdba2ac5-a45b-408c-a20c-f5e6b5f16747> | {
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- Experiments Include: The laws of reflection; virtual image
with a plane mirror, convex mirror, and a concave lens; focal length of concave
and convex mirrors; focal length of Planoconvex and Planoconcave lenses; real
image formed by a concave mirror; simple refraction; less dense to more dense
medium; parallel displacement by a rectangular block; semicircular body; light
incident at center if disc and at right angles to tangent; critical angle;
total internal reflection; reversing prism.
- Have 2 sets. New set uses magnetic attachment (shown on right, above), old set uses suction (shown on left).
- Located in L01; section B6 | <urn:uuid:258f207d-e9be-45c4-be2f-feb6eaf951af> | {
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Gandikota is a small village on the right bank of the river Pennar, 15 km from Jammalamadugu in Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh, India. It has gained momentum in the tourism circuit because of it almost forgotten spectacular gorge formed by Pennar River that cuts through Erramala hills. A gorge is typically a narrow valley between hills or mountains, with steep rocky walls and a stream running through it. In fact, gorges are formed because of rock erosion over a long period of time.
There is a massive fort which is surrounded by natural deep valleys, impassable hills and boulders making it a secured fort. The fort can be accessed only from one direction. There is Pennar river flowing beside it in the valley which makes it look like a huge canyon.
According to Sthalapurana, relating to the foundation of the village Gandikota and its fortification. In 1213 there lived a certain king called Kaka Maharaju in Bommanapalli, a village close by Yerrakonda, about two miles to the 52 east of the Pennar, The site of Gandikota was discovered by this king during a hunting expedition and, being struck with the place, he made enquiries and, finding it was sacred, took counsel with learned men who advised him to found a village which would flourish. He accordingly founded a village and fortified the hill which afterwards came to be known as Gandikota.
In 1297 year of the Salivahana era, Harihara Bukkarayalu reigned in Vijayanagar and his reign was very prosperous. He visited Benares and brought water from the holy Ganges, and on his way back he found the images of four gods buried in the sand of the Godavari river. He was instructed to install the images in newly-built temples. On his return to his capital the king built two temples for two of the gods at Gooty and Sashagrundipuram (Pamidi). Then he came to Gandikota and saw the fort. While he was on hunting, the god Madhavaswami appeared and told him that as the place was sacred and contained many holy streams he has to build a temple there. The king accordingly constructed a temple for Madhavaswamy.
There is a massive masjid( Jama Masjid) and a temple( Madhavaraya Temple) right beside each other the once again signifies India’s policy of Unity in Diversity. A heritage festival is held every year in the fort area.
The fort has a separate jail which can be seen even today which shows how cruel and less tolerant the Kings were towards any wrong doers in the kingdom.
Surrounded by a deep valley and impassable hills & with massive boulders of red granite and the river Pennar that flows about 300 ft. below on the west and northern sides, its location affords strong natural defence to the occupants of the Fort. Gandikota was one of the greatest forts of south India in its heydays and so were the kings who ruled the region. Years after its formation, Gandikota fort was ruled by the Mikkilineni dynasty of Bharadwaja gotra who belonged to a clan of Kamma lords. Kammas were kings belonging to the Solar, lunar and Haihaya clans of Kshatriyas and were said to be ferocious in nature.
The Vemana, the famous Telugu poet, native of Kadapa district and believed to have lived in Gandikota area for a short period. | <urn:uuid:45bfe39c-7307-40dc-9a0a-ee439f476639> | {
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Study: Wetlands remove pathogens from water
Duckweed was one of the plants used in the vegetative wetland experiments at the University of Arizona
By Environmental News Network staff
ATLANTA (CNN) -- Vegetative wetlands can serve as an alternative method for reducing bacterial pathogens such as salmonella in wastewater, according to researchers.
The research was presented Wednesday by Mohammad R. Karim at a meeting of the American Society for Microbiology in Atlanta. A vegetative wetland is a natural system with no added chemicals.
Because more than 30,000 cases of salmonella poisoning are reported each year, it is a major health concern in the United States. Conventional wastewater-treatment technologies depend on disinfection to reduce pathogen populations. The researchers believe wetlands could be an improvement over traditional methods.
Karim and colleagues who conducted the research at the University of Arizona in Tucson examined the survival of E. coli and salmonella typhimurium in six different wetland systems receiving either potable water or secondary sewage.
"Our results suggest that the presence of aquatic plants significantly increases die-off of both bacteria in potable water and secondary sewage, indicating that vegetative wetlands could provide an alternative method for reduction of bacterial pathogens in wastewater," Karim said.
The researchers added E. coli and salmonella typhimurium at a concentration of 1 million cfu/ml to each wetland system. Four wetland systems receiving potable water contained a combination of cattail, iris lily, taro, duckweed and elodea. Two other wetland systems receiving secondary unchlorinated sewage contained water hyacinth and duckweed. Potable water and secondary sewage without the presence of aquatic plants were used as controls.
"Bacterial die-off in potable water and secondary sewage was significantly higher when aquatic plants were present in these systems. We examined whether any antibiotic-like substance or inhibitory substances were released by the plants in the studied wetlands, which could enhance bacterial die-off," Karim said.
No antibiotic or inhibitory substances were found in these wetland waters.
"Further work on the survival of E. coli in nonsterile, filter sterilized and autoclaved wetland water indicated that the plausible mechanism of bacterial die-off in constructed wetlands is through microbial competition or predation," Karim said.
The results of the University of Arizona research, along with other literature, show promise for improving water quality.
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Up to 50 of genital herpes is caused by the oral cold sore type of herpes simplex. The severity and range of herpes symptoms differ from person to person. These recurrent episodes are usually less severe than the first episode. Type 2 herpes simplex virus usually only causes genital herpes. This means that the virus is most commonly passed on by having vaginal, anal or oral sex, or just close genital contact with an infected person. In people who have recurrences, their frequency can vary greatly. Because signs can vary a great deal, we recommend that an individual see a healthcare provider to be tested if they have a lesion of any kind. A person may show symptoms within days after contracting genital herpes, or it may take weeks, months, or years. Some people may have a severe outbreak within days after contracting the virus while others may have a first outbreak so mild that they do not notice it.
The two virus types are very closely related, but differ in how each is spread and the location of the infection. Once a person acquires the herpes virus, it invades and replicates in the nervous system, remaining deep within a nerve for life. However, in people with poor immune systems, such as organ transplant recipients or people with HIV, the virus can spread throughout the body and cause severe disease, even of the brain. As in oral herpes, genital herpes also causes vesicles to form, which can appear on vagina, labia, buttocks, or even the cervix in women, and on the penis, scrotum, buttocks, thighs, and even urethra in men. It can also be caused by herpes simplex virus type 1, which is the cause of oral herpes (cold sores on the mouth and lips). The symptoms of genital herpes can vary widely, depending upon whether you are having an initial or recurrent episode. Transmission from person to person can occur even if there are no visible ulcers. A: Genital herpes is a common, sexually transmitted disease that is caused by the herpes simplex viruses type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). These outbreaks can appear weeks or months later, but are typically less severe and shorter than the first outbreak. Signs and symptoms of a genital herpes outbreak will vary from person to person.
Genital herpes is a contagious viral infection of the genitals that’s transmitted through vaginal intercourse as well as through oral or anal sex. Symptoms, causes, diagnosis, prevention and remedies for genital herpes have been included in this page. The subsequent outbreaks become less severe over time, though the frequency and severity of recurrent episodes vary greatly from person to person. There are two types of virus, and genital herpes is usually caused by HSV Type 2, though Type 1& 151;the same virus that causes cold sores& 151;can also produce sores in the genital area. The severity and types of symptoms of genital herpes vary from person to person. During a first outbreak of genital herpes, symptoms can involve the whole body as well as the genital area. HSV type 2 causes sores on the genitals, but does, at times, also affect the mouth. Herpes recurrences vary in frequency and severity between person to person. Symptoms of an initial episode of herpes usually appear 2 to 12 days after being exposed to the virus.
Herpes Simplex Virus American Skin Association
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is more often the cause of cold sores or fever blisters. Genital herpes virus is passed from one person to another through sexual contact. The number of recurrences or outbreaks a person can have may vary. When symptoms occur soon after a person is infected, they tend to be severe. Herpes is caused by one of two viruses: herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) and herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2). When a person is first infected with HSV-1 or HSV-2, the immune response is not well developed. Symptoms of genital herpes vary greatly from one episode to the next, and from one person to the next. Most people have four or five outbreaks a year, but these outbreaks are not as severe as the as the first episode. Most genital herpes is caused by HSV type 2. Most people have no or minimal symptoms from HSV-1 or HSV-2 infection. Most new cases of genital herpes infection do not cause symptoms, and many people infected with HSV-2 are unaware that they have genital herpes. It is best to refrain from any type of sex (vaginal, anal, or oral) during periods of active outbreak. When a person has both viruses, each virus increases the severity of the other. Herpes symptoms vary depending on whether the outbreak is initial or recurrent. Symptoms can vary greatly from person to person. Genital herpes infections can be severe in people who have impaired immune systems, such as people with HIV. The strongest predictor for infection is a person’s number of lifetime sex partners. Infected persons experience a median of four recurrences per year after their first episode, but rates vary greatly. Genital herpes simplex virus type 2 recurs six times more frequently than type 1. 9 For unknown reasons, women have more severe disease, constitutional symptoms, and complications than do men.
What Is Genital Herpes?
What is the prognosis for a person with genital herpes? Either herpes simplex virus type can cause sores on the genital areas. The prognosis of genital herpes is variable: there is no cure, and the recurrent outbreaks may vary in frequency and severity. We asked leading researchers how the two compare in terms of severity, recurrences, and transmission rates. For both types, at least two-thirds of infected people have no symptoms, or symptoms too mild to notice. The second factor affecting outbreaks is how long a person has had the infection. Prevalence rates of genital HSV-1 differ based on the practice of oral sex and on the percentage of people who are HSV-1 positive from childhood, explains Anna Wald, MD researcher at the University of Washington at Seattle. Symptoms vary depending on whether the outbreak is initial or recurrent. The clinical presentations of the 2 virus types are indistinguishable. Among HIV-1 infected persons, the clinical presentation of symptomatic HSV-2 infection can vary considerably. (7) Frequent and severe recurrent oral or genital herpes can be a source of significant pain and morbidity among some HIV-1-infected persons. Notably, primary genital HSV-2 occurring in an HIV-1-infected person is a marker for ongoing unsafe sexual practices.
The types of HPV that can cause genital warts are not the same as the types that can cause cancer. Severity and timing of the outbreak varies from person to person; while some people may not even notice their recurring symptoms, brushing them off as a skin rash or bug bites, other people experience painful, heavy sores several times within the course of a year. | <urn:uuid:129cb8b0-5d50-4fd6-98b7-7768f74c2795> | {
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Controlled Substances Act and Scheduling
The Controlled Substances Act is a federal drug policy. The government controls which drugs are available over the counter, require a prescription or are considered illegal.
Understanding the Controlled Substances Act
The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) is a law that regulates how drugs may be used, produced and sold in the United States. It applies to both legal and illegal substances.
Both the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are granted power to classify substances under the CSA.
The Controlled Substances Act outlines the drug scheduling system, which lays out five classes of drugs with different regulations for each class.
The CSA places allowances and restrictions on drugs with regards to:
Alcohol and tobacco products are not regulated under the CSA.
Get started on the road to recovery.
The DEA uses drug scheduling as a rating system to determine which drugs have a higher potential for abuse. The agency also uses scheduling to determine the charges brought upon those in possession of drugs.
Schedule I Controlled Substances
These substances have no defined medicinal purposes and have the highest potential for abuse.
Schedule I drugs include:
Schedule II Controlled Substances
Although schedule II substances have a high potential for abuse, they have an accepted medical purpose in some circumstances. Most of these drugs have strict guidelines regarding their medicinal purposes.
Schedule II drugs include:
Schedule III Controlled Substances
Drugs under this schedule are those with a moderate to low abuse potential. Anabolic steroids and testosterone are among the drugs that fall in this category. Codeine is one of the most commonly abused schedule III drugs with addictive and intoxicating qualities.
Schedule IV Controlled Substances
These drugs are considered by the DEA to have a low potential of abuse compared to other addictive substances.
Schedule IV drugs include:
Schedule V Controlled Substances
These substances have the lowest potential for abuse according to the DEA. Prescriptions to control conditions like irritable bowel syndrome and fibromyalgia are among those considered schedule V. Robitussin AC, a cough suppressant with very low amounts of codeine, is also a schedule V substance.
Questions about treatment?
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Proposed Changes to the CSA
Advocates of drug safety debate whether the CSA classifications actually prevent drug use. Opioid painkillers and marijuana are the most frequently discussed drugs in the CSA debate.
There are many people who advocate for either increasing or decreasing the schedule of painkillers. There are groups that are concerned about the powerfully addictive nature of painkillers and others concerned it may be too hard for people who need pain relief to get the drug.
Advocates of increasing the schedule of drugs like hydrocodone often point to the epidemic of painkiller addictions and the rise in “pill mills” throughout the 2000’s.
There have been many attempts to remove marijuana’s schedule I status since the 1970s. Those advocating to reduce marijuana’s schedule level say that marijuana is not more dangerous than schedule II drugs like oxycodone. Additionally, schedule I drugs are considered to have no medical purpose and marijuana is used medicinally in some states.
Despite the debates, it is important to recognize the addictive quality of marijuana.
Although it’s often touted as a “non-habit forming” substance, marijuana can take a psychological hold over some people, similar to how some people develop food or gambling addictions.
See how Jerry
The CSA and Addiction Treatment
Because the CSA designates some drugs as illegal, some people may not seek treatment for their addiction for fear of being arrested for possession. But having an addiction is not illegal. Getting treatment is the best way to turn your life around.
If you have an addiction, there are people available to help you find a treatment center and discuss financial options. Call us now to get help breaking your addiction.
Get help today
Don't go through the process of recovery alone. Get in touch with someone who can help.
Browse drug rehab centers
No matter where you live, there is a drug rehab center that can help you overcome your addiction. We'll help you find it. | <urn:uuid:1dec5d33-2755-4b67-a9a5-a77e06e2bdbd> | {
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Three students had collected some data on the wingspan of some bats. Unfortunately, each student had lost one measurement. Can you find the missing information?
Can you number the vertices, edges and faces of a tetrahedron so
that the number on each edge is the mean of the numbers on the
adjacent vertices and the mean of the numbers on the adjacent
Ann thought of 5 numbers and told Bob all the sums that could be made by adding the numbers in pairs. The list of sums is 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10,10, 11, 12. Help Bob to find out which numbers Ann was thinking of.
We've received some suggested settings
for the sight and several of you told us that you did it by trial
and error. Callum from Sompting Abbotts described his
Several of you found settings that
worked extremely well, but Adam from Dartford Grammar School came
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In recent years, various types of crisis incidents have occurred frequently, causing great harm to the society and seriously threatening the lives and property of the people. Taking the above-mentioned overseas beach incident as an example, it has brought us warnings: public crises and emergencies have become important hidden dangers in building a socialist harmonious society and sustainable development in China. We must attach great importance to emergency management.
Public crisis refers to emergencies that may be jeopardized by public safety, normal security, and normal order due to natural disasters, social security incidents, or social operating mechanisms. These public crises have affected the development of society and the safety of people’s lives and property, causing huge losses to China’s economy and society. Hong Yi, a member of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and the president of the China Emergency Management Association, believes that emergency management should pay attention not only to existing work innovation, but also to make long-term planning, build a comprehensive public safety net, and focus on four comprehensive strategies. We should firmly grasp the overall requirements for improving the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity. At the same time, we should also firmly establish five development concepts of “innovation, coordination, green, openness and sharing” to promote the construction of national public security system . Therefore, in order to reduce the occurrence of various public crisis events and reduce the damage caused by the crisis, we must commit ourselves to the construction of an emergency management system, build a comprehensive public safety network, further strengthen and improve the related system construction, and ensure the people safety, including the safety of life and property of the masses and the long-term stability of society.
This paper only makes some simple analyses in the current situation and the development of China’s emergency management system, and tries to put forward some suggestions for the future direction of China’s emergency management.
2. Research Objects and Research Significance
2.1. Concept Definition
At present, it is no unified standard for public crisis and emergency management in the academic community. The term crisis was originally derived from Greece, which is widely used in the medical field and is a medical term. In the field of public administration, domestic and foreign scholars have different definitions of the concept of “public crisis”. Rosenthal and others in the Netherlands believe that crisis is a serious threat to the basic value of a social system and the framework of the code of conduct, and in the case of extremely high time pressure and uncertainty, it must make critical decisions . William, a well-known emergency management scientist at the State University of Georgia in the United States, believes that “emergency management is the management of risks so that society can coexist with environmental or technological hazards and respond to disasters caused by environmental and technological hazards ”. Sun Benchu, the Taiwanese scholar, believes that: “Crisis refers to an organization that has immediate and serious threats to the survival of the organization caused by internal and external environmental factors” . Xue Lan and others believe that in the crisis scenario, sudden emergencies and uncertain prospects create a high degree of tension and pressure. In order for the organization to survive in the crisis and minimize the damage caused by the crisis, policy makers must make critical decisions and response to the crisis in limited time. In my view, the public crisis is a sudden emergency or an abnormal social situation. It refers to social life and people caused by force majeure or sudden major natural disaster events, accident disasters and social security incidents. An emergency in which property safety poses a serious hazard. Emergency management is an emergency management system established by the government or other public organizations through the integration of various social resources, coordination of various social forces, and application of advanced science and technology to ensure the society harmony and stability and safety of people’s lives and property.
According to the development cycle of public crisis, the public crisis management process can be generally divided into crisis early warning and preparation, crisis identification, crisis isolation, management crisis and recovery. The five stages have their own different roles and characteristics, which are indispensable and interconnected, which together constitute the general process of crisis management in China.
1) Crisis warning and preparation
Crisis warning and preparation mainly refers to people’s cognition of the crisis, which is characterized by a strong sense of crisis and an early warning system built on the basis of cognition. Crisis warning is the first step in crisis circle and the key to crisis management. It is a sense of crisis, though the crisis often occurs in the form of an emergency, the probability of occurrence is very low, but the emergency is an objective existence. In this sense, the crisis is inevitable. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the crisis from the ideological point of view. Before the accident, there will always be some signs, as long as these signals are captured in time. By analyzing and processing in time and with effective measures, we can minimize the losses caused by the crisis and even avoid the crisis.
2) Identify the crisis
It is the basis of public crisis management. It refers to the emergence and the development of public crises in the future based on past and present data, intelligence and materials related to emergencies in a region, using logical reasoning and scientific prediction techniques to make reasonable judgments and predicates, and then guide people to plan and carry out a series of effective activities for public crisis prevention. Identify the crisis and identify the possible crisis, such as the type, level, scope etc.
3) Isolation crisis
Isolation crisis refers to the stage that controls the source of crisis and cuts off the spread of the crisis. Since the crisis has a knock-on effect, a crisis is not properly handled, and it often triggers another crisis. Therefore, when a crisis occurs, we should take prompt measures to cut off the spread of the crisis and timely release the crisis that has already erupted. Isolation is to prevent the spread of the crisis. In addition, the crisis often occurs in a small area, so the first step in crisis management is to isolate the crisis in order to control the crisis spread to other areas and cause greater losses. Segregation crisis must start from two aspects: segregation of people and isolation of accidents.
4) Management crisis
In Western textbooks, management crisis is often referred to crisis communication management. The reason is that strengthening information disclosure and public communication, and seeking public understanding and support are the basic countermeasures in crisis management. Crisis management refers to the process of planning, decision-making, dynamic adjustment, and mitigation of crises in response to various crisis situations. Its purpose is to eliminate or reduce the threats and losses caused by the crisis, in order to respond to sudden crisis events and resist sudden disaster events. Crisis management includes several basic elements:
a) Equipped with professional crisis management talents. Only with professional management personnel, comprehensive and in-depth research on the crisis, and the development of strict pre-control measures and response plans, can implement effective crisis management.
b) Adopt advanced crisis prediction methods and measures. The development or introduction of advanced crisis prediction methods to improve the scientific and technological content of crisis prediction are necessary for modern crisis management.
c) Eliminate and deal with crises in a timely and effective manner. It is important to improve the ability to respond to the crisis and the speed of response, and to minimize the damage caused by the crisis.
The work of the aftermath of the crisis is mainly to eliminate the remaining problems and impacts after the crisis. It should start from the following aspects: First, the rescue of personnel after the crisis, the first task is to rescue and appease the people; Second, the crisis assessment. A comprehensive evaluation of the crisis management work, including the evaluation of the organization and working procedures of the early warning system, the crisis management plan, and the crisis decision-making, should detail the various problems in the crisis management. And then, guide public opinion. Making the crisis extend benign, which requires to discover opportunities to make the crisis turn to the direction that is beneficial to us. Finally, the crisis analyzes and summarize. It can avoid repeating the same mistakes, and sum up experience.
2.2. Analysis of the Characteristics of the Research Object
1) Sudden and urgent
Public crises are generally sudden emergencies. They are gradually developed from a series of small things. However, due to the unpredictability of the time and the place, people may not have any perception or preparation beforehand. In the face of a sudden crisis, it may cause great harm . A crisis event may have a series of small incidents gradually developed, but we cannot foresee the actual time and where occur. When a crisis event reaches a critical pressure, it will suddenly erupt. This is beyond our control. Therefore, policy makers are required. A satisfactory crisis management plan must be implemented under limited information, resources and time to make quick decisions and effective actions.
2) A strong social influence
After the general crisis, it will bring great harm, pose a serious threat to the basic value of the social system, the framework of the code of conduct, and cause widespread concern in the society, which may cause panic in the whole society and interrupt the normal order and operation of the society. The mechanism brings great trauma to the psychology of the public. At this time, we must try our best to appease the physical and psychological trauma of the public and avoid causing worse results.
3) High degree of uncertainty
With the development of the crisis, there are many uncertainties when the crisis occurs. It is impossible for us to know when crisis would occur and it is even impossible to know whether the next step of the crisis will continue to deteriorate. Everything seems to change rapidly, and it may cause a series of chain reactions. The time, shape, nature power and the process of crisis cannot be judged routinely. The consequences and impacts of the crisis events are not available for reference. All we can do is learn to protect ourselves and stay calm in a highly uncertain crisis condition, and minimize losses to the greatest extent possible.
4) Uncertainty in decision making
When the crisis occurred, it was urgent and sudden. At this time, no matter whether the government or other public departments can handle the problem in a conventional way, the decision turned into non-procedural decision-making. Although information and resources are limited, but decision makers must quickly find a reasonable response plan in short time. From normal to emergency, from normal to abnormal, the relevant departments or the first responder can be authorized in advance, so as to avoid the unclear decision-making identity, unclear responsibility when the crisis happened and the abuse of power.
2.3. Research Significance
China is in a social high-risk period that social transformation, system transition, risks and opportunities coexist . Today, there are many various natural disasters occurrence and man-made security incidents, such as, finance, information, natural disasters, and social security incidents have gradually common in the rapid development of society. It has already threatened the stability of our country and the people’s normal life. Facing these crises, it is necessary for us to make corresponding explorations and researches in order to find some effective measures to reduce such incidents happen.
Improving emergency management system, the ability to prevent and deal with public crisis is a major event that affects the overall economic and social development of the country, including the safety of people’s lives and property. It is an important part of building a socialist harmonious society, which adhere to the human-oriented principle and governance for the people. It is an important aspect of performing government functions and further improving administrative capacity. By strengthening crisis management, establishing and improving social early warning mechanisms, emergency public emergency response mechanisms and social mobilization mechanisms, which can prevent and reduce public crises and damages, protect lives and property of the public, prevent national security and social stability and promote comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable economic and social development.
With the promulgation of the “National Emergency Response Plan for Public Emergencies” issued by the State Council on January 8, 2006, China’s emergency response framework system was initially formed . Emergency management has begun to develop in China and has gradually played an important role . It also plays an important role in the government’s public policy agenda. The strategic response to the public crisis has been raised to the height of the country. The construction and improvement of the emergency management system is conducive to strengthen the governance capacity of the Chinese government and reduce disaster risks, which is benefit for public to survive and develop in a healthy and safe environment.
This paper studies the problems and development exploration of China’s emergency management system, summarizes the shortcomings still existing in China’s emergency management work, and provides some suggestions for the government to continuously improve emergency management and make scientific decisions. At the same time, it also put forward some suggestions for the future development direction of China’s emergency management.
2.4. Limitations of Research
1) This paper is to study the emergency management in China. Because my academic level is limited and the research time is not long, the representativeness of the selected cases may be insufficient, and the content of the selected cases will be defective and the information collection will be flawed.
2) Emergency management system is a hot issue in the field of emergency management research. This article is an exploratory attempt and there are some shortcomings. Due to the limited academic research ability of individuals, there will inevitably be many confusions and difficulties in the process of research and development. The depth and breadth of thinking will inevitably have loopholes and defects. This research needs to be further improved.
3. Current Situation and Existing Problems of China’s Emergency Management System
3.1. Development History and Current Situation of China’s Emergency Management System
The development of emergency management in China has mainly gone through three processes. The first stage is the budding period. China’s emergency management system was still very simple before 2003. The research work mainly focused on disaster management, but lacked experience in comprehensive crisis management . The second stage is the period of rapid development. After the SARS incident happened in 2003, many problems were exposed in our government emergency management. The series of problems prompted the government to reconstruct emergency management system. President Hu Jintao clearly pointed out the problems and shortcomings in China’s emergency management at the National Conference on SARS Prevention and Stress, and emphasized the ability to greatly enhance the response to risks and emergencies. At the same time, Premier Wen Jiabao proposed “to strive for three years to establish and improve emergency response mechanisms for public health emergencies and improve public health emergency response capabilities.” In October 2013, the “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Several Issues Concerning the Improvement of the Socialist Market Economic System” adopted by the Third Plenary Session of the 16th CPC Central Committee emphasized that it is necessary to establish and improve various early warning and emergency mechanisms to improve the government’s ability to response to emergencies and risks. Since then, China’s emergency management has begun to develop rapidly. The third stage is the period of quality improvement. 2008 is a special year for our country. During this year, many crisis events such as the Southern Snowstorm, the Wenchuan Earthquake and the Lhasa Incident occurred. The big test, for this reason, former President Hu Jintao pointed out at the National Earthquake Relief Commendation Conference: “We must further strengthen emergency management capacity building.” China’s emergency management construction once again stood at a new starting point in history, and the quality has been improved. Especially, the construction of China’s emergency management system started relatively late, so the development time is short. We can know that the system is not perfect, and it is particularly inadequate in the comprehensive disaster emergency management system. There is no corresponding supporting system and operational mechanism, and no corresponding competent department is established. After the crisis incident, the decision-making identity is not clear enough, the power and responsibilities are relatively vague, the departments lack communication, which cannot form a unified team. If government departments lack of crisis awareness, the emergency response at the scene is unreasonable. The public’s crisis awareness and self-protection ability are weak. Once a crisis happened, administrators will abuse their power to seek private interests, contributing to serious social impacts and inadequate laws and regulations. In short, China’s emergency management system still has tremendous room for improvement. In the future, it is necessary to increase investment in this area and strive to develop and improve China’s emergency management system at an early date.
3.2. Problems in China’s Emergency Management System
1) Lack of awareness
Judging from the various public crisis events that have occurred in China in recent years, the crisis awareness and prevention awareness of our government and citizens are still relatively lacking. In many crises, the best rescue time has been missed, resulting in the loss of many lives. For example, on the morning of October 1, 2015, a rear-end collision occurred at the Yongtaiwen Expressway. The rescue time was delayed due to the occupation of the emergency passage by individual vehicles, which eventually led to the death of one person. We must strengthen the awareness of crisis prevention by our government and citizens, start from the roots, and raise the awareness of crisis prevention among our citizens.
2) The warning and monitoring system are not perfect
There are still many problems and deficiencies in the public crisis early warning and monitoring system in China. Many local early warning facilities are not in place and imperfect, which brings certain difficulties to the rescue work in the disaster. On the other hand, the development of emergency management in China started relatively late. The technology in this area is still backward, and there is no advanced warning and monitoring system, which brings certain difficulties to the emergency management work. For example, the emergency management of heavy polluted weather still has a series of problems such as inaccurate positioning of the plan, insufficient connection of the plan, lag of the warning release, and “one size fits all” response measures. It is difficult to really play an emergency role.
3) The linkage mechanism of emergency management is imperfect
China’s emergency management department is still relatively complete in the vertical system, but various departments are lack of communication and the efficiency of emergency management is low. The main reason is that organizational departments do not have a unified command mechanism. Therefore, establishing the necessary linkage coordination mechanism is of great significance for emergency management.
4) The social participation mechanism is not perfect
Judging from the current situation of emergency management in China, public generally lack crisis awareness and self-rescue skills. After the crisis, the citizen participation is not active, and the whole society pays insufficient attention to the prevention of risks. The social participation mechanism is a very important part of emergency management, and we need to do much work in this area .
5) Emergency publicity and education are not in place
Emergency publicity and education are important means to ensure the implementation of emergency plans when the crisis happened. It is also an important way to improve the ability of accident prevention. However, there are many problems in emergency rescue education and training at present. First, governments at all levels and relevant departments have not recognized the development of emergency rescue publicity and education, and the focus is not enough. There is no effective form of publicity and education activities to attract public learning; second, the safety awareness of employees is weak, lack of self-help skills, mutual rescue knowledge, on-site escape ability, and safety protection equipment is incomplete. The “three violations” phenomenon is serious, resulting in a large number of hidden dangers and accidents. Third, the emergency command and government management staff at all levels, relevant departments and enterprises lack of professional corporation skills, poor on-site disposal capabilities, and little practical experience, which restrict the effectiveness of emergency rescue work.
3.3. The Advantages of Developed Countries in the Emergency Management System and the Places Worthy Learning
In developed countries such as the United States, Japan, Australia and Canada, a well-established and targeted emergency management system and successful practices have been established, and an emergency system and mechanism with distinct characteristics have been formed. Their theories and practices are worthy of learning.
1) Emphasis on education
As a country with earthquakes frequently, Japan rarely suffers casualties in the earthquake. In contrast, the losses caused by the Wenchuan earthquake in China are too more. The difference between the two countries is obvious because special attention focus on earthquake knowledge. Simulated earthquake experiences are carried out regularly, so that children can master critical self-rescue skills at an early age. On the contrary, children in China are lack of knowledge in this filed.
2) Emphasis on the construction of corresponding organizational departments and the cultivation of professional talents
In 1979, the United States established the Federal Emergency Management Agency, which was responsible for emergency management throughout the country. Later, the National Emergency Training Center and other related departments were established. Many undergraduate and postgraduate majors about emergency management were established in many universities across the country. A large number of professional talents were cultivated. In contrast, China’s construction falls behind a lot in this area. There are no independent departments and agencies focus on emergency management. Most of them are temporary that set up after the disaster. There are only a few disciplines. The university has few undergraduate and postgraduate majors in emergency management and lacks corresponding professional talents.
3) Established a mature emergency management system and case base
Western developed countries have rich experience in emergency management. They have established a mature system and case base. After a crisis event, they can find matching cases or plans from the base immediately, greatly reducing time in decision-making. The procedural process can win more precious time to rescue in disaster. This is exactly what lacks in China emergency management, so we should learn from the corresponding theoretical knowledge for our use.
4. Establish and Improve a Mature Emergency Management System
Xie Zhenchang, head of the emergency management expert group, believes that the development of emergency management must continuously strengthen emergency management from the height of modernizing the national governance system and governance abilities. The first is to build a public security emergency management system based on people, disasters, process, and the whole society. The second is to update concepts and practice, and promote emergency management from focusing on emergencies to focusing on public security risk management, from the national disaster relief to the national defense. The third is to strengthen the coordination of policies, talents, science and technology, industry, improving the level of public safety management and emergency management. The fourth is to strengthen the legal system. The fifth is closely related to the country’s major strategy and weak link to deepen national security and emergency management. Gong Weibin, director of the Emergency Management Training Center of the National School of Administration, believes that it is necessary to promote the discipline construction of emergency management. At present, the development of China’s emergency management discipline has the following characteristics. First, risk social accident disasters have promoted the development of emergency management disciplines. Second, the government’s emphasis has provided guarantees for the development of emergency management disciplines. Third, typical case learning is an important way and mean .
China’s emergency management system can be built from the following aspects:
1) Strengthening prevention at quiet time
Born in sorrow and sorrow, the ancients know the truth. We should understand that preparations should be done in peacetime, enhance the sense of urgency, be prepared for danger in times of peace, take precautions, pay attention to public safety, and be prepared for public emergencies. Pre-planning preparation, organization preparation, and material preparation, etc., establish a comprehensive prevention mechanism, do not fight unprepared, combine prevention and emergency management, and do pre-prevention work for public crisis events.
2) People-oriented and reduce losses
Taking the protection of the lives and property of the people is the most important task, taking people as the foundation, thoroughly implementing the scientific development concept, and regard people as the most important factor. Before any public crisis happened that may cause casualties, people should be shifted in time. After the crisis, we should priority to take the measures to rescue life, and at the same time do the protection of rescue workers to minimize the casualties caused by the crisis.
3) Rapid response and unified leadership
Time is money, time is life. The efficiency of this organization determines response. After the crisis, what we have to do is to clear the leadership responsibility and decision-making identity, quickly set up a working team, and join into rescue work. Launching a unified command system, quickly formulate corresponding rescue plans and implement plans, strengthen the construction of emergency response teams based on territorial management, fully mobilize the role of townships, communities, enterprises, institutions, social groups and volunteer teams, relying on the masses to establish a mature and rapid response mechanism, obtaining sufficient and accurate information in a timely manner to track, judge and make decisive decisions, which can minimize hazards and impacts, avoid unreasonable multi-level leadership and staff deployment.
4) Responsible for grade and coordinated coordination
We need to establish a system that combines hierarchical response and territorial management. The central and local governments communicate with each other. The central unified coordination and command and the local organizations take concrete actions, but they coordinate with each other, establish a linkage coordination mechanism, and play different role in each department for crisis. What should do is to establish and improve the linkage coordination system, implement the unified urban police, hierarchical classification and disposal work system, strengthen communication and coordination between departments, regions, military, local and central dispatched units to local governments, etc. It is necessary to pay attention to communication, learn from each other’s experiences, and carry out close cooperation to avoid the situation of water management and individual administration in Kowloon, and to establish an emergency management system with unified command, rapid response, close connection, and coordination and efficiency. According to the seriousness, controllability, resources needed, and scope of influence of public emergencies, the corresponding plans are initiated.
5) Integrating resources and making the best use of them
Resources are an important factor. No matter what we do, resources are indispensable. In the face of crisis events, we must integrate each organization and the potential of each staff resources to make the best use of it. Integrating the most effective and extensive resources for us to integrate, monitor, forecast, and alert information systems for public emergencies, establish network interconnection, information sharing, and scientific and effective prevention systems. Integrating existing public emergencies command and organization network is to establish a unified, scientific and efficient command system; Integrating the existing emergency response resources for public emergencies to build a safeguard system with clear division of labor, responsibility implementation, and standing and unremitting. Do everything that is possible to use human, material and financial resources to improve the relevant institutional system, so that our people can live in a safe and stable environment, no worrying about the occurrence and response of crisis events.
6) Relying on science and improving quality
Science and technology are the primary productive forces. The 21st century is the era of science and technology and the era of talents. Only through scientific analysis and argumentation can we establish an excellent emergency management organization and establish an efficient emergency management system. At the same time, cultivating professional talents are also very important. People are the most important part of all factors. It is meaningless except for people to talk about the system. Each of us must start from improving our own quality, receive education, and learn the corresponding emergency. Management and crisis assistance knowledge are, in the event of a disaster, the first to learn how to save themselves. Rescue workers should also regularly participate in training and simulation exercises, in order to quickly joined into rescue work after the crisis.
5. Taking Measures to Construct China’s Emergency System
5.1. Implementing the Spirit of Country Documents and Raising Awareness
Safety production emergency management is an important part of safe production. Comprehensively do a good job in emergency management of safety production, improve the ability of accident prevention and emergency response, avoid and reduce casualties and losses caused by accidents as much as possible. It is an inevitable requirement of adhering to the people-oriented principle, implementing the scientific development concept, and safeguarding the fundamental interests of the people. We must conscientiously implement the “Opinions of the State Council on Comprehensively Strengthening Emergency Management”, the “General Emergency Response Plan for Public Emergencies” and the requirements of the “Eleventh Five-Year Plan” for national economic and social development, and adhere to unified planning and territoriality. The principle of grading and responsibility is carried out under the leadership of the local government to speed up the construction of a production safety emergency rescue system.
First, basing on a local reality is necessary in accordance with the principle of combining blocks and blocks, and formulate a complete set of government emergency plan system to ensure the requirements of emergency rescue work. It is necessary to clarify the respective duties and tasks of various government departments in accident emergency rescue. In the event of an accident, the relevant departments and units must act in accordance with the division of responsibilities and immediately take action, and perform their duties and work together to ensure that the emergency rescue work has achieved the desired results.
The second is to establish and improve the emergency rescue mechanism of “unified command, responsive, coordinated and efficient operation”. It is necessary to incorporate the construction of emergency rescue system into the government safety assessment system, through improving the importance of emergency rescue work at all levels of government by establishing an accountability system for assessment. Promoting the construction of emergency systems at the provincial, municipal and county levels and establishing a system as soon as possible are necessary. Besides, it need to identity responsibilities, streamlined emergency rescue system and “five implementations” of organization, preparation, responsibilities, staff and funds.
The third is to conduct in-depth investigation and research. Finding out the existing resources of various emergency rescue teams and equipment, establish a provincial and municipal emergency resource database as soon as possible, comprehensively grasp emergency resources, and actively promote the integration of emergency rescue teams, equipment, materials and other resources. Sharing information form a system of unified command, mutual support, close coordination, and coordinated response to accident disasters; speeding up the establishment of three-level network information systems for emergency rescue provinces, cities, and counties, and comprehensively using computer technology, network technology, and communication technology is to establish a connection province. The city, county and county safety production emergency rescue command center and rescue team’s two-way information transmission network, and connected with the national private network; Classification and formation of accident emergency rescue experts, organize experts to participate in accident rescue, guidance, assist in accident rescue. The on-site command department formulated the rescue plan and did a good work in the rescue organization, making the rescue work scientific, orderly and powerful.
5.2. Improving Emergency Plans and Strengthening Emergency Rescue Drills
According to the requirements, the production and operation units of high-risk industries should organize at least one-time emergency simulation drill for the emergency plan every year. The production and operation units of other industries shall regularly organize emergency plan drills. In order to standardize the emergency plan and improve the efficiency of emergency rescue, the government needs to strengthen the guidance, the training and timely exchange the experience of the preparation of the plan; secondly, combine the actual situation of local safety production, the characteristics of the production process and potential risks of the enterprise. The distribution, the emergency drill work plan, and the supervision, inspection and guidance of the emergency rescue drill work shall be strengthened in accordance with the principle of “emphasizing key points and paying attention to actual results”. It is necessary to further standardize the emergency drill work, regularly organize various forms of emergency plan drills such as desktop deductions and actual combat simulation exercises, sum up the experience and lessons of the drills in a timely manner, and urge relevant departments and enterprises to timely revise the plan in response to existing problems.
About drills, on the one hand, the relevant personnel should understand the emergency rescue system, be familiar with the emergency rescue methods, master the use of emergency rescue tools, equipment, and further improve the ability to deal with emergencies and prevent serious accidents. On the other hand, through drills to solve the problems of coordination between the departments within the enterprise and the relevant departments of the local government, the scientific, feasibility, pertinence and correctness of the organization, personnel, equipment and emergency plans for emergency rescue are tested. It also modifies and perfects the existing deficiencies and defects to improve the coordination, rapid response and disposal capacity of emergency rescue, ensure the orderly operation of all aspects of rescue work after the accident, and reduce the accidents caused by blind rescue.
5.3. Increase Safety Investment, Strengthen the Construction of Emergency Teams, and Improve Emergency Response Capabilities
First, government should set up special funds as soon as possible from central to local, specifically for: emergency drills for major accidents, provide emergency rescue facilities and equipment for professional rescue teams in the region; and advance funds for accident rescue.
Second, according to the industrial layout, distribution of dangerous sources, traffic and geographical conditions, industries should accelerate the pace of construction of various rescue bases and regional professional backbone rescue teams, focus on strengthening national-level regional rescue bases such as mines and dangerous chemicals, and professional backbone rescue teams.
The third is to promote emergency team business training, increase training and practical drills, organize and guide various emergency rescue teams to carry out preventive safety inspections and potential risks investigations for enterprises within the scope of services, and guide various emergency rescue teams to participate in major hazards of enterprises.
The fourth is to solve the problem of funding for emergency rescue teams. At the national level, national professional rescue teams ‘wages and benefits should be fully supplied by the state finances; for the local and part-time rescue teams, the local finances should be supplemented, and the enterprises should mention the safety production costs. At the same time, all the special and part-time rescue team members purchase high-value insurance to mitigate rescue workers pressure.
The fifth is to cultivate emergency rescue volunteers and play an important role in social emergency resources. There are few secondary and part-time rescue workers in various types of emergency rescue agencies, and the rescue force is weak. We should learn the experience from some countries such as Australia and New Zealand, where volunteers with certain professional knowledge and skills, as the most important human resources in emergency rescue. The rescue relies on thousands of well-trained volunteers to finish. The government emergency management agency provides rescue equipment for volunteers. In this way, in the event of a crisis, the emergency rescue volunteers can make up for the contradiction between the special and part-time rescue forces, and minimize accidents, injuries and losses.
5.4. Strengthening the Publicity and Education of Emergency Plans and Emergency Self-Help Mutual Rescue
The emergency rescue plan is an important means to ensure the implementation of the emergency plan for safety production accidents. Governments at all levels, relevant departments and enterprises should adopt different methods to carry out publicity, education and training on emergency production rescue plans and emergency self-help mutual rescue common sense, so that relevant departments and their staff in emergency plans can raise awareness of crisis and responsibility, and clarify emergency Work procedures to improve emergency response and coordination capabilities. On this basis, ensure that all employees have basic emergency skills, familiar with enterprise emergency plans, master accident prevention measures and emergency procedures, and improve emergency efficiency; When the disaster happen, “time is life”, who can take effective self-help and mutual rescue measures in the short time, the opportunity of survival is high. It is necessary to incorporate the propaganda and education of the public into mutual rescue and emergency plan to strengthen the training and education about safety knowledge. It is necessary to broaden the channels of education, innovate the form of education, and strive to promote emergency management into institutions, community, enterprises, schools, and towns. Through a variety of forms can effectively improve the public’s awareness of prevention and self-rescue, so that they can master common methods of self-rescue and mutual rescue, and minimize casualties and property losses.
5.5. Establish and Improve the Public Crisis Management System
The public crisis management system must be established and improved in accordance with the requirements of integration, and the system should ensure the effective integration of public crisis management resources and improve the mobilization ability of the society to cope with public crises. There are some issues should be solved in the construction of the public crisis management system:
1) Establish a unified command system for public crisis management
The establishment of a unified command system for public crisis management is to meet the needs of public crisis management. Public crisis management involves different departments and different administrative regions. Decentralized departmental management is difficult for children to adapt to emergency management requirements. A unified command system is beneficial to Quickly and efficiently make decisions and mobilize resources, reduce management links, reduce the occurrence of mutual detachment, and facilitate the transformation of individual strength into overall strength, thereby exerting overall effectiveness. Strengthening the unified command and comprehensive coordination of public crisis management is a common practice and development trend of the countries in the contemporary world to improve their ability to cope with the crisis.
2) Establish a hierarchical response and territorial integration system
The establishment of a hierarchical response and a territorial combination system is to adapt to the unpredictability and rapid spread of public crises, and to establish a management system to effectively solve the problem of block and bar. On the one hand, for public crisis management across administrative regions, administrative levels, and departments, higher levels of leadership and coordination agencies are needed to strengthen coordination and unified command. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a hierarchical response system based on the ability to respond to crises. On the other hand, the territorial management system is a basic system that we need to cooperation in dealing with crises and respect the decisions of local governments. Establishing a system of hierarchical response and territorial integration requires a management system in charge of the lead and other departments to cope with the occurrence of public crises.
3) Establish and improve the crisis management linkage coordination system
Establishing and improving the public crisis management linkage coordination system is of great significance for improving the ability to respond to public crises. It provides institutional guarantee for establishing a public crisis management system with unified command, division of labor and cooperation and resource sharing. Establishing a mature crisis management linkage coordination system can strengthen the overall planning, resource integration and overall coordination of inter-departmental and inter-regional crisis management system construction. It is the coordination and mutual support of various resources and forces, avoiding duplication of construction and idle resources.
6. Conclusions and Outlook
The occurrence of the stampede on the Bund in Shanghai brought us certain warnings. Public crises and emergencies have become an important potential danger in building a harmonious socialist society and sustainable development in China. More and more people from all walks of life have attached great importance to how to effectively respond to emergencies and properly prevent and deal with crises . Since the reform and opening up, China’s economy has developed rapidly and various undertakings have flourished. Since the 21st century, especially since the 13th Five-Year Plan, China’s social development has entered a critical stage, which is related to the realization and overall completion of the two hundred-year struggle goals. The goal of a well-off society requires political system reform and economic system reform to be carried out continuously. Reform has gradually joined into deep-water area. Under this special period, various social contradictions have gradually exposed, and the social interest relationship has become complicated. Maintaining social stability and harmony is the most important task at present, and public crisis events are precisely the important factors that influence social security and affect people’s lives.
Public crisis management is an indispensable part of public management and an important manifestation of public management. Effective public crisis management is a very complex dynamic management. In the process, we must face the crisis with the attitude of “predicting everything without prejudice and solving it”. We should prepare for possible crisis events from the perspective of long-term planning, and build a comprehensive, scientific, reasonable and efficient public crisis management strategy, and constantly cultivate people’s awareness of crisis, ability to respond to crisis and psychological quality.
In short, at this critical stage of China’s current social development, both the government and the individual must fulfill their responsibilities and obligations, commit themselves to the improvement and construction of China’s emergency management system, comprehensively improve the level of China’s emergency management, fully guarantee China’s economy and society stability, and make our own contribution to the realization of the great rejuvenation of the nation at an early date. | <urn:uuid:5e7802b7-981c-4a35-8d94-7870a9c1158b> | {
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Aims of the National Curriculum and the Science programme of study
The national curriculum for science aims to;
- Develop scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding through the specific disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics.
- Develop understanding of the nature, processes and methods of science through different types of scientific enquiries that help them to answer scientific questions about the world around them.
- Ensure all children are equipped with the scientific knowledge required to understand the uses and implications of science, today and for the future.
Science at Hextable Primary School
At Hextable Primary School we aim to offer the children a real life and meaningful experience in order to develop the children's scientific knowledge and understanding of the world.
We will encourage children to become independent and resilient learners by providing them with the opportunity to explore and investigate the natural environment and world around them.
Giving children to opportunity to experience and solve a real life problem will develop the skills of; organisation, identification, generation of ideas, decision making, evaluation, communication and reflection; all of which will prepare children with the fundamentals for becoming life-long learners.
Examples of great Science displays in Key Stage 1 and Foundation Stage:
Wren Class- Senses
Cook Class - Senses
Churchill Class - Seasonal Change | <urn:uuid:51dfce2b-a035-4d68-8280-bf82adadb438> | {
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Today on our Nashville Waterfront series we are featuring the Caney Fork River. The 143 mile-long Caney Fork is one of the major streams draining the Cumberland Plateau and a major tributary of the Cumberland River.
The Caney Fork rises in Cumberland County and flows northwest to the Cumberland River where it rises in Cumberland County, about six miles west north-west of Crossville. At the confluence of the Caney River, Collins River and Rocky River is Great Falls Lake – a beautiful area where canoes and kayaks are often found.
A fun fact is that the Caney River played a large role in the development of DeKalb County, by providing drinking water, power and transportation. It is also a river with rich history. It had many grist and saw mills established on many of its creeks. Following the Caney Fork, one could travel down stream to Nashville or even New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexico. Its river banks are lined by a plethora of virgin timber, which was often cut down. At the river banks, the timber was constructed into river rafts, some even as big as 40 feet in width and 90 feet in length. A trip to Nashville on a river raft could take up to two weeks. In the 1880s, the river was full of mussels that contained valuable pearls, so from 1885 to 1915, Smithville, on the Caney River, became a leading fresh water pearl market with some pearls bringing in over $1,000!
Today, the Caney Fork River is known for its recreational uses. Kayaking, canoeing and camping are popular activities on the river. | <urn:uuid:50676748-d60e-470a-8dc8-b054f8057e02> | {
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DNS man-in-the-middle attacks can occur when a government or 3rd party redirects you to a different online destination than you were trying to reach. For example, when you try to reach www.facebook.com governments in China, Iran and Turkey could intercept your DNS request and redirect you to an error page. Using VyprVPN with VyprDNS, your data and DNS requests pass through an encrypted tunnel that defeats "man-in-the-middle" DNS attacks and prevents DNS filtering so you can experience an open internet.
Have more questions? Submit a request | <urn:uuid:0d5716db-4a86-4a17-9dfd-75333663f8fe> | {
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The net run rate has a few disadvantages as a method of comparing performance of teams. There are three that I’ve heard or thought of.
- Team 1 gets bowled out in 33 overs having scored 230 runs. Team 2, while chasing, loses 9 wickets and reaches the target in 25 overs. Intuitively, we would think that this match was close. But because Team 1 got bowled out, its run rate calculation has 50 in the denominator, while Team will have 25, which means that NRR exaggerates the gap between them. (I think I read of this example in the feed of Twitter user ZaltzCricket)
- The bind that Pakistan found itself in recently provides another example. A team that bats first, scores 350 and dismisses its opponent for 150 rightly gets a boost to its NRR. A team that fields first, bowls out the batting team for 150 and then reaches the target in 15 overs has arguably done better than the first team, and this shows up in the run rate difference for that match. But when its net run rate is calculated over the whole tournament, the team that wins by batting second gets a disadvantage in the NRR because only 151 and 15 get added to the numerator and denominator respectively, with the result that the impact of this win is smaller than that of the team that scored 350 in 50.
- A team that scores 300 in 50 overs for the loss of 3 wickets and a team that scores 290 in 50 for 9 wickets will have nearly the same NRR, even though we intuitively feel that the number of wickets lost should also matter.
Can the Duckworth-Lewis-Stern method help fix the deficiency in the NRR? Prima Facie, it appears that the DLS method, used in its current form, should help with the problems in examples 1 and 2, but not in example 3. The idea behind DLS is that it considers the overs remaining to play and the wickets in hand as “resources” that are, statistically speaking, proportional to the runs that you can expect to score. To understand this, let’s use this table found in the Wikipedia page for DLS. It says that if your team has lost 9 wickets, unless you have fewer than 7 overs remaining, you have 4.7% of your resources left. This makes intuitive sense, because if you’ve lost 9 wickets at 40 overs, the number of overs left is not much of a constraint on how many runs you are statistically likely to score. If you have scored 200 runs at this point, DLS predicts that you are likely to score 200*100/95.3 = 210 runs.
To take another example, if, when the rain interrupts play, the team batting first has played for 25 overs without loss of wickets, DLS predicts that you still have 66.5%, or 2/3 of your resources left. If the score at this point is 125, DLS predicts that the team is likely to have scored 125*100/33.5 had it been allowed to complete its full fifty overs. If the chasing team is also given only 25 overs, it is assumed to have lost the first 25 overs of its innings, which amounts to 100-66.5, or 33.5% of its resources. So the chasing team’s score must be scaled accordingly, which means that we must compare 125*100/33.5 with S*100/66.5, where S is the chasing team’s score, to determine the winner. This is equivalent to saying that the target to chase is 125*66.5/33.5, which is how the target is given.
Going back to our three examples, it should be clear now why DLS won’t help with the third one. By definition, a team runs out of resources when it has used up 50 overs or has lost all its wickets. In example 3, both teams are at the same position as far as DLS is concerned. In examples 1 and 2, the DLS method holds more promise. Both of the situations involve a team batting second not having to bat for the full 50 overs because it reached its target score. In the first case, because the team has lost 9 wickets, DLS will predict that it will score only 231*100/95.3 =242 runs, and adjust its run rate accordingly. In the second case, assuming that the chasing team loses 5 wickets in the process of scoring 151 in 15 overs, DLS will predict that it has 48.1% of its resources left and add approximately 300 runs and 50 overs to its run rate calculation. Both these results seem fairer than using NRR as it is. Does that mean that a DLS-enriched NRR is the right option. I will give the case against followed by the case for, and let you decide.
The case against: In Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest”, there is a brilliant line that goes “I do not know whether there is anything peculiarly exciting in the air of this particular part of Hertfordshire, but the number of engagements that go on seems to me considerably above the proper average that statistics have laid down for our guidance.” The line is funny because statistics are supposed to measure reality, not guide it. It is one thing to use statistical averages as guidance in exceptional situations like rain interruptions. If we start using them for NRR calculations, we will be using them routinely. To use them to predict the score of the chasing team is particularly inappropriate. The canonical team that forms the basis for DLS is a team that is trying to score as many runs as possible within constraints of the number of overs and wickets remaining. But a team that is batting second is not aiming to score as many runs as possible. It is trying to reach its target. A team that needs to reach just 150 runs doesn’t need to bat as if it has 50 overs and 10 wickets. It can adopt a T20 strategy and score them as fast as possible. Going back to our examples, the team in the first example can protest that it is being unfairly penalized for losing wickets, when that was the right strategy in the situation. The team in the second example may benefit from DLS (because more runs and overs are added to the numerator and denominator – I think this depends on how many other matches it has played and how many other runs it has scored) but it can also argue that it is being unfairly penalized for losing 5 wickets. More pertinently, the introduction of DLS for NRR will make chasing teams completely change their strategy, which is not what we should be aiming for.
The case for: Yes, the introduction of DLS for NRR will make teams change their strategy, but that is a good thing, because now this is more of a like for like comparison. To do a perfectly fair comparison between two teams, we must put them in the exact same position. However, in a normal ODI, the team batting first does not know how much it must score; and the situation it is faced with is to score as many runs as possible within the 50 overs it has. The team batting second knows its target,and its strategy must adjust accordingly. For both teams to be in the same starting position, after the first 50 overs are done, we must inject both teams with a drug that induces amnesia and makes them forget the first 50 overs till the next 50 are completed. Unfortunately, anti-doping regulations do not allow that. Therefore, using the DLS to adjust the NRR seems like a good way to level the playing field between the two teams. Hence proved.
The case against, once again: Using DLS for NRR will slow down the batting of the second team. Any innovation that results in slower batting will never be acceptable to the ICC. Quot Erat Demonstrandum. | <urn:uuid:a369606d-5ecb-4566-8d6f-754feff13ec0> | {
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This chapter describes how to debug a child process. dbx has several facilities to help you debug processes that create children using the fork (2) and exec (2) functions.
This chapter is organized into the following sections:
When starting dbx:
$ dbx program_name process_id
From the dbx command line:
You can substitute program_name with the name - (minus sign), so that dbx finds the executable associated with the given process ID (process_id). After using a -, a subsequent run command or rerun command does not work because dbx does not know the full path name of the executable.
You can also attach to a running child process using the Debugger window in the Sun Studio IDE. (See “Attaching the Debugger to a Running Process” in the IDE online help.)
If a child process executes a new program using the exec(2)function or one of its variations, the process id does not change, but the process image does. dbx automatically takes note of a call to the exec() function and does an implicit reload of the newly executed program.
The original name of the executable is saved in $oprog. To return to it, use debug $oprog.
If a child process calls the vfork(), fork(1), or fork(2) function, the process id changes, but the process image stays the same. Depending on how the dbx environment variable follow_fork_mode is set, dbx does one of the following.
In the traditional behavior, dbx ignores the fork and follows the parent.
dbx automatically switches to the forked child using the new process ID. All connection to and awareness of the original parent is lost.
This mode is available only when using dbx through the Sun Studio IDE.
You are prompted to choose parent, child, both, or stop to investigate whenever dbx detects a fork. If you choose stop, you can examine the state of the program, then type cont to continue; you will be prompted to select which way to proceed.
All breakpoints and other events are deleted for any exec() or fork() process. You can override the deletion for forked processes by setting the dbx environment variable follow_fork_inherit to on, or make the events permanent using the- perm eventspec modifier. For more information on using event specification modifiers, see cont at Command. | <urn:uuid:e7822c5f-03d2-490d-9ff6-db6941acc67c> | {
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Sweating is an important bodily function that helps the body to cool down when needed. This prevents vital organs from overheating. There are 2 million sweat glands in the body to aid in this important role. “Excessive” sweating occurs when sweating continues to occur but the body does not need to cool down. Often, people who have hyperhidrosis sweat from their palms, feet, head and underarms, while other areas remain dry. This can be a difficult and socially embarrassing problem. Excessive sweating can interfere with daily activities by staining clothing, making a simple handshake uncomfortable, or causing sweat to drip from your forehead during a meeting.
There are two types of Hyperhidrosis, Primary and Secondary. It is important that a physician determine which type is present so that proper treatment can be prescribed.
Primary Hyperhidrosis is the most common type of sweating. It can begin as early as childhood or adolescence. It may lead to skin irritation or infection, especially under arms.
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Another important point ignored by the believers who are deceived by the error of evolutionary creation is God's different forms of creation. God has produced living things that differ significantly from humans and animals, such as angels and the jinn. Now let’s discuss this.
Two-, Three-, and Four-Winged Angels
Angels are mentioned both in Qur’an and Bible. Angels are beings that always obey God's commands. God describes their creation in the Qur'an as follows:
Praise be to God, the Bringer into Being of the heavens and Earth, He Who made the angels messengers, with wings – two, three, or four. He adds to creation in any way He wills. God has power over all things. (Surah Fatir, 1)
As we can see from this description, the forms of angels differ considerably from those of human beings. God draws attention to the different forms of creation in this verse.
God also informs how angels are at His command and obey Him:
Everything in the heavens and every creature on Earth prostrates to God, as do the angels. They are not puffed up with pride. They fear their Lord above them and do everything that they are ordered to do. (Surat an-Nahl, 49-50)
The Messiah would never disdain to be a servant of God, nor would the angels near to Him. If any do disdain to worship Him and grow arrogant, He will in any case gather them all to Him. (Surat an-Nisa', 172)
You who believe! Safeguard yourselves and your families from a Fire whose fuel is people and stones. Harsh, terrible angels are in charge of it, who do not disobey God in respect of any order He gives them and carry out what they are ordered to do. (Surat at-Tahrim, 6)
In addition, angels were created before man. In fact, God told the angels when He was going to create the Prophet Adam (pbuh), the first human being, and commanded them to prostrate before him.
At the same time, God gave the Prophet Adam (pbuh) knowledge that was different from that of the angels, and taught him the names of things. Angels do not possess that knowledge. As it is revealed in the Qur'an:
When your Lord said to the angels, "I am putting a vicegerent on Earth," they said, "Why put on it one who will cause corruption on it and shed blood when we glorify You with praise and proclaim Your purity?" He said, "I know what you do not know." He taught Adam the names of all things. Then He arrayed them before the angels and said, "Tell me the names of these, if you are telling the truth." They said, "Glory be to You! We have no knowledge except what You have taught us. You are the All-Knowing, the All-Wise." He said, "Adam, tell them their names." When he had told them their names, He said, "Did I not tell you that I know the Unseen of the heavens and Earth, and I know what you make known and what you hide?" We said to the angels, "Prostrate to Adam!" and they prostrated, with the exception of Iblis (satan). He refused and was arrogant and was one of the disbelievers. (Surat al-Baqara, 30-34)2012-06-18 22:30:43 | <urn:uuid:fee31606-f972-4219-8f78-47aaed4ba7a7> | {
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Planning & Economic Development
FAQsWhat is GIS?
GIS is an acronym for Geographic Information System. Broken into pieces, a GIS is a system of storing, managing, and analyzing information that can be referenced geographically (on a map).
How is GIS different from mapping?
A map by itself is essentially just a picture drawn either by hand, or by a computer. A GIS on the other hand is a 'smart' map. In a GIS, each feature has information attached to it.
For example, on a map you may see the outline of a parcel; in a GIS you can see that same parcel and retrieve information about that parcel such as the owner's name, size of the parcel, zoning, land use, date of annexation, current permits, etc...
What kinds of information are stored in the City's GIS?
The City's GIS stores and organizes all sorts of information. Some examples include transportation information, parcel ownership and lot locations, sanitary and storm sewer pipe networks, topographic relief, hydrology, and imagery.
How can GIS benefit me?
It depends on what you want to know. Here are some examples of questions that GIS can answer:
- Who is my representation at the City level?
- What is the safest route to school if I let my child walk?
- Where does the water flowing through my ditch ultimately end up?
- When is my garbage collected?
- Why did the City cut down that tree?
- How long will it take me from point A to point B?
- Does the park across town have a picnic table if I take my family there?
The City's GIS can answer all these realistic questions and countless more.
What is the best way to get started using GIS?
The easiest way to get started using the City's GIS is to access the City Interactive Map Viewer. This map is a portal to the content of the GIS. | <urn:uuid:ad0ca107-1208-4de1-9eb9-11f04c07822a> | {
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Livestock careers span a variety of different occupations, from raising livestock for food to performing in rodeos. If you love animals, a career involving livestock can be both rewarding and challenging. As with any field, your experience and education will determine what you are qualified to do.
Veterinarians who specialize in livestock provide medical care for large animals such as horses, cattle and sheep. They provide preventative care such as vaccinations, diagnose and treat disease, and care for wounds and injuries. Veterinarians also provide care throughout animal pregnancies and assist with the birthing process. In addition, they educate and advise animal owners and caregivers on issues like proper diet and housing. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that veterinarians must complete a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree at an accredited college of veterinary medicine. They must also be licensed to practice by the state. They may work in clinics, universities or own their own practice.
Rodeos offer many livestock-related careers. On the entertainment side are the cowboys and cowgirls who compete in the events. If you decide to compete in rodeo, you must be skilled at riding and handling animals and be physically strong enough to complete events. You can choose from events such as bull riding, bronc riding, roping and barrel racing. Jobs outside the ring include pick-up men who help bronc riders dismount after their rides and clowns used to distract animals and protect competitors. In addition, stock contractors raise and provide the livestock used in the events. Check with your local rodeo association or event center to ask about current openings.
Ranchers produce the food that is sold throughout the United States and exported abroad. Ranchers raise livestock such as beef cattle, pigs and chickens. Some also harvest milk from dairy cows and goats. Ranch workers feed and care for animals and maintain and repair facilities and equipment. According to the BLS, most farmers, ranchers and other agricultural managers have a high school diploma. However, an increasing number also earn a bachelor’s degree in agriculture or a related field to enhance their knowledge and job prospects. Prospective ranchers typically work and gain experience under more experienced ranchers.
Many farms and ranches breed livestock. Breeders choose which animals to breed to achieve specific results. For example, bulls bred for rodeo are bred to be athletic and provide a challenge for the cowboys. Beef cattle are bred to provide the highest quality meat. In addition, breeders will supervise the breeding process. Breeding is often done using artificial insemination to ensure that the females get pregnant. They might also perform research to improve animal breeding efficiency and standards.
- Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:c8b3f307-f716-492e-a121-617f2412376e> | {
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| name= Podiatrist
A podiatrist, also known as a podiatric physician (/poʊˈdaɪətrɪst/ poh-dye-eh-trist) or foot and ankle surgeon, is a medical professional devoted to the study and medical/surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle and lower extremity. The term originated in North America, but has now become the accepted term in the English-speaking world for all practitioners of Podiatry.
In the United States, Doctors of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) are doctors who practice on the lower extremities, primarily on human foot and ankles. The preparatory education of most podiatrists includes four years of undergraduate work, followed by four years in an accredited podiatric medical school, followed by a three or four-year hospital-based surgical residency (medicine). Podiatrists are licensed in all 50 states, but each state has their own licensing requirements. The scope of practice may vary from state to state and residency training.
Worldwide, in many countries the term ''podiatrist ''refers to allied health professionals who specialize in the treatment of the lower extremity, particularly the foot. Podiatrists in these countries are specialists in the diagnosis and treatment of foot pathology, but not through surgical means. In some circumstances these practitioners will further specialty (medicine) and, following further training, perform reconstructive foot and ankle surgery.
In contrast, American podiatrists who hold a Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) complete surgical residencies, and thus all practitioners are trained in surgical treatments of the foot and ankle. Though the title ''chiropodist'' was previously used in the United States to designate what is now known as a podiatrist, it is now considered to be an antiquated and etymologically incorrect term. The median annual Podiatry salary is approximately $195,000 as of August, 2018, with a wide range depending on years in practice. New Podiatrists right out of residency usually earn significantly less. First year salaries of $120,000-$180,0000 with performance/productivity incentives are common. Private practice revenue for solo Podiatrists also varies widely with the majority of solo practices grossing between $200,000-$600,000 before overhead.
In Australia, there is now an option to be a podiatric assistant. The qualification is a Certificate IV in Allied Health Assistance specialising in podiatry.[http://www.healthindustrytraining.org/certificates/HLT42507-Certificate-IV-Allied-Health-Assistance.html Certificate IV in Allied Health Assistance - HLT42507] They work as a part of a podiatric medical team in a variety of clinical and non clinical settings. There are currently developing strategies to further utilise these skilled workers. Worldwide, there are common professional accreditation pathways to becoming a podiatric assistant. There are many fields such as:
Podiatric surgery is a specialist field in the podiatry profession in most western countries, including Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom. Podiatric surgery is defined as “the surgical treatment of conditions affecting the foot, ankle and related lower extremity structures by accredited and qualified specialist podiatrists”. Podiatric surgeons are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the foot and ankle. Podiatric surgeons are qualified to care for bone, joint, ligament, muscle and tendon pathology of the foot and ankle, such as:
Podiatrists' roles include dealing with the conditions resulting from bone and joint disorders such as arthritis and soft-tissue and muscular pathologies as well as neurological and circulatory diseases. Podiatrists are also able to diagnose and treat any complications of the above which affect the lower limb, including skin and nail disorders, corns, calluses and ingrown toenails. Foot injuries and infections gained through sport or other activities are also diagnosed and treated by podiatrists.[http://www.podiatryvic.com.au/Podiatrists/Podiatry.htm About Podiatrists]. Retrieved on 2012-07-06.
Australian podiatrists complete an undergraduate degree of Bachelor of Podiatry or Podiatric Medicine ranging from 3 to 4 years of education. The first 2 years of this program are generally focused on various biomedical science subjects including anatomy, medical chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, pathophysiology, sociology and patient psychology, similar to the medical curriculum. The following two years will then be spent focusing on podiatry specific areas such as podiatric biomechanics and human gait, podiatric orthopaedics or the non-surgical management of foot abnormalities, pharmacology & prescribing, general medicine, general pathology, local and general anaesthesia, and surgical procedural techniques such as Surgical treatment of ingrown toe nails and Surgical treatment of ingrown toe nails, matricectomy, cryotherapy, wound debridement and care, enucleation (surgery), and other cutaneous and electro-surgical procedures such as electro-desiccation, fulagaration and electrosection. Postgraduate courses in podiatric therapeutics and prescribing are required for having endorsements in scheduled medicines. All podiatrists are required to register with AHPRA prior to be licensed to practice in Australia. Registration is required annually. There is a minimum of continuing professional development (CPD) hours a podiatrist must undertake to maintain said registration. Podiatric surgeons are specialty (medicine) podiatrists who have completed extensive, post graduate medical and surgical training and perform reconstructive surgery of the foot and ankle. The qualifications of podiatric surgeons are recognised by Australian State and Federal Governments. It is an approved specialty by the Australian Health Practitioners Regulation Agency. Podiatric surgeons are included within both the Health Insurance Act and the National Health Act.
The Podiatry Board of Australia recognizes 3 pathways to attain specialist registration as a Podiatric Surgeon:[http://www.podiatryboard.gov.au/Registration-Endorsement/Specialist-Registration.aspx Process for Application for Specialist Registration of Podiatric Surgeons]. podiatryboard.gov.au. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
1. Fellowship of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons
2. Doctor of Clinical Podiatry, University of Western Australia
*3. Eligibility for Fellowship of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons
Podiatric surgical qualifications are a post-graduate speciality of the podiatric
profession. Before attaining a podiatric surgical fellowship qualification, a podiatrist
must complete an extensive training program, including:
Only one university, Auckland University of Technology (AUT), offers training to become a podiatrist. Podiatrists must have a Bachelor of Health Science majoring in podiatry from AUT, or an overseas qualification recognised by the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand, be registered with the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand and have a current Annual Practising Certificate.
In Canada, the definition and scope of the practice of podiatry varies provincially. For instance, in some provinces like British Columbia and Alberta, the standards are the same as in the United States where the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) is the accepted qualification.
Quebec, too, has recently changed to the DPM level of training, although other academic designations may also register. Also in Quebec, in 2004, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières started the first program of Podiatric Medicine in Canada based on the American definition of podiatry. In the prairie and Atlantic provinces, the standard was originally based on the British model now called podiatry (chiropody). That model of podiatry is currently the accepted model for most of the world including the United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa.
The province of Ontario has been registering Chiropodists since July 1993 (when the Ontario Government imposed a cap on new podiatrists). If a registered podiatrist from outside of Ontario relocates to Ontario they are required to register with the province and practice as a chiropodist. Podiatrists who were practicing in Ontario previous to the imposed provincial cap were 'grandfathered' and allowed to keep the title of podiatrist as a subclass of chiropody. The scope of these 'grandfathered' (mostly American trained) podiatrists includes boney procedures of the forefoot and the ordering of x-rays in addition to the scope of the chiropodist.
In Ontario, podiatrists are required to have a "Doctor of Podiatric Medicine/DPM" degree (a post-baccalaureate, four-year degree), where the majority of chiropodists currently practicing hold a post-secondary diploma in chiropody, although many also have some university level schooling or a baccalaureate degree in the sciences or in another field. Podiatrists may bill OHIP for their services; chiropodists may not. Podiatrists may "communicate a diagnosis" to their patients (or to their patients' representatives) and perform surgical procedures on the bones of the forefoot; chiropodists may do neither.http://www.opma.ca/podiatryandchiropody
Chiropodists and podiatrists are regulated by the [http://www.cocoo.on.ca College of Chiropodists of Ontario], which had 594 chiropodists and 65 podiatrists registered as of 29 July 2015.http://www.cocoo.on.ca/index.html
The only English-speaking Chiropody program in Canada, in which also has a working Chiropody Clinic on campus for students to treat patients under the supervision of licensed Chiropodists is The Michener Institute. According to The Michener Institute website, Chiropody is a branch of medical science that involves the assessment and management of foot and lower limb disorders. This includes the management of a wide variety of disorders, injuries, foot deformities, infections and local manifestations of systemic conditions. A Chiropodist is a primary care professional practicing in podiatric medicine in Ontario that specializes in assessment, management and prevention of diseases and disorders of the foot. An essential member of the inter professional healthcare team, the Chiropodist is skilled in assessing the needs of their patients and of managing both chronic and acute conditions affecting foot and lower limb function. As a primary care provider capable of independent clinical practice, these skills are often practiced independent of medical referral and medical supervision.
In the UK, podiatrists usually undertake a 3-year undergraduate Bachelor of Science (Podiatry). Podiatric Surgeons have undertaken fellowships and postgraduate training. The scope of practice of a podiatrist falls into four key categories: General clinics, Biomechanics, High risk patient management and Surgery. There are two levels of surgical practice. As part of general podiatric care, podiatrists as HPC (Health Professions Council) registered practitioners are involved with nail and minor soft tissue surgical procedures and qualified to administer local anaesthetics. From 1 August 2012, the HPC is being rebranded to the HCPC (Health & Care Professions Council) as they are expanding their remit to include Social Workers. The old term of "State Registered" has been defunct for some time and is no longer used since the creation of the HPC. Some podiatrists go on to develop and train as podiatric surgeons, who surgically manage bone and joint disorders within the foot. It is to this latter group (Podiatric Surgeons) that the guidelines apply. Fellowship requires a minimum of six years postgraduate training. This includes a two or three year surgical residency with an approved centre. Podiatric surgeons acquire comprehensive knowledge of related subjects including pharmacology, regional anaesthetic techniques and radiographic interpretation, as well as in-depth knowledge of foot surgery. The surgical faculty of the College of Podiatrists has set the standards for fellowship.
In the United States, medical and surgical care of the foot and ankle is mainly provided by two groups of professionals: podiatrists (Doctor of Podiatric Medicine or DPM) and orthopedists (MDs or DOs).
The first year of podiatric medical school is similar to training that either Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) receive, but with an emphasized scope on foot, ankle, and lower extremity. To enter a college of podiatric medicine, the student must first complete at least three years or 90 semester hours of college credit at an accredited institution. Biology, Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Physics (all science courses require a lab) and English are among the required classes. Over 95% of the students who enter a college of podiatric medicine have a bachelor's degree. Many have also completed some graduate study. Before entering a college of podiatric medicine, the student must take the MCAT (Medical College Admissions Test).[http://wvpma.org/what-is-podiatric-medicine.html Training of a Podiatrist]. wvpma.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
There are nine colleges of podiatric medicine in the United States[http://www.aacpm.org/Retrieved on 2012-06-27.]
. They all receive accreditation from the Council on Podiatric Medical Education, which is recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education and the Council on Higher Education Accreditation. All of the colleges grant the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM).[http://www.mpma.org/resources/podiatry-career PODIATRIC MEDICINE AS A CAREER]. mpma.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
The four-year podiatric medical school is followed by a surgical based residency, which is hands-on post-doctoral training. There are two standard residencies: Podiatric Medicine & Surgery and Podiatric Medicine & Surgery with Rearfoot Reconstruction and Ankle (PM&SR or PM&SR/RRA).[http://www.casprcrip.org/html/residencies/rp_programs.asp] CASPR/CRIP Types of Residencies. Retrieved on 2014-04-21. Podiatric residents rotate through core areas of medicine and surgery. They work alongside their MD and DO counterparts in such rotations as emergency medicine, internal medicine, infectious disease, behavioral medicine, physical medicine & rehabilitation, vascular surgery, general surgery, orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, dermatology and of course podiatric surgery and medicine. Fellowship training is available after residency in such fields such as foot & ankle traumatology or limb salvage.
Upon completion of their residency, podiatrists can decide to become board certified by a number of specialty boards including the more common American Board of Podiatric Orthopedics and Primary Podiatric Medicine and/or the American Board of Podiatric Surgery. The ABPMS or The American Board of Podiatric Medical Specialties has been certifying podiatrists since 1998. Within the American Board of Podiatric Surgery, PM&S 24 graduates can sit for Board Certification in Foot Surgery and those that complete PM&S 36 can sit for Board Certification in Foot Surgery and Board Certification in Reconstructive Rearfoot & Ankle Surgery. Both boards in ABPS are examined as separate tracks. Though the ABPS and ABPOPPM are more common, other boards are equally challenging and confer board qualified/certified status. Many hospitals and insurance plans do not require board eligibility or certification to participate.
The DPM superseded the historical DSC (Doctor of Surgical Chiropody) degree in the 1960s. | <urn:uuid:1a2ad607-76ba-442c-b8ea-e571a61c15d2> | {
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Children learn from their school building
Each year the Committee on the Environment (COTE) of the American Institute of Architects selects a Top Ten “green buildings.” Today, we'll take a look at a school building that made the cut.
California-based Marin Country Day School attained the platinum level of LEED, which is the highest level. The school uses 20,000 Btu’s per square foot compared to the average school use of 110,000 Btu per square. Photovoltaic panels on the roof produces 13,000 Btu’s for a net use of 7,000 Btu per square foot. Sure it’s California but that is not much energy!
How does it do it? Walls of glass with deep overhangs keep the direct sun out of classrooms but let daylight in. Many classrooms don’t use the lights during the day.
A cooling tower evaporates water at night which costs less than energy-intensive, compressor-based air conditioning. The water is stored in a 15,000-gallon underground cistern, and is used to cool the slabs via radiant tubes. These same tubes also heat the buildings with the use of a condensing boiler.
Rainwater from the roof is collected and used to flush toilets and supplement the cooling system.
The best part of the project is how it educates the students about energy usage. Each class is metered separately so students can see how they impact energy usage. An online monitoring system shows them how the solar panels, rainwater collection, and energy usage are all interconnected.
When we educate people about how each one of us impacts energy usage, we will become better users. What a better place to start than with young children!
Stay tuned for the next blog in this series, featuring information on a small urban office building.
Send your thoughts to [email protected] | <urn:uuid:8081d63b-a088-4c20-adb2-bf20f0b42024> | {
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- Air Force Research Laboratory
- General Atomics
- Hypersonic Vehicle Electric Power Systems
- Jet Burner Test Facility
- National Aeronautics & Space Administration
- Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne
- United Technologies Research Cente
San Diego, CA, March 13, 2007. A team led by General Atomics (GA) successfully tested a new method for generating electrical power on board a hypersonic vehicle. A magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator was operated to produce electrical power using the exhaust stream from a prototype hypersonic scramjet combustor simulating flight at Mach 8 conditions. This is the world's first successful demonstration of a hypersonic MHD generator. This will lead the way for future development of this technology as a viable means to provide multi-megawatt MHD auxiliary power systems for air-breathing hypersonic vehicles.
This work was a collaborative effort by prime contractor GA, LyTec LLC, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne (PWR), United Technologies Research Center (UTRC), and NASA. The United States Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) sponsored the research effort under the Hypersonic Vehicle Electric Power Systems (HVEPS) program managed at Wright Patterson's AFRL/Propulsion Directorate.
The scramjet-driven MHD power testing was completed December 12, 2006 at the UTRC Jet Burner Test Facility (JBTF) in Hartford, CT. The experiments encompassed two sequential series of multiple short-duration tests in the JBTF wherein an MHD generator test article was installed in-line and downstream of the scramjet test rig. In all experiments, MHD electric power was successfully demonstrated at varying magnetic field intensities and varying power levels. Preliminary assessments indicate that peak power production of 15 kW was achieved over the active portion of the MHD generator, which was well within the design range for the test article.
Gas turbine engines are currently used to mechanically drive rotating generators to produce electrical power for conventional aircraft systems. Hypersonic vehicles, however, use scramjet engines, which do not have rotating shafts to allow the use of dynamos. The HVEPS project posed the advanced concept of using an MHD generator coupled in-line to the scramjet exhaust to directly extract electric power from the induced electromotive force produced by the interaction of the exhaust plasma stream with a magnetic field. The HVEPS demonstration of this concept is a notable milestone that paves the way for further development of scramjet-driven MHD as an enabling technology for realization of a revolutionary flight-weight, high-electric-power system applicable to the next generation global-reach military aircraft.
The Air Force program manager for HVEPS, Mr. Rene Thibodeaux, stated, "The success of these tests moves hypersonic MHD technology from the realm of speculation to realistic possibilities. Electrical power can now be produced on-board an air-breathing hypersonic platform without carrying large amounts of liquid oxygen like the Space Shuttle requires"
General Atomics, founded in 1955, specializes in diversified research, development, and manufacturing in defense, energy, and other advanced technologies. Affiliated manufacturing and commercial service companies include General Atomics Aeronautical Systems, Inc., which produces the Predator® family of unmanned aerial systems.
Source: General Atomics Scores Power Production First
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Click for more "Microbes After Hours" videos
Scientists who study living things organize them into categories based on their relationships. Early classification systems were based simply on how things look. Now scientists focus on genetics, cellular make-up and other more specific things when they classify creatures.
Classification systems include big groups that are subdivided into smaller groups. Here's one way classification might work using cars as an example:
Imagine it's the year 2525. A planet similar to Earth has recently been found in a newly identified solar system in another galaxy. We have sent a space probe with a molecular transport beam to this planet to beam back a variety of different living creatures. Scientists examine the structure of each of these creatures and realize that they need to create a classification scheme to help them compare the alien life forms to each other and discover how they might be related.
The lead scientist sends you illustrations of the organisms and asks you to help develop this classification system. Your role is to study the illustrations and come up with a possible classification scheme based on the information provided about each organism. You'll be asked to explain to the scientific team how and why you organized the creatures this way. Print out these pages and follow the directions to do this activity at home. When you're done, come back to this page to test your newfound knowledge by answering the questions below. (No fair peeking at the answers before you do the activity!)
Note: This activity will take 30 minutes to 1 hour.
Note: Be careful handling sharp scissors.
What To Do:
1. Click on the link above for critter cards pages. Print out each page and cut out the cards. Keep the last four cards separate from the others.
2. Study all the cards except the last four, noting similarities and differences among the creatures. Create a table on your paper to help organize what you see. You might have columns to describe bristles, antennae, eyes, etc. You might want to number your cards to help keep track of which you're describing.
3. Now put the cards (except the four you've kept separate) into groups based on the similarities and/or differences you see. Each group should include creatures that have something in common. Now create a new table, listing the traits common to each group you've made.
4. Choose one of the cards from the four you've kept separate. This is a picture of a creature was just beamed back by the space probe and sent to you by the lead scientist. You need to decide where it fits in the group system you've just created. Do you need to make a new group for this creature or can you find some way to fit it into one of your existing groups?
5. Write a brief paragraph explaining your classification scheme, how it works and how easy or hard it is to fit new creatures into it.
This experiment is based on an activity developed by the National Association of Biology Teachers. | <urn:uuid:bd375bdd-41c0-443c-a023-01d50265d7b1> | {
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Just a few more links
The Food Museum blog takes a look at what may have been the real first North American thanksgiving feast:
The first multi-cultural Thanksgiving gathering in North America involved neither them, nor turkeys, as far as researchers know. It took place on the banks of the Rio Grande in April of 1598, and featured a rag tag group of soldiers, families, the Manso native people, priests, and over 7000 domestic animals. The southwest feast on the border of El Nuevo Mexico marked a key confluence of Spanish, Native, and Other ( Anglo) culture.Snopes has a few funny turkey-cooking legends.
Chaotic Utopia explains the science of gravy making, and provides recipes for both flour-thickened and cornstarch-thickened versions.
Now I'm back to the kitchen!
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Five years ago, an African-American student at The University of Texas at Austin School of Nursing was feeling lonely, socially isolated and academically frustrated. She had no friends on campus; she was failing her courses and did not understand why she was receiving such low grades on tests and assignments. There seemed to be nowhere for her to turn—she felt there was no support on campus, no one to talk to and no way to develop the skills she needed to improve her academic performance.
This was the situation presented to me as one of the school’s two African-American faculty members. I knew this student had the potential to succeed, and I knew I needed to do something to help her and other minority students who were in the same situation.
Our nursing program had a Learning Enhancement Center that offered many resources to help students, such as providing tutors and mentors to help students improve their study skills, writing skills and test-taking skills. But we had noticed that very few African-American students were taking advantage of the center. Clearly, for any program to succeed in improving the academic performance of minority students, it had to make them feel comfortable using such resources.
Together with the coordinator of the Learning Enhancement Center and the student, we worked out a concept for a more culturally sensitive alternative: a support group for minority students. The objectives for the group, which was called the African-American Nursing Students Association (AANSA), were to:
1. Provide a comfortable environment where students encourage each other to develop interpersonal skills, good study habits and academic savoir-faire.
2. Encourage students to integrate themselves into the academic and social life of the university.
3. Increase the number of minority students entering and graduating from the School of Nursing.
To ensure a large turnout for the support group’s first meeting, we scheduled it for a time when most minority students were on campus and sent out announcement notices. But the primary reason for so many students showing up was the persistence of the student who originally came to me in need of support. She urged many of the African-American nursing students to attend our first meeting.
During the first three meetings, students were reluctant to communicate. Again, it was the enthusiasm and urging of the original student that eventually motivated the group to talk openly with each other and with the faculty advisor about their experiences and concerns.
They began by expressing their feelings of isolation. Many of them were shy and hesitant to participate in classroom discussions, yet they did not go to the faculty advisor for assistance because they felt asking for help would be admitting weakness. They saw the university and the school of nursing as an unfriendly environment that did not include them, and they did not feel connected to the social or educational resources of the university.
The first meetings were unstructured: the students concentrated on sharing their experiences. Eventually they began talking about practical concerns, such as professors and classes, their study problems, their test-taking abilities and where they could go for help. After establishing a habit of communication and accepting the value of participating in a group, the students and faculty advisor developed a more structured format to help veteran students progress and beginning students become integrated into the group.
One hourly meeting was scheduled each month. The group members appointed the original student president, and she consulted with the faculty advisor and the Learning Enhancement Center coordinator to set an agenda. Generally, the group focused on a formal topic for the first half hour, such as the resources available for developing writing skills. Speakers often made presentations at this time. The president used the next 15 minutes to pass along timely information, such as news of an upcoming conference. During the last 15 minutes, students talked informally among themselves, often staying after the meeting to continue their conversations.
In the beginning, I expected that once the minority student support group had achieved its goals, the members would no longer continue it. I assumed they would come to participate in the general nursing student group, the University of Texas Nursing Students Association (UTNSA), and would have no further need for the AANSA.
After participating in the support group, many students did begin taking advantage of the benefits offered by the university and the school of nursing. They were more comfortable expressing themselves in class and more inclined to make friends with students from all backgrounds. They participated more in the general student organizations and began working with the faculty and staff on volunteer projects. Their grades improved because they were no longer afraid to use resources like the Learning Enhancement Center. But the AANSA did not go out of existence.
Currently, the group consists of 14 students, all of whom are female. Members are actively involved with other campus groups, and there is an AANSA representative on the UTNSA board. In addition, the AANSA students are actively working in the minority community. They have organized a program called “Operation: Grow a Nurse” to tutor and mentor middle-school students. They help the students with their schoolwork and encourage them to think about furthering their education at professional schools, such as a school of nursing.
AANSA has given students and faculty the opportunity to interact with each other in an informal setting, allowing them to move beyond the formality of the academic setting. The group has also changed the way faculty members work with students. They taught us that it was all right to approach a student who was doing poorly and suggest that he or she come in for help. The group helped orient the faculty toward the needs and learning styles of minority students, which in turn encouraged instructors to adapt their teaching styles to help students succeed.
And finally, now that the group is cohesive and functioning well, it is time, based on students’ requests, to focus on career development.
We learned seven main lessons from our experience with the AANSA group that will benefit other nursing schools interested in forming a minority student network.
1. There must be at least one student who is enthusiastic about the group, who urges others to participate and who takes responsibility for keeping the group active.
2. Initially, the students in the group should be close enough in culture and experience that they feel comfortable talking with each other and sharing their feelings. This group was African American, and the student interaction might not have jelled if other minorities had participated, because the shared experiences would not have been there. After the group became established, it was easier to bring in students with different racial and ethnic backgrounds.
3. The group’s purpose was to integrate students into the university community. This process, however, takes several years and must be given time to achieve momentum. Students see other students benefiting from the group and become more interested in joining. It is only recently that the AANSA students have become involved in the larger student organization.
4. It is important to have a faculty advisor who guides the group and with whom the students feel comfortable.
5. These students have commented that they would like the group to focus more on their unique cultural background and the contributions they can make as a group to the university and the community. Since these are professional groups, it is important to balance this desire with the needs of the public at large.
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Today, we give shape to the automobile. The
University of Houston's College of Engineering
presents this series about the machines that make
our civilization run, and the people whose
ingenuity created them.
The new Chrysler Airflow was
called the "Car of the Future" in 1934. In one
leap, it took us from the four-square shape that
Ford had set with his Model-T to a radical
streamlined form. America was quite unprepared for
its rounded shape. Before 1934, the flat fenders of
the Model-T had given way to ones that looked like
inverted tablespoons, and cars were nearer the
ground. But little else had changed. Then the
Chrysler Airflow! It was so far from known
automobiles it could have come from Mars.
Even if it were beautiful, the public would've had
trouble accepting it. And few people have ever
called it pretty. The car, which looked a little
like a VW Beetle, was a grand commercial failure.
The streamlining itself didn't even work. Designer
Dick Nesbit tells us that Orville Wright did
wind-tunnel tests and found the Airflow offered
more drag than previous cars had.
Yet "Car of the Future" became a catchword. One of
my early childhood memories was competing to be the
first one in my family car to spot one of those odd
little machines on the road. If it failed
commercially, it didn't fail to seize the
imagination. Imitators sprang up right away. The
Lincoln Zephyr and the 1938 Cadillac picked up the
theme. But the streamlined form mutated. Car bodies
-- once round -- now developed a kind of linearity.
Strong horizontal lines tapered into tailfins.
The tailfins went out of fashion in the 1960s, but
the horizontal lines stayed. By the early '60s,
America found a car design it liked, and little has
changed in the 30 years since. Streamlining had
finally led us to a shape we haven't seen fit to
Nesbit concludes by saying:
The design evolution of the American automobile
continues, as vigorous and promising as ever.
But he's an automotive designer who
looks closely at small changes. I'm not; I see cars
with a layman's eye. The Chrysler Airflow was the
greatest single change I've ever seen. It was a
failure, but we couldn't take our eyes off it. It
really was the "Car of The Future," but in an odd
way. It started the only major change that automobile
design has undergone.
So the first generation of cars imitated
horse-drawn carriages and culminated in the
Model-T. The second generation of auto users saw
the evolution of today's form. That evolution began
with the Airflow and finally settled down on bland
cars like the 1960-vintage Ford Falcon.
Now we're ending the third generation of the
automobile. It began with the straight lines of the
1960s cars and, to my inexpert eyes, today's cars
seem pretty much the same. Of course, we're also
starting the fourth generation. I wonder if that
could mean that we're finally about to see another
reshaping of our automobiles as radical as the old
Chrysler Airflow. I wouldn't be too optimistic.
I'm John Lienhard, at the University of Houston,
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Sale Date Ended
Electronics is a wonderful field of engineering. Today, our life is fully dependent on electronics because we are using 100’s of electronic gadgets in our daily life, but very few people know how the electronic gadgets works or what are different electronic components. Sometimes, we get easily fooled due to lack of knowledge.
We have designed a hobby course on electronics specially for small children of 8+ years so that they are fully aware of all the different components used, what are different types of electronic circuits with practical experiments using very high quality world standard imported kits.
Our programme is a fully practical programme which has been designed by experts in USA, so that children will learn and enjoy having lots of fun. We can teach them 100+ practical experiments, out which some of them are as follows:-
1) Electric Light and switch
2) DC motor & switch
3) Musical door bell
4) Laser Gun
6) Race Games
7) Alarm Clock
8) Lamp & Fan is Series/Parallel
This workshop is give practical training to children to learn the basics of electronics with interesting experiments everyday.
Please contact for more details
Vijender Jain B.E.(Mech) M-9818327437
1032-Q, Sector-38,Gurgaon (Haryana) | <urn:uuid:beb671ae-a53d-4685-a943-b3bad2698bd0> | {
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Attempts to persuade us - to believe something, to do something, to buy something - are everywhere. What is less clear is how to think critically about such attempts and how to distinguish those that are sound arguments. Critical Thinking is a much-needed guide to argument analysis and a clear introduction to thinking clearly and rationally for oneself. Through clear and accessible discussion, this book equips students with the essential skills required to tell a good argument from a bad one. Key features of the book include: Clear, jargon-free discussion of key concepts in argumentation How to avoid common confusions surrounding words such as 'truth', 'knowledge' and 'opinion' How to identify and evaluate the most common types of argument How to spot fallacies in arguments and tell good reasoning from bad Topical examples from politics, sport, medicine, music; chapter summaries; glossary and exercises throughout. Critical Thinking is essential reading for anyone, student or professional, at work or in the classroom, seeking to improve their reasoning and arguing skills. | <urn:uuid:61686222-ee73-4919-a8e5-978f6293a854> | {
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“The affected area is part of the Constitution Marsh Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat, one of the largest tidal wetlands on the Hudson River. Ensuring a protective cleanup and functioning wetland is critical to many species that inhabit the Marathon Battery Site and the people who recreate there.”
– Lisa Rosman, NOAA Regional Resource Coordinator
Hazardous Waste Site | Cold Spring, NY | 1952 to Present
A nickel-cadmium battery manufacturing facility operated here from 1952 to 1979. At various times during this period, untreated liquid wastes were discharged into the sewer system, Hudson River, and Foundry Cove. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; federal agency with the mission to protect human health and safeguard the environment. designated the area a An uncontrolled or abandoned place where hazardous waste is located, possibly affecting local ecosystems or people. Sites are listed on the National Priorities List for evaluation and cleanup by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. in 1981.
The manufacturing contaminated sediments and soils primarily with cadmium, cobalt and nickel. Cleanup activities were selected in the late 1980s to address groundwater, soil, and sediment contamination. Contaminated upland soils and river and tidal wetland sediments were excavated. East Foundry Cove Marsh was subsequently capped with clay, covered with soil, and replanted. This work was completed in 1995. The site was delisted in 1996, when Scenic Hudson purchased the cove, marsh, and West Point Foundry historic site. East Foundry Cove and Marsh are now managed by the Audubon Society.
What Were the Impacts?
Cadmium accumulated throughout the food web, affecting invertebrates, crab, fish, birds, and muskrats. In addition, elevated levels of trichloroethylene; an industrial solvent associated with cancer in both humans and wildlife. were detected in groundwater. While most of this contamination was addressed in the EPA cleanup, elevated metals in the adjacent Constitution Marsh, a National Audubon Society sanctuary, were not remediated.
What’s Happening Now?
Treatment of contaminated groundwater is ongoing. Institutional controls are in place to prevent potable use of on-site groundwater and damage to the capped marsh sediments. There is a consumption advisory due to cadmium south of the Rip Van Winkle bridge. The advisory is for blue crab meat, tomalley and cooking liquid.
Planting of emergent species in East Foundry Cove Marsh was not completely successful. The 85% cover requirement was not achieved and parts of the re-planted clay-capped former marsh remain un-vegetated as mudflats or open water. NOAA continues to work with EPA to improve the habitat structure and functionality of the reconstructed East Foundry Cove Marsh. | <urn:uuid:49cb22d1-9467-4fca-b789-7fa888ae5c91> | {
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Unformatted text preview: st amendment. This is just one of many cases in which the Courts have held that things people say or do that seem like they should be prosecuted for are just let go. CONS-The courts have took in upon themselves to overrule the 1 st amendment to the constitution if what is said is proven to be a clear and present danger to the country, is brought about in a time of war, or is some form of slander towards another free citizen. The courts have allowed the 1 st amendment to grant protect citizens but have not gone to the point of allowing despicable individuals to partake in group hate speech. The 1 st amendment doesn’t advocate hate crimes or slander of groups of people and anything seen as a danger to a group of people is dealt with and not allowed....
View Full Document
- Spring '08
- Supreme Court of the United States, First Amendment to the United States Constitution, hate speech PROS, despicable individuals | <urn:uuid:4239055c-c595-4512-9e3f-6706b7deb101> | {
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By law, children must be enrolled in school or an approved alternative program by a particular age. In most parts of the country, these age requirements are five years old for kindergarten and six years old for first grade. Even then, cutoff dates, after which children must wait until the next school year to enter class, vary greatly.
The idea that because of their birth date some children are "ready for school" and others are not has become controversial. Just as children begin to work or talk at different ages, they also develop the psychological and social aptitudes necessary for school at varying ages.
In addition, many parents and educators feel that schools need to be ready for children. This newer approach emphasizes how school programs can be designed so that all children of the chronological age to enter school can benefit from the program. Of course, the reality is that a match between your child's development and the school's resources and adaptability may not exist.
When you're deciding when your child should start school, consider your child's unique abilities and local circumstances. Gather accurate information about your child's development, especially communication skills, including language development and the ability to listen; social skills and the ability to get along with other children and adults; and physical skills from running and playing to using a crayon or pencil. Talking with your child's pediatrician, preschool teacher, and/or childcare provider can provide some useful, objective observations and information.
Some schools may conduct their own tests to evaluate your youngster's abilities. So-called readiness tests tend to concentrate on academic skills, but most usually evaluate other aspects of development. These tests are far from infallible; some children who do poorly on them still fare well in school. Even so, you can use them as one of the yardsticks in determining how your child's development has progressed relative to other children of the same age. Often, your own parental intuition about your child's capabilities is an accurate measure of how well she is prepared to enter school, particularly if you have an older child with whom you have had experience.
When you or the school identify some areas of your child's development that seem to lag behind, use this information to help you and the school plan for the special attention that your child may need. By sharing information with your child's teacher and other school staff, you can help the school be ready for your child. At the same time, you are establishing a partnership for your child's education that can and should continue throughout her childhood.
Parents can encourage their children's cognitive, physical, and emotional development before they enter school. Kindergarten teachers appreciate having children who are enthusiastic and curious in approaching new activities, can follow directions, are sensitive to other children's feelings, and can take turns and share. Some specific skills that will make your child's first year at school go smoothly include her ability to:
- Play well with other children with minimal fighting or crying.
- Remain attentive and quiet when being read a story.
- Use the toilet on her own.
- Successfully use zippers and buttons.
- Say her name, address, and telephone number.
There are great benefits to reading to your child beginning in infancy. Help your child acquire some basic skills, like recognizing and remembering letters, numbers, and colors. Expose her to enriching and learning experiences like trips to the museum, or enroll her in community art or science programs. To promote social-skills development, encourage her to play with other children of both sexes in the neighborhood and to participate in organized community-sponsored activities.
Some parents consider purposefully delaying their child's entrance into kindergarten. They believe that their child may gain some advantage and be more likely to succeed in academics, athletics, or social settings if she is older than average for her grade. Delaying school entry in order to obtain some advantage is not necessarily a winning strategy. Although there is some evidence that being among the youngest in a class may cause some academic problems, most of these seem to disappear by the third or fourth grade. On the other hand, there is evidence that children who are old for their grade are at significantly greater risk of behavior problems when they reach adolescence. | <urn:uuid:c2c70643-8b58-4acf-a239-a1b8d148baa4> | {
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Herring gulls nesting in a polluted Canadian harbor have a higher rate of genetic mutation than do gulls in the countryside. The finding suggests that harbor pollutants may damage DNA, but so far, no ill effects from this damage have been established.
Behavioral ecologist James Quinn of McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, and grad student Carole Yauk tracked the mutation rate in junk DNA--regions that rarely code for useful proteins--in 35 families of herring gulls in Hamilton Harbor and 108 families in three less-polluted rural areas. Using DNA fingerprinting, the researchers found that the mutation rate was as much as eight times higher in harbor gulls than in country birds.
"The mutant fragments stick out like a sore thumb," Quinn says. Because herring gulls don't migrate, he and Yauk concluded that some local factor is responsible for the varying mutation rates. The top suspects, Quinn says, are polyaromatic compounds such as benzo[a]pyrene. Their findings appear in the 29 October Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The results are "extremely interesting," says Alec Jeffreys, a DNA fingerprinting expert at the University of Leicester, England, who has found a similarly elevated junk DNA mutation rate in Belarussians exposed to radioactive contamination from Chernobyl. However, mutations in junk DNA crop up far more often than do mutations in regions of vital DNA. "I'd be very loath to extrapolate what this means for the rest of the genome," says Jeffreys. Quinn agrees, particularly since the harbor gulls appear healthy. | <urn:uuid:eb0ea709-da21-4c61-98b9-16d1223e6bc8> | {
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Dr. Navarro eceived his M.S. and Ph.D. in Chemistry at New York University. His doctoral research involved the unfolded state of small peptides. Since undergraduate student, he never resisted the temptation of working in Biotechnology. Now as an Assistant Professor at BMCC, Dr. Navarro is conducting research with talented BMCC students and colleagues from other colleges about bioremediation of environmental pollutants using biological wastes. Abel is aiming the use of low-cost, yet efficient, adsorbents of contaminants from wastewaters. Dr. Navarro is pleased to be part of this big and friendly family, as well as, pioneer the environmental research at BMCC.
Continuous-Flow Adsorption of Contaminants using Natural and Chemically Modified Hydrogels
Continuous-flow experiments are the most suitable techniques for the removal of pollutants from wastewaters. We use ligno-cellulosic materials that are encapsulated in hydrogel matrixes like chitosan and polyalginate to adsorption heavy metals, organic compounds (phenolics), PAHs and other contaminants.
Bioremoval of heavy metals by natural biopolymers.
Toxic and common metals like copper and zinc are always present in pipes and industrial wasterwaters. Most of these metals are transparent and cannot be detected by naked eye, which complicates their toxicity. Natural biopolymers are used for their adsorption in discontinuous experiments at room temperature. Time dependent experiments determine the efficiency and mechanism of the removal.
Preparation of soil conditioners from waste materials and eutrophicated waters
Eutrophication (algal bloom) is a major problem in the environment due to the presence of fertilizers (nitrate and phosphate) in high concentrations. Our goal is the sequestration of fertilizers (mainly phosphates) from eutrophicated waters using for the preparation of soil conditioners. These materials will be studied and modified to determine whether they exhibit removal of phosphates from eutrophicated waters (high phosphate levels) and release under different conditions (low phosphate levels).
Chemical sulfurization of natural polymers as an enhancement of adsorptive properties towards metal ions.
Incorporation of sulfur as a key element in the structure of well-known biopolymers promises an optimization in the adsorption of metal ions by complexation reactions and high affinity of metals towards sulfur. Recovery of the metals for the re-use of the adsorbent is one of the aims of the project. | <urn:uuid:9c1b6209-b509-4e83-8c5c-7080ee828dd7> | {
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Nowadays, criminology is a very important science which targets at the research of crime, its major causes and the effective ways of prevention of crimes. Criminology has made the crime the subject of its study and has already achieved significant results since criminologists have developed a variety of theories which help better understand the nature of crime, its causes and effects on an individual and society at large. Modern criminology is considered to be quite a progressive science incorporating human knowledge from different fields such as psychology, logic, etc. At the same time, it is necessary to underline that the current achievement and the further progress of criminology is possible, to a significant extent, due to the past studies and theories developed by criminologist in the course of the evolution of this science. This is why it is extremely important to know the origin and evolution of criminology in order to be able to keep this science progressing.
The origin of criminology
Basically, criminology is considered to be a relatively new science since it has started to develop just within the last couple of centuries. At the same time, this science was really unusual for the late 18th century when the first works on crimes were created. That epoch was characterized by the rapid progress of natural sciences as well as humanitarian ones, though the study and research of nature and human environment was prior to scientists of the late 18th century. In such a situation it was quite strange that Cesare Becarria, Jeremy Bentham and other pioneers of criminology referred to such a problem as crime its causes and punishment (Barak 122).
However, this profound interest of first criminologists to crime may be easily explained by the profound changes that took place in human society of that epoch. It should be said that the mid- and late-18th century, when the first works on criminology appeared, was characterized by the growing urbanization and increasing number of population living in urban area. Even though, European cities of the mid- and even late-18th century were not so densely populated as in a hundred of years but still, even at that epoch, cities faced a serious problem of growing number of crimes. In fact, until that epoch, crimes were rather occasional and were not perceived as a serious social problem but, in the course of development of European societies, growth of urban areas crimes became a widely spread phenomenon.
It should be pointed out that criminologists still argue what the reason for such a deterioration of criminological situation was but, as a rule, it is explained by the progress of socio-economic relations and evolution of individual conscience leading to the growing “materialism and aggression in relationships between people” (Barak 247). Nevertheless, whatever the reason for the growth of crimes was this fact posed a serious problem the society had to solve: what is crime and what the effective ways of its prevention are.
Naturally, thinkers of the mid- and late 18th centuries were the first who attempted to solve this dilemma and delivered their views on crimes in their works to the mass audience. In such a way, the first works on criminology, such as “On Crime and Punishment” (1763-1764) by Cesare Beccaria, appeared giving way to the further development of studies on crime and punishment and their evolution in a new science, known as criminology. It is worthy of mention that criminology had been remaining an unnamed science for quite a long time. This means that there was no specific name for this science until the late 19th century when this science was eventually defined as criminology. To put it more precisely, in 1885, the Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo “coined the term criminology”, and approximately at the same time the French anthropologist, Paul Topinard, used the same term in French to define this science (Brantingham 165). In such a way, criminology as an independent science eventually acquired its own name and could be considered as a new science which was really important at the epoch since by the late 19th century the criminal situation, especially in large cities, had started to deteriorate dramatically as the cities grew rapidly in the result of industrialization, while the socio-economic problems aggravated contributing to the marginalization of a substantial part of urban population. At the same time, the high density and growing rhythm of life produced a profound impact on individuals and their psychological state contributing to the increasing number of crimes making the development of criminology vitally important in the struggle against anti-social behavior and in the prevention of crimes.
The evolution of criminology
As it has been already mentioned above, criminology had started to develop since the mid-18th century. The first works on crime were created by social philosophers who wanted to understand the essence and causes of crime, and work out effective punishment. It is necessary to underline that criminology was initially developed in terms of classical school which inspirers were Cesare Beccaria, the author of “On Crime and Punishment” and Jeremy Banthem, the inventor of panopticon. Basically, they used utilitarian approach to crime. They believed that people have a free will and their actions are determined by internal inclinations and state of mind of each individual. This is why crimes are committed under the command of a criminal’s will. At the same time, they underlined that people commit crimes consciously and rationally. This means that each crime is carefully planned, logical and justified by a criminal. The classical school “ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivational factors” (Barak 211). In contrast, each crime is supposed to have its own logical and rational boundaries. The followers of this school argued that the punishment should be respective to the crime and the “more swift and certain is punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior” (Barak 212).
By the late 19th century, the positivist schools had been developed. According to this school, crimes are caused by both internal and external factors, which, though, are outside of a criminal’s control and are not directly dependent on his/her free will. In this respect, it is worthy of mention the works of Cesare Lombrose, who is considered to be a ‘father’ of criminology. He estimated that crimes are committed under the impact of inherited factors and physiological traits could indicate at the criminal inclinations of an individual. Other representatives of this school, such as Enrico Ferri, believed that social factors may also negatively affect an individual behavior and lead to crimes. In the 20th century, this school evolved in direction of psychoanalysis and its major representatives, such as Hens Eysenck, who worked in the mid-20th century, argued that “psychological factors such as extraversion and neuroticism made person more likely to commit criminal acts” (Braithwaite 769). His ideas were supported and extended by Hervey Cleckley and Robert Hare who added that psychopaticism may be another factor contributing to criminal behavior.
At the same time, positivists also underlined the importance of societal factors to criminal behavior since they believed that poverty, low educational level and social status, increases the inclinations of individuals to commit crimes. In such a way, the sociological positivism was shaped, the major developers of which were Adolphe Quetelet, Joseph Fletcher, John Glyde, Emile Durkheim, and others.
Finally, in the early 20th century the Chicago school appeared which developers such as Robert Ezra Park and Ernest Burgess argued that crimes are the characteristic of certain urban zones where the socio-economic situation is unstable and contributes to anti-social and criminal behavior.
Thus, criminology gradually evolved from a rare works on crimes to a serious science. Nowadays, the influences of the past are still quite strong and, basically, it is still argued what is more important in criminal behavior inherited, internal inclinations of an individual or the negative impact of social environment. In all probability, the definite answer could hardly be given. This is why it is necessary to continue the development of criminology and probably its evolution will eventually open new opportunities which could help prevent crimes. | <urn:uuid:0387f4fe-a79a-45d5-ae1e-072eadf1b5c0> | {
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The Benefits of Antioxidants
It seems that every skincare company in the marketplace has at least one cream that touts the miraculous effects of its super rich antioxidant formulations. Among the most well-known over-the-counter brands; La Prairie, Lancome, Clarins, Este Lauder, and L’Oreal you will find all that each of them has added antioxidants to their line of skincare products. But what exactly are antioxidants and how do they help prevent lines and wrinkles from forming?
What are free radicals?
Free radicals are molecules with unpaired electrons, causing them to be unstable and highly chemically reactive. The first mention of free radicals appeared in the 1950’s as a result of the pioneering research conducted by Dr. Denham Harman. Since then extensive research has been underway at leading medical centers the world over. We now have what is known as the free radical theory of aging (FRTA). This theory of aging states that organisms age because cells accumulate free radical damage over time. Free radical damage is closely associated with oxidative damage, meaning it impairs all the components of the cell including proteins, lipids and DNA. Free radicals have been shown to play a pivotal role in the body’s aging and the formation of disease.
Free radicals and aging
When we’re young, our cells have a defense system known as superoxide dismutase (SOD) that reins in free radicals, but as we get older, SOD doesn’t work as well. That allows the free radicals to impair the formation of our cells. With time the accumulated effects of free radical damage leads to visible signs of accelerated skin aging, including fine lines, wrinkles, laxity, discoloration and even skin cancer.
What causes free radicals?
There are many causes of free radicals. Most notably as they pertain to aging of the skin the unstable molecules associated with free radicals are generated by UV rays, infrared radiation, pollution and lifestyle factors like alcohol and cigarette smoke.
How do we prevent free radical damage?
Sunscreens are the first line of defense and essential for protecting the skin’s surface from the damaging effects of UVA and UVB rays. Sunscreens with broad spectrum filters will protect the skin against 55% of the free radicals generated by the sun’s rays. Topical antioxidants work in the skin to neutralize free radicals. Incorporating the use of both a sunscreen and antioxidant formulation into your daily skincare regimen provides comprehensive protection from environmental damage.
Which topical antioxidants should I use?
There are five antioxidants found naturally in the body that protect against cellular damage caused by free radicals they are: glutathione, ubiquinone, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), alpha tocopherol (vitamin E), and alpha lipoic acid. Antioxidants work by different mechanisms to stop or neutralize damage. Of the five antioxidants only vitamins C and E have been proven to penetrate into skin. Along with vitamins C and E there are a few plant and marine extracts believed to have antioxidants that can work in the skin.
In selecting topical antioxidants for your daily skincare regime you need to consider three factors:
1. The antioxidant ingredient (vitamin C, vitamin E or proven plant / marine extracts)
2. The concentration (the actual dosage of active ingredients)
3. The formulation (are the active ingredients formulated to penetrate the skin’s layers)
The term designates a class of skincare products that contain higher dosages of active ingredients. The formulation of cosmecuticals are held to stricter standards than department store and over-the-counter skin care products and their benefits claims are supported by documented clinical research. Because of their high level of concentrated ingredients cosmecueticals can only be purchased through a licensed physician typically this class of skincare products can be found at a cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery or dermatology practice.
SkinCeuticals (cosmeceutical antioxidant formulations)
We love this entire line of skincare products owed to their pioneering and continuing research on the effects and treatment of aging upon the skin. In 1997, SkinCeuticals changed the face of skincare with the introduction of Serum 10 and Serum 15, the company’s first stabilized, pure L-ascorbic acid topical antioxidants. Both of these serums were developed utilizing the Duke Antioxidant patent, which means they are proven to deliver a high concentration of active ingredients to the skin’s cells.
Obagi (cosmeceutical antioxidant formulations)
Professional-C highlights the category of skincare products Obagi developed to protect the skin against free radical damage. The line includes serums in concentrations ranging from 10% to 20%, peptide formulations, skin brighteners and sunblock. In clinical studies Obagi Professional-C products have been shown to penetrate both the epidermis and the dermis providing one of the most highly effective anti-aging skincare protocols on the market today. | <urn:uuid:5606b024-526c-411c-bdda-6e860c20f1c9> | {
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According to the latest estimate, there are still nearly half a billion hungry and undernourished people living in the vast Asia-Pacific region.
Some 490 million people, each one lacking in the daily nutrients required to lead a healthy and productive life. This region had been making great progress during the 1990s and 2000s in fighting undernutrition, but we see that the fight against hunger has slowed in recent years and in some cases actually reversed.
That's bad news for all of us, because governments had pledged to wipe out hunger in all its forms by 2030.
In other words, in a little more than 12 years from now, there should be no more people in the world suffering from hunger and undernutrition. In reality, that leaves us with 152 months (give or take), or around 4,560 days to get the job done.
As an economist, I like to do the math. By my own estimate, that means we must lift 107,456 people out of hunger each day in Asia and the Pacific. That is 107,000 today, 107,000 tomorrow, and so on, week after week, month after month, year upon year.
Of course, we must do this against a backdrop of limited natural resources, climate change, shifting and aging populations, urbanization and amid conflict, natural disasters and humanitarian crises that confound our efforts.
With greater demand for protein-rich foods, we can see this as one factor in helping to defeat hunger, though in some places it is leading to obesity, which must be tackled simultaneously. After all, the challenge is to ensure all people are getting access to affordable, nutritious foods at all times.
But when you look at those hard numbers and the challenges before us, it is depressing, yes. But no one's ready to throw in the towel – in fact, just the opposite.
The good news is that governments across this region are very aware of these challenges and they aren't giving up either. In fact, they have just now reaffirmed their pledge to go the distance and eradicate hunger in all its forms from their lands.
Just last week, government ministers and senior officials from 40 countries in the region came together in Fiji to provide strategic direction and set priorities for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to tackle these issues going forward. It was the first time in more than two decades that such an event – the Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific (APRC) – had been convened in the Pacific.
What I found striking was the passion and intensity of the discussions and sharing of ideas. There was a clear edge to the talks – the effects of climate change on food and agriculture were now being seen and felt. While the delegates talked, a Category 3 cyclone battered the conference venue – as if to remind them of the urgency of the tasks at hand.
The countries called upon the FAO to further assist them in strengthening their sector-specific contributions and help them monitor progress toward meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. They also wanted further support to integrate agriculture into their national policies, strategies and programs for climate change and disaster risk reduction management.
To meet these SDG goals, and as part of their nationally determined contributions, countries have highlighted improved and more resilient crops, more efficient irrigation, improved animal and fisheries management, enhanced fertilizers, low-emission rice and sustainable forest management as measures to be adopted and implemented.
The FAO is supporting governments to scale up climate action for food and agriculture under the 2030 agenda by mobilizing finance and expertise at the field level and advocating at the policy level for a more prominent role for food and agriculture in the global climate change agenda.
But climate change is not the only worry. The countries acknowledged that food systems need to be addressed to tackle growing rates of obesity, particularly in the Pacific where it is reaching epidemic proportions. A great note of concern was also evident over persistent hunger, as in some parts of Asia the number of hungry people was on the rise again, after decades of reductions.
Participating civil society organizations reminded governments that decisions made in meetings like these must be inclusive – the end result must be in the interests of everyone, particularly the most disadvantaged and food insecure. Adapting agriculture to climate change, improving nutrition for all and eradicating hunger in all its forms will take teamwork.
That teamwork was evident at the APRC. Together, the FAO, its member countries and partners, can score the winning goal – the zero-hunger goal – and we'll do so within the time allowed, because we know we can.
Kundhavi Kadiresan is assistant director general and regional representative of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. | <urn:uuid:4ab915a8-e554-41a6-a51d-0807a2312f08> | {
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How has marketing changed since the early 1900's?
1 Answer | Add Yours
Marketing has changed from the 1900’s because at that point there was not as much technology to reach masses of people.
The mid nineteenth century resulted in the growth of factory production known as the Industrial Revolution. It became possible to make goods faster and more inexpensively than ever before. By the turn of the century, everything was about manufacturing. The goal was to make it quick, and get it in the hands of the people.
Marketing fell mostly to local stores. National companies began to use branding, including slogans, logos, and icons. They used signs in local shops, as well as give-aways such as calendars. Signs were given to shopkeepers, who put them up, and people began to come looking for specific brands. Advertising in newspapers and magazines was also more and more common. Soon radio could be used.
Today, consumers can be reached not just on the radio, but on the television and through social media. Marketing has become more targeted, and companies are looking to get closer and closer to consumers. It is less about making us much as you can cheaply as it is reaching as many customers as you can with your message, and hopefully your product.
Join to answer this question
Join a community of thousands of dedicated teachers and students.Join eNotes | <urn:uuid:a833e358-1b70-4031-a07c-602d0b51b3cf> | {
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Want your child to get a head start on important study habits? Our Study Skills programs in Arlington, Texas have the power to ensure your son or daughter learns how to tackle increasing workloads from elementary school to college and beyond with ease. Whether your child has started to fall behind in class or has the ambition to get ahead, our study tips and techniques are proven to make a big difference.
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Teaching your teen digital literacy, smart study habits, goal setting, time management and research and writing skills that he or she will put to good use well into adulthood is what our expert tutors are trained for. With Advancement & Test Prep, your teen will:
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- Develop skills that will be useful in the future: Sylvan can guide your son or daughter in building essential skills including goal setting, public speaking and job interview prep! | <urn:uuid:982a8411-3d55-468d-b000-606d964da2eb> | {
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Delhi has become the first state in India to launch the Human Papillomavirus (HPV) – a common sexually transmitted infection, which causes cervical cancer – vaccination programme in schools to protect teenage girls against cervical cancer.
In India, 1,22,844 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer and 67,477 die from the disease every year, according to the HPV India Report 2015 (HPV R-2015). Cervical cancer ranks as the second most common cancer among women between 15 and 44 years of age, the report said.
Delhi Health Minister Satyendra Jain launched the vaccination programme on the inaugural day of the International Workshop for Cancer Awareness, Monday, in Delhi.
The HPV vaccination programme will target girls between the age of 9 and 13 next year. "This year we are focused on vaccinating girls Class VI girl students .The programme will start in next three to four months," the Indian Express quoted Jain as saying.
He said 1-1.5 lakh school girls will be targeted in the first phase of the vaccination programme. "We are targeting the government schools as of now . We will expand our initiative and target the private schools as well," the minister added.
The central government is also planning to include HPV vaccine in its mass immunisation programme, the Indian Express reports.
India has a population of 436.76 million women aged 15 years and older who are at the risk of developing cervical cancer, as per HPV, India Report.
The HPV vaccination programme has been a success in the United States, where the infection has been reduced by 64 percent.
"We're seeing the impact of the vaccine as it marches down the line for age groups, and that is incredibly exciting. A minority of females in this country has been immunized, but we're seeing a public health impact that is quite expansive." Amy B. Middleman, chief of adolescent medicine at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Centre, said, according to the New York Times.
What is HPV?
HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI), which can cause genital warts and cancers.
HPV can be avoided through vaccines that are safe and effective. HPV vaccines are given in three shots over six months and it is important to get all the three doses. Routine screening for women aged between 21 and 65 years old can prevent cervical cancer, according to a guideline by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. | <urn:uuid:ed28fbbc-36c8-46f6-81a2-f08d7d0c6ceb> | {
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Christopher Tolkien explains the reasons for publishing the 1926 translation of Beowulf by his father, J.R.R. Tolkien.
Since the nature and purpose of this book could very easily be misunderstood I offer here an explanation, which I hope will also be a justification.
It is well-known that there exists a translation of Beowulf into modern English prose made by J.R.R. Tolkien; and in view of his reputation and eminence in Old English literary and linguistic scholarship the fact that it has remained unpublished for so many years has even become a matter of reproach.
I am responsible for this; and the primary reason, or explanation, is fairly simple. The translation was completed by 1926, when my father was 34; before him lay two decades as the professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, two decades of further study of Old English poetry, together with an arduous programme of lectures and classes, and reflection most especially on Beowulf. From his lectures of those years there survives a great deal of writing on the poem, including much on the interpretation of the detail of the text. Clearly, there was no step-by-step relationship between the lectures and the translation, but changes made to the translation (and there are many) at different times can often be seen to accord with discussion of the questions in his lectures. In other cases he did not alter the translation in the light of his later, revised opinion.
There seemed no obvious way in which to present a text that was in one sense complete, but at the same time evidently ‘unfinished’. Merely to print what appears to have been his latest choice in the translation of a word, a phrase, or a passage and to leave it at that seemed misleading and mistaken. To alter the translation in order to accommodate a later opinion was out of the question. It would of course have been possible to attach my own explanatory notes, but it seemed very much better to include in this book actual passages from the lectures in which he expounded his views on the textual problems in question.
He did indeed explicitly intend that the series of lectures on Beowulf which I have used in this book should be a ‘textual commentary’, closely concerned with verbal detail. In practice however he found this restriction confining: he was very often led from the discussion of a word or phrase to more far-reaching exposition of the characteristics of the Old English poet, his thought and his style and his purpose; and in the course of the lectures there are many short but illuminating ‘essays’, arising from specific points in the text. As he wrote, ‘I try to do it, yet it is not really possible or satisfactory, to separate one’s commentary into “legendary content” and “text”.’
There is here, amid the huge library of Beowulf criticism, a very evident individuality of conception and insight; and in these characteristically expressed observations and arguments there can be seen the closeness of his attention to the text, his knowledge of the ancient diction and idiom, and his visualization of scenes thus derived. There emerges, as it seems to me, his vivid personal evocation of a long-vanished world – as it was perceived by the author of Beowulf; the philological detail exists to clarify the meaning and intention of that poet.
Thus after much reflection I have thought to enlarge and very greatly extend the scope of this book by extracting a good deal of material from the written form of those lectures, providing (as I hope) a readily comprehensible commentary arising in express relationship with the actual text of the poem, and yet often extending beyond those immediate limits into expositions of such matters as the conception of the wrecca, or the relation of the characters in the poem to the power of ‘fate’.
But such a use of these abundant writings, in a way that was of course by no means intended, necessarily raises problems of presentation that are not easy to resolve. In the first place, this is a work of my father’s (distinct in this from all save one of the editions of his unpublished writings that I have made) which is not of his own conceiving, but is concerned with a specific work, of great celebrity and with a massive history of criticism extending over two centuries. And in the second place, the lectures in question were addressed to an audience of students whose work on Old English was in part based on the demanding language of Beowulf, and his purpose was to elucidate and illuminate, often in precise detail, that part of the original text that was prescribed for study. But his translation would of course have been addressed primarily, though not exclusively, to readers with little or no knowledge of the original language.
In this book thus conceived I have tried to serve the different interests of possible readers; and in this connection there is a curious and interesting partial parallel with my father’s dilemma that he expressed in a letter to Rayner Unwin of November 1965, concerning his inability to compose the ‘editorial’ matter to accompany his completed translation of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight:
I am finding the selection of notes, and compressing them, and the introduction, difficult. Too much to say, and not sure of my target. The main target is, of course, the general reader of literary bent but with no knowledge of Middle English; but it cannot be doubted that the book will be read by students, and by academic folk of ‘English Departments’. Some of the latter have their pistols loose in their holsters. I have, of course, had to do an enormous amount of editorial work, unshown, in order to arrive at a version; and I have, as I think, made important discoveries with regard to certain words, and some passages (as ‘importance’ in the little world of Middle English goes). . . . I think it desirable to indicate to those who possess the original where and how my readings differ from the received.
Years later, in 1974, soon after my father’s death, I referred to this letter of his when writing to Rayner Unwin on the subject of a posthumous publication of his translation of Sir Gawain. I said that I had searched through his notes on Gawain, but ‘I can find no trace of any that would be remotely suitable for “the general reader of literary bent but with no knowledge of Middle English” – or for most students, for that matter’; and I wondered ‘whether it was not his complete inability to resolve this question that prevented him from ever finishing the book.’ I said that the solution that I (doubtfully) favoured was to have no ‘learned’ commentary at all; and continued:
But quite apart from this, and assuming that the philological gunmen whom my father was anxious about can be safely neglected, what of ‘the general reader of literary bent but no knowledge of Middle English’? The situation is so highly individual that I find it difficult to analyse. In general I would assume that a book of translations of mediaeval poems of this order published without any commentary on the text at all would be so odd as to arouse hostility.
My solution in the present case is of course based on different materials standing in different relationships, in origin going back some three quarters of a century and more, but it is certainly open to criticism: the commentary as here presented is and can only be a personal selection from a much larger body of writing, in places disordered and very difficult, and strongly concentrated on the earlier part of the poem. But it goes no further than that; and it has therefore no more than a very superficial resemblance to an ‘edition’. It does not aim at any degree of general inclusiveness, any more than my father’s lectures did: as he himself said, he was largely restricting himself to matter where he had something personal to say or to add. I have not added explanations or information that a reader might look for in an edition; such very minor additions as I have made are mostly those that seem needed by elements in the commentary itself. And I have not myself related his views and observations to the work of other scholars before him or after him. In making this selection I have been guided by relevance to features of the translation, by my own estimate of the general interest of the subject-matter, and by the need to keep within limits of length. I have included a number of notes from the lectures on very minor points in the text that illustrate how from a small grammatical or etymological detail he would derive larger conclusions; and a few elaborate discussions of textual emendations to show how he presented his arguments and evidences. A fuller account of these lectures as they survive in written form, and of my treatment of them, will be found in the introduction to the commentary, pp. 131 ff.
In his lecture-commentary he assumed (perhaps too readily) some knowledge of the elements of Old English, and the possession of or at any rate easy access to a copy of ‘Klaeber’ (the major and generally used edition of Beowulf, by Frederic Klaeber, of which he was often critical but which he also esteemed). I on the other hand have throughout this book treated the translation as primary; but side by side with those line-references I have invariably given the corresponding references to the Old English text for those who wish to have it immediately accessible without a search.
In my foreword to The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún I said: ‘Of its nature it is not to be judged by views prevailing in contemporary scholarship. It is intended rather as a presentation and record of his perceptions, in his own day, of a literature that he greatly admired.’ The same could be said of this book. I have most emphatically not seen my role in the editions of Sigurd and Gudrún or The Fall of Arthur as the offering of a critical survey of his views, as some seem to have thought that it should be. The present work should best be regarded as a ‘memorial volume’, a ‘portrait’ (as it were) of the scholar in his time, in words of his own, hitherto unpublished.
As a further element it thus seems especially appropriate to include his work Sellic Spell, also now first published, an imagined story of Beowulf in an early form; so also at the end of the book I have printed the two versions of his Lay of Beowulf, a rendering of the story in the form of a ballad to be sung. His singing of the Lay remains for me a clear memory after more than eighty years, my first acquaintance with Beowulf and the golden hall of Heorot.
Taken from Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary, together with Sellic Spell by J.R.R. Tolkien, edited by Christopher Tolkien
You can Click & Collect Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary, together with Sellic Spell from your local Waterstones bookshop or buy it online at Waterstones.com
Join in the global social reading of Beowulf
Visit the official J.R.R. Tokien fan page on Facebook to enter a special prize draw by sharing quotes, photos of your favourite passages or even videos of yourself reading Beowulf. | <urn:uuid:01bc1a14-c35b-4132-9ec0-4af48d8b1e17> | {
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Minnesota is widely known for a wide variety of game bird species which have provided hunting opportunities for bird hunters and tourists for many decades.
In past decades, bird hunters enjoyed going into the fields and forests to hunt native bird species in their natural habitat. Today, some of the species have been succumbed to indiscriminate hunting and have disappeared.
The waterfowl is one of the popular game birds that have thrived in Minnesota over the years. This species thrives in wetlands and upland prairie grass which provides the birds with nesting and cover.
Originally, there were over thirty species of the waterfowl in Minnesota and some have disappeared over time. One of the reasons behind this disappearance is credited to hunters who have previously come to Minnesota during the birdsí breeding season and collect the young swans before they could fly. They relocated the young birds to other areas of the country, depleting their population in the state significantly. The trumpeter swan, which was the largest waterfowl in North America, is one of the species that has been wiped out in the state.
The passenger pigeon and prairie chicken are other of the Minnesota native game birds that have not been able to survive years of hunting. The same story applies to the white whooping cranes and the long-billed curlew as well as numerous other species that have long been forgotten. The story has not been dull for all Minnesota game birds though. Some species have survived the wrath of hunters while significant steps have been taken to protect the remaining species as well.
The sharp-tailed grouse is one of the indigenous game bird species that has survived. Although the birds have reduced significantly in number, they can still be found in Minnesotaís mixed forests and aspen parkland regions. The original habitation of these game birds were open brushlands that are highly susceptible to destruction and have also been converted to unfavorable cover of cropland and conifer plantations, which has contributed to the reduction of the birds.
The current grass-brushland habitation of the sharp-tailed grouse is also home to a variety of other Minnesota game birds that includes the Sand hill crane, the short-eared owl and the bobolink as well as the savanna sparrow and yellow rail.
The ruffed grouse is yet another game bird currently thriving in Minnesota uplands. It is deemed the most popular of all upland game birds. The birdís main habitation is the stateís forests, especially the young and middle-aged aspen forests.
Pheasants have graced the Minnesota uplands for years as well and are still a spectacle for bird hunters in the state. The ring-necked pheasant in particular is very conspicuous as one of the Minnesota game birds that have successfully survived human intrusion and change in their natural habitat. These birds are however not indigenous to Minnesota as they were brought into the state from China in 1905.
Pigeons and doves, magpies, woodpeckers and humming birds are other popular Minnesota game birds. Cuckoos, cranes, eagles and hawks, grebes and pelicans as well as partridge, quail and wild turkeys also make this list. The majority of the current Minnesota game birds are exotic species that were brought into the state in
Today, the threat on Minnesota game birds is all too clear from lack of proper habitation for most species to extensive hunting. In light of this, conservation efforts have been made all across the state and hunting regulated to preserve the remaining species. Game farms have played a major role in rearing different game bird species which are then released for hunting.
Part of the conservation effort also involves restoring and developing the proper habitation in which different game bird species can inhabit and thrive. There is no doubt that Minnesota still boasts of extensive game bird species. Bird tourists and hunters can therefore still enjoy the thrill of watching and chasing the birds in the spectacular Minnesota wild.
Here are the best hiking and backpacking trails especially in the State Parks and forests.
Discover trails for hiking, biking, snowmobile trails, water trails and skiing trails
There are Hiking trails in the numerous state parks, forests and along the many lakes and rivers
Discover numerous horse trails in Minnesota's natural terrains and forests, all ideal for horse riding
There are many ATV and 4 wheeler trails in Minnesota. Most of these trails allow class 2 ATVs.
Here are Getaways of different types and tastes depending on what kind of entertainment you desire
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How to take study notes: 5 effective note taking methods the paper is divided into 3 the sentence note taking method is simply writing down each topic as a. The effects of the method of note-taking and from traditional pencil and paper notes handwriting notes and typing notes electronically the present research. Teachers and professors assume either that taking good notes comes what to write down your focus while taking notes (it’s often useful for research.
Lesson plan for note taking write it down as you make notes, don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper keep notes in order and in one place. The purpose of this guide is to provide advice on how to develop and organize a research paper in the social taking accurate notes while you are actively. Unfortunately, not all notes are equally useful a handful of post-its and a crumpled pile of paper won’t be much help when you’re trying to outline your research essay. The notes in the right-hand column cover the note-taking column with a sheet of paper pdf of the cornell note-taking system.
A few weeks ago i wrote a post on note-taking skills one common experience many people have, and that several people mentioned in response to that post, is that when they take good notes they remember things well enough that they rarely end up having to look at their notes again. Consistently throughout your paper reading and taking notes 12 • write down questions to focus what you are looking for. Taking notes using note cards it’s time to read and take notes this note-taking system using 3x5 or 4x6 cards works toward research in biology,. Taking notes from research reading you may even want to jot down a tentative thesis whether you use cards or pages for note-taking, take notes in a way that. I will show you my favorite system for taking notes, how to study efficiently: the cornell notes your professor says down on a piece of paper,.
If you’re just copying down what the lecturer says and you don’t revise what you’ve written down, there’s little point in taking notes research has found. Taking notes for the research paper method a 1 before beginning to take notes, you should: read generally on your subject so you can limit it (for example, the. Note-taking is the practice of writing down or otherwise recording key points of information note-taking is an important part of the research paper, notes on. Learning how to do historical research to the topic and point of view you will lay out in your paper taking notes is about more than writing down. Note-taking: writing vs typing notes i started my schooling taking notes on paper the research shows that students who took notes on their laptop did take.
To remember a lecture better, take notes by so she put pen to paper—and found but the two say they've appreciated their foray into note-taking research,. Back to basics: perfect your note-taking you only want to write down what matters notes he talks about doing this with paper, but digital note taking. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you [research] paper so it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.
By taking notes, the writer records non-linear note taking may require additional sheets of paper extending the notes research suggests that guided. Scientific american is the essential guide to the most awe don’t take notes with thus, taking notes by hand forces the brain to engage in some heavy. Take notes by hand for better long-term comprehension notebooks — research shows that taking notes by hand is better down using pen and paper. 47 the research essay -- taking notes you're ready to get down to the actual research first in your mind and then on paper,.
The cornell notes system (also cornell note-taking system, the student divides the paper into two columns: the note-taking column (usually on the right). Effective listening and notetaking suggestions for taking notes: open section of the paper just as you would take notes. Notes on note-taking: review of research and insights for students and harvard initiative for learning and important to write down in their notes,.
Researchers pam mueller and daniel m oppenheimer found that students remember more via taking notes notes and write down as and paper , mueller. Get the get-it-done guy's take on how to take notes in meetings learn the proper way to take notes at meetings and what notes you should be taking down. Summary: taking notes is a key part of the research process because it helps you learn, and allows you to see your information in a useful visual way.Download taking down notes research paper` | <urn:uuid:c12ad46c-f4db-45ca-8354-29672b73f0c9> | {
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Group B Strep
As If Pregnant Patients Don't Have Enough To Worry About
One of the official concerns of pregnancy and labor is a flimsy little bacterium called Group B streptococcus. Harmless in the vagina of the prospective mother, it could present a significant risk of infection to a baby coming through the birth canal. It is common to find women who are carriers of it. In the mother it is usually without symptoms; in the newborn, it is quite a different story.
Premature rupture of membranes, resulting in complications of premature birth, has been associated with group B strep in the mother. Also, meningitis can develop in the baby due to a mother’s vaginal strep, causing devastating complications or even death to the newborn. It’s no wonder that a few years ago the American Academy of Pediatrics invaded the domain of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists by recommending routine screening of all pregnant mothers with a simple swab culture. Soon, most OB-GYNs began this simple screening method. A Q-tip-like sampler is used to take a gentle swab that is then sent to a lab for growth. Called a culture, it is usually done at 35 to 37 weeks into the pregnancy, and the result is added to the list of items that are already on a prenatal check list.
If the culture is negative, nothing need be done, of course. If the culture is positive, treatment is still not done at that time. This is because the patient is a carrier, meaning if it were treated then, it would only come back. Actually, the value of the culture is in being forewarned. The strep is ignored until time for delivery, for that is the time to eliminate it. The antibiotics are given during labor (usually a simple penicillin will do—or another antibiotic, if allergic), and the baby allowed to deliver normally.
Sometimes strep can present in sneaky ways. Occasionally a woman may have a negative culture but have had a history of a bladder infection caused by this very same bacterium. In my practice, I lump these patients into the same category as ones whose vaginal cultures were positive. I also treat them right then and there, in addition to during the time of labor, because it’s not just a “carrier” status I’m noting—it’s an actual urinary tract infection in which treatment is indicated.
When a pregnant patient presents in labor without the benefit of a group B strep culture—if she has had no prenatal care, for instance—the treatment is so simple and safe that an obstetrician and the baby are best served by giving treatment anyway. Since a certain percentage of all pregnant patients are carriers, I often wonder how many patients exposed their babies to Group B strep in the years before it was sought. Yet the infection rate in those years remained extremely low. This is reassuring, for although the one baby that contracts group B strep meningitis is in grave danger, the chances of any baby actually developing this complication is actually quite unlikely—even in mothers who are carriers. The screening cultures are only another simple item included in modern obstetrical prenatal care.
But there’s controversy now. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists advise that cultures, while a good idea, are not crucial in determining those at risk. Instead, this organization recommends treating any pregnant patient as if she had group B strep when she presents with certain delineated risk factors, like premature rupture of membranes, a fever, or premature labor. Medicolegally, we follow these guidelines and get the cultures. We like to think we’re doing everything we can possibly do to stack the deck in our favor toward a healthy, happy baby.
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This FAQ is intended as a guide to commonly asked questions. Please always consult your healthcare professional regarding any bladder issues you are experiencing.
What is urinary incontinence?
Urinary incontinence is the medical term for being unable to control the release of urine.
What is neurogenic bladder?
Neurogenic bladder refers to a condition where neurological damage has led to bladder dysfunction.
What are the signs and symptoms of urinary incontinence?
Some typical signs and symptoms include:
- Involuntary leakage of urine without warning or without feeling the need to go to the toilet
- Involuntary leakage of urine when sneezing, coughing, laughing or exercising
- A sudden urge to rush to the toilet either before or when leaking urine
- The need to get up to pass urine two or more times a night (nocturia)
What causes urinary incontinence?
Potential causes include:
- Damage or weakness to the muscles in the pelvic floor (most commonly due to pregnancy and childbirth)
- Problems with the control of the bladder muscle (bladder overactivity and bladder underactivity)
- Neurogenic conditions that affect the voluntary release of urine (e.g. spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis or spina bifida)
- Enlarged prostate gland
- Urinary tract infection
- Type 2 diabetes
Is urinary incontinence a natural part of aging?
Although incontinence becomes more common with advancing age, it is not just older people who are affected. Effective solutions are available, so it should not stop you from living a full and active life, whatever your age.
Can I still have a social life with urinary incontinence?
It is possible to manage incontinence effectively. A doctor or nurse should be able to help find a solution that makes it possible to continue a social life and everyday activities.
Can urinary incontinence be treated?
Most types of incontinence can be treated or improved through lifestyle changes, pelvic floor exercises, bladder training, medication or surgery. If a cure is not possible,or a temporary solution is required, products such as catheters, urisheaths (for men) or absorbent products can be very helpful.
What is a catheter?
A catheter can be used to ensure the bladder is completely emptied. It is a slim, flexible tube that is inserted into the bladder through the urethra enabling the urine to drain.
Why is it important to empty my bladder?
If your bladder is not emptied regularly, it can cause urinary tract infections. These start in the bladder but can move back to the kidneys and cause serious renal damage. Even small amounts of urine left in the bladder can cause infections.
Can I drink less so that I do not have to empty my bladder so often?
No. It is very important that you drink enough to keep the urinary system healthy. An adult should drink approximately 1500 ml per day and take in a total of about 3 litres including liquids in the daily diet.
How can I tell if I have an urinary tract infection?
Symptoms of a urinary tract infection vary and may be subtle. They include:
- Dark-coloured and strong-smelling urine
- Blood in the urine
- Cloudy urine
- Bladder spasms
- Increased muscle contractions in your leg
If you have any of the above symptoms, talk to your doctor or nurse.
What if I get frequent urinary tract infections?
Using an intermittent catheter increases the risk of urinary tract infections. However, compared to other catheter types such as permanent (indwelling) catheters, intermittent catheters are less likely to cause urinary tract infections.
How can I prevent catheter related urinary tract infections?
There are ways to reduce the risk of urinary tract infections from catheters:
- Ensure you have clean hands and equipment when catheterising
- Drink sufficient amount of fluid during the day to wash out the urinary tract
- Make sure that the bladder is fully emptied every time you catheterise
- Speak to your healthcare professional about your catheterisation frequency and technique
Find out more
View a guide of how to catheterise.
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Ancient Texts & Discoveries
Historian Glenn Kimball
discussed various topics related to ancient texts, Jesus, the Middle East and pyramids. He claimed that Jesus was actually a stone mason rather than a carpenter and that he traveled to America before the crucifixion. "We've lost sight of the history of our own continent," commented Kimball, who believes that the Ark of the Covenant may actually reside in Arkansas. Ancient trade routes were far more extensive than what is generally realized, he added.
While finding the Gospel of Judas to be an authentic ancient text, he does not view its information as being completely accurate. Jesus told Judas he would betray him because Jesus had the gift of seeing into the future, not because Jesus requested that Judas do this, Kimball explained. He also shared that Da Vinci had access to the Vatican's library and gleaned some of his futuristic ideas from reading suppressed prophetic writings.
The Bosnia pyramid
, which is taller than the Great Pyramid at Giza, is a man-made structure, Kimball believes, and he noted that it's grouped with two other pyramids-- a triadic combination that can be seen with pyramids in Mexico, Peru and Egypt. He also announced the opening of the Kimball College
, where students can explore his research further.
Meet the Plutons
Astronomers meeting in Prague
have drafted a proposal that would make way for a new planetary classification – the pluton
. In addition to the eight "classic" planets, there would be three plutons-- Pluto, Charon, and "Xena," and more could be added as they are discovered. The pictured graphic
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Mechanics of materials
For undergraduate Mechanics of Materials courses in Mechanical, Civil, and Aerospace Engineering departments. Hibbeler continues to be the most student friendly text on the market.Š The new edition offers a new four-color, photorealistic art program to help students better visualize difficult concepts.Š Hibbeler continues to have over 1/3 more examples than its competitors, Procedures for Analysis problem solving sections, andŠa simple, concise writing style.Š Each chapter is organized into well-defined units that offer instructors great flexibility in course emphasis. Hibbeler combines a fluid writing style, cohesive organization, outstanding illustrations, and dynamic use of exercises, examples, and free body diagrams to help prepare tomorrow's engineers.
74 pages matching Determine the maximum in this book
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Review: Mechanics of Materials (6th Edition)User Review - Goodreads
A very complete and well explained book that covers the fundamentals of Mechanics of Materials.
Review: Mechanics of Materials: With Student DiskUser Review - Goodreads
The best engineering book I've ever read so far, point! | <urn:uuid:f96277d7-9eba-4fed-84dd-a442bcae3344> | {
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Published in The New York Times, May 2, 1897
SPONGE DIVERS GO TO WAR
Greek Experts Furnish the World’s Supply of
High Grade and Expensive Goods
STOPPED WORK TO FIGHT
Florida and West Indian Sponges of Rougher Grade in Demand, Even in Europe, but Greece Takes the Palm for Shape and Texture
The war between Greece and Turkey will have marked effect on the importation of high-grade sponges. The finest in the world, particularly the costly cup sponges, come from Greece. Several hundred divers who make a living the year round at their trade have quit work and joined the army.
The cleverest sponge divers in the West Indies cannot equal the experts at Hydra, Greece. The diving bell has supplanted the individual deep-water experts to some extent, but the best specimens are found hidden away in the depths by men who cling to the old-fashioned method of diving from boats.
Stories told of feats of these divers are almost incredible. J. E. Leousi of the Lebess Sponge Company, 57 Maiden Lane, spends a great deal of his time each year in Greece, and frequently goes out with the divers employed by the firm. He told a reporter for THE NEW YORK TIMES than an expert Greek diver thought nothing of plunging to a depth of 200 feet from the side of a vessel and remaining under water two and one-half minutes before he came to the surface, with the sponge in a bag attached to his waist, and a knife in his hand.
Sometimes the men are overcome by the immense pressure of the water, and blood issues from their nose and ears. Thus, they have a cord attached to their waists before making the dive, which is held by a man in the boat. Long practice has enabled the latter to tell in a moment when anything is wrong, and he loses no time in pulling his man to the surface. Another man, stripped ready for work, is standing by to take his place.
Sponges are much like diamonds; their value depends largely on their shape and texture. The finest for bathing and toilet purposes come from Greece. A very small cup sponge costs $1.50 at retail, and they run all the way from that price to $15. Druggists who have right customers are constantly on the lookout for special orders.
The best-wearing carriage sponge comes from Florida and the West Indies. Of late years there had been a demand for them from abroad for this sort of work, as against the competition of the Mediterranean sponges. But the finder sponges, perfect in shape and texture, are not found in the waters of the Western Hemisphere. Russia, Germany, France, and England buy a great quantity of the low, rougher-grade sponges from this country. The demand is always above the supply.
In Florida and at Nassau the water is shallow enough to permit of sponge fishing with a long pole with three prongs attached. One man rows the boat, while the other leans over the bow, powerful magnifying glass in hand, his eyes fixed on the water. When he sees a sponge, down goes his pole.
In Grecian waters the bottom is too deep for this. The men there go out on sponge-fishing expeditions, as the New Bedford whalers used to do, on shares. They sometimes stop out two months.
A sponge is not an agreeable object to the sight or smell when it is first taken from the water. After a haul they are spread out on a sandy beach, in the blazing sun, to let the animal matter die out. After a day or two they are ready for “pounding” a process which means literally what the word implies. Thoroughly thrashed, they are put into a “crawl” an inclosure that floats in deep water, where the tides can wash over them. They are left there for two days more. Then they are put in strands, or strings, and taken to the vessel.
The duty on sponges imported from Greece under the McKinley tariff was 20 per cent. Under the Wilson tariff it was 10 per cent. It is proposed under the new tariff to charge and valorem duty on sponges in their crude state. As a matter of fact, sponges in their crude state are not importable, because no transportation company would take them. Importers of sponges are somewhat puzzled to know what the Dingley bill will ultimately do with them. A. Moses of the Lebess Company said that they would prefer the specific duty, “although,” he added, “it makes little difference to us how much they increase the duty or how they collect it. The people who buy sponges pay for it, ultimately.”
To view a copy of the actual article go to
The New York Times - Archive 1851 - 1980 | <urn:uuid:03ed440f-a250-4b01-8e55-d89e458ef2d3> | {
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Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education
Elementary Education majors become immersed in the discipline, culture, and passion of teaching and learning. Through course work and firsthand experience teaching in elementary schools, students learn how to educate and encourage the elementary school student. Graduates of this program are prepared to effectively teach elementary students grades 1-6.
The Elementary Education major program leads to certification to teach grades 1-6. Each Elementary Education major selects an emphasis in a specialized content area of his or her choice. Elementary Education majors benefit from multiple clinical experiences in the local public schools.
After completing all major requirements with a qualifying GPA, students will participate in a full-time student teaching experience for one semester before their degree requirements are completed.
Graduates of this program have many career options, including teaching internationally, serving as a corporate trainer, working in children's ministry or directing nonprofit youth organizations.
All of Evangel's teacher education programs are accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and are approved by the Missouri State Department of Elementary and Secondary Education.
Program Plan (pdf)
|Want to see exactly what classes you will take? The Program Plan (sometimes called a degree sheet) includes all specific requirements - including University proficiencies, Frameworks courses and degree requirements.|
Each of Evangel's academic programs is made up of a set of core curriculum, program requirements and electives. The courses listed below are just a small sample of courses that might be taken as a part of this specific program.
|Curriculum and Instruction||This course provides an overview of the elementary school program. The emphasis of the course is lesson planning, curriculum organization, and methods and materials that are appropriate for the needs of today's elementary school classroom.|
|Methods for Teaching Elementary Math||Stresses appropriate strategies and materials for teaching basic math concepts, operations, and problem solving. Emphasis on the proper use of manipulative materials and remediation procedures in teaching math to students preschool through grade 6.|
|Science and Social Studies for Teachers||Methods to prepare the prospective teacher in the basic concepts and the methods and procedures for effective presentation of science and social studies. Emphasizes methods, content, and materials to meet the needs of all students.|
|Analysis and Correction of Reading Difficulties||Methods for focusing on the special literacy needs of students pre-K to grade 6. Discusses the causes of reading difficulties. Introduces and practices corrective and remedial procedures and techniques. Demonstrates materials to aid the disabled and under-achieving reader.|
|Child Psychology||Childhood development from conception to adolescence. Emphasis on the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development of children.|
Evangel University's world-class faculty is made up of caring, Christian professionals who are distinguished in their fields and dedicated to the development of tomorrow's Christian leaders.
Shonna Crawford has always loved school, and it shows. Between graduating from Evangel in 2000 and returning as an assistant professor of education in 2011, Crawford spent time teaching elementary school, received her Master in Reading degree and worked for the Missouri Reading Initiative. While teaching in Oklahoma, Crawford was a finalist for Teacher of […] read more
Dr. Becky Huechteman jokes that she has been “stuck in school forever.” Ever since she was a small child “teaching” her dolls and her parakeet, she has had a desire to help people learn. From her days as a 13-year-old Sunday school helper to her current position as professor of education at Evangel University, that […] read more
Evangel's academic programs are designed specifically to prepare you for a career in the real world. But it's more than just job preparation; it's preparing you to make a full impact in your profession through the unique combination of faith and learning. Here are some of the professions this degree would prepare you for:
- 1st – 6th grade teacher in a private or public school setting
- Graduate school
- International teacher
- Corporate trainer/presenter
- Children’s ministry
- Nonprofit youth organizations
|GPA||Achieve a 3.0 grade point average in content area and professional education courses, while maintaining a 2.75 cumulative grade point average across all courses.|
|Admittance to Program||Application for provisional admittance to teacher education is made in EDUC 219-Foundations of Education. This class is prerequisite to all teacher certification courses unless an equivalent course has been transferred from another college. Applications for admittance are available in the Department of Education office.|
|Recommendations||Satisfactory recommendations from all university supervisors of practica.|
General Undergraduate Requirements
The following are general requirements for all students beginning an undergraduate program at Evangel. For more information visit Undergraduate Admissions Requirements.
|Faith||As a boldly Christian university, all of our students have made a profession of faith in Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Savior.|
|Diploma||Graduation from high school, or having the equivalent of a high school diploma such as the General Education Development (GED) examination.|
|Core Subjects||A minimum of a 2.0 GPA in core college prep classes (English, math, social sciences and science with a lab)|
|Grade Average||A "C" average. However, in some cases, a student with a weak academic record may be considered. To remain at Evangel, however, the student must meet scholastic requirements.|
|Standardized Tests||>Entering freshmen should take the ACT or SAT test. The codes for Evangel are as follows: SAT: 6198. ACT: 2296.|
When it comes to life at Evangel, there's always something happening on campus and there are always new lessons to learn, even outside of the classroom...Learn More | <urn:uuid:dc0decc6-c8f7-48be-a420-14c324414e7c> | {
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Australia is the only Western democracy where human rights are not formally protected, either by law or by the Constitution. Minorities, elderly, and disabled want a human rights charter. But a proposal for a charter has unleashed fierce opposition from church groups and opposition politicians.
A proposal to enshrine human rights in Australian law has unleashed fierce opposition from church groups, who say it would undermine religious freedoms, and opposition politicians, who say it would politicize the judiciary.
Australia is the only Western democracy where human rights are not formally protected, either through legislation or in the Constitution. A government-appointed committee, set up after Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s Labor Party came to power in 2007, has just completed a national consultation process that found strong community support for a human rights act or charter.
But many religious leaders worry that such legislation would expose organizations to charges of discrimination if they chose to employ people of a particular faith. Other critics, including opposition politicians, claim that it would transfer decisionmaking powers on sensitive issues such as abortion and gay marriage from Parliament to unelected judges.
Under the proposed “dialogue model” of a charter, already in force in Britain and New Zealand, senior judges could declare a law “incompatible” with human rights and refer it back to Parliament – though politicians would not have to amend it.
“The model is ... respectful of the proper sovereign role of Parliament in making laws for the nation,” says Catherine Branson, a former judge and president of the Australian Human Rights Commission.
The government has yet to respond to the report of the committee that conducted the consultation. Chaired by a Jesuit priest and law professor, Frank Brennan, it received more than 35,000 written submissions – the largest number ever for a national consultation. Those who feel their rights are under threat include indigenous Australians, the homeless, people with disabilities, those living in remote areas, and the elderly. | <urn:uuid:88870db6-8792-451a-9aaa-4f771c6411ec> | {
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Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of renewable energy. The produces a biogas, consist of methane, carbon dioxide and traces of other ‘contaminant’ gases. The biogas can be used directly as fuel, in combined heat and power gas engines or upgraded to natural gas-quality biomethane. The nutrient-rich digestate also produced can be used as fertilizer.
Many microorganisms affect anaerobic digestion, including acetic acid-forming bacteria (acetogens) and methane-forming archaea (methanogens). These organisms promote a number of chemical processes in converting the biomass to biogas.
Gaseous oxygen is excluded from the reactions by physical contaminant. Anaerobes utilise electron acceptors from sources other than oxygen gas. These acceptors can be the organic material itself or may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within input material. When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic material itself, the ‘intermediate’ end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids, plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the intermediates are converted to the ‘final’ end products of methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and trace levels of hydrogen sulphide. In an anaerobic system, the majority of the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane.
Populations of anaerobic microrganisms typically take a significant period of time to establish themselves to be fully effective. Therefore, common practice is to introduce anaerobic microorganisms from materials with existing populations, a process known as “seeding” the digesters, typically accomplished with the addition sewage sludge or cattle slurry.
There are four biological and chemical stages of Anaerobic digestion:
In most cases, biomass is made up of large organic polymers. For bacteria in anaerobic digesters to access the energy potential of the material, these chains must first be broken down into their smaller constituent parts. These constituent parts, or monomers, such as sugars, are readily available to other bacteria. The process of breaking these chains and dissolving the smaller molecules into solution is called hydrolysis. Therefore, hydrolysis of these high-molecular-weight polymeric components is the necessary first step in anaerobic digestion. Through the hydrolysis the complex organic molecules are broken down into simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. Acetate and hydrogen produced in the first stages can be used directly by methanogens. Other molecules, such as volatile fatty acids (VFAs) with a chain length greater than that of acetate must first be catabolized into compounds that can be directly used by methanogens.
The biological process of acidogenesis results in further breakdown of the remaining components by acidogenic (fermentative) bacteria. Have, VFAs are created, along with ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide, as well as other by-products. The process of acidogenesis is similar to the way milk sours.
The third stage of anaerobic digestion is acetogenesis. Here, simple molecules created through the acidogenesis phase are further digested by acetogens to produce largely acetic acid, as well as carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
The terminal stage of anaerobic digestion is the biological process of methanogenesis. Here, the methanogens use the intermediate products of the preceding stages and convert them into largely methane, carbon dioxide, and water. These components make up the majority of the biogas emitted from the system. Methanogenesis is sensitive to both high and low pH and occurs between pH 6.5 and pH 8. The remaining, indigestible material the microbes cannot use any dead bacterial remains constitute the digestate.
Anaerobic digestion can be performed as a batch process or a continuous process. In a batch system biomass is added to the reactor at the start of the process. The reactor is then sealed for the duration of the process. In its simplest form, batch processing needs inoculation (Seeding) with already processed material to start the anaerobic digestion. The process provided in this instance id therefore a semi continuous one, where one daily feed will continue the process of digestion and biogas production. | <urn:uuid:2c51e3b8-09ab-447c-9144-64b86f396e03> | {
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Daily News Archive
May 16, 2006
Chemicals Show up in National Park Snow
(Beyond Pesticides, May 16, 2006)
(AP) Scientists have found tiny amounts of agricultural pesticides
in the otherwise pristine winter snow at Mount Rainier and other Western
Although the pesticide residue includes some products banned in the
United States, researchers say there is no immediate risk for humans
-- even if they lick the snow. They are still studying the consequences
plants, fish and wildlife in the park.
"We thought these areas were pristine, and they're not," Barbara
Samora, Mount Rainier National Park biologist, told The News Tribune
also found pesticides in winter snow at three national parks in California,
Colorado and Montana. They said the results mostly relate to regional
pesticide use, but they did not rule out the influence of
pollution from other parts of the world.
analysis was based on seasonal snowfall samples collected three years
ago. On Mount Rainier, a team of researchers climbed to Alta Vista,
a viewpoint 5,676 feet above sea level, between Paradise and Camp Muir,
and collected snow samples. Two such treks took place in March 2003.
Snow samples from all the parks showed tiny concentrations of pesticides,
measured in fractions of nanograms. A nanogram equals 1 billionth of
"These may well be the cleanest snows anywhere in the U.S., so
the exposure we receive in urban areas is probably higher," said
Dan Jaffe, a University of Washington atmospheric chemist who read the
The lead scientist,
Kim Hageman, an Oregon State University chemist, analyzed snow samples
from seven parks, including three in Alaska. She tested for 47 organic
compounds. Of those, eight stood out, including
four that are banned but persist in the environment.
To identify the
source of the contaminants, Hageman compared data on agricultural activity
within a radius of about 93 miles of each of the parks. She found the
highest concentrations of pesticides in snow from parks near farmlands.
regional U.S. and Canadian agricultural practices, both past and present,
play a significant role in contributing to the accumulation of pesticides
in the seasonal snowpack," Hageman wrote.
Because there's no farmland near Alaskan parks, scientists concluded
that contamination in snow there originates elsewhere. Hageman detected
the highest concentrations of pesticides in snow from Sequoia National
Park in California, near the Central Valley, which is largely agricultural.
Mount Rainier is affected by both regional and long-range atmospheric
transport of chemical contaminants, Hageman said. "The more cropland,
the more concentration in a nearby national park," she said.
Bridget Moran, a state Department of Agriculture environmental toxicologist,
read Hageman's paper and downplayed the regional influence. "Mount
Rainier tracks closer to background levels in Alaska than it does to
the other national parks," she said.
Besides Hageman, four other scientists contributed to the report, which
appeared in a recent Web edition of Environmental Science & Technology,
a scientific journal. | <urn:uuid:d2ecb0b5-cb14-4b94-9be2-eac418175157> | {
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1. move - verb
· change location; move, travel, or proceed, also metaphorically; "How fast does your new car go?"; "We travelled from Rome to Naples by bus"; "The policemen went from door to door looking for the suspect"; "The soldiers moved towards the city in an attempt to take it before night fell"; "news travelled fast"
2. move - verb
· cause to move or shift into a new position or place, both in a concrete and in an abstract sense; "Move those boxes into the corner, please"; "I'm moving my money to another bank"; "The director moved more responsibilities onto his new assistant"
3. move - verb
· move so as to change position, perform a nontranslational motion; "He moved his hand slightly to the right"
4. move - verb
· change residence, affiliation, or place of employment; "We moved from Idaho to Nebraska"; "The basketball player moved from one team to another"
5. move - verb
· follow a procedure or take a course; "We should go farther in this matter"; "She went through a lot of trouble"; "go about the world in a certain manner"; "Messages must go through diplomatic channels"
6. move - verb
· be in a state of action; "she is always moving"
7. move - verb
· go or proceed from one point to another; "the debate moved from family values to the economy"
8. move - verb
· perform an action, or work out or perform (an action); "think before you act"; "We must move quickly"; "The governor should act on the new energy bill"; "The nanny acted quickly by grabbing the toddler and covering him with a wet towel"
9. move - verb
· have an emotional or cognitive impact upon; "This child impressed me as unusually mature"; "This behavior struck me as odd"; "he was dumb-struck by the news"; "her comments struck a sour note"
10. move - verb
· give an incentive for action; "This moved me to sacrifice my career"
11. move - verb
· arouse sympathy or compassion in; "Her fate moved us all"
12. move - verb
· dispose of by selling; "The chairman of the company told the salesmen to move the computers"
13. move - verb
· progress by being changed; "The speech has to go through several more drafts"; "run through your presentation before the meeting"
14. move - verb
· live one's life in a specified environment; "she moves in certain circles only"
15. move - verb
· have a turn; make one's move in a game; "Can I go now?"
16. move - verb
· propose formally; in a debate or parliamentary meeting
17. moved - adjective
· being excited or provoked to the expression of an emotion; "too moved to speak"; "very touched by the stranger's kindness"
The only site you need for word puzzles, home work, anagrams and scrabble games. The best site for two word anagram solutions.
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Unscramble.net is the free tool to unscramble letters and words for games like Text Twist, Words with Friends, Scrabble, Word Scraper, and of course the ever popular Jumble newspaper puzzle. It is also great for homework problems that frustrate many parents and students. Unscramble.net provides one and two word unscramble solutions from its extensive 280,000 word list that includes technical, medical and slang words. There is no limit to the number of letters entered for one word unscrambles and the site also provides for rhyming words and dictionary definitions for many of the unscrambled words. Two word unscramble results are provided in two formats for easy comprehension by the user. There is no limit to the number of word combinations provided whether for one or two word unscramble solution sets.
The site is mobile friendly and fully https/tls security compliant. Fast and easy, unscramble.net provides the most accurate and complete word, letter and anagram solutions available. Trust the oldest and most reliable unscramble tool on the net. Word lists are constantly being updated from reliable sources. Android and iOS apps are coming soon. | <urn:uuid:c4b960e0-5e3c-4bf8-968d-eaac95276e12> | {
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A synthetic form of bacterial DNA, when administered to mice bred to model Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), reduces the harmful effects of this serious intestinal disorder while enhancing the immune system. And, because it’s a man-made version of bacterial DNA, the synthetic compound inhibits the “experimental colitis” in mice without imposing a bacterial infection.
The findings are reported in the May 2002 issue of the journal Gastroenterology, by researchers at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) School of Medicine, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Jerusalem, and Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv.
“We’ve shown that synthetic bacterial DNA prompts the immune system to safely respond to the onset of IBD,” said the study’s senior author, Eyal Raz, M.D., UCSD associate professor of medicine. “Previous studies have shown the beneficial effects of bacterial DNA in treating allergies, but this is the first time it has been used for bowel disease.”
The study’s first author, Daniel Rachmilewitz, M.D., professor and head of the Division of Internal Medicine at Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel, added that the results in mice are so promising that they hope to begin human clinical trials of the synthetic bacterial DNA.
In addition to offering a potential treatment for IBD, the study supports previous findings that allergic reactions and other immune disorders may be the result of our sanitized, ultra-clean industrial world. Called the “hygiene hypothesis,” the theory suggests that vaccinations, antibiotics and sanitized living have shielded people from microbes and parasites that do little or no harm. Because human immune systems lack ‘practice’ in fighting off these common bacteria, the body’s immune response becomes overly aggressive with invading pathogens, attacking both the invader and its own tissues. This leads to the inflammation that is indicative of allergy and disorders like IBD.
“Inflammatory Bowel Disease is a disorder prevalent in the western world,” Rachmilewitz said. “While we have this disorder, you hardly see IBD in Mexico or in third world countries.”
Raz agreed with his colleague, noting that “we pay for being sterile. Bacterial DNA in your gut is good for you.”
Affecting an estimated 1 million Americans, IBD includes two closely related disorders that involve inflammation in the intestines – Crohn’s Disease and ulcerative colitis. In Crohn’s disease there is inflammation deep within the intestinal wall. Ulcerative colitis affects the tissue lining the colon. The symptoms in both diseases are abdominal pain, diarrhea and rectal bleeding.
The two disorders are considerably more serious than irritable bowel syndrome, a common intestinal condition that also causes abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Severe cases of IBD frequently lead to patient surgery involving removal of a portion of the small intestine or all of the colon. While the cause of IBD is unknown, physicians and researchers believe the disorder is multifactorial, involving susceptibility genes and environmental factors, such as invading viruses or bacteria.
The compound used by the research team to treat the experimental colitis in mice was developed a few years ago by Raz and his UCSD team. It is a synthetic form of bacterial DNA called immunostimulatory (ISS) oligonucleotide (ODN), which is a short segment of bacterial DNA which has immunostimulatory properties.
Rachmilewitz noted that “when we test the efficacy of this treatment in human clinical trials, we hope to show that IBD patients can take an oral form of this compound once a week to prevent the flare-up periods typical of the disease.”
In the study reported in Gastroenterology, the researchers gave the ISS-ODN to mice that had developed experimental colitis, the mouse model of human IBD. Whether administered systemically or orally, the ISS-ODN ameliorated the colitis.
The researchers then determined that single administration of ISS-ODN does not provide a long-term protective effect for colitis. They induced the disease in mice, then treated it with the synthetic bacterial DNA which quashed the disease symptoms. Two weeks later, they re-introduced colitis to the mice and found that the protective effects of the ISS-ODN were gone; the disease became active again. When ISS-ODN was administered on an ongoing basis, the mice remained disease free.
May 18-22, at the annual meeting of the American Association of Gastroenterology in San Francisco, Raz and Rachmilewitz will present their findings. In addition, they will describe follow-up studies in lab cultures. The investigators took biopsies from the colons of both Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis human patients, placed the tissue in culture dishes and added ISS-ODN. The team noticed an impressive reduction in the generation of molecules that lead to inflammation in human tissue.
###In addition to Rachmilewitz and Raz, who is also a member of the UCSD Stein Institute on Research and Aging, additional authors of the study were Fanny Karmeli, B.SC., Leonor Leider-Trejo, M.D., Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center; and Kenji Takabayashi, Ph.D., Tomoko Hayashi, M.D., Ph.D., Jongdae Lee, Ph.D., and Lorenzo M. Leoni, Ph.D., UCSD Department of Medicine.
Funding was provided by the National Institutes of Health and private grants to Rachmilewitz.
The University of California has filed for a patent on the use of ISS-ODN for IBD.
The above story is based on materials provided by University Of California - San Diego. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.
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Spotted Sedge Caddis
By far the most important group of caddis flies throughout the season. Body is usually cinnamon brown. Wings are brownish gray with small tan spots and blotches. Legs are cinnamon brown. The larvae are net makers. Pupae swim to the surface and emerge in open water. Females dive under the surface to lay eggs. When they are finished, they drift on the surface with the current. Several species are important on the Henry’s Fork, Madison, South Fork, and other local waters.
Timing of Hatches
June through September. Most emergence occurs in the evening, but can occur in the morning or mid-day. Egg laying can occur morning or evening.
Medium to fast water. Larvae need clean gravel to build their nets.
The Spotted Sedge produces some of best caddis fishing. During emergence the emerging pupal imitations are effective when fished just under the surface. Spent and diving caddis patterns are effective during the egg laying flights.
Tan Electric Caddis, Tan Emergent Sparkle Pupa, Tan Partridge Pupa, Tan Spent Partridge Caddis, Tan X-Caddis, Tan E-Z Caddis
14, 16 & 18 | <urn:uuid:ff61d522-1bac-4331-b6d3-028098a9ba8a> | {
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Much has been said about the benefits of probiotics and prebiotics, but do we really know why they are so important in our lives?
What are probiotics?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), probiotics are living microorganisms that when administered in the proper amounts confer a beneficial effect on the health of the recipient. They inhabit our intestines, especially in the colon, and are also known as intestinal flora or gastrointestinal microbiota.
Approximately every one of us have 1 million of these bacteria living in the intestine, and although there should always be the same amount, as a result of various factors this may vary due to age, lifestyle, stress or an unbalanced diet, for example.
What do they help us with?
Well, mainly in that we have a good intestinal health and that, therefore, we enjoy a good digestion without flatulence, bloating and discomfort. They also collaborate in the production of vitamins and in the correct absorption of minerals.
Probiotics are used for a large number of diseases, mainly gastrointestinal diseases, such as infectious diarrhoea or Helicobacter pylori, in functional disorders such as colic of the infant and constipation. It has also been evaluated what benefits they can have in immunological alterations such as atopic dermatitis and the prevention and treatment of food allergy.
Where can we find probiotics?
There are certain foods rich in probiotics and prebiotics, such as Yogurt, Kefir or fermented cabbage (sauerkraut). It is good that we include this type of food in our diet to keep our intestinal flora healthy and safe. But to treat discomfort that goes beyond just a specific day, if we are taking antibiotics, if we travel, in cases of diarrhoea, constipation or any maladjustment in the digestive system, it is better that we turn to food supplements, and take the necessary amount of these microorganisms that our body needs. On the other hand, if we only get probiotics through our food, we cannot know what exact number we are taking, whether we need more, or whether our body is absorbing it correctly. | <urn:uuid:bbab1b34-33dd-419e-8043-6fbeee21a929> | {
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Whether you're a strict caffeine abstainer or just want to limit your late-day intake to ensure a good night's sleep, it's helpful to know what foods contain this stimulating ingredient. While some sources are obvious, others might surprise you. Amounts vary broadly, even among similar foods.
Coffee and Tea
Regular coffee and black tea reign supreme as leading sources of caffeine. The amount varies depending on the serving size and how strong you make your brew. Some people are surprised to learn that green and white teas also contain caffeine, although usually in a lesser compared to black tea. Another potential surprise is the fact that decaffeinated coffee is not caffeine-free. Whereas an 8-ounce cup of regular coffee contains about 150 mg of caffeine, a cup of decaf contains roughly 5 to 6 mg. Of course specialty coffee and tea drinks also contain variable amounts of caffeine.
Soda, Energy Drinks and Other Beverages
Colas and energy drinks are obvious sources of caffeine, but many other beverages also contain a caffeine jolt. Pepper-type sodas and some brands of root beer, lemon-lime soda and fruit-flavored drink mixes contain caffeine -- as do most chocolate beverages. Some bottled waters also contain caffeine, often in amounts similar to coffee or tea. And don't forget about coffee liqueurs, which are used in many mixed drinks.
Chocolate, Chocolate and More Chocolate
Cocoa beans naturally contain caffeine, so all chocolate and chocolate-flavored foods have some -- assuming they are made with cocoa. As a rule of thumb, the darker the chocolate, the more caffeine a product contains. For example, a 1.4 ounce serving of milk chocolate has 8 to 12 mg of caffeine but the same amount of dark chocolate contains about 27 mg. Sweet treats like brownies, fudge, and chocolate cookies, pudding and mousse contain variable amounts of caffeine, depending on the cocoa content.
Frozen Treats and Dairy
Chocolate-, mocha- and coffee-flavored ice cream and frozen yogurt typically contain caffeine, which is boosted if you top your frozen treat with some chocolate sauce or hot fudge. Coffee, mocha and chocolate yogurts might also be hiding caffeine. In general, coffee- and mocha-flavored dairy products and frozen treats contain more caffeine than their chocolate-flavored cousins.
Some food products use their caffeine content as a marketing tool. These caffeine-fortified foods are intended to perk you up without coffee. Energy and "power" bars are popular examples. Other products that come in caffeine-fortified varieties include sunflower seeds, nuts, frozen waffles, snack chips, beef jerky -- even marshmallows, jelly beans and gummy bears.
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The Ideal Diet And Nutrition
Nowadays there are so many fad diets and health programs available that it has become difficult for people to decide which one they should follow. What we need to do is know more about our body only then can we plan out the types of food that are required by our body and the workout routines that we need to follow. Counting your calories is a good way to the kind of food and the quantity of that food required to be taken in.
For this purpose we are required to read the nutrition boxes and look up the calories from different activities that we take part in daily. From this we can easily ascertain the required physical activities and food consumption. You should also know that fresh fruits and vegetables are an integral part of our diet as they contain vitamins and minerals that can help make our body stronger and give better ammunition to our immune system for the purpose of fighting various germs and viruses causing diseases. Fruit and vegetables can also help us in losing weight as they are really low on fat. Fad diets tend to point out carbohydrates as the villain. But that is not necessarily the case.
Carbohydrates are important for our body because they act as fuel for our physical needs. It is true that carbohydrates can contribute to an increase in weight therefore it is important to know which type of carbohydrates are right for us. Water may not have any nutritional value but it is essential in keeping our body in good shape as it enables our body to flush out toxins and other particles present in our food out of our body. | <urn:uuid:7b5b690e-d53d-49c4-b0ca-12c5ccf3afe2> | {
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Though advertisements and editorials are plastered with models with big breasts, for teenagers, an overly large cup size may come with a host of physical and mental problems.
Lead author of the study Brian Maslaw is an assistant professor at Harvard Medical Center and a pediatric plastic surgeon at Children’s Hospital Boston. Maslaw has performed over 100 breast reductions annually on adolescent girls. In 2011, there were 63,000 procedures of that very nature performed. But despite the large number, Maslaw felt that the physical and psychosocial aspects of macromastia – large breasts – had been understudied.
Maslaw said that the majority of girls seeking the surgery do so because of various issues – shoulder and neck pain, low self-esteem, difficulty finding clothes, and undesired attention. He added that a diagnosis of macromastia can be troublesome, as there are undoubtedly women and girls of all ages who are unbothered by their large breasts.
Complicating the issue is that two-thirds of girls with macromastia are overweight. But Dr. Maslaw is certain that weight loss will not necessarily mitigate the issue – and many girls with the condition find it difficult and painful to exercise.
Maslaw and his team studied 96 girls who had been diagnosed with macromastia, and compared them with a control group of 103 girls who had no such condition and no history of eating disorders or mental health issues. Participants in the study also answered questions about whether they had ever sought breast reduction surgery and other breast-specific issues, as well as questions about their general health, mental health, social functioning, self-esteem, vitality, body image, and eating.
They found that the group with macromastia had higher body mass indexes (BMIs) than the control group, and were more likely to suffer from disordered eating at three times the rate of the control group. They also found that macromastia was more likely to negatively impact their self-esteem, quality of life, and physical symptoms.
Maslaw says that their data contradicts the idea of delaying breast reduction surgery until teens are older. If the surgery is classified as reconstructive surgery, it can often be covered by insurance, sparing teens and their parents the $15,000 price tag for 2.5-hour surgery. However, the surgery, like all surgeries, comes with risks – like wound healing, scarring, short changes in nipple sensitivity, and an inability to breast feed.
The study was published in the latest issue of Pediatrics. | <urn:uuid:5aa1de7e-8156-482c-bc65-85a5470ac65a> | {
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Identification of swine influenza A virus and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia co-infection in Chinese pigs
- Equal contributors
1 Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, People’s Republic of China
2 Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology (CASPMI), Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
3 Shandong Animal Disease Control Center, Jinan, 250022, Shandong Province, P.R. China
4 College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No.2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing, 100193, China
Virology Journal 2012, 9:169 doi:10.1186/1743-422X-9-169Published: 22 August 2012
Influenza virus virulence can be exacerbated by bacterial co-infections. Swine influenza virus (SIV) infection together with some bacteria is found to enhance pathogenicity.
SIV-positive samples suspected of containing bacteria were used for bacterial isolation and identification. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by disc diffusion methods. To investigate the interaction of SIV and the bacteria in vitro, guinea pigs were used as mammalian hosts to determine the effect on viral susceptibility and transmissibility. Differences in viral titers between groups were compared using Student’s t-test.
During surveillance for SIV in China from 2006 to 2009, seven isolates (24.14%) of 29 influenza A viruses were co-isolated with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia from nasal and tracheal swab samples of pigs. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that the bacteria possessed a high level of resistance towards clinically used antibiotics. To investigate the interaction between these two microorganisms in influencing viral susceptibility and transmission in humans, guinea pigs were used as an infection model. Animals were inoculated with SIV or S. maltophilia alone or co-infected with SIV and S. maltophilia. The results showed that although no transmission among guinea pigs was observed, virus–bacteria co-infections resulted in higher virus titers in nasal washes and trachea and a longer virus shedding period.
This is the first report of influenza virus co-infection with S. maltophilia in the Chinese swine population. Increased replication of virus by co-infection with multidrug resistant bacteria might increase the infection rate of SIV in humans. The control of S. maltophilia in clinics will contribute to reducing the spread of SIV in pigs and humans. | <urn:uuid:6d227c82-e186-4fc3-8099-a2e361b48796> | {
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This is the third and final part in a series on Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) applications and issues.
An important aspect of CMP is end point detection. We typically want to thin a layer or flatten a layer to an exact value. The first case would involve global planarization. The goal would be to polish a film to a particular flatness or stop at a desired remaining film thickness. This is typically the case with dielectric layers. An in-situ optical metrology measurement like ellipsometry is not practical since one cannot consistently locate the same spot of the rotating wafer and there is interference from the underlying films. For these situations, engineers will use a timed polish, which is a form of end point detection. The system calculates the time and feeds forward the time based on pre- and post-polish thickness measurements. By taking data from multiple wafers, one can begin to determine trends and project final thickness values.
The second case would be for local planarization. For example, plug formation falls into this category. The goal here is to remove all of the film except for the material in the recessed regions, like a multilayer metal film. An example might be copper with a tantalum nitride barrier layer. There are four common in-situ real-time monitoring techniques. The first is laser interferometry. Here we mount a laser and detector on a table. We beam the laser through a clear window in the polishing pad onto the wafer and measure and analyze the reflected light. We show a typical reflectance curve for the copper-tantalum nitride film below.
The next technique is spectrometer reflectivity. Here, engineers measure and analyze reflected light from multiple wavelengths, which can provide a more accurate assessment. The third technique is optical interferometry. In this approach engineers illuminate the wafer backside with infrared light and analyze the light reflected from the frontside. The final technique involves monitoring the motor current. Engineers will sometimes use this method when polishing a film down to a stop layer. An example might be polishing a low-k dielectric layer to an etch stop, like SiCOH. The Hall probe detects changes in the friction as one layer ends and the other begins.
There are several factors related to topography on the circuit that can cause problems. One is local plug dishing. This occurs when via materials are softer than the surrounding oxide. The overlying metal layer may not make good contact to the recessed vias, resulting in poor electrical connection. Aggressive chemical mechanical polishing slurries can also produce a phenomenon known as key-holing. Key-holing occurs when the center of the via opens. Large areas of oxide with little in the way of metallization or vias can lead to a condition known as oxide erosion or dishing. The soft oxide layers polish away more rapidly than regions covered with metal. Particulate in the pads or in the slurry can scratch the surface, leaving marks. These scratches can interfere with subsequent processing.
Process control is a tough requirement for CMP. Here are some other issues that affect CMP. The degree of planarity is a common issue. With CMP the removal rates may show significant variability. For example, larger or densely packed features will polish more slowly than sparely populated features. This necessitates multiple measurements. Engineers will use surface profilometry or AFM to do this work. Another common issue is film thickness. This can be measured with an ellipsometer or reflectometer. Defectivity is also a prominent concern. This includes foreign material like slurry residues and particles, and voids like microscratches, dishing, and coring. One can map and quantify these defects with a laser particle scanner. However, effective monitoring is challenging due to grain noise from polycrystalline metal films under the oxide, pattern noise from metals under oxide, and film thickness variations.
In Figure 3 we show some examples of the various defects that accompany CMP operations. These include dishing, rip-out, unfilled and filled microscratches, residual slurry material, surface particles, tungsten plug coring, residual tungsten, and recessed plugs. There are certainly others, but these are among the more common.
In addition to differences in specific materials, there are other concerns with CMP. The polish changes with pattern. The pattern size and density alter the process. Each new reticle set requires that the CMP times and pressures be altered slightly. This is not an acceptable solution for a fabrication line. In order to get around this problem, one may need dummy structures to help make the polishing rate more uniform and protect critical structures from being over-polished. One may also have to trade-off a good polish on a single die to get an acceptable polish across the entire wafer. Since CMP is still a relatively new field, the body of knowledge about how the CMP actually works is still developing. Researchers have discovered that de-ionized water and a pad can work just as well as a pad and slurry system. There is some movement towards using DI water and a pad. This eliminates having to use chemicals; it also creates a process that does not generate near the particulate contamination of a slurry-based process.
The forces placed on the wafer by the CMP process may tear pieces of metal interconnect out of the pattern, rendering the circuit non-functional. A more difficult aspect of this problem is controlling tear out of tungsten or other materials. Big particles in the slurry can create big scratch marks in the die. This also means that the pads must not generate particles, and that the slurries themselves must be highly uniform. Slurry consistency and continued availability is also an issue. Many of the companies that provide slurries are small companies. This area of the industry is still undergoing restructuring. Waste treatment and disposal is also an issue. Some of the waste materials are classified as toxic, and require special disposal procedures. Finally, the cost of ownership of CMP is important. Because CMP is a dirty process, it requires expensive equipment that must be serviced frequently. CMP also uses large amounts of de-ionized water and polishing materials. While the copper dual-damascene process removes some of these CMP steps, it is still an expensive proposition.
Occasionally, one might be asked to compare two distributions. One parameter to help compare distributions is "sameness." Engineers determine sameness by calculating the overlap area between two distributions. This can help identify how similar two distributions might be in terms of mean and variation. This method is applicable to normal distributions, and is sample size independent. Here we show a plot with two different distributions (see below). The letter A denotes the ±3σ value for distribution A (in red) and the letter B denotes the ±3σ value for distribution B (in green). The sameness value for Distribution A is not equal to the sameness value for Distribution B.
One can use Excel to calculate sameness. The formula for doing this is:
where BM is the baseline mean, BS is the baseline standard deviation, CM is the comparison distribution mean, and CS is the comparison distribution standard deviation. In this example, 80% of Distribution B is between the lower limit of A and upper limit of B, so 20% of Distribution B is below bottom of the lower limit of A. 70% of Distribution A is between the lower limit of A and the upper limit of B, so 30% of Distribution A is above the upper limit of B.
Q: What are some factors that affect the activation energy of TDDB?
A: The answer to this question has much to do with the processing conditions for the gate dielectric. For example, activation energy plays a bigger role when the dielectric layer is thicker. When the layer is thicker, the thermal energy imparted to the bonds in the dielectric is more significant. This is reflected in models like the Thermochemical E model. When the gate dielectric is ultrathin, the bonds in the dielectric are fairly few in number, so other factors play a bigger role, like the ionization and movement of atoms in the electric field. Temperature can still play a role, but it is a more minor role. TDDB for BEOL dielectrics is somewhat different. Here, the movement is more related to the drift of copper atoms along interfaces in the dielectric. This behavior is temperature-dependent, so there is an activation energy for this process.
Please visit http://www.semitracks.com/courses/processing/wafer-fab-processing.php to learn more about this exciting course!
(Click on each item for details).
EOS, ESD and How to Differentiate on September 17-18, 2013 (Tues.-Wed.) in San Jose, CA, USA
Wafer Fab Processing on November 7, 2013 (Thurs.) in San Jose, CA, USA
Advanced Thermal Management and Packaging Materials on November 19-20, 2013 (Tues.-Wed.) in Philadelphia, PA, USA
If you have a suggestion or a comment regarding our courses, online training, discussion forums, reference materials, or if you wish to suggest a new course or location, please feel free to call us at 1-505-858-0454, or e-mail us at [email protected].
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We are always looking for ways to enhance our courses and educational materials.
Home > Newsletters > 2013 August Newsletter | <urn:uuid:bc0ef51c-9ea0-42ec-920e-4f71cafb07e4> | {
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An essay donated by
Contributing Editor Susan Humphreys
Bible Myths, Metaphors and Allegories
This is one of a trio of related articles by Susan Humphreys. The others are:
Free Will or Duped, Coerced or Manipulated
"Brains, Brawn, or Both"
"Myth" has become a derogatory, dismissive term in the minds of some religious folk as well as some Atheists.
For some religious folk, the Bible is either all TRUE or it is a myth. Also, myth means worthless, unimportant, childish, fabricated, arbitrary, meaningless.
For many Atheists the Bible is a myth and myth also means worthless, unimportant, childish, fabricated, arbitrary, meaningless.
Dr. Peter Kreeft is a religious person that appears to take the first position: the Bible is all TRUE. He has written a series of essays for the website strangenotions.com titled "5 Possible Theories that Explain the Resurrection of Jesus."
By "explain" he means to show that the resurrection is a TRUE actual event, not a myth.
Bradley Bowen has written a series of essays for the patheos.com website blog that show the problems with Kreeft's arguments. It was Bowen's essays that alerted me to the Kreeft essays. I suggest that you read both series.
I pointed out in the comments section of Bowen’s series that there are lots of problems with Kreeft’s arguments. First he presents five possible theories that he claims are the:
"... only possibilities, unless we include really far-out ideas that responsible historians have never taken seriously, such as that Jesus was really a Martian. ..."
I hope you will look up and read Kreefts arguments so I won’t mention his five possible theories here. I will simply point out that these five theories are NOT the only possible theories. There are other possibilities that are NOT: "far-out ideas that responsible historians have never taken seriously, such as that Jesus was really a Martian….."
For example, in two of his theories, he says the apostles were either deceived or were themselves deceivers. Since he assumes that the stories in the Bible were actually written by the apostles, he concludes that the information they contain are facts -- actual data. However, it is possible that the stories were written by other followers of Jesus -- not the apostles -- who were deceived or were themselves the deceivers.
Another problem is that Kreeft claims:
"We do not need to presuppose that the New Testament is infallible, or divinely inspired or even true."
Then he builds his arguments around the biblical stories being true, with arguments built around the idea that the apostles actually wrote the stories in the Bible that have been accredited to them. So they were either telling the TRUTH or they were deceived.
Another one of the problems with Kreeft is his fourth argument "Refuting the Myth Theory: 6 Reasons Why the Resurrection Accounts are True." This argument shows me that Kreeft doesn’t understand the very nature of stories, Myths, Metaphors and Allegories. As I mentioned above, many Atheists and other religious folk also don’t understand the nature of stories, myths, metaphors and Allegories.
A myth is sometimes defined simply as a folk tale, or traditional story about the origins of a people, or important events and people in their story. A second definition is that it is a widely held but false belief. It is this second definition that I think Kreeft uses and I am not sure -- but I think -- Bradley Bowen also uses.
Joseph Campbell has a different understanding of myth. He presents his ideas in a wonderful series of books that I highly recommend to others who want to have a better understanding of the myths that have shaped our world.
For Campbell, myths are the stories and legends that explain the universe and our place in it. In an article about Joseph Campbell on billmoyers.com he says:
"Mythology was to him the song of the universe, music so deeply embedded in our collective unconscious that we dance to it, even when we can’t name the tune."
For me the words "true" and "false" don’t apply to myths. They were never meant to be understood as literal, factual TRUTH. The "truth" of a myth lies in the underlying meaning the story carries. This is where the words "metaphor" and "allegory" apply.
In this case, a metaphor is simply a story about one thing that is representative of something else. An allegory is basically the same except it is considered to carry a specific moral or political message.
The "truth" lies in the value of the message that the story conveys.
Some ancient myths carry messages that still resonate with us today. Their message is timeless and cross-cultural.
In a preliterate world, story tellers were experts at both entertaining their audience and in getting their message across to their audience. The story might be modified from audience to audience by including names of local people or heroic figures from the group's past, actual places to make the story seem real to the local audience, and actual events from the group's past. In the days before books and TV stories were sometimes told simply to entertain an audience.
Stories were also told to impart important historical information to a people and include lists of kings/rulers, battles, natural disasters, etc. This was information the elders felt it was important for the next generation to know. Stories also taught moral lessons about right and wrong, taboos and sins. A story might have a mix of factual information -- names of real people, places and events -- which are then embellished, exaggerated, modified, or mixed with parts from another story or stories to fit the needs of the story teller and his particular audience. This captured and kept the audience’s attention and/or made a moral message easier to remember.
All of these kinds of stories can be found in the Bible and in the sacred literature of the other world religions.
To argue that these stories must either be understood as literal, factual TRUTH or they are worthless, unimportant, childish, fabricated, arbitrary, meaningless, etc. is to miss the important, valuable, underlying metaphorical or allegorical message the story contains.
See also the article by Susan Humphreys titled: "How to Understand the Resurrection Stories in the Bible.
How you may have arrived here:
Original posting: 2019-MAY-13
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If you’re like me and have trouble remembering passwords, it’s easy to fall into the trap of using the same password for everything… but this is a big no-no! It means that if one of your systems gets hacked, then they can ALL be hacked.
Then there’s those websites that require complex passwords – with numbers, letters or symbols …not to mention a MiXeD cAsE password with both upper- and lower-case letters. With many security experts providing a raft of good advice about having complex passwords, how on earth are we supposed to remember which password we used for what?!
Luckily, I stumbled upon an interesting concept that I thought I’d share with you. It’s called a “Relative Phrase-based Password Acronyms” …actually, I just made that name up, but hey – it explains it well enough. Basically, create a phrase that relates to the system you’re logging into. For example, if you’re logging into Twitter – think of a related phrase… for example: “Tweet said the bird on the lawn at 6 this morn”. Now turn it into an acronym… Tstbotla6tm. Wow – look at that secure password! It’s a good length, has capitals and lowercase letters, plus some numbers. Yet, it’s still easy to remember.
Let’s say you’re logging into Facebook – first, we need a phrase! How about… “Login 50x a day to see what my friends are doing”… which would be L50xadtswmfad… see where I’m going with this? Remember – the brain usually remembers weird things, so the stranger the phrase you pick, the easier it’ll be for you to remember it.
Another way to improve password security it to enable two-factor authentication. In short, this is “something you know” + “something you have”. Many online services offer this form of security (Gmail, Google+, Dropbox, Facebook, WordPress & LastPass are fine examples).
It basically means that in addition to your password (something you know), you need to enter a once-off SMS code, or a series of random numbers on a key ring dongle that changes every 60 seconds (something you have). These work well because people (or computers with password-guessing algorithms for that matter) can guess passwords… but they cannot guess the random code that is shown on your key ring dongle, or that gets sent to you phone. To get that, they need to know your password AND have your phone (or dongle).
So how do you enable two-factor authentication? First, you need to check if your online service (eg. Gmail, Facebook, etc) supports it – you’ll usually find a setting for enabling it on in the ‘Security Settings’ area. If the service in question offers it, we recommend enabling it, as it offers an extra layer of protection. As mentioned earlier, most of these sites will offer you either a one-time SMS code, or a dongle-type random number that changes every 60 seconds… but which method is best?
Well, if your phone stops working or you’re overseas & don’t have reception, you might not receive the one-time SMS code and you won’t be able to log into your Gmail, hence the random number generating dongle is probably a better option… but a key ring full of dongles from many different companies doesn’t sound like an ideal solution – surely there’s a better way?
There is. Google have come up with a solution – the Google Authenticator app (available for Android, BlackBerry & iPhone). It’s basically a ‘digital’ version of those random-number-generating dongles – all in one place. If I want to log into Facebook, I need to enter the 6-digit random code first. Gmail? Same thing – different random code.
This, coupled with your usual password (which, we hope after reading this, you’ll change to something more complex!), makes for a more-secure working environment with a reduced chance of unauthorised access occurring. To quote Lifehacker: “Please don’t wait to turn on 2-step verification. It’s not that hard, and it will really protect your account.” | <urn:uuid:7e0906ff-379d-4b9d-b7b9-aa36ac899067> | {
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Each optic nerve contains approximately one million nerve cells (neurons) that connect the eye to the brain. Inflammation from multiple sclerosis (MS) can affect the optic nerves. Therefore, it is very common for people with MS to have vision problems.
When MS inflammation affects optic nerve neurons, they may lose their protective myelin coating, a process called demyelination. This caused signals through the neurons to slow down, resulting in blurred vision.
Medications may repair myelin, but studies are limited.
4-aminopyridine (4-AP) is a medicine used to treat symptoms of MS caused by demyelination. It stabilizes movement of potassium ions through the surface of demyelinated neurons, making it easier for them to conduct signals.
Historically, 4-AP has only been available through compounding pharmacies, so studies of its use have been ... | <urn:uuid:0c36d7e5-db6a-47ba-8bd4-7289616af764> | {
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